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Alphonso Smith + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book + with Inflections, Syntax, Selections for Reading, and Glossary + +Author: C. Alphonso Smith + +Release Date: February 15, 2010 [EBook #31277] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR *** + + + + +Produced by Louise Hope, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class = "mynote"> +<p><a name = "start" id = "start">This text</a> includes characters that +require UTF-8 (Unicode) file encoding:</p> + +<p class = "inset"> +Āā Ēē Īī Ōō Ūū; ȳ Ǣǣ (vowels with macron or “long” mark)<br> +Ęę Ǫǫ (<b>e</b> and <b>o</b> with ogonek)</p> + +<p>If any of these characters do not display properly—in +particular, if the diacritic does not appear directly above the +letter—or if the apostrophes and quotation marks in this paragraph +appear as garbage, you may have an incompatible browser or unavailable +fonts. First, make sure that the browser’s “character set” or “file +encoding” is set to Unicode (UTF-8). You may also need to change your +browser’s default font.</p> + +<p>See the <a href = "#poetry">Poetry</a> section for potential problems +specific to that section.</p> + +<p>In references to numbered Sections, “Note” may mean either an inset +Note or a footnote. Links in this e-text lead to the beginning of the +section.</p> + +<p>In the prose reading selections (pages 99-121), the original line +breaks have been preserved for use with the linenotes and Glossary. In +the verse selections, line numbers in the notes have been replaced with +the line numbers from the original texts, printed in brackets as shown. +In both, annotated passages are <a class = "linenote" href = +"#start">linked</a> to their Notes; these links are intended to be +unobtrusive. The distinction between linenotes and numbered footnotes is +in the original.</p> + +<p>All brackets [ ] and asterisks * are in the original, as are the < +and > symbols.</p> + +<p class = "center"> +<a href = "#contents">Contents</a><br> +<a href = "#part_I">Grammar and Exercises</a><br> +<a href = "#part_III">Reading Selections:</a><br> +<i><a href = "#chapIII_I">Prose</a>, +<a href = "#chapIII_VI">Poetry</a></i><br> +<a href = "#gloss_I">Glossary</a></p> + +</div> + + +<h1>ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR<br> +AND EXERCISE BOOK</h1> + +<h5>WITH INFLECTIONS, SYNTAX, SELECTIONS<br> +FOR READING, AND GLOSSARY</h5> + +<p> <br> </p> + +<h5>BY</h5> + +<h4 class = "smallcaps">C. ALPHONSO SMITH, Ph.D., LL.D.</h4> + +<h6>LATE PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN THE<br> +UNITED STATES NAVAL ACADEMY</h6> + +<p> <br> </p> + +<p> <br> </p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "8" +alt = "----"></p> + +<p> <br> </p> + +<p> <br> </p> + +<h5><span class = "smallcaps largest extended"> +ALLYN and BACON</span><br> +BOSTON       +NEW YORK         CHICAGO<br> +ATLANTA       SAN FRANCISCO</h5> + + +<hr class = "spacer"> + +<h6 class = "smallcaps">Copyright, 1896, by<br> +C. ALPHONSO SMITH.</h6> + +<p> <br> </p> + +<h6>IAI</h6> + +<p> <br> </p> + +<h6><span class = "fancy">Norwood Press</span><br> +J. S. Cushing & Co.—Berwick & Smith<br> +Norwood Mass. U.S.A.</h6> + +<hr class = "spacer"> + +<span class = "pagenum">iii</span> +<h3><a name = "preface" id = "preface">PREFACE.</a></h3> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "8" +alt = "----"></p> + +<p><span class = "firstword">The</span> scope of this book is indicated +in § 5. It is intended for beginners, and in writing it, these words of +Sir Thomas Elyot have not been forgotten: “Grammer, beinge but an +introduction to the understandinge of autors, if it be made to longe or +exquisite to the lerner, it in a maner mortifieth his corage: And by +that time he cometh to the most swete and pleasant redinge of olde +autors, the sparkes of fervent desire of lernynge are extincte with the +burdone of grammer, lyke as a lyttell fyre is sone quenched with a great +heape of small stickes.”—<i>The Governour</i>, Cap. X.</p> + +<p>Only the essentials, therefore, are treated in this work, which is +planned more as a foundation for the study of Modern English grammar, of +historical English grammar, and of the principles of English etymology, +than as a general introduction to Germanic philology.</p> + +<p>The Exercises in translation will, it is believed, furnish all the +drill necessary to enable the student to retain the forms and +constructions given in the various chapters.</p> + +<p>The Selections for Reading relate to the history and literature of +King Alfred’s day, and are sufficient to give the student a first-hand, +though brief, acquaintance with the native style and idiom of Early West +Saxon prose in its golden age. Most of the words and constructions +contained in them will be already familiar to the student through their +intentional employment in the Exercises.</p> + +<p>For the inflectional portion of this grammar, recourse +<span class = "pagenum">iv</span> +has been had chiefly to Sievers’ <i>Abriss der angelsächsischen +Grammatik</i> (1895). Constant reference has been made also to the same +author’s earlier and larger <i>Angelsächsishe Grammatik</i>, translated +by Cook. A more sparing use has been made of Cosijn’s +<i>Altwestsächsische Grammatik</i>.</p> + +<p>For syntax and illustrative sentences, Dr. J. E. Wülfing’s <i>Syntax +in den Werken Alfreds des Grossen, Part I.</i> (Bonn, 1894) has proved +indispensable. Advance sheets of the second part of this great work lead +one to believe that when completed the three parts will constitute the +most important contribution to the study of English syntax that has yet +been made. Old English sentences have also been cited from Sweet’s +<i>Anglo-Saxon Reader</i>, Bright’s <i>Anglo-Saxon Reader</i>, and +Cook’s <i>First Book in Old English</i>.</p> + +<p>The short chapter on the Order of Words has been condensed from my +<i>Order of Words in Anglo-Saxon Prose</i> (Publications of the Modern +Language Association of America, New Series, Vol. I, No. 2).</p> + +<p>Though assuming sole responsibility for everything contained in this +book, I take pleasure in acknowledging the kind and efficient +assistance that has been so generously given me in its preparation. To +none do I owe more than to Dr. J. E. Wülfing, of the University of +Bonn; Prof. James A. Harrison, of the University of Virginia; Prof. +W. S. Currell, of Washington and Lee University; Prof. +J. Douglas Bruce, of Bryn Mawr College; and Prof. L. M. +Harris, of the University of Indiana. They have each rendered material +aid, not only in the tedious task of detecting typographical errors in +the proof-sheets, but by the valuable criticisms and suggestions which +they have made as this work was passing through the press.</p> + +<p class = "right"> +C. ALPHONSO SMITH.</p> + +<p> <span class = "smallcaps">Louisiana State +University,<br> +Baton Rouge</span>, September, 1896.</p> + + + + +<span class = "pagenum">v</span> +<h4>PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.</h4> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<p><span class = "firstword">In</span> preparing this enlarged edition, +a few minor errors in the first edition have been corrected and a few +sentences added. The chief difference between the two editions, however, +consists in the introduction of more reading matter and the consequent +exposition of Old English meter. Both changes have been made at the +persistent request of teachers and students of Old English.</p> + +<p>Uniformity of treatment has been studiously preserved in the new +material and the old, the emphasis in both being placed on syntax and +upon the affinities that Old English shares with Modern English.</p> + +<p>Many obligations have been incurred in preparing this augmented +edition. I have again to thank Dr. J. E. Wülfing, Prof. James +A. Harrison, Prof. W. S. Currell, and Prof. J. Douglas +Bruce. To the scholarly criticisms also of Prof. J. M. Hart, of +Cornell; Prof. Frank Jewett Mather, Jr., of Williams College; and Prof. +Frederick Tupper, Jr., of the University of Vermont, I am indebted +for aid as generously given as it is genuinely appreciated.</p> + +<p class = "right smaller"> +C. ALPHONSO SMITH.</p> + +<p class = "smaller"> + August, 1898.</p> + + + + +<span class = "pagenum">vi</span> +<h4>PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.</h4> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<p><span class = "firstword">Among</span> those who have kindly aided in +making this edition free from error, I wish to thank especially my +friend Dr. John M. McBryde, Jr., of Hollins Institute, +Virginia.</p> + +<p class = "right smaller"> +C. ALPHONSO SMITH.</p> + +<p class = "smaller"> +<span class = "smallcaps">University of North Carolina</span>,<br> + Chapel Hill, February, 1903.</p> + + + + +<span class = "pagenum">vii</span> +<h3><a name = "contents" id = "contents">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</a></h3> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<table class = "toc" summary = "contents"> +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "3"> +<a href = "#part_I">PART I.</a>—INTRODUCTION.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "smaller">Chapters</td> +<td></td> +<td class = "smaller">Pages</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_I">I.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">History (§ +<b>1-5</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page1">1</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_II">II.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Sounds (§ +<b>6-11</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page4">4</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_III">III.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Inflections (§ +<b>12-19</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page10">10</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_IV">IV.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Order of Words (§ +<b>20-21</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page18">18</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_V">V.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Practical Suggestions (§ +<b>22-24</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page21">21</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "3"> +<a href = "#part_II">PART II.</a>—ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_VI">VI.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">The <b>a</b>-Declension: +Masculine <b>a</b>-Stems (§ <b>25-30</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page27">27</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_VII">VII.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Neuter <b>a</b>-Stems (§ +<b>31-36</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page30">30</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_VIII">VIII.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">The <b>ō</b>-Declension (§ +<b>37-42</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page33">33</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_IX">IX.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">The <b>i</b>-Declension and +the <b>u</b>-Declension (§ <b>43-55</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page35">35</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_X">X.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Present Indicative Endings of +Strong Verbs (§ <b>56-62</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page39">39</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XI">XI.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">The Weak or +<b>n</b>-Declension (§ <b>63-66</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page44">44</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XII">XII.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Remnants of Other Consonant +Declensions (§ <b>67-71</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page47">47</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XIII">XIII.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Pronouns (§ +<b>72-77</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page50">50</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XIV">XIV.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Adjectives, Strong and Weak (§ +<b>78-87</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page53">53</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XV">XV.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Numerals (§ +<b>88-92</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page57">57</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XVI">XVI.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Adverbs, Prepositions, and +Conjunctions (§ <b>93-95</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page60">60</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XVII">XVII.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Comparison of Adjectives and +Adverbs (§ <b>96-100</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page64">64</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XVIII">XVIII.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Strong Verbs: Class I, Syntax +of Moods (§ <b>101-108</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page68">68</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XIX">XIX.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Classes II and III (§ +<b>109-113</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page74">74</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"> +<span class = "pagenum">viii</span> +<a href = "#chap_XX">XX.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Classes IV, V, VI, and VII; +Contract Verbs (§ <b>114-121</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page78">78</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XXI">XXI.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Weak Verbs (§ +<b>122-133</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page82">82</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XXII">XXII.</a></td> +<td><p><span class = "opaque">Remaining Verbs; Verb Phrases with +<b>habban</b>, <b>bēon</b>, and <b>weorðan</b> +(§ <b>134-143</b>)</span></p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page90">90</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "3"> +<a href = "#part_III">PART III.</a>—SELECTIONS FOR READING.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "3"> +<a href = "#prose">Prose.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Introductory</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page98">98</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chapIII_I">I.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">The Battle of +Ashdown</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page99">99</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chapIII_II">II.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">A Prayer of King +Alfred</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chapIII_III">III.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">The Voyages of Ohthere and +Wulfstan</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page102">102</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Ohthere’s First +Voyage</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page103">103</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Ohthere’s Second +Voyage</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page106">106</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Wulfstan’s Voyage</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page107">107</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chapIII_IV">IV.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">The Story of +Cædmon</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page111">111</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chapIII_V">V.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Alfred’s Preface to the +Pastoral Care</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page116">116</a></td> +</tr> + + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "3"> +<a href = "#poetry">Poetry.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Introductory</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page122">122</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chapIII_VI">VI.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Extracts from +Beowulf</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page136">136</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chapIII_VII">VII.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">The Wanderer</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page148">148</a></td> +</tr> + + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "3"> +GLOSSARIES.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#gloss_I">I.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Old English—Modern +English</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page155">155</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#gloss_II">II.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Modern English—Old +English</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page190">190</a></td> +</tr> + +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum">ix</span> + +<hr class = "tiny"> + +<div class = "page"> + +<h1>OLD ENGLISH<br> +GRAMMAR AND EXERCISES</h1> + +</div> + +<hr class = "tiny"> + +<!-- x --> + + +<div class = "maintext"> +<div class = "textbook"> + +<span class = "pagenum">1</span> +<a name = "page1" id = "page1"> </a> + +<h2>OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND<br> +EXERCISE BOOK.</h2> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h2><a name = "part_I" id = "part_I"> +PART I.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +<img src = "images/decsmall.gif" width = "34" height = "18" +alt = "----"><br> +INTRODUCTION.<br> +<img src = "images/decsmall.gif" width = "34" height = "18" +alt = "----"></span> +</h2> + +<h3><a name = "chap_I" id = "chap_I"> +CHAPTER I.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead">History.</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_1" id = "sec_1">1.</a></h5> + +<p>The history of the English language falls naturally into three +periods; but these periods blend into one another so gradually that too +much significance must not be attached to the exact dates which +scholars, chiefly for convenience of treatment, have assigned as their +limits. Our language, it is true, has undergone many and great changes; +but its continuity has never been broken, and its individuality has +never been lost.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_2" id = "sec_2">2.</a></h5> + +<p>The first of these periods is that of <span class = "smallcaps">Old +English</span>, or <span class = "smallcaps">Anglo-Saxon</span>,<a class += "tag" name = "tag_I_1" id = "tag_I_1" href = "#note_I_1">1</a> +commonly known as the period of <i>full +<span class = "pagenum">2</span> +<a name = "page2" id = "page2"> </a> +inflections</i>. <i>E.g.</i> <b>stān-as</b>, <i>stones</i>; +<b>car-u</b>, <i>care</i>; <b>will-a</b>, <i>will</i>; <b>bind-an</b>, +<i>to bind</i>; <b>help-að</b> (= <b>ath</b>), <i>they +help</i>.</p> + +<p>It extends from the arrival of the English in Great Britain to about +one hundred years after the Norman Conquest,—from <span class = +"smallroman">A.D.</span> 449 to 1150; but there are no literary remains +of the earlier centuries of this period. There were four<a class = "tag" +name = "tag_I_2" id = "tag_I_2" href = "#note_I_2">2</a> distinct +dialects spoken at this time. These were the Northumbrian, spoken north +of the river Humber; the Mercian, spoken in the midland region between +the Humber and the Thames; the West Saxon, spoken south and west of the +Thames; and the Kentish, spoken in the neighborhood of Canterbury. Of +these dialects, Modern English is most nearly akin to the Mercian; but +the best known of them is the West Saxon. It was in the West Saxon +dialect that King Alfred (849-901) wrote and spoke. His writings belong +to the period of Early West Saxon as distinguished from the period of +Late West Saxon, the latter being best represented in the writings of +Abbot Ælfric (955?-1025?).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_3" id = "sec_3">3.</a></h5> + +<p>The second period is that of <span class = "smallcaps">Middle +English</span>, or the period of <i>leveled inflections</i>, the +dominant vowel of the inflections being <b>e</b>. <i>E.g.</i> +<b>ston-es</b>, <b>car-e</b>, <b>will-e</b>, <b>bind-en</b> +(or <b>bind-e</b>), <b>help-eth</b>, each being, as in the earlier +period, a dissyllable.</p> + +<p>The Middle English period extends from <span class = +"smallroman">A.D.</span> 1150 to 1500. Its greatest representatives are +Chaucer (1340-1400) in poetry and Wiclif (1324-1384) in prose. There +were three prominent dialects during this period: the Northern, +corresponding to the older Northumbrian; the Midland +<span class = "pagenum">3</span> +<a name = "page3" id = "page3"> </a> +(divided into East Midland and West Midland), corresponding to the +Mercian; and the Southern, corresponding to the West Saxon and Kentish. +London, situated in East Midland territory, had become the dominant +speech center; and it was this East Midland dialect that both Chaucer +and Wiclif employed.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—It is a great mistake to +think that Chaucer shaped our language from crude materials. His +influence was conservative, not plastic. The popularity of his works +tended to crystalize and thus to perpetuate the forms of the East +Midland dialect, but that dialect was ready to his hand before he began +to write. The speech of London was, in Chaucer’s time, a mixture of +Southern and Midland forms, but the Southern forms (survivals of the +West Saxon dialect) had already begun to fall away; and this they +continued to do, so that “Chaucer’s language,” as Dr. Murray says, “is +more Southern than standard English eventually became.” See also +Morsbach, <i>Ueber den Ursprung der neuenglischen Schriftsprache</i> +(1888).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_4" id = "sec_4">4.</a></h5> + +<p>The last period is that of <span class = "smallcaps">Modern +English</span>, or the period of <i>lost inflections</i>. <i>E.g.</i> +<i>stones</i>, <i>care</i>, <i>will</i>, <i>bind</i>, <i>help</i>, each +being a monosyllable. Modern English extends from <span class = +"smallroman">A.D.</span> 1500 to the present time. It has witnessed +comparatively few grammatical changes, but the vocabulary of our +language has been vastly increased by additions from the classical +languages. Vowels, too, have shifted their values.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_5" id = "sec_5">5.</a></h5> + +<p>It is the object of this book to give an elementary knowledge of +Early West Saxon, that is, the language of King Alfred. With this +knowledge, it will not be difficult for the student to read Late West +Saxon, or any other dialect of the Old English period. Such knowledge +will also serve as the best introduction to the structure both of Middle +English and of Modern English, besides laying a secure foundation for +the scientific study of any other Germanic tongue.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">4</span> +<a name = "page4" id = "page4"> </a> +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The Germanic, or Teutonic, +languages constitute a branch of the great Aryan, or Indo-Germanic +(known also as the Indo-European) group. They are subdivided as +follows:</p> + +<table class = "tree" summary = "explained above"> +<tr> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "5"> +Germanic</td> +<td class = "bottom"> +<img src = "images/topcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "|"></td> +<td colspan = "5"> +North Germanic: Scandinavian, or Norse.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td class = "middle" colspan = "3" rowspan = "2"> +East Germanic: Gothic.</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<!-- <td></td><td></td><td></td> --> +<td class = "bottom"> +<img src = "images/topcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "|"></td> +<td><p>Old High German,<br> +<span class = "smaller">(to <span class = "smallroman">A.D.</span> +1100,)</span></p></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bottom"> +<img src = "images/topcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "|"></td> +<td>High German</td> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td><p>Middle High German,<br> +<span class = "smaller">(<span class = "smallroman">A.D.</span> +1100–1500,)</span></p></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td> +<img src = "images/bottomcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "|"></td> +<td>West Germanic</td> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<td> +<img src = "images/bottomcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "|"></td> +<td><p>New High German,<br> +<span class = "smaller">(<span class = "smallroman">A.D.</span> +1500–.)</span></p></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td> +<img src = "images/bottomcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "|"></td> +<td class = "bottom">Low German</td> +<td class = "bottom"> +<img src = "images/topcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "|"></td> +<td>Dutch,<br> +Old Saxon,</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td> +<img src = "images/bottomcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "|"></td> +<td>Frisian,<br> +English.</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_I_1" id = "note_I_1" href = "#tag_I_1">1.</a> +This unfortunate nomenclature is due to the term <i>Angli Saxones</i>, +which Latin writers used as a designation for the English Saxons as +distinguished from the continental or Old Saxons. But Alfred and Ælfric +both use the term <i>Englisc</i>, not Anglo-Saxon. The Angles spread +over Northumbria and Mercia, far outnumbering the other tribes. Thus +<i>Englisc</i> (= <i>Angel</i> + <i>isc</i>) became the general +name for the language spoken.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_I_2" id = "note_I_2" href = "#tag_I_2">2.</a> +As small as England is, there are six distinct dialects spoken in her +borders to-day. Of these the Yorkshire dialect is, perhaps, the most +peculiar. It preserves many Northumbrian survivals. See Tennyson’s +<i>Northern Farmer</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_II" id = "chap_II"> +CHAPTER II.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead">Sounds.</span></h3> + + +<h4>Vowels and Diphthongs.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_6" id = "sec_6">6.</a></h5> + +<p>The long vowels and diphthongs will in this book be designated by the +macron (–). Vowel length should in every case be associated by the +student with each word learned: quantity alone sometimes distinguishes +words meaning wholly different things: <b>fōr</b>, <i>he went</i>, +<b>for</b>, <i>for</i>; <b>gōd</b>, <i>good</i>, <b>God</b>, <i>God</i>; +<b>mān</b>, <i>crime</i>, <b>man</b>, <i>man</i>.</p> + +<p>Long vowels and diphthongs:</p> + +<table class = "inline" summary = "list of vowels"> +<tr> +<td><b>ā</b></td> +<td><p>as in f<i>a</i>ther: <b>stān</b>, <i>a stone</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ǣ</b></td> +<td><p>as in m<i>a</i>n (prolonged): <b>slǣpan</b>, <i>to +sleep</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ē</b></td> +<td><p>as in th<i>e</i>y: <b>hēr</b>, <i>here</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ī</b></td> +<td><p>as in mach<i>i</i>ne: <b>mīn</b>, <i>mine</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ō</b></td> +<td><p>as in n<i>o</i>te (pure, not diphthongal): <b>bōc</b>, +<i>book</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "pagenum">5</span> +<a name = "page5" id = "page5"> </a> +<b>ū</b></td> +<td><p>as in r<i>u</i>le: <b>tūn</b>, <i>town</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ȳ</b></td> +<td><p>as in German gr<i>ü</i>n, or English gr<i>ee</i>n (with lips +rounded):<a class = "tag" name = "tag_II_1" id = "tag_II_1" href = +"#note_II_1">1</a> <b>brȳd</b>, <i>bride</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The diphthongs, long and short, have the stress upon the first vowel. +The second vowel is obscured, and represents approximately the sound of +<i>er</i> in <i>sooner</i>, <i>faster</i> (= <i>soon-uh</i>, +<i>fast-uh</i>). The long diphthongs (<b>ǣ</b> is not a diphthong +proper) are <b>ēo</b>, <b>īe</b>, and <b>ēa</b>. The sound of <b>ēo</b> +is approximately reproduced in <i>mayor</i> (= <i>mā-uh</i>); that +of <b>īe</b> in the dissyllabic pronunciation of <i>fear</i> +(= <i>fē-uh</i>). But <b>ēa</b> = <i>ǣ-uh</i>. This diphthong is +hardly to be distinguished from <i>ea</i> in <i>pear</i>, <i>bear</i>, +etc., as pronounced in the southern section of the United States +(= <i>bæ-uh</i>, <i>pæ-uh</i>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_7" id = "sec_7">7.</a></h5> + +<p>The short sounds are nothing more than the long vowels and diphthongs +shortened; but the student must at once rid himself of the idea that +Modern English <i>red</i>, for example, is the shortened form of +<i>reed</i>, or that <i>mat</i> is the shortened form of <i>mate</i>. +Pronounce these long sounds with increasing rapidity, and <i>reed</i> +will approach <i>rid</i>, while <i>mate</i> will approach <i>met</i>. +The Old English short vowel sounds are:</p> + +<table class = "inline" summary = "list of vowels"> +<tr> +<td><b>a</b></td> +<td><p>as in <i>a</i>rtistic: <b>habban</b>, <i>to have</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>æ</b></td> +<td><p>as in m<i>a</i>nkind: <b>dæg</b>, <i>day</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>e</b>, <b>ę</b></td> +<td><p>as in l<i>e</i>t: <b>stelan</b>, <i>to steal</i>, <b>sęttan</b>, +<i>to set</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>i</b></td> +<td><p>as in s<i>i</i>t: <b>hit</b>, <i>it</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>o</b></td> +<td><p>as in br<i>oa</i>d (but shorter): <b>God</b>, +<i>God</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ǫ</b></td> +<td><p>as in n<i>o</i>t: <b>lǫmb</b>, <i>lamb</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>u</b></td> +<td><p>as in f<i>u</i>ll: <b>sunu</b>, <i>son</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>y</b></td> +<td><p>as in m<i>i</i>ller (with lips rounded)<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_II_1b" id = "tag_II_1b" href = "#note_II_1">1</a>: <b>gylden</b>, +<i>golden</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class = "pagenum">6</span> +<a name = "page6" id = "page6"> </a> +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The symbol <b>ę</b> is +known as <i>umlaut</i><b>-e</b> (<a href = "#sec_58">§ <b>58</b></a>). +It stands for Germanic <i>a</i>, while <b>e</b> (without the cedilla) +represents Germanic <i>e</i>. The symbol <b>ǫ</b> is employed only +before <b>m</b> and <b>n</b>. It, too, represents Germanic <i>a</i>. But +Alfred writes <b>manig</b> or <b>monig</b>, <i>many</i>; <b>lamb</b> or +<b>lomb</b>, <i>lamb</i>; <b>hand</b> or <b>hond</b>, <i>hand</i>, etc. +The cedilla is an etymological sign added by modern grammarians.</p> + +<p class = "mynote"> +The letters ę and ǫ were printed as shown in this e-text. The diacritic +is not a cedilla (open to the left) but an ogonek (open to the +right).</p> + + +<h4>Consonants.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_8" id = "sec_8">8.</a></h5> + +<p>There is little difference between the values of Old English +consonants and those of Modern English. The following distinctions, +however, require notice:</p> + +<p>The digraph <b>th</b> is represented in Old English texts by <b>ð</b> +and <b>þ</b>, no consistent distinction being made between them. In the +works of Alfred, <b>ð</b> (capital, <b>Ð</b>) is the more common: +<b>ðās</b>, <i>those</i>; <b>ðæt</b>, <i>that</i>; <b>bindeð</b>, <i>he +binds</i>.</p> + +<p>The consonant <b>c</b> had the hard sound of <i>k</i>, the latter +symbol being rare in West Saxon: <b>cyning</b>, <i>king</i>; +<b>cwēn</b>, <i>queen</i>; <b>cūð</b>, <i>known</i>. When followed by a +palatal vowel sound,—<i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>æ</i>, <i>ea</i>, +<i>eo</i>, long or short,—a vanishing <i>y</i> sound was doubtless +interposed (<i>cf.</i> dialectic <i>k<sup>y</sup>ind</i> for +<i>kind</i>). In Modern English the combination has passed into +<i>ch</i>: <b>cealc</b>, <i>chalk</i>; <b>cīdan</b>, <i>to chide</i>; +<b>lǣce</b>, <i>leech</i>; <b>cild</b>, <i>child</i>; <b>cēowan</b>, +<i>to chew</i>. This change (<i>c</i> > <i>ch</i>) is known as +Palatalization. The letter <b>g</b>, pronounced as in Modern English +<i>gun</i>, has also a palatal value before the palatal vowels +(<i>cf.</i> dialectic <i>g<sup>y</sup>irl</i> for <i>girl</i>).</p> + +<p>The combination <b>cg</b>, which frequently stands for <b>gg</b>, had +probably the sound of <i>dge</i> in Modern English <i>edge</i>: +<b>ęcg</b>, <i>edge</i>; <b>sęcgan</b>, <i>to say</i>; <b>brycg</b>, +<i>bridge</i>. +<span class = "pagenum">7</span> +<a name = "page7" id = "page7"> </a> +Initial <b>h</b> is sounded as in Modern English: <b>habban</b>, <i>to +have</i>; <b>hālga</b>, <i>saint</i>. When closing a syllable it has the +sound of German <i>ch</i>: <b>slōh</b>, <i>he slew</i>; <b>hēah</b>, +<i>high</i>; <b>ðurh</b>, <i>through</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_9" id = "sec_9">9.</a></h5> + +<p>An important distinction is that between voiced (or sonant) and +voiceless (or surd) consonants.<a class = "tag" name = "tag_II_2" +id = "tag_II_2" href = "#note_II_2">2</a> In Old English they are as +follows:</p> + +<table class = "inline" summary = "list of consonants"> +<tr> +<th class = "left smallcaps">Voiced.</th> +<th class = "left smallcaps">Voiceless.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>g</b></td> +<td><b>h</b>, <b>c</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>d</b></td> +<td><b>t</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ð</b>, <b>þ</b> (as in <i>th</i>ough) </td> +<td><b>ð</b>, <b>þ</b> (as in <i>th</i>in)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>b</b></td> +<td><b>p</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>f</b> (= v)</td> +<td><b>f</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>s</b> (= z)</td> +<td><b>s</b> +</table> + +<p>It is evident, therefore, that <b>ð</b> (<b>þ</b>), <b>f</b>, and +<b>s</b> have double values in Old English. If voiced, they are +equivalent to <i>th</i> (in <i>th</i>ough), <i>v</i>, and <i>z</i>. +Otherwise, they are pronounced as <i>th</i> (in <i>th</i>in), +<i>f</i> (in <i>f</i>in), and <i>s</i> (in <i>s</i>in). The +syllabic environment will usually compel the student to give these +letters their proper values. When occurring between vowels, they are +always voiced: <b>ōðer</b>, <i>other</i>; <b>ofer</b>, <i>over</i>; +<b>rīsan</b>, <i>to rise</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The general rule in Old +English, as in Modern English, is, that voiced consonants have a special +affinity for other voiced consonants, and voiceless for voiceless. This +is the law of Assimilation. Thus when <i>de</i> is added to form the +preterit of a verb whose stem +<span class = "pagenum">8</span> +<a name = "page8" id = "page8"> </a> +ends in a voiceless consonant, the <b>d</b> is unvoiced, or assimilated, +to <b>t</b><ins class = "correction" title = ". for :">: +</ins><b>sęttan</b>, <i>to set</i>, <b>sętte</b> (but <b>tręddan</b>, +<i>to tread</i>, has <b>trędde</b>); <b>slǣpan</b>, <i>to sleep</i>, +<b>slǣpte</b>; <b>dręncan</b>, <i>to drench</i>, <b>dręncte</b>; +<b>cyssan</b>, <i>to kiss</i>, <b>cyste</b>. See <a href = +"#sec_126">§ <b>126</b>, Note 1</a>.</p> + + +<h4>Syllables.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_10" id = "sec_10">10.</a></h5> + +<p>A syllable is usually a vowel, either alone or in combination with +consonants, uttered with a single impulse of stress; but certain +consonants may form syllables: <i>oven</i> (= <i>ov-n</i>), +<i>battle</i> (= <i>bæt-l</i>); (<i>cf.</i> also the vulgar +pronunciation of <i>elm</i>).</p> + +<p>A syllable may be (1) weak or strong, (2) open or closed, (3) long or +short.</p> + +<p>(1) A weak syllable receives a light stress. Its vowel sound is often +different from that of the corresponding strong, or stressed, syllable. +<i>Cf.</i> weak and strong <i>my</i> in “I want my lárge hat” and +“I want mý hat.”</p> + +<p>(2) An open syllable ends in a vowel or diphthong: <b>dē-man</b>, +<i>to deem</i>; <b>ðū</b>, <i>thou</i>; <b>sca-can</b>, <i>to shake</i>; +<b>dæ-ges</b>, <i>by day</i>. A closed syllable ends in one or more +consonants: <b>ðing</b>, <i>thing</i>; <b>gōd</b>, <i>good</i>; +<b>glæd</b>, <i>glad</i>.</p> + +<p>(3) A syllable is long (<i>a</i>) if it contains a long vowel or a +long diphthong: <b>drī-fan</b>, <i>to drive</i>; <b>lū-can</b>, <i>to +lock</i>; <b>slǣ-pan</b>, <i>to sleep</i>; <b>cēo-san</b>, <i>to +choose</i>; (<i>b</i>) if its vowel or diphthong is followed by more +than one consonant:<a class = "tag" name = "tag_II_3" id = "tag_II_3" +href = "#note_II_3">3</a> <b>cræft</b>, <i>strength</i>; <b>heard</b>, +<i>hard</i>; <b>lib-ban</b>, <i>to live</i>; <b>feal-lan</b>, +<span class = "pagenum">9</span> +<a name = "page9" id = "page9"> </a> +<i>to fall</i>. Otherwise, the syllable is short: <b>ðe</b>, +<i>which</i>; <b>be-ran</b>, <i>to bear</i>; <b>ðæt</b>, <i>that</i>; +<b>gie-fan</b>, <i>to give</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—A single consonant +belongs to the following syllable: <b>hā-lig</b>, <i>holy</i> (not +<b>hāl-ig</b>); <b>wrī-tan</b>, <i>to write</i>; <b>fæ-der</b>, +<i>father</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—The student will notice +that the syllable may be long and the vowel short; but the vowel cannot +be long and the syllable short.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 3.</span>—Old English short vowels, +occurring in open syllables, have regularly become long in Modern +English: <b>we-fan</b>, <i>to weave</i>; <b>e-tan</b>, <i>to eat</i>; +<b>ma-cian</b>, <i>to make</i>; <b>na-cod</b>, <i>naked</i>; +<b>a-can</b>, <i>to ache</i>; <b>o-fer</b>, <i>over</i>. And Old English +long vowels, preceding two or more consonants, have generally been +shortened: <b>brēost</b>, <i>breast</i>; <b>hǣlð</b>, <i>health</i>; +<b>slǣpte</b>, <i>slept</i>; <b>lǣdde</b>, <i>led</i>.</p> + + +<h4>Accentuation.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_11" id = "sec_11">11.</a></h5> + +<p>The accent in Old English falls usually on the radical syllable, +never on the inflectional ending: <b>bríngan</b>, <i>to bring</i>; +<b>stā́nas</b>, <i>stones</i>; <b>bérende</b>, <i>bearing</i>; +<b>ī́delnes</b>, <i>idleness</i>; <b>frḗondscipe</b>, +<i>friendship</i>.</p> + +<p>But in the case of compound nouns, adjectives, and adverbs the first +member of the compound (unless it be <b>ge-</b> or <b>be-</b>) receives +the stronger stress: <b>héofon-rīce</b>, <i>heaven-kingdom</i>; +<b>ǫ́nd-giet</b>, <i>intelligence</i>; <b>sṓð-fæst</b>, +<i>truthful</i>; <b>gód-cund</b>, <i>divine</i>; <b>éall-unga</b>, +<i>entirely</i>; <b>blī́ðe-līce</b>, <i>blithely</i>. But +<b>be-hā́t</b>, <i>promise</i>; <b>ge-béd</b>, <i>prayer</i>; +<b>ge-fḗalīc</b>, <i>joyous</i>; <b>be-sǫ́ne</b>, +<i>immediately</i>.</p> + +<p>Compound verbs, however, have the stress on the radical syllable: +<b>for-gíefan</b>, <i>to forgive</i>; <b>of-línnan</b>, <i>to cease</i>; +<b>ā-cnā́wan</b>, <i>to know</i>; <b>wið-stǫ́ndan</b>, <i>to +withstand</i>; <b>on-sácan</b>, <i>to resist</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The tendency of nouns to +take the stress on the prefix, while verbs retain it on the root, is +exemplified in many Modern English words: <i>préference</i>, +<i>prefér</i>; <i>cóntract</i> (noun), <i>contráct</i> (verb); +<i>ábstinence</i>, <i>abstaín</i>; <i>pérfume</i> (noun), <i>perfúme</i> +(verb).</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_II_1" id = "note_II_1" href = "#tag_II_1">1.</a> +Vowels are said to be round, or rounded, when the lip-opening is +rounded; that is, when the lips are thrust out and puckered as if +preparing to pronounce <i>w</i>. Thus <i>o</i> and <i>u</i> are round +vowels: add <i>-ing</i> to each, and phonetically you have added +<i>-wing</i>. <i>E.g. go<sup>w</sup>ing</i>, +<i>su<sup>w</sup>ing</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_II_2" id = "note_II_2" href = "#tag_II_2">2.</a> +A little practice will enable the student to see the appropriateness of +calling these consonants voiced and voiceless. Try to pronounce a voiced +consonant,—<i>d</i> in <i>den</i>, for example, but without the +assistance of <i>en</i>,—and there will be heard a gurgle, or +<i>vocal</i> murmur. But in <i>t</i>, of <i>ten</i>, there is no sound +at all, but only a feeling of tension in the organs.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_II_3" id = "note_II_3" href = "#tag_II_3">3.</a> +Taken separately, every syllable ending in a single consonant is long. +It may be said, therefore, that all closed syllables are long; but in +the natural flow of language, the single final consonant of a syllable +so often blends with a following initial vowel, the syllable thus +becoming open and short, that such syllables are not recognized as +prevailingly long. <i>Cf.</i> Modern English <i>at all</i> +(= <i>a-tall</i>).</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<span class = "pagenum">10</span> +<a name = "page10" id = "page10"> </a> +<h3><a name = "chap_III" id = "chap_III"> +CHAPTER III.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead">Inflections.</span></h3> + + +<h4>Cases.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_12" id = "sec_12">12.</a></h5> + +<p>There are five cases in Old English: the nominative, the genitive, +the dative, the accusative, and the instrumental.<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_III_1" id = "tag_III_1" href = "#note_III_1">1</a> Each of them, +except the nominative, may be governed by prepositions. When used +without prepositions, they have, in general, the following +functions:</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The nominative, as in Modern English, is the case of the +subject of a finite verb.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) The genitive (the possessive case of Modern English) is +the case of the possessor or source. It may be called the <i>of</i> +case.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) The dative is the case of the indirect object. It may be +called the <i>to</i> or <i>for</i> case.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) The accusative (the objective case of Modern English) is +the case of the direct object.</p> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) The instrumental, which rarely differs from the dative in +form, is the case of the means or the method. It may be called the +<i>with</i> or <i>by</i> case.</p> + +<p>The following paradigm of <b>mūð</b>, <i>the mouth</i>, illustrates +the several cases (the article being, for the present, gratuitously +added in the Modern English equivalents):</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">11</span> +<a name = "page11" id = "page11"> </a> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th class = "ital">Singular.</th> +<th class = "ital">Plural.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><i>N.</i></td> +<td><p><b>mūð</b> = <i>the mouth.</i></p></td> +<td><p><b>mūð-as</b> = <i>the mouths.</i></p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><i>G.</i></td> +<td><p><b>mūð-es</b><a class = "tag" name = "tag_III_2" id = "tag_III_2" +href = "#note_III_2">2</a> = <i>of the mouth</i> (= <i>the +mouth’s</i>).</p></td> +<td><p><b>mūð-a</b> = <i>of the mouths</i> (= <i>the +mouths’</i>).</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><i>D.</i></td> +<td><p><b>mūð-e</b> = <i>to</i> or <i>for the mouth.</i></p></td> +<td><p><b>mūð-um</b> = <i>to</i> or <i>for the mouths.</i></p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><i>A.</i></td> +<td><p><b>mūð</b> = <i>the mouth.</i></p></td> +<td><p><b>mūð-as</b> = <i>the mouths.</i></p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><i>I.</i></td> +<td><p><b>mūðe</b> = <i>with</i> or <i>by means of the +mouth.</i><p></td> +<td><p><b>mūð-um</b> = <i>with</i> or <i>by means of the +mouths.</i></p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h4>Gender.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_13" id = "sec_13">13.</a></h5> + +<p>The gender of Old English nouns, unlike that of Modern English, +depends partly on meaning and partly on form, or ending. Thus +<b>mūð</b>, <i>mouth</i>, is masculine; <b>tunge</b>, <i>tongue</i>, +feminine; <b>ēage</b>, <i>eye</i>, neuter.</p> + +<p>No very comprehensive rules, therefore, can be given; but the gender +of every noun should be learned with its meaning. Gender will be +indicated in the vocabularies by the different gender forms of the +definite article, <b>sē</b> for the masculine, <b>sēo</b> for the +feminine, and <b>ðæt</b> for the neuter: <b>sē mūð</b>, <b>sēo +tunge</b>, <b>ðæt ēage</b> = <i>the mouth</i>, <i>the tongue</i>, <i>the +eye</i>.</p> + +<p>All nouns ending in <b>-dōm</b>, <b>-hād</b>, <b>-scipe</b>, or +<b>-ere</b> are masculine (<i>cf.</i> Modern English wis<i>dom</i>, +child<i>hood</i>, friend<i>ship</i>, work<i>er</i>). Masculine, also, +are nouns ending in <b>-a</b>.</p> + +<p>Those ending in <b>-nes</b> or <b>-ung</b> are feminine (<i>cf.</i> +Modern +<span class = "pagenum">12</span> +<a name = "page12" id = "page12"> </a> +English good<i>ness</i>, and gerundial forms in <i>-ing</i>: +see<i>ing</i> is believ<i>ing</i>).</p> + +<p>Thus <b>sē wīsdōm</b>, <i>wisdom</i>; <b>sē cildhād</b>, +<i>childhood</i>; <b>sē frēondscipe</b>, <i>friendship</i>; <b>sē +fiscere</b>, <i>fisher(man)</i>; <b>sē hunta</b>, <i>hunter</i>; <b>sēo +gelīcnes</b>, <i>likeness</i>; <b>sēo leornung</b>, <i>learning</i>.</p> + + +<h4>Declensions.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_14" id = "sec_14">14.</a></h5> + +<p>There are two great systems of declension in Old English, the Vowel +Declension and the Consonant Declension. A noun is said to belong +to the Vowel Declension when the final letter of its stem is a vowel, +this vowel being then known as the <i>stem-characteristic</i>; but if +the stem-characteristic is a consonant, the noun belongs to the +Consonant Declension. There might have been, therefore, as many +subdivisions of the Vowel Declension in Old English as there were +vowels, and as many subdivisions of the Consonant Declension as there +were consonants. All Old English nouns, however, belonging to the Vowel +Declension, ended their stems originally in <b>a</b>, <b>ō</b>, +<b>i</b>, or <b>u</b>. Hence there are but four subdivisions of the +Vowel Declension: <b>a-</b>stems, <b>ō-</b>stems, <b>i-</b>stems, and +<b>u-</b>stems.</p> + +<p>The Vowel Declension is commonly called the Strong Declension, and +its nouns Strong Nouns.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The terms Strong and Weak +were first used by Jacob Grimm (1785-1863) in the terminology of verbs, +and thence transferred to nouns and adjectives. By a Strong Verb, Grimm +meant one that could form its preterit out of its own resources; that +is, without calling in the aid of an additional syllable: Modern English +<i>run</i>, <i>ran</i>; <i>find</i>, <i>found</i>; but verbs of the Weak +Conjugation had to borrow, as it were, an inflectional syllable: +<i>gain</i>, <i>gained</i>; <i>help</i>, <i>helped</i>.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">13</span> +<a name = "page13" id = "page13"> </a> +<h5><a name = "sec_15" id = "sec_15">15.</a></h5> + +<p>The stems of nouns belonging to the Consonant Declension ended, with +but few exceptions, in the letter <b>n</b> (<i>cf.</i> Latin +<i>homin-em</i>, <i>ration-em</i>, Greek <span class = "greek" title = +"poimen-a">ποιμέν-α</span>). They are called, therefore, <b>n-</b>stems, +the Declension itself being known as the <b>n-</b>Declension, or the +Weak Declension. The nouns, also, are called Weak Nouns.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_16" id = "sec_16">16.</a></h5> + +<p>If every Old English noun had preserved the original Germanic +stem-characteristic (or final letter of the stem), there would be +no difficulty in deciding at once whether any given noun is an +<b>a-</b>stem, <b>ō-</b>stem, <b>i-</b>stem, <b>u-</b>stem, or +<b>n-</b>stem; but these final letters had, for the most part, either +been dropped, or fused with the case-endings, long before the period of +historic Old English. It is only, therefore, by a rigid comparison of +the Germanic languages with one another, and with the other Aryan +languages, that scholars are able to reconstruct a single Germanic +language, in which the original stem-characteristics may be seen far +better than in any one historic branch of the Germanic group (<a href = +"#sec_5">§ <b>5</b>, Note</a>).</p> + +<p>This hypothetical language, which bears the same ancestral relation +to the historic Germanic dialects that Latin bears to the Romance +tongues, is known simply as <i>Germanic</i> (Gmc.), or as <i>Primitive +Germanic</i>. Ability to reconstruct Germanic forms is not expected of +the students of this book, but the following table should be examined as +illustrating the basis of distinction among the several Old English +declensions (O.E. = Old English, Mn.E. = Modern English):</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">14</span> +<a name = "page14" id = "page14"> </a> + +<table class = "tree" summary = "see text for explanation"> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "bottom" rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/topcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "{"></td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td colspan = "5">Gmc. <i>staina-z</i>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>(1) <b>a</b>-stems</td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td colspan = "5">O.E. <b>stān</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td colspan = "5">Mn.E. <i>stone</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "6"><p>I. Strong<br> +or Vowel<br> +Declensions</p></td> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td colspan = "5">Gmc. <i>hallō</i>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td>(2) <b>ō</b>-stems</td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td colspan = "5">O.E. <b>heall</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td colspan = "5">Mn.E. <i>hall</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td colspan = "5">Gmc. <i>bōni-z</i>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td>(3) <b>i</b>-stems</td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td colspan = "5">O.E. <b>bēn</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td colspan = "5">Mn.E. <i>boon</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td colspan = "5">Gmc. <i>sunu-z</i>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/bottomcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>(4) <b>u</b>-stems</td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td colspan = "5">O.E. <b>sunu</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td colspan = "5">Mn.E. <i>son</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + +<td></td> +<td class = "bottom" rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/topcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "{"></td> +<td class = "middle" colspan = "5" rowspan = "3">(1) <b>n</b>-stems<br> +(Weak Declension)</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>Gmc. <i>tungōn-iz</i>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<!-- <td colspan = "5"></td> --> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>O.E. <b>tung-an</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<!-- <td colspan = "5"></td> --> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>Mn.E. <i>tongue-s</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "6"><p>II. Consonant<br> +Declensions</p></td> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td class = "middle" colspan = "3" rowspan = "9">(2) Remnants<br> +of other<br> +Consonant<br> +Declensions</td> +<td class = "bottom" rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/topcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "{"></td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>Gmc. <i>fōt-iz</i>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<!-- <td colspan = "3"></td> --> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>(<i>a</i>)</td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>O.E. <b>fēt</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<!-- <td colspan = "3"></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>Mn.E. <i>feet</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<!-- <td colspan = "3"></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>Gmc. <i>frijōnd-iz</i>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<!-- <td colspan = "3"></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td>(<i>b</i>)</td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>O.E. <b>frīend</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<!-- <td colspan = "3"></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>Mn.E. <i>friend-s</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<!-- <td colspan = "3"></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>Gmc. <i>brōðr-iz</i>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/bottomcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "{"></td> +<!-- <td colspan = "3"></td> --> +<td rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/bottomcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>(<i>c</i>)</td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>O.E. <b>brōðor</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<!-- <td colspan = "3"></td> --> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>Mn.E. <i>brother-s</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—“It will be seen that if +Old English <b>ēage</b>, <i>eye</i>, is said to be an <b>n-</b>stem, +what is meant is this, that at some former period the kernel of the word +ended in <b>-n</b>, while, as far as the Old English language proper is +concerned, all that is implied is that the word is inflected in a +certain manner.” (Jespersen, <i>Progress in Language</i>, +§ 109).</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +This is true of all Old English stems, whether Vowel or Consonant. The +division, therefore, into <b>a-</b>stems, <b>ō-</b>stems, etc., is made +in the interests of grammar as well as of philology.</p> + + +<h4>Conjugations.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_17" id = "sec_17">17.</a></h5> + +<p>There are, likewise, two systems of conjugation in Old English: the +Strong or Old Conjugation, and the Weak or New Conjugation.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">15</span> +<a name = "page15" id = "page15"> </a> +<p>The verbs of the Strong Conjugation (the so-called Irregular Verbs of +Modern English) number about three hundred, of which not one hundred +remain in Modern English (<a href = "#sec_101">§ <b>101</b>, +Note</a>). They form their preterit and frequently their past participle +by changing the radical vowel of the present stem. This vowel change or +modification is called <i>ablaut</i> (pronounced <i>áhp-lowt</i>): +Modern English <i>sing, sang, sung</i>; <i>rise, rose, risen</i>. As the +radical vowel of the preterit plural is often different from that of the +preterit singular, there are four <i>principal parts</i> or <i>tense +stems</i> in an Old English strong verb, instead of the three of Modern +English. The four principal parts in the conjugation of a strong verb +are (1) the present indicative, (2) the preterit indicative +singular, (3) the preterit indicative plural, and (4) the past +participle.</p> + +<p>Strong verbs fall into seven groups, illustrated in the following +table:</p> + +<table class = "outline" summary = "strong verb classes"> +<col> +<col class = "leftline"> +<col class = "leftline"> +<col class = "leftline"> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps">Present.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps">Pret. Sing.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps">Pret. Plur.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps">Past Participle.</th> +</tr> +<tr class = "topline"> +<td class = "heading">I.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Bītan</b>, <i>to bite</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic bīt-e</b>, <i>I bite</i> or <i>shall bite</i>.<a class = +"tag" name = "tag_III_3" id = "tag_III_3" href = +"#note_III_3">3</a></p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic bāt</b>, <i>I bit</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Wē bit-on</b>, <i>we bit</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe ge</b><a class = "tag" name = "tag_III_4" id = +"tag_III_4" href = "#note_III_4">4</a><b>-biten</b>, <i>I have +bitten</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading">II.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Bēodan</b>, <i>to bid</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic bēod-e</b>, <i>I bid</i> or <i>shall bid</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic bēad</b>, <i>I bade</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Wē bud-on</b>, <i>we bade</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe ge-boden</b>, <i>I have bidden</i>.</p></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "heading"> +<span class = "pagenum">16</span> +<a name = "page16" id = "page16"> </a> +III.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Bindan</b>, <i>to bind</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic bind-e</b>, <i>I bind or shall bind</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic bǫnd</b>, <i>I bound</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Wē bund-on</b>, <i>we bound</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe ge-bund-en</b>, <i>I have bound</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading">IV.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Beran</b>, <i>to bear</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic ber-e</b>, <i>I bear</i> or <i>shall bear</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic bær</b>, <i>I bore</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Wē bǣr-on</b>, <i>we bore</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe ge-bor-en</b>, <i>I have borne</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading">V.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Metan</b>, <i>to measure</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic met-e</b>, <i>I measure</i> or <i>shall +measure</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic mæt</b>, <i>I measured</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Wē mǣt-on</b>, <i>we measured</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe ge-met-en</b>, <i>I have measured</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading">VI.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Faran</b>, <i>to go</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic far-e</b>, <i>I go</i> or <i>shall go</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic fōr</b>, <i>I went</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Wē fōr-on</b>, <i>we went</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic eom</b><a class = "tag" name = "tag_III_5" id = "tag_III_5" +href = "#note_III_5">5</a> <b>ge-far-en</b>, <i>I have</i> (<i>am</i>) +<i>gone</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading">VII.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Feallan</b>, <i>to fall</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic feall-e</b>, <i>I fall</i> or <i>shall fall</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic fēoll</b>, <i>I fell</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Wē fēoll-on</b>, <i>we fell</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic eom</b><a class = "tag" name = "tag_III_5b" id = +"tag_III_5b" href = "#note_III_5">5</a> <b>ge-feall-en</b>, <i>I +have</i> (<i>am</i>) <i>fallen</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h5><a name = "sec_18" id = "sec_18">18.</a></h5> + +<p>The verbs of the Weak Conjugation (the so-called Regular Verbs of +Modern English) form their preterit +<span class = "pagenum">17</span> +<a name = "page17" id = "page17"> </a> +and past participle by adding to the present stem a suffix<a class = +"tag" name = "tag_III_6" id = "tag_III_6" href = "#note_III_6">6</a> +with <i>d</i> or <i>t</i>: Modern English <i>love</i>, <i>loved</i>; +<i>sleep</i>, <i>slept</i>.</p> + +<p>The stem of the preterit plural is never different from the stem of +the preterit singular; hence these verbs have only three distinctive +tense-stems, or principal parts: <i>viz.</i>, (1) the present +indicative, (2) the preterit indicative, and (3) the past +participle.</p> + +<p>Weak verbs fall into three groups, illustrated in the following +table:</p> + +<table class = "outline" summary = "weak verb classes"> +<col> +<col class = "leftline"> +<col class = "leftline"> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps">Present.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps">Preterit.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps">Past Participle.</th> +</tr> +<tr class = "topline"> +<td class = "heading">I.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Fręmman</b>, <i>to perform</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic fręmm-e</b>, <i>I perform</i> or <i>shall +perform</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic fręm-ede</b>, <i>I performed</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe ge-fręm-ed</b>, <i>I have performed</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading">II.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Bodian</b>, <i>to proclaim</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic bodi-e</b>, <i>I proclaim</i> or <i>shall +proclaim</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic bod-ode</b>, <i>I proclaimed</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe ge-bod-od</b>, <i>I have proclaimed</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading">III.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Habban</b>, <i>to have</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe</b>, <i>I have</i> or <i>shall have</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæf-de</b>, <i>I had</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe ge-hæf-d</b>, <i>I have had</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h5><a name = "sec_19" id = "sec_19">19.</a></h5> + +<p>There remain a few verbs (chiefly the Auxiliary Verbs of Modern +English) that do not belong entirely to either of the two conjugations +mentioned. The most important of them are, <b>Ic mæg</b> <i>I may</i>, +<b>Ic mihte</b> <i>I might</i>; <b>Ic cǫn</b> <i>I can</i>, <b>Ic +cūðe</b> <i>I could</i>; <b>Ic mōt</b> <i>I must</i>, <b>Ic mōste</b> +<i>I +<span class = "pagenum">18</span> +<a name = "page18" id = "page18"> </a> +must</i>; <b>Ic sceal</b> <i>I shall</i>, <b>Ic sceolde</b> <i>I +should</i>; <b>Ic eom</b> <i>I am</i>, <b>Ic wæs</b> <i>I was</i>; <b>Ic +wille</b> <i>I will</i>, <b>Ic wolde</b> <i>I would</i>; <b>Ic dō</b> +<i>I do</i>, <b>Ic dyde</b> <i>I did</i>; <b>Ic gā</b> <i>I go</i>, +<b>Ic ēode</b> <i>I went</i>.</p> + +<p>All but the last four of these are known as Preterit-Present Verbs. +The present tense of each of them is <i>in origin</i> a preterit, <i>in +function</i> a present. <i>Cf.</i> Modern English <i>ought</i> +(= <i>owed</i>).</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_III_1" id = "note_III_1" href = "#tag_III_1">1.</a> +Most grammars add a sixth case, the vocative. But it seems best to +consider the vocative as only a <i>function</i> of the nominative +<i>form</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_III_2" id = "note_III_2" href = "#tag_III_2">2.</a> +Of course our “apostrophe and <i>s</i>” (= <i>’s</i>) comes from the Old +English genitive ending <b>-es</b>. The <i>e</i> is preserved in +<i>Wednesday</i> (= Old English <b>Wōdnes dæg</b>). But at a very +early period it was thought that <i>John’s book</i>, for example, was a +shortened form of <i>John his book</i>. Thus Addison (<i>Spectator</i>, +No. 135) declares <i>’s</i> a survival of <i>his</i>. How, then, would +he explain the <i>s</i> of <i>his</i>? And how would he dispose of +<i>Mary’s book</i>?</p> + +<p><a name = "note_III_3" id = "note_III_3" href = "#tag_III_3">3.</a> +Early West Saxon had no distinctive form for the future. The present was +used both as present proper and as future. <i>Cf.</i> Modern English +“I go home tomorrow,” or “I am going home tomorrow” for +“I shall go home tomorrow.”</p> + +<p><a name = "note_III_4" id = "note_III_4" href = "#tag_III_4">4.</a> +The prefix <b>ge-</b> (Middle English <i>y-</i>), cognate with Latin +<i>co</i> (<i>con</i>) and implying completeness of action, was not +always used. It never occurs in the past participles of compound verbs: +<b>oþ-feallan</b>, <i>to fall off</i>, past participle <b>oþ-feallen</b> +(not <b>oþ-gefeallen</b>). Milton errs in prefixing it to a present +participle:</p> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p>“What needs my Shakespeare, for his honour’d bones,</p> +<p>The labour of an age in piled stones?</p> +<p>Or that his hallow’d reliques should be hid</p> +<p>Under a star-<i>ypointing</i> pyramid.”</p> + +<p class = "right">—<i>Epitaph on William Shakespeare</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>And Shakespeare misuses it in “Y-ravished,” a preterit +(<i>Pericles</i> III, <i>Prologue</i> l. 35).</p> + +<p>It survives in the archaic <i>y-clept</i> (Old English +<b>ge-clypod</b>, called). It appears as <i>a</i> in <i>aware</i> (Old +English <b>ge-wær</b>), as <i>e</i> in <i>enough</i> (Old English +<b>ge-nōh</b>), and as <i>i</i> in <i>handiwork</i> (Old English +<b>hand-ge-weorc</b>).</p> + +<p><a name = "note_III_5" id = "note_III_5" href = "#tag_III_5">5.</a> +With intransitive verbs denoting <i>change of condition</i>, the Old +English auxiliary is usually some form of <i>to be</i> rather than <i>to +have</i>. See <a href = "#sec_139">§ <b>139</b></a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_III_6" id = "note_III_6" href = "#tag_III_6">6.</a> +The theory that <i>loved</i>, for example, is a fused form of +<i>love-did</i> has been generally given up. The dental ending was +doubtless an Indo-Germanic suffix, which became completely specialized +only in the Teutonic languages.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_IV" id = "chap_IV"> +CHAPTER IV.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Order of Words.</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_20" id = "sec_20">20.</a></h5> + +<p>The order of words in Old English is more like that of Modern German +than of Modern English. Yet it is only the Transposed order that the +student will feel to be at all un-English; and the Transposed order, +even before the period of the Norman Conquest, was fast yielding place +to the Normal order.</p> + +<p>The three divisions of order are (1) Normal, (2) Inverted, and +(3) Transposed.</p> + +<p>(1) Normal order = subject + predicate. In Old English, the Normal +order is found chiefly in independent clauses. The predicate is followed +by its modifiers: <b>Sē hwæl bið micle lǣssa þonne ōðre hwalas</b>, +<i>That whale is much smaller than other whales</i>; <b>Ǫnd hē geseah +twā scipu</b>, <i>And he saw two ships</i>.</p> + +<p>(2) Inverted order = predicate + subject. This order occurs also in +independent clauses, and is employed (<i>a</i>) when some modifier of +the predicate precedes the predicate, the subject being thrown behind. +The +<span class = "pagenum">19</span> +<a name = "page19" id = "page19"> </a> +words most frequently causing Inversion in Old English prose are +<b>þā</b> <i>then</i>, <b>þonne</b> <i>then</i>, and <b>þǣr</b> +<i>there</i>: <b>Ðā fōr hē</b>, <i>Then went he</i>; <b>Ðonne ærnað hȳ +ealle tōweard þǣm fēo</b>, <i>Then gallop they all toward the +property</i>; <b>ac þǣr bið medo genōh</b>, <i>but there is mead +enough</i>.</p> + +<p>Inversion is employed (<i>b</i>) in interrogative sentences: +<b>Lufast ðū mē?</b> <i>Lovest thou me?</i> and (<i>c</i>) in imperative +sentences: <b>Cume ðīn rīce</b>, <i>Thy kingdom come</i>.</p> + +<p>(3) Transposed order = subject ... predicate. That is, the predicate +comes last in the sentence, being preceded by its modifiers. This is the +order observed in dependent clauses:<a class = "tag" name = "tag_IV_1" +id = "tag_IV_1" href = "#note_IV_1">1</a> <b>Ðonne cymeð sē man sē þæt +swiftoste hors hafað</b>, <i>Then comes the man that has the swiftest +horse</i> (literally, <i>that the swiftest horse has</i>); <b>Ne mētte +hē ǣr nān gebūn land, siþþan hē frǫm his āgnum hām fōr</b>, <i>Nor did +he before find any cultivated land, after he went from his own home</i> +(literally, <i>after he from his own home went</i>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_21" id = "sec_21">21.</a></h5> + +<p class = "section">Two other peculiarities in the order of words +require a brief notice.</p> + +<p>(1) Pronominal datives and accusatives usually precede the predicate: +<b>Hē hine oferwann</b>, <i>He overcame him</i> (literally, <i>He him +overcame</i>); <b>Dryhten him andwyrde</b>, <i>The Lord answered +him</i>. But substantival datives and accusatives, as in Modern English, +follow the predicate. +<span class = "pagenum">20</span> +<a name = "page20" id = "page20"> </a> +The following sentence illustrates both orders: <b>Hȳ genāmon Ioseph, +ǫnd hine gesealdon cīpemǫnnum, ǫnd hȳ hine gesealdon in Ēgypta lǫnd</b>, +<i>They took Joseph, and sold him to merchants, and they sold him into +Egypt</i> (literally, <i>They took Joseph, and him sold to merchants, +and they him sold into Egyptians’ land</i>).</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The same order prevails in +the case of pronominal nominatives used as predicate nouns: <b>Ic hit +eom</b>, <i>It is I</i> (literally, <i>I it am</i>); <b>Ðū hit +eart</b>, <i>It is thou</i> (literally, <i>Thou it art</i>).</p> + +<p>(2) The attributive genitive, whatever relationship it expresses, +usually precedes the noun which it qualifies: <b>Breoton is gārsecges +īgland</b>, <i>Britain is an island of the ocean</i> (literally, +<i>ocean’s island</i>); <b>Swilce hit is ēac berende on węcga ōrum</b>, +<i>Likewise it is also rich in ores of metals</i> (literally, <i>metals’ +ores</i>); <b>Cyninga cyning</b>, <i>King of kings</i> (literally, +<i>Kings’ king</i>); <b>Gē witon Godes rīces gerȳne</b>, <i>Ye know the +mystery of the kingdom of God</i> (literally, <i>Ye know God’s kingdom’s +mystery</i>).</p> + +<p>A preposition governing the word modified by the genitive, precedes +the genitive:<a class = "tag" name = "tag_IV_2" id = "tag_IV_2" href = +"#note_IV_2">2</a> <b>On ealdra manna sægenum</b>, <i>In old men’s +sayings</i>; <b>Æt ðǣra strǣta ęndum</b>, <i>At the ends of the +streets</i> (literally, <i>At the streets’ ends</i>); <b>For ealra ðīnra +hālgena lufan</b>, <i>For all thy saints’ love</i>. See, also, <a href = +"#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (5)</a>.</p> + + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_IV_1" id = "note_IV_1" href = "#tag_IV_1">1.</a> +But in the <i>Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan</i>, in which the style is +apparently more that of oral than of written discourse, the Normal is +more frequent than the Transposed order in dependent clauses. In his +other writings Alfred manifests a partiality for the Transposed order in +dependent clauses, except in the case of substantival clauses introduced +by <b>þæt</b>. Such clauses show a marked tendency to revert to their +Normal <i>oratio recta</i> order. The norm thus set by the indirect +affirmative clause seems to have proved an important factor in the +ultimate disappearance of Transposition from dependent clauses. The +influence of Norman French helped only to consummate forces that were +already busily at work.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_IV_2" id = "note_IV_2" href = "#tag_IV_2">2.</a> +The positions of the genitive are various. It frequently follows its +noun: <b>þā bearn þāra Aðeniensa</b>, <i>The children of the +Athenians</i>. It may separate an adjective and a noun: <b>Ān lȳtel sǣs +earm</b>, <i>A little arm of</i> (<i>the</i>) <i>sea</i>. The genitive +may here be construed as an adjective, or part of a compound = <i>A +little sea-arm</i>; <b>Mid mǫnegum Godes gifum</b>, <i>With many +God-gifts</i> = <i>many divine gifts</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<span class = "pagenum">21</span> +<a name = "page21" id = "page21"> </a> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_V" id = "chap_V"> +CHAPTER V.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Practical Suggestions.</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_22" id = "sec_22">22.</a></h5> + +<p>In the study of Old English, the student must remember that he is +dealing not with a foreign or isolated language but with the earlier +forms of his own mother tongue. The study will prove profitable and +stimulating in proportion as close and constant comparison is made of +the old with the new. The guiding principles in such a comparison are +reducible chiefly to two. These are (1) the regular operation of +phonetic laws, resulting especially in certain Vowel Shiftings, and +(2) the alterations in form and syntax that are produced by +Analogy.</p> + +<p>(1) “The former of these is of physiological or <i>natural</i> +origin, and is perfectly and inflexibly regular throughout the same +period of the same language; and even though different languages show +different phonetic habits and predilections, there is a strong general +resemblance between the changes induced in one language and in another; +many of the particular laws are true for many languages.</p> + +<p>(2) “The other principle is psychical, or mental, or +<i>artificial</i>, introducing various more or less capricious changes +that are supposed to be emendations; and its operation is, to some +extent, uncertain and fitful.”<a class = "tag" name = "tag_V_1" id = +"tag_V_1" href = "#note_V_1">1</a></p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">22</span> +<a name = "page22" id = "page22"> </a> +<h4>(1) Vowel-Shiftings.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_23" id = "sec_23">23.</a></h5> + +<p>It will prove an aid to the student in acquiring the inflections and +vocabulary of Old English to note carefully the following shiftings that +have taken place in the gradual growth of the Old English vowel system +into that of Modern English.</p> + +<p>(1) As stated in <a href = "#sec_3">§ <b>3</b></a>, the Old English +inflectional vowels, which were all short and unaccented, weakened in +early Middle English to <i>e</i>. This <i>e</i> in Modern English is +frequently dropped:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th class = "left smallcaps">Old English.</th> +<th class = "left smallcaps">Middle English.</th> +<th class = "left smallcaps">Modern English.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>stān-as</td> +<td>ston-es</td> +<td>stones</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>sun-u</td> +<td>sun-e</td> +<td>son</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>sun-a</td> +<td>sun-e</td> +<td>sons</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>ox-an</td> +<td>ox-en</td> +<td>oxen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>swift-ra</td> +<td>swift-er</td> +<td>swifter</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>swift-ost</td> +<td>swift-est</td> +<td>swiftest</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>lōc-ode</td> +<td>lok-ede</td> +<td>looked</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(2) The Old English long vowels have shifted their phonetic values +with such uniform regularity that it is possible in almost every case to +infer the Modern English sound; but our spelling is so chaotic that +while the student may infer the modern sound, he cannot always infer the +modern symbol representing the sound.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th class = "left smallcaps">Old English.</th> +<th class = "left smallcaps" colspan = "2">Modern English.</th> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "middle"><b>ā</b></td> +<td class = "middle"><p><i>o</i> (as in <i>no</i>)<a class = "tag" name += "tag_V_2" id = "tag_V_2" href = "#note_V_2">2</a></p></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><p><b>nā</b> = <i>no</i>; <b>stān</b> = <i>stone</i>; <b>bān</b> = +<i>bone</i>; <b>rād</b> = <i>road</i>; <b>āc</b> = <i>oak</i>; +<b>hāl</b> = <i>whole</i>; <b>hām</b> = <i>home</i>; <b>sāwan</b> = +<i>to sow</i>; <b>gāst</b> = <i>ghost</i>.</p></td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "middle"> +<span class = "pagenum">23</span> +<a name = "page23" id = "page23"> </a> +<b>ē</b></td> +<td class = "middle"><p><i>e</i> (as in <i>he</i>)</p></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><p><b>hē</b> = <i>he</i>; <b>wē</b> = <i>we</i>; <b>ðē</b> = +<i>thee</i>; <b>mē</b> = <i>me</i>; <b>gē</b> = <i>ye</i>; <b>hēl</b> = +<i>heel</i>; <b>wērig</b> = <i>weary</i>; <b>gelēfan</b> = <i>to +believe</i>; <b>gēs</b> = <i>geese</i>.</p></td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td> </td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "middle"><b>ī</b> (<b>ȳ</b>)</td> +<td class = "middle"><p><i>i</i> (<i>y</i>) (as in <i>mine</i>)</p></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><p><b>mīn</b> = <i>mine</i>; <b>ðīn</b> = <i>thine</i>; <b>wīr</b> = +<i>wire</i>; <b>mȳs</b> = <i>mice</i>; <b>rīm</b> = <i>rime</i> (wrongly +spelt <i>rhyme</i>); <b>lȳs</b> = <i>lice</i>; <b>bī</b> = <i>by</i>; +<b>scīnan</b> = <i>to shine</i>; <b>stig-rāp</b> = <i>sty-rope</i> +(shortened to <i>stirrup</i>, <b>stīgan</b> meaning <i>to +mount</i>).</p></td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td> </td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "middle"><b>ō</b></td> +<td class = "middle"><p><i>o</i> (as in <i>do</i>)</p></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><p><b>dō</b> = <i>I do</i>; <b>tō</b> = <i>too</i>, <i>to</i>; +<b>gōs</b> = <i>goose</i>; <b>tōð</b> = <i>tooth</i>; <b>mōna</b> = +<i>moon</i>; <b>ðōm</b> = <i>doom</i>; <b>mōd</b> = <i>mood</i>; +<b>wōgian</b> = <i>to woo</i>; <b>slōh</b> = <i>I slew</i>.</p></td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td> </td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "middle"><b>ū</b></td> +<td class = "middle"><p><i>ou</i> (<i>ow</i>) (as in +<i>thou</i>)</p></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><p><b>ðū</b> = <i>thou</i>; <b>fūl</b> = <i>foul</i>; <b>hūs</b> = +<i>house</i>; <b>nū</b> = <i>now</i>; <b>hū</b> = <i>how</i>; <b>tūn</b> += <i>town</i>; <b>ūre</b> = our; <b>ūt</b> = <i>out</i>; <b>hlūd</b> = +<i>loud</i>; <b>ðūsend</b> = <i>thousand</i>.</p></td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td> </td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "middle"><b>ǣ</b>, <b>ēa</b>, <b>ēo</b></td> +<td class = "middle"><p><i>ea</i> (as in <i>sea</i>)</p></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><p><b>ǣ</b>: <b>sǣ</b> = <i>sea</i>; <b>mǣl</b> = <i>meal</i>; +<b>dǣlan</b> = <i>to deal</i>; <b>clǣne</b> = <i>clean</i>; +<b>grǣdig</b> = <i>greedy</i>.</p> +<p><b>ēa</b>: <b>ēare</b> = <i>ear</i>; <b>ēast</b> = <i>east</i>; +<b>drēam</b> = <i>dream</i>; <b>gēar</b> = <i>year</i>; <b>bēatan</b> = +<i>to beat</i>.</p> +<p><b>ēo</b>: <b>ðrēo</b> = <i>three</i>; <b>drēorig</b> = +<i>dreary</i>; <b>sēo</b> = <i>she</i>, <b>hrēod</b> = <i>reed</i>; +<b>dēop</b> = <i>deep</i>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>(2) Analogy.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_24" id = "sec_24">24.</a></h5> + +<p>But more important than vowel shifting is the great law of Analogy, +for Analogy shapes not only words but constructions. It belongs, +therefore, to +<span class = "pagenum">24</span> +<a name = "page24" id = "page24"> </a> +Etymology and to Syntax, since it influences both form and function. By +this law, minorities tend to pass over to the side of the majorities. +“The greater mass of cases exerts an assimilative influence upon the +smaller.”<a class = "tag" name = "tag_V_3" id = "tag_V_3" href = +"#note_V_3">3</a> The effect of Analogy is to simplify and to +regularize. “The main factor in getting rid of irregularities is +group-influence, or Analogy—the influence exercised by the members +of an association-group on one another.... Irregularity consists in +partial isolation from an association-group through some formal +difference.”<a class = "tag" name = "tag_V_4" id = "tag_V_4" href = +"#note_V_4">4</a></p> + +<p>Under the influence of Analogy, entire declensions and conjugations +have been swept away, leaving in Modern English not a trace of their +former existence. There are in Old English, for example, five plural +endings for nouns, <b>-as</b>, <b>-a</b>, <b>-e</b>, <b>-u</b>, and +<b>-an</b>. No one could well have predicted<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_V_5" id = "tag_V_5" href = "#note_V_5">5</a> that <b>-as</b> +(Middle English <i>-es</i>) would soon take the lead, and become the +norm to which the other endings would eventually conform, for there were +more <b>an-</b>plurals than <b>as-</b>plurals; but the <b>as-</b>plurals +were doubtless more often employed in everyday speech. <i>Oxen</i> (Old +English <b>oxan</b>) is the sole pure survival of the hundreds of Old +English <b>an-</b>plurals. +<span class = "pagenum">25</span> +<a name = "page25" id = "page25"> </a> +No group of feminine nouns in Old English had <b>-es</b> as the genitive +singular ending; but by the close of the Middle English period all +feminines formed their genitive singular in <i>-es</i> +(or <i>-s</i>, Modern English <i>’s</i>) after the analogy of the +Old English masculine and neuter nouns with <b>es-</b>genitives. The +weak preterits in <b>-ode</b> have all been leveled under the +<b>ed-</b>forms, and of the three hundred strong verbs in Old English +more than two hundred have become weak.</p> + +<p>These are not cases of derivation (as are the shifted vowels): Modern +English <i>-s</i> in <i>sons</i>, for example, could not possibly be +derived from Old English <b>-a</b> in <b>suna</b>, or Middle English +<i>-e</i> in <i>sune</i> (<a href = "#sec_23">§ <b>23</b>, +(1)</a>). They are cases of replacement by Analogy.</p> + +<p>A few minor examples will quicken the student’s appreciation of the +nature of the influence exercised by Analogy:</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The intrusive <i>l</i> in <i>could</i> (Chaucer always +wrote <i>coud</i> or <i>coude</i>) is due to association with +<i>would</i> and <i>should</i>, in each of which <i>l</i> belongs by +etymological right.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>He need not</i> (for <i>He needs not</i>) is due to the +assimilative influence of the auxiliaries <i>may</i>, <i>can</i>, etc., +which have never added <i>-s</i> for their third person singular (<a +href = "#sec_137">§ <b>137</b></a>).</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>I am friends with him</i>, in which <i>friends</i> is a +crystalized form for <i>on good terms</i>, may be traced to the +influence of such expressions as <i>He and I are friends</i>, <i>They +are friends</i>, etc.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) Such errors as are seen in <i>runned</i>, <i>seed</i>, +<i>gooses</i>, <i>badder</i>, <i>hisself</i>, <i>says I</i> (usually +coupled with <i>says he</i>) +<span class = "pagenum">26</span> +<a name = "page26" id = "page26"> </a> +are all analogical formations. Though not sanctioned by good usage, it +is hardly right to call these forms the products of “false analogy.” The +grammar involved is false, because unsupported by literary usages and +traditions; but the analogy on which these forms are built is no more +false than the law of gravitation is false when it makes a dress sit +unconventionally.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_V_1" id = "note_V_1" href = "#tag_V_1">1.</a> +Skeat, <i>Principles of English Etymology</i>, Second Series, +§ 342. But Jespersen, with Collitz and others, stoutly contests +“the theory of sound laws and analogy sufficing between them to explain +everything in linguistic development.”</p> + +<p><a name = "note_V_2" id = "note_V_2" href = "#tag_V_2">2.</a> +But Old English <b>ā</b> preceded by <b>w</b> sometimes gives Modern +English <i>o</i> as in <i>two</i>: <b>twā</b> = <i>two</i>; <b>hwā</b> = +<i>who</i>; <b>hwām</b> = <i>whom</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_V_3" id = "note_V_3" href = "#tag_V_3">3.</a> +Whitney, <i>Life and Growth of Language</i>, Chap. IV.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_V_4" id = "note_V_4" href = "#tag_V_4">4.</a> +Sweet, <i>A New English Grammar</i>, Part I., § 535.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_V_5" id = "note_V_5" href = "#tag_V_5">5.</a> +As Skeat says (§ 22, (2)), Analogy is “fitful.” It enables us to explain +many linguistic phenomena, but not to anticipate them. The +multiplication of books tends to check its influence by perpetuating the +forms already in use. Thus Chaucer employed nine <i>en-</i>plurals, and +his influence served for a time to check the further encroachment of the +<i>es-</i>plurals. As soon as there is an acknowledged standard in any +language, the operation of Analogy is fettered.</p> +</div> + + + +<span class = "pagenum">27</span> +<a name = "page27" id = "page27"> </a> + +<h2><a name = "part_II" id = "part_II"> +PART II.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +<img src = "images/decsmall.gif" width = "34" height = "18" +alt = "----"><br> +ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.<br> +<img src = "images/decsmall.gif" width = "34" height = "18" +alt = "----"></span> +</h2> + +<h3><span class = "subhead"> +The Strong or Vowel Declensions of Nouns.<br> +The <b>a-</b>Declension.</span></h3> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_VI" id = "chap_VI"> +CHAPTER VI.</a></h3> + +<h4>(<i>a</i>) Masculine <i>a</i>-Stems.</h4> + + +<p class = "notation"> +[O.E., M.E., and Mn.E. will henceforth be used for Old English, Middle +English, and Modern English. Other abbreviations employed are +self-explaining.]</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_25" id = "sec_25">25.</a></h5> + +<p>The <b>a</b>-Declension, corresponding to the Second or +<i>o</i>-Declension of Latin and Greek, contains only (<i>a</i>) +masculine and (<i>b</i>) neuter nouns. To this declension belong most of +the O.E. masculine and neuter nouns of the Strong Declension. At a very +early period, many of the nouns belonging properly to the <b>i-</b> and +<b>u-</b>Declensions began to pass over to the <b>a-</b>Declension. This +declension may therefore be considered the <i>normal declension</i> for +all masculine and neuter nouns belonging to the Strong Declension.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_26" id = "sec_26">26.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>sē mūð</b>, <i>mouth</i>; <b>sē fiscere</b>, +<i>fisherman</i>; <b>sē hwæl</b>, <i>whale</i>; <b>sē mearh</b>, +<i>horse</i>; <b>sē finger</b>, <i>finger</i>:</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">28</span> +<a name = "page28" id = "page28"> </a> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>mūð</td> +<td>fiscer-e</td> +<td>hwæl</td> +<td>mearh</td> +<td>finger</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>mūð-es</td> +<td>fiscer-es</td> +<td>hwæl-es</td> +<td>mēar-es</td> +<td>fingr-es</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>mūð-e</td> +<td>fiscer-e</td> +<td>hwæl-e</td> +<td>mēar-e</td> +<td>fingr-e</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>mūð-as</td> +<td>fiscer-as</td> +<td>hwal-as</td> +<td>mēar-as</td> +<td>fingr-as</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>mūð-a</td> +<td>fiscer-a</td> +<td>hwal-a</td> +<td>mēar-a</td> +<td>fingr-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>mūð-um</td> +<td>fiscer-um</td> +<td>hwal-um</td> +<td>mēar-um</td> +<td>fingr-um</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—For meanings of the cases, +see <a href = "#sec_12">§ <b>12</b></a>. The dative and +instrumental are alike in all nouns.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_27" id = "sec_27">27.</a></h5> + +<p>The student will observe (1) that nouns whose nominative ends in +<b>-e</b> (<b>fiscere</b>) drop this letter before adding the case +endings; (2) that <b>æ</b> before a consonant (<b>hwæl</b>) changes +to <b>a</b> in the plural;<a class = "tag" name = "tag_VI_1" id = +"tag_VI_1" href = "#note_VI_1">1</a> (3) that <b>h</b>, preceded by +<b>r</b> (<b>mearh</b>) or <b>l</b> (<b>seolh</b>, <i>seal</i>), is +dropped before an inflectional vowel, the stem diphthong being then +lengthened by way of compensation; (4) that dissyllables +(<b>finger</b>) having the first syllable long, usually syncopate the +vowel of the second syllable before adding the case endings.<a class = +"tag" name = "tag_VI_2" id = "tag_VI_2" href = "#note_VI_2">2</a></p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_28" id = "sec_28">28.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigm of the Definite Article<a class = "tag" name = "tag_VI_3" id += "tag_VI_3" href = "#note_VI_3">3</a> <b>sē</b>, <b>sēo</b>, <b>ðæt</b> += <i>the</i>:</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">29</span> +<a name = "page29" id = "page29"> </a> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th class = "left ital">Masculine.</th> +<th class = "left ital">Feminine.</th> +<th class = "left ital">Neuter.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>sē (se)</td> +<td>sēo</td> +<td>ðæt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>ðæs</td> +<td>ðǣre</td> +<td>ðæs</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>ðǣm (ðām)</td> +<td>ðǣre</td> +<td>ðǣm (ðām)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>ðone</td> +<td>ðā</td> +<td>ðæt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>I.</i></td> +<td>ðȳ, ðon</td> +<td>——</td> +<td>ðȳ, ðon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th colspan = "4"><i>All Genders.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur. N.A.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>ðā</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>ðāra</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>ðǣm (ðām)</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_29" id = "sec_29">29.</a></h5> + +<p class = "section center"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Vocabulary.</span><a class = "tag" name = +"tag_VI_4" id = "tag_VI_4" href = "#note_VI_4">4</a></p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>sē bōcere</b>, <i>scribe</i> [bōc].</p> + +<p><b>sē cyning</b>, <i>king</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē dæg</b>, <i>day</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē ęnde</b>, <i>end</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē ęngel</b>, <i>angel</i> [angelus].</p> + +<p><b>sē frēodōm</b>, <i>freedom</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē fugol</b> (G. sometimes <b>fugles</b>), <i>bird</i> [fowl].</p> + +<p><b>sē gār</b>, <i>spear</i> [gore, gar-fish].</p> + +<p><b>sē heofon</b>, <i>heaven</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē hierde</b>, <i>herdsman</i> [shep-herd].</p> + +<p><b>ǫnd</b> (<b>and</b>), <i>and</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē sęcg</b>, <i>man</i>, <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē seolh</b>, <i>seal</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē stān</b>, <i>stone</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē wealh</b>, <i>foreigner</i>, <i>Welshman</i> [wal-nut].</p> + +<p><b>sē weall</b>, <i>wall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē wīsdōm</b>, <i>wisdom</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē wulf</b>, <i>wolf</i>.</p> +</div> + +<h5><a name = "sec_30" id = "sec_30">30.</a></h5> + +<p class = "section center"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Exercises.</span></p> + +<p>I. 1. Ðāra wulfa mūðas. 2. Ðæs fisceres fingras. 3. Ðāra Wēala +cyninge. 4. Ðǣm ęnglum ǫnd ðǣm hierdum. 5. Ðāra +<span class = "pagenum">30</span> +<a name = "page30" id = "page30"> </a> +daga ęnde. 6. Ðǣm bōcerum ǫnd ðǣm sęcgum ðæs cyninges. 7. Ðǣm +sēole ǫnd ðǣm fuglum. 8. Ðā stānas ǫnd ðā gāras. 9. Hwala ǫnd +mēara. 10. Ðāra ęngla wīsdōm. 11. Ðæs cyninges bōceres +frēodōm. 12. Ðāra hierda fuglum. 13. Ðȳ stāne. 14. Ðǣm +wealle.</p> + +<p>II. 1. For the horses and the seals. 2. For the Welshmen’s freedom. +3. Of the king’s birds. 4. By the wisdom of men and angels. +5. With the spear and the stone. 6. The herdsman’s seal and +the warriors’ spears. 7. To the king of heaven. 8. By means of +the scribe’s wisdom. 9. The whale’s mouth and the foreigner’s +spear. 10. For the bird belonging to (= of) the king’s scribe. +11. Of that finger.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_VI_1" id = "note_VI_1" href = "#tag_VI_1">1.</a> +Adjectives usually retain <b>æ</b> in closed syllables, changing it to +<b>a</b> in open syllables: <b>hwæt</b> (<i>active</i>), <b>glæd</b> +(<i>glad</i>), <b>wær</b> (<i>wary</i>) have G. <b>hwates</b>, +<b>glades</b>, <b>wares</b>; D. <b>hwatum</b>, <b>gladum</b>, +<b>warum</b>; but A. <b>hwætne</b>, <b>glædne</b>, <b>wærne</b>. Nouns, +however, change to <b>a</b> only in open syllables followed by a +guttural vowel, <b>a</b> or <b>u</b>. The <b>æ</b> in the open syllables +of the singular is doubtless due to the analogy of the N.A. singular, +both being closed syllables.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VI_2" id = "note_VI_2" href = "#tag_VI_2">2.</a> +<i>Cf.</i> Mn.E. <i>drizz’ling</i>, <i>rememb’ring</i>, <i>abysmal</i> +(<i>abysm</i> = <i>abiz<sup>u</sup>m</i>), <i>sick’ning</i>, in which +the principle of syncopation is precisely the same.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VI_3" id = "note_VI_3" href = "#tag_VI_3">3.</a> +This may mean four things: (1) <i>The</i>, (2) <i>That</i> +(demonstrative), (3) <i>He</i>, <i>she</i>, <i>it</i>, +(4) <i>Who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>that</i> (relative pronoun). Mn.E. +demonstrative <i>that</i> is, of course, the survival of O.E. neuter +<b>ðæt</b> in its demonstrative sense. Professor Victor Henry +(<i>Comparative Grammar of English and German</i>, § 160, 3) +sees a survival of dative plural demonstrative <b>ðǣm</b> in such an +expression as <i>in them days</i>. It seems more probable, however, that +<i>them</i> so used has followed the lead of <i>this</i> and +<i>these</i>, <i>that</i> and <i>those</i>, in their double function of +pronoun and adjective. There was doubtless some such evolution as, +<i>I saw them. Them what? Them boys.</i></p> + +<p>An unquestioned survival of the dative singular feminine of the +article is seen in the <i>-ter</i> of <i>Atterbury</i> (= <b>æt +ðǣre byrig</b>, <i>at the town</i>); and <b>ðǣm</b> survives in the +<i>-ten</i> of <i>Attenborough</i>, the word <i>borough</i> having +become an uninflected neuter. Skeat, <i>Principles</i>, First Series, +§ 185.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VI_4" id = "note_VI_4" href = "#tag_VI_4">4.</a> +The brackets contain etymological hints that may help the student to +discern relationships otherwise overlooked. The genitive is given only +when not perfectly regular.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_VII" id = "chap_VII"> +CHAPTER VII.</a></h3> + +<h4>(<i>b</i>) Neuter <i>a-</i>Stems.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_31" id = "sec_31">31.</a></h5> + +<p>The neuter nouns of the <b>a-</b>Declension differ from the +masculines only in the N.A. plural.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_32" id = "sec_32">32.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>ðæt hof</b>, <i>court</i>, <i>dwelling</i>; <b>ðaet +bearn</b>, <i>child</i>; <b>ðæt bān</b>, <i>bone</i>; <b>ðæt rīce</b>, +<i>kingdom</i>; <b>ðæt spere</b>, <i>spear</i>; <b>ðæt werod</b>, +<i>band of men</i>; <b>ðæt tungol</b>, <i>star</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>hof</td> +<td>bearn</td> +<td>bān</td> +<td>rīc-e</td> +<td>sper-e</td> +<td>werod</td> +<td>tungol</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>hof-es</td> +<td>bearn-es</td> +<td>bān-es</td> +<td>rīc-es</td> +<td>sper-es</td> +<td>werod-es</td> +<td>tungl-es</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>hof-e</td> +<td>bearn-e</td> +<td>bān-e</td> +<td>rīc-e</td> +<td>sper-e</td> +<td>werod-e</td> +<td>tungl-e</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "8"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>hof-u</td> +<td>bearn</td> +<td>bān</td> +<td>rīc-u</td> +<td>sper-u</td> +<td>werod</td> +<td>tungl-u</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>hof-a</td> +<td>bearn-a</td> +<td>bān-a</td> +<td>rīc-a</td> +<td>sper-a</td> +<td>werod-a</td> +<td>tungl-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>hof-um</td> +<td>bearn-um</td> +<td>bān-um</td> +<td>rīc-um</td> +<td>sper-um</td> +<td>werod-um</td> +<td>tungl-um</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_33" id = "sec_33">33.</a></h5> + +<p>The paradigms show (1) that monosyllables with short stems +(<b>hof</b>) take <b>-u</b> in the N.A. plural; (2) that +<span class = "pagenum">31</span> +<a name = "page31" id = "page31"> </a> +monosyllables with long stems (<b>bearn</b>, <b>bān</b>) do not +distinguish the N.A. plural from the N.A. singular;<a class = "tag" name += "tag_VII_1" id = "tag_VII_1" href = "#note_VII_1">1</a> (3) that +dissyllables in <b>-e</b>, whether the stem be long or short +(<b>rīce</b>, <b>spere</b>), have <b>-u</b> in the N.A. plural; +(4) that dissyllables ending in a consonant and having the first +syllable short<a class = "tag" name = "tag_VII_2" id = "tag_VII_2" href += "#note_VII_2">2</a> (<b>werod</b>) do not usually distinguish the N.A. +plural from the N.A. singular; (5) that dissyllables ending in a +consonant and having the first syllable long (<b>tungol</b>) more +frequently take <b>-u</b> in the N.A. plural.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Syncopation occurs as in +the masculine <b>a-</b>stems. See <a href = +"#sec_27">§ <b>27</b>, (4)</a>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_34" id = "sec_34">34.</a></h5> + +<p>Present and Preterit Indicative of <b>habban</b>, <i>to have</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "2">Present.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td><b>Ic hæbbe</b>, <i>I have</i>, or <i>shall have</i>.<a class = +"tag" name = "tag_VII_3" id = "tag_VII_3" href = +"#note_VII_3">3</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td><b>ðū hæfst</b> (<b>hafast</b>), <i>thou hast</i>, or <i>wilt +have</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td><b>hē</b>, <b>hēo</b>, <b>hit hæfð</b> (<b>hafað</b>), <i>he</i>, +<i>she</i>, <i>it has</i>, or <i>will have</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td><b>wē habbað</b>, <i>we have</i>, or <i>shall have</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td><b>gē habbað</b>, <i>ye have</i>, or <i>will have</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td><b>hīe habbað</b>, <i>they have</i>, or <i>will have</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "2">Preterit.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td><b>Ic hæfde</b> <i>I had</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td><b>ðū hæfdest</b>, <i>thou hadst</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td><b>hē</b>, <b>hēo</b>, <b>hit hæfde</b>, <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, +<i>it had</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td><b>wē hæfdon</b>, <i>we had</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td><b>gē hæfdon</b>, <i>ye had</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td><b>hīe hæfdon</b>, <i>they had</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class = "pagenum">32</span> +<a name = "page32" id = "page32"> </a> +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The negative <b>ne</b>, +<i>not</i>, which always precedes its verb, contracts with all the forms +of <b>habban</b>. The negative loses its <b>e</b>, <b>habban</b> its +<b>h</b>. <b>Ne</b> + <b>habban</b> = <b>nabban</b>; <b>Ic ne hæbbe = Ic +næbbe</b>; <b>Ic ne hæfde = Ic næfde</b>, etc. The negative forms may be +got, therefore, by simply substituting in each case <b>n</b> for +<b>h</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_35" id = "sec_35">35.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>ðæt dæl</b>, <i>dale</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt dēor</b>, <i>animal</i> [deer<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_VII_4" id = "tag_VII_4" href = "#note_VII_4">4</a>].</p> + +<p><b>ðæt dor</b>, <i>door</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt fæt</b>, <i>vessel</i> [vat].</p> + +<p><b>ðæt fȳr</b>, <i>fire</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt gēar</b>, <i>year</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt geoc</b>, <i>yoke</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt geset</b>, <i>habitation</i> [settlement].</p> + +<p><b>ðæt hēafod</b>, <i>head</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt hūs</b>, <i>house</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt līc</b>, <i>body</i> [lich-gate].</p> + +<p><b>ðæt lim</b>, <i>limb</i>.</p> + +<p><b>on</b> (with dat.) <i>in</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt spor</b>, <i>track</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt wǣpen</b>, <i>weapon</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt wīf</b>, <i>wife</i>, <i>woman</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt wīte</b>, <i>punishment</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt word</b>, <i>word</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_36" id = "sec_36">36.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><span class = "smallcaps"> Exercises.</span></p> + +<p>I. 1. Hē hafað ðæs cyninges bearn. 2. Ðā Wēalas habbað ðā speru. +3. Ðā wīf habbað ðāra sęcga wǣpnu. 4. Ðū hæfst ðone fugol ǫnd +ðæt hūs ðæs hierdes. 5. Hæfð<a class = "tag" name = "tag_VII_5" id += "tag_VII_5" href = "#note_VII_5">5</a> hēo ðā fatu<a class = "tag" +name = "tag_VII_6" id = "tag_VII_6" href = "#note_VII_6">6</a>? +6. Hæfde hē ðæs wīfes līc on ðǣm hofe? 7. Hē næfde ðæs wīfes +līc; hē hæfde ðæs dēores hēafod. 8. Hæfð sē cyning gesetu on ðǣm +dæle? 9. Sē bōcere hæfð ðā sēolas on ðǣm hūse. 10. Gē habbað +frēodōm.</p> + +<p>II. 1. They have yokes and spears. 2. We have not the vessels in the +house. 3. He had fire in the vessel. 4. Did the woman have +(= Had the woman) the children? 5. The animal has the body of +the woman’s child. 6. I shall have +<span class = "pagenum">33</span> +<a name = "page33" id = "page33"> </a> +the heads of the wolves. 7. He and she have the king’s houses. +8. Have not (= <b>Nabbað</b>) the children the warrior’s +weapons?</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_VII_1" id = "note_VII_1" href = "#tag_VII_1">1.</a> +Note the many nouns in Mn.E. that are unchanged in the plural. These are +either survivals of O.E. long stems, <i>swine</i>, <i>sheep</i>, +<i>deer</i>, <i>folk</i>, or analogical forms, <i>fish</i>, +<i>trout</i>, <i>mackerel</i>, <i>salmon</i>, etc.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VII_2" id = "note_VII_2" href = "#tag_VII_2">2.</a> +Dissyllables whose first syllable is a prefix are, of course, excluded. +They follow the declension of their last member: <b>gebed</b>, +<i>prayer</i>, <b>gebedu</b>, <i>prayers</i>; <b>gefeoht</b>, +<i>battle</i>, <b>gefeoht</b>, <i>battles</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VII_3" id = "note_VII_3" href = "#tag_VII_3">3.</a> +See <a href = "#sec_17">§ <b>17</b>, Note 1</a>. Note that (as in +<b>hwæl</b>, <a href = "#sec_27">§ <b>27</b>, (2)</a>) <b>æ</b> +changes to <b>a</b> when the following syllable contains <b>a</b>: +<b>hæbbe</b>, but <b>hafast</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VII_4" id = "note_VII_4" href = "#tag_VII_4">4.</a> +The old meaning survives in Shakespeare’s “Rats and mice and such small +deer,” <i>King Lear</i>, III, <span class = "smallcaps">iv</span>, +144.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VII_5" id = "note_VII_5" href = "#tag_VII_5">5.</a> +See <a href = "#sec_20">§ <b>20</b>, (2), (b)</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VII_6" id = "note_VII_6" href = "#tag_VII_6">6.</a> +See <a href = "#sec_27">§ <b>27</b>, (2)</a>.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_VIII" id = "chap_VIII"> +CHAPTER VIII.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +The</span> <b>ō-</b><span class = "smallcaps">Declension.</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_37" id = "sec_37">37.</a></h5> + +<p>The <b>ō-</b>Declension, corresponding to the First or +<i>ā-</i>Declension of Latin and Greek, contains only feminine nouns. +Many feminine <b>i-</b>stems and <b>u-</b>stems soon passed over to this +Declension. The <b>ō-</b>Declension may, therefore, be considered the +<i>normal declension</i> for all strong feminine nouns.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_38" id = "sec_38">38.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>sēo giefu</b>, <i>gift</i>; <b>sēo wund</b>, +<i>wound</i>; <b>sēo rōd</b>, <i>cross</i>; <b>sēo leornung</b>, +<i>learning</i>; <b>sēo sāwol</b>, <i>soul</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>gief-u</td> +<td>wund</td> +<td>rōd</td> +<td>leornung</td> +<td>sāwol</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>gief-e</td> +<td>wund-e</td> +<td>rōd-e</td> +<td>leornung-a (e)</td> +<td>sāwl-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>gief-e</td> +<td>wund-e</td> +<td>rōd-e</td> +<td>leornung-a (e)</td> +<td>sāwl-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>gief-e</td> +<td>wund-e</td> +<td>rōd-e</td> +<td>leornung-a (e)</td> +<td>sāwl-e</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur. N.A.</i></td> +<td>gief-a</td> +<td>wund-a</td> +<td>rōd-a</td> +<td>leornung-a</td> +<td>sāwl-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>gief-a</td> +<td>wund-a</td> +<td>rōd-a</td> +<td>leornung-a</td> +<td>sāwl-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>gief-um</td> +<td>wund-um</td> +<td>rōd-um</td> +<td>leornung-um</td> +<td>sāwl-um</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_39" id = "sec_39">39.</a></h5> + +<p>Note (1) that monosyllables with short stems (<b>giefu</b>) take +<b>u</b> in the nominative singular; (2) that monosyllables with +long stems (<b>wund</b>, <b>rōd</b>) present the unchanged stem in the +nominative singular; (3) that dissyllables are declined as +monosyllables, except that abstract nouns in <b>-ung</b> prefer <b>a</b> +to <b>e</b> in the singular.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Syncopation occurs as in +masculine and neuter <b>a-</b>stems<ins class = "correction" title = ". missing">. </ins>See <a href = +"#sec_27">§ <b>27</b>, (4)</a>.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">34</span> +<a name = "page34" id = "page34"> </a> +<h5><a name = "sec_40" id = "sec_40">40.</a></h5> + +<p>Present and Preterit Indicative of <b>bēon</b> (<b>wesan</b>) +<i>to be</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th class = "left" colspan = "4"><span class = +"smallcaps">Present</span> (first form).</th> +<th class = "left" colspan = "3"><span class = +"smallcaps">Present</span> (second form).</th> +<th class = "left" colspan = "3"><span class = +"smallcaps">Preterit.</span></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic eom</td> +<td colspan = "3">1. Ic bēom</td> +<td colspan = "3">1. Ic wæs</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū eart</td> +<td colspan = "3">2. ðū bist</td> +<td colspan = "3">2. ðū wǣre</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē is</td> +<td colspan = "3">3. hē bið</td> +<td colspan = "3">3. hē wæs</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "10"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td></td> +<td>1. wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td></td> +<td>1. wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>sind(on), sint</td> +<td>2. gē</td> +<td>bēoð</td> +<td>2. gē</td> +<td>wǣron</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td></td> +<td>3. hīe</td> +<td></td> +<td>3. hīe</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—The forms <b>bēom</b>, +<b>bist</b>, etc. are used chiefly as future tenses in O.E. They +survive to-day only in dialects and in poetry. Farmer Dobson, for +example, in Tennyson’s <i>Promise of May</i>, uses <i>be</i> for all +persons of the present indicative, both singular and plural; and +<i>there be</i> is frequent in Shakespeare for <i>there are</i>. The +Northern dialect employed <b>aron</b> as well as <b>sindon</b> and +<b>sind</b> for the present plural; hence Mn.E. <i>are</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—Fusion with <b>ne</b> +gives <b>neom</b>, <b>neart</b>, <b>nis</b> for the present; <b>næs</b>, +<b>nǣre</b>, <b>nǣron</b> for the preterit.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 3.</span>—The verb <i>to be</i> is +followed by the nominative case, as in Mn.E.; but when the predicate +noun is plural, and the subject a neuter pronoun in the singular, the +verb agrees in number with the predicate noun. The neuter singular +<b>ðæt</b> is frequently employed in this construction: <b>Ðaet wǣron +eall Finnas</b>, <i>They were all Fins</i>; <b>Ðæt sind ęnglas</b>, +<i>They are angels</i>; <b>Ðǣt wǣron ęngla gāstas</b>, <i>They were +angels’ spirits</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +Notice, too, that O.E. writers do not say <i>It is I</i>, <i>It is +thou</i>, but <i>I it am</i>, <i>Thou it art</i>: <b>Ic hit eom</b>, +<b>ðū hit eart</b>. See <a href = "#sec_21">§ <b>21</b>, (1), +Note 1</a>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_41" id = "sec_41">41.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>sēo brycg</b>, <i>bridge</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo costnung</b>, <i>temptation</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo cwalu</b>, <i>death</i> [quail, quell].</p> + +<p><b>sēo fōr</b>, <i>journey</i> [faran].</p> + +<p><b>sēo frōfor</b>, <i>consolation</i>, <i>comfort</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo geoguð</b>, <i>youth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo glōf</b>, <i>glove</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo hālignes<a class = "tag" name = "tag_VIII_1" id = "tag_VIII_1" +href = "#note_VIII_1">1</a></b><ins class = "correction" title = ", missing">, </ins><i>holiness</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo heall</b>, <i>hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hēr</b>, <i>here</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">35</span> +<a name = "page35" id = "page35"> </a> +<p><b>hwā</b>, <i>who</i>?</p> + +<p><b>hwǣr</b>, <i>where</i>?</p> + +<p><b>sēo lufu</b>, <i>love</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo mearc</b>, <i>boundary</i> [mark, marches<a class = "tag" name += "tag_VIII_2" id = "tag_VIII_2" href = "#note_VIII_2">2</a>].</p> + +<p><b>sēo mēd</b>, <i>meed</i>, <i>reward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo mildheortnes</b>, <i>mild-heartedness</i>, <i>mercy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo stōw</b>, <i>place</i> [stow away].</p> + +<p><b>ðǣr</b>, <i>there</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo ðearf</b>, <i>need</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo wylf</b>, <i>she wolf</i>.</p> +</div> + +<h5><a name = "sec_42" id = "sec_42">42.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><span class = "smallcaps"> Exercises.</span></p> + +<p>I. 1. Hwǣr is ðǣre brycge ęnde? 2. Hēr sind ðāra rīca mearca. +3. Hwā hæfð þā glōfa? 4. Ðǣr bið ðǣm cyninge frōfre ðearf. +5. Sēo wund is on ðǣre wylfe hēafde. 6. Wē habbað costnunga. +7. Hīe nǣron on ðǣre healle. 8. Ic hit neom. 9. Ðæt wǣron +Wēalas. 10. Ðæt sind ðæs wīfes bearn.</p> + +<p>II. 1. We shall have the women’s gloves. 2. Where is the place? +3. He will be in the hall. 4. Those (<b>Ðæt</b>) were not the +boundaries of the kingdom. 5. It was not I. 6. Ye are not the +king’s scribes. 7. The shepherd’s words are full (<b>full</b> + +gen.) of wisdom and comfort. 8. Where are the bodies of the +children? 9. The gifts are not here. 10. Who has the seals and +the birds?</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_VIII_1" id = "note_VIII_1" href = +"#tag_VIII_1">1.</a> +All words ending in <b>-nes</b> double the <b>-s</b> before adding the +case endings.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VIII_2" id = "note_VIII_2" href = +"#tag_VIII_2">2.</a> +As in <i>warden of the marches</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_IX" id = "chap_IX"> +CHAPTER IX.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +The</span> <b>i-</b><span class = "smallcaps">Declension and the</span> +<b>u-</b><span class = "smallcaps">Declension.</span></h3> + + +<h4>The <i>i-</i>Declension. (See <a href = "#sec_58">§ 58</a>.)</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_43" id = "sec_43">43.</a></h5> + +<p>The <b>i-</b>Declension, corresponding to the group of <i>i-</i>stems +in the classical Third Declension, contains chiefly (<i>a</i>) masculine +and (<i>b</i>) feminine nouns. The N.A. plural of these nouns ended +originally in <b>-e</b> (from older <b>i</b>).</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">36</span> +<a name = "page36" id = "page36"> </a> +<h4>(<i>a</i>) Masculine <i>i-</i>Stems.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_44" id = "sec_44">44.</a></h5> + +<p>These stems have almost completely gone over to the +<b>a-</b>Declension, so that <b>-as</b> is more common than <b>-e</b> as +the N.A. plural ending, whether the stem is long or short. The short +stems all have <b>-e</b> in the N.A. singular.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_45" id = "sec_45">45.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>sē wyrm</b>, <i>worm</i>; <b>sē wine</b>, +<i>friend</i>.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>wyrm</td> +<td>win-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>wyrm-es</td> +<td>win-es</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>wyrm-e</td> +<td>win-e</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>wyrm-as</td> +<td>win-as (e)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>wyrm-a</td> +<td>win-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>wyrm-um</td> +<td>win-um</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>Names of Peoples.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_46" id = "sec_46">46.</a></h5> + +<p>The only <b>i-</b>stems that regularly retain <b>-e</b> of the N.A. +plural are certain names of tribes or peoples used only in the +plural.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_47" id = "sec_47">47.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>ðā Ęngle</b>, <i>Angles</i>; <b>ðā Norðymbre</b>, +<i>Northumbrians</i>; <b>ðā lēode</b>, <i>people</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur. N.A.</i></td> +<td>Ęngle</td> +<td>Norðymbre</td> +<td>lēode</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>Ęngla</td> +<td>Norðymbra</td> +<td>lēoda</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>Ęnglum</td> +<td>Norðymbrum</td> +<td>lēodum</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>(b) Feminine <i>i-</i>Stems.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_48" id = "sec_48">48.</a></h5> + +<p>The short stems (<b>fręm-u</b>) conform entirely to the declension of +short <b>ō-</b>stems; long stems (<b>cwēn</b>, <b>wyrt</b>) differ from +long <b>ō-</b>stems in having no ending for the A. singular. They show, +also, a preference for <b>-e</b> rather than <b>-a</b> in the N.A. +plural.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">37</span> +<a name = "page37" id = "page37"> </a> +<h5><a name = "sec_49" id = "sec_49">49.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>sēo fręm-u</b>, <i>benefit</i>; <b>sēo cwēn</b>, +<i>woman</i>, <i>queen</i> [quean]; <b>sēo wyrt</b>, <i>root</i> +[wort]:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>fręm-u</td> +<td>cwēn</td> +<td>wyrt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>fręm-e</td> +<td>cwēn-e</td> +<td>wyrt-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>fręm-e</td> +<td>cwēn-e</td> +<td>wyrt-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>fręm-e</td> +<td>cwēn</td> +<td>wyrt</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>fręm-a</td> +<td>cwēn-e (a)</td> +<td>wyrt-e (a)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>fręm-a</td> +<td>cwēn-a</td> +<td>wyrt-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>fręm-um</td> +<td>cwēn-um</td> +<td>wyrt-um</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>The <i>u-</i>Declension.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_50" id = "sec_50">50.</a></h5> + +<p>The <b>u-</b>Declension, corresponding to the group of <b>u-</b>stems +in the classical Third Declension, contains no neuters, and but few +(<i>a</i>) masculines and (<i>b</i>) feminines. The short-stemmed nouns +of both genders (<b>sun-u</b>, <b>dur-u</b>) retain the final <b>u</b> +of the N.A. singular, while the long stems (<b>feld</b>, <b>hǫnd</b>) +drop it. The influence of the masculine <b>a-</b>stems is most clearly +seen in the long-stemmed masculines of the <b>u-</b>Declension +(<b>feld</b>, <b>feld-es</b>, etc.).</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Note the general aversion +of all O.E. long stems to final <b>-u</b>: <i>cf.</i> N.A. plural +<b>hof-u</b>, but <b>bearn</b>, <b>bān</b>; N. singular <b>gief-u</b>, +but <b>wund</b>, <b>rōd</b>; N. singular <b>fręm-u</b>, but <b>cwēn</b>, +<b>wyrt</b>; N.A. singular <b>sun-u</b>, <b>dur-u</b>, but <b>feld</b>, +<b>hǫnd</b>.</p> + + +<h4>(<i>a</i>) Masculine <i>u-</i>Stems.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_51" id = "sec_51">51.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>sē sun-u</b>, <i>son</i>; <b>sē feld</b>, +<i>field</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>sun-u</td> +<td>feld</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>sun-a</td> +<td>feld-a (es)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>sun-a</td> +<td>feld-a (e)</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>sun-a</td> +<td>feld-a (as)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>sun-a</td> +<td>feld-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>sun-um</td> +<td>feld-um</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum">38</span> +<a name = "page38" id = "page38"> </a> +<h4>(b) Feminine <i>u-</i>Stems.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_52" id = "sec_52">52.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>sēo dur-u</b>, <i>door</i>; <b>sēo hǫnd</b>, +<i>hand</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>dur-u</td> +<td>hǫnd</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>dur-a</td> +<td>hǫnd-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>dur-a</td> +<td>hǫnd-a</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>dur-a</td> +<td>hǫnd-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>dur-a</td> +<td>hǫnd-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>dur-um</td> +<td>hǫnd-um</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_53" id = "sec_53">53.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigm of the Third Personal Pronoun, <b>hē</b>, <b>hēo</b>, +<b>hit</b> = <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, <i>it</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><i>Masculine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Feminine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neuter.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>hē</td> +<td>hēo</td> +<td>hit</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>his</td> +<td>hiere</td> +<td>his</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>him</td> +<td>hiere</td> +<td>him</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>hine, hiene</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td>hit</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th colspan = "4"><i>All Genders.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur. N.A.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>hiera</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>him</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_54" id = "sec_54">54.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p>(<b>i-</b><span class = "smallcaps">Stems.</span>)</p> + +<p><b>sē cierr</b>, <i>turn</i>, <i>time</i> [char, chare, chore].</p> + +<p><b>sēo dǣd</b>, <i>deed</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē dǣl</b>, <i>part</i> [a great deal].</p> + +<p><b>ðā Dęne</b>, <i>Danes</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē frēondscipe</b>, <i>friendship</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo hȳd</b>, <i>skin</i>, <i>hide</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðā lǫndlēode</b>, <i>natives</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðā Mierce</b>, <i>Mercians</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðā Rōmware</b>, <i>Romans</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðā Seaxe</b>, <i>Saxons</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē stęde</b>, <i>place</i> [in-stead of].</p> + +<p>(<b>u-</b><span class = "smallcaps">Stems.</span>)</p> + +<p><b>sēo flōr</b>, <i>floor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo nosu</b>, <i>nose</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē sumor</b> (<i>G.</i> <b>sumeres</b>, <i>D.</i> <b>sumera</b>), +<i>summer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē winter</b> (<i>G.</i> <b>wintres</b>, <i>D.</i> <b>wintra</b>), +<i>winter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē wudu</b>, <i>wood</i>, <i>forest</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The numerous masculine +nouns ending in <b>-hād</b>,—<b>cildhād</b> (<i>childhood</i>), +<b>wīfhād</b> (<i>womanhood</i>),—belong to the <b>u-</b>stems +historically; but they have all passed over to the +<b>a-</b>Declension.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">39</span> +<a name = "page39" id = "page39"> </a> +<h5><a name = "sec_55" id = "sec_55">55.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Exercises.</p> + +<p>I. 1. Ðā Seaxe habbað ðæs dēores hȳd on ðǣm wuda. 2. Hwā hæfð ðā +giefa? 3. Ðā Mierce hīe<a class = "tag" name = "tag_IX_1" id = +"tag_IX_1" href = "#note_IX_1">1</a> habbað. 4. Hwǣr is ðæs Wēales +fugol? 5. Ðā Dęne hiene habbað. 6. Hwǣr sindon hiera winas? +7. Hīe sindon on ðæs cyninges wuda. 8. Ðā Rōmware ǫnd ðā Seaxe +hæfdon ðā gāras ǫnd ðā geocu. 9. Hēo is on ðǣm hūse on wintra, ǫnd +on ðǣm feldum on sumera. 10. Hwǣr is ðæs hofes duru? 11. Hēo<a +class = "tag" name = "tag_IX_2" id = "tag_IX_2" href = +"#note_IX_2">2</a> (= sēo duru) nis hēr.</p> + +<p>II. 1. His friends have the bones of the seals and the bodies of the +Danes. 2. Art thou the king’s son? 3. Has she her<a class = +"tag" name = "tag_IX_3" id = "tag_IX_3" href = "#note_IX_3">3</a> gifts +in her<a class = "tag" href = "#note_IX_3">3</a> hands? 4. Here are +the fields of the natives. 5. Who had the bird? 6. I had +it.<a class = "tag" href = "#note_IX_2">2</a> 7. The child had the +worm in his<a class = "tag" href = "#note_IX_3">3</a> fingers. +8. The Mercians were here during (the) summer (<b>on</b> + +dat.).</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_IX_1" id = "note_IX_1" href = "#tag_IX_1">1.</a> +See <a href = "#sec_21">§ <b>21</b>, (1)</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_IX_2" id = "note_IX_2" href = "#tag_IX_2">2.</a> +Pronouns agree in gender with the nouns for which they stand. +<b>Hit</b>, however, sometimes stands for inanimate things of both +masculine and feminine genders. See Wülfing (<i>l.c.</i>) I, +§ 238.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_IX_3" id = "note_IX_3" href = "#tag_IX_3">3.</a> +See <a href = "#sec_76">§ <b>76</b></a> (last sentence).</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_X" id = "chap_X"> +CHAPTER X.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs.</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_56" id = "sec_56">56.</a></h5> + +<p>The unchanged stem of the present indicative may always be found by +dropping <b>-an</b> of the infinitive: <b>feall-an</b>, <i>to fall</i>; +<b>cēos-an</b>, <i>to choose</i>; <b>bīd-an</b>, <i>to abide</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_57" id = "sec_57">57.</a></h5> + +<p>The personal endings are:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td><b>-e</b></td> +<td rowspan = "3"> </td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3"> <b>-að</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td><b>-est</b></td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td><b>-eð</b></td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum">40</span> +<a name = "page40" id = "page40"> </a> +<h4><i>i-</i>Umlaut.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_58" id = "sec_58">58.</a></h5> + +<p>The 2d and 3d singular endings were originally not <b>-est</b> and +<b>-eð</b>, but <b>-is</b> and <b>-ið</b>; and the <b>i</b> of these +older endings has left its traces upon almost every page of Early West +Saxon literature. This <b>i</b>, though unaccented and soon displaced, +exerted a powerful back influence upon the vowel of the preceding +accented syllable. This influence, a form of regressive +assimilation, is known as <b>i-</b>umlaut (pronounced <i>oóm-lowt</i>). +The vowel <b>i</b> or <b>j</b> (= <i>y</i>), being itself a +palatal, succeeded in palatalizing every guttural vowel that preceded +it, and in imposing still more of the <b>i-</b>quality upon diphthongs +that were already palatal.<a class = "tag" name = "tag_X_1" id = +"tag_X_1" href = "#note_X_1">1</a> The changes produced were these:</p> + +<table class = "inline" summary = "phonetic changes"> +<tr> +<td><b>a</b></td> +<td>became</td> +<td><b>ę</b> (<b>æ</b>):</td> +<td><b>męnn</b> (< <b>*mann-iz</b>), <i>men</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ā</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>ǣ</b></td> +<td><b>ǣnig</b> (< <b>*ān-ig</b>), <i>any</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>u</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>y</b></td> +<td><b>wyllen</b> (< <b>*wull-in</b>), <i>woollen</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ū</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>ȳ</b></td> +<td><b>mȳs</b> (< <b>*mūs-iz</b>), <i>mice</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>o</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>ę</b></td> +<td><b>dęhter</b> (< <b>*dohtr-i</b>), <i>to</i> or <i>for the +daughter</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ō</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>ē</b></td> +<td><b>fēt</b> (< <b>*fōt-iz</b>), <i>feet</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ea</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>ie</b></td> +<td><b>wiexð</b> (< <b>*weax-ið</b>), <i>he grows</i> (<b>weaxan</b> += <i>to grow</i>).</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ēa</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>īe</b></td> +<td><b>hīewð</b> (< <b>*hēaw-ið</b>), <i>he hews</i> (<b>hēawan</b> = +to <i>hew</i>).</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>eo</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>ie</b></td> +<td><b>wiercan</b> (< <b>*weorc-jan</b>), <i>to work</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ēo</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>īe</b></td> +<td><b>līehtan</b> (< <b>*lēoht-jan</b>), <i>to light</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>The Unchanged Present Indicative.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_59" id = "sec_59">59.</a></h5> + +<p>In the Northumbrian and Mercian dialects, as well as in the dialect +of Late West Saxon, the 2d and 3d singular endings were usually joined +to the present +<span class = "pagenum">41</span> +<a name = "page41" id = "page41"> </a> +stem without modification either of the stem itself or of the personal +endings. The complete absence of umlauted forms in the present +indicative of Mn.E. is thus accounted for.</p> + +<p>In Early West Saxon, however, such forms as the following are +comparatively rare in the 2d and 3d singular:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic feall-e (<i>I fall</i>)</td> +<td>cēos-e (<i>I choose</i>)</td> +<td>bīd-e (<i>I abide</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū feall-est</td> +<td>cēos-est</td> +<td>bīd-est</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē feall-eð</td> +<td>cēos-eð</td> +<td>bīd-eð</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>feall-að</td> +<td>cēos-að</td> +<td>bīd-að</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>The Present Indicative with i-Umlaut and Contraction.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_60" id = "sec_60">60.</a></h5> + +<p>The 2d and 3d persons singular are distinguished from the other forms +of the present indicative in Early West Saxon by +(1) <b>i</b>-umlaut of the vowel of the stem, (2) syncope of +the vowel of the ending, giving <b>-st</b> and <b>-ð</b> for <b>-est</b> +and <b>-eð</b>, and (3) contraction of <b>-st</b> and <b>-ð</b> +with the final consonant or consonants of the stem.</p> + + +<h4>Contraction.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_61" id = "sec_61">61.</a></h5> + +<p>The changes produced by <b>i-</b>umlaut have been already discussed. +By these changes, therefore, the stems of the 2d and 3d singular +indicative of such verbs as (1) <b>stǫndan</b> +(= <b>standan</b>), <i>to stand</i>, (2) <b>cuman</b>, <i>to +come</i>, (3) <b>grōwan</b>, <i>to grow</i>, +(4) <b>brūcan</b>, <i>to enjoy</i>, (5) <b>blāwan</b>, <i>to +blow</i>, (6) <b>feallan</b>, <i>to fall</i>, +(7) <b>hēawan</b>, <i>to hew</i>, (8) <b>weorpan</b>, <i>to +throw</i>, and (9) <b>cēosan</b>, <i>to choose</i>, +<span class = "pagenum">42</span> +<a name = "page42" id = "page42"> </a> +become respectively (1) <b>stęnd-</b>,<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_X_2" id = "tag_X_2" href = "#note_X_2">2</a> (2) <b>cym-</b>, +(3) <b>grēw-</b>, (4) <b>brȳc-</b>, (5) <b>blǣw-</b>, +(6) <b>fiell-</b>, (7) <b>hīew-</b>, (8) <b>wierp-</b>, +and (9) <b>cīes-</b>.</p> + +<p>If the unchanged stem contains the vowel <b>e</b>, this is changed in +the 2d and 3d singular to <b>i</b> (<b>ie</b>): <b>cweðan</b> <i>to +say</i>, stem <b>cwið-</b>; <b>beran</b> <i>to bear</i>, stem +<b>bier-</b>. But this mutation<a class = "tag" name = "tag_X_3" id = +"tag_X_3" href = "#note_X_3">3</a> had taken place long before the +period of O.E., and belongs to the Germanic languages in general. It is +best, however, to class the change of <b>e</b> to <b>i</b> or <b>ie</b> +with the changes due to umlaut, since it occurs consistently in the 2d +and 3d singular stems of Early West Saxon, and outlasted almost all of +the umlaut forms proper.</p> + +<p>If, now, the syncopated endings <b>-st</b> and <b>-ð</b> are added +directly to the umlauted stem, there will frequently result such a +massing of consonants as almost to defy pronunciation: <b>cwið-st</b>, +<i>thou sayest</i>; <b>stęnd-st</b>, <i>thou standest</i>, etc. Some +sort of contraction, therefore, is demanded for the sake of euphony. The +ear and eye will, by a little practice, become a sure guide in these +contractions. The following rules, however, must be observed. They apply +only to the 2d and 3d singular of the present indicative:</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">43</span> +<a name = "page43" id = "page43"> </a> +<p>(1) If the stem ends in a double consonant, one of the consonants is +dropped:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td>1.</td> +<td>feall-e (<i>I fall</i>)</td> +<td>1.</td> +<td>winn-e (<i>I fight</i>)</td> +<td>1.</td> +<td>swimm-e (<i>I swim</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>2.</td> +<td>fiel-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>win-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>swim-st</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>3.</td> +<td>fiel-ð</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>win-ð</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>swim-ð</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(2) If the stem ends in <b>-ð</b>, this is dropped:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td>1.</td> +<td>cweð-e (<i>I say</i>)</td> +<td>1.</td> +<td>weorð-e (<i>I become</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>2.</td> +<td>cwi-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>wier-st</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>3.</td> +<td>cwi-ð</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>wier-ð</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(3) If the stem ends in <b>-d</b>, this is changed to <b>-t</b>. The +<b>-ð</b> of the ending is then also changed to <b>-t</b>, and usually +absorbed. Thus the stem of the 2d singular serves as stem and ending for +the 3d singular:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td>1.</td> +<td><p>stǫnd-e (= stand-e) (<i>I stand</i>)</p></td> +<td>1.</td> +<td><p>bind-e (<i>I bind</i>)</p></td> +<td>1.</td> +<td><p>bīd-e (<i>I abide</i>)</p></td> +<td>1.</td> +<td><p>rīd-e (<i>I ride</i>)</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>2.</td> +<td>stęnt-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>bint-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>bīt-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>rīt-st</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>3.</td> +<td>stęnt</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>bint</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>bīt (-t)</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>rīt (-t)</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(4) If the stem ends already in <b>-t</b>, the endings are added as +in (3), <b>-ð</b> being again changed to <b>-t</b> and absorbed:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td>1.</td> +<td>brēot-e (<i>I break</i>)</td> +<td>1.</td> +<td>feoht-e (<i>I fight</i>)</td> +<td>1.</td> +<td>bīt-e (<i>I bite</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>2.</td> +<td>brīet-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>fieht-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>bīt-st</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>3.</td> +<td>brīet (-t)</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>fieht</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>bīt (-t)</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(5) If the stem ends in <b>-s</b>, this is dropped before <b>-st</b> +(to avoid <b>-sst</b>), but is retained before <b>-ð</b>, the +latter being changed to <b>-t</b>. Thus the 2d and 3d singulars are +identical:<a class = "tag" name = "tag_X_4" id = "tag_X_4" href = +"#note_X_4">4</a></p> + +<span class = "pagenum">44</span> +<a name = "page44" id = "page44"> </a> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td>1.</td> +<td>cēos-e (<i>I choose</i>)</td> +<td>1.</td> +<td>rīs-e (<i>I rise</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>2.</td> +<td>cīe-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>rī-st</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>3.</td> +<td>cīes-t</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>rīs-t</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_62" id = "sec_62">62.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Exercises.</p> + +<p>I. 1. Sē cyning fielð. 2. Ðā wīf cēosað ðā giefa. 3. Ðū stęntst on +ðǣm hūse. 4. Hē wierpð ðæt wǣpen. 5. Sē sęcg hīewð ðā līc. +6. Ðæt sǣd grēwð ǫnd wiexð (<i>Mark</i> iv. 27). 7. Ic +stǫnde hēr, ǫnd ðū stęntst ðǣr. 8. “Ic hit eom,” cwið hē. 9. Hīe +berað ðæs wulfes bān. 10. Hē hīe bint, ǫnd ic hine binde. +11. Ne rītst ðū?</p> + +<p>II. 1. We shall bind him. 2. Who chooses the child’s gifts? 3. “He +was not here,” says she. 4. Wilt thou remain in the hall? +5. The wolves are biting (= bite) the fishermen. 6. He +enjoys<a class = "tag" name = "tag_X_5" id = "tag_X_5" href = +"#note_X_5">5</a> the love of his children. 7. Do you enjoy +(= Enjoyest thou) the consolation and friendship of the scribe? +8. Will he come? 9. I shall throw the spear, and thou wilt +bear the weapons. 10. The king’s son will become king. 11. The +army (<b>werod</b>) is breaking the doors and walls of the house.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_X_1" id = "note_X_1" href = "#tag_X_1">1.</a> +The <i>palatal</i> vowels and diphthongs were long or short <b>æ</b>, +<b>e</b>, <b>i</b>, (<b>ie</b>), <b>y</b>, <b>ea</b>, <b>eo</b>; the +<i>guttural</i> vowels were long or short <b>a</b>, <b>o</b>, +<b>u</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_X_2" id = "note_X_2" href = "#tag_X_2">2.</a> +The more common form for stems with <b>a</b> is <b>æ</b> rather than +<b>ę</b>: <b>faran</b>, <i>to go</i>, 2d and 3d singular stem +<b>fær-</b>; <b>sacan</b>, <i>to contend</i>, stem <b>sæc-</b>. Indeed, +<b>a</b> changes to <b>ę</b> <i>via</i> <b>æ</b> (Cosijn, +<i>Altwestsächsische Grammatik</i>, I, § 32).</p> + +<p><a name = "note_X_3" id = "note_X_3" href = "#tag_X_3">3.</a> +Umlaut is frequently called Mutation. Metaphony is still another name +for the same phenomenon. The term Metaphony has the advantage of easy +adjectival formation (metaphonic). It was proposed by Professor Victor +Henry (<i>Comparative Grammar of English and German</i>, Paris, 1894), +but has not been naturalized.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_X_4" id = "note_X_4" href = "#tag_X_4">4.</a> +This happens also when the infinitive stem ends in <b>st</b>:</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p>1. berst-e (<i>I burst</i>)</p> + +<p>2. bier-st</p> + +<p>3. bierst.</p> +</div> + +<p><a name = "note_X_5" id = "note_X_5" href = "#tag_X_5">5.</a> +<b>Brūcan</b>, <i>to enjoy</i>, usually takes the genitive case, not the +accusative. It means “to have joy of any thing.”</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XI" id = "chap_XI"> +CHAPTER XI.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +The Consonant Declensions of Nouns.</span></h3> + + +<h4>The Weak or <i>n-</i>Declension.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_63" id = "sec_63">63.</a></h5> + +<p>The <b>n-</b>Declension contains almost all of the O.E. nouns +belonging to the Consonant Declensions. The stem characteristic <b>n</b> +has been preserved in the oblique +<span class = "pagenum">45</span> +<a name = "page45" id = "page45"> </a> +cases, so that there is no difficulty in distinguishing <b>n-</b>stems +from the preceding vowel stems.</p> + +<p>The <b>n-</b>Declension includes (<i>a</i>) masculines, (<i>b</i>) +feminines, and (<i>c</i>) neuters. The masculines far outnumber the +feminines, and the neuters contain only <b>ēage</b>, <i>eye</i> and +<b>ēare</b>, <i>ear</i>. The masculines end in <b>-a</b>, the feminines +and neuters in <b>-e</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_64" id = "sec_64">64.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of (<i>a</i>) <b>sē hunta</b>, <i>hunter</i>; (<i>b</i>) +<b>sēo tunge</b>, <i>tongue</i>; (<i>c</i>) <b>ðæt ēage</b>, +<i>eye</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>hunt-a</td> +<td>tung-e</td> +<td>ēag-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.D.I.</i></td> +<td>hunt-an</td> +<td>tung-an</td> +<td>ēag-an</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>hunt-an</td> +<td>tung-an</td> +<td>ēag-e</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>hunt-an</td> +<td>tung-an</td> +<td>ēag-an</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>hunt-ena</td> +<td>tung-ena</td> +<td>ēag-ena</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>hunt-um</td> +<td>tung-um</td> +<td>ēag-um</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_65" id = "sec_65">65.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>sē adesa</b>, <i>hatchet</i>, <i>adze</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē ǣmetta</b>, <i>leisure</i> [empt-iness].</p> + +<p><b>sē bǫna</b> (<b>bana</b>), <i>murderer</i> [bane].</p> + +<p><b>sēo cirice</b>, <i>church</i> [Scotch kirk].</p> + +<p><b>sē cnapa</b> (later, <b>cnafa</b>), <i>boy</i> [knave].</p> + +<p><b>sē cuma</b>, <i>stranger</i> [comer].</p> + +<p><b>ðæt ēare</b>, <i>ear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo eorðe</b>, <i>earth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē gefēra</b>, <i>companion</i> [co-farer].</p> + +<p><b>sē guma</b>, <i>man</i> [bride-groom<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_XI_1" id = "tag_XI_1" href = "#note_XI_1">1</a>].</p> + +<p><b>sēo heorte</b>, <i>heart</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē mōna</b>, <i>moon</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo nǣdre</b>, <i>adder</i> [a nadder > an adder<a class = +"tag" name = "tag_XI_2" id = "tag_XI_2" href = "#note_XI_2">2</a>].</p> + +<p><b>sē oxa</b>, <i>ox</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē scēowyrhta</b>, <i>shoe-maker</i> [shoe-wright].</p> + +<p><b>sēo sunne</b>, <i>sun</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē tēona</b>, <i>injury</i> [teen].</p> + +<p><b>biddan</b> (with dat. of person and gen. of thing<a class = "tag" +name = "tag_XI_3" id = "tag_XI_3" href = "#note_XI_3">3</a>), <i>to +request</i>, <i>ask for</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cwelan</b>, <i>to die</i> [quail].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">46</span> +<a name = "page46" id = "page46"> </a> +<p><b>gescieppan</b>, <i>to create</i> [shape, land-scape, +friend-ship].</p> + +<p><b>giefan</b> (with dat. of indirect object), <i>to give</i>.</p> + +<p><b>healdan</b>, <i>to hold</i>.</p> + +<p><b>helpan</b> (with dat.), <i>to help</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scęððan</b><a class = "tag" name = "tag_XI_4" id = "tag_XI_4" href += "#note_XI_4">4</a> (with dat.), <i>to injure</i> [scathe].</p> + +<p><b>wiðstǫndan</b> (<b>-standan</b>) (with dat.), <i>to +withstand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wrītan</b>, <i>to write</i>.</p> +</div> + +<h5><a name = "sec_66" id = "sec_66">66.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Exercises.</p> + +<p>I. 1. Sē scēowyrhta brȳcð his ǣmettan. 2. Ðā guman biddað ðǣm cnapan +ðæs adesan. 3. Hwā is sē cuma? 4. Hielpst ðū ðǣm bǫnan? +5. Ic him ne helpe. 6. Ðā bearn scęððað ðæs bǫnan ēagum ǫnd +ēarum. 7. Sē cuma cwielð on ðǣre cirican. 8. Sē hunta wiðstęnt +ðǣm wulfum. 9. Ðā oxan berað ðæs cnapan gefēran. 10. Sē mōna +ǫnd ðā tunglu sind on ðǣm heofonum. 11. Ðā huntan healdað ðǣre +nǣdran tungan. 12. Hē hiere giefð ðā giefa. 13. Ðā werod +scęððað ðæs cyninges feldum.</p> + +<p>II. 1. Who will bind the mouths of the oxen? 2. Who gives him the +gifts? 3. Thou art helping him, and I am injuring him. 4. The +boy’s companion is dying. 5. His nephew does not enjoy his leisure. +6. The adder’s tongue injures the king’s companion. 7. The sun +is the day’s eye. 8. She asks the strangers for the spears. +9. The men’s bodies are not here. 10. Is he not +(<b>Nis hē</b>) the child’s murderer? 11. Who creates the +bodies and the souls of men? 12. Thou withstandest her. 13. He +is not writing.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_XI_1" id = "note_XI_1" href = "#tag_XI_1">1.</a> +The <i>r</i> is intrusive in <i>-groom</i>, as it is in +<i>cart-r-idge</i>, <i>part-r-idge</i>, <i>vag-r-ant</i>, and +<i>hoa-r-se</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XI_2" id = "note_XI_2" href = "#tag_XI_2">2.</a> +The <i>n</i> has been appropriated by the article. Cf. <i>an apron</i> +(< <i>a napron</i>), <i>an auger</i> (< <i>a +nauger</i>), <i>an orange</i> (< <i>a norange</i>), <i>an +umpire</i> (< <i>a numpire</i>).</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XI_3" id = "note_XI_3" href = "#tag_XI_3">3.</a> +In Mn.E. we say “I request a favor of you”; but in O.E. it was +“I request you (dative) of a favor” (genitive). Cf. +<i>Cymbeline</i>, III, <span class = "smallcaps">vi</span>, 92: “We’ll +mannerly demand thee of thy story.” See Franz’s +<i>Shakespeare-Grammatik</i>, § 361 (1900).</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XI_4" id = "note_XI_4" href = "#tag_XI_4">4.</a> +<b>Scęððan</b> is conjugated through the present indicative like +<b>fręmman</b>. See <a href = "#sec_129">§ 129</a>.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<span class = "pagenum">47</span> +<a name = "page47" id = "page47"> </a> +<h3><a name = "chap_XII" id = "chap_XII"> +CHAPTER XII.</a></h3> + +<h4>Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_67" id = "sec_67">67.</a></h5> + +<p>The nouns belonging here are chiefly masculines and feminines. Their +stem ended in a consonant other than <b>n</b>. The most important of +them may be divided as follows: (1) The <i>foot</i> Declension, +(2) <b>r-</b>Stems, and (3) <b>nd-</b>Stems. These declensions +are all characterized by the prevalence, wherever possible, of +<b>i-</b>umlaut in certain cases, the case ending being then +dropped.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_68" id = "sec_68">68.</a></h5> + +<p>(1) The nouns belonging to the <i>foot</i> Declension exhibit umlaut +most consistently in the N.A. plural.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>sē fōt (<i>foot</i>)</td> +<td>sē mǫn (<i>man</i>)</td> +<td>sē tōð (<i>tooth</i>)</td> +<td>sēo cū (<i>cow</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>fēt</td> +<td>męn</td> +<td>tēð</td> +<td>cȳ</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The dative singular usually +has the same form as the N.A. plural. Here belong also <b>sēo bōc</b> +(<i>book</i>), <b>sēo burg</b> (<i>borough</i>), <b>sēo gōs</b> +(<i>goose</i>), <b>sēo lūs</b> (<i>louse</i>), and <b>sēo mūs</b> +(<i>mouse</i>), all with umlauted plurals. Mn.E. preserves only six of +the <i>foot</i> Declension plurals: <i>feet</i>, <i>men</i>, +<i>teeth</i>, <i>geese</i>, <i>lice</i>, and <i>mice</i>. The <i>c</i> +in the last two is an artificial spelling, intended to preserve the +sound of voiceless <i>s</i>. Mn.E. <i>kine</i> (= <i>cy-en</i>) is +a double plural formed after the analogy of weak stems; Burns in <i>The +Twa Dogs</i> uses <i>kye</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +No umlaut is possible in <b>sēo niht</b> (<i>night</i>) and <b>sē +mōnað</b> (<i>month</i>), plural <b>niht</b> and <b>mōnað</b> (preserved +in Mn.E. <i>twelvemonth</i> and <i>fortnight</i>).</p> + +<p>(2) The <b>r-</b>Stems contain nouns expressing kinship, and exhibit +umlaut of the dative singular.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td><p>sē fæder<br> +(<i>father</i>)</p></td> +<td><p>sē brōðor<br> +(<i>brother</i>)</p></td> +<td><p>sēo mōdor<br> +(<i>mother</i>)</p></td> +<td><p>sēo dohtor<br> +(<i>daughter</i>)</p></td> +<td><p>sēo swuster<br> +(<i>sister</i>)</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>fæder</td> +<td>brēðer</td> +<td>mēder</td> +<td>dęhter</td> +<td>swyster</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The N.A. plural is usually +the same as the N.A. singular. These umlaut datives are all due to the +presence of a former <b>i</b>. Cf. Lat. dative singular <i>patri</i>, +<i>frātri</i>, <i>mātri</i>, <i>sorori</i> (< <i>*sosori</i>), +and Greek <span class = "greek" title = "thugatri">θυγατρί</span>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">48</span> +<a name = "page48" id = "page48"> </a> +<p>(3) The <b>nd-</b>Stems show umlaut both in the N.A. plural and in +the dative singular:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>sē frēond (<i>friend</i>)</td> +<td>sē fēond (<i>enemy</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>frīend</td> +<td>fīend</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur. N.A.</i></td> +<td>frīend</td> +<td>fīend</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Mn.E. <i>friend</i> and +<i>fiend</i> are interesting analogical spellings. When <b>s</b> had +been added by analogy to the O.E. plurals <b>frīend</b> and +<b>fīend</b>, thus giving the double plurals <i>friends</i> and +<i>fiends</i>, a second singular was formed by dropping the <b>s</b>. +Thus <i>friend</i> and <i>fiend</i> displaced the old singulars +<i>frend</i> and <i>fend</i>, both of which occur in the M.E. +<i>Ormulum</i>, written about the year 1200.</p> + + +<h4>Summary of O.E. Declensions.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_69" id = "sec_69">69.</a></h5> + +<p>A brief, working summary of the O.E. system of declensions may now be +made on the basis of gender.</p> + +<p>All O.E. nouns are (1) masculine, (2) feminine, or (3) neuter.</p> + +<p>(1) The masculines follow the declension of <b>mūð</b> (<a href = +"#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>), except those ending in <b>-a</b>, which are +declined like <b>hunta</b> (<a href = +"#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>):</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>mūð</td> +<td class = "right"><i>N.</i></td> +<td>hunta</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>mūðes</td> +<td class = "right"><i>G.D.A.</i></td> +<td>huntan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>mūðe</td> +<td class = "right"><i>I.</i></td> +<td>huntan</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>mūðas</td> +<td></td> +<td>huntan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>mūða</td> +<td></td> +<td>huntena</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>mūðum</td> +<td></td> +<td>huntum</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(2) The short-stemmed neuters follow the declension of <b>hof</b> (<a +href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>); the long-stemmed, that of +<b>bearn</b> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>):</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>hof</td> +<td>bearn</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>hofes</td> +<td>bearnes</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>hofe</td> +<td>bearne</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>hofu</td> +<td>bearn</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>hofa</td> +<td>bearna</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>hofum</td> +<td>bearnum</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class = "pagenum">49</span> +<a name = "page49" id = "page49"> </a> +<p>(3) The feminines follow the declensions of <b>giefu</b> and +<b>wund</b> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>) (the only +difference being in the N. singular), except those ending in <b>-e</b>, +which follow the declension of <b>tunge</b> (<a href = +"#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>):</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>giefu</td> +<td>wund</td> +<td>tunge</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>giefe</td> +<td>wunde</td> +<td>tungan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>giefe</td> +<td>wunde</td> +<td>tungan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>giefe</td> +<td>wunde</td> +<td>tungan</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>giefa</td> +<td>wunda</td> +<td>tungan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>giefa</td> +<td>wunda</td> +<td>tungena</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>giefum</td> +<td>wundum</td> +<td>tungum</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_70" id = "sec_70">70.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>ac</b>, <i>but</i>.</p> + +<p><b>būtan</b> (with dat.), <i>except</i>, <i>but</i>, +<i>without</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē Crīst</b>, <i>Christ</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē eorl</b>, <i>earl</i>, <i>alderman</i>, <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt Ęnglalǫnd</b>, <i>England</i> [Angles’ land].</p> + +<p><b>faran</b>, <i>to go</i> [fare].</p> + +<p><b>findan</b>, <i>to find</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē God</b>, <i>God</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hātan</b>, <i>to call</i>, <i>name</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē hlāford</b>, <i>lord</i> [<b>hlāf-weard</b>].</p> + +<p><b>mid</b> (with dat.), <i>with</i>.</p> + +<p><b>on</b> (with acc.), <i>on</i>, <i>against</i>, <i>into</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tō</b> (with dat.), <i>to</i>.</p> + +<p><b>uton</b> (with infin.), <i>let us</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—O.E. <b>mǫn</b> +(<b>man</b>) is frequently used in an indefinite sense for <i>one</i>, +<i>people</i>, <i>they</i>. It thus takes the place of a passive +construction proper: <b>And man nam þā gebrotu þe þār belifon, twęlf +cȳpan fulle</b>, <i>And there were taken up of fragments that remained +there twelve baskets full</i>; but more literally, <i>And one</i> +(or <i>they</i>) <i>took the fragments</i>, etc.; <b>Ǫnd Hæstenes +wīf ǫnd hīs suna twēgen mǫn brōhte tō ðǣm cyninge</b>, <i>And Hæsten’s +wife and his two sons were brought to the king</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_71" id = "sec_71">71.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><span class = "smallcaps"> Exercises.</span></p> + +<p>I. 1. Mōn hine hǣt Ælfred. 2. Uton faran on ðæt scip. 3. God is +cyninga cyning ǫnd hlāforda hlāford. 4. Sē eorl ne giefð giefa his +fīend. 5. Ic næs mid his frīend. 6. Sēo mōdor færð mid hiere +dęhter on ðā burg. 7. Fintst ðū ðæs +<span class = "pagenum">50</span> +<a name = "page50" id = "page50"> </a> +bōceres bēc? 8. Hē bint ealle (all) ðā dēor būtan ðǣm wulfum. +9. Ðū eart Crīst, Godes sunu. 10. “Uton bindan ðæs bǫnan fēt,” +cwið hē.</p> + +<p>II. 1. Christ is the son of God. 2. Let us call him Cædmon. 3. He +throws his spear against the door. 4. Thou art not the earl’s +brother. 5. He will go with his father to England, but I shall +remain (abide) here. 6. Gifts are not given to murderers. +7. Who will find the tracks of the animals? 8. They ask their +lord for his weapons (<a href = "#sec_65">§ <b>65</b>, +Note 3</a>).</p> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XIII" id = "chap_XIII"> +CHAPTER XIII.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Pronouns.</span></h3> + + +<h4>(1) Personal Pronouns.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_72" id = "sec_72">72.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>ic</b>, <i>I</i>; <b>ðū</b>, <i>thou</i>. For +<b>hē</b>, <b>hēo</b>, <b>hit</b>, see <a href = +"#sec_53">§ <b>53</b></a>.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>ic</td> +<td>ðū</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>mīn</td> +<td>ðīn</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>mē</td> +<td>ðē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>mē (mec)</td> +<td>ðē (ðec)</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Dual N.</i></td> +<td>wit (<i>we two</i>)</td> +<td>git (<i>ye two</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>uncer (<i>of us two</i>)</td> +<td>incer (<i>of you two</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>unc (<i>to</i> or <i>for us two</i>)</td> +<td>inc (<i>to</i> or <i>for you two</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>unc (<i>us two</i>)</td> +<td>inc (<i>you two</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.</i></td> +<td>wē</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>ūser (ūre)</td> +<td>ēower</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>ūs</td> +<td>ēow</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>ūs (ūsic)</td> +<td>ēow (ēowic)</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—The dual number was soon +absorbed by the plural. No relic of it now remains. But when two and +only two are referred to, the dual is consistently used in O.E. An +example occurs in the case +<span class = "pagenum">51</span> +<a name = "page51" id = "page51"> </a> +of the two blind men (<i>Matthew</i> ix. 27-31): <b>Gemiltsa unc, +Davīdes sunu!</b> <i>Pity us</i>, (<i>thou</i>) <i>Son of David!</i> +<b>Sīe inc æfter incrum gelēafan</b>, <i>Be it unto you according to +your faith.</i></p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—Mn.E. <i>ye</i> (< +<b>gē</b>), the nominative proper, is fast being displaced by <i>you</i> +(< <b>ēow</b>), the old objective. The distinction is preserved +in the King James’s version of the Bible: <i>Ye in me, and I in you</i> +(<i>John</i> xiv. 20); but not in Shakespeare and later +writers.</p> + + +<h4>(2) Demonstrative Pronouns.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_73" id = "sec_73">73.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigm of <b>ðēs</b>, <b>ðēos</b>, <b>ðis</b>, <i>this</i>. For the +Definite Article as a demonstrative, meaning <i>that</i>, see <a href = +"#sec_28">§ <b>28</b>, Note 3</a>.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><i>Masculine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Feminine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neuter.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>ðēs</td> +<td>ðēos</td> +<td>ðis</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>ðisses</td> +<td>ðisse</td> +<td>ðisses</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>ðissum</td> +<td>ðisse</td> +<td>ðissum</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>ðisne</td> +<td>ðās</td> +<td>ðis</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>I.</i></td> +<td>ðȳs</td> +<td>——</td> +<td>ðȳs</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th colspan = "4"><i>All Genders.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur. N.A.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>ðās</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>ðissa</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>ðissum</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>(3) The Interrogative Pronoun.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_74" id = "sec_74">74.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigm of <b>hwā</b>, <b>hwæt</b>, <i>who</i>, <i>what?</i></p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><i>Masculine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neuter.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>hwā</td> +<td>hwæt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>hwæs</td> +<td>hwæs</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>hwǣm</td> +<td>hwǣm</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>hwone</td> +<td>hwæt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>I.</i></td> +<td>——</td> +<td>hwȳ</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—The derivative +interrogatives, <b>hwæðer</b> (< <b>*hwā-ðer</b>), <i>which of +two?</i> and <b>hwilc</b> (< <b>*hwā-līc</b>), <i>which?</i> are +declined as strong adjectives (<a href = +"#sec_79">§§ <b>79-82</b></a>).</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—The instrumental case of +<b>hwā</b> survives in Mn.E. <i>why</i> = <i>on what account</i>; the +instrumental of the definite article is seen in the +<span class = "pagenum">52</span> +<a name = "page52" id = "page52"> </a> +adverbial <i>the: The sooner, the better = by how much sooner, by so +much better.</i></p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 3.</span>—How were the Mn.E. +relative pronouns, <i>who</i> and <i>which</i>, evolved from the O.E. +interrogatives? The change began in early West Saxon with <b>hwæt</b> +used in indirect questions (Wülfing, <i>l.c.</i> § 310, β): +<b>Nū ic wāt eall hwæt ðū woldest</b>, <i>Now I know all that thou +desiredst</i>. The direct question was, <b>Hwæt woldest ðū?</b> But the +presence of <b>eall</b> shows that in Alfred’s mind <b>hwæt</b> was, in +the indirect form, more relative than interrogative.</p> + + +<h4>(4) Relative Pronouns.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_75" id = "sec_75">75.</a></h5> + +<p>O.E. had no relative pronoun proper. It used instead (1) the +Indeclinable Particle <b>ðe</b>, <i>who</i>, <i>whom</i>, <i>which</i>, +<i>that</i>, (2) the Definite Article (<a href = +"#sec_28">§ <b>28</b></a>), (3) the Definite Article with the +Indeclinable Particle, (4) the Indeclinable Particle with a +Personal Pronoun.</p> + +<p>The Definite Article agrees in gender and number with the antecedent. +The case depends upon the construction. <i>The bird which I have</i> +may, therefore, be:—</p> + +<div class = "list"> +<p>(1) <b>Sē fugol ðe ic hæbbe</b>;</p> +<p>(2) <b>Sē fugol ðone ic hæbbe</b>;</p> +<p>(3) <b>Sē fugol ðone ðe</b> (= <i>the which</i>) <b>ic hæbbe</b>;</p> +<p>(4) <b>Sē fugol ðe hine ic hæbbe</b>.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—O.E. <b>ðe</b> agrees +closely in construction with Mn.E. relative <i>that</i>: (1) Both +are indeclinable. (2) Both refer to animate or inanimate objects. +(3) Both may be used with phrasal value: <b>ðȳ ylcan dæge ðe hī +hine tō ðǣm āde beran wyllað</b>, <i>On the same day that</i> +(= <i>on which</i>) <i>they intend to bear him to the funeral +pile</i>. (4) Neither can be preceded by a preposition.</p> + + +<h4>(5) Possessive Pronouns.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_76" id = "sec_76">76.</a></h5> + +<p>The Possessive Pronouns are <b>mīn</b>, <i>mine</i>; <b>ðīn</b>, +<i>thine</i>; <b>ūre</b>, <i>our</i>; <b>ēower</b>, <i>your</i>; +[<b>sīn</b>, <i>his</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>its</i>]; <b>uncer</b>, +<i>belonging to us two</i>; <b>incer</b>, <i>belonging to you two</i>. +They +<span class = "pagenum">53</span> +<a name = "page53" id = "page53"> </a> +are declined as strong adjectives. The genitives of the Third Personal +Pronoun, <b>his</b>, <i>his</i>, <b>hiere</b>, <i>her</i>, <b>hiera</b>, +<i>their</i>, are indeclinable.</p> + + +<h4>(6) Indefinite Pronouns.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_77" id = "sec_77">77.</a></h5> + +<p>These are <b>ǣlc</b>, <i>each</i>, <i>every</i>; <b>ān</b>, <i>a</i>, +<i>an</i>, <i>one</i>; <b>ǣnig</b> (< <b>ān-ig</b>), <i>any</i>; +<b>nǣnig</b> (< <b>ne-ǣnig</b>), <i>none</i>; <b>ōðer</b>, +<i>other</i>; <b>sum</b>, <i>one</i>, <i>a certain one</i>; +<b>swilc</b>, <i>such</i>. They are declined as strong adjectives.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—O.E. had three established +methods of converting an interrogative pronoun into an indefinite: +(1) By prefixing <b>ge</b>, (2) by prefixing <b>ǣg</b>, +(3) by interposing the interrogative between <b>swā ... swā</b>: +(1) <b>gehwā</b>, <i>each</i>; <b>gehwæðer</b>, <i>either</i>; +<b>gehwilc</b>, <i>each</i>; (2) <b>ǣghwā</b>, <i>each</i>; +<b>ǣghwæðer</b>, <i>each</i>; <b>ǣghwilc</b>, <i>each</i>; +(3) <b>swā hwā swā</b>, <i>whosoever</i>; <b>swā hwæðer swā</b>, +<i>whichsoever of two</i>; <b>swā hwilc swā</b>, <i>whosoever</i>.</p> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XIV" id = "chap_XIV"> +CHAPTER XIV.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Adjectives, Strong and Weak.</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_78" id = "sec_78">78.</a></h5> + +<p>The declension of adjectives conforms in general to the declension of +nouns, though a few pronominal inflections have influenced certain +cases. Adjectives belong either to (1) the Strong Declension or to +(2) the Weak Declension. The Weak Declension is employed when the +adjective is preceded by <b>sē</b> or <b>ðēs</b>, <i>the</i>, +<i>that</i>, or <i>this</i>; otherwise, the Strong Declension is +employed: <b>ðā gōdan cyningas</b>, <i>the good kings</i>; <b>ðēs gōda +cyning</b>, <i>this good king</i>; but <b>gōde cyningas</b>, <i>good +kings</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The Weak Declension is also +frequently used when the adjective is employed in direct address, or +preceded by a possessive +<span class = "pagenum">54</span> +<a name = "page54" id = "page54"> </a> +pronoun: <b>Dryhten, ælmihtiga God ... ic bidde ðē for ðīnre miclan +mildheortnesse</b>, <i>Lord, almighty God, I pray thee, for thy +great mercy</i>.</p> + + + +<h4>(1) Strong Declension of Adjectives.<br> +<span class = "subhead">(a) <i>Monosyllables.</i></span></h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_79" id = "sec_79">79.</a></h5> + +<p>The strong adjectives are chiefly monosyllabic with long stems: +<b>gōd</b>, <i>good</i>; <b>eald</b>, <i>old</i>; <b>lǫng</b>, +<i>long</i>; <b>swift</b>, <i>swift</i>. They are declined as +follows.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_80" id = "sec_80">80.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigm of <b>gōd</b>, <i>good</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><i>Masculine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Feminine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neuter.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>gōd</td> +<td>gōd</td> +<td>gōd</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>gōdes</td> +<td>gōdre</td> +<td>gōdes</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>gōdum</td> +<td>gōdre</td> +<td>gōdum</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>gōdne</td> +<td>gōde</td> +<td>gōd</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>I.</i></td> +<td>gōde</td> +<td>——</td> +<td>gōde</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>gōde</td> +<td>gōda</td> +<td>gōd</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>gōdra</td> +<td>gōdra</td> +<td>gōdra</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>gōdum</td> +<td>gōdum</td> +<td>gōdum</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_81" id = "sec_81">81.</a></h5> + +<p>If the stem is short, <b>-u</b> is retained as in <b>giefu</b> (<a +href = "#sec_39">§ <b>39</b>, (1)</a>) and <b>hofu</b> (<a href = +"#sec_33">§ <b>33</b>, (1)</a>). Thus <b>glæd</b> (<a href = +"#sec_27">§ <b>27</b>, Note 1</a>), <i>glad</i>, and +<b>til</b>, <i>useful</i>, are inflected:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "3"><i>Masculine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Feminine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neuter.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>glæd<br> +til</td> +<td>gladu<br> +tilu</td> +<td>glæd<br> +til</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "5"> </td> +</tr> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>glade<br> +tile</td> +<td>glada<br> +tila</td> +<td>gladu<br> +tilu</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h4>(b) <i>Polysyllables.</i></h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_82" id = "sec_82">82.</a></h5> + +<p>Polysyllables follow the declension of short monosyllables. The most +common terminations are <b>-en</b>, <i>-en</i>; <b>-fæst</b>, +<i>-fast</i>; <b>-full</b>, <i>-ful</i>; <b>-lēas</b>, <i>-less</i>; +<b>-līc</b>, <i>-ly</i>; <b>-ig</b>, <i>-y</i>: <b>hǣð-en</b> +(<b>hǣð</b> = <i>heath</i>), <i>heathen</i>; <b>stęde-fæst</b> +(<b>stęde</b> +<span class = "pagenum">55</span> +<a name = "page55" id = "page55"> </a> += <i>place</i>), <i>steadfast</i>; <b>sorg-full</b> (<b>sorg</b> = +<i>sorrow</i>), <i>sorrowful</i>; <b>cyst-lēas</b> (<b>cyst</b> = +<i>worth</i>), <i>worthless</i>; <b>eorð-līc</b> (<b>eorðe</b> = +<i>earth</i>), <i>earthly</i>; <b>blōd-ig</b> (<b>blōd</b> = +<i>blood</i>), <i>bloody</i>. The present and past participles, when +inflected and not as weak adjectives, may be classed with the +polysyllabic adjectives, their inflection being the same.</p> + +<p>Syncopation occurs as in <b>a-</b>stems (<a href = "#sec_27">§ +<b>27</b>, (4)</a>). Thus <b>hālig</b>, <i>holy</i>, <b>blīðe</b>, +<i>blithe</i>, <b>berende</b>, <i>bearing</i>, <b>geboren</b>, +<i>born</i>, are thus inflected:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "3"><i>Masculine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Feminine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neuter.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket3_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>hālig<br> +blīðe<br> +berende<br> +geboren</td> +<td>hālgu<br> +blīðu<br> +berende<br> +geborenu</td> +<td>hālig<br> +blīðe<br> +berende<br> +geboren</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "5"> </td> +</tr> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td class = "right" rowspan = "4"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "4"> +<img src = "images/bracket3_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>hālge<br> +blīðe<br> +berende<br> +geborene</td> +<td>hālga<br> +blīða<br> +berenda<br> +geborena</td> +<td>hālgu<br> +blīðu<br> +berendu<br> +geborenu</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>(2) Weak Declension of Adjectives.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_83" id = "sec_83">83.</a></h5> + +<p>The Weak Declension of adjectives, whether monosyllabic or +polysyllabic, does not differ from the Weak Declension of nouns, except +that <b>-ena</b> of the genitive plural is usually replaced by +<b>-ra</b> of the strong adjectives.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_84" id = "sec_84">84.</a></h5> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><i>Masculine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Feminine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neuter.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>gōda</td> +<td>gōde</td> +<td>gōde</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>gōdan</td> +<td>gōdan</td> +<td>gōdan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>gōdan</td> +<td>gōdan</td> +<td>gōdan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>gōdan</td> +<td>gōdan</td> +<td>gōde</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th colspan = "4"><i>All Genders.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur. N.A.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>gōdan</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>gōdra (gōdena)</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>gōdum</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum">56</span> +<a name = "page56" id = "page56"> </a> +<h5><a name = "sec_85" id = "sec_85">85.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Rule of Syntax.</p> + +<p><i>Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case; but +participles, when used predicatively, may remain uninflected</i> (<a +href = "#sec_139">§ <b>139</b></a>, <a href = +"#sec_140">§ <b>140</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_86" id = "sec_86">86.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>dēad</b>, <i>dead</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eall</b>, <i>all</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hāl</b>,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XIV_1" id = "tag_XIV_1" href += "#note_XIV_1">1</a> <i>whole</i>, <i>hale</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heard</b>, <i>hard</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt hors</b>, <i>horse</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lēof</b>, <i>dear</i> [as lief].</p> + +<p><b>lȳtel</b>, <i>little</i>.</p> + +<p><b>micel</b>, <i>great</i>, <i>large</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǫnig</b>, <i>many</i>.</p> + +<p><b>niman</b>, <i>to take</i> [nimble, numb].</p> + +<p><b>nīwe</b>, <i>new</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rīce</b>, <i>rich</i>, <i>powerful</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sōð</b>, <i>true</i> [sooth-sayer].</p> + +<p><b>stælwierðe</b>,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XIV_2" id = +"tag_XIV_2" href = "#note_XIV_2">2</a> <i>serviceable</i> +[stalwart].</p> + +<p><b>swīðe</b>, <i>very</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē tūn</b>, <i>town</i>, <i>village</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē ðegn</b>, <i>servant</i>, <i>thane</i>, <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt ðing</b>, <i>thing</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē weg</b>, <i>way</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīs</b>, <i>wise</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wið</b> (with acc.), <i>against</i>, in a hostile sense +[with-stand].</p> + +<p><b>sē ilca</b>, <i>the same</i> [of that ilk].</p> +</div> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_87" id = "sec_87">87.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Exercises.</p> + +<p>I. 1. Ðās scipu ne sind swīðe swift, ac hīe sind swīðe stælwierðu. +2. Sēo gōde cwēn giefð ǣlcum ðegne mǫniga giefa. 3. Ðēs wīsa +cyning hæfð mǫnige micele tūnas on his rīce. 4. Nǣnig mǫn is wīs on +eallum ðingum. 5. Ðȳ ilcan dæge (<a href = +"#sec_98">§ <b>98</b>, (2)</a>) mǫn fǫnd (found) ðone ðegn ðe mīnes +wines bēc hæfde. 6. Ealle ðā sęcgas ðā ðe swift hors habbað rīdað +wið ðone bǫnan. 7. Ðīne fīend sind mīne +<span class = "pagenum">57</span> +<a name = "page57" id = "page57"> </a> +frīend. 8. Sē micela stān ðone ðe ic on mīnum hǫndum hæbbe is swīðe +heard. 9. Hīe scęððað ðǣm ealdum horsum. 10. Uton niman ðās +tilan giefa ǫnd hīe beran tō ūrum lēofum bearnum.</p> + +<p>II. 1. These holy men are wise and good. 2. Are the little children +very dear to the servants (dat. without <b>tō</b>)? 3. Gifts are +not given (<a href = "#sec_70">§ <b>70</b>, Note 1</a>) to +rich men. 4. All the horses that are in the king’s fields are +swift. 5. These stones are very large and hard. 6. He takes +the dead man’s spear and fights against the large army. 7. This new +house has many doors. 8. My ways are not your ways. +9. Whosoever chooses me, him I also (<b>ēac</b>) choose. +10. Every man has many friends that are not wise.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_XIV_1" id = "note_XIV_1" href = "#tag_XIV_1">1.</a> +<b>Hālig</b>, <i>holy</i>, contains, of course, the same root. +“I find,” says Carlyle, “that you could not get any better +definition of what ‘holy’ really is than ‘healthy—completely +healthy.’”</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XIV_2" id = "note_XIV_2" href = "#tag_XIV_2">2.</a> +This word has been much discussed. The older etymologists explained it +as meaning <i>worth stealing</i>. A more improbable conjecture is that +it means <i>worth a stall</i> or <i>place</i>. It is used of ships in +the <i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>. As applied to men, Skeat thinks it +meant <i>good</i> or <i>worthy at stealing</i>; but the etymology is +still unsettled.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XV" id = "chap_XV"> +CHAPTER XV.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Numerals.</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_88" id = "sec_88">88.</a></h5> + +<p>Numerals are either (<i>a</i>) Cardinal, expressing pure number, +<i>one</i>, <i>two</i>, <i>three</i>; or (<i>b</i>) Ordinal, expressing +rank or succession, <i>first</i>, <i>second</i>, <i>third</i>.</p> + + +<h4>(<i>a</i>) Cardinals.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_89" id = "sec_89">89.</a></h5> + +<p>The Cardinals fall into the three following syntactic groups:</p> + +<div class = "list"> +<p class = "smallcaps"> Group I.</p> + +<p>1. ān</p> +<p>2. twēgen [twain]</p> +<p>3. ðrīe</p> +</div> + +<p>These numerals are inflected adjectives. <b>Ān</b>, <i>one</i>, +<i>an</i>, <i>a</i>, being a long stemmed monosyllable, is declined like +<b>gōd</b> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>). The weak form, +<b>āna</b>, means <i>alone</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">58</span> +<a name = "page58" id = "page58"> </a> + +<p><b>Twēgen</b> and <b>ðrīe</b>, which have no singular, are thus +declined:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<col> +<col> +<col> +<col> +<col> +<col> +<col> +<col> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th class = "left" colspan = "2"><i>Masc.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Fem.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neut.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Masc.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Fem.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neut.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur. N.A.</i></td> +<td colspan = "2">twēgen</td> +<td>twā</td> +<td>twā (tū)</td> +<td>ðrīe</td> +<td>ðrēo</td> +<td>ðrēo</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td colspan = "2">twēgra</td> +<td>twēgra</td> +<td>twēgra</td> +<td>ðrēora</td> +<td>ðrēora</td> +<td>ðrēora</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>twǣm<br> +(twām)</td> +<td>twǣm<br> +(twām)</td> +<td>twǣm<br> +(twām)</td> +<td>ðrīm</td> +<td>ðrīm</td> +<td>ðrīm</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_90" id = "sec_90">90.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Group II.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right">4.</td> +<td>fēower</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">5.</td> +<td>fīf</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">6.</td> +<td>siex</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">7.</td> +<td>seofon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">8.</td> +<td>eahta</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">9.</td> +<td>nigon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">10.</td> +<td>tīen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">11.</td> +<td>ęndlefan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">12.</td> +<td>twęlf</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">13.</td> +<td>ðrēotīene</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">14.</td> +<td>fēowertīene</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">15.</td> +<td>fīftīene</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">16.</td> +<td>siextīene</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">17.</td> +<td>seofontīene</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">18.</td> +<td>eahtatīene</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">19.</td> +<td>nigontīene</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>These words are used chiefly as uninflected adjectives: <b>on +gewitscipe ðrēora oþþe fēower bisceopa</b>, <i>on testimony of three or +four bishops</i>; <b>on siex dagum</b>, <i>in six days</i>; <b>ān nǣdre +ðe hæfde nigon hēafdu</b>, <i>a serpent which had nine heads</i>; +<b>æðeling eahtatīene wintra</b>, <i>a prince of eighteen +winters</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_91" id = "sec_91">91.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Group III.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right">20.</td> +<td>twēntig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">21.</td> +<td>ān ǫnd twēntig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">30.</td> +<td>ðrītig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">40.</td> +<td>fēowertig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">50.</td> +<td>fīftig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">60.</td> +<td>siextig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">70.</td> +<td>hundseofontig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">80.</td> +<td>hundeahtatig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">90.</td> +<td>hundnigontig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">100.</td> +<td>hund</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">200.</td> +<td>twā hund</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">1000.</td> +<td>ðūsend</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2000.</td> +<td>twā ðūsend</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>All these numbers are employed as neuter singular nouns, and are +followed by the genitive plural: <b>Næfde hē þēah mā ðonne twēntig +hrȳðera, and twēntig scēapa, and +<span class = "pagenum">59</span> +<a name = "page59" id = "page59"> </a> +twēntig swȳna</b>, <i>He did not have, however, more than twenty</i> +(<i>of</i>) <i>cattle, and twenty</i> (<i>of</i>) <i>sheep, and +twenty</i> (<i>of</i>) <i>swine</i>; <b>Hīe hæfdon hundeahtatig +scipa</b>, <i>They had eighty ships</i>; <b>twā hund mīla brād</b>, +<i>two hundred miles broad</i>; <b>ðǣr wǣron seofon hund gūðfanena +genumen</b>, <i>there were seven hundred standards captured</i>; <b>ān +ðūsend mǫnna</b>, <i>a thousand men</i>; <b>Hannibales folces wæs twā +ðūsend ofslagen</b>, <i>Of Hannibal’s men there were two thousand +slain</i>; <b>Hīe ācuron ęndlefan ðūsend mǫnna</b>, <i>They chose eleven +thousand men</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—Group III is rarely +inflected. Almost the only inflectional endings that are added are +(1) <b>-es</b>, a genitive singular termination for the numerals in +<b>-tig</b>, and (2) <b>-e</b>, a dative singular for <b>hund</b>. +(1) The first is confined to adjectives expressing extent of space +or time, as, <b>eald</b>, <i>old</i>; <b>brād</b>, <i>broad</i>; +<b>hēah</b>, <i>high</i>; and <b>lǫng</b>, <i>long</i>: <b>ðæt is +ðrītiges mīla lǫng</b>, <i>that is thirty miles long</i>; <b>Hē wæs +ðrītiges gēara eald</b>, <i>He was thirty years old</i>. (2) The +second is employed after <b>mid</b>: <b>mid twǣm hunde scipa</b>, +<i>with two hundred ships</i>; <b>mid ðrīm hunde mǫnna</b>, <i>with +three hundred men</i>; <b>Ðǣr wearð ... Regulus gefangen mid V hunde +mǫnna</b>, <i>There was Regulus captured with five hundred men</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +The statement made in nearly all the grammars that <b>hunde</b> occurs +as a nominative and accusative plural is without foundation.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—Many numerals, otherwise +indeclinable, are used in the genitive plural with the indefinite +pronoun <b>sum</b>, which then means <i>one of</i> a certain number. In +this peculiar construction, the numeral always precedes <b>sum</b>: +<b>fēowera sum</b>, <i>one of four</i> (= <i>with three +others</i>); <b>Hē sǣde þæt hē syxa sum ofslōge syxtig</b>, <i>He said +that he, with five others, slew sixty</i> (<i>whales</i>); <b>Hē wæs +fēowertigra sum</b>, <i>He was one of forty</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 3.</span>—These are the most common +constructions with the Cardinals. The forms in <b>-tig</b> have only +recently been investigated. A study of Wülfing’s citations shows +that Alfred occasionally uses the forms in <b>-tig</b> (1) as +adjectives with plural inflections: <b>mid XXXgum cyningum</b>, <i>with +thirty kings</i>; and (2) as nouns with plural inflections: +<b>æfter siextigum daga</b>, <i>after sixty days</i>. But both +constructions are rare.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">60</span> +<a name = "page60" id = "page60"> </a> +<h4>(b) Ordinals.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_92" id = "sec_92">92.</a></h5> + +<p>The Ordinals, except the first two, are formed from the Cardinals. +They are:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right">1.</td> +<td>forma, ǣresta, fyrsta</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ōðer, æfterra</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>ðridda</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">4.</td> +<td>fēorða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">5.</td> +<td>fīfta</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">6.</td> +<td>siexta</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">7.</td> +<td>seofoða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">8.</td> +<td>eahtoða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">9.</td> +<td>nigoða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">10.</td> +<td>tēoða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">11.</td> +<td>ęndlefta</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">12.</td> +<td>twęlfta</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">13.</td> +<td>ðrēotēoða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">14.</td> +<td>fēowertēoða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">15.</td> +<td><p>fīftēoða<br> +etc.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">20.</td> +<td>twēntigoða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">21.</td> +<td>ān ǫnd twēntigoða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">30.</td> +<td><p>ðrītigoða<br> +etc.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—There are no Ordinals +corresponding to <b>hund</b> and <b>ðūsend</b>.</p> + +<p>With the exception of <b>ōðer</b> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ +<b>77</b></a>), all the Ordinals are declined as Weak Adjectives; the +article, however, as in Mn.E., is frequently omitted: <b>Brūtus wæs sē +forma consul</b>, <i>Brutus was the first consul</i>; <b>Hēr ęndað sēo +ǣreste bōc, ǫnd onginneð sēo ōðer</b>, <i>Here the first book ends, and +the second begins</i>; <b>ðȳ fīftan dæge</b>, <i>on the fifth day</i>; +<b>on ðǣm tēoðan gēare hiera gewinnes</b>, <i>in the tenth year of their +strife</i>; <b>Hēo wæs twęlfte</b>, <i>She was twelfth</i>; <b>Sē wæs +fēorða frǫm Agusto</b>, <i>He was fourth from Augustus</i>.</p> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XVI" id = "chap_XVI"> +CHAPTER XVI.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions.</span></h3> + + +<h4>Adverbs.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_93" id = "sec_93">93.</a></h5> + +<p>(1) Adverbs are formed by adding <b>-e</b> or <b>-līce</b> to the +corresponding adjectives: <b>sōð</b>, <i>true</i>; <b>sōðe</b> or +<b>sōðlīce</b>, <i>truly</i>; <b>earmlīc</b>, <i>wretched</i>; +<b>earmlīce</b>, <i>wretchedly</i>; <b>wīd</b>, +<span class = "pagenum">61</span> +<a name = "page61" id = "page61"> </a> +<i>wide</i>; <b>wīde</b>, <i>widely</i>; <b>micel</b>, <i>great</i>; +<b>micle</b> (<b>micele</b>), <i>greatly</i>, <i>much</i>.</p> + +<p>(2) The terminations <b>-e</b> and <b>-līce</b> are replaced in some +adverbs by <b>-(l)unga</b> or <b>-(l)inga</b>: <b>eallunga</b>, +<i>entirely</i>; <b>fǣringa</b>, <i>suddenly</i>; <b>grundlunga</b>, +<i>from the ground</i>, <i>completely</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—In Mn.E. <i>headlong</i>, +<i>darkling</i>, and <i>groveling</i>, originally adverbs, we have +survivals of these endings.</p> + +<p>(3) The genitive case is frequently used adverbially: +<b>sūðeweardes</b>, <i>southwards</i>; <b>ealles</b>, <i>altogether</i>, +<i>entirely</i>; <b>dæges</b>, <i>by day</i>; <b>nihtes</b>, <i>by +night</i>; <b>ðæs</b>, <i>from that time</i>, <i>afterwards</i>. +<i>Cf.</i> <b>hys</b> (= <b>his</b>) <b>weges</b> in <b>Ðonne rīdeð +ǣlc hys weges</b>, <i>Then rides each his way</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—The adverbial genitive is +abundantly preserved in Mn.E. <i>Always</i>, <i>crossways</i>, +<i>sideways</i>, <i>needs</i> (= <i>necessarily</i>), +<i>sometimes</i>, etc., are not plurals, but old genitive singulars. The +same construction is seen in <i>of course</i>, <i>of a truth</i>, <i>of +an evening</i>, <i>of old</i>, <i>of late</i>, and similar phrases.</p> + +<p>(4) Dative and instrumental plurals may be used as adverbs: +<b>hwīlum</b>, <i>at times</i>, <i>sometimes</i> [whilom]; +<b>stundum</b> (<b>stund</b> = <i>period</i>), <i>from time to time</i>; +<b>miclum</b>, <i>greatly</i>. Especially common is the suffix +<b>-mǣlum</b> (<b>mǣl</b> = <i>time</i>, <b>measure</b> [meal]), +preserved adverbially in Mn.E. <i>piecemeal</i>: <b>dropmǣlum</b>, +<i>drop by drop</i>; <b>styccemǣlum</b> (<b>stycce</b> = <i>piece</i>), +<i>piecemeal</i>, <i>here and there</i>.</p> + +<p>(5) The suffix <b>-an</b> usually denotes motion from:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>hēr</b>, <i>here</i>.</td> +<td><b>hider</b>, <i>hither</i>.</td> +<td><b>heonan</b>, <i>hence</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ðǣr</b>, <i>there</i>.</td> +<td><b>ðider</b>, <i>thither</i>.</td> +<td><b>ðǫnan</b>, <i>thence</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>hwǣr</b>, <i>where?</i></td> +<td><b>hwider</b>, <i>whither?</i></td> +<td><b>hwǫnan</b>, <i>whence?</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td><b>norðan</b>, <i>from the north</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td><b>ēastan</b>, <i>from the east</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td><b>hindan</b>, <i>from behind</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td><b>feorran</b>, <i>from far</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td><b>ūtan</b>, <i>from without</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class = "pagenum">62</span> +<a name = "page62" id = "page62"> </a> +<p>(6) The adverb <b>rihte</b> (<b>riht</b> = <i>right</i>, +<i>straight</i>) denotes <i>motion toward</i> in <b>norðrihte</b>, +<i>northward</i>, <i>due north</i>; <b>ēastrihte</b>, <i>due east</i>; +<b>sūðrihte</b>, <i>due south</i>; <b>westrihte</b>, <i>due +west</i>.</p> + + +<h4>Prepositions.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_94" id = "sec_94">94.</a></h5> + +<p>The nominative is the only case in O.E. that is never governed by a +preposition. Of the other cases, the dative and accusative occur most +frequently with prepositions.</p> + +<p>(1) The prepositions that are most frequently found with the dative +are:</p> + +<div class = "list paradigm"> +<p><b>æfter</b>, <i>after</i>.</p> +<p><b>ǣt</b>, <i>at</i>.</p> +<p><b>be</b> (<b>bī</b>), <i>by</i>, <i>near</i>, <i>about</i>.</p> +<p><b>betwēonan</b> (<b>betuh</b>), <i>between</i>.</p> +<p><b>būtan</b> (<b>būton</b>), <i>except</i>.</p> +<p><b>for</b>, <i>for</i>.</p> +<p><b>frǫm</b> (<b>fram</b>), <i>from</i>, <i>by</i>.</p> +<p><b>mid</b>, <i>with</i>.</p> +<p><b>of</b>, <i>of</i>, <i>from</i>.</p> +<p><b>tō</b>, <i>to</i>.</p> +<p><b>tōforan</b>, <i>before</i>.</p> +<p><b>tōweard</b>, <i>toward</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>(2) The following prepositions require the accusative:</p> + +<div class = "list paradigm"> +<p><b>geond</b>, <i>throughout</i> [be-yond].</p> +<p><b>ofer</b>, <i>over</i>, <i>upon</i>.</p> +<p><b>oð</b>, <i>until</i>, <i>up to</i>.</p> +<p><b>ðurh</b>, <i>through</i>.</p> +<p><b>ymbe</b>, <i>about</i>, <i>around</i> [um-while, ember-days].</p> +</div> + +<p>(3) The preposition <b>on</b> (rarely <b>in</b>), meaning +<i>into</i>, is usually followed by the accusative; but meaning +<i>in</i>, <i>on</i>, or <i>during</i>, it takes the dative or +instrumental. The preposition <b>wið</b>, meaning <i>toward</i>, may be +followed by the genitive, dative, or accusative; but meaning +<i>against</i>, and implying <i>motion</i> or <i>hostility</i>, the +accusative is more common.</p> + +<p>(4) The following phrases are used prepositionally with the +dative:</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">63</span> +<a name = "page63" id = "page63"> </a> + +<div class = "list paradigm"> +<p><b>be norðan</b>, <i>north of</i>.</p> +<p><b>be ēastan</b>, <i>east of</i>.</p> +<p><b>be sūðan</b>, <i>south of.</i></p> +<p><b>be westan</b>, <i>west of</i>.</p> +<p><b>tō ēacan</b>, <i>in addition to</i>.</p> +<p><b>on emnlange</b> (<b>efn-lang</b> = <i>evenly long</i>), +<i>along</i>.</p> +<p><b>tō emnes</b>, <i>along</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>(5) Prepositions regularly precede the noun or pronoun that they +introduce; but by their adverbial nature they are sometimes drawn in +front of the verb: <b>And him wæs mycel męnegu tō gegaderod</b>, <i>And +there was gathered unto him a great multitude</i>. In relative clauses +introduced by <b>ðe</b>, the preceding position is very common: <b>sēo +scīr ... ðe hē on būde</b>, <i>the district, ... which he dwelt in</i> +(= <i>which he in-habited</i>); <b>Hē wæs swȳðe spēdig man on ðǣm +ǣhtum ðe hiera spēda on bēoð</b>, <i>He was a very rich man in those +possessions which their riches consist in</i>; <b>nȳhst ðǣm tūne ðe sē +dēada man on līð</b>, <i>nearest the town that the dead man +lies in</i>.</p> + + +<h4>Conjunctions.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_95" id = "sec_95">95.</a></h5> + +<p>(1) The most frequently occurring conjunctions are:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>ac</b>, <i>but</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>ǣr</b>, <i>before</i>, <i>ere</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>būtan</b> (<b>būton</b>), <i>except that</i>, +<i>unless</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>ēac</b>, <i>also</i> [eke].</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><b>for ðǣm</b><ins class = "correction" title = ", missing">, </ins></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "4"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "4"><i>because</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>for ðǣm ðe</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>for ðon</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>for ðon ðe</b>,</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>for ðȳ</b>, <i>therefore</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>gif</b>, <i>if</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>hwæðer</b>, <i>whether</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>ǫnd</b> (<b>and</b>), <i>and</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>oððe</b>, <i>or</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>ðæt</b>, <i>that</i>, <i>so that</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>ðēah</b>, <i>though</i>, <i>however</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(2) The correlative conjunctions are:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm locked" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>ǣgðer ge</b> . . . . </td> +<td><b>ge</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td><i>both</i> . . . . . . . .</td> +<td><i>and</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "middle"> +<td><b>ǣgðer</b> . . . . . . .<br> +<b>oððe</b> . . . . . . . .</td> +<td><b>ōðer<br> +oððe</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td></td> +<td><i>either</i> . . . . . . .</td> +<td><i>or</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "pagenum">64</span> +<a name = "page64" id = "page64"> </a> +<b>nē</b> . . . . . . . . . .</td> +<td><b>nē</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td><i>neither</i> . . . . .</td> +<td><i>nor</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><b>sam</b> . . . . . . . . .</td> +<td><b>sam</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td><i>whether</i> . . . .</td> +<td><i>or</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "middle"> +<td><b>swā</b> . . . . . . . . .</td> +<td><b>swā</b></td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><i>the . . . . . . . . .<br> +as</i> . . . . . . . . . .</td> +<td><i>the.<br> +as.</i></td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "middle"> +<td><b>ðā . . . . . . . . . . .<br> +ðonne</b> . . . . . . .<br> +</td> +<td><b>ðā<br> +ðonne</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td></td> +<td><i>when</i> . . . . . . .</td> +<td><i>then</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XVII" id = "chap_XVII"> +CHAPTER XVII.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs.</span></h3> + + +<h4>Adjectives.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_96" id = "sec_96">96.</a></h5> + +<p>(1) Adjectives are regularly compared by adding <b>-ra</b> for the +comparative, and <b>-ost</b> (rarely <b>-est</b>) for the +superlative:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th><i>Positive.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Comparative.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Superlative.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>earm</b>, <i>poor</i></td> +<td><b>earmra</b></td> +<td><b>earmost</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>rīce</b>, <i>rich</i></td> +<td><b>rīcra</b></td> +<td><b>rīcost</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>smæl</b>, <i>narrow</i></td> +<td><b>smælra</b></td> +<td><b>smalost</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>brād</b>, <i>broad</i></td> +<td><b>brādra</b> (<b>brǣdra</b>)</td> +<td><b>brādost</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>swift</b>, <i>swift</i></td> +<td><b>swiftra</b></td> +<td><b>swiftost</b></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(2) Forms with <b>i-</b>umlaut usually have superlative in +<b>-est</b>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th><i>Positive.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Comparative.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Superlative.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>eald</b>, <i>old</i></td> +<td><b>ieldra</b></td> +<td><b>ieldest</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>lǫng</b>, <i>long</i></td> +<td><b>lęngra</b></td> +<td><b>lęngest</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>strǫng</b>, <i>strong</i></td> +<td><b>stręngra</b></td> +<td><b>stręngest</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>geong</b>, <i>young</i></td> +<td><b>giengra</b></td> +<td><b>giengest</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>hēah</b>, <i>high</i></td> +<td><b>hīerra</b></td> +<td><b>hīehst</b></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(3) The following adjectives are compared irregularly:</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">65</span> +<a name = "page65" id = "page65"> </a> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th><i>Positive.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Comparative.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Superlative.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>gōd</b>, <i>good</i></td> +<td><b>bętra</b></td> +<td><b>bętst</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>lȳtel</b>, <i>little</i>, <i>small</i></td> +<td><b>lǣssa</b></td> +<td><b>lǣst</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>micel</b>, <i>great</i>, <i>much</i></td> +<td><b>māra</b></td> +<td><b>mǣst</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>yfel</b>, <i>bad</i></td> +<td><b>wiersa</b></td> +<td><b>wierst</b></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(4) The positive is sometimes supplied by an adverb:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th><i>Positive.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Comparative.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Superlative.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>feor</b>, <i>far</i></td> +<td><b>fierra</b></td> +<td><b>fierrest</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>nēah</b>, <i>near</i></td> +<td><b>nēarra</b></td> +<td><b>nīehst</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ǣr</b>, <i>before</i></td> +<td><b>ǣrra</b>, <i>former</i></td> +<td><b>ǣrest</b>, <i>first</i></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(5) The comparatives all follow the Weak Declension. The +superlatives, when preceded by the definite article, are weak; but when +used predicatively they are frequently strong: <b>sē lǣsta dǣl</b>, +<i>the least part</i>; <b>Ðonne cymeð sē man sē ðæt swiftoste hors hafað +tō ðǣm ǣrestan dǣle and tō ðǣm mǣstan</b>, <i>Then comes the man that +has the swiftest horse to the first part and to the largest</i>. But, +<b>ðæt bȳne land is ēasteweard brādost</b> (not <b>brādoste</b>), <i>the +cultivated land is broadest eastward</i>; <b>and</b> (<b>hit</b>) <b>bið +ealra wyrta mǣst</b>, <i>and it is largest of all herbs</i>; <b>Ac +hyra</b> (= <b>hiera</b>) <b>ār is mǣst on ðǣm gafole ðe ðā Finnas +him gyldað</b>, <i>But their income is greatest in the tribute that the +Fins pay them</i>.</p> + +<p>(6) The comparative is usually followed by <b>ðonne</b> and the +nominative case: <b>Sē hwæl bið micle lǣssa ðonne ōðre hwalas</b>, +<i>That whale is much smaller than other whales</i>; <b>Ðā wunda ðæs +mōdes bēoð dīgelran ðonne ðā wunda ðæs līchaman</b>. <i>The wounds of +the mind are more secret than the wounds of the body</i>.</p> + +<p>But when <b>ðonne</b> is omitted, the comparative is followed by the +dative: <b>Ūre Ālīesend, ðe māra is ǫnd +<span class = "pagenum">66</span> +<a name = "page66" id = "page66"> </a> +mǣrra eallum gesceaftum</b>, <i>Our Redeemer, who is greater and more +glorious than all created things</i>; <b>nē ongeat hē nō hiene selfne +bętran ōðrum gōdum mǫnnum</b>, <i>nor did he consider himself better +than other good men</i>.</p> + + +<h4>Adverbs.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_97" id = "sec_97">97.</a></h5> + +<p>(1) Adverbs are regularly compared by adding <b>-or</b> for the +comparative and <b>-ost</b> (rarely <b>-est</b>) for the +superlative:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th><i>Positive.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Comparative.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Superlative.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>georne</b>, <i>willingly</i></td> +<td><b>geornor</b></td> +<td><b>geornost</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>swīðe</b>, <i>very</i>, <i>severely</i></td> +<td><b>swīðor</b>, <i>more</i></td> +<td><b>swīðost</b>, <i>most</i>, <i>chiefly</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ǣr</b>, <i>before</i></td> +<td><b>ǣror</b>, <i>formerly</i></td> +<td><b>ǣrest</b>, <i>first</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>norð</b>, <i>northwards</i></td> +<td><b>norðor</b></td> +<td><b>norðmest</b><a class = "tag" name = "tag_XVII_1" id = +"tag_XVII_1" href = "#note_XVII_1">1</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(2) The comparatives of a few adverbs may be found by dropping +<b>-ra</b> of the corresponding adjective form:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th><i>Positive.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Comparative.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Superlative.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>lǫnge</b>, <i>long</i></td> +<td><b>lęng</b></td> +<td><b>lęngest</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>micle</b>, <i>much</i></td> +<td><b>mā</b></td> +<td><b>mǣst</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>wel</b>, <i>well</i></td> +<td><b>bęt</b></td> +<td><b>bętst</b></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>Expressions of Time.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_98" id = "sec_98">98.</a></h5> + +<p>(1) Duration of time and extent of space are usually expressed by the +accusative case: <b>Ealle ðā hwīle ðe ðæt līc bið inne</b>, <i>All the +time that the body is within</i>; <b>twēgen dagas</b>, <i>for two +days</i>; <b>ealne weg</b>, <i>all the way</i>, <i>always</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">67</span> +<a name = "page67" id = "page67"> </a> +<p>(2) Time when is more often expressed by the instrumental case when +no preposition is used: <b>ðȳ ilcan dæge</b>, <i>the same day</i>; +<b>ǣlce gēare</b>, <i>each year</i>; <b>ðȳ gēare</b>, <i>that year</i>; +<b>ǣlce dæge</b>, <i>each day</i>.</p> + +<p>(3) Time or space within which is expressed by <b>on</b> and the +dative: <b>on sumera</b>, <i>in summer</i>; <b>on wintra</b>, <i>in +winter</i>; <b>on fīf dagum</b>, <i>in five days</i>; <b>on fīf +mīlum</b>, <i>in five miles</i>; <b>on ðissum gēare</b>, <i>in this +year</i>; <b>on ðǣm tīman</b>, <i>in those times</i>. Sometimes by the +genitive without a preceding preposition: <b>ðǣs gēares</b>, <i>in that +year</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_99" id = "sec_99">99.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>ðæt gefylce</b> [<b>folc</b>], <i>troop</i>, <i>division</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt lǫnd</b> (<b>land</b>), <i>land</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo mīl</b>, <i>mile</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ōðer ... ōðer</b>, <i>the one ... the other</i>; <i>the former ... +the latter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē sige</b>, <i>victory</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sige<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XVII_2" id = "tag_XVII_2" href = +"#note_XVII_2">2</a> habban</b>, <i>to win</i> (<i>the</i>) +<i>victory</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sprecan</b>, <i>to speak</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt swīn</b> (<b>swȳn</b>), <i>swine</i>, <i>hog</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wēste</b>, <i>waste</i>.</p> +</div> + +<h5><a name = "sec_100" id = "sec_100">100.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Exercises.</p> + +<p>I. 1. Hē hæfð ðrēo swīðe swift hors. 2. Ic hæbbe nigontīene scēap ǫnd +mā ðonne twēntig swīna. 3. Sēo gōde cwēn cīest twā hund mǫnna. +4. Uton feohtan wið ðā Dęne mid ðrīm hunde scipa. 5. Ǫnd hīe +wǣron on twǣm gefylcum: on ōðrum wæs<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XVII_3" +id = "tag_XVII_3" href = "#note_XVII_3">3</a> Bāchsęcg ǫnd Halfdęne ðā +hǣðnan cyningas, ǫnd on ōðrum wǣron ðā eorlas. 6. Ðū spricst +sōðlīce. 7. Ðonne rīt ǣlc mǫn his weges. 8. Æfter mǫnigum +dagum, hæfde Ælfred cyning<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XVII_4" id = +"tag_XVII_4" href = "#note_XVII_4">4</a> sige. 9. Ðis lǫnd is wēste +styccemǣlum. 10. Ðēs feld is fīftiges mīla brād. +<span class = "pagenum">68</span> +<a name = "page68" id = "page68"> </a> +11. Ælfred cyning hæfde mǫnige frīend, for ðǣm ðe hē wæs ǣgðer ge wīs ge +gōd. 12. Ðā hwalas, ðe ðū ymbe spricst, sind micle lǣssan ōðrum +hwalum. 13. Hēo is ieldre ðonne hiere swuster, ac mīn brōðor is +ieldra ðonne hēo. 14. Wē cumað tō ðǣm tūne ǣlce gēare. 15. Ðā +męn ðe ðā swiftostan hors hǣfdon wǣron mid ðǣm Dęnum fēower dagas.</p> + +<p>II. 1. Our army (<b>werod</b>) was in two divisions: one was large, +the other was small. 2. The richest men in the kingdom have more +(<b>mā</b>) than thirty ships. 3. He was much wiser than his +brother. 4. He fights against the Northumbrians with two ships. +5. After three years King Alfred gained the victory. +6. Whosoever chooses these gifts, chooses well. 7. This man’s +son is both wiser and better than his father. 8. When the king +rides, then ride his thanes also. 9. The richest men are not always +(<b>ā</b>) the wisest men.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_XVII_1" id = "note_XVII_1" href = +"#tag_XVII_1">1.</a> +This is really a double superlative, <b>m</b> being itself an old +superlative suffix. <i>Cf.</i> Latin <i>opti-m-us</i>. In Mn.E. +<i>northmost</i> and <i>hindmost</i>, <i>-m-est</i> has been confused +with <i>-most</i>, with which etymologically it has nothing +to do.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVII_2" id = "note_XVII_2" href = +"#tag_XVII_2">2.</a> +<b>Sige</b> usually, but not invariably, precedes <b>habban</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVII_3" id = "note_XVII_3" href = +"#tag_XVII_3">3.</a> +See p. 100, <a href = "#linenote100_8">note on <b>gefeaht</b></a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVII_4" id = "note_XVII_4" href = +"#tag_XVII_4">4.</a> +The proper noun comes first in appositive expressions: <b>Ælfred +cyning</b>, <b>Sidroc eorl</b>, <b>Hēahmund bisceop</b>.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XVIII" id = "chap_XVIII"> +CHAPTER XVIII.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead">Strong Verbs: Class I. (<span class = +"plain">See <a href = "#sec_17">§ <b>17</b></a>.</span>)</span></h3> + + +<h4>Syntax of Moods.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_101" id = "sec_101">101.</a></h5> + +<p>Of the three hundred simple verbs belonging to the O.E. Strong +Conjugation, it is estimated<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XVIII_1" id = +"tag_XVIII_1" href = "#note_XVIII_1">1</a> that seventy-eight have +preserved their strong inflections in Mn.E., that eighty-eight have +become weak, and that the remaining one hundred and thirty-four have +entirely disappeared, their places being taken in most cases by verbs of +Latin origin introduced through the Norman-French.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">69</span> +<a name = "page69" id = "page69"> </a> +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Only the simple or +primitive verbs, not the compound forms, are here taken into +consideration. The proportionate loss, therefore, is really much +greater. O.E. abounded in formative prefixes. “Thus from the Anglo-Saxon +<b>flōwan</b>, <i>to flow</i>, ten new compounds were formed by the +addition of various prefixes, of which ten, only one, <b>oferflōwan</b>, +<i>to overflow</i>, survives with us. In a similar manner, from the verb +<b>sittan</b>, <i>to sit</i>, thirteen new verbs were formed, of which +not a single one is to be found to-day.” Lounsbury, <i>ib.</i> +Part I, p. 107.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_102" id = "sec_102">102.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><b>Class I: The “Drive” Conjugation.</b></p> + +<p class = "center">Vowel Succession: <b>ī</b>, <b>ā</b>, <b>i</b>, +<b>i</b>.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "smallcaps">Infinitive.</td> +<td class = "smallcaps">Preterit Sing.</td> +<td class = "smallcaps">Preterit Plur.</td> +<td class = "center smallcaps">Past Part.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center"><b>Drīf-an</b></td> +<td class = "center"><b>drāf</b></td> +<td class = "center"><b>drif-on</b></td> +<td class = "center"><b>gedrif-en</b>, <i>to drive</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "4"><b>Indicative.</b></th> +<th colspan = "4"><b>Subjunctive.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present.</td> +<td class = "center smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic drīf-e</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">drīf-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū drīf-st (drīf-est)</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē drīf-ð (drīf-eð)</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">(drīf-að)</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">drīf-en</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "4">Preterit.</td> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "4">Preterit.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic drāf</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">drif-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū drif-e</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē drāf</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">drif-on</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">drif-en</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><b>Imperative.</b></th> +<th><b>Infinitive.</b></th> +<th><b>Present Participle.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 2.</td> +<td>drīf</td> +<td class = "center">drīf-an</td> +<td class = "center">drīf-ende</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>drīf-an</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>drīf-að</td> +<th><b>Gerund.</b></th> +<th><b>Past Participle.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td class = "center">tō drīf-anne (-enne)</td> +<td class = "center">gedrif-en</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum">70</span> +<a name = "page70" id = "page70"> </a> +<h4>Tense Formation of Strong Verbs.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_103" id = "sec_103">103.</a></h5> + +<p>(1) It will be seen from the conjugation of <b>drīfan</b> that the +<i>present stem</i> in all strong verbs is used throughout the present +indicative, the present subjunctive, the imperative, the infinitive, the +gerund, and the present participle. More than half of the endings, +therefore, of the Strong Conjugation are added directly to the present +stem.</p> + +<p>(2) That the <i>preterit singular stem</i> is used in only two forms +of the verb, the 1st and 3d persons singular of the preterit indicative: +<b>Ic drāf</b>, <b>hē drāf</b>.</p> + +<p>(3) That the <i>preterit plural stem</i> is used in the preterit +plural indicative, in the second person of the preterit singular +indicative, and in the singular and plural of the preterit +subjunctive.</p> + +<p>(4) That the <i>stem of the past participle</i> (<b>gedrif-</b>) is +used for no other form.</p> + + +<h4>Syntax of the Verb.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_104" id = "sec_104">104.</a></h5> + +<p>The Indicative Mood<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XVIII_2" id = +"tag_XVIII_2" href = "#note_XVIII_2">2</a> represents the predicate +<i>as a reality</i>. It is used both in independent and in dependent +clauses, its function in O.E. corresponding with its function in +Mn.E<ins class = "correction" title = ". missing">. </ins></p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_105" id = "sec_105">105.</a></h5> + +<p>The Subjunctive Mood represents the predicate <i>as an idea</i>.<a +class = "tag" name = "tag_XVIII_3" id = "tag_XVIII_3" href = +"#note_XVIII_3">3</a> It is of far more frequent occurrence in O.E. than +in Mn.E.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">71</span> +<a name = "page71" id = "page71"> </a> +<p>1. When used in independent clauses it denotes desire, command, or +entreaty, and usually precedes its subject: <b>Sīe ðīn nama +gehālgod</b>, <i>Hallowed be Thy name</i>; <b>Ne swęrigen gē</b>, <i>Do +not swear</i>.</p> + +<p>2. In dependent clauses it denotes uncertainty, possibility, or mere +futurity.<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XVIII_4" id = "tag_XVIII_4" href = +"#note_XVIII_4">4</a> (<i>a</i>) Concessive clauses (introduced by +<b>ðēah</b>, <i>though</i>) and (<i>b</i>) temporal clauses (introduced +by <b>ǣr</b>, <b>ǣr ðǣm ðe</b>, <i>before</i>) are rarely found with any +other mood than the subjunctive. The subjunctive is also regularly used +in Alfredian prose (<i>c</i>) after verbs of saying, even when no +suggestion of doubt or discredit attaches to the narration.<a class = +"tag" name = "tag_XVIII_5" id = "tag_XVIII_5" href = +"#note_XVIII_5">5</a> “Whether the statement refer to a fact or not, +whether the subject-matter be vouched for by the reporter, as regards +its objective reality and truth, the subjunctive does not tell. It +simply represents a statement as reported”<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_XVIII_6" id = "tag_XVIII_6" href = "#note_XVIII_6">6</a>: <b>ðēah +man āsętte twēgen fǣtels full ealað oððe wæteres</b>, <i>though one set +two vessels full of ale or water</i>; <b>ǣr ðǣm ðe hit eall forhęrgod +wǣre</b>, <i>before it was all ravaged</i>; <b>Hē sǣde ðæt Norðmanna +land wǣre swȳðe lang and swȳðe smæl</b>, <i>He said that the Norwegians’ +land was very long and very narrow</i>.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">72</span> +<a name = "page72" id = "page72"> </a> +<h5><a name = "sec_106" id = "sec_106">106.</a></h5> + +<p>The Imperative is the mood of command or intercession: <b>Iōhannes, +cum tō mē</b>, <i>John, come to me</i>; <b>And forgyf ūs ūre gyltas</b>, +<i>And forgive us our trespasses</i>; <b>Ne drīf ūs fram ðē</b>, <i>Do +not drive us from thee</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_107" id = "sec_107">107.</a></h5> + +<p>(1) The Infinitive and Participles are used chiefly in verb-phrases +(<a href = "#sec_138">§§ <b>138-141</b></a>); but apart from this +function, the Infinitive, being a neuter noun, may serve as the subject +or direct object of a verb. <b>Hātan</b> (<i>to command</i>, +<i>bid</i>), <b>lǣtan</b> (<i>to let</i>, <i>permit</i>), and +onginnan (<i>to begin</i>) are regularly followed by the +Infinitive: <b>Hine rīdan lyste</b>, <i>To ride pleased him</i>; <b>Hēt +ðā bǣre sęttan</b>, <i>He bade set down the bier</i>;<a class = "tag" +name = "tag_XVIII_7" id = "tag_XVIII_7" href = "#note_XVIII_7">7</a> +<b>Lǣtað ðā lȳtlingas tō mē cuman</b>, <i>Let the little ones come to +me</i>; <b>ðā ongann hē sprecan</b>, <i>then began he to speak</i>.</p> + +<p>(2) The Participles may be used independently in the dative absolute +construction (an imitation of the Latin ablative absolute), usually +for the expression of time:<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XVIII_8" id = +"tag_XVIII_8" href = "#note_XVIII_8">8</a> <b>Him ðā gȳt sprecendum</b>, +<i>While he was yet speaking</i>; <b>gefylledum dagum</b>, <i>the days +having been fulfilled</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_108" id = "sec_108">108.</a></h5> + +<p>The Gerund, or Gerundial Infinitive, is used:</p> + +<p>(1) To express purpose: <b>Ūt ēode sē sāwere his sǣd tō sāwenne</b>, +<i>Out went the sower his seed to sow</i>.</p> + +<p>(2) To expand or determine the meaning of a noun or adjective: +<b>Sȳmōn, ic hæbbe ðē tō sęcgenne sum ðing</b>, <i>Simon, I have +something to say to thee</i>; <b>Hit is scǫndlīc ymb swelc tō +sprecanne</b>, <i>It is shameful to speak about such things</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">73</span> +<a name = "page73" id = "page73"> </a> +<p>(3) After <b>bēon</b> (<b>wesan</b>) to denote duty or necessity: +<b>Hwæt is nū mā ymbe ðis tō sprecanne</b>, <i>What more is there now to +say about this</i>? <b>ðonne is tō geðęncenne hwaet Crīst self cwæð</b>, +<i>then it behooves to bethink what Christ himself said</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The Gerund is simply the +dative case of the Infinitive after <b>tō</b>. It began very early to +supplant the simple Infinitive; hence the use of <i>to</i> with the +Infinitive in Mn.E. As late as the Elizabethan age the Gerund +sometimes replaced the Infinitive even after the auxiliary verbs:</p> + +<div class = "verse smaller"> +<p>    “Some pagan shore,</p> +<p>Where these two Christian armies <i>might combine</i></p> +<p>The blood of malice in a vein of league,</p> +<p>And not <i>to spend</i> it so unneighbourly.”</p> +<p class = "right"><i>—King John</i>, V, <span class = +"smallcaps">ii</span>, 39.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The Gerund is simply the +When <i>to</i> lost the meaning of purpose and came to be considered as +a merely formal prefix, <i>for</i> was used to supplement the purpose +element: <i>What went ye out for to see</i>?<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_XVIII_9" id = "tag_XVIII_9" href = "#note_XVIII_9">9</a></p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_1" id = "note_XVIII_1" href = +"#tag_XVIII_1">1.</a> +Lounsbury, <i>English Language</i>, Part II, § 241.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_2" id = "note_XVIII_2" href = +"#tag_XVIII_2">2.</a> +Usage sanctions <i>mood</i>, but the better spelling would be +<i>mode</i>. It is from the Lat. <i>modus</i>, whereas <i>mood</i> +(= <i>temper</i>) is O.E. <i>mōd</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_3" id = "note_XVIII_3" href = +"#tag_XVIII_3">3.</a> +Gildersleeve’s <i>Latin Grammar</i>, § 255.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_4" id = "note_XVIII_4" href = +"#tag_XVIII_4">4.</a> +Thus when Alfred writes that an event took place <i>before</i> the +founding of Rome, he uses the subjunctive: <b>ǣr ðǣm ðe Rōmeburh +getimbrod wǣre</b> = <i>before Rome were founded</i>; but, <b>æfter ðǣm +ðe Rōmeburh getimbrod wæs</b> = <i>after Rome was founded</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_5" id = "note_XVIII_5" href = +"#tag_XVIII_5">5.</a> +“By the time of Ælfric, however, the levelling influence of the +indicative [after verbs of saying] has made considerable +progress.”—Gorrell, <i>Indirect Discourse in Anglo-Saxon</i> +(Dissertation, 1895), p. 101.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_6" id = "note_XVIII_6" href = +"#tag_XVIII_6">6.</a> +Hotz, <i>On the Use of the Subjunctive Mood in Anglo-Saxon</i> (Zürich, +1882).</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_7" id = "note_XVIII_7" href = +"#tag_XVIII_7">7.</a> +Not, <i>He commanded the bier to be set down.</i> The Mn.E. passive in +such sentences is a loss both in force and directness.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_8" id = "note_XVIII_8" href = +"#tag_XVIII_8">8.</a> +Callaway, <i>The Absolute Participle in Anglo-Saxon</i> (Dissertation, +1889), p. 19.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_9" id = "note_XVIII_9" href = +"#tag_XVIII_9">9.</a> +This is not the place to discuss the Gerund in Mn.E., the so-called +“infinitive in <i>-ing</i>.” The whole subject has been befogged for the +lack of an accepted nomenclature, one that shall do violence neither to +grammar nor to history.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<span class = "pagenum">74</span> +<a name = "page74" id = "page74"> </a> +<h3><a name = "chap_XIX" id = "chap_XIX"> +CHAPTER XIX.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Strong Verbs: Classes II and III.</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_109" id = "sec_109">109.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><b>Class II: The “Choose” Conjugation.</b></p> + +<p class = "center">Vowel Succession: <b>ēo</b>, <b>ēa</b>, <b>u</b>, +<b>o</b>.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps">Infinitive. +<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XIX_1" id = "tag_XIX_1" href = +"#note_XIX_1">1</a></th> +<th class = "smallcaps">Pret. Sing.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps">Pret. Plur. +<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XIX_2" id = "tag_XIX_2" href = +"#note_XIX_2">2</a></th> +<th class = "smallcaps">Past Part. +<a class = "tag" href = "#note_XIX_2">2</a></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center"><b>cēos-an</b>,</td> +<td class = "center"><b>cēas</b>,</td> +<td class = "center"><b>cur-on</b></td> +<td class = "center"><b>gecor-en</b>, <i>to choose</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "4"><b>Indicative.</b></th> +<th colspan = "4"><b>Subjunctive.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present.</td> +<td class = "center smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic cēos-e</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">cēos-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū cīest (cēos-est)</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē cīest (cēos-eð)</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">cēos-að</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">cēos-en</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "4">Preterit.</td> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "4">Preterit.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic cēas</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">cur-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū cur-e</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē cēas</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">cur-on</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">cur-en</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><b>Imperative.</b></th> +<th><b>Infinitive.</b></th> +<th><b>Present Participle.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 2.</td> +<td>cēos</td> +<td class = "center">cēos-an</td> +<td class = "center">cēos-ende</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>cēos-an</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>cēos-að</td> +<th><b>Gerund.</b></th> +<th><b>Past Participle.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td class = "center">tō cēos-anne (-enne)</td> +<td class = "center">gecor-en</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum">75</span> +<a name = "page75" id = "page75"> </a> +<h5><a name = "sec_110" id = "sec_110">110.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><b>Class III: The “Bind” Conjugation.</b></p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td> +Vowel Succession:</td> +<td><b>i<br> +e</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>, <b>a</b>, <b>u</b>,</td> +<td><b>u<br> +o</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The present stem ends in <b>m</b>, <b>n</b>, <b>l</b>, <b>r</b>, or +<b>h</b>, + one or more consonants:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td><b>m</b>:</td> +<td><b>belimp-an</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td><b>belǫmp<br> +belamp</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>, <b>belump-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>belump-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to belong</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "middle"> +<td><b>n</b>:</td> +<td><b>bind-an</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td><b>bǫnd<br> +band</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>, <b>bund-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gebund-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to bind</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><b>l</b>:</td> +<td><b>help-an</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td><b>healp</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td><b>hulp-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>geholp-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to help</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>r</b>:</td> +<td><b>weorð-an</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td><b>wearð</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td><b>wurd-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>geword-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to become</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>h</b>:</td> +<td><b>gefeoht-an</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td><b>gefeaht</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td><b>gefuht-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gefoht-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to fight</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—If the present stem ends +in a nasal (<b>m</b>, <b>n</b>) + a consonant, the past participle +retains the <b>u</b> of the pret. plur.; but if the present stem ends in +a liquid (<b>l</b>, <b>r</b>) or <b>h</b>, + a consonant, the past +participle has <b>o</b> instead of <b>u</b>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—Why do we not find +<b>*halp</b>, <b>*warð</b>, and <b>*faht</b> in the pret. sing.? Because +<b>a</b> before <b>l</b>, <b>r</b>, or <b>h</b>, + a consonant, +underwent “breaking” to <b>ea</b>. Breaking also changes every <b>e</b> +followed by <b>r</b> or <b>h</b>, + a consonant, to <b>eo</b>: +<b>weorðan</b> (< <b>*werðan</b>), feohtan +(< <b>*fehtan</b>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_111" id = "sec_111">111.</a></h5> + +<p> </p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "4"><b>Indicative.</b></td> +<td class = "center" colspan = "4"><b>Subjunctive.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic bind-e</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū bintst (bind-est)</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +<td>bind-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē bint (bind-eð)</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "8"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">bind-að</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">bind-en</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "4">Preterit.</td> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "4">Preterit.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic bǫnd</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū bund-e</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +<td>bund-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē bǫnd</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "8"> +<span class = "pagenum">76</span> +<a name = "page76" id = "page76"> </a> + </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"> +<i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">bund-on</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">bund-en</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><b>Imperative.</b></th> +<th><b>Infinitive.</b></th> +<th><b>Present Participle.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 2.</td> +<td>bind</td> +<td class = "center">bind-an</td> +<td class = "center">bind-ende</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>bind-an</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>bind-að</td> +<th><b>Gerund.</b></th> +<th><b>Past Participle.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td class = "center">tō bind-anne (-enne)</td> +<td class = "center">gebund-en</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_112" id = "sec_112">112.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>ðæt gefeoht</b>, <i>fight</i>, <i>battle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo geręcednes</b>, <i>narration</i> [<b>ręccan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>ðæt gesceap</b>, <i>creation</i> [<b>scieppan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>sēo hęrgung</b> (<a href = "#sec_39">§ <b>39</b>, (3)</a>), +<i>harrying</i>, <i>plundering</i> [<b>hęrgian</b>].</p> + +<p><b>sē medu</b> (<b>medo</b>) (<a href = "#sec_51">§ <b>51</b></a>), +<i>mead</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo meolc</b>, <i>milk</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē middangeard</b>, <i>world</i> [middle-yard].</p> + +<p><b>sē munuc</b>, <i>monk</i> [monachus].</p> + +<p><b>sēo mȳre</b>, mare [<b>mearh</b>].</p> + +<p><b>hē sǣde</b>, <i>he said</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hīe sǣdon</b>, <i>they said</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo spēd</b>, <i>riches</i> [speed].</p> + +<p><b>spēdig</b>, <i>rich</i>, <i>prosperous</i> [speedy].</p> + +<p><b>sēo tīd</b>, <i>time</i> [tide].</p> + +<p><b>unspēdig</b>, <i>poor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē westanwind</b>, <i>west-wind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt wīn</b>, <i>wine</i>.</p> +</div> + +<table class = "vocab" summary = "verbs in vocabulary"> +<tr> +<td><b>ārīsan</b>,</td> +<td><b>ārās</b>,</td> +<td><b>ārison</b>,</td> +<td><b>ārisen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to arise</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>bīdan</b>,</td> +<td><b>bād</b>,</td> +<td><b>bidon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gebiden</b>,</td> +<td><i>to remain</i>, <i>expect</i> (with gen.)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>drēogan</b>,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XIX_3" id = "tag_XIX_3" +href = "#note_XIX_3">3</a></td> +<td><b>drēag</b>,</td> +<td><b>drugon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gedrogen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to endure</i>, <i>suffer</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>drincan</b>,</td> +<td><b>drǫnc</b>,</td> +<td><b>druncon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gedruncen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to drink</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>findan</b>,</td> +<td><b>fǫnd</b>,</td> +<td><b>fundon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gefunden</b>,</td> +<td><i>to find</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>geswīcan</b></td> +<td><b>geswāc</b>,</td> +<td><b>geswicon</b>,</td> +<td><b>geswicen</b>,</td> +<td><p><i>to cease</i>, <i>cease from</i> (with gen.)</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>iernan</b> (<b>yrnan</b>),</td> +<td><b>ǫrn</b>,</td> +<td><b>urnon</b>,</td> +<td><b>geurnen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to run</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>onginnan</b>,</td> +<td><b>ongǫnn</b>,</td> +<td><b>ongunnon</b>,</td> +<td><b>ongunnen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to begin</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>rīdan</b>,</td> +<td><b>rād</b>,</td> +<td><b>ridon</b>,</td> +<td><b>geriden</b>,</td> +<td><i>to ride</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>singan</b>,</td> +<td><b>sǫng</b>,</td> +<td><b>sungon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesungen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to sing</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>wrītan</b>,</td> +<td><b>wrāt</b>,</td> +<td><b>writon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gewriten</b>,</td> +<td><i>to write</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum">77</span> +<a name = "page77" id = "page77"> </a> +<h5><a name = "sec_113" id = "sec_113">113.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Exercises.</p> + +<p>I. 1. Æfter ðissum wordum, sē munuc wrāt ealle ðā geręcednesse on +ānre bēc. 2. Ðā eorlas ridon ūp ǣr ðǣm ðe ðā Dęne ðæs gefeohtes +geswicen. 3. Cædmon sǫng ǣrest be middangeardes gesceape. +4. Sē cyning ǫnd ðā rīcostan męn drincað mȳran meolc, ǫnd ðā +unspēdigan drincað medu. 5. Ǫnd hē ārās ǫnd sē wind geswāc. +6. Hīe sǣdon ðæt hīe ðǣr westwindes biden. 7. Hwæt is nū mā +ymbe ðās ðing tō sprecanne? 8. Ðā sęcgas ongunnon geswīcan ðǣre +hęrgunga. 9. Ðā bēag ðæt lǫnd ðǣr ēastryhte, oððe sēo sǣ in on ðæt +lǫnd. 10. Ðās lǫnd belimpað tō, ðǣm Ęnglum. 11. Ðēah ðā Dęne +ealne dæg gefuhten, gīet hæfde Ælfred cyning sige. 12. Ǫnd ðæs +(afterwards) ymbe ānne mōnað gefeaht Ælfred cyning wið ealne ðone hęre +æt Wiltūne.</p> + +<p>II. 1. The most prosperous men drank mare’s milk and wine, but the +poor men drank mead. 2. I suffered many things before you began to +help me (dat.). 3. About two days afterwards (<b>Ðæs ymbe twēgen +dagas</b>), the plundering ceased. 4. The king said that he fought +against all the army (<b>hęre</b>). 5. Although the Danes remained +one month (<a href = "#sec_98">§ <b>98</b>, (1)</a>), they did not +begin to fight. 6. These gifts belonged to my brother. 7. The +earls were glad because their lord was (indicative) with them. +8. What did you find? 9. Then wrote he about (<b>be</b>) the +wise man’s deeds. 10. What more is there to endure?</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_XIX_1" id = "note_XIX_1" href = "#tag_XIX_1">1.</a> +A few verbs of Class II have <b>ū</b> instead of <b>ēo</b> in the +infinitive:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>brūcan</b>,</td> +<td><b>brēac</b>,</td> +<td><b>brucon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gebrocen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to enjoy</i> [brook].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>būgan</b>,</td> +<td><b>bēag</b>,</td> +<td><b>bugon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gebogen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to bend</i>, <i>bow</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><a name = "note_XIX_2" id = "note_XIX_2" href = "#tag_XIX_2">2.</a> +By a law known as Grammatical Change, final <b>ð</b>, <b>s</b>, and +<b>h</b> of strong verbs generally become <b>d</b>, <b>r</b>, and +<b>g</b>, respectively, in the preterit plural and past participle.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XIX_3" id = "note_XIX_3" href = "#tag_XIX_3">3.</a> +<i>Cf.</i> the Scotch “to <i>dree</i> one’s weird” = <i>to endure one’s +fate</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<span class = "pagenum">78</span> +<a name = "page78" id = "page78"> </a> +<h3><a name = "chap_XX" id = "chap_XX"> +CHAPTER XX.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Strong Verbs: Classes IV, V, VI, and VII.<br> +Contract Verbs.</span></h3> + +<p class = "notation"> +[The student can now complete the conjugation for himself (<a href = +"#sec_103">§ <b>103</b></a>). Only the principal parts will be +given.]</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_114" id = "sec_114">114.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><b>Class IV: The “Bear” Conjugation.</b></p> + +<p class = "center">Vowel Succession: <b>e</b>, <b>æ</b>, <b>ǣ</b>, +<b>o</b>.</p> + +<p>The present stem ends in <b>l</b>, <b>r</b>, or <b>m</b>, no +consonant following:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>l</b>:</td> +<td><b>hel-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>hæl</b>,</td> +<td><b>hǣl-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gehol-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to conceal</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>r</b>:</td> +<td><b>ber-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>bær</b>,</td> +<td><b>bǣr-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gebor-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to bear</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The two following verbs are slightly irregular:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td> +<b>m</b>:</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><b>nim-an</b>,<br> +<b>cum-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>nōm</b> (<b>nam</b>),<br> +<b>c(w)ōm</b>,</td> +<td><b>nōm-on</b> (<b>nām-on</b>),<br> +<b>c(w)ōm-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>genum-en</b>,<br> +<b>gecum-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to take</i>.<br> +<i>to come</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_115" id = "sec_115">115.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><b>Class V: The “Give” Conjugation.</b></p> + +<p class = "center"> +Succession of Vowels: <b>e</b> (<b>ie</b>), <b>æ</b>, <b>ǣ</b>, +<b>e</b>.</p> + +<p>The present stem ends in a single consonant, never a liquid or +nasal:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>met-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>mæt</b>,</td> +<td><b>mǣton</b>,</td> +<td><b>gemet-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to measure</i>,</td> +<td><i>mete</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>gief-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>geaf</b>,</td> +<td><b>gēaf-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gegief-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to give</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—The palatal consonants, +<b>g</b>, <b>c</b>, and <b>sc</b>, convert a following <b>e</b> into +<b>ie</b>, <b>æ</b> into <b>ea</b>, and <b>ǣ</b> into <b>ēa</b>. Hence +<b>giefan</b> (< <b>*gefan</b>), <b>geaf</b> +(< <b>*gæf</b>), <b>gēafon</b> (< <b>*gǣfon</b>), +<b>gegiefen</b> (< <b>*gegefen</b>). This change is known as +Palatalization. See <a href = "#sec_8">§ <b>8</b></a>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—The infinitives of the +following important verbs are only apparently exceptional:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>biddan</b>,</td> +<td><b>bæd</b>,</td> +<td><b>bǣd-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gebed-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to ask for</i> [bid].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>licgan</b>,</td> +<td><b>læg</b>,</td> +<td><b>lǣg-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>geleg-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to lie</i>, <i>extend</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sittan</b>,</td> +<td><b>sæt</b>,</td> +<td><b>sǣt-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>geset-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to sit</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class = "pagenum">79</span> +<a name = "page79" id = "page79"> </a> +<p>The original <b>e</b> reappears in the participial stems. It was +changed to <b>i</b> in the present stems on account of a former +<b>-jan</b> in the infinitive (<b>bid-jan</b>, etc.). See <a href = +"#sec_61">§ <b>61</b></a>. To the same cause is due the doubling of +consonants in the infinitive. All simple consonants in O.E., with the +exception of <b>r</b>, were doubled after a short vowel, when an +original <b>j</b> followed.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_116" id = "sec_116">116.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><b>Class VI: The “Shake” Conjugation.</b></p> + +<p class = "center">Succession of Vowels: <b>a</b>, <b>ō</b>, <b>ō</b>, +<b>a</b>.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>scac-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>scōc</b>,</td> +<td><b>scōc-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gescac-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to shake</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>far-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>fōr</b>,</td> +<td><b>fōr-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gefar-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to go</i> [fare].</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_117" id = "sec_117">117.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><b>Class VII: The “Fall” Conjugation.</b></p> + + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td> +Vowel Succession:</td> +<td><b>ā<br> +ǣ</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>, <b>ē</b>, <b>ē</b>,</td> +<td><b>ā<br> +ǣ</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>; or</td> + +<td><b>ea<br> +ēa<br> +ō</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>, <b>ēo</b>, <b>ēo</b>,</td> +<td><b>ea<br> +ēa<br> +ō</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>hāt-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>hēt</b>,</td> +<td><b>hēt-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gehāt-en</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><i>to call</i>, <i>name</i>,<br> +<i>command</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><b>lǣt-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>lēt</b>,</td> +<td><b>lēt-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gelǣt-en</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> </td> +<td><i>to let</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>feall-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>fēoll</b>,</td> +<td><b>fēoll-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gefeall-en</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> </td> +<td><i>to fall</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><b>heald-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>hēold</b>,</td> +<td><b>hēold-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>geheald-en</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> </td> +<td><i>to hold</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><b>hēaw-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>hēow</b>,</td> +<td><b>hēow-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gehēaw-en</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> </td> +<td><i>to hew</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><b>grōw-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>grēow</b>,</td> +<td><b>grēow-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gegrōw-en</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> </td> +<td><i>to grow</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—This class consists of +the Reduplicating Verbs; that is, those verbs that originally formed +their preterits not by internal vowel change (ablaut), but by prefixing +to the present stem the initial consonant + <b>e</b> (<i>cf.</i> Gk. +<span class = "greek" title = "le-loipa">λέ-λοιπα</span> and Lat. +<i>dĕ-di</i>). Contraction then took place between the syllabic prefix +and the root, the fusion resulting in <b>ē</b> or <b>ēo</b>: +<b>*he-hat</b> > <b>heht</b> > <b>hēt</b>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—A peculiar interest +attaches to <b>hātan</b>: the forms <b>hātte</b> and <b>hātton</b> are +the sole remains in O.E. of the original Germanic passive. They are used +both as presents and as preterits: <b>hātte</b> = <i>I am</i> or <i>was +called</i>, <i>he is</i> or <i>was called</i>. No other verb in O.E. +could have a passive sense without calling in the aid of the verb <i>to +be</i> (<a href = "#sec_141">§ <b>141</b></a>).</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">80</span> +<a name = "page80" id = "page80"> </a> +<h4>Contract Verbs.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_118" id = "sec_118">118.</a></h5> + +<p>The few Contract Verbs found in O.E. do not constitute a new class; +they fall under Classes I, II, V, VI, and VII, already treated. The +present stem ended originally in <b>h</b>. This was lost before +<b>-an</b> of the infinitive, contraction and compensatory lengthening +being the result. The following are the most important of these +verbs:</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +Classes.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td class = "right">I.</td> +<td><b>ðēon</b></td> +<td>(< <b>*ðīhan</b>),</td> +<td><b>ðāh</b>,</td> +<td><b>ðig-on</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td><b>geðig-en<br> +geðung-en</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>, <i>to thrive</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right">II.</td> +<td><b>tēon</b></td> +<td>(< <b>*tēohan</b>),</td> +<td><b>tēah</b>,</td> +<td><b>tug-on</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>getog-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to draw</i>, <i>go</i> [tug].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">V.</td> +<td><b>sēon</b></td> +<td>(< <b>*sehwan</b>),</td> +<td><b>seah</b>,</td> +<td><b>sāw-on</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>gesew-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to see</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">VI.</td> +<td><b>slēan</b></td> +<td>(< <b>*slahan</b>),</td> +<td><b>slōh</b>,</td> +<td><b>slōg-on</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>geslæg-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to slay</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">VII.</td> +<td><b>fōn</b></td> +<td>(< <b>*fōhan</b>),</td> +<td><b>fēng</b>,</td> +<td><b>fēng-on</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>gefǫng-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to seize</i> [fang].</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_119" id = "sec_119">119.</a></h5> + +<p>The Present Indicative of these verbs runs as follows (see rules of +<b>i-</b>umlaut, <a href = "#sec_58">§ <b>58</b></a>):</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "2">Ic ðēo</td> +<td>tēo</td> +<td>sēo</td> +<td>slēa</td> +<td>fō</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "2">ðū ðīhst</td> +<td>tīehst</td> +<td>siehst</td> +<td>sliehst</td> +<td>fēhst</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "2">hē ðīhð</td> +<td>tīehð</td> +<td>siehð</td> +<td>sliehð</td> +<td>fēhð</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>ðēoð</td> +<td>tēoð</td> +<td>sēoð</td> +<td>slēað</td> +<td>fōð</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The other tenses and moods are regularly formed from the given +stems.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_120" id = "sec_120">120.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>sēo ǣht</b>, <i>property</i>, <i>possession</i> [<b>āgan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>aweg</b>, <i>away</i> [<b>on weg</b>].</p> + +<p><b>sēo fierd</b>, <i>English army</i> [<b>faran</b>].</p> + +<p><b>sē hęre</b>, <i>Danish army</i> [<b>hęrgian</b>].</p> + +<p><b>on gehwæðre hǫnd</b>, <i>on both sides</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sige niman</b> (= <b>sige habban</b>), <i>to win</i> (<i>the</i>) +<i>victory</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo sprǣc</b>, <i>speech</i>, <i>language</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">81</span> +<a name = "page81" id = "page81"> </a> + +<p><b>tō rīce fōn</b>, <i>to come to the throne</i>.<a class = "tag" +name = "tag_XX_1" id = "tag_XX_1" href = "#note_XX_1">1</a></p> +</div> + +<table class = "vocab" summary = "vocabulary"> +<tr> +<td> +<p><b>ðæt wæl</b> [Val-halla]</p> +<p><b>sē wælsliht</b>,</p> +</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle"> +<p><i>slaughter</i>, <i>carnage</i>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>sē weall</b>, <i>wall</i>, <i>rampart</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt wildor</b>, <i>wild beast</i>, <i>reindeer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē wīngeard</b>, <i>vineyard</i>.</p> +</div> + +<table class = "vocab" summary = "verbs in vocabulary"> +<tr> +<td><b>ābrecan</b>,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XX_2" id = "tag_XX_2" +href = "#note_XX_2">2</a></td> +<td><b>ābræc</b>,</td> +<td><b>ābrǣcon</b>,</td> +<td><b>ābrocen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to break down</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>cweðan</b>,</td> +<td><b>cwæð</b>,</td> +<td><b>cwǣdon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gecweden</b>,</td> +<td><i>to say</i> [quoth].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>gesēon</b>,</td> +<td><b>geseah</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesāwon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesewen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to see</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>grōwan</b>,</td> +<td><b>grēow</b>,</td> +<td><b>grēowon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gegrōwen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to grow</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ofslēan</b>,</td> +<td><b>ofslōh</b>,</td> +<td><b>ofslōgon</b>,</td> +<td><b>ofslægen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to slay</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sprecan</b>,</td> +<td><b>spræc</b>,</td> +<td><b>sprǣcon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesprecen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to speak</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>stelan</b>,</td> +<td><b>stæl</b>,</td> +<td><b>stǣlon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gestolen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to steal</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>stǫndan</b>,</td> +<td><b>stōd</b>,</td> +<td><b>stōdon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gestǫnden</b>,</td> +<td><i>to stand</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>weaxan</b>,</td> +<td><b>wēox</b>,</td> +<td><b>wēoxon</b>,</td> +<td><b>geweaxen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to grow</i>, <i>increase</i> [wax].</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_121" id = "sec_121">121.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><span class = "smallcaps"> Exercises.</span></p> + +<p>I. 1. Æfter ðǣm sōðlīce (indeed) ealle męn sprǣcon āne (one) sprǣce. +2. Ǫnd hē cwæð: “Ðis is ān folc, ǫnd ealle hīe sprecað āne sprǣce.” +3. On sumum stōwum wīngeardas grōwað. 4. Hē hēt ðā nǣdran +ofslēan. 5. Ðā Ęngle ābrǣcon ðone lǫngan weall, ǫnd sige nōmon. +6. Ǫnd ðæt sǣd grēow ǫnd wēox. 7. Ic ne geseah ðone mǫn sē ðe +ðæs cnapan adesan stæl. 8. Hē wæs swȳðe spēdig man on ðǣm ǣhtum ðe +hiera spēda on<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XX_3" id = "tag_XX_3" href = +"#note_XX_3">3</a> bēoð, ðæt is, on wildrum. 9. Ǫnd ðǣr wearð (was) +micel wælsliht on gehwæðre hǫnd. 10. Ǫnd æfter ðissum gefeohte cōm +Ælfred cyning mid his fierde, ǫnd gefeaht wið ealne ðone hęre, ǫnd sige +nōm. 11. Ðēos burg hātte<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XX_4" id = +"tag_XX_4" href = "#note_XX_4">4</a> Æscesdūn (Ashdown). 12. Ðǣre +cwēne līc læg on ðǣm hūse. 13. Ǫnd sē dǣl ðe ðǣr aweg cōm wæs swȳðe +lȳtel. 14. Ǫnd ðæs ðrēotīene dagas Æðered tō rīce fēng.</p> + +<p>II. 1. The men stood in the ships and fought against the Danes. +2. Before the thanes came, the king rode away. +<span class = "pagenum">82</span> +<a name = "page82" id = "page82"> </a> +3. They said (<b>sǣdon</b>) that all the men spoke one language. +4. They bore the queen’s body to Wilton. 5. Alfred gave many +gifts to his army (dat. without <b>tō</b>) before he went away. +6. These men are called earls. 7. God sees all things. +8. The boy held the reindeer with (<b>mid</b>) his hands. +9. About six months afterwards, Alfred gained the victory, and came +to the throne. 10. He said that there was very great slaughter on +both sides.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_XX_1" id = "note_XX_1" href = "#tag_XX_1">1.</a> +Literally, <i>to take to</i> (<i>the</i>) <i>kingdom</i>. <i>Cf.</i> +“Have you anything to take to?” (<i>Two Gentlemen of Verona</i>, IV, +<span class = "smallcaps">i</span>, 42).</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XX_2" id = "note_XX_2" href = "#tag_XX_2">2.</a> +<b>Brecan</b> belongs properly in Class V, but it has been drawn into +Class IV possibly through the influence of the <b>r</b> in the root.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XX_3" id = "note_XX_3" href = "#tag_XX_3">3.</a> +See <a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (5)</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XX_4" id = "note_XX_4" href = "#tag_XX_4">4.</a> +See <a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b>, Note 2</a>.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XXI" id = "chap_XXI"> +CHAPTER XXI.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead">Weak Verbs (<span class = "plain">§ +<b>18</b></span>).</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_122" id = "sec_122">122.</a></h5> + +<p>The verbs belonging to the Weak Conjugation are generally of more +recent origin than the strong verbs, being frequently formed from the +roots of strong verbs. The Weak Conjugation was the growing conjugation +in O.E. as it is in Mn.E. We instinctively put our newly coined or +borrowed words into this conjugation (<i>telegraphed</i>, +<i>boycotted</i>); and children, by the analogy of weak verbs, say +<i>runned</i> for <i>ran</i>, <i>seed</i> for <i>saw</i>, <i>teared</i> +for <i>tore</i>, <i>drawed</i> for <i>drew</i>, and <i>growed</i> for +<i>grew</i>. So, for example, when Latin <i>dictāre</i> and +<i>breviāre</i> came into O.E., they came as weak verbs, <b>dihtian</b> +and <b>brēfian</b>.</p> + + +<h4>The Three Classes of Weak Verbs.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_123" id = "sec_123">123.</a></h5> + +<p>There is no difficulty in telling, from the infinitive alone, to +which of the three classes a weak verb belongs. Class III has been so +invaded by Class II +<span class = "pagenum">83</span> +<a name = "page83" id = "page83"> </a> +that but three important verbs remain to it: <b>habban</b>, <i>to +have</i>; <b>libban</b>, <i>to live</i>; and <b>sęcgan</b>, <i>to +say</i>. Distinction is to be made, therefore, only between Classes II +and I. Class II contains the verbs with infinitive in <b>-ian</b> +not preceded by <b>r</b>. Class I contains the remaining weak verbs; +that is, those with infinitive in <b>-r-ian</b> and those with +infinitive in <b>-an</b> (not <b>-ian</b>).</p> + + +<h4>Class I.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_124" id = "sec_124">124.</a></h5> + +<p>The preterit singular and past participle of Class I end in +<b>-ede</b> and <b>-ed</b>, or <b>-de</b> and <b>-ed</b> +respectively.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The infinitives of this +class ended originally in <b>-jan</b> (= <b>-ian</b>). This +accounts for the prevalence of <b>i-</b>umlaut in these verbs, and also +for the large number of short-voweled stems ending in a double consonant +(<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b>, Note 2</a>). The weak verb +is frequently the causative of the corresponding strong verb. In such +cases, the root of the weak verb corresponds in form to the preterit +singular of the strong verb: Mn.E. <i>drench</i> (= <i>to make +drink</i>), <i>lay</i> (= <i>to make lie</i>), <i>rear</i> +(= <i>to make rise</i>), and <i>set</i> (= <i>to make +sit</i>), are the umlauted forms of <b>drǫnc</b> (preterit singular of +<b>drincan</b>), <b>læg</b> (preterit singular of <b>licgan</b>), +<b>rās</b> (preterit singular of <b>rīsan</b>), and <b>sæt</b> (preterit +singular of <b>sittan</b>).</p> + + +<h4>Preterit and Past Participle in <i>-ede</i> and <i>-ed</i>.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_125" id = "sec_125">125.</a></h5> + +<p>Verbs with infinitive in <b>-an</b> preceded by <b>ri-</b> or the +double consonants <b>mm</b>, <b>nn</b>, <b>ss</b>, <b>bb</b>, <b>cg</b> +(= <b>gg</b>), add <b>-ede</b> for the preterit, and <b>-ed</b> for +the past participle, the double consonant being always made single:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>ri</b>:</td> +<td><b>nęri-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>nęr-ede</b>,</td> +<td><b>genęr-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to save</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>mm</b>:</td> +<td><b>fręmm-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>fręm-ede</b>,</td> +<td><b>gefręm-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to perform</i> [frame].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>nn</b>:</td> +<td><b>ðęnn-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>ðęn-ede</b>,</td> +<td><b>geðęn-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to extend</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ss</b>:</td> +<td><b>cnyss-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>cnys-ede</b>,</td> +<td><b>gecnys-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to beat</i>. +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "pagenum">84</span> +<a name = "page84" id = "page84"> </a> +<b>bb</b>:</td> +<td><b>swębb-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>swęf-ede</b>,</td> +<td><b>geswęf-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to put to sleep</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>cg</b>:</td> +<td><b>węcg-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>węg-ede</b>,</td> +<td><b>gewęg-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to agitate</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—<b>Lęcgan</b>, <i>to +lay</i>, is the only one of these verbs that syncopates the <b>e</b>: +<b>lęcgan</b>, <b>lęgde</b> (<b>lēde</b>), <b>gelęgd</b> (<b>gelēd</b>), +instead of <b>lęgede</b>, <b>gelęged</b>.</p> + + +<h4>Preterit and Past Participle in <i>-de</i> and <i>-ed</i>.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_126" id = "sec_126">126.</a></h5> + +<p>All the other verbs belonging to Class I. add <b>-de</b> for the +preterit and <b>-ed</b> for the past participle. This division includes, +therefore, all stems long by nature (<a href = +"#sec_10">§ <b>10</b>, (3)</a>, (<i>a</i>)):</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>dǣl-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>dǣl-de</b>,</td> +<td><b>gedǣl-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to deal out</i>, <i>divide</i> [<b>dǣl</b>].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>dēm-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>dēm-de</b>,</td> +<td><b>gedēm-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to judge</i> [<b>dōm</b>].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>grēt-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>grēt-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>gegrēt-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to greet</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>hīer-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>hīer-de</b>,</td> +<td><b>gehīer-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to hear</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>lǣd-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>lǣd-de</b>,</td> +<td><b>gelǣd-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to lead</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—A preceding voiceless +consonant (<a href = "#sec_9">§ <b>9</b>, Note</a>) changes +<b>-de</b> into <b>-te</b>: <b>*grēt-de</b> > <b>grēt-te</b>; +<b>*mēt-de</b> > <b>mēt-te</b>; <b>*īec-de</b> > <b>īec-te</b>. +Syncope and contraction are also frequent in the participles: +<b>gegrēt-ed</b> > <b>*gegrēt-d</b> > <b>gegrēt(t)</b>; +<b>gelǣd-ed</b> > <b>gelǣd(d)</b>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—<b>Būan</b>, <i>to +dwell</i>, <i>cultivate</i>, has an admixture of strong forms in the +past participle: <b>būan</b>, <b>būde</b>, <b>gebūd</b> (<b>bȳn</b>, +<b>gebūn</b>). The present participle survives in Mn.E. <i>husband</i> = +<i>house-dweller</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_127" id = "sec_127">127.</a></h5> + +<p>It includes, also, all stems long by position (<a href = "#sec_10">§ +<b>10</b>, (3)</a>, (<i>b</i>)) except those in <b>mm</b>, <b>nn</b>, +<b>ss</b>, <b>bb</b>, and <b>cg</b> (<a href = +"#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>):</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>sęnd-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>sęnd-e</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesęnd-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to send</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sętt-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>sęt-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesęt-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to set</i> [<b>sittan</b>].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sigl-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>sigl-de</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesigl-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to sail</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>spęnd-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>spęnd-e</b>,</td> +<td><b>gespęnd-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to spend</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>trędd-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>tręd-de</b>,</td> +<td><b>getręd-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to tread</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The participles frequently +undergo syncope and contraction: <b>gesęnded</b> > <b>gesęnd</b>; +<b>gesęted</b> > <b>gesęt(t)</b>; <b>gespęnded</b> > +<b>gespęnd</b>; <b>getręded</b> > <b>getręd(d)</b>.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">85</span> +<a name = "page85" id = "page85"> </a> +<h4>Irregular Verbs of Class I.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_128" id = "sec_128">128.</a></h5> + +<p>There are about twenty verbs belonging to Class I that are irregular +in having no umlaut in the preterit and past participle. The preterit +ends in <b>-de</b>, the past participle in <b>-d</b>; but, through the +influence of a preceding voiceless consonant (<a href = +"#sec_9">§ <b>9</b>, Note</a>), <b>-ed</b> is generally unvoiced to +<b>-te</b>, and <b>-d</b> to <b>-t</b>. The most important of these +verbs are as follows:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>bring-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>brōh-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>gebrōh-t</b>,</td> +<td><i>to bring</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>byc-gan</b>,</td> +<td><b>boh-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>geboh-t</b>,</td> +<td><i>to buy</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sēc-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>sōh-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesōh-t</b>,</td> +<td><i>to seek</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sęll-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>seal-de</b>,</td> +<td><b>geseal-d</b>,</td> +<td><i>to give</i>, <i>sell</i> [hand-sel].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>tǣc-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>tǣh-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>getǣh-t</b>,</td> +<td><i>to teach</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>tęll-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>teal-de</b>,</td> +<td><b>geteal-d</b>,</td> +<td><i>to count</i> [tell].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ðęnc-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>ðōh-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>geðōh-t</b>,</td> +<td><i>to think</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ðync-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>ðūh-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>geðūh-t</b>,</td> +<td><i>to seem</i> [methinks].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>wyrc-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>worh-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>geworh-t</b>,</td> +<td><i>to work</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Such of these verbs as have +stems in <b>c</b> or <b>g</b> are frequently written with an inserted +<b>e</b>: <b>bycgean</b>, <b>sēcean</b>, <b>tǣcean</b>, etc. This +<b>e</b> indicates that <b>c</b> and <b>g</b> have palatal value; that +is, are to be followed with a vanishing <b>y-</b>sound. In such cases, +O.E. <b>c</b> usually passes into Mn.E. <i>ch</i>: <b>tǣc(e)an</b> > +<i>to teach</i>; <b>rǣc(e)an</b> > <i>to reach</i>; +<b>stręcc(e)an</b> > <i>to stretch</i>. <b>Sēc(e)an</b> gives +<i>beseech</i> as well as <i>seek</i>. See <a href = +"#sec_8">§ <b>8</b></a>.</p> + + +<h4>Conjugation of Class I.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_129" id = "sec_129">129.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>nęrian</b>, <i>to save</i>; <b>fręmman</b>, <i>to +perform</i>; <b>dǣlan</b>, <i>to divide</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Indicative.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "6">Present.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic nęrie</td> +<td>fręmme</td> +<td>dǣle</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū nęrest</td> +<td>fręmest</td> +<td>dǣlst</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē nęreð</td> +<td>fręmeð</td> +<td>dǣlð</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">nęriað</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>fręmmað</td> +<td>dǣlað</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "6"> +<span class = "pagenum">86</span> +<a name = "page86" id = "page86"> </a> +Preterit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic nęrede</td> +<td>fręmede</td> +<td>dǣlde</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū nęredest</td> +<td>fręmedest</td> +<td>dǣldest</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē nęrede</td> +<td>fręmede</td> +<td>dǣlde</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">nęredon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>fręmedon</td> +<td>dǣldon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Subjunctive.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "6">Present.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">nęrie</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +<td>fręmme</td> +<td>dǣle</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>nęrien</td> +<td>fręmmen</td> +<td>dǣlen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "6"> +Preterit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">nęrede</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +<td>fręmede</td> +<td>dǣlde</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">nęreden</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>fręmeden</td> +<td>dǣlden</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Imperative.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">nęre</td> +<td>fręme</td> +<td>dǣl</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">nęrian</td> +<td>fręmman</td> +<td>dǣlan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">nęriað</td> +<td>fręmmað</td> +<td>dǣlað</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "3"><b>Infinitive.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr class = "center"> +<td>nęrian</td> +<td>fręmman</td> +<td>dǣlan</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "3"><b>Gerund.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr class = "center"> +<td>tō nęrianne (-enne)</td> +<td>tō fręmmanne (-enne)</td> +<td>tō dǣlanne (-enne)</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "3"><b>Present Participle.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr class = "center"> +<td>nęriende</td> +<td>fręmmende</td> +<td>dǣlende</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "3"><b>Past Participle.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr class = "center"> +<td>genęred</td> +<td>gefręmed</td> +<td>gedǣled</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class = "pagenum">87</span> +<a name = "page87" id = "page87"> </a> +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The endings of the preterit +present no difficulties; in the 2d and 3d singular present, however, the +student will observe (<i>a</i>) that double consonants in the stem are +made single: <b>fręmest</b>, <b>fręmeð</b> (not <b>*freęmmest</b>, +<b>*freęmmeð</b>); <b>ðęnest</b>, <b>ðęneð</b>; <b>sętest</b> +(<b>sętst</b>), <b>seęteð</b> (<b>sętt</b>); <b>fylst</b>, <b>fylð</b>, +from <b>fyllan</b>, <i>to fill</i>; (<i>b</i>) that syncope is the rule +in stems long by nature: <b>dǣlst</b> (< <b>dǣlest</b>), +<b>dǣlð</b> (< <b>dǣleð</b>); <b>dēmst</b> +(< <b>dēmest</b>), <b>dēmð</b> (< <b>dēmeð</b>); +<b>hīerst</b> (< <b>hīerest</b>), <b>hīerð</b> +(< <b>hīereð</b>). Double consonants are also made single in the +imperative 2d singular and in the past participle. Stems long by nature +take no final <b>-e</b> in the imperative: <b>dǣl</b>, <b>hīer</b>, +<b>dēm</b>.</p> + + +<h4>Class II.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_130" id = "sec_130">130.</a></h5> + +<p>The infinitive of verbs belonging to this class ends in <b>-ian</b> +(not <b>-r-ian</b>), the preterit singular in <b>-ode</b>, the past +participle in <b>-od</b>. The preterit plural usually has <b>-edon</b>, +however, instead of <b>-odon</b>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>eard-ian</b><ins class = "correction" title = ", missing">, +</ins></td> +<td><b>eard-ode</b>,</td> +<td><b>geeard-od</b>,</td> +<td><i>to dwell</i> [<b>eorðe</b>].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>luf-ian</b>,</td> +<td><b>luf-ode</b>,</td> +<td><b>geluf-od</b>,</td> +<td><i>to love</i> [<b>lufu</b>].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>rīcs-ian</b>,</td> +<td><b>rīcs-ode</b>,</td> +<td><b>gerīcs-od</b>,</td> +<td><i>to rule</i> [<b>rīce</b>].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sealf-ian</b>,</td> +<td><b>sealf-ode</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesealf-od</b>,</td> +<td><i>to anoint</i> [salve].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>segl-ian</b>,</td> +<td><b>segl-ode</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesegl-od</b>,</td> +<td><i>to sail</i> [<b>segel</b>].</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—These verbs have no trace +of original umlaut, since their <b>-ian</b> was once <b>-ōjan</b>. +Hence, the vowel of the stem was shielded from the influence of the +<b>j</b> (= <b>i</b>) by the interposition of <b>ō</b>.</p> + + +<h4>Conjugation of Class II.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_131" id = "sec_131">131.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigm of <b>lufian</b>, <i>to love</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "4"><b>Indicative.</b></td> +<td class = "center" colspan = "4"><b>Subjunctive.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic lufie</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">lufie</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðu lufast</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē lufað</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "8"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">lufiað</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">lufien</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "4"> +<span class = "pagenum">88</span> +<a name = "page88" id = "page88"> </a> +Preterit.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "4">Preterit.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic lufode</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">lufode</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū lufodest</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē lufode</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "8"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">lufedon (-odon)</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">lufeden (-oden)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><b>Imperative.</b></th> +<th><b>Infinitive.</b></th> +<th><b>Present Participle.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 2.</td> +<td>lufa</td> +<td class = "center">lufian</td> +<td class = "center">lufiende</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>lufian</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>lufiað</td> +<th><b>Gerund.</b></th> +<th><b>Past Participle.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td class = "center">tō lufianne (-enne)</td> +<td class = "center">gelufod</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note<ins class = "correction" title = +"superfluous ."> </ins>1.</span>—The <b>-ie</b> (<b>-ien</b>) +occurring in the present must be pronounced as a dissyllable. The +<b>y-</b>sound thus interposed between the <b>i</b> and <b>e</b> is +frequently indicated by the letter <b>g</b>: <b>lufie</b>, or +<b>lufige</b>; <b>lufien</b>, or <b>lufigen</b>. So also for <b>ia</b>: +<b>lufiað</b>, or <b>lufigað</b>; <b>lufian</b>, or +<b>lufig(e)an</b>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—In the preterit singular, +<b>-ade</b>, <b>-ude</b>, and <b>-ede</b> are not infrequent for +<b>-ode</b>.</p> + + +<h4>Class III.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_132" id = "sec_132">132.</a></h5> + +<p>The few verbs belonging here show a blending of Classes I and II. +Like certain verbs of Class I (<a href = +"#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), the preterit and past participle are +formed by adding <b>-de</b> and <b>-d</b>; like Class II, the 2d and 3d +present indicative singular end in <b>-ast</b> and <b>-að</b>, the +imperative 2d singular in <b>-a</b>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>habb-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>hæf-de</b><ins class = "correction" title = ", missing">, </ins></td> +<td><b>gehæf-d</b>,</td> +<td><i>to have</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>libb-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>lif-de</b><ins class = "correction" title = ", missing">, </ins></td> +<td><b>gelif-d</b>,</td> +<td><i>to live</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sęcg-an</b><ins class = "correction" title = ", missing">, </ins></td> +<td><b>sǣd-e</b> (<b>sæg-de</b>),</td> +<td><b>gesǣd</b> (<b>gesæg-d</b>),</td> +<td><i>to say</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum">89</span> +<a name = "page89" id = "page89"> </a> +<h4>Conjugation of Class III.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_133" id = "sec_133">133.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>habban</b>, <i>to have</i>; <b>libban</b>, <i>to +live</i>; <b>sęcgan</b>, <i>to say</i>.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Indicative.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "6">Present.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic hæbbe</td> +<td>libbe</td> +<td>sęcge</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū hæfst (hafast)</td> +<td>lifast</td> +<td>sægst (sagast)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē hæfð (hafað)</td> +<td>lifað</td> +<td>sægð (sagað)</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">habbað</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>libbað</td> +<td>sęcgað</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "6">Preterit.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic hæfde</td> +<td>lifde</td> +<td>sǣde</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū hæfdest</td> +<td>lifdest</td> +<td>sǣdest</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē hæfde</td> +<td>lifde</td> +<td>sǣde</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">hæfdon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>lifdon</td> +<td>sǣdon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Subjunctive.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "6">Present.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">hæbbe</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +<td>libbe</td> +<td>sęcge</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">hæbben</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>libben</td> +<td>sęcgen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "6">Preterit.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">hæfde</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +<td>lifde</td> +<td>sǣde</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">hæfden</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>lifden</td> +<td>sǣden</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Imperative.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hafa</td> +<td>lifa</td> +<td>saga</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">habban</td> +<td>libban</td> +<td>sęcgan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">habbað</td> +<td>libbað</td> +<td>sęcgað</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> +<span class = "pagenum">90</span> +<a name = "page90" id = "page90"> </a> + </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"> +<b>Infinitive.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr class = "center"> +<td colspan = "4">habban</td> +<td>libban</td> +<td>sęcgan</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Gerund.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr class = "center"> +<td colspan = "4">tō habbanne (-enne)</td> +<td>tō libbanne (-enne)</td> +<td>tō sęcganne (-enne)</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Present Participle.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr class = "center"> +<td colspan = "4">hæbbende</td> +<td>libbende</td> +<td>sęcgende</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Past Participle.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr class = "center"> +<td colspan = "4">gehæfd</td> +<td>gelifd</td> +<td>gesǣd</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XXII" id = "chap_XXII"> +CHAPTER XXII.</a></h3> + +<p><span class = "smallcaps">Remaining Verbs</span>; <span class = +"smallcaps">Verb-Phrases with</span> <b>habban</b>, <b>bēon</b>, <span +class = "smallcaps">and</span> <b>weorðan</b>.</p> + + +<h4>Anomalous Verbs. (See <a href = "#sec_19">§ 19</a>.)</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_134" id = "sec_134">134.</a></h5> + +<p>These are:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>bēon</b> (<b>wesan</b>),</td> +<td><b>wæs</b>,</td> +<td><b>wǣron</b>,</td> +<td>——,</td> +<td><i>to be</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>willan</b>,</td> +<td><b>wolde</b>,</td> +<td><b>woldon</b>,</td> +<td>——,</td> +<td><i>to will</i>, <i>intend</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>dōn</b>,</td> +<td><b>dyde</b>,</td> +<td><b>dydon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gedōn</b>,</td> +<td><i>to do</i>, <i>cause</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>gān</b>,</td> +<td><b>ēode</b>,</td> +<td><b>ēodon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gegān</b>,</td> +<td><i>to go</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—In the original +Indo-Germanic language, the first person of the present indicative +singular ended in (1) <b>ō</b> or (2) <b>mi</b>. <i>Cf.</i> +Gk. <span class = "greek" title = "lu-ô">λύ-ω</span>, <span class = +"greek" title = "ei-mi">εἰ-μί</span>, Lat. <i>am-ō</i>, <i>su-m</i>. The +Strong and Weak Conjugations of O.E. are survivals of the +<b>ō-</b>class. The four Anomalous Verbs mentioned above are the sole +remains in O.E. of the <b>mi-</b>class. Note the surviving <b>m</b> in +<b>eom</b> <i>I am</i>, and <b>dōm</b> <i>I do</i> (Northumbrian form). +These <b>mi-</b>verbs are sometimes called non-Thematic to distinguish +them from the Thematic or <b>ō-</b>verbs.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">91</span> +<a name = "page91" id = "page91"> </a> +<h4>Conjugation of Anomalous Verbs.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_135" id = "sec_135">135.</a></h5> + +<p>Only the present indicative and subjunctive are at all irregular:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "7"><b>Indicative.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "7">Present.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic eom (bēom)</td> +<td>wille</td> +<td>dō</td> +<td>gā</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū eart (bist)</td> +<td>wilt</td> +<td>dēst</td> +<td>gǣst</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē is (bið)</td> +<td>wille</td> +<td>dēð</td> +<td>gǣð</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "7"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">sind(on)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>willað</td> +<td>dōð</td> +<td>gāð</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "7"><b>Subjunctive.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "7">Present.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">sīe</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +<td>wille</td> +<td>dō</td> +<td>gā</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "5"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">sīen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>willen</td> +<td>dōn</td> +<td>gān</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The preterit subjunctive of +<b>bēon</b> is formed, of course, not from <b>wæs</b>, but from +<b>wǣron</b>. See <a href = +"#sec_103">§ <b>103</b>, (3)</a>.</p> + + +<h4>Preterit-Present Verbs. (See <a href = "#sec_19">§ 19</a>.)</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_136" id = "sec_136">136.</a></h5> + +<p>These verbs are called Preterit-Present because the present tense +(indicative and subjunctive) of each of them is, in form, a strong +preterit, the old present having been displaced by the new. They all +have weak preterits. Most of the Mn.E. Auxiliary Verbs belong to +this class.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td><b>witan</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><b>wiste</b>,<br> +<b>wisse</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td colspan = "2"><b>wiston</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>gewiten</b>,</td> +<td><i>to know</i> [to wit, wot].</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><b>āgan</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>āhte</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "2"><b>āhton</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>āgen</b> (adj.),</td> +<td><i>to possess</i> [owe].</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "middle"> +<td><b>cunnan</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>cūðe</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "2"><b>cūðon</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><b>gecunnen</b>,<br> +<b>cūð</b> (adj.),</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td><i>to know</i>, <i>can</i> [uncouth, cunning].</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "pagenum">92</span> +<a name = "page92" id = "page92"> </a> +<b>durran</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>dorste</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "2"><b>dorston</b>,</td> +<td class = "center" colspan = "3">——</td> +<td><i>to dare</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sculan</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>sceolde</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "2"><b>sceoldon</b>,</td> +<td class = "center" colspan = "3">——</td> +<td><i>shall</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "middle"> +<td><b>magan</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td colspan = "2"><b>meahte</b>,<br> +<b>mihte</b>,</td> +<td><b>meahton</b>,<br> +<b>mihton</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "center" colspan = "3">——</td> +<td><i>to be able</i>, <i>may</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><b>mōtan</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>mōste</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "2"><b>mōston</b>,</td> +<td class = "center" colspan = "3">——</td> +<td><i>may</i>, <i>must</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The change in meaning from +preterit to present, with retention of the preterit form, is not +uncommon in other languages. Several examples are found in Latin and +Greek (cf. <i>nōvi</i> and <span class = "greek" title = +"oida">οἶδα</span>, <i>I know</i>). Mn.E. has gone further still: +<b>āhte</b> and <b>mōste</b>, which had already suffered the loss of +their old preterits (<b>āh</b>, <b>mōt</b>), have been forced back again +into the present (<i>ought</i>, <i>must</i>). Having exhausted, +therefore, the only means of preterit formation known to Germanic, the +strong and the weak, it is not likely that either <i>ought</i> or +<i>must</i> will ever develop distinct preterit forms.</p> + + +<h4>Conjugation of Preterit-Present Verbs.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_137" id = "sec_137">137.</a></h5> + +<p>The irregularities occur in the present indicative and +subjunctive:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "10"><b>Indicative.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "10">Present.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic wāt</td> +<td>āh</td> +<td>cǫn (can)</td> +<td>dear</td> +<td>sceal</td> +<td>mæg</td> +<td>mōt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū wāst</td> +<td>āhst</td> +<td>cǫnst (canst)</td> +<td>dearst</td> +<td>scealt</td> +<td>meaht</td> +<td>mōst</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē wāt</td> +<td>āh</td> +<td>cǫn (can)</td> +<td>dear</td> +<td>sceal</td> +<td>mæg</td> +<td>mōt</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "10"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">witon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>āgon</td> +<td>cunnon</td> +<td>durron</td> +<td>sculon</td> +<td>magon</td> +<td>mōton</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "10"><b>Subjunctive.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "10">Present.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">wite</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +<td>āge</td> +<td>cunne</td> +<td>durre</td> +<td>scule (scyle)</td> +<td>mæge</td> +<td>mōte</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "8"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">witen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>āgen</td> +<td>cunnen</td> +<td>durren</td> +<td>sculen (scylen)</td> +<td>mægen</td> +<td>mōten</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—<b>Willan</b> and +<b>sculan</b> do not often connote simple futurity in Early West Saxon, +yet they were fast drifting that way. +<span class = "pagenum">93</span> +<a name = "page93" id = "page93"> </a> +The Mn.E. use of <i>shall</i> only with the 1st person and <i>will</i> +only with the 2d and 3d, to express simple futurity, was wholly unknown +even in Shakespeare’s day. The elaborate distinctions drawn between +these words by modern grammarians are not only cumbersome and foreign to +the genius of English, but equally lacking in psychological basis.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—<b>Sculan</b> originally +implied the idea of (1) <i>duty</i>, or <i>compulsion</i> +(= <i>ought to</i>, or <i>must</i>), and this conception lurks with +more or less prominence in almost every function of <b>sculan</b> in +O.E.: <b>Dryhten bebēad Moyse hū hē sceolde beran ðā earce</b>, <i>The +Lord instructed Moses how he ought to bear the ark</i>; <b>Ǣlc mann +sceal be his andgietes mǣðe ... sprecan ðæt he spricð, and dōn ðæt ðæt +hē dēð</b>, <i>Every man must, according to the measure of his +intelligence, speak what he speaks, and do what he does</i>. Its next +most frequent use is to express (2) <i>custom</i>, the transition +from the obligatory to the customary being an easy one: <b>Sē byrdesta +sceall gyldan fīftȳne mearðes fell</b>, <i>The man of highest rank pays +fifteen marten skins</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 3.</span>—<b>Willan</b> expressed +originally (1) <i>pure volition</i>, and this is its most frequent use +in O.E. It may occur without the infinitive: <b>Nylle ic ðæs +synfullan dēað, ac ic wille ðæt hē gecyrre and lybbe</b>, <i>I do not +desire the sinner’s death, but I desire that he return and live</i>. The +wish being father to the intention, <b>willan</b> soon came to express +(2) <i>purpose</i>: <b>Hē sǣde ðæt hē at sumum cirre wolde fandian +hū longe ðæt land norðryhte lǣge</b>, <i>He said that he intended, at +some time, to investigate how far that land extended northward</i>.</p> + + +<h4>Verb-Phrases with <i>habban</i>, <i>bēon</i> (<i>wesan</i>), and +<i>weorðan</i>.<br> +<span class = "subhead"><i>Verb-Phrases in the Active +Voice.</i></span></h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_138" id = "sec_138">138.</a></h5> + +<p>The present and preterit of <b>habban</b>, combined with a past +participle, are used in O.E., as in Mn.E., to form the present perfect +and past perfect tenses:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present Perfect.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "4">Past Perfect.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic hæbbe gedrifen</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic hæfde gedrifen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū hæfst gedrifen</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū hæfdest gedrifen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē hæfð gedrifen</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē hæfde gedrifen</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "8"> +<span class = "pagenum">94</span> +<a name = "page94" id = "page94"> </a> + </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">habbað gedrifen</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">hæfdon gedrifen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The past participle is not usually inflected to agree with the direct +object: <b>Norðymbre ǫnd Ēastęngle hæfdon Ælfrede cyninge āðas +geseald</b> (not <b>gesealde</b>, <a href = +"#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>), <i>The Northumbrians and East Anglians +had given king Alfred oaths</i>; <b>ǫnd hæfdon miclne dǣl ðāra horsa +freten</b> (not <b>fretenne</b>), <i>and (they) had devoured a large +part of the horses</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Many sentences might be +quoted in which the participle does agree with the direct object, but +there seems to be no clear line of demarcation between them and the +sentences just cited. Originally, the participle expressed a +<i>resultant state</i>, and belonged in sense more to the object than to +<b>habban</b>; but in Early West Saxon <b>habban</b> had already, in the +majority of cases, become a pure auxiliary when used with the past +participle. This is conclusively proved by the use of <b>habban</b> with +intransitive verbs. In such a clause, therefore, as <b>oð ðæt hīe hine +ofslægenne hæfdon</b>, there is no occasion to translate <i>until they +had him slain</i> (= <i>resultant state</i>); the agreement here is +more probably due to the proximity of <b>ofslægenne</b> to <b>hine</b>. +So also <b>ac hī hæfdon þā hiera stemn gesętenne</b>, <i>but they had +already served out</i> (<i>sat out</i>) <i>their military term</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_139" id = "sec_139">139.</a></h5> + +<p>If the verb is intransitive, and denotes <i>a change of +condition</i>, <i>a departure or arrival</i>, <b>bēon</b> (<b>wesan</b>) +usually replaces <b>habban</b>. The past participle, in such cases, +partakes of the nature of an adjective, and generally agrees with the +subject: <b>Mīne welan þe ic īo hæfde syndon ealle gewitene ǫnd +gedrorene</b>, <i>My possessions which I once had are all departed and +fallen away</i>; <b>wǣron þā męn uppe on lǫnde of āgāne</b>, <i>the men +had gone up ashore</i>; <b>ǫnd þā ōþre wǣron hungre ācwolen</b>, <i>and +the +<span class = "pagenum">95</span> +<a name = "page95" id = "page95"> </a> +others had perished of hunger</i>; <b>ǫnd ēac sē micla hęre wæs þā þǣr +tō cumen</b>, <i>and also the large army had then arrived there</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_140" id = "sec_140">140.</a></h5> + +<p>A progressive present and preterit (not always, however, with +distinctively progressive meanings) are formed by combining a present +participle with the present and preterit of <b>bēon</b> (<b>wesan</b>). +The participle remains uninflected: <b>ǫnd hīe alle on ðone cyning wǣrun +feohtende</b>, <i>and they all were fighting against the king</i>; +<b>Symle hē bið lōciende, nē slǣpð hē nǣfre</b>, <i>He is always +looking, nor does He ever sleep</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—In most sentences of this +sort, the subject is masculine (singular or plural); hence no inference +can be made as to agreement, since <b>-e</b> is the participial ending +for both numbers of the nominative masculine (<a href = +"#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>). By analogy, therefore, the other +genders usually conform in inflection to the masculine: <b>wǣron þā +ealle þā dēoflu clypigende ānre stefne</b>, <i>then were all the devils +crying with one voice</i>.</p> + + +<h4 class = "subhead"><i>Verb-Phrases in the Passive Voice.</i></h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_141" id = "sec_141">141.</a></h5> + +<p>Passive constructions are formed by combining <b>bēon</b> +(<b>wesan</b>) or <b>weorðan</b> with a past participle. The participle +agrees regularly with the subject: <b>hīe wǣron benumene ǣgðer ge þæs +cēapes ge þæs cornes</b>, <i>they were deprived both of the cattle and +the corn</i>; <b>hī bēoð āblęnde mid ðǣm þīostrum heora scylda</b>, +<i>they are blinded with the darkness of their sins</i>; <b>and sē +wælhrēowa Domiciānus on ðām ylcan gēare wearð ācweald</b>, <i>and the +murderous Domitian was killed in the same year</i>; <b>ǫnd Æþelwulf +aldormǫn wearð ofslægen</b>, <i>and Æthelwulf, alderman, was +slain</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—To express agency, Mn.E. +employs <i>by</i>, rarely <i>of</i>; M.E. <i>of</i>, rarely <i>by</i>; +O.E. <b>frǫm</b> (<b>fram</b>), rarely <b>of</b>: <b>Sē ðe Godes bebodu +<span class = "pagenum">96</span> +<a name = "page96" id = "page96"> </a> +ne gecnǣwð, ne bið hē oncnāwen frǫm Gode</b>, <i>He who does not +recognise God’s commands, will not be recognized by God</i>; <b>Betwux +þǣm wearð ofslagen Ēadwine ... fram Brytta cyninge</b>, <i>Meanwhile, +Edwin was slain by the king of the Britons</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—O.E. had no progressive +forms for the passive, and could not, therefore, distinguish between +<i>He is being wounded</i> and <i>He is wounded</i>. It was not until +more than a hundred years after Shakespeare’s death that <i>being</i> +assumed this function. <b>Weorðan</b>, which originally denoted <i>a +passage from one state to another</i>, was ultimately driven out by +<b>bēon</b> (<b>wesan</b>), and survives now only in <i>Woe worth</i> +(= <i>be to</i>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_142" id = "sec_142">142.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>ðā Beormas</b>, <i>Permians</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðā Dęeniscan</b>, <i>the Danish</i> (<i>men</i>), +<i>Danes</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðā Finnas</b>, <i>Fins</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt gewald</b>, <i>control</i> [<b>wealdan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>sēo sǣ</b>, <i>sea</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo scīr</b>, <i>shire</i>, <i>district</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo wælstōw</b>, <i>battle-field</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āgan wælstōwe gewald</b>, <i>to maintain possession of the +battle-field</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē wealdend</b>, <i>ruler</i>, <i>wielder</i>.</p> +</div> + +<table class = "vocab" summary = "verbs in vocabulary"> +<tr> +<td><b>geflīeman</b>,</td> +<td><b>geflīemde</b>,</td> +<td><b>geflīemed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to put to flight</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>gestaðelian</b>,</td> +<td><b>gestaðelode</b>,</td> +<td><b>gestaðelod</b>,</td> +<td><i>to establish</i>, <i>restore</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>gewissian</b>,</td> +<td><b>gewissode</b>,</td> +<td><b>gewissod</b>,</td> +<td><i>to guide</i>, <i>direct</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>wīcian</b>,</td> +<td><b>wīcode</b>,</td> +<td><b>gewīcod</b>,</td> +<td><i>to dwell</i> [<b>wīc</b> = village].</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_143" id = "sec_143">143.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><span class = "smallcaps"> Exercises.</span></p> + +<p>I. 1. Ǫnd ðær wæs micel wæl geslægen on gehwæþre hǫnd, ǫnd Æþelwulf +ealdormǫn wearþ ofslægen; ǫnd þā Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe gewald. +2. Ǫnd þæs ymb ānne mōnaþ gefeaht Ælfred cyning wiþ ealne þone hęre +ond hine geflīemde. 3. Hē sǣde þēah þæt þæt land sīe swīþe lang +norþ þǫnan. 4. Þā Beormas hæfdon swīþe wel gebūd (<a href = +"#sec_126">§ <b>126</b>, Note 2</a>) hiera land. +5. Ohthęre sǣde þæt sēo scīr hātte (<a href = +"#sec_117">§ <b>117</b>, Note 2</a>) Hālgoland, þe hē on (<a +href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (5)</a>) būde. 6. Þā Finnas +wīcedon be þǣre sǣ. 7. Dryhten, ælmihtiga (<a href = +"#sec_78">§ <b>78</b>, Note</a>) God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra +gesceafta, ic bidde +<span class = "pagenum">97</span> +<a name = "page97" id = "page97"> </a> +ðē for ðīnre miclan mildheortnesse ðæt ðū mē gewissie tō ðīnum willan; +and gestaðela mīn mōd tō ðīnum willan and tō mīnre sāwle ðearfe. +8. Þā sceolde hē ðǣr bīdan ryhtnorþanwindes, for ðǣm þæt land bēag +þǣr sūðryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt land, hē nysse hwæðer. 9. For +ðȳ, mē ðyncð bętre, gif ēow swā ðyncð, ðæt wē ēac ðās bēc on ðæt geðēode +węnden ðe wē ealle gecnāwan mægen.</p> + +<p>II. 1. When the king heard that, he went (= then went he) westward +with his army to Ashdown. 2. Lovest thou me more than these? +3. The men said that the shire which they lived in was called +Halgoland. 4. All things were made (<b>wyrcan</b>) by God. +5. They were fighting for two days with (= against) the Danes. +6. King Alfred fought with the Danes, and gained the victory; but +the Danes retained possession of the battle-field. 7. These men +dwelt in England before they came hither. 8. I have not seen the +book of (<b>ymbe</b>) which you speak (<b>sprecan</b>).</p> + +</div> +<!-- end div textbook --> + + +<div class = "readings"> + +<span class = "pagenum">98</span> +<a name = "page98" id = "page98"> </a> + +<h2><a name = "part_III" id = "part_III"> +PART III.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +<img src = "images/decsmall.gif" width = "34" height = "18" +alt = "----"><br> +SELECTIONS FOR READING.<br> +<img src = "images/decsmall.gif" width = "34" height = "18" +alt = "----"></span> +</h2> + +<h3><a name = "prose" id = "prose"> +PROSE.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead">Introductory.</span></h3> + +<h4>I. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.</h4> + +<p><span class = "firstword">This</span> famous work, a series of +progressive annals by unknown hands, embraces a period extending from +Cæsar’s invasion of England to 1154. It is not known when or where these +annals began to be recorded in English.</p> + +<p>“The annals from the year 866—that of Ethelred’s ascent of the +throne—to the year 887 seem to be the work of one mind. Not a +single year is passed over, and to several is granted considerable +space, especially to the years 871, 878, and 885. The whole has gained a +certain roundness and fulness, because the events—nearly all of +them episodes in the ever-recurring conflict with the Danes—are +taken in their connection, and the thread dropped in one year is resumed +in the next. Not only is the style in itself concise; it has a sort of +nervous severity and pithy rigor. The construction is often antiquated, +and suggests at times the freedom of poetry; though this purely +historical prose is far removed from poetry in profusion of language.” +(Ten Brink, <i>Early Eng. Lit.</i>, I.)</p> + +<h4>II. The Translations of Alfred.</h4> + +<p>Alfred’s reign (871-901) may be divided into four periods. The +<i>first</i>, the period of Danish invasion, extends from 871 to +<span class = "pagenum">99</span> +<a name = "page99" id = "page99"> </a> +881; the <i>second</i>, the period of comparative quiet, from 881 to +893; the <i>third</i>, the period of renewed strife (beginning with the +incursions of Hasting), from 893 to 897; the <i>fourth</i>, the period +of peace, from 897 to 901. His literary work probably falls in the +second period.<a class = "plain" name = "tag_x" id = "tag_x" href = +"#note_x">*</a></p> + +<p>The works translated by Alfred from Latin into the vernacular were +(1) <i>Consolation of Philosophy</i> (<i>De Consolatione +Philosophiae</i>) by Boëthius (475-525), (2) <i>Compendious History +of the World</i> (<i>Historiarum Libri VII</i>) by Orosius +(c. 418), (3) <i>Ecclesiastical History of the English</i> +(<i>Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum</i>) by Bede (672-735), and +(4) <i>Pastoral Care</i> (<i>De Cura Pastorali</i>) by Pope +Gregory the Great (540-604).</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +The chronological sequence of these works is wholly unknown. That given +is supported by Turner, Arend, Morley, Grein, and Pauli. Wülker argues +for an exact reversal of this order. According to Ten Brink, the order +was more probably (1) <i>Orosius</i>, (2) <i>Bede</i>, +(3) <i>Boëthius</i>, and (4) <i>Pastoral Care</i>. The most +recent contribution to the subject is from Wülfing, who contends for +(1) <i>Bede</i>, (2) <i>Orosius</i>, (3) <i>Pastoral +Care</i>, and (4) <i>Boëthius</i>.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note_x" id = "note_x" href = "#tag_x">*</a> +There is something inexpressibly touching in this clause from the great +king’s pen: gif wē ðā stilnesse habbað. He is speaking of how much he +hopes to do, by his translations, for the enlightenment of his +people.</p> + + +<h3><a name = "chapIII_I" id = "chapIII_I"> +I. THE BATTLE OF ASHDOWN.</a></h3> + +<p class = "notation"> +[From the <i>Chronicle</i>, Parker MS. The event and date are +significant. The Danes had for the first time invaded Wessex. Alfred’s +older brother, Ethelred, was king; but to Alfred belongs the glory of +the victory at Ashdown (Berkshire). Asser (<i>Life of Alfred</i>) tells +us that for a long time Ethelred remained praying in his tent, while +Alfred and his followers went forth “like a wild boar against the +hounds.”]</p> + +<div class = "prose"> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line99_1" id = "line99_1">1</a></span> +871. Hēr cuōm<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_1" id = "tag_rI_1" href = +"#note_rI_1">1</a> sē hęre tō Rēadingum on Westseaxe,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line99_2" id = "line99_2">2</a></span> +ǫnd þæs ymb iii niht ridon ii eorlas ūp. Þa gemētte hīe</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">100</span> +<a name = "page100" id = "page100"> </a> +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +Æþelwulf aldorman<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_2" id = "tag_rI_2" href += "#note_rI_2">2</a> on Ęnglafelda, ǫnd him þǣr wiþ gefeaht,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +ǫnd sige nam. Þæs ymb iiii niht Æþered cyning</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +ǫnd Ælfred his brōþur<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_3" id = "tag_rI_3" +href = "#note_rI_3">3</a> þǣr micle fierd tō Rēadingum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +gelǣddon, ǫnd wiþ þone hęre gefuhton; ǫnd þǣr wæs</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +micel wæl geslægen on gehwæþre hǫnd, ǫnd Æþelwulf</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +aldormǫn wearþ ofslægen; ǫnd þa Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +gewald.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line100_8" id = "line100_8">8</a></span> +Ǫnd þæs ymb iiii niht <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote100_8">gefeaht</a> Æþered cyning ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +Ælfred his brōþur wiþ alne<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_4" id = +"tag_rI_4" href = "#note_rI_4">4</a> þone hęre on Æscesdūne.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +Ǫnd hīe wǣrun<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_5" id = "tag_rI_5" href = +"#note_rI_5">5</a> on twǣm gefylcum: on ōþrum wæs</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +Bāchsęcg ǫnd Halfdęne þā hǣþnan cyningas, ǫnd on</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +ōþrum wǣron þā eorlas. Ǫnd þā gefeaht sē cyning</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +Æþered wiþ þāra cyninga getruman, ǫnd þǣr wearþ sē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +cyning Bāgsęcg ofslægen; ǫnd Ælfred his brōþur wiþ</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +þāra eorla getruman, ǫnd þǣr wearþ Sidroc eorl ofslægen</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +sē alda,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_6" id = "tag_rI_6" href = +"#note_rI_6">6</a> ǫnd Sidroc eorl sē gioncga,<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rI_7" id = "tag_rI_7" href = "#note_rI_7">7</a> ǫnd Ōsbearn +eorl,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +ǫnd Frǣna eorl, ǫnd Hareld eorl; ǫnd þā hęrgas<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rI_8" id = "tag_rI_8" href = "#note_rI_8">8</a> bēgen</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line100_18" id = "line100_18">18</a></span> +geflīemde, <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote100_18">ǫnd fela +þūsenda ofslægenra</a>, ǫnd onfeohtende</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +wǣron oþ niht.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">20</span> +Ǫnd þæs ymb xiiii niht gefeaht Æþered cyning ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +Ælfred his brōður wiþ þone hęre æt Basengum, ǫnd þǣr</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +þa Dęniscan sige nāmon.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">23</span> +Ǫnd þæs ymb ii mōnaþ gefeaht Æþered cyning ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">24</span> +Ælfred his brōþur wiþ þone hęre æt Męretūne, ǫnd hīe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">25</span> +wǣrun on tuǣm<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_9" id = "tag_rI_9" href = +"#note_rI_9">9</a> gefylcium, ǫnd hīe būtū geflīemdon, ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">26</span> +lǫnge on dæg sige āhton; ǫnd þǣr wearþ micel wælsliht</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">27</span> +on gehwæþere hǫnd; ǫnd þā Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">101</span> +<a name = "page101" id = "page101"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +gewald; ǫnd þær wearþ Hēahmund bisceop ofslægen,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +ǫnd fela gōdra mǫnna. Ǫnd æfter þissum gefeohte cuōm<a class = "tag" +name = "tag_rI_1b" id = "tag_rI_1b" href = "#note_rI_1">1</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +micel sumorlida.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">4</span> +Ǫnd þæs ofer Ēastron gefōr Æþered cyning; ǫnd hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +rīcsode v gēar; ǫnd his līc līþ æt Wīnburnan.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">6</span> +Þā fēng Ælfred Æþelwulfing his brōþur tō Wesseaxna</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +rīce. Ǫnd þæs ymb ānne mōnaþ gefeaht Ælfred cyning</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +wiþ alne<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_4b" id = "tag_rI_4b" href = +"#note_rI_4">4</a> þone hęre lȳtle werede<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rI_10" id = "tag_rI_10" href = "#note_rI_10">10</a> æt Wiltūne, ǫnd +hine</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +lǫnge on dæg geflīemde, ǫnd þā Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +gewald.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">11</span> +Ǫnd þæs gēares wurdon viiii folcgefeoht gefohten wiþ</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line101_12" id = "line101_12">12</a></span> +þone hęre on þȳ cynerīce be sūþan Tęmese, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote101_12">būtan þām þe</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +him Ælfred þæs cyninges brōþur ǫnd ānlīpig aldormǫn<a class = "tag" name += "tag_rI_2b" id = "tag_rI_2b" href = "#note_rI_2">2</a> ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +cyninges þegnas oft rāde onridon þe mǫn nā ne rīmde;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +ǫnd þæs gēares wǣrun<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_5b" id = "tag_rI_5b" +href = "#note_rI_5">5</a> ofslægene viiii eorlas ǫnd ān cyning.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +Ǫnd þȳ gēare nāmon Westseaxe friþ wiþ þone hęre.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenote100_8" id = "linenote100_8" href = +"#line100_8">100.8.</a> +<b>gefeaht</b>. Notice that the singular is used. This is the more +common construction in O.E. when a compound subject, composed of +singular members, follows its predicate. Cf. <i>For thine is the +kingdom, and the power, and the glory</i>. See also <a href = +"#linenote107_14">p. 107, note on <b>wæs</b></a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote100_18" id = "linenote100_18" href = +"#line100_18">100.18.</a> +<b>ǫnd fela þūsenda ofslægenra</b>, <i>and there were many thousands of +slain</i> (<a href = "#sec_91">§ <b>91</b></a>).</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote101_12" id = "linenote101_12" href = +"#line101_12">101.12.</a> +<b>būtan þām þe</b>, etc., <i>besides which, Alfred ... made raids +against them</i> (<b>him</b>), <i>which were not counted</i>. See +<a href = "#sec_70">§ <b>70</b>, Note</a>.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "center smallcaps"> +Consult Glossary and Paradigms under Forms given below.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +No note is made of such variants as <b>y</b> (<b>ȳ</b>) or <b>i</b> +(<b>ī</b>) for <b>ie</b> (<b>īe</b>). See Glossary under <b>ie</b> +(<b>īe</b>); occurrences, also, of <b>and</b> for <b>ǫnd</b>, +<b>land</b> for <b>lǫnd</b>, are found on almost every page of Early +West Saxon. Such words should be sought for under the more common forms, +<b>ǫnd</b>, <b>lǫnd</b>.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_1" id = "note_rI_1" href = +"#tag_rI_1">1</a> += cwōm.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_2" id = "note_rI_2" href = +"#tag_rI_2">2</a> += ealdormǫn.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_3" id = "note_rI_3" href = +"#tag_rI_3">3</a> += brōþor.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_4" id = "note_rI_4" href = +"#tag_rI_4">4</a> += ealne.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_5" id = "note_rI_5" href = +"#tag_rI_5">5</a> += wǣron.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_6" id = "note_rI_6" href = +"#tag_rI_6">6</a> += ealda.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_7" id = "note_rI_7" href = +"#tag_rI_7">7</a> += geonga.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_8" id = "note_rI_8" href = +"#tag_rI_8">8</a> += hęras.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_9" id = "note_rI_9" href = +"#tag_rI_9">9</a> += twǣm.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_10" id = "note_rI_10" href = +"#tag_rI_10">10</a> += werode.</p> +</div> + + +<h3><a name = "chapIII_II" id = "chapIII_II"> +II. A PRAYER OF KING ALFRED.</a></h3> + +<p class = "notation"> +[With this characteristic prayer, Alfred concludes his translation of +Boëthius’s <i>Consolation of Philosophy</i>. Unfortunately, the only +extant MS. (Bodleian 180) is Late West Saxon. I follow, therefore, +Prof. A. S. Cook’s normalization on an Early West Saxon basis. See +Cook’s <i>First Book in Old English</i>, p. 163.]</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">102</span> +<a name = "page102" id = "page102"> </a> +<div class = "prose"> +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +Dryhten, ælmihtiga God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +gesceafta, ic bidde ðē for ðīnre miclan mildheortnesse,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line102_3" id = "line102_3">3</a></span> +and for ðǣre hālgan rōde tācne, and for Sanctæ <a class = "linenote" +href = "#linenote102_3">Marian</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +mægðhāde, and for Sancti <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote102_3">Michaeles</a> gehīersumnesse, and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +for ealra ðīnra hālgena lufan and hīera earnungum, ðæt</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +ðū mē gewissie bęt ðonne ic āworhte tō ðē; and gewissa</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +mē tō ðīnum willan, and tō mīnre sāwle ðearfe, bęt ðonne</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +ic self cunne; and gestaðela mīn mōd tō ðinum willan and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +tō mīnre sāwle ðearfe; and gestranga mē wið ðæs dēofles</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +costnungum; and āfierr fram mē ðā fūlan gālnesse and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +ǣlce unrihtwīsnesse; and gescield mē wið mīnum wiðerwinnum,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +gesewenlīcum and ungesewenlīcum; and tǣc mē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +ðīnne willan tō wyrceanne; ðæt ic mæge ðē inweardlīce</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +lufian tōforan eallum ðingum, mid clǣnum geðance and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +mid clǣnum līchaman. For ðon ðe ðū eart mīn Scieppend,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +and mīn Alīesend, mīn Fultum, mīn Frōfor, mīn Trēownes,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line102_17" id = "line102_17">17</a></span> +and mīn Tōhopa. <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote102_17">Sīe ðē +lof</a> and wuldor nū and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line102_18" id = "line102_18">18</a></span> +ā ā ā, tō worulde būtan ǣghwilcum ęnde. Amen.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenote102_3" id = "linenote102_3" href = +"#line102_3">102.3-4.</a> +<b>Marian ... Michaeles</b>. O.E. is inconsistent in the treatment of +foreign names. They are sometimes naturalized, and sometimes retain in +part their original inflections. <b>Marian</b>, an original accusative, +is here used as a genitive; while <b>Michaeles</b> has the O.E. genitive +ending.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote102_17" id = "linenote102_17" href = +"#line102_17">102.17.</a> +<b>Sīe ðē lof</b>. See <a href = "#sec_105">§ <b>105</b></a>, 1.</p> +</div> + + +<h3><a name = "chapIII_III" id = "chapIII_III"> +III. THE VOYAGES OF OHTHERE AND WULFSTAN.</a></h3> + +<p class = "notation"> +[Lauderdale and Cottonian MSS. These voyages are an original insertion +by Alfred into his translation of Orosius’s <i>Compendious History of +the World</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +“They consist,” says Ten Brink, “of a complete description of all the +countries in which the Teutonic tongue prevailed at Alfred’s time, and a +full narrative of the travels of two voyagers, which the king wrote down +from their own lips. One of these, a Norwegian named Ohthere, had +quite +<span class = "pagenum">103</span> +<a name = "page103" id = "page103"> </a> +circumnavigated the coast of Scandinavia in his travels, and had even +penetrated to the White Sea; the other, named Wulfstan, had sailed from +Schleswig to Frische Haff. The geographical and ethnographical details +of both accounts are exceedingly interesting, and their style is +attractive, clear, and concrete.”</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +Ohthere made two voyages. Sailing first northward along the western +coast of Norway, he rounded the North Cape, passed into the White Sea, +and entered the Dwina River (<b>ān micel ēa</b>). On his +second voyage he sailed southward along the western coast of Norway, +entered the Skager Rack (<b>wīdsǣ</b>), passed through the Cattegat, and +anchored at the Danish port of Haddeby (<b>æt Hǣþum</b>), modern +Schleswig.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +Wulfstan sailed only in the Baltic Sea. His voyage of seven days from +Schleswig brought him to Drausen (<b>Trūsō</b>) on the shore of the +Drausensea.]</p> + +<h4>Ohthere’s First Voyage.</h4> + +<div class = "prose"> +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +Ōthęre sǣde his hlāforde, Ælfrede cyninge, þæt hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +ealra Norðmǫnna norþmest būde. Hē cwæð þæt hē būde</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +on þǣm lande norþweardum wiþ þā Westsæ. Hē sǣde</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +þēah þæt þæt land sīe swīþe lang norþ þonan; ac hit is</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +eal wēste, būton on fēawum stōwum styccemælum wīciað</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +Finnas, on huntoðe on wintra, ǫnd on sumera on fiscaþe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +be þǣre sǣ. Hē sǣde þæt hē æt sumum cirre wolde</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +fandian hū lǫnge þæt land norþryhte lǣge, oþþe hwæðer</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +ǣnig mǫn be norðan þǣm wēstenne būde. Þā fōr hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +norþryhte be þǣm lande: lēt him ealne weg þæt wēste</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +land on ðæt stēorbord, ǫnd þā wīdsǣ on ðæt bæcbord þrīe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +dagas. Þā wæs hē swā feor norþ swā þā hwælhuntan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +firrest faraþ. Þā fōr hē þā gīet norþryhte swā feor swā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +hē meahte on þǣm ōþrum þrīm dagum gesiglan. Þā bēag</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +þæt land þǣr ēastryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt lǫnd, hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +nysse hwæðer, būton hē wisse ðæt hē ðǣr bād westanwindes</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +ǫnd hwōn norþan, ǫnd siglde ðā ēast be lande</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +swā swā hē meahte on fēower dagum gesiglan. Þā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +sceolde hē ðǣr bīdan ryhtnorþanwindes, for ðǣm þæt</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +land bēag þǣr sūþryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt land, hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +nysse hwæþer. Þā siglde hē þǫnan sūðryhte be lande</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">104</span> +<a name = "page104" id = "page104"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +swā swā hē męhte<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIa_1" id = "tag_rIIIa_1" +href = "#note_rIIIa_1">1</a> on fīf dagum gesiglan. Ðā læg þǣr</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +ān micel ēa ūp in on þæt land. Þā cirdon hīe ūp in on</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +ðā ēa, for þǣm hīe ne dorston forþ bī þǣre ēa siglan for</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +unfriþe; for þǣm ðæt land wæs eall gebūn on ōþre healfe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +þǣre ēas. Ne mētte hē ǣr nān gebūn land, siþþan hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line104_6" id = "line104_6">6</a></span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote104_6">frǫm his āgnum hām</a> +fōr; ac him wæs ealne weg wēste</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +land on þæt stēorbord, būtan fiscerum ǫnd fugelerum ōnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line104_8" id = "line104_8">8</a></span> +huntum, <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote104_8">ǫnd þæt wǣron</a> +eall Finnas; ǫnd him wæs ā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +wīdsǣ on ðæt bæcbord. Þā Beormas hæfdon swīþe wel</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +gebūd hira land: ac hīe ne dorston þǣr on cuman. Ac</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +þāra Terfinna land wæs eal wēste, būton ðǣr huntan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +gewīcodon, oþþe fisceras, oþþe fugeleras.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">13</span> +Fela spella him sǣdon þā Beormas ǣgþer ge of hiera</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +āgnum lande ge of þǣm landum þe ymb hīe ūtan wǣron;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line104_15" id = "line104_15">15</a></span> +ac hē nyste <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote104_15">hwæt þæs +sōþes wæs</a>, for þǣm hē hit self ne</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +geseah. Þā Finnas, him þūhte, ǫnd þā Beormas sprǣcon</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +nēah ān geþēode. Swīþost hē fōr ðider, tō ēacan þæs</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +landes scēawunge, for þǣm horshwælum, for ðǣm hīe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +habbað swīþe æþele bān on hiora<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIa_2" id += "tag_rIIIa_2" href = "#note_rIIIa_2">2</a> tōþum—þā tēð hīe +brōhton</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +sume þǣm cyninge—ǫnd hiora hȳd bið swīðe gōd tō</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +sciprāpum. Sē hwæl bið micle lǣssa þonne ōðre hwalas:</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +ne bið hē lęngra ðonne syfan<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIa_3" id = +"tag_rIIIa_3" href = "#note_rIIIa_3">3</a> ęlna lang; ac on his +āgnum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">23</span> +lande is sē bętsta hwælhuntað: þā bēoð eahta and fēowertiges</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">24</span> +ęlna lange, and þā mǣstan fīftiges ęlna lange;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line104_25" id = "line104_25">25</a></span> +þāra hē sǣde þæt hē <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote104_25">syxa +sum</a> ofslōge syxtig on twām</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">26</span> +dagum.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">105</span> +<a name = "page105" id = "page105"> </a> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">1</span> +Hē wæs swȳðe spēdig man on þǣm ǣhtum þe heora<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rIIIa_2b" id = "tag_rIIIa_2b" href = "#note_rIIIa_2">2</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line105_2" id = "line105_2">2</a></span> +spēda <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote105_2">on bēoð</a>, þæt is, +on wildrum. Hē hæfde þā gȳt, ðā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +hē þone cyningc<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIa_5" id = "tag_rIIIa_5" +href = "#note_rIIIa_5">5</a> sōhte, tamra dēora unbebohtra syx hund.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +Þā dēor hī hātað ‘hrānas’; þāra wǣron syx stælhrānas;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +ðā bēoð swȳðe dȳre mid Finnum, for ðǣm hȳ fōð þā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +wildan hrānas mid. Hē wæs mid þǣm fyrstum mannum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +on þǣm lande: næfde hē þēah mā ðonne twēntig hrȳðera,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +and twēntig scēapa, and twēntig swȳna; and þæt lȳtle</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +þæt hē ęrede, hē ęrede mid horsan.<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIa_4" +id = "tag_rIIIa_4" href = "#note_rIIIa_4">4</a> Ac hyra ār is mǣst</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +on þǣm gafole þe ðā Finnas him gyldað. Þæt gafol bið</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +on dēora fellum, and on fugela feðerum, and hwales bāne,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +and on þǣm sciprāpum þe bēoð of hwæles hȳde geworht</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +and of sēoles. Ǣghwilc gylt be hys gebyrdum. Sē byrdesta</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +sceall gyldan fīftȳne mearðes fell, and fīf hrānes,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +and ān beren fel, and tȳn ambra feðra, and berenne kyrtel</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +oððe yterenne, and twēgen sciprāpas; ǣgþer sȳ syxtig</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +ęlna lang, ōþer sȳ of hwæles hȳde geworht, ōþer of sīoles.<a class = +"tag" name = "tag_rIIIa_6" id = "tag_rIIIa_6" href = +"#note_rIIIa_6">6</a></p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">18</span> +Hē sǣde ðæt Norðmanna land wǣre swȳþe lang and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line105_19" id = "line105_19">19</a></span> +swȳðe smæl. <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote105_19">Eal þæt his +man</a> āðer oððe ęttan oððe ęrian</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +mæg, þæt līð wið ðā sǣ; and þæt is þēah on sumum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +stōwum swȳðe clūdig; and licgað wilde mōras wið ēastan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +and wið ūpp on emnlange þǣm bȳnum lande. On þǣm</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">23</span> +mōrum eardiað Finnas. And þæt bȳne land is ēasteweard</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">24</span> +brādost, and symle swā norðor swā smælre. Ēastewęrd<a class = "tag" name += "tag_rIIIa_7" id = "tag_rIIIa_7" href = "#note_rIIIa_7">7</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">25</span> +hit mæg bīon<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIa_8" id = "tag_rIIIa_8" +href = "#note_rIIIa_8">8</a> syxtig mīla brād, oþþe hwēne brǣdre;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">26</span> +and middeweard þrītig oððe brādre; and norðeweard hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">27</span> +cwæð, þǣr hit smalost wǣre, þæt hit mihte bēon þrēora</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">28</span> +mīla brād tō þǣm mōre; and sē mōr syðþan,<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rIIIa_9" id = "tag_rIIIa_9" href = "#note_rIIIa_9">9</a> on +sumum</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">106</span> +<a name = "page106" id = "page106"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +stōwum, swā brād swā man mæg on twām wucum oferfēran;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +and on sumum stōwum swā brād swā man mæg</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +on syx dagum oferfēran.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">4</span> +Ðonne is tōemnes þǣm lande sūðeweardum, on ōðre</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +healfe þæs mōres, Swēoland, oþ þæt land norðeweard;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +and tōemnes þǣm lande norðeweardum, Cwēna land. Þā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +Cwēnas hęrgiað hwīlum on ðā Norðmęn ofer ðone mōr,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +hwīlum þā Norðmęn on hȳ. And þǣr sint swīðe micle</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +męras fersce geond þā mōras; and berað þā Cwēnas hyra</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +scypu ofer land on ðā męras, and þanon hęrgiað on ðā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line106_11" id = "line106_11">11</a></span> +Norðmęn; hȳ habbað swȳðe lȳtle <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote106_11">scypa and swȳðe</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote106_11">leohte</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenote104_6" id = "linenote104_6" href = +"#line104_6">104.6.</a> +<b>frǫm his āgnum hām</b>. An adverbial dative singular without an +inflectional ending is found with <b>hām</b>, <b>dæg</b>, <b>morgen</b>, +and <b>ǣfen</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote104_8" id = "linenote104_8" href = +"#line104_8">104.8.</a> +<b>ǫnd þæt wǣron</b>. See <a href = "#sec_40">§ <b>40</b>, Note +3</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote104_15" id = "linenote104_15" href = +"#line104_15">104.15.</a> +<b>hwæt þæs sōþes wæs</b>. Sweet errs in explaining <b>sōþes</b> as +attracted into the genitive by <b>þæs</b>. It is not a predicate +adjective, but a partitive genitive after <b>hwæt</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote104_25" id = "linenote104_25" href = +"#line104_25">104.25.</a> +<b>syxa sum</b>. See <a href = "#sec_91">§ <b>91</b>, Note 2</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote105_2" id = "linenote105_2" href = +"#line105_2">105.2.</a> +<b>on bēoð</b>. See <a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (5)</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote105_19" id = "linenote105_19" href = +"#line105_19">105.19.</a> +<b>Eal þæt his man</b>. Pronominal genitives are not always possessive +in O.E.; <b>his</b> is here the partitive genitive of <b>hit</b>, the +succeeding relative pronoun being omitted: <i>All that</i> +(<i>portion</i>) <i>of it that may, either-of-the-two, either be grazed +or plowed</i>, etc. (<a href = "#sec_70">§ <b>70</b>, +Note</a>).</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote106_11" id = "linenote106_11" href = +"#line106_11">106.11-12.</a> +<b>scypa ... leohte</b>. These words exhibit inflections more frequent +in Late than in Early West Saxon. The normal forms would be +<b>scypu</b>, <b>leoht</b>; but in Late West Saxon the <b>-u</b> of +short-stemmed neuters is generally replaced by <b>-a</b>; and the +nominative accusative plural neuter of adjectives takes, by analogy, the +masculine endings; <b>hwate</b>, <b>gōde</b>, <b>hālge</b>, instead of +<b>hwatu</b>, <b>gōd</b>, <b>hālgu</b>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_1" id = "note_rIIIa_1" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_1">1</a> += meahte, mihte.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_2" id = "note_rIIIa_2" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_2">2</a> += hiera.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_3" id = "note_rIIIa_3" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_3">3</a> += seofon.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_4" id = "note_rIIIa_4" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_4">4</a> += horsum.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_5" id = "note_rIIIa_5" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_5">5</a> += cyning.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_6" id = "note_rIIIa_6" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_6">6</a> += sēoles.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_7" id = "note_rIIIa_7" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_7">7</a> += -weard.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_8" id = "note_rIIIa_8" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_8">8</a> += bēon.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_9" id = "note_rIIIa_9" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_9">9</a> += siððan.</p> +</div> + +<h4>Ohthere’s Second Voyage.</h4> + +<div class = "prose"> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +Ōhthęre sǣde þæt sīo<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIb_1" id = +"tag_rIIIb_1" href = "#note_rIIIb_1">1</a> scīr hātte Hālgoland, þe hē +on</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +būde. Hē cwæð þæt nān man ne būde be norðan him.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +Þonne is ān port on sūðeweardum þǣm lande, þone man</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +hǣt Sciringeshēal. Þyder hē cwæð þæt man ne mihte</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +geseglian on ānum mōnðe, gyf man on niht wīcode, and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +ǣlce dæge hæfde ambyrne wind; and ealle ðā hwīle hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +sceal seglian be lande. And on þæt stēorbord him bið</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +ǣrest Īraland, and þonne ðā īgland þe synd betux Īralande</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +and þissum lande. Þonne is þis land, oð hē cymð</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +tō Scirincgeshēale, and ealne weg on þæt bæcbord Norðweg.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">107</span> +<a name = "page107" id = "page107"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +Wið sūðan þone Sciringeshēal fylð swȳðe mycel</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +sǣ ūp in on ðæt land; sēo is brādre þonne ǣnig man ofer</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +sēon mæge. And is Gotland on ōðre healfe ongēan, and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +siððan Sillęnde. Sēo sǣ līð mænig<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIb_2" +id = "tag_rIIIb_2" href = "#note_rIIIb_2">2</a> hund mīla ūp in on</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +þæt land.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">6</span> +And of Sciringeshēale hē cwæð ðæt hē seglode on fīf</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line107_7" id = "line107_7">7</a></span> +dagan<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIb_3" id = "tag_rIIIb_3" href = +"#note_rIIIb_3">3</a> tō þǣm porte þe mǫn hǣt <a class = "linenote" href += "#linenote107_7">æt Hǣþum</a>; sē stęnt</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +betuh Winedum, and Seaxum, and Angle, and hȳrð in</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +on Dęne. Ðā hē þiderweard seglode fram Sciringeshēale,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +þā wæs him on þæt bæcbord Dęnamearc and on</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +þæt stēorbord wīdsǣ þrȳ dagas; and þā, twēgen dagas ǣr</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +hē tō Hǣþum cōme, him wæs on þæt stēorbord Gotland,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +and Sillęnde, and īglanda fela. On þǣm landum eardodon</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line107_14" id = "line107_14">14</a></span> +Ęngle, ǣr hī hider on land cōman.<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIb_4" +id = "tag_rIIIb_4" href = "#note_rIIIb_4">4</a> And hym <a class = +"linenote" href = "#linenote107_14">wæs</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote107_14">ðā twēgen dagas on ðæt +bæcbord þā īgland</a> þe in on</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +Dęnemearce hȳrað.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenote107_7" id = "linenote107_7" href = +"#line107_7">107.7.</a> +<b>æt Hǣþum</b>. “This pleonastic use of <i>æt</i> with names of places +occurs elsewhere in the older writings, as in the Chronicle (552), ‘in +þǣre stōwe þe is genęmned æt Searobyrg,’ where the <i>æt</i> has been +erased by some later hand, showing that the idiom had become obsolete. +<i>Cp.</i> the German ‘Gasthaus zur Krone,’ Stamboul = <i>es tān +pólin</i>.” (Sweet.) See, also, <i>Atterbury</i>, § 28, +Note 3.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote107_14" id = "linenote107_14" href = +"#line107_14">107.14-15.</a> +<b>wæs ... þā īgland</b>. The singular predicate is due again to +inversion (<a href = "#linenote100_8">p. 100, note on +<b>gefeaht</b></a>). The construction is comparatively rare in O.E., but +frequent in Shakespeare and in the popular speech of to-day. Cf. +<i>There is</i>, <i>Here is</i>, <i>There has been</i>, etc., with a +(single) plural subject following.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIb_1" id = "note_rIIIb_1" href = +"#tag_rIIIb_1">1</a> += sēo.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIb_2" id = "note_rIIIb_2" href = +"#tag_rIIIb_2">2</a> += mǫnig.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIb_3" id = "note_rIIIb_3" href = +"#tag_rIIIb_3">3</a> += dagum.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIb_4" id = "note_rIIIb_4" href = +"#tag_rIIIb_4">4</a> += cōmen.</p> +</div> + + +<h4>Wulfstan’s Voyage.</h4> + +<div class = "prose"> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +Wulfstān sǣde þæt hē gefōre of Hǣðum, þæt hē wǣre</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +on Trūsō on syfan dagum and nihtum, þæt þæt scip wæs</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +ealne weg yrnende under segle. Weonoðland him wæs</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">108</span> +<a name = "page108" id = "page108"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line108_1" id = "line108_1">1</a></span> +on stēorbord, and on bæcbord <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote108_1">him</a> wæs Langaland, and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +Lǣland, and Falster, and Scōnēg; and þās land eall</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +hȳrað tō Dęnemearcan. And þonne Burgenda land wæs</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote108_1">ūs</a> on bæcbord, and þā +habbað him sylfe<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIc_1" id = "tag_rIIIc_1" +href = "#note_rIIIc_1">1</a> cyning. Þonne</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +æfter Burgenda lande wǣron ūs þās land, þā synd hātene</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +ǣrest Blēcinga-ēg, and Mēore, and Ēowland, and Gotland</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +on bæcbord; and þās land hȳrað tō Swēom. And Weonodland</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +wæs ūs ealne weg on stēorbord oð Wīslemūðan.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +Sēo Wīsle is swȳðe mycel ēa, and hīo<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rIIIc_2" id = "tag_rIIIc_2" href = "#note_rIIIc_2">2</a> tōlīð +Wītland and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +Weonodland; and þæt Wītland belimpeð tō Estum; and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +sēo Wīsle līð ūt of Weonodlande, and līð in Estmęre;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +and sē Estmęre is hūru fīftēne<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIc_3" id = +"tag_rIIIc_3" href = "#note_rIIIc_3">3</a> mīla brād. Þonne cymeð</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +Ilfing ēastan in Estmęre of ðām męre, ðe Trūsō standeð</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +in stæðe; and cumað ūt samod in Estmęre, Ilfing ēastan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +of Estlande, and Wīsle sūðan of Winodlande. And</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +þonne benimð Wīsle Ilfing hire naman, and ligeð of þǣm</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +męre west and norð on sǣ; for ðȳ hit man hǣt</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +Wīslemūða.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">19</span> +Þæt Estland is swȳðe mycel, and þǣr bið swȳðe manig</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +burh, and on ǣlcere byrig bið cyning. And þǣr bið</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +swȳðe mycel hunig, and fiscnað; and sē cyning and þā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +rīcostan męn drincað mȳran meolc, and þā unspēdigan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">23</span> +and þā þēowan drincað medo.<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIc_4" id = +"tag_rIIIc_4" href = "#note_rIIIc_4">4</a> Þǣr bið swȳðe mycel</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">24</span> +gewinn betwēonan him. And ne bið ðǣr nǣnig ealo<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rIIIc_5" id = "tag_rIIIc_5" href = "#note_rIIIc_5">5</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">25</span> +gebrowen mid Estum, ac þǣr bið medo genōh. And þǣr</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">26</span> +is mid Estum ðēaw, þonne þǣr bið man dēad, þæt hē līð</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">27</span> +inne unforbærned mid his māgum and frēondum mōnað,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">28</span> +ge hwīlum twēgen; and þā cyningas, and þā ōðre hēahðungene</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">29</span> +męn, swā micle lęncg<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIc_6" id = +"tag_rIIIc_6" href = "#note_rIIIc_6">6</a> swā hī māran spēda</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">30</span> +habbað, hwīlum healf gēar þæt hī bēoð unforbærned, and</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">109</span> +<a name = "page109" id = "page109"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +licgað bufan eorðan on hyra hūsum. And ealle þā hwīle</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line109_2" id = "line109_2">2</a></span> +þe þæt līc bið inne, þǣr <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote109_2">sceal</a> bēon gedrync and plega,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +oð ðone dæg þe hī hine forbærnað. Þonne þȳ ylcan dæge</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +þe hī hine tō þǣm āde beran wyllað, þonne tōdǣlað hī</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +his feoh, þæt þǣr tō lāfe bið æfter þǣm gedrynce and þǣm</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line109_6" id = "line109_6">6</a></span> +plegan, on fīf oððe syx, hwȳlum on mā, swā swā þæs fēos</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line109_7" id = "line109_7">7</a></span> +andēfn bið. <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote109_7">Ālęcgað +hit</a> ðonne forhwæga on ānre mīle</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +þone mǣstan dǣl fram þǣm tūne, þonne ōðerne, ðonne</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +þone þriddan, oþ þe hyt eall ālēd bið on þǣre ānre mīle;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +and sceall bēon sē lǣsta dǣl nȳhst þǣm tūne ðe sē dēada</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +man on lið. Ðonne sceolon<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIc_7" id = +"tag_rIIIc_7" href = "#note_rIIIc_7">7</a> bēon gesamnode ealle ðā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +męnn ðe swyftoste hors habbað on þǣm lande, forhwæga</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +on fīf mīlum oððe on syx mīlum fram þǣm fēo. Þonne</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +ærnað hȳ ealle tōweard þǣm fēo: ðonne cymeð sē man</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +sē þæt swiftoste hors hafað tō þǣm ǣrestan dǣle and tō</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +þǣm mǣstan, and swā ǣlc æfter ōðrum, oþ hit bið eall</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +genumen; and sē nimð þone lǣstan dǣl sē nȳhst þǣm</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line109_18" id = "line109_18">18</a></span> +tūne þæt feoh geærneð. And þonne rīdeð ǣlc hys weges</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +mid ðǣm fēo, and hyt mōtan<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIc_8" id = +"tag_rIIIc_8" href = "#note_rIIIc_8">8</a> habban eall; and for ðȳ</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +þǣr bēoð þā swiftan hors ungefōge dȳre. And þonne his</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +gestrēon bēoð þus eall āspęnded, þonne byrð man hine ūt,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +and forbærneð mid his wǣpnum and hrægle; and swīðost</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">110</span> +<a name = "page110" id = "page110"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +ealle hys spēda hȳ forspęndað mid þǣm langan legere</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line110_2" id = "line110_2">2</a></span> +þæs dēadan mannes inne, and þæs þe hȳ be þǣm wegum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +ālęcgað, þe ðā fręmdan tō ærnað, and nimað. And þæt</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +is mid Estum þēaw þæt þǣr sceal ǣlces geðēodes man</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line110_5" id = "line110_5">5</a></span> +bēon forbærned; and gyf þār<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIc_9" id = +"tag_rIIIc_9" href = "#note_rIIIc_9">9</a> <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote110_5">man ān bān findeð unforbærned,</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote110_5">hī</a> hit sceolan<a class += "tag" name = "tag_rIIIc_7b" id = "tag_rIIIc_7b" href = +"#note_rIIIc_7">7</a> miclum gebētan. And þǣr is mid</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line110_7" id = "line110_7">7</a></span> +Estum ān mǣgð þæt hī magon cyle gewyrcan; and þȳ</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +þǣr licgað þā dēadan męn swā lange, and ne fūliað, þæt</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +hȳ wyrcað þone cyle him on. And þēah man āsętte</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +twēgen fǣtels full ealað oððe wæteres, hȳ gedōð þæt</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +ǣgþer bið oferfroren, sam hit sȳ sumor sam winter.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenote108_1" id = "linenote108_1" href = +"#line108_1">108.1-4.</a> +<b>him ... ūs</b>. Note the characteristic change of person, the +transition from <i>indirect</i> to <i>direct discourse</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote109_2" id = "linenote109_2" href = +"#line109_2">109.2.</a> +<b>sceal</b>. See <a href = "#sec_137">§ <b>137</b>, Note 2 (2)</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote109_7" id = "linenote109_7" href = +"#line109_7">109.7.</a> +<b>Ālęcgað hit</b>. Bosworth illustrates thus:</p> + +<table summary = "illustrative diagram"> +<tr> +<td colspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/pg109note.png" width = "346" height = "39" +alt = "see end of text"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +Where the<br> +horsemen<br> +assemble. +</td> +<td class = "right"> +The six parts of<br> +the property placed<br> +within one mile.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>“The horsemen assemble five or six miles from the property, at +<i>d</i> or <i>e</i>, and run towards <i>c</i>; the man who has the +swiftest horse, coming first to 1 or <i>c</i>, takes the first and +largest part. The man who has the horse coming second takes part 2 or +<i>b</i>, and so, in succession, till the least part, 6 or <i>a</i>, is +taken.”</p> + +<p class = "right"><span class = "mynote"> +<a href = "#ascii_note">Text version of illustration</a></span></p> + +<p><a name = "linenote110_5" id = "linenote110_5" href = +"#line110_5">110.5-6.</a> +<b>man ... hī</b>. Here the plural <b>hī</b> refers to the singular +<b>man</b>. <i>Cf.</i> <a href = "#line109_18">p. 109, +ll. 18-19</a>, <b>ǣlc ... mōtan</b>. In <i>Exodus</i> xxxii, 24, we +find “<i>Whosoever</i> hath any gold, let <i>them</i> break it off”; and +Addison writes, “I do not mean that I think <i>anyone</i> to blame +for taking due care of <i>their</i> health.” The construction, though +outlawed now, has been common in all periods of our language. Paul +remarks (<i>Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte</i>, 3d ed., § 186) +that “When a word is used as an indefinite [one, man, somebody, etc.] it +is, strictly speaking, incapable of any distinction of number. Since, +however, in respect of the external form, a particular number has +to be chosen, it is a matter of indifference which this is.... Hence a +change of numbers is common in the different languages.” Paul fails to +observe that the change is always from singular to plural, not from +plural to singular. See <i>Note on the Concord of Collectives and +Indefinites</i> (Anglia XI, 1901). See <a href = +"#linenote119_19">p. 119, note on ll. 19-21</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_1" id = "note_rIIIc_1" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_1">1</a> += selfe.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_2" id = "note_rIIIc_2" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_2">2</a> += hēo.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_3" id = "note_rIIIc_3" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_3">3</a> += fīftīene.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_4" id = "note_rIIIc_4" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_4">4</a> += medu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_5" id = "note_rIIIc_5" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_5">5</a> += ealu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_6" id = "note_rIIIc_6" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_6">6</a> += lęng.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_7" id = "note_rIIIc_7" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_7">7</a> += sculon.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_8" id = "note_rIIIc_8" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_8">8</a> += mōton.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_9" id = "note_rIIIc_9" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_9">9</a> += ðǣr.</p> +</div> + + +<span class = "pagenum">111</span> +<a name = "page111" id = "page111"> </a> + +<h3><a name = "chapIII_IV" id = "chapIII_IV"> +IV. THE STORY OF CÆDMON.</a></h3> + +<p class = "notation"> +[From the so-called Alfredian version of Bede’s <i>Ecclesiastical +History</i>. The text generally followed is that of MS. Bodley, Tanner +10. Miller (<i>Early English Text Society</i>, No. 95, +<i>Introd.</i>) argues, chiefly from the use of the prepositions, that +the original O.E. MS. was Mercian, composed possibly in Lichfield +(Staffordshire). At any rate, O.E. idiom is frequently sacrificed to the +Latin original.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +“Cædmon, as he is called, is the first Englishman whose name we know who +wrote poetry in our island of England; and the first to embody in verse +the new passions and ideas which Christianity had brought into +England.... Undisturbed by any previous making of lighter poetry, he +came fresh to the work of Christianising English song. It was a great +step to make. He built the chariot in which all the new religious +emotions of England could now drive along.” (Brooke, <i>The History of +Early English Literature</i>, cap. XV.) There is no reason to doubt +the historical existence of Cædmon; for Bede, who relates the story, +lived near Whitby, and was seven years old when Cædmon died (<span class += "smallroman">A.D.</span> 680)].</p> + +<div class = "prose"> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line111_1" id = "line111_1">1</a></span> +In <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote111_1">ðysse abbudissan</a> +mynstre wæs sum brōðor syndriglīce</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +mid godcundre gife gemǣred ǫnd geweorðad, for þon</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +he gewunade gerisenlīce lēoð wyrcan, þā ðe tō ǣfęstnisse<a class = "tag" +name = "tag_rIV_1" id = "tag_rIV_1" href = "#note_rIV_1">1</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +ǫnd tō ārfæstnisse belumpon; swā ðætte swā hwæt swā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +hē of godcundum stafum þurh bōceras geleornode, þæt hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +æfter medmiclum fæce in scopgereorde mid þā mǣstan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +swētnisse ǫnd inbryrdnisse geglęngde, ǫnd in Ęngliscgereorde</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +wel geworht forþ brōhte. Ǫnd for his lēoþsǫngum</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">112</span> +<a name = "page112" id = "page112"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +mǫnigra mǫnna mōd oft to worulde forhogdnisse ǫnd tō</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line112_2" id = "line112_2">2</a></span> +geþēodnisse þæs heofonlīcan līfes onbærnde wǣron. Ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line112_3" id = "line112_3">3</a></span> +ēac swelce<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_2" id = "tag_rIV_2" href = +"#note_rIV_2">2</a> mǫnige ōðre æfter him in Ǫngelþēode ongunnon</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line112_4" id = "line112_4">4</a></span> +ǣfęste lēoð wyrcan, <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote112_4">ac +nǣnig hwæðre him þæt gelīce</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote112_4">dōn ne meahte</a>; for þon +hē nālæs frǫm mǫnnum nē ðurh</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +mǫn gelǣred wæs þæt hē ðone lēoðcræft leornade, ac hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +wæs godcundlīce gefultumod, ǫnd þurh Godes gife þone</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +sǫngcræft onfēng; ǫnd hē for ðon nǣfre nōht lēasunge,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +nē īdles lēoþes wyrcan ne meahte, ac efne þā ān ðā ðē tō</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line112_10" id = "line112_10">10</a></span> +ǣfęstnisse<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_1b" id = "tag_rIV_1b" href = +"#note_rIV_1">1</a> belumpon <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote112_10">ǫnd his þā ǣfęstan tungan gedafenode</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote112_10">singan</a>.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">12</span> +Wæs hē, sē mǫn, in weoruldhāde<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_3" id = +"tag_rIV_3" href = "#note_rIV_3">3</a> gesęted oð þā tīde þe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +hē wæs gelȳfdre ylde, ǫnd nǣfre nǣnig lēoð geleornade.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line112_14" id = "line112_14">14</a></span> +Ǫnd hē for þon oft in gebēorscipe, þonne þǣr wæs <a class = "linenote" +href = "#linenote112_14">blisse</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote112_14">intinga</a> gedēmed, þæt +hēo<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_4" id = "tag_rIV_4" href = +"#note_rIV_4">4</a> ealle sceolden þurh ęndebyrdnesse</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +be hearpan singan, þonne hē geseah þā hearpan him</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +nēalēcan, þonne ārās hē for scǫme frǫm þǣm symble,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line112_18" id = "line112_18">18</a></span> +ǫnd hām ēode tō his hūse. Þā hē <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote112_18">þæt þā sumre tīde</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote112_18">dyde, þæt hē forlēt</a> +þæt hūs þæs gebēorscipes, ǫnd ūt wæs</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">113</span> +<a name = "page113" id = "page113"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line113_1" id = "line113_1">1</a></span> +gǫngende tō nēata scipene, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote113_1">þāra heord him wæs þǣre</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote113_1">nihte beboden</a>; þā hē +ðā þǣr on gelimplīcre tīde his</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +leomu<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_5" id = "tag_rIV_5" href = +"#note_rIV_5">5</a> on ręste gesętte ǫnd onslēpte, þa stōd him sum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +mǫn æt þurh swefn, ǫnd hine hālette ǫnd grētte, ǫnd hine</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +be his nǫman nęmnde: “Cædmǫn, sing mē hwæthwugu.”</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +Þā ǫndswarede hē, ǫnd cwæð: “Ne cǫn ic nōht singan;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +ǫnd ic for þon of þyssum gebēorscipe ūt ēode ǫnd hider</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +gewāt, for þon ic nāht singan ne cūðe.” Eft hē cwæð sē ðe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +wið hine sprecende wæs: “Hwæðre þū meaht mē singan.”</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +Þā cwæð hē: “Hwæt sceal ic singan?” Cwæð hē: “Sing</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +mē frumsceaft.” Þā hē ðā þās andsware onfēng, þā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +ongǫn hē sōna singan, in hęrenesse Godes Scyppendes,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line113_13" id = "line113_13">13</a></span> +þā fers ǫnd þā word þe hē nǣfre ne gehȳrde, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote113_13">þāra ęndebyrdnes</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote113_13">þis is</a>:</p> + +<div class = "poem"> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line113_15" id = "line113_15">15</a></span> +Nū sculon hęrigean<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_6" id = "tag_rIV_6" +href = "#note_rIV_6">6</a> heofonrīces Weard,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +Metodes meahte ǫnd his mōdgeþanc,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line113_17" id = "line113_17">17</a></span> +weorc Wuldorfæder, swā hē <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote113_17">wundra gehwæs</a>,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +ēce Drihten ōr onstealde.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">114</span> +<a name = "page114" id = "page114"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +Hē ǣrest scēop eorðan bearnum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line114_2" id = "line114_2">2</a></span> +heofon tō hrōfe, hālig Scyppend;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +þā middangeard mǫnncynnes Weard,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +ēce Drihten, æfter tēode</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +fīrum foldan, Frēa ælmihtig.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +Þā ārās hē frǫm þǣm slǣpe, ǫnd eal þā þe hē slǣpende</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line114_7" id = "line114_7">7</a></span> +sǫng fæste in gemynde hæfde; <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote114_7">ǫnd þǣm wordum</a> sōna</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +mǫnig word in þæt ilce gemet Gode wyrðes sǫnges</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote114_7">tōgeþēodde</a>. Þā cōm hē +on morgenne tō þǣm tūngerēfan,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +sē þe his ealdormǫn wæs: sægde him hwylce gife hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +onfēng; ǫnd hē hine sōna tō þǣre abbudissan gelǣdde,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +ǫnd hire þæt cȳðde ǫnd sægde. Þā heht hēo gesǫmnian</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +ealle þā gelǣredestan męn ǫnd þā leorneras, ǫnd him</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +ǫndweardum hēt sęcgan þæt swefn, ǫnd þæt lēoð singan,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +þæt ealra heora<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_7" id = "tag_rIV_7" href += "#note_rIV_7">7</a> dōme gecoren wǣre, hwæt oððe hwǫnan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line114_16" id = "line114_16">16</a></span> +þæt cumen wǣre. <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote114_16">Þā wæs +him eallum gesewen</a>, swā swā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +hit wæs, þæt him wǣre frǫm Drihtne sylfum heofonlīc</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">115</span> +<a name = "page115" id = "page115"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +gifu forgifen. Þā ręhton hęo<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_4b" id = +"tag_rIV_4b" href = "#note_rIV_4">4</a> him ǫnd sægdon sum hālig</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +spell ǫnd godcundre lāre word: bebudon him þā, gif hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +meahte, þæt hē in swīnsunge lēoþsǫnges þæt gehwyrfde.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +Þā hē ðā hæfde þā wīsan onfǫngne, þā ēode hē hām tō</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +his hūse, ǫnd cwōm eft on morgenne, ǫnd þȳ bętstan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +lēoðe geglęnged him āsǫng ǫnd āgeaf þæt him beboden</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +wæs.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">8</span> +Ðā ongan sēo abbudisse clyppan ǫnd lufigean<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rIV_8" id = "tag_rIV_8" href = "#note_rIV_8">8</a> þā Godes</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line115_9" id = "line115_9">9</a></span> +gife in þǣm męn, <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote115_9">ǫnd hēo +hine þā mǫnade</a> ǫnd lǣrde</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +þæt hē woruldhād forlēte ǫnd <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote115_9">munuchād onfēnge</a>: ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +hē þæt wel þafode. Ǫnd hēo hine in þæt mynster onfēng</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line115_12" id = "line115_12">12</a></span> +mid his gōdum, ǫnd hine geþēodde tō gesǫmnunge þāra</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +Godes þēowa, ǫnd heht hine lǣran þæt getæl þæs hālgan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line115_14" id = "line115_14">14</a></span> +stǣres ǫnd spelles. Ǫnd hē eal þā hē in gehȳrnesse</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line115_15" id = "line115_15">15</a></span> +geleornian meahte, mid hine gemyndgade, ǫnd swā swā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +clǣne nēten<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_9" id = "tag_rIV_9" href = +"#note_rIV_9">9</a> eodorcende in þæt swēteste lēoð gehwyrfde.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +Ǫnd his sǫng ǫnd his lēoð wǣron swā wynsumu tō gehȳranne,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line115_18" id = "line115_18">18</a></span> +þætte þā seolfan<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_10" id = "tag_rIV_10" +href = "#note_rIV_10">10</a> his lārēowas æt his mūðe writon</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +ǫnd leornodon. Sǫng hē ǣrest be middangeardes gesceape,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +ǫnd bī fruman mǫncynnes, ǫnd eal þæt stǣr Genesis (þæt</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +is sēo ǣreste Moyses bōc); ǫnd eft bī ūtgǫnge Israhēla</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +folces of Ǣgypta lǫnde, ǫnd bī ingǫnge þæs gehātlandes;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">23</span> +ǫnd bī ōðrum mǫnegum spellum þæs hālgan gewrites</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">116</span> +<a name = "page116" id = "page116"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +canōnes bōca; ǫnd bī Crīstes męnniscnesse, ǫnd bī his</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +þrōwunge, ǫnd bī his ūpāstīgnesse in heofonas; ǫnd bī</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +þæs Hālgan Gāstes cyme, ǫnd þāra apostola lāre; ǫnd eft</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +bī þǣm dæge þæs tōweardan dōmes, ǫnd bī fyrhtu þæs</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +tintreglīcan wītes, ǫnd bī swētnesse þæs heofonlīcan rīces,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line116_6" id = "line116_6">6</a></span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote116_6">hē monig lēoð +geworhte</a>; ǫnd swelce<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_2b" id = +"tag_rIV_2b" href = "#note_rIV_2">2</a> ēac ōðer mǫnig be</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +þǣm godcundan fręmsumnessum ǫnd dōmum hē geworhte.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +In eallum þǣm hē geornlīce gēmde<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_11" id += "tag_rIV_11" href = "#note_rIV_11">11</a> þæt hē męn ātuge</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +frǫm synna lufan ǫnd māndǣda, ǫnd tō lufan ǫnd tō</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +geornfulnesse āwęhte gōdra dǣda, for þon hē wæs, sē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +mǫn, swīþe ǣfęst ǫnd regollīcum þēodscipum ēaðmōdlīce</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +underþēoded; ǫnd wið þǣm þā ðe in ōðre wīsan dōn woldon,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +hē wæs mid welme<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_12" id = "tag_rIV_12" +href = "#note_rIV_12">12</a> micelre ęllenwōdnisse onbærned.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +Ǫnd hē for ðon fægre ęnde his līf betȳnde ǫnd geęndade.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenote111_1" id = "linenote111_1" href = +"#line111_1">111.1.</a> +<b>ðysse abbudissan.</b> The abbess referred to is the famous Hild, or +Hilda, then living in the monastery at Streones-halh, which, according +to Bede, means “Bay of the Beacon.” The Danes afterward gave it the name +Whitby, or “White Town.” The surroundings were eminently fitted to +nurture England’s first poet. “The natural scenery which surrounded him, +the valley of the Esk, on whose sides he probably lived, the great +cliffs, the billowy sea, the vast sky seen from the heights over the +ocean, played incessantly upon him.” (Brooke.)</p> + +<p>Note, also, in this connection, the numerous Latin words that the +introduction of Christianity (A.D. 597) brought into the vocabulary of +O.E.: <b>abbudisse</b>, <b>mynster</b>, <b>bisceop</b>, <b>Lǣden</b>, +<b>prēost</b>, <b>æstel</b>, <b>mancus</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote112_4" id = "linenote112_4" href = +"#line112_4">112.4-5.</a> +The more usual order of words would be <b>ac nǣnig, hwæðre, ne meahte +ðæt dōn gelīce him</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote112_10" id = "linenote112_10" href = +"#line112_10">112.10-11.</a> +<b>ǫnd his ... singan</b>, <i>and which it became his</i> (<i>the</i>) +<i>pious tongue to sing</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote112_14" id = "linenote112_14" href = +"#line112_14">112.14-15.</a> +<b>blisse intinga</b>, <i>for the sake of joy</i>; but the translator +has confused <i>laetitiae causā</i> (ablative) and <i>laetitiae +causa</i> (nominative). The proper form would be <b>for blisse</b> with +omission of <b>intingan</b>, just as <i>for my sake</i> is usually +<b>for mē</b>; <i>for his</i> (<i>or their</i>) <i>sake</i>, <b>for +him</b>. <i>Cf. Mark</i> vi, 26: “Yet <i>for his oath’s sake, and for +their sakes which sat with him</i>, he would not reject her,” <b>for ðǣm +āðe, ǫnd for ðǣm þe him mid sǣton</b>. <i>For his sake</i> is frequently +<b>for his ðingon</b> (<b>ðingum</b>), rarely <b>for his intingan</b>. +<b>Þingon</b> is regularly used when the preceding genitive is a noun +denoting a person: <i>for my wife’s sake</i>, <b>for mīnes wīfes +ðingon</b> (<i>Genesis</i> xx, 11), etc.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote112_18" id = "linenote112_18" href = +"#line112_18">112.18-19.</a> +<b>þæt ... þæt hē forlēt</b>. The substantival clause introduced by the +second <b>þæt</b> amplifies by apposition the first <b>þæt</b>: <i>When +he then, at a certain time</i> (instrumental case, <a href = +"#sec_98">§ <b>98</b>, (2)</a>), <i>did that, namely, when he left +the house</i>. The better Mn.E. would be <i>this ... that</i>: “Added +yet <i>this</i> above all, <i>that</i> he shut up John in prison” +(<i>Luke</i> iv, 20).</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote113_1" id = "linenote113_1" href = +"#line113_1">113.1-2.</a> +<b>þāra ... beboden</b>. This does not mean that Cædmon was a herdsman, +but that he served in turn as did the other secular attendants at the +monastery.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote113_13" id = "linenote113_13" href = +"#line113_13">113.13-14.</a> +<b>þāra ęndebyrdnes þis is</b>. Bede writes <i>Hic est sensus, non autem +ordo ipse verborum</i>, and gives in Latin prose a translation of the +hymn from the Northumbrian dialect, in which Cædmon wrote. The O.E. +version given above is, of course, not the Northumbrian original (which, +however, with some variations is preserved in several of the Latin MSS. +of Bede’s <i>History</i>), but a West Saxon version made also from the +Northumbrian, not from the Latin.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote113_15" id = "linenote113_15" href = +"#line113_15">113.15.</a> +<b>Nū sculon hęrigean</b>, <i>Now ought we to praise</i>. The subject +<b>wē</b> is omitted in the best MSS. Note the characteristic use of +synonyms, or epithets, in this bit of O.E. poetry. Observe that it is +not the <i>thought</i> that is repeated, but rather the <i>idea</i>, the +<i>concept</i>, God. See <a href = "#structure">p. 124</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote113_17" id = "linenote113_17" href = +"#line113_17">113.17.</a> +<b>wundra gehwæs</b>. See <a href = "#linenoteVI_769">p. 140, note +on <b>cēnra gehwylcum</b></a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote114_7" id = "linenote114_7" href = +"#line114_7">114.7-9.</a> +<b>ǫnd þǣm wordum ... tōgeþēodde</b>, <i>and to those words he soon +joined, in the same meter, many</i> (<i>other</i>) <i>words of song +worthy of God</i>. But the translator has not only blundered over Bede’s +Latin (<i>eis mox plura in eundem modum verba Deo digna carminis +adjunxit</i>), but sacrificed still more the idiom of O.E. The +predicate should not come at the end; <b>in</b> should be followed by +the dative; and for <b>Gode wyrðes sǫnges</b> the better O.E. would be +<b>sǫnges Godes wyrðes</b>. When used with the dative <b>wyrð</b> +(<b>weorð</b>) usually means <i>dear</i> (= <i>of worth</i>) +<i>to</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote114_16" id = "linenote114_16" href = +"#line114_16">114.16.</a> +<b>þā ... gesewen</b>. We should expect <b>frǫm him eallum</b>; but the +translator has again closely followed the Latin (<i>visumque est +omnibus</i>), as later (in the <i>Conversion of Edwin</i>) he +renders <i>Talis mihi videtur</i> by <b>þyslīc mē is gesewen</b>. +<i>Talis</i> (<b>þyslīc</b>) agreeing with a following <i>vita</i> +(<b>līf</b>). Ælfric, however, with no Latin before him, writes that +John <b>wearð ðā him</b> [= <b>frǫm Drihtene</b>] <b>inweardlīce +gelufod</b>. It would seem that in proportion as a past participle has +the force of an adjective, the <i>to</i> relation may supplant the +<i>by</i> relation; just as we say <i>unknown to</i> instead of +<i>unknown by</i>, <i>unknown</i> being more adjectival than +participial. <b>Gesewen</b>, therefore, may here be translated +<i>visible</i>, <i>evident</i>, <i>patent</i> (= <b>gesynelīc</b>, +<b>sweotol</b>); and <b>gelufod</b>, <i>dear</i> (= <b>weorð</b>, +<b>lēof</b>).</p> + +<p>A survival of adjectival <b>gesewen</b> is found in Wycliffe’s <i>New +Testament</i> (1 <i>Cor.</i> xv, 5-8): “He was <i>seyn to</i> +Cephas, and aftir these thingis <i>to</i> enleuene; aftirward he was +<i>seyn to</i> mo than fyue hundrid britheren togidere ... aftirward he +was <i>seyn to</i> James, and aftirward <i>to</i> alle the apostlis. And +last of alle he was <i>seyn to</i> me, as <i>to</i> a deed borun child.” +The construction is frequent in Chaucer.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote115_9" id = "linenote115_9" href = +"#line115_9">115.9-10.</a> +<b>ǫnd hēo hine þā mǫnade ... munuchād onfēnge</b>. Hild’s advice has in +it the suggestion of a personal experience, for she herself had lived +half of her life (thirty-three years) “before,” says Bede, “she +dedicated the remaining half to our Lord in a monastic life.”</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote116_6" id = "linenote116_6" href = +"#line116_6">116.6.</a> +<b>hē mǫnig lēoð geworhte</b>. The opinion is now gaining ground that of +these “many poems” only the short hymn, already given, has come down to +us. Of other poems claimed for Cædmon, the strongest arguments are +advanced in favor of a part of the fragmentary poetical paraphrase of +<i>Genesis</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_1" id = "note_rIV_1" href = +"#tag_rIV_1">1</a> += ǣfæstnesse.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_2" id = "note_rIV_2" href = +"#tag_rIV_2">2</a> += swilce.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_3" id = "note_rIV_3" href = +"#tag_rIV_3">3</a> += woruldhāde.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_4" id = "note_rIV_4" href = +"#tag_rIV_4">4</a> += hīe.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_5" id = "note_rIV_5" href = +"#tag_rIV_5">5</a> += limu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_6" id = "note_rIV_6" href = +"#tag_rIV_6">6</a> += hęrian.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_7" id = "note_rIV_7" href = +"#tag_rIV_7">7</a> += hiera.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_8" id = "note_rIV_8" href = +"#tag_rIV_8">8</a> += lufian.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_9" id = "note_rIV_9" href = +"#tag_rIV_9">9</a> += nīeten.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_10" id = "note_rIV_10" href = +"#tag_rIV_10">10</a> += selfan.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_11" id = "note_rIV_11" href = +"#tag_rIV_11">11</a> += gīemde.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_12" id = "note_rIV_12" href = +"#tag_rIV_12">12</a> += wielme.</p> +</div> + + +<h3><a name = "chapIII_V" id = "chapIII_V"> +V. ALFRED’S PREFACE TO THE PASTORAL CARE.</a></h3> + +<p class = "notation"> +[Based on the Hatton MS. Of the year 597, the <i>Chronicle</i> says: “In +this year, Gregory the Pope sent into Britain Augustine with very many +monks, who gospelled [preached] God’s word to the English folk.” Gregory +I, surnamed “The Great,” has ever since been considered the apostle of +English Christianity, and his <i>Pastoral Care</i>, which contains +instruction in conduct and doctrine for all bishops, was a work that +Alfred could not afford to leave untranslated. For this translation +Alfred wrote a <i>Preface</i>, the historical value of which it would be +hard to overrate. In it he describes vividly the intellectual ruin that +the Danes had wrought, and develops at the same time his plan for +repairing that ruin.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">117</span> +<a name = "page117" id = "page117"> </a> +<p class = "notation"> +This <i>Preface</i> and the <i>Battle of Ashdown</i> (<a href = +"#chapIII_I">p. 99</a>) show the great king in his twofold +character of warrior and statesman, and justify the inscription on the +base of the statue erected to him in 1877, at Wantage (Berkshire), his +birth-place: “Ælfred found Learning dead, and he restored it; Education +neglected, and he revived it; the laws powerless, and he gave them +force; the Church debased, and he raised it; the Land ravaged by a +fearful Enemy, from which he delivered it. Ælfred’s name will live as +long as mankind shall respect the Past.”]</p> + +<div class = "prose"> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line117_1" id = "line117_1">1</a></span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote117_1">Ælfred kyning</a> hāteð +grētan Wærferð biscep<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_1" id = "tag_rV_1" +href = "#note_rV_1">1</a> his wordum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +luflīce ǫnd frēondlīce; <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote117_1">ǫnd ðē cȳðan hāte</a> ðæt mē cōm</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +swīðe oft on gemynd, hwelce<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_2" id = +"tag_rV_2" href = "#note_rV_2">2</a> witan īu<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rV_3" id = "tag_rV_3" href = "#note_rV_3">3</a> wǣron giond<a class += "tag" name = "tag_rV_4" id = "tag_rV_4" href = "#note_rV_4">4</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +Angelcynn, ǣgðer ge godcundra hāda ge woruldcundra;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +ǫnd hū gesǣliglīca tīda ðā wǣron giond Angelcynn; ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +hū ðā kyningas ðe ðone onwald hæfdon ðæs folces on</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +ðām dagum Gode ǫnd his ǣrendwrecum hērsumedon<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rV_5" id = "tag_rV_5" href = "#note_rV_5">5</a>;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +ǫnd hū hīe ǣgðer ge hiora sibbe ge hiora siodo<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rV_6" id = "tag_rV_6" href = "#note_rV_6">6</a> ge hiora</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +onweald innanbordes gehīoldon,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_4b" id = +"tag_rV_4b" href = "#note_rV_4">4</a> ǫnd ēac ūt hiora ēðel</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +gerȳmdon; ǫnd hū him ðā spēow ǣgðer ge mid wīge ge</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +mid wīsdōme; ǫnd ēac ða godcundan hādas hū giorne</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +hīe wǣron ǣgðer ge ymb lāre ge ymb liornunga, ge ymb</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +ealle ðā ðīowotdōmas ðe hīe Gode dōn scoldon; ǫnd hū</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +man ūtanbordes wīsdōm ǫnd lāre hieder on lǫnd sōhte,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +ǫnd hū wē hīe nū sceoldon ūte begietan, gif wē hīe habban</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +sceoldon. Swǣ<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_7" id = "tag_rV_7" href = +"#note_rV_7">7</a> clǣne hīo wæs oðfeallenu on Angelcynne</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line117_17" id = "line117_17">17</a></span> +ðæt swīðe fēawa wǣron behionan Humbre ðe hiora ðēninga</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line117_18" id = "line117_18">18</a></span> +cūðen understǫndan on Ęnglisc oððe furðum ān ǣrendgewrit</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +of Lǣdene on Ęnglisc āręccean; ǫnd ic wēne ðætte</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +nōht mǫnige begiondan Humbre nǣren. Swǣ<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rV_7b" id = "tag_rV_7b" href = "#note_rV_7">7</a> fēawa</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +hiora wǣron ðæt ic furðum ānne ānlēpne<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_8" +id = "tag_rV_8" href = "#note_rV_8">8</a> ne mæg geðencean</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">118</span> +<a name = "page118" id = "page118"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +be sūðan Tęmese, ðā ðā ic tō rīce fēng. Gode ælmihtegum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +sīe ðǫnc ðætte wē nū ǣnigne onstāl habbað</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +lārēowa. Ǫnd for ðon ic ðē bebīode ðæt ðū dō swǣ<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rV_7c" id = "tag_rV_7c" href = "#note_rV_7">7</a> ic</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +gelīefe ðæt ðū wille, ðæt ðū ðē ðissa woruldðinga tō ðǣm</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line118_5" id = "line118_5">5</a></span> +geǣmetige, swǣ ðū oftost <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote118_5">mæge</a>, ðæt ðū ðone wīsdōm ðe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +ðē God sealde ðǣr ðǣr ðū hiene befæstan <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote118_5">mæge</a>, befæste.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +Geðęnc hwelc<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_9" id = "tag_rV_9" href = +"#note_rV_9">9</a> wītu ūs ðā becōmon for ðisse worulde, ðā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line118_8" id = "line118_8">8</a></span> +ðā wē hit nōhwæðer nē selfe ne lufodon, nē ēac ōðrum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line118_9" id = "line118_9">9</a></span> +mǫnnum ne lēfdon<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_10" id = "tag_rV_10" +href = "#note_rV_10">10</a>: <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote118_9">ðone naman</a> ānne wē lufodon ðætte</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +wē Crīstne wǣren, ǫnd swīðe <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote118_9">fēawe ðā ðēawas</a>.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">11</span> +Ðā ic ðā ðis eall gemunde, ðā gemunde ic ēac hū ic</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +geseah, ǣr ðǣm ðe hit eall forhęrgod wǣre ǫnd forbærned,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +hū ðā ciricean giond eall Angelcynn stōdon</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +māðma ǫnd bōca gefylda, ǫnd ēac micel męnigeo<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rV_11" id = "tag_rV_11" href = "#note_rV_11">11</a> Godes</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +ðīowa; ǫnd ðā swīðe lȳtle fiorme ðāra bōca wiston, for</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +ðǣm ðe hīe hiora nānwuht<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_12" id = +"tag_rV_12" href = "#note_rV_12">12</a> ongietan ne meahton, for</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +ðǣm ðe hīe nǣron on hiora āgen geðīode awritene.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +Swelce<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_13" id = "tag_rV_13" href = +"#note_rV_13">13</a> hīe cwǣden: “Ure ieldran, ðā ðe ðās stōwa ǣr</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +hīoldon, hīe lufodon wīsdōm, ǫnd ðurh ðone hīe begēaton</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +welan, ǫnd ūs lǣfdon. Hēr mǫn mæg gīet gesīon hiora</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +swæð, ac wē him ne cunnon æfter spyrigean,<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rV_14" id = "tag_rV_14" href = "#note_rV_14">14</a> ǫnd for</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +ðǣm wē habbað nū ǣgðer forlǣten ge ðone welan ge ðone</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">23</span> +wīsdōm, for ðǣm ðe wē noldon tō ðǣm spore mid ūre</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">24</span> +mōde onlūtan.”</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">25</span> +Ðā ic ðā ðis eall gemunde, ðā wundrade ic swīðe swīðe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">26</span> +ðāra gōdena wiotona<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_15" id = "tag_rV_15" +href = "#note_rV_15">15</a> ðe gīu wǣron giond Angelcynn, ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">27</span> +ðā bēc ealla be fullan geliornod hæfdon, ðæt hīe hiora ðā</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">119</span> +<a name = "page119" id = "page119"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +nǣnne dǣl noldon on hiora āgen geðīode węndan. Ac</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +ic ðā sōna eft mē selfum andwyrde, ǫnd cwæð: “Hīe ne</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +wēndon þætte ǣfre męnn sceolden swǣ<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_7d" +id = "tag_rV_7d" href = "#note_rV_7">7</a> reccelēase weorðan,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line119_4" id = "line119_4">4</a></span> +ǫnd sīo lār swǣ oðfeallan; for ðǣre wilnunga hīe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line119_5" id = "line119_5">5</a></span> +hit forlēton, ǫnd woldon ðæt hēr ðȳ māra wīsdōm on</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +lǫnde wǣre ðȳ wē mā geðēoda cūðon.”</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">7</span> +Ðā gemunde ic hū sīo ǣ wæs ǣrest on Ebrēisc geðīode</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +funden, ǫnd eft, ðā hīe Crēacas geliornodon, ðā węndon</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +hīe hīe on hiora āgen geðīode ealle, ǫnd ēac ealle ōðre</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +bēc. Ǫnd eft Lǣdenware swǣ same, siððan hīe hīe geliornodon,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +hīe hīe węndon ealla ðurh wīse wealhstōdas</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +on hiora āgen geðīode. Ǫnd ēac ealla ōðra Crīstena</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +ðīoda sumne dǣl hiora on hiora āgen geðīode węndon.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line119_14" id = "line119_14">14</a></span> +For ðȳ mē ðyncð bętre, gif <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote119_14">īow</a> swǣ ðyncð, ðæt wē ēac</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +suma bēc, ðā ðe nīedbeðearfosta sīen eallum mǫnnum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line119_16" id = "line119_16">16</a></span> +tō wiotonne,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_16" id = "tag_rV_16" href = +"#note_rV_16">16</a> <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote119_16">ðæt +wē ðā</a> on ðæt geðīode węnden ðe wē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line119_17" id = "line119_17">17</a></span> +ealle gecnāwan mægen, ǫnd <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote119_17">gedōn</a> swǣ wē swīðe ēaðe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +magon mid Godes fultume, gif wē ðā stilnesse habbað,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line119_19" id = "line119_19">19</a></span> +ðætte eall <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote119_19">sīo gioguð</a> +ðe nū <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote119_19">is</a> on +Angelcynne friora</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line119_20" id = "line119_20">20</a></span> +mǫnna, ðāra ðe ðā spēda hæbben ðæt <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote119_19">hīe</a> ðǣm befēolan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +mægen, <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote119_19">sīen</a> tō +liornunga oðfæste, ðā hwīle ðe hīe tō</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">120</span> +<a name = "page120" id = "page120"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +nānre ōðerre note ne mægen, oð ðone first ðe hīe wel</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line120_2" id = "line120_2">2</a></span> +cunnen Ęnglisc gewrit ārǣdan: <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote120_2">lǣre mǫn</a> siððan furður</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +on Lǣdengeðīode ðā ðe mǫn furðor lǣran wille, ǫnd tō</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +hīerran hāde dōn wille. Ðā ic ðā gemunde hū sīo lār</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +Lǣdengeðīodes ǣr ðissum āfeallen wæs giond Angelcynn,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +ǫnd ðeah mǫnige cūðon Ęnglisc gewrit ārǣdan, ðā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +ongan ic ongemang oðrum mislīcum ǫnd manigfealdum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +bisgum ðisses kynerīces ðā bōc węndan on Ęnglisc ðe is</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +genęmned on Lǣden “Pastoralis,” ǫnd on Ęnglisc “Hierdebōc,”</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +hwīlum word be worde, hwīlum andgit of andgiete,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line120_11" id = "line120_11">11</a></span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote120_11">swǣ swǣ ic hīe +geliornode</a> æt <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote120_11">Plegmunde mīnum</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +ærcebiscepe, ǫnd æt <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote120_11">Assere </a>mīnum biscepe, ǫnd æt <a class = "linenote" +href = "#linenote120_11">Grimbolde</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +mīnum mæsseprīoste, ǫnd æt <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote120_11">Iōhanne</a> mīnum mæsseprēoste.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +Siððan ic hīe ðā geliornod hæfde, swǣ swǣ</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +ic hīe forstōd, ǫnd swǣ ic hīe andgitfullīcost āręccean</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +meahte, ic hīe on Ęnglisc āwęnde; ǫnd tō ǣlcum biscepstōle</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +on mīnum rīce wille āne onsęndan; ǫnd on ǣlcre</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +bið ān æstel, sē bið on fīftegum mancessa. Ǫnd ic bebīode</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +on Godes naman ðæt nān mǫn ðone æstel frǫm</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +ðǣre bēc ne dō, nē ðā bōc frǫm ðǣm mynstre; uncūð hū</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +lǫnge ðǣr swǣ gelǣrede biscepas sīen, swǣ swǣ nū, Gode</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +ðonc, wel hwǣr siendon. For ðȳ ic wolde ðætte hīe ealneg</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">121</span> +<a name = "page121" id = "page121"> </a> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line121_1" id = "line121_1">1</a></span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote121_1">æt ðǣre stōwe</a> wǣren, +būton sē biscep hīe mid him</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line121_2" id = "line121_2">2</a></span> +habban wille, oððe hīo hwǣr tō lǣne sīe, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote121_2">oððe hwā ōðre</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote121_2">bī wrīte</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenote117_1" id = "linenote117_1" href = +"#line117_1">117.1-2.</a> +<b>Ælfred kyning hāteð ... hāte</b>. Note the change from the formal and +official third person (<b>hāteð</b>) to the more familiar first person +(<b>hāte</b>). So Ælfric, in his <i>Preface to Genesis</i>, writes +<b>Ælfric munuc grēt Æðelwærd ealdormann ēadmōdlīce. Þū bǣde mē, lēof, +þæt ic</b>, etc.: <i>Ælfric, monk, greets Æthelweard, alderman, humbly. +Thou, beloved, didst bid me that I</i>, etc.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote118_5" id = "linenote118_5" href = +"#line118_5">118.5.</a> +Notice that <b>mæge</b> (l. 5) and <b>mæge</b> (l. 6) are not in the +subjunctive because the sense requires it, but because they have been +attracted by <b>gǣmetige</b> and <b>befæste</b>. <b>Sīen</b> (<a href = +"#line119_5">p. 119, l. 15</a>) and <b>hæbben</b> (<a href = +"#line119_20">p. 119, l. 20</a>) illustrate the same +construction.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote118_9" id = "linenote118_9" href = +"#line118_9">118.9-10.</a> +<i>We liked only the reputation of being Christians, very few</i> +(<i>of us</i>) <i>the Christian virtues</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote119_14" id = "linenote119_14" href = +"#line119_14">119.14.</a> +Alfred is here addressing the bishops collectively, and hence uses the +plural <b>īow</b> (= <b>ēow</b>), not <b>þē</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote119_16" id = "linenote119_16" href = +"#line119_16">119.16.</a> +<b>ðæt wē ðā</b>. These three words are not necessary to the sense. They +constitute the figure known as epanalepsis, in which “the same word or +phrase is repeated after one or more intervening words.” <b>Þā</b> is +the pronominal substitute for <b>suma bēc</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote119_17" id = "linenote119_17" href = +"#line119_17">119.17.</a> +<b>Gedōn</b> is the first person plural subjunctive (from infinitive +<b>gedōn</b>). It and <b>węnden</b> are in the same construction. Two +things seem “better” to Alfred: (1) <i>that we translate</i>, etc., +(2) <i>that we cause</i>, etc.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote119_19" id = "linenote119_19" href = +"#line119_19">119.19-21.</a> +<b>sīo gioguð ... is ... hīe ... sīen</b>. Notice how the collective +noun, <b>gioguð</b>, singular at first both in form and function, +gradually loses its oneness before the close of the sentence is reached, +and becomes plural. The construction is entirely legitimate in Mn.E. +Spanish is the only modern language known to me that condemns such an +idiom: “Spanish ideas of congruity do not permit a collective noun, +though denoting a plurality, to be accompanied by a plural verb or +adjective in the same clause” (Ramsey, <i>Text-Book of Modern +Spanish</i>, § 1452).</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote120_2" id = "linenote120_2" href = +"#line120_2">120.2.</a> +<b>lǣre mǫn</b>. See <a href = "#sec_105">§ <b>105</b>, 1</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote120_11" id = "linenote120_11" href = +"#line120_11">120.11-13.</a> +That none of these advisers of the king, except Plegmond, +a Mercian, were natives, bears out what Alfred says about the +scarcity of learned men in England when he began to reign. Asser, to +whose Latin <i>Life of Alfred</i>, in spite of its mutilations, we owe +almost all of our knowledge of the king, came from St. David’s +(in Wales), and was made Bishop of Sherborne.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote121_1" id = "linenote121_1" href = +"#line121_1">121.1.</a> +Translate <b>ǣt ðǣre stōwe</b> by <i>each in its place</i>. The change +from plural <b>hīe</b> (in <b>hīe ... wǣren</b>) to singular +<b>hīe</b> (in the clauses that follow) will thus be prepared +for.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote121_2" id = "linenote121_2" href = +"#line121_2">121.2-3.</a> +<b>oððe hwā ōðre bī wrīte</b>, <i>or unless some one wish to copy a new +one</i> (<i>write thereby another</i>).</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_1" id = "note_rV_1" href = +"#tag_rV_1">1</a> += bisceop.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_2" id = "note_rV_2" href = +"#tag_rV_2">2</a> += hwilce.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_3" id = "note_rV_3" href = +"#tag_rV_3">3</a> += gīu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_4" id = "note_rV_4" href = +"#tag_rV_4">4</a> += For all words with <i>io</i> (<i>īo</i>), consult Glossary under +<i>eo</i> (<i>ēo</i>).</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_5" id = "note_rV_5" href = +"#tag_rV_5">5</a> += hīersumedon.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_6" id = "note_rV_6" href = +"#tag_rV_6">6</a> += sidu (siodu).</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_7" id = "note_rV_7" href = +"#tag_rV_7">7</a> += swā.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_8" id = "note_rV_8" href = +"#tag_rV_8">8</a> += ānlīpigne.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_9" id = "note_rV_9" href = +"#tag_rV_9">9</a> += hwilc.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_10" id = "note_rV_10" href = +"#tag_rV_10">10</a> += līefdon.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_11" id = "note_rV_11" href = +"#tag_rV_11">11</a> += męnigu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_12" id = "note_rV_12" href = +"#tag_rV_12">12</a> += nānwiht.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_13" id = "note_rV_13" href = +"#tag_rV_13">13</a> += swilce.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_14" id = "note_rV_14" href = +"#tag_rV_14">14</a> += spyrian.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_15" id = "note_rV_15" href = +"#tag_rV_15">15</a> += witena.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_16" id = "note_rV_16" href = +"#tag_rV_16">16</a> += witanne.</p> +</div> + +</div> +<!-- end div readings --> + +<span class = "pagenum">122</span> +<a name = "page122" id = "page122"> </a> + +<h2><a name = "poetry" id = "poetry">POETRY.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +<img src = "images/decsmall.gif" width = "34" height = "18" +alt = "----"><br> +INTRODUCTORY.<br> +<img src = "images/decsmall.gif" width = "34" height = "18" +alt = "----"></span> +</h2> + +<div class = "mynote"> + +<p>In <a href = "#structure">Section II., Structure</a>, the stress +markers ´ and ` are intended to display above the macron – or +(rarely) breve ˘:</p> + +<p class = "inset nospace"> +–́ × –̀</p> + +<p class = "nospace"> +Some computers will instead show them after (to the right of) the +macron. “Resolved stress” (two short syllables acting as one long) is +shown with a double breve below the syllables:</p> + +<p class = "inset nospace"> +˘́͜×</p> + +<p class = "nospace"> +If your computer does not have this character, it will probably +display a box or question mark between the two syllables.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "poetry"> + +<h3><a name = "history" id = "history">I. HISTORY.</a></h3> + +<h4>(a) Old English Poetry as a Whole.</h4> + +<p><span class = "firstword">Northumbria</span> was the home of Old +English poetry. Beginning with Cædmon and his school <span class = +"smallroman">A.D.</span> 670, Northumbria maintained her poetical +supremacy till <span class = "smallroman">A.D.</span> 800, seven years +before which date the ravages of the Danes had begun. When Alfred +ascended the throne of Wessex (871), the Danes had destroyed the seats +of learning throughout the whole of Northumbria. As Whitby had been “the +cradle of English poetry,” Winchester (Alfred’s capital) became now the +cradle of English prose; and the older poems that had survived the fire +and sword of the Vikings were translated from the original Northumbrian +dialect into the West Saxon dialect. It is, therefore, in the West Saxon +dialect that these poems<a class = "tag" name = "tag_ph_1" id = +"tag_ph_1" href = "#note_ph_1">1</a> have come down to us.</p> + +<p>Old English poetry contains in all only about thirty thousand lines; +but it includes epic, lyric, didactic, +<span class = "pagenum">123</span> +<a name = "page123" id = "page123"> </a> +elegiac, and allegorical poems, together with war-ballads, paraphrases, +riddles, and charms. Of the five elegiac poems (<i>Wanderer</i>, +<i>Seafarer</i>, <i>Ruin</i>, <i>Wife’s Complaint</i>, and <i>Husband’s +Message</i>), the <i>Wanderer</i> is the most artistic, and best +portrays the gloomy contrast between past happiness and present grief so +characteristic of the Old English lyric.</p> + +<p>Old English literature has no love poems. The central themes of its +poets are battle and bereavement, with a certain grim resignation on the +part of the hero to the issues of either. The movement of the thought is +usually abrupt, there being a noticeable poverty of transitional +particles, or connectives, “which,” says Ten Brink, “are the cement of +sentence-structure.”</p> + + +<h4>(b) Beowulf.</h4> + +<p>The greatest of all Old English poems is the epic, <i>Beowulf</i>.<a +class = "tag" name = "tag_ph_2" id = "tag_ph_2" href = +"#note_ph_2">2</a> It consists of more than three thousand lines, and +probably assumed approximately its present form in Northumbria about +<span class = "smallroman">A.D.</span> 700. It is a crystallization of +continental myths; and, though nothing is said of England, the story is +an invaluable index to the social, political, and ethical ideals of our +Germanic ancestors before and after they settled along the English +coast. It is most poetical, and its testimony is historically most +valuable, in the character-portraits that it contains. The fatalism that +runs through it, +<span class = "pagenum">124</span> +<a name = "page124" id = "page124"> </a> +instead of making the characters weak and less human, serves at times +rather to dignify and elevate them. “Fate,” says Beowulf (l. 572), +recounting his battle with the sea-monsters, “often saves an undoomed +man <i>if his courage hold out</i>.”</p> + +<p>“The ethical essence of this poetry,” says Ten Brink, “lies +principally in the conception of manly virtue, undismayed courage, the +stoical encounter with death, silent submission to fate, in the +readiness to help others, in the clemency and liberality of the prince +toward his thanes, and the self-sacrificing loyalty with which they +reward him.”</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—Many different +interpretations have been put upon the story of <i>Beowulf</i> (for +argument of story, see texts). Thus Müllenhoff sees in Grendel the +giant-god of the storm-tossed equinoctial sea, while Beowulf is the +Scandinavian god Freyr, who in the spring drives back the sea and +restores the land. Laistner finds the prototype of Grendel in the +noxious exhalations that rise from the Frisian coast-marshes during the +summer months; Beowulf is the wind-hero, the autumnal storm-god, who +dissipates the effluvia.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_ph_1" id = "note_ph_1" href = "#tag_ph_1">1.</a> +This does not, of course, include the few short poems in the +<i>Chronicle</i>, or that portion of <i>Genesis</i> +(<i>Genesis B</i>) supposed to have been put directly into West +Saxon from an Old Saxon original. There still remain in Northumbrian the +version of <i>Cædmon’s Hymn</i>, fragments of the <i>Ruthwell Cross</i>, +<i>Bede’s Death-Song</i>, and the <i>Leiden Riddle</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_ph_2" id = "note_ph_2" href = "#tag_ph_2">2.</a> +The word <i>bēowulf</i>, says Grimm, meant originally <i>bee-wolf</i>, +or <i>bee-enemy</i>, one of the names of the woodpecker. Sweet thinks +the bear was meant. But the word is almost certainly a compound of +<i>Bēow</i> (cf. O.E. <b>bēow</b> = grain), a Danish demigod, +and <i>wulf</i> used as a mere suffix.</p> +</div> + + +<h3><a name = "structure" id = "structure">II. STRUCTURE.</a></h3> + +<h4>(a) Style.</h4> + +<p>In the structure of Old English poetry the most characteristic +feature is the constant repetition of the idea (sometimes of the +thought) with a corresponding variation of phrase, or epithet. When, for +example, the Queen passes into the banquet hall in <i>Beowulf</i>, she +is designated at first by her name, <b>Wealhþēow</b>; she is then +described in turn as <b>cwēn Hrōðgāres</b> (<i>Hrothgar’s queen</i>), +<b>gold-hroden</b> (<i>the gold-adorned</i>), <b>frēolīc wīf</b> +<span class = "pagenum">125</span> +<a name = "page125" id = "page125"> </a> +(<i>the noble woman</i>), <b>ides Helminga</b> (<i>the Helmings’ +lady</i>), <b>bēag-hroden cwēn</b> (<i>the ring-adorned queen</i>), +<b>mōde geþungen</b> (<i>the high-spirited</i>), and <b>gold-hroden +frēolīcu folc-cwēn</b> (<i>the gold-adorned, noble folk-queen</i>).</p> + +<p>And whenever the sea enters largely into the poet’s verse, not +content with simple (uncompounded) words (such as <b>sǣ</b>, +<b>lagu</b>, <b>holm</b>, <b>strēam</b>, <b>męre</b>, etc.), he will use +numerous other equivalents (phrases or compounds), such as <b>waþema +gebind</b> (<i>the commingling of waves</i>), <b>lagu-flōd</b> (<i>the +sea-flood</i>), <b>lagu-strǣt</b> (<i>the sea-street</i>), +<b>swan-rād</b> (<i>the swan-road</i>), etc. These compounds are usually +nouns, or adjectives and participles used in a sense more appositive +than attributive.</p> + +<p>It is evident, therefore, that this abundant use of compounds, or +periphrastic synonyms, grows out of the desire to repeat the idea in +varying language. It is to be observed, also, that the Old English poets +rarely make any studied attempt to balance phrase against phrase or +clause against clause. Theirs is a repetition of idea, rather than a +parallelism of structure.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—It is impossible to tell +how many of these synonymous expressions had already become stereotyped, +and were used, like many of the epithets in the <i>Iliad</i> and +<i>Odyssey</i>, purely as padding. When, for example, the poet tells us +that at the most critical moment Beowulf’s sword failed him, adding in +the same breath, <b>īren ǣr-gōd</b> (<i>matchless blade</i>), we +conclude that the bard is either nodding or parroting.</p> + + +<h4>(b) Meter.</h4> + +<p class = "center">[Re-read <a href = "#sec_10">§ <b>10</b>, +(3)</a>.]</p> + +<h5>Primary Stress.</h5> + +<p>Old English poetry is composed of certain rhythmically ordered +combinations of accented and unaccented +<span class = "pagenum">126</span> +<a name = "page126" id = "page126"> </a> +syllables. The accented syllable (the arsis) is usually long, and will +be indicated by the macron with the acute accent over it (–́); when +short, by the breve with the same accent (˘́). The unaccented syllable +or syllables (the thesis) may be long or short, and will be indicated by +the oblique cross (×).</p> + + +<h5>Secondary Stress.</h5> + +<p>A secondary accent, or stress, is usually put upon the second member +of compound and derivative nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. This will be +indicated by the macron with the grave accent, if the secondary stress +falls on a long syllable (–̀); by the breve with the same accent, if the +secondary stress falls on a short syllable (˘̀). Nouns:</p> + +<p class = "meter"> +<b>Hrōðgāres</b> (–́–̀×), <b>fēondgrāpum</b> (–́–̀×), +<b>frēomǣgum</b><span class = "locked"> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>Ēast-Dęna</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>Helminga</b> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>Scyldinga</b> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>ānhaga</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>Ecgþēowes</b> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>sinc-fato</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>.</p> + +<p>Adjectives:<a class = "tag" name = "tag_ps_1" id = "tag_ps_1" href = +"#note_ps_1">1</a></p> + +<p class = "meter"> +<b>ǣghwylcne</b> (–́–̀×), <b>þrīsthȳdig</b> (–́–̀×), <span class = +"locked"><b>gold-hroden</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>drēorigne</b> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>gyldenne</b> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>ōðerne</b> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>gǣstlīcum</b> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>wynsume</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>ǣnigne</b> (–́–̀×)</span>.</p> + +<p>Adverbs:<a class = "tag" name = "tag_ps_2" id = "tag_ps_2" href = +"#note_ps_2">2</a></p> + +<p class = "meter"> +<b>unsōfte</b> (–́–̀×), <b>heardlīce</b> (–́–̀×), <span class = +"locked"><b>sęmninga</b> (–́–̀×)</span>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">127</span> +<a name = "page127" id = "page127"> </a> +<p>The Old English poets place also a secondary accent upon the ending +of present participles (<b>-ende</b>), and upon the penultimate of weak +verbs of the second class (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +provided the root-syllable is long.<a class = "tag" name = "tag_ps_3" id += "tag_ps_3" href = "#note_ps_3">3</a> Present participles:</p> + +<p class = "meter"> +<b>slǣpendne</b> (–́–̀×), <b>wīs-hycgende</b> (–́–́–̀×), <span class = +"locked"><b>flēotendra</b> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>hrēosende</b> (–́–̀×)</span>.</p> + +<p>Weak verbs:</p> + +<p class = "meter"> +<b>swynsode</b> (–́˘̀×), <b>þancode</b> (–́˘̀×), <span class = +"locked"><b>wānigean</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>scēawian</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>scēawige</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>hlīfian</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>.</p> + + +<h5>Resolved Stress.</h5> + +<p>A short accented syllable followed in the same word by an unaccented +syllable (usually short also) is equivalent to one long accented +syllable <span class = "locked">(˘́× = –́)</span>. This is known as +a resolved stress, and will be indicated thus, ˘́͜×;</p> + +<p class = "meter"> +<b>hæleða</b> (˘́͜͜××), <b>guman</b> (˘́͜×), <span class = +"locked"><b>Gode</b> (˘́͜×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>sęle-ful</b> (˘́͜××)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>ides</b> (˘́͜×)</span>, <span class = "locked"><b>fyrena</b> +(˘́͜××)</span>, <span class = "locked"><b>maðelode</b> (˘́͜ע̀×)</span>, +<span class = "locked"><b>hogode</b> (˘́͜××)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>mægen-ęllen</b> (˘́͜×–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>hige-þihtigne</b> (˘́͜×–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>Metudes</b> (˘́͜××)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>lagulāde</b> (˘́͜×–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>unlyfigendes</b> (–́˘́͜×–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>biforan</b> (ע́͜×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>forþolian</b> (ע́͜××)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>baðian</b> (˘́͜××)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>worolde</b> (˘́͜–×)</span>.</p> + +<p>Resolution of stress may also attend secondary stresses:</p> + +<p class = "meter"> +<b>sinc-fato</b> (–́˘̀͜×), <b>dryht-sęle</b> (–́˘̀͜×), <span class = +"locked"><b>ferðloca</b> (–́˘̀͜×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>forðwege</b> (–́˘̀͜×)</span>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">128</span> +<a name = "page128" id = "page128"> </a> +<h5>The Normal Line.</h5> + +<p>Every normal line of Old English poetry has four primary accents, two +in the first half-line and two in the second half-line. These half-lines +are separated by the cesura and united by alliteration, the alliterative +letter being found in the first stressed syllable of the second +half-line. This syllable, therefore, gives the cue to the scansion of +the whole line. It is also the only alliterating syllable in the second +half-line. The first half-line, however, usually has two alliterating +syllables, but frequently only one (the ratio being about three to two +in the following selections). When the first half-line contains but one +alliterating syllable, that syllable marks the first stress, rarely the +second. The following lines are given in the order of their +frequency:</p> + +<div class = "list"> +<p>(1) <b>þǣr wæs <i>h</i>ǽleða <i>h</i>léahtor; <i>h</i>lýn +swýnsode</b>.</p> +<p>(2) <b><i>m</i>ṓde geþúngen, <i>m</i>édo-ful ætbǽr</b>.</p> +<p>(3) <b>sṓna þæt on<i>f</i>únde <i>f</i>ýrena hýrde</b>.</p> +</div> + +<p>Any initial vowel or diphthong may alliterate with any other initial +vowel or diphthong; but a consonant requires the same consonant, except +<b>st</b>, <b>sp</b>, and <b>sc</b>, each of which alliterates only with +itself.</p> + +<p>Remembering, now, that either half-line (especially the second) may +begin with several unaccented syllables (these syllables being known in +types A, D, and E as the <i>anacrusis</i>), but that neither half-line +can end with more than one unaccented syllable, the student may begin at +once to read and properly accentuate Old English poetry. It will be +found that the alliterative +<span class = "pagenum">129</span> +<a name = "page129" id = "page129"> </a> +principle does not operate mechanically, but that the poet employs it +for the purpose of emphasizing the words that are really most important. +Sound is made subservient to sense.</p> + +<p>When, from the lack of alliteration, the student is in doubt as to +what word to stress, let him first get the exact meaning of the line, +and then put the emphasis on the word or words that seem to bear the +chief burden of the poet’s thought.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—A few lines, rare or +abnormal in their alliteration or lack of alliteration, may here be +noted. In the texts to be read, there is one line with no alliteration: +<i>Wanderer</i> 58; three of the type <i>a ··· b</i> | <i>a ··· b</i>: +<i>Beowulf</i> 654, 830, 2746; one of the type <i>a ··· a</i> | <i>b ··· +a</i>: <i>Beowulf</i> 2744; one of the type <i>a ··· a</i> | <i>b ··· +c</i>: <i>Beowulf</i> 2718; and one of the type <i>a ··· b</i> | <i>c +··· a</i>: <i>Beowulf</i> 2738.</p> + + +<h5>The Five Types.</h5> + +<p>By an exhaustive comparative study of the metrical unit in Old +English verse, the half-line, Professor Eduard Sievers,<a class = "tag" +name = "tag_ps_4" id = "tag_ps_4" href = "#note_ps_4">4</a> of the +University of Leipzig, has shown that there are only five types, or +varieties, +<span class = "pagenum">130</span> +<a name = "page130" id = "page130"> </a> +employed. These he classifies as follows, the perpendicular line serving +to separate the so-called feet, or measures:</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>1.</td> +<td>A</td> +<td></td> +<td>  –́ × | –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>2.</td> +<td>B</td> +<td></td> +<td>  × –́ | × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>3.</td> +<td>C</td> +<td></td> +<td>  × –́ | –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td>4.</td> +<td>D</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>D<sup>1</sup> –́ | –́ –̀ ×<br> +D<sup>2</sup> –́ | –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td>5.</td> +<td>E</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>E<sup>1</sup> –́ –̀ × | –́<br> +E<sup>2</sup> –́ × –̀ | –́</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>It will be seen (1) that each half-line contains two, and only two, +feet; (2) that each foot contains one, and only one, primary +stress; (3) that A is trochaic, B iambic; (4) that C is +iambic-trochaic; (5) that D and E consist of the same feet but in +inverse order.</p> + + +<h5>The Five Types Illustrated.</h5> + +<p class = "notation"> +[All the illustrations, as hitherto, are taken from the texts to be +read. The figures prefixed indicate whether first or second half-line is +cited. B = <i>Beowulf</i>; W = <i>Wanderer</i>.]</p> + +<p class = "center"> +1. <span class = "smallcaps">Type A</span>, –́ × | –́ ×</p> + +<p>Two or more unaccented syllables (instead of one) may intervene +between the two stresses, but only one may follow the last stress. If +the thesis in either foot is the second part of a compound it receives, +of course, a secondary stress.</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>ful gesealde</b>, B. 616,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>wīdre gewindan</b>, B. 764,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ × ×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)<a class = "tag" name = "tag_ps_5" id = "tag_ps_5" href = +"#note_ps_5">5</a></td> +<td><b>Gemunde þā sē gōda</b>, B. 759,</td> +<td class = "right">× | –́ × × ×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)<a class = "tag" href = "#note_ps_5">5</a></td> +<td><b>swylce hē on ealder-dagum</b>, B. 758,</td> +<td class = "right">× × × ×</td> +<td>| –́ × | ˘́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>ȳþde swā þisne eardgeard</b>, W. 85,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ × × × ×</td> +<td>| –́ –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>wīs-fæst wordum</b>, B. 627,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ –̀</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>gryre-lēoð galan</b>, B. 787,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× –̀</td> +<td>| ˘́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>sǫmod ætgædre</b>, W. 39,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× ×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "pagenum">131</span> +<a name = "page131" id = "page131"> </a> +(1)</td> +<td><b>duguðe ǫnd geogoðe</b>, B. 622,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× × ×</td> +<td>| ˘́͜× ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>fǣger fold-bold</b>, B. 774,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| –́ –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>atelīc ęgesa</b>, B. 785,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× –̀</td> +<td>| ˘́͜× ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>goldwine mīnne</b>, W. 22,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ˘̀͜×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>ęgesan þēon</b> [> <b>*þīhan</b>: <a href = "#sec_118">§ +<b>118</b></a>], B. 2737,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× ×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Rare forms of A are –́ –̀ × +| –́ × (does not occur in texts), –́ –̀ × | –́ –̀ (occurs once, B. 781 +(1)), and –́ × –̀ | –́ × (once, B. 2743 (1)).</p> + +<p class = "center"> +2. <span class = "smallcaps">Type B</span>, × –́ | × –́</p> + +<p>Two, but not more than two, unaccented syllables may intervene +between the stresses. The type of B most frequently occurring is × × –́ +| × –́<ins class = "correction" title = ". missing">. </ins></p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>ǫnd þā frēolīc wīf</b>, B. 616,</td> +<td class = "right">× × –́</td> +<td>| × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>hē on lust geþeah</b>, B. 619,</td> +<td class = "right">× × –́</td> +<td>| × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>þā se æðeling gīong</b>, B. 2716,</td> +<td class = "right">× × ˘́͜×</td> +<td>| × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>seah on ęnta geweorc</b>, B. 2718,</td> +<td class = "right">× × –́</td> +<td>| × × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>ofer flōda genipu</b>, B. 2809,</td> +<td class = "right">× × –́</td> +<td>| × × ˘́͜×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>forþam mē wītan ne þearf</b>, B. 2742,</td> +<td class = "right">× × × –́</td> +<td>| × × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>þaes þe hire se willa gelamp</b>, B. 627,</td> +<td class = "right">× × × × × –́</td> +<td>| × × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>forþon ne mæg weorþan wīs</b>, W. 64,</td> +<td class = "right">× × × × –́</td> +<td>| × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>Nǣfre ic ǣnegum</b> [= <b>ǣn’gum</b>] <b>męn</b>, B. 656,</td> +<td class = "right">× × × –́</td> +<td>| × –́</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—In the last half-line +Sievers substitutes the older form <b>ǣngum</b>, and supposes elision of +the <b>e</b> in <b>Nǣfre</b> (= <b>Nǣfr-ic</b>: ××–́ | ×–́).</p> + +<p class = "center"> +3. <span class = "smallcaps">Type C</span>, × –́ | –́ ×</p> + +<p>The conditions of this type are usually satisfied by compound and +derivative words, and the second stress (not so strong as the first) is +frequently on a short syllable. The two arses rarely alliterate. As in +B, two unaccented syllables in the first thesis are more common than +one.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">132</span> +<a name = "page132" id = "page132"> </a> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>þæt hēo on ǣnigne</b>, B. 628,</td> +<td class = "right">× × × –́</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>þæt ic ānunga</b>, B. 635,</td> +<td class = "right">× × –́</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>ēode gold-hroden</b>, B. 641,</td> +<td class = "right">× × –́</td> +<td>| ˘́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>gemyne mǣrðo</b>, B. 660,</td> +<td class = "right">× ˘́͜×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>on þisse meodu-healle</b>, B. 639,</td> +<td class = "right">× × × ˘́͜×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>æt brimes nosan</b>, B. 2804,</td> +<td class = "right">× ˘́͜×</td> +<td>| ˘́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>æt Wealhþéon</b> [= <b>-þēowan</b>], B. 630,</td> +<td class = "right">× –́</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>geond lagulāde</b>, W. 3,</td> +<td class = "right">× ˘́͜×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>Swā cwæð eardstapa</b>, W. 6,</td> +<td class = "right">× × –́</td> +<td>| ˘́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>ēalā byrnwiga</b>, W. 94,</td> +<td class = "right">× × –́</td> +<td>| ˘́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>nō þǣr fela bringeð</b>, W. 54,</td> +<td class = "right">× × ˘́͜×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table summary = "heading"> +<tr> +<td class = "middle smallcaps" rowspan = "2"> +4. Type D,</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>D<sup>1</sup> –́ | –́ –̀ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>D<sup>2</sup> –́ | –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Both types of D may take one unaccented syllable between the two +primary stresses (–́ × | –́ –̀ ×, –́ × | –́ × –̀). The +secondary stress in D<sup>1</sup> falls usually on the second syllable +of a compound or derivative word, and this syllable (as in C) +is frequently short.</p> + +<p class = "center">(a) D<sup>1</sup> –́ | –́ –̀ ×</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>cwēn Hrōðgāres</b>, B. 614,</td> +<td class = "right">–́</td> +<td>| –́ –̀ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>dǣl ǣghwylcne</b>, B. 622,</td> +<td class = "right">–́</td> +<td>| –́ –̀ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>Bēowulf maðelode</b>, B. 632,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| ˘́͜× ˘̀ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>slāt unwearnum</b>, B. 742,</td> +<td class = "right">–́</td> +<td>| –́ –̀ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>wrāþra wælsleahta</b>, W. 7,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| –́ –̀ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>wōd wintercearig</b> [= <b>wint’rcearig</b>], W. 24,</td> +<td class = "right">–́</td> +<td>| –́ ˘̀ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>sōhte sęle drēorig</b>, W. 25,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| ˘́͜× –̀ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>ne sōhte searo-nīðas</b>, B. 2739,</td> +<td class = "right">× | –́ ×</td> +<td>| ˘́͜× –̀ ×</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—There is one instance in +the texts (B. 613, (1)) of apparent –́ × × | –́ ˘̀ ×: <b>word wǣron +wynsume</b>. (The triple alliteration has no significance. The sense, +besides, precludes our stressing <b>wǣron</b>.) The difficulty is +avoided by bringing the line under the A type: –́ × × | –́ ˘́͜×.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">133</span> +<a name = "page133" id = "page133"> </a> + +<p class = "center">(b) D<sup>2</sup> –́ | –́ × –̀</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>Forð nēar ætstōp</b>, B. 746,</td> +<td class = "right">–́</td> +<td>| –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>eorl furður stōp</b>, B. 762,</td> +<td class = "right">–́</td> +<td>| –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>Dęnum eallum wearð</b>, B. 768,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜×</td> +<td>| –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>grētte Gēata lēod</b>, B. 626,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>ǣnig yrfe-weard</b>, B. 2732,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>hrēosan hrīm and snāw</b>, W. 48,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>swimmað eft on weg</b>, W. 53,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Very rarely is the thesis in the second foot expanded.</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>þegn ungemete till</b>, B. 2722,</td> +<td class = "right">–́</td> +<td>| –́ × × × –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>hrūsan heolster biwrāh</b>, W. 23,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| –́ × × –̀</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table summary = "heading"> +<tr> +<td class = "middle smallcaps" rowspan = "2"> +5. Type E,</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>E<sup>1</sup> –́ –̀ × | –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>E<sup>2</sup> –́ × –̀ | –́</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The secondary stress in E<sup>1</sup> falls frequently on a short +syllable, as in D<sup>1</sup>.</p> + +<p class = "center">(a) E<sup>1</sup> –́ –̀ × | –́</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>wyrmlīcum fāh</b>, W. 98,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ –̀ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>medo-ful ætbær</b>, B. 625,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× ˘̀ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>sǣ-bāt gesæt</b>, B. 634,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ –̀ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>sige-folca swēg</b>, B. 645,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× –̀ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>Norð-Dęnum stōd</b>, B. 784,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ˘̀ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>fēond-grāpum fæst</b>, B. 637,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ –̀ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>wyn eal gedrēas</b>, W. 36,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ –̀ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>feor oft gemǫn</b>, W. 90,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ –̀ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>As in D<sup>2</sup>, the thesis in the first foot is very rarely +expanded.</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>wīn-ærnes geweald</b>, B. 655,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ –̀ × ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>Hafa nū ǫnd geheald</b>, B. 659,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× –̀ × ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>searo-þǫncum besmiðod</b>, B. 776,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× –̀ × ×</td> +<td>| ˘́͜×</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class = "pagenum">134</span> +<a name = "page134" id = "page134"> </a> + +<div class = "notation"> +<p><span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Our ignorance of Old +English sentence-stress makes it impossible for us to draw a +hard-and-fast line in all cases between D<sup>2</sup> and E<sup>1</sup>. +For example, in these half-lines (already cited),</p> + +<div class = "list"> +<p><b>wyn eal gedrēas</b></p> +<p><b>feor oft gemǫn</b></p> +<p><b>Forð nēar ætstōp</b></p> +</div> + +<p>if we throw a strong stress on the adverbs that precede their verbs, +the type is D<sup>2</sup>. Lessen the stress on the adverbs and increase +it on the verbs, and we have E<sup>1</sup>. The position of the adverbs +furnishes no clue; for the order of words in Old English was governed +not only by considerations of relative emphasis, but by syntactic and +euphonic considerations as well.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "center">(<i>b</i>) E<sup>2</sup> –́ × –̀ | –́</p> + +<p>This is the rarest of all types. It does not occur in the texts, +there being but one instance of this type (l. 2437 (2)), and that +doubtful, in the whole of <i>Beowulf</i>.</p> + + +<h5>Abnormal Lines.</h5> + +<p>The lines that fall under none of the five types enumerated are +comparatively few. They may be divided into two classes, +(1) hypermetrical lines, and (2) defective lines.</p> + +<p class = "center smallcaps"> +(1) Hypermetrical Lines.</p> + +<p>Each hypermetrical half-line has usually three stresses, thus giving +six stresses to the whole line instead of two. These lines occur chiefly +in groups, and mark increased range and dignity in the thought. Whether +the half-line be first or second, it is usually of the A type without +anacrusis. To this type belong the last five lines of the +<i>Wanderer</i>. Lines 92 and 93 are also unusually long, but not +hypermetrical. The +<span class = "pagenum">135</span> +<a name = "page135" id = "page135"> </a> +first half-line of 65 is hypermetrical, a fusion of A and C, +consisting of <span class = "locked">(–́××ע́͜– | –́×)</span>.</p> + +<p class = "center smallcaps"> +(2) Defective Lines.</p> + +<p>The only defective lines in the texts are B. 748 and 2715 (the second +half-line in each). As they stand, these half-lines would have to be +scanned thus:</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td><b>rǣhte ongēan</b></td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>bealo-nīð wēoll</b></td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× –̀</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Sievers emends as follows:</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td><b>rǣhte tōgēanes</b></td> +<td class = "right">–́ × ×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +<td>= A</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>bealo-nīðe wēoll</b></td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× –́ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +<td>= E<sup>1</sup></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>These defective half-lines are made up of syntactic combinations +found on almost every page of Old English prose. That they occur so +rarely in poetry is strong presumptive evidence, if further evidence +were needed, in favor of the adequacy of Sievers’ five-fold +classification.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—All the lines that could +possibly occasion any difficulty to the student have been purposely +cited as illustrations under the different types. If these are mastered, +the student will find it an easy matter to scan the lines that +remain.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_ps_1" id = "note_ps_1" href = "#tag_ps_1">1.</a> +It will be seen that the adjectives are chiefly derivatives in +<b>-ig</b>, <b>-en</b>, <b>-er</b>, <b>-līc</b>, and <b>-sum</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_ps_2" id = "note_ps_2" href = "#tag_ps_2">2.</a> +Most of the adverbs belonging here end in <b>-līce</b>, <b>-unga</b>, +and <b>-inga</b>, <a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b>, +(1), (2)</a>: such words as <b>æt-gǽdere</b>, <b>on-gḗan</b>, +<b>on-wég</b>, <b>tō-gḗanes</b>, <b>tō-míddes</b>, etc., are invariably +accented as here indicated.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_ps_3" id = "note_ps_3" href = "#tag_ps_3">3.</a> +It will save the student some trouble to remember that this means long +by nature (<b>līcodon</b>), or long by position (<b>swynsode</b>), or +long by resolution of stress (<b>maðelode</b>),—see next +paragraph.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_ps_4" id = "note_ps_4" href = "#tag_ps_4">4.</a> +Sievers’ two articles appeared in the <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der +deutschen Sprache und Literatur</i>, Vols. X (1885) and XII (1887). +A brief summary, with slight modifications, is found in the same +author’s <i>Altgermanische Metrik</i>, pp. 120-144 (1893).</p> + +<p>Before attempting to employ Sievers’ types, the student would do well +to read several pages of Old English poetry, taking care to accentuate +according to the principles already laid down. In this way his ear will +become accustomed to the rhythm of the line, and he will see more +clearly that Sievers’ work was one primarily of systematization. Sievers +himself says: “I had read Old English poetry for years exactly as I +now scan it, and long before I had the slightest idea that what I did +instinctively could be formulated into a system of set rules.” +(<i>Altgermanische Metrik</i>, <i>Vorwort</i>, p. 10.)</p> + +<p><a name = "note_ps_5" id = "note_ps_5" href = "#tag_ps_5">5.</a> +The first perpendicular marks the limit of the anacrusis.</p> +</div> + +</div> +<!-- end div poetry --> + + +<div class = "readings"> + +<span class = "pagenum">136</span> +<a name = "page136" id = "page136"> </a> + +<h2><span class = "subhead">SELECTIONS FOR READING.</span></h2> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chapIII_VI" id = "chapIII_VI"> +VI. EXTRACTS FROM BEOWULF.</a></h3> + +<h5>The Banquet in Heorot. [<span class = "plain">Lines +612-662.</span>]</h5> + +<p class = "notation"> +[The Heyne-Socin text has been closely followed. I have attempted no +original emendations, but have deviated from the Heyne-Socin edition in +a few cases where the Grein-Wülker text seemed to give the better +reading.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +The argument preceding the first selection is as follows: Hrothgar, king +of the Danes, or Scyldings, elated by prosperity, builds a magnificent +hall in which to feast his retainers; but a monster, Grendel by name, +issues from his fen-haunts, and night after night carries off thane +after thane from the banqueting hall. For twelve years these ravages +continue. At last Beowulf, nephew of Hygelac, king of the Geats +(a people of South Sweden), sails with fourteen chosen companions +to Dane-land, and offers his services to the aged Hrothgar. “Leave me +alone in the hall to-night,” says Beowulf. Hrothgar accepts Beowulf’s +proffered aid, and before the dread hour of visitation comes, the time +is spent in wassail. The banquet scene follows.]</p> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p>Þǣr wæs hæleþa hleahtor, hlyn swynsode,</p> +<p>word wǣron wynsume. Ēode Wealhþēow forð,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_614" id = "lineVI_614"> </a> +cwēn Hrōðgāres, cynna gemyndig;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">615</span> +grētte gold-hroden guman on healle,</p> +<p>ǫnd þā frēolīc wīf ful gesealde</p> +<p>ǣrest Ēast-Dęna ēþel-wearde,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_618" id = "lineVI_618"> </a> +bæd hine blīðne æt þǣre bēor-þęge,</p> +<p>lēodum lēofne; hē on lust geþeah</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">620</span> +symbel ǫnd sęle-ful, sige-rōf kyning.</p> +<p>Ymb-ēode þā ides Helminga</p> +<p>duguðe ǫnd geogoðe dǣl ǣghwylcne,</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">137</span> +<a name = "page137" id = "page137"> </a> + +<p><a name = "lineVI_623" id = "lineVI_623"> </a> +sinc-fato <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_623">sealde</a>, + oð þæt sǣl ālamp</p> +<p>þæt hīo<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIa_1" id = "tag_rVIa_1" href = +"#note_rVIa_1">1</a> Bēowulfe, bēag-hroden cwēn,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">625</span> +mōde geþungen, medo<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIa_2" id += "tag_rVIa_2" href = "#note_rVIa_2">2</a>-ful ætbær;</p> +<p>grētte Gēata lēod, Gode þancode</p> +<p>wīs-fæst wordum, þæs þe hire se willa gelamp,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_628" id = "lineVI_628"> </a> +þæt hēo on ǣnigne eorl gelȳfde</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_629" id = "lineVI_629"> </a> +fyrena frōfre. Hē þæt ful geþeah,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_630" id = "lineVI_630">630</a></span> +wæl-rēow wiga, æt Wealhþēon,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_631" id = "lineVI_631"> </a> +ǫnd þā gyddode gūðe gefȳsed;</p> +<p>Bēowulf maðelode, bearn Ecgþēowes:</p> +<p>“Ic þæt hogode, þā ic on holm gestāh,</p> +<p>sǣ-bāt gesæt mid mīnra sęcga gedriht,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">635</span> +þæt ic ānunga ēowra lēoda</p> +<p>willan geworhte, oððe on wæl crunge</p> +<p>fēond-grāpum fæst. Ic gefręmman sceal</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_638" id = "lineVI_638"> </a> +eorlīc ęllen, oððe <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_638">ęnde-dæg</a></p> +<p><a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_638">on þisse meodu</a><a +class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIa_2b" id = "tag_rVIa_2b" href = +"#note_rVIa_2">2</a><a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_638">-healle mīnne</a> gebīdan.”</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">640</span> +Þām wīfe þā word wel līcodon,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_641" id = "lineVI_641"> </a> +gilp-cwide Gēates; <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_641">ēode</a> gold-hroden</p> +<p>frēolicu folc-cwēn tō hire frēan <a class = "linenote" +href = "#linenoteVI_641">sittan</a>.</p> +<p>Þā wæs eft swā ǣr inne on healle</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_644" id = "lineVI_644"> </a> +þrȳð-word sprecen,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIa_3" id = "tag_rVIa_3" +href = "#note_rVIa_3">3</a> þēod on sǣlum,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">645</span> +sige-folca swēg, oþ þæt sęmninga</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">138</span> +<a name = "page138" id = "page138"> </a> + +<p>sunu Healfdęnes sēcean wolde</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_647" id = "lineVI_647"> </a> +ǣfen-ræste; <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_647">wiste</a> þǣm āhlǣcan<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVIa_4" id = "tag_rVIa_4" href = "#note_rVIa_4">4</a></p> +<p>tō þǣm hēah-sęle hilde geþinged,</p> +<p>siððan hīe sunnan lēoht gesēon <i>ne</i> meahton</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">650</span> +oððe nīpende niht ofer ealle,</p> +<p>scadu-helma gesceapu scrīðan <a class = "linenote" href += "#linenoteVI_647">cwōman</a>,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIa_5" id = +"tag_rVIa_5" href = "#note_rVIa_5">5</a></p> +<p>wan under wolcnum. Werod eall ārās;</p> +<p>grētte þā <i>giddum</i> guma ōðerne</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_654" id = "lineVI_654"> </a> +Hrōðgār Bēowulf, ǫnd him hǣl ābēad,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">655</span> +wīn-ærnes geweald, ǫnd þæt word ācwæð:</p> +<p>“Nǣfre ic ǣnegum<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIa_6" id = +"tag_rVIa_6" href = "#note_rVIa_6">6</a> męn ǣr +ālȳfde,</p> +<p>siððan ic hǫnd ǫnd rǫnd hębban mihte,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_658" id = "lineVI_658"> </a> +ðrȳþ-ærn Dęna būton þē nū þā.</p> +<p>Hafa nū ǫnd geheald hūsa sēlest,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_660" id = "lineVI_660">660</a></span> +gemyne mǣrþo,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIa_7" id = "tag_rVIa_7" href += "#note_rVIa_7">7</a> mægen-ęllen cȳð,</p> +<p>waca wið wrāðum. Ne bið þē wilna gād,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_662" id = "lineVI_662"> </a> +gif þū þæt ęllen-weorc aldre<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVIa_8" id = "tag_rVIa_8" href = "#note_rVIa_8">8</a> +gedīgest.”</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_623" id = "linenoteVI_623" href = +"#lineVI_623">623.</a> +<b>sinc-fato sealde</b>. Banning (<i>Die epischen Formeln im +Beowulf</i>) shows that the usual translation, <i>gave costly gifts</i>, +must be given up; or, at least, that the <i>costly gifts</i> are nothing +more than <i>beakers of mead</i>. The expression is an epic formula for +<i>passing the cup</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_638" id = "linenoteVI_638" href = +"#lineVI_638">638-39.</a> +<b>ęnde-ðæg ... mīnne</b>. This unnatural separation of noun and +possessive is frequent in O.E. poetry, but almost unknown in prose.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_641" id = "linenoteVI_641" href = +"#lineVI_641">641-42.</a> +<b>ēode ... sittan</b>. The poet might have employed <b>tō sittanne</b> +(<a href = "#sec_108">§ <b>108</b>, (1)</a>); but in poetry the +infinitive is often used for the gerund. Alfred himself uses the +infinitive or the gerund to express purpose after <b>gān</b>, +<b>gǫngan</b>, <b>cuman</b>, and <b>sęndan</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_647" id = "linenoteVI_647" href = +"#lineVI_647">647-51.</a> +<b>wiste ... cwōman</b>. A difficult passage, even with Thorpe’s +inserted <b>ne</b>; but there is no need of putting a period after +<b>geþinged</b>, or of translating <b>oððe</b> by <i>and</i>: <i>He</i> +(<i>Hrothgar</i>) <i>knew that battle was in store</i> (<b>geþinged</b>) +<i>for the monster in the high hall, after</i> [= <i>as soon as</i>] +<i>they could no longer see the sun’s light, or</i> [= <i>that is</i>] +<i>after night came darkening over all, and shadowy figures +stalking</i>. The subject of <b>cwōman</b> [= <b>cwōmon</b>] is +<b>niht</b> and <b>gesceapu</b>.</p> + +<p>The student will note that the infinitive (<b>scrīðan</b>) is here +employed as a present participle after a verb of motion (<b>cwōman</b>). +This construction with <b>cuman</b> is frequent in prose and poetry. The +infinitive expresses the kind of motion: <b>ic cōm drīfan</b> = <i>I +came driving</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIa_1" id = "note_rVIa_1" href = +"#tag_rVIa_1">1</a> += hēo.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIa_2" id = "note_rVIa_2" href = +"#tag_rVIa_2">2</a> += medu-.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIa_3" id = "note_rVIa_3" href = +"#tag_rVIa_3">3</a> += gesprecen.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIa_4" id = "note_rVIa_4" href = +"#tag_rVIa_4">4</a> += āglǣcan.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIa_5" id = "note_rVIa_5" href = +"#tag_rVIa_5">5</a> += cwōmon.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIa_6" id = "note_rVIa_6" href = +"#tag_rVIa_6">6</a> += ǣnigum.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIa_7" id = "note_rVIa_7" href = +"#tag_rVIa_7">7</a> += mǣrþe (acc. sing.).</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIa_8" id = "note_rVIa_8" href = +"#tag_rVIa_8">8</a> += ealdre (instr. sing.)<ins class = "correction" title = ". missing">. </ins></p> +</div> + +<span class = "pagenum">139</span> +<a name = "page139" id = "page139"> </a> + +<h5>The Fight Between Beowulf and Grendel. [<span class = "plain">Lines +740-837.</span>]</h5> + +<p class = "notation"> +[The warriors all retire to rest except Beowulf. Grendel stealthily +enters the hall. From his eyes gleams “a luster unlovely, likest to +fire.” The combat begins at once.]</p> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_740" id = "lineVI_740">740</a></span> +Ne <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_740">þæt</a> se āglǣca + yldan þōhte,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_741" id = "lineVI_741"> </a> +ac hē gefēng hraðe forman sīðe</p> +<p>slǣpendne rinc, slāt unwearnum,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_743" id = "lineVI_743"> </a> +bāt bān-locan, blōd ēdrum dranc,</p> +<p>syn-snǣdum swealh; sōna hæfde</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">745</span> +unlyfigendes eal gefeormod</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_746" id = "lineVI_746"> </a> +fēt ǫnd folma. Forð nēar <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_746">ætstōp</a>,</p> +<p>nam þā mid handa hige-þihtigne</p> +<p>rinc on ræste; rǣhte ongēan</p> +<p>fēond mid folme; hē onfēng hraþe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_750" id = "lineVI_750">750</a></span> +inwit-þancum ǫnd wið earm gesæt.</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_751" id = "lineVI_751"> </a> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_751">Sōna þæt onfunde</a> + fyrena hyrde,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_752" id = "lineVI_752"> </a> +þæt hē ne mētte <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_751">middan-geardes</a>,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_753" id = "lineVI_753"> </a> +eorðan scēatta, on ęlran męn</p> +<p>mund-gripe māran; hē on mōde wearð</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">140</span> +<a name = "page140" id = "page140"> </a> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_755" id = "lineVI_755">755</a></span> +forht, on ferhðe; <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_755">nō þȳ ǣr fram meahte</a>.</p> +<p>Hyge wæs him hin-fūs, wolde on heolster flēon,</p> +<p>sēcan dēofla gedræg; ne wæs his drohtoð þǣr,</p> +<p>swylce hē on ealder<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIb_1" id = +"tag_rVIb_1" href = "#note_rVIb_1">1</a>-dagum ǣr +gemētte.</p> +<p>Gemunde þā se gōda mǣg Higelāces</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">760</span> +ǣfen-sprǣce, ūp-lang āstōd</p> +<p>ǫnd him fæste wiðfēng; fingras burston;</p> +<p>eoten wæs ūt-weard; eorl furþur stōp.</p> +<p>Mynte se mǣra, hwǣr hē meahte swā,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_764" id = "lineVI_764"> </a> +wīdre gewindan ǫnd on weg þanon</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">765</span> +flēon on fęn-hopu; wiste his fingra geweald</p> +<p>on grames grāpum. Þæt wæs gēocor sīð,</p> +<p>þæt se hearm-scaþa tō Heorute<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVIb_2" id = "tag_rVIb_2" href = "#note_rVIb_2">2</a> ātēah.</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_768" id = "lineVI_768"> </a> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_768">Dryht-sęle dynede</a>; + Dęnum eallum wearð</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_769" id = "lineVI_769"> </a> +ceaster-būendum, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_769">cēnra gehwylcum</a>,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">770</span> +eorlum ealu-scerwen. Yrre wǣron bēgen</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">141</span> +<a name = "page141" id = "page141"> </a> +<p>rēþe rēn-weardas. Ręced hlynsode;</p> +<p>þā wæs wundor micel, þæt se wīn-sęle</p> +<p>wiðhæfde heaþo-dēorum, þæt hē on hrūsan ne fēol,</p> +<p>fǣger fold-bold; ac hē þæs fæste wæs</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">775</span> +innan ǫnd ūtan īren-bęndum</p> +<p>searo-þǫncum besmiðod. Þǣr fram sylle ābēag</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_777" id = "lineVI_777"> </a> +medu-bęnc mǫnig, mīne gefrǣge,</p> +<p>golde geregnad, þǣr þā graman wunnon;</p> +<p>þæs ne wēndon ǣr witan Scyldinga,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_780" id = "lineVI_780">780</a></span> +þæt <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_780">hit</a> ā mid gemete + manna ǣnig,</p> +<p>betlīc ǫnd bān-fāg, tōbrecan meahte,</p> +<p>listum tōlūcan, nymþe līges fæðm</p> +<p>swulge on swaþule. Swēg ūp āstāg</p> +<p>nīwe geneahhe; Norð-Dęnum stōd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_785" id = "lineVI_785">785</a></span> +atelīc ęgesa, ānra gehwylcum,</p> +<p>þāra þe of wealle wōp gehȳrdon,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_787" id = "lineVI_787"> </a> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_787">gryre-lēoð</a> galan + Godes ǫndsacan,</p> +<p>sige-lēasne sang, sār wānigean</p> +<p>hęlle <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_787">hæfton</a>.<a +class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIb_3" id = "tag_rVIb_3" href = +"#note_rVIb_3">3</a> Hēold hine fæste,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">790</span> +sē þe manna wæs mægene stręngest</p> +<p>on þǣm dæge þysses līfes.</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_792" id = "lineVI_792"> </a> +Nolde eorla hlēo ǣnige þinga</p> +<p>þone cwealm-cuman cwicne forlǣtan,</p> +<p>nē his līf-dagas lēoda ǣnigum</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">142</span> +<a name = "page142" id = "page142"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_795" id = "lineVI_795">795</a></span> +nytte tealde. <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_795">Þǣr</a> genehost brǣgd</p> +<p>eorl Bēowulfes ealde <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_795">lāfe</a>,</p> +<p>wolde frēa-drihtnes feorh ealgian,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_798" id = "lineVI_798"> </a> +mǣres þēodnes, ðǣr hīe meahton swā.</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_799" id = "lineVI_799"> </a> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_799">Hīe ðæt ne wiston, + þā hīe gewin drugon</a>,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">800</span> +heard-hicgende hilde-męcgas,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_801" id = "lineVI_801"> </a> +ǫnd on healfa gehwone hēawan þōhton,</p> +<p>sāwle sēcan: þone syn-scaðan</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_803" id = "lineVI_803"> </a> +ǣnig ofer eorðan īrenna cyst,</p> +<p>gūþ-billa nān, grētan nolde;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">805</span> +ac hē sige-wǣpnum forsworen hæfde,</p> +<p>ęcga gehwylcre. Scolde his aldor<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVIb_4" id = "tag_rVIb_4" href = "#note_rVIb_4">4</a>-gedāl</p> +<p>on ðǣm dæge þysses līfes</p> +<p>earmlīc wurðan<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIb_5" id = "tag_rVIb_5" +href = "#note_rVIb_5">5</a> ǫnd se ęllor-gāst</p> +<p>on fēonda geweald feor sīðian.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">810</span> +Þā þæt onfunde, sē þe fela ǣror</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_811" id = "lineVI_811"> </a> +mōdes myrðe manna cynne</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_812" id = "lineVI_812"> </a> +fyrene gefręmede (hē <i>wǣs</i> fāg wið God),</p> +<p>þæt him se līc-hǫma lǣstan nolde,</p> +<p>ac hine se mōdega<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIb_6" id = +"tag_rVIb_6" href = "#note_rVIb_6">6</a> mǣg Hygelāces</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">815</span> +hæfde be hǫnda; wæs gehwæþer ōðrum</p> +<p>lifigende lāð. Līc-sār gebād</p> +<p>atol ǣglǣca<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIb_7" id = "tag_rVIb_7" +href = "#note_rVIb_7">7</a>; him on eaxle wearð</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">143</span> +<a name = "page143" id = "page143"> </a> + +<p>syn-dolh sweotol; seonowe onsprungon;</p> +<p>burston bān-locan. Bēowulfe wearð</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">820</span> +gūð-hrēð gyfeðe. Scolde Gręndel þǫnan</p> +<p>feorh-sēoc flēon under fęn-hleoðu,<a class = "tag" name += "tag_rVIb_8" id = "tag_rVIb_8" href = "#note_rVIb_8">8</a></p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_822" id = "lineVI_822"> </a> +sēcean wyn-lēas wīc; wiste þē geornor,</p> +<p>þæt his aldres<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIb_9" id = "tag_rVIb_9" +href = "#note_rVIb_9">9</a> wæs ęnde gegǫngen,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_824" id = "lineVI_824"> </a> +dōgera dæg-rīm. Dęnum eallum wearð</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">825</span> +æfter þām wæl-rǣse willa gelumpen.</p> +<p>Hæfde þā gefǣlsod, sē þe ǣr feorran cōm,</p> +<p>snotor ǫnd swȳð-ferhð, sęle Hrōðgāres,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_828" id = "lineVI_828"> </a> +genęred wið nīðe. Niht-weorce gefeh,</p> +<p>ęllen-mǣrþum; hæfde Ēast-Dęnum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">830</span> +Gēat-męcga lēod gilp gelǣsted;</p> +<p>swylce oncȳððe ealle gebētte,</p> +<p>inwid-sorge, þe hīe ǣr drugon</p> +<p>ǫnd for þrēa-nȳdum þolian scoldon,</p> +<p>torn unlȳtel. Þæt wæs tācen sweotol,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">835</span> +syððan hilde-dēor hǫnd ālęgde,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_836" id = "lineVI_836"> </a> +earm ǫnd eaxle (þǣr wæs eal geador</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_837" id = "lineVI_837"> </a> +Gręndles <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_837">grāpe</a>) + under gēapne hrōf.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_740" id = "linenoteVI_740" href = +"#lineVI_740">740.</a> +<b>þæt</b>, the direct object of <b>yldan</b>, refers to the contest +about to ensue. Beowulf, in the preceding lines, was wondering how it +would result.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_746" id = "linenoteVI_746" href = +"#lineVI_746">746.</a> +<b>ætstōp</b>. The subject of this verb and of <b>nam</b> is Grendel; +the subject of the three succeeding verbs (<b>rǣhte</b>, <b>onfēng</b>, +<b>gesæt</b>) is Beowulf.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_751" id = "linenoteVI_751" href = +"#lineVI_751">751-52.</a> +The O.E. poets are fond of securing emphasis or of stimulating interest +by indirect methods of statement, by suggesting more than they affirm. +This device often appears in their use of negatives (<b>ne</b>, <a href += "#lineVI_752">l. 13</a>; <a href = "#lineVI_753">p. 140, +l. 3</a>; <b>nō</b>, <a href = "#lineVI_755">p. 140, +l. 1</a>), and in the unexpected prominence that they give to some +minor detail usually suppressed because understood; as where the +narrator, wishing to describe the terror produced by Grendel’s midnight +visits to Heorot, says (ll. 138-139), “Then was it easy to find one +who elsewhere, more commodiously, sought rest for himself.” It is hard +to believe that the poet saw nothing humorous in this point of view.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_755" id = "linenoteVI_755" href = +"#lineVI_755">755.</a> +<b>nō ... meahte</b>, <i>none the sooner could he away</i>. The omission +of a verb of motion after the auxiliaries <b>magan, mōtan, sculan</b>, +and <b>willan</b> is very frequent. <i>Cf.</i> Beowulf’s last utterance, +<a href = "#lineVI_2817">p. 147, l. 17</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_768" id = "linenoteVI_768" href = +"#lineVI_768">768.</a> +The lines that immediately follow constitute a fine bit of description +by indication of effects. The two contestants are withdrawn from our +sight; but we hear the sound of the fray crashing through the massive +old hall, which trembles as in a blast; we see the terror depicted on +the faces of the Danes as they listen to the strange sounds that issue +from their former banqueting hall; by these sounds we, too, measure the +progress and alternations of the combat. At last we hear only the +“terror-lay” of Grendel, “lay of the beaten,” and know that Beowulf has +made good his promise at the banquet (<b>gilp gelǣsted</b>).</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_769" id = "linenoteVI_769" href = +"#lineVI_769">769.</a> +<b>cēnra gehwylcum</b>. The indefinite pronouns (<a href = +"#sec_77">§ <b>77</b></a>) may be used as adjectives, agreeing in +case with their nouns; but they frequently, as here, take a partitive +genitive: <b>ānra gehwylcum</b>, <i>to each one</i> (= <i>to each +of ones</i>); <b>ǣnige</b> (instrumental) <b>þinga</b>, <i>for any +thing</i> (= <i>for any of things</i>); <b>on healfa gehwone</b>, +<i>into halves</i> (= <i>into each of halves</i>); <b>ealra dōgra +gehwām</b>, <i>every day</i> (= <i>on each of all days</i>); +<b>ūhtna gehwylce</b>, <i>every morning</i> (= <i>on each of +mornings</i>).</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_780" id = "linenoteVI_780" href = +"#lineVI_780">780.</a> +Notice that <b>hit</b>, the object of <b>tōbrecan</b>, stands for +<b>wīn-sęle</b>, which is masculine. See <a href = "#sec_55">p. 39, +Note 2</a>. <b>Manna</b> is genitive after <b>gemete</b>, not after +<b>ǣnig</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_787" id = "linenoteVI_787" href = +"#lineVI_787">787-89.</a> +<b>gryre-lēoð ... hæfton</b> [= <b>hæftan</b>]. Note that verbs of +hearing and seeing, as in Mn.E., may be followed by the infinitive. They +heard <i>God’s adversary sing</i> (<b>galan</b>) ... <i>hell’s captive +bewail</i> (<b>wānigean</b>). Had the present participle been used, the +effect would have been, as in Mn.E., to emphasize the agent (the subject +of the infinitive) rather than the action (the infinitive itself).</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_795" id = "linenoteVI_795" href = +"#lineVI_795">795-96.</a> +<b>þǣr ... lāfe</b>. Beowulf’s followers now seem to have seized their +swords and come to his aid, not knowing that Grendel, having forsworn +war-weapons himself, is proof against the best of swords. <i>Then many +an earl of Beowulf’s</i> (= <i>an earl of B. very often</i>) +<i>brandished his sword.</i> That no definite earl is meant is shown by +the succeeding <b>hīe meahton</b> instead of <b>hē meahte</b>. See +<a href = "#linenote110_5">p. 110, Note</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_799" id = "linenoteVI_799" href = +"#lineVI_799">799.</a> +<i>They did not know this</i> (<b>ðæt</b>), <i>while they were +fighting</i>; but the first <b>Hīe</b> refers to the warriors who +proffered help; the second <b>hīe</b>, to the combatants, Beowulf and +Grendel. In apposition with <b>ðǣt</b>, stands the whole clause, <b>þone +synscaðan</b> (object of <b>grētan</b>) <b>... nolde</b>. The second, or +conjunctional, <b>ðæt</b> is here omitted before <b>þone</b>. See +<a href = "#linenote112_18">p. 112, note on ll. 18-19</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_837" id = "linenoteVI_837" href = +"#lineVI_837">837.</a> +<b>grāpe</b> = genitive singular, feminine, after <b>eal</b>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_1" id = "note_rVIb_1" href = +"#tag_rVIb_1">1</a> += ealdor-.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_2" id = "note_rVIb_2" href = +"#tag_rVIb_2">2</a> += Heorote.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_3" id = "note_rVIb_3" href = +"#tag_rVIb_3">3</a> += hæftan.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_4" id = "note_rVIb_4" href = +"#tag_rVIb_4">4</a> += ealdor-.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_5" id = "note_rVIb_5" href = +"#tag_rVIb_5">5</a> += weorðan.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_6" id = "note_rVIb_6" href = +"#tag_rVIb_6">6</a> += mōdiga.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_7" id = "note_rVIb_7" href = +"#tag_rVIb_7">7</a> += āglǣca.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_8" id = "note_rVIb_8" href = +"#tag_rVIb_8">8</a> += -hliðu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_9" id = "note_rVIb_9" href = +"#tag_rVIb_9">9</a> += ealdres.</p> +</div> + +<h5>Beowulf Fatally Wounded. [<span class = "plain">Lines +2712-2752.</span>]</h5> + +<p class = "notation"> +[Hrothgar, in his gratitude for the great victory, lavishes gifts upon +Beowulf; but Grendel’s mother must be reckoned with. Beowulf finds her +at the sea-bottom, and after a desperate struggle slays her. Hrothgar +again pours treasures into Beowulf’s lap. Beowulf, having now +accomplished his mission, returns to Sweden. After a reign of fifty +years, he goes forth to meet a fire-spewing dragon that is ravaging his +kingdom. In the struggle Beowulf is fatally wounded. Wiglaf, +a loyal thane, is with him.]</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">144</span> +<a name = "page144" id = "page144"> </a> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p>        Þā sīo<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVIc_1" id = "tag_rVIc_1" href = "#note_rVIc_1">1</a> wund +ongǫn,</p> +<p>þe him se eorð-draca ǣr geworhte,</p> +<p>swēlan ǫnd swellan. Hē þǣt sōna onfand,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2715</span> +þǣt him on brēostum bealo-nīð wēoll</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2716" id = "lineVI_2716"> </a> +āttor on innan. Þā <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2716">se æðeling</a> gīong,<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVIc_2" id = "tag_rVIc_2" href = "#note_rVIc_2">2</a></p> +<p>þæt hē bī wealle, wīs-hycgende,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2718" id = "lineVI_2718"> </a> +gesæt on sesse; seah on <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2718">ęnta geweorc</a>,</p> +<p>hū þā stān-bogan stapulum fæste</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_2720" id = "lineVI_2720">2720</a></span> +ēce eorð-ręced innan <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2720">healde</a>.</p> +<p>Hyne þā mid handa heoro-drēorigne,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2722" id = "lineVI_2722"> </a> +þēoden mǣrne, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2722">þegn ungemete till</a>,</p> +<p>wine-dryhten his wætere gelafede,</p> +<p>hilde-sædne, ǫnd his helm onspēon.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_2725" id = "lineVI_2725">2725</a></span> +Bīowulf<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIc_3" id = "tag_rVIc_3" href = +"#note_rVIc_3">3</a> maðelode; <a class = "linenote" href += "#linenoteVI_2725">hē ofer bęnne spræc</a>,</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">145</span> +<a name = "page145" id = "page145"> </a> + +<p>wunde wæl-blēate; wisse hē gearwe,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2727" id = "lineVI_2727"> </a> +þæt hē dæg-hwīla gedrogen hæfde</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2728" id = "lineVI_2728"> </a> +eorðan wynne; þā wæs eall sceacen</p> +<p>dōgor-gerīmes, dēað ungemete nēah:</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2730</span> +“Nū ic suna mīnum syllan wolde</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2731" id = "lineVI_2731"> </a> +gūð-gewǣdu, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2731">þǣr mē</a> gifeðe swā</p> +<p>ǣnig yrfe-weard æfter wurde</p> +<p>līce <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2731">gelęnge</a>. + Ic ðās lēode hēold</p> +<p>fīftig wintra; næs se folc-cyning</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2735</span> +ymbe-sittendra ænig þāra,</p> +<p>þe mec gūð-winum grētan dorste,</p> +<p>ęgesan ðēon. Ic on earde bād</p> +<p>mǣl-gesceafta, hēold mīn tela,</p> +<p>nē sōhte searo-nīðas, nē mē swōr fela</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_2740" id = "lineVI_2740">2740</a></span> +āða on unriht. Ic ðæs ealles mæg,</p> +<p>feorh-bęnnum sēoc, gefēan habban;</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2742" id = "lineVI_2742"> </a> +for-þām mē wītan ne ðearf Waldend<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVIc_4" id = "tag_rVIc_4" href = "#note_rVIc_4">4</a> fīra</p> +<p>morðor-bealo<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIc_5" id = "tag_rVIc_5" +href = "#note_rVIc_5">5</a> māga, þonne mīn sceaceð</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2744" id = "lineVI_2744"> </a> +līf of līce. Nū ðū lungre <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2744">geong</a><a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIc_6" id = +"tag_rVIc_6" href = "#note_rVIc_6">6</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2745</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2744">hord scēawian</a> + under hārne stān,</p> +<p>Wīglāf lēofa, nū se wyrm ligeð,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2747" id = "lineVI_2747"> </a> +swefeð sāre wund, since berēafod.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">146</span> +<a name = "page146" id = "page146"> </a> + +<p>Bīo<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIc_7" id = "tag_rVIc_7" href = +"#note_rVIc_7">7</a> nū on ofoste, þæt ic ǣr-welan,</p> +<p>gold-ǣht ongite, gearo scēawige</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2750</span> +swegle searo-gimmas, þæt ic ðȳ sēft mæge</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2751" id = "lineVI_2751"> </a> +æfter māððum-welan <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2751">mīn ālǣtan</a></p> +<p><a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2751">līf</a> ǫnd +lēod-scipe, þone ic lǫnge hēold.”</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2716" id = "linenoteVI_2716" href = +"#lineVI_2716">2716.</a> +<b>se æðeling</b> is Beowulf.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2718" id = "linenoteVI_2718" href = +"#lineVI_2718">2718.</a> +<b>ęnta geweorc</b> is a stereotyped phrase for anything that occasions +wonder by its size or strangeness.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2720" id = "linenoteVI_2720" href = +"#lineVI_2720">2720.</a> +<b>healde</b>. Heyne, following Ettmüller, reads <b>hēoldon</b>, thus +arbitrarily changing mood, tense, and number of the original. Either +mood, indicative or subjunctive, would be legitimate. As to the tense, +the narrator is identifying himself in time with the hero, whose wonder +was “how the stone-arches ... <i>sustain</i> the ever-during +earth-hall”: the construction is a form of <i>oratio recta</i>, a sort +of <i>miratio recta</i>. The singular <b>healde</b>, instead of +<b>healden</b>, has many parallels in the dependent clauses of +<i>Beowulf</i>, most of these being relative clauses introduced by +<b>þāra þe</b> (= <i>of those that ...</i> + a singular predicate). +In the present instance, the predicate has doubtless been influenced by +the proximity of <b>eorð-ręced</b>, a <i>quasi</i>-subject; and we have +no more right to alter to <b>healden</b> or <b>hēoldon</b> than we have +to change Shakespeare’s <i>gives</i> to <i>give</i> in</p> + +<p class = "center"> +“Words to the heat of deeds too cold breath <i>gives</i>.”</p> + +<p class = "right">(<i>Macbeth</i>, II, <span class = +"smallroman">I</span>, 61.)</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2722" id = "linenoteVI_2722" href = +"#lineVI_2722">2722.</a> +The <b>þegn ungemete till</b> is Wiglaf, the bravest of Beowulf’s +retainers.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2725" id = "linenoteVI_2725" href = +"#lineVI_2725">2725.</a> +<b>hē ofer bęnne spræc</b>. The editors and translators of +<i>Beowulf</i> invariably render <b>ofer</b> in this passage by +<i>about</i>; but Beowulf says not a word about his wound. The context +seems to me to show plainly that <b>ofer</b> (cf. Latin +<i>supra</i>) denotes here opposition = <i>in spite of</i>. We read in +<i>Genesis</i>, l. 594, that Eve took the forbidden fruit <b>ofer +Drihtenes word</b>. Beowulf fears (l. 2331) that he may have ruled +unjustly = <b>ofer ealde riht</b>; and he goes forth (l. 2409) +<b>ofer willan</b> to confront the dragon.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2731" id = "linenoteVI_2731" href = +"#lineVI_2731">2731-33.</a> +<b>þǣr mē ... gelęnge</b>, <i>if so be that</i> (<b>þǣr ... swā</b>) +<i>any heir had afterwards been given me</i> (<b>mē gifeðe ... +æfter wurde</b>) <i>belonging to my body</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2744" id = "linenoteVI_2744" href = +"#lineVI_2744">2744-45.</a> +<b>geong</b> [= <b>gǫng</b>] <b>... scēawian</b>. See note on <b>ēode +... sittan</b>, <a href = "#linenoteVI_641">p. 137, +ll. 19-20</a>. In Mn.E. <i>Go see, Go fetch</i>, etc., is the +second verb imperative (coördinate with the first), or subjunctive +(<i>that you may see</i>), or infinitive without <i>to</i>?</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2751" id = "linenoteVI_2751" href = +"#lineVI_2751">2751-52.</a> +<b>mīn ... līf</b>. See note on <b>ęnde-dæg ... mīnne</b>, <a href = +"#lineVI_638">p. 137, ll. 16-17</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIc_1" id = "note_rVIc_1" href = +"#tag_rVIc_1">1</a> += sēo.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIc_2" id = "note_rVIc_2" href = +"#tag_rVIc_2">2</a> += gēong.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIc_3" id = "note_rVIc_3" href = +"#tag_rVIc_3">3</a> += Bēowulf.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIc_4" id = "note_rVIc_4" href = +"#tag_rVIc_4">4</a> += Wealdend.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIc_5" id = "note_rVIc_5" href = +"#tag_rVIc_5">5</a> += morðor-bealu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIc_6" id = "note_rVIc_6" href = +"#tag_rVIc_6">6</a> += gǫng (gang).</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIc_7" id = "note_rVIc_7" href = +"#tag_rVIc_7">7</a> += Bēo.</p> +</div> + +<h5>Beowulf’s Last Words. [<span class = "plain">Lines +2793-2821.</span>]</h5> + +<p class = "notation"> +[Wiglaf brings the jewels, the tokens of Beowulf’s triumph. Beowulf, +rejoicing to see them, reviews his career, and gives advice and final +directions to Wiglaf.]</p> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p>        <i>Bīowulf<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVId_1" id = "tag_rVId_1" href = "#note_rVId_1">1</a> +maðelode</i>,</p> +<p>gǫmel on giohðe (gold scēawode):</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_2795" id = "lineVI_2795">2795</a></span> +“Ic þāra frætwa Frēan ealles <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2795">ðanc</a>,</p> +<p>Wuldur-cyninge, wordum <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2795">sęcge</a></p> +<p>ęcum Dryhtne, þe ic hēr on starie,</p> +<p>þæs þe ic mōste mīnum lēodum</p> +<p>ǣr swylt-dæge swylc gestrȳnan.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_2800" id = "lineVI_2800">2800</a></span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2800">Nū ic on māðma hord + mīne bebohte</a></p> + +<span class = "pagenum">147</span> +<a name = "page147" id = "page147"> </a> + +<p><a name = "lineVI_2801" id = "lineVI_2801"> </a> +frōde feorh-lęge, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2801">fręmmað gē</a> nū</p> +<p>lēoda þearfe; ne mæg ic hēr lęng wesan.</p> +<p>Hātað heaðo-mǣre hlǣw gewyrcean,</p> +<p>beorhtne æfter bǣle æt brimes nosan;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_2805" id = "lineVI_2805">2805</a></span> +sē scel<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVId_2" id = "tag_rVId_2" href = +"#note_rVId_2">2</a> tō gemyndum mīnum lēodum</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2806" id = "lineVI_2806"> </a> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2806">hēah hlīfian</a> + on Hrǫnes næsse,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2807" id = "lineVI_2807"> </a> +þæt <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2807">hit</a> sǣ-līðend + syððan hātan<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVId_3" id = +"tag_rVId_3" href = "#note_rVId_3">3</a></p> +<p>Bīowulfes<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVId_1b" id = "tag_rVId_1b" +href = "#note_rVId_1">1</a> biorh<a class = "tag" href = +"#note_rVId_1">1</a> þā þe brentingas</p> +<p>ofer flōda genipu feorran drīfað.”</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_2810" id = "lineVI_2810">2810</a></span> +Dyde <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2810">him</a> of healse + hring gyldenne</p> +<p><a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2810">þīoden</a><a class = +"tag" name = "tag_rVId_1c" id = "tag_rVId_1c" href = +"#note_rVId_1">1</a> þrīst-hȳdig; þegne gesealde,</p> +<p>geongum gār-wigan, gold-fāhne helm,</p> +<p>bēah ǫnd byrnan, hēt hyne brūcan well.</p> +<p>“Þū eart ęnde-lāf ūsses cynnes,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2815</span> +Wǣgmundinga; ealle wyrd forswēop</p> +<p>mīne māgas tō metod-sceafte,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2817" id = "lineVI_2817"> </a> +eorlas on ęlne; <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2817">ic him æfter sceal</a>.”</p> +<p>Þæt wæs þām gǫmelan gingeste word</p> +<p>brēost-gehygdum, ǣr hē bǣl cure,</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">148</span> +<a name = "page148" id = "page148"> </a> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_2820" id = "lineVI_2820">2820</a></span> +hāte heaðo-wylmas; <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2820">him of hreðre</a> <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2821">gewāt</a></p> +<p>sāwol <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2821">sēcean</a> + sōð-fæstra dōm.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2795" id = "linenoteVI_2795" href = +"#lineVI_2795">2795-99.</a> +The expression <b>sęcgan þanc</b> takes the same construction as +<b>þancian</b>; i.e., the dative of the person (<b>Frēan</b>) and the +genitive (a genitive of cause) of the thing (<b>þāra frætwa</b>). +Cf. note on <b>biddan</b>, <a href = "#sec_65">p. 45</a>. The +antecedent of <b>þe</b> is <b>frætwa</b>. For the position of <b>on</b>, +see <a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (5)</a>. The clause introduced +by <b>þæs þe</b> (<i>because</i>) is parallel in construction with +<b>frætwa</b>, both being causal modifiers of <b>sęcge þanc</b>. The +Christian coloring in these lines betrays the influence of priestly +transcribers.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2800" id = "linenoteVI_2800" href = +"#lineVI_2800">2800.</a> +<i>Now that I, in exchange for</i> (<b>on</b>) <i>a hoard of treasures, +have bartered</i> (<b>bebohte</b>) <i>the laying down</i> (<b>-lęge</b> +> <b>licgan</b>) <i>of my old life.</i> The ethical codes of the +early Germanic races make frequent mention of blood-payments, or +life-barters. There seems to be here a suggestion of the “wergild.”</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2801" id = "linenoteVI_2801" href = +"#lineVI_2801">2801.</a> +<b>fręmmað gē</b>. The plural imperative (as also in <b>Hātað</b>) +shows that Beowulf is here speaking not so much to Wiglaf in particular +as, through Wiglaf, to his retainers in general,—to his +<i>comitatus</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2806" id = "linenoteVI_2806" href = +"#lineVI_2806">2806.</a> +The desire for conspicuous burial places finds frequent expression in +early literatures. The tomb of Achilles was situated “high on a jutting +headland over wide Hellespont that it might be seen from off the sea.” +Elpenor asks Ulysses to bury him in the same way. Æneas places the ashes +of Misenus beneath a high mound on a headland of the sea.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2807" id = "linenoteVI_2807" href = +"#lineVI_2807">2807.</a> +<b>hit = hlǣw</b>, which is masculine. See <a href = +"#sec_55">p. 39, Note 2</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2810" id = "linenoteVI_2810" href = +"#lineVI_2810">2810-11.</a> +<b>him ... þīoden</b>. The reference in both cases is to Beowulf, who is +disarming himself (<span class = "fancy">do-of</span><!-- blackletter +--> > <i>doff</i>) for the last time; <b>þegne</b> = <i>to +Wiglaf</i>.</p> + +<p>Note, where the personal element is strong, the use of the dative +instead of the more colorless possessive; <b>him of healse</b>, not +<b>of his healse</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2817" id = "linenoteVI_2817" href = +"#lineVI_2817">2817.</a> +<b>ic ... sceal</b>. See note on <b>nō ... meahte</b>, <a href = +"#linenoteVI_755">p. 140, l. 1</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2820" id = "linenoteVI_2820" href = +"#lineVI_2820">2820.</a> +<b>him of hreðre</b>. Cf. note on <b>him ... þīoden</b>, <a href = +"#linenoteVI_2810">p. 147, ll. 10-11</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2821" id = "linenoteVI_2821" href = +"#lineVI_2820">2820-21.</a> +For construction of <b>gewāt ... sēcean</b>, see note on <b>ēode ... +sittan</b>, <a href = "#linenoteVI_641">p. 137, +ll. 19-20</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVId_1" id = "note_rVId_1" href = +"#tag_rVId_1">1</a> += īo, io = ēo, eo.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVId_2" id = "note_rVId_2" href = +"#tag_rVId_2">2</a> += sceal.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVId_3" id = "note_rVId_3" href = +"#tag_rVId_3">3</a> += hāten.</p> +</div> + + + +<h3><a name = "chapIII_VII" id = "chapIII_VII"> +VII. THE WANDERER.</a></h3> + + +<p class = "notation"> +[Exeter MS. “The epic character of the ancient lyric appears especially +in this: that the song is less the utterance of a momentary feeling than +the portrayal of a lasting state, perhaps the reflection of an entire +life, generally that of one isolated, or bereft by death or exile of +protectors and friends.” (Ten Brink, <i>Early Eng. Lit.</i>, I.) +I adopt Brooke’s threefold division (<i>Early Eng. Lit.</i>, +p. 356): “It opens with a Christian prologue, and closes with a +Christian epilogue, but the whole body of the poem was written, it seems +to me, by a person who thought more of the goddess Wyrd than of God, +whose life and way of thinking were uninfluenced by any distinctive +Christian doctrine.”</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +The author is unknown.]</p> + +<h5>Prologue.</h5> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p><a name = "lineVII_1" id = "lineVII_1"> </a> +Oft him ānhaga āre gebīdeð,</p> +<p>Metudes<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_1" id = "tag_rVII_1" href = +"#note_rVII_1">1</a> miltse, þēah þe hē mōdcearig</p> +<p>geond lagulāde lǫnge sceolde</p> +<p>hrēran mid hǫndum hrīmcealde sǣ,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +wadan wræclǣstas: wyrd bið ful ārǣd!</p> +<p>Swā cwæð eardstapa earfeþa<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVII_2" id = "tag_rVII_2" href = "#note_rVII_2">2</a> gemyndig,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_7" id = "lineVII_7"> </a> +wrāþra wælsleahta, winemǣga <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVII_7">hryres</a>:</p> +</div> + +<h5>Plaint of the Wanderer.</h5> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p><a name = "lineVII_8" id = "lineVII_8"> </a> +“Oft ic sceolde āna <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVII_8">ūhtna gehwylce</a></p> +<p>mīne ceare cwīþan; nis nū cwicra nān,</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">149</span> +<a name = "page149" id = "page149"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVII_10" id = "lineVII_10">10</a></span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_10">þe ic him</a> mōdsefan + mīnne durre</p> +<p>sweotule<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_3" id = "tag_rVII_3" href = +"#note_rVII_3">3</a> āsęcgan. Ic tō sōþe wāt</p> +<p>þæt biþ in eorle indryhten þēaw,</p> +<p>þæt hē his ferðlocan fæste binde,</p> +<p>healde his hordcofan, hycge swā hē wille;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +ne mæg wērig mōd wyrde wiðstǫndan</p> +<p>nē sē hrēo hyge helpe gefręmman:</p> +<p>for ðon dōmgeorne drēorigne oft</p> +<p>in hyra brēostcofan bindað fæste.</p> +<p>Swā ic mōdsefan mīnne sceolde</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +oft earmcearig ēðle bidǣled,</p> +<p>frēomǣgum feor feterum sǣlan,</p> +<p>siþþan gēara iū goldwine mīnne</p> +<p>hrūsan heolster biwrāh, and ic hēan þǫnan</p> +<p>wōd wintercearig ofer waþema gebind,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">25</span> +sōhte sęle drēorig sinces bryttan,</p> +<p>hwǣr ic feor oþþe nēah findan meahte</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_27" id = "lineVII_27"> </a> +þone þe in meoduhealle<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_4" id = +"tag_rVII_4" href = "#note_rVII_4">4</a> <a class = +"linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_27">miltse</a> wisse</p> +<p>oþþe mec frēondlēasne frēfran wolde,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_29" id = "lineVII_29"> </a> +węnian mid wynnum. Wāt sē þe cunnað</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">30</span> +hū slīþen bið sorg tō gefēran</p> +<p>þām þe him lȳt hafað lēofra geholena:</p> +<p>warað hine wræclāst, nāles wunden gold,</p> +<p>ferðloca frēorig, nālæs foldan blǣd;</p> +<p>gemǫn hē sęlesęcgas and sincþęge,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">35</span> +hū hine on geoguðe his goldwine</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_36" id = "lineVII_36"> </a> +węnede tō wiste: wyn eal gedrēas!</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">150</span> +<a name = "page150" id = "page150"> </a> +<p><a name = "lineVII_37" id = "lineVII_37"> </a> +For þon <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_37">wāt</a> sē þe +sceal his winedryhtnes</p> +<p>lēofes lārcwidum lǫnge forþolian,</p> +<p>ðonne sorg and slǣp sǫmod ætgædre</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">40</span> +earmne ānhagan oft gebindað:</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_41" id = "lineVII_41"> </a> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_41">þinceð him on mōde</a> + þæt hē his mǫndryhten</p> +<p>clyppe and cysse, and on cnēo lęcge</p> +<p>hǫnda and hēafod, swā hē hwīlum ǣr</p> +<p>in gēardagum giefstōles brēac;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">45</span> +ðonne onwæcneð eft winelēas guma,</p> +<p>gesihð him biforan fealwe wǣgas,</p> +<p>baþian brimfuglas, brǣdan feþra,</p> +<p>hrēosan hrīm and snāw hagle gemęnged.</p> +<p>Þonne bēoð þȳ hęfigran heortan bęnne,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">50</span> +sāre æfter swǣsne; sorg bið genīwad;</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_51" id = "lineVII_51"> </a> +þonne māga gemynd mōd geondhweorfeð,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_52" id = "lineVII_52"> </a> +grēteð glīwstafum, georne geondscēawað.</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_53" id = "lineVII_53"> </a> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_53">Sęcga</a> geseldan + swimmað eft on weg;</p> +<p>flēotendra ferð<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_5" id = "tag_rVII_5" +href = "#note_rVII_5">5</a> nō þǣr fela bringeð</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">55</span> +cūðra <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_53">cwidegiedda</a>; + cearo<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_6" id = +"tag_rVII_6" href = "#note_rVII_6">6</a> bið genīwad</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">151</span> +<a name = "page151" id = "page151"> </a> + +<p>þām þe sęndan sceal swīþe geneahhe</p> +<p>ofer waþema gebind wērigne sefan.</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_58" id = "lineVII_58"> </a> +For þon ic geþęncan ne mæg geond þās woruld</p> +<p>for hwan mōdsefa mīn ne gesweorce,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">60</span> +þonne ic eorla līf eal geondþęnce,</p> +<p>hū hī fǣrlīce flęt ofgēafon,</p> +<p>mōdge maguþegnas. Swā þēs middangeard</p> +<p>ealra dōgra gehwām drēoseð and fealleþ;</p> +<p>for þon ne mæg weorþan wīs wer, ǣr hē āge</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVII_65" id = "lineVII_65">65</a></span> +wintra dǣl in woruldrīce. <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVII_65">Wita sceal geþyldig</a>,</p> +<p>ne sceal nō tō hātheort nē tō hrædwyrde,</p> +<p>nē tō wāc wiga nē tō wanhȳdig,</p> +<p>nē tō forht nē tō fægen nē tō feohgīfre,</p> +<p>nē nǣfre gielpes tō georn, ǣr hē geare cunne.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">70</span> +Beorn sceal gebīdan, þonne hē bēot spriceð,</p> +<p>oþ þæt collenferð cunne gearwe</p> +<p>hwider hreþra gehygd hweorfan wille.</p> +<p>Ongietan sceal glēaw hæle hū gǣstlīc bið,</p> +<p>þonne eall þisse worulde wela wēste stǫndeð,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVII_75" id = "lineVII_75">75</a></span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_75">swā nū</a> missenlīce + geond þisne middangeard</p> +<p>winde biwāune<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_7" id = "tag_rVII_7" +href = "#note_rVII_7">7</a> weallas stǫndaþ,</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">152</span> +<a name = "page152" id = "page152"> </a> + +<p>hrīme bihrorene,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_8" id = +"tag_rVII_8" href = "#note_rVII_8">8</a> hryðge þā +ederas.</p> +<p>Wōriað þā wīnsalo,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_9" id = +"tag_rVII_9" href = "#note_rVII_9">9</a> waldend +licgað</p> +<p>drēame bidrorene<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_10" id = +"tag_rVII_10" href = "#note_rVII_10">10</a>; duguð eal +gecrǫng</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">80</span> +wlǫnc bī wealle: sume wīg fornōm,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_81" id = "lineVII_81"> </a> +fęrede in forðwege; sumne fugel<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVII_11" id = "tag_rVII_11" href = "#note_rVII_11">11</a> oþbær</p> +<p>ofer hēanne holm; sumne sē hāra wulf</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_83" id = "lineVII_83"> </a> +dēaðe gedǣlde; sumne drēorighlēor</p> +<p>in eorðscræfe eorl gehȳdde:</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">85</span> +ȳþde swā þisne eardgeard ælda Scyppend,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_86" id = "lineVII_86"> </a> +oþ þæt burgwara breahtma lēase</p> +<p>eald ęnta geweorc īdlu stōdon.</p> +<p>Sē þonne þisne wealsteal wīse geþōhte,</p> +<p>and þis deorce līf dēope geondþęnceð,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">90</span> +frōd in ferðe<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_12" id = "tag_rVII_12" +href = "#note_rVII_12">12</a> feor oft gemǫn</p> +<p>wælsleahta worn, and þās word ācwið:</p> +<p>‘Hwǣr cwōm mearg? hwǣr cwōm mago<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_13" +id = "tag_rVII_13" href = "#note_rVII_13">13</a>? hwǣr cwōm +māþþumgyfa?</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_93" id = "lineVII_93"> </a> +hwǣr <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_93">cwōm symbla +gesetu</a>? hwǣr sindon sęledrēamas?</p> +<p>Ēalā beorht bune! ēalā byrnwiga!</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">95</span> +ēalā þēodnes þrym! hū sēo þrāg gewāt,</p> +<p>genāp under nihthelm, swā hēo nō wǣre!</p> +<p>Stǫndeð nū on lāste lēofre duguþe</p> +<p>weal wundrum hēah, wyrmlīcum fāh:</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_99" id = "lineVII_99"> </a> +eorlas fornōmon asca þrȳþe,</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">153</span> +<a name = "page153" id = "page153"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">100</span> +wǣpen wælgīfru, wyrd sēo mǣre;</p> +<p>and þās stānhleoþu<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_14" id = +"tag_rVII_14" href = "#note_rVII_14">14</a> stormas +cnyssað;</p> +<p>hrīð hrēosende hrūsan bindeð,</p> +<p>wintres wōma, þonne wǫn cymeð,</p> +<p>nīpeð nihtscūa, norþan onsęndeð</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVII_105" id = "lineVII_105">105</a></span> +hrēo hæglfare hæleþum on andan.</p> +<p>Eall is earfoðlīc eorþan rīce,</p> +<p>onwęndeð wyrda gesceaft weoruld under heofonum:</p> +<p>hēr bið feoh lǣne, hēr bið frēond lǣne,</p> +<p>hēr bið mǫn lǣne, hēr bið mǣg lǣne;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">110</span> +eal þis eorþan gesteal īdel weorþeð!’”</p> + +<h5>Epilogue.</h5> + +<p><a name = "lineVII_111" id = "lineVII_111"> </a> +Swā cwæð snottor on mōde, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVII_111">gesæt him sundor æt rune</a>.</p> +<p>Til biþ sē þe his trēowe gehealdeð; ne sceal nǣfre his +torn tō rycene</p> +<p>beorn of his brēostum ācȳþan, nemþe hē ǣr þā bōte +cunne;</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_114" id = "lineVII_114"> </a> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_114">eorl mid ęlne +gefręmman</a>. Wel bið þām þe him āre sēceð,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">115</span> +frōfre tō Fæder on heofonum, þǣr ūs eal sēo fæstnung +stǫndeð.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_7" id = "linenoteVII_7" href = +"#lineVII_7">7.</a> +The MS. reading is <b>hryre</b> (nominative), which is meaningless.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_8" id = "linenoteVII_8" href = +"#lineVII_8">8.</a> +For <b>ūhtna gehwylce</b>, see note on <b>cēnra gehwylcum</b>, <a href = +"#linenoteVI_769">p. 140</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_10" id = "linenoteVII_10" href = +"#lineVII_10">10.</a> +<b>þe ... him</b>. See <a href = "#sec_75">§ <b>75</b> (4)</a>. Cf. +<i>Merchant of Venice</i>, II, <span class = "smallcaps">v</span>, +50-51.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_27" id = "linenoteVII_27" href = +"#lineVII_27">27.</a> +For <b>mine</b> (MS. <b>in</b>), which does not satisfy metrical +requirements, I adopt Kluge’s plausible substitution of +<b>miltse</b>; <b>miltse witan</b> = <i>to show</i> (<i>know, feel</i>), +<i>pity</i>. The <b>myne wisse</b> of <i>Beowulf</i> (l. 169) is +metrically admissible.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_37" id = "linenoteVII_37" href = +"#lineVII_37">37.</a> +The object of <b>wāt</b> is <b>þinceð him on mōde</b>; but the +construction is unusual, inasmuch as both <b>þæt’s</b> (<b>þæt</b> +pronominal before <b>wāt</b> and <b>þæt</b> conjunctional before +<b>þinceð</b>) are omitted. See <a href = "#line112_18">p. 112, +ll. 18-19</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_41" id = "linenoteVII_41" href = +"#lineVII_41">41.</a> +<b>þinceð him on mōde</b> (see note on <b>him ... þīoden</b>, <a href = +"#linenoteVI_2810">p. 147</a>). “No more sympathetic picture has +been drawn by an Anglo-Saxon poet than where the wanderer in exile falls +asleep at his oar and dreams again of his dead lord and the old hall and +revelry and joy and gifts,—then wakes to look once more upon the +waste of ocean, snow and hail falling all around him, and sea-birds +dipping in the spray.” (Gummere, <i>Germanic Origins</i>, +p. 221.)</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_53" id = "linenoteVII_53" href = +"#lineVII_53">53-55.</a> +<b>Sęcga ... cwidegiedda</b> = <i>But these comrades of warriors</i> [= +those seen in vision] <i>again swim away</i> [= <i>fade away</i>]; +<i>the ghost of these fleeting ones brings not there many familiar +words</i>; i.e. he sees in dream and vision the old familiar faces, but +no voice is heard: they bring neither greetings to him nor tidings of +themselves.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_65" id = "linenoteVII_65" href = +"#lineVII_65">65.</a> +<b>Wita sceal geþyldig</b>. Either <b>bēon</b> (<b>wesan</b>) is here to +be understood after <b>sceal</b>, or <b>sceal</b> alone means <i>ought +to be</i>. Neither construction is to be found in Alfredian prose, +though the omission of a verb of motion after <b>sculan</b> is common in +all periods of Old English. See note on <b>nō ... meahte</b>, <a href = +"#linenoteVI_755">p. 140</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_75" id = "linenoteVII_75" href = +"#lineVII_75">75.</a> +<b>swā nū</b>. “The Old English lyrical feeling,” says Ten Brink, citing +the lines that immediately follow <b>swā nū</b>, “is fond of the image +of physical destruction”; but I do not think these lines have a merely +figurative import. The reference is to a period of real devastation, +antedating the Danish incursions. “We might fairly find such a time in +that parenthesis of bad government and of national tumult which filled +the years between the death of Aldfrith in 705 and the renewed peace of +Northumbria under Ceolwulf in the years that followed 729.” (Brooke, +<i>Early Eng. Lit.</i>, p. 355.)</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_93" id = "linenoteVII_93" href = +"#lineVII_93">93.</a> +<b>cwōm ... gesetu</b>. Ettmüller reads <b>cwōmon</b>; but see <a href = +"#linenote107_14">p. 107</a>, note on <b>wæs ... þā īgland</b>. The +occurrence of <b>hwǣr cwōm</b> three times in the preceding line tends +also to hold <b>cwōm</b> in the singular when its plural subject +follows. Note the influence of a somewhat similar structural parallelism +in <i>seas hides</i> of these lines (<i>Winter’s Tale</i>, IV, <span +class = "smallroman">IV</span>, 500-502):</p> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p>“Not for ... all the <i>sun sees</i> or</p> +<p>The close <i>earth wombs</i> or the profound <i>seas hides</i></p> +<p>In unknown fathoms, will I break my oath.”</p> +</div> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_111" id = "linenoteVII_111" href = +"#lineVII_111">111.</a> +<b>gesæt ... rūne</b>, <i>sat apart to himself in silent +meditation</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_114" id = "linenoteVII_114" href = +"#lineVII_114">114.</a> +<b>eorl ... gefręmman</b>. Supply <b>sceal</b> after <b>eorl</b>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_1" id = "note_rVII_1" href = +"#tag_rVII_1">1</a> += Metodes.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_2" id = "note_rVII_2" href = +"#tag_rVII_2">2</a> += earfoþa.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_3" id = "note_rVII_3" href = +"#tag_rVII_3">3</a> += sweotole.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_4" id = "note_rVII_4" href = +"#tag_rVII_4">4</a> += medu-.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_5" id = "note_rVII_5" href = +"#tag_rVII_5">5</a> += ferhð.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_6" id = "note_rVII_6" href = +"#tag_rVII_6">6</a> += cearu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_7" id = "note_rVII_7" href = +"#tag_rVII_7">7</a> += See bewāwan.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_8" id = "note_rVII_8" href = +"#tag_rVII_8">8</a> += See behrēosan.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_9" id = "note_rVII_9" href = +"#tag_rVII_9">9</a> += wīnsalu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_10" id = "note_rVII_10" href = +"#tag_rVII_10">10</a> += See bedrēosan.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_11" id = "note_rVII_11" href = +"#tag_rVII_11">11</a> += fugol.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_12" id = "note_rVII_12" href = +"#tag_rVII_12">12</a> += ferhðe.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_13" id = "note_rVII_13" href = +"#tag_rVII_13">13</a> += magu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_14" id = "note_rVII_14" href = +"#tag_rVII_14">14</a> += -hliðu.</p> +</div> + +</div> +<!-- end div readings --> + +<a name = "page154" id = "page154"> </a> + +<span class = "pagenum">155</span> +<a name = "page155" id = "page155"> </a> +<h3><a name = "gloss_I" id = "gloss_I"> +I. GLOSSARY.</a></h3> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h4>OLD ENGLISH—MODERN ENGLISH.</h4> + + +<p class = "notation"> +[The order of words is strictly alphabetical, except that <b>ð</b> +follows <b>t</b>. The combination <b>æ</b> follows <b>ad</b>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +Gender is indicated by the abbreviations, m. (= masculine), f. +(= feminine), n. (= neuter). The usual abbreviations are +employed for the cases, nom., gen., dat., acc., and instr. Other +abbreviations are sing. (= singular), pl. (= plural), ind. +(= indicative mood), sub. (= subjunctive mood), pres. +(= present tense), pret. (= preterit tense), prep. +(= preposition), adj. (= adjective), adv. (= adverb), +part. (= participle), conj. (= conjunction), pron. +(= pronoun), intrans. (= intransitive), trans. +(= transitive).</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +Figures not preceded by § refer to page and line of the texts.</p> + +<p class = "mynote center"> +<a href = "#gloss1_A"> A </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_B"> B </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_C"> C </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_D"> D </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_E"> E </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_F"> F </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_G"> G </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_H"> H </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_I"> I </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_K"> K </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_L"> L </a><br> +<a href = "#gloss1_M"> M </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_N"> N </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_O"> O </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_P"> P </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_R"> R </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_S"> S </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_T"> T </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_Th"> Ð </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_U"> U </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_W"> W </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_Y"> Y </a> +</p> + +<div class = "glossary"> + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_A" id = "gloss1_A" href = "#gloss_I">A.</a></h5> + +<p><b>ā</b>, <i>ever, always, aye</i>.</p> + +<p><b>abbudisse</b>, f., <i>abbess</i> [Lat. abbatissa].</p> + +<p><b>ābēodan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), <i>bid, +offer</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>him hǣl ābēad</b> <a href = "#lineVI_654">138, 9</a> = <i>bade him +hail, wished him health</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ābrecan</b> (<a href = "#sec_120">§ <b>120</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>break down, destroy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ābūgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b>, Note<ins class = +"correction" title = "superfluous ,"> </ins>1</a>), <i>give way, +start</i> [bow away].</p> + +<p><b>ac</b>, conj., <i>but</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ācweðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), <i>say, +speak</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ācȳðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>reveal, +proclaim</i> [<b>cūð</b>].</p> + +<p><b>ād</b>, m., <i>funeral pile</i>.</p> + +<p><b>adesa</b>, m., <i>adze, hatchet</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣ</b> (<b>ǣw</b>), f., <i>law</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">155b</span> +<p><b>ǣdre</b> (<b>ēdre</b>), f., <i>stream, canal, vein</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>blōd ēdrum dranc</b> <a href = "#lineVI_743">139, 4</a> = <i>drank +blood in streams</i> (instr.).</p> + +<p><b>ǣfæstnis</b>, f., <i>piety</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣfen-ræst</b>, f., <i>evening rest</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣfen-sprǣc</b>, f., <i>evening speech</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣfęst</b> (<b>ǣwfęst</b>), <i>law-abiding, pious</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣfęstnis</b>, see <b>ǣfæstnis</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣfre</b>, <i>ever, always</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣfter</b>, prep. (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), +<i>after</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣfter ðǣm</b>, <i>after that, thereafter</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>æfter ðǣm ðe</b>, conj., <i>after</i>.</p> + +<p><b>æfter</b>, adv., <i>after, afterwards</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣghwā</b> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b>, Note</a>), <i>each, +every</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣghwilc</b> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b>, Note</a>), <i>each, +any</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣglǣca</b>, see <b>āglǣca</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">156</span> +<a name = "page156" id = "page156"> </a> +<p><b>ǣgðer</b> (<b>ǣghwæðer, āðer</b>) (<a href = "#sec_77">§ +<b>77</b>, Note</a>), <i>each, either</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣgðer ... ōðer ... ōðer</b>, <i>either ... or ... or</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣgðer ge ... ge</b> (<a href = "#sec_95">§ <b>95</b>, (2)</a>), +<i>both ... and</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣgðer ge ... ge ... ge</b>, <i>both ... and ... and</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣht</b>, f., <i>property, possession</i> [<b>āgan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>ǣlc</b> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b></a>), <i>each</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ælde</b> (<b>ielde</b>) (<a href = "#sec_47">§ <b>47</b></a>), m. +pl., <i>men</i>; gen. pl., <b>ælda</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ælmihtig</b>, <i>almighty</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣmetta</b>, m., <i>leisure</i> [<i>empti</i>-ness].</p> + +<p><b>ǣnig</b> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b></a>), <i>any</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣnige ðinga</b> <a href = "#lineVI_792">141, 22</a> = <i>for +anything</i>.</p> +<p class = "inset"> +(See <a href = "#linenoteVI_769">140, 15, Note</a>.)</p> + +<p><b>ǣr</b>, adv., <i>before, formerly, sooner</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>nō þȳ ǣr</b> <a href = "#lineVI_755">140, 1</a> = <i>none the +sooner</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣror</b>, comparative, <i>before, formerly</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣrest</b>, superlative, <i>first</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣr</b>, conj. (<a href = "#sec_105">§ <b>105</b></a>, 2), <i>ere, +before</i> = <b>ǣr ðǣm ðe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣr</b>, prep, with dat., <i>before</i> (time);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣr ðǣm ðe</b>, conj. (<a href = "#sec_105">§ <b>105</b></a>, 2), +<i>before</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ærcebisceop</b>, m., <i>archbishop</i> [Lat. archiepiscopus].</p> + +<p><b>ǣrendgewrit</b>, n., <i>message, letter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣrendwreca</b> (<b>-raca</b>), m., <i>messenger</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣrest</b>, adj. (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (4)</a>), +<i>first</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ærnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>ride, +gallop</i> [<b>iernan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>ǣrra</b>, adj. (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (4)</a>), +<i>former</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣrwela</b>, m., <i>ancient wealth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>æsc</b>, m., <i>ash, spear</i>; gen. pl., <b>asca</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Æscesdūn</b>, f., <i>Ashdown</i> (in Berkshire).</p> + +<p><b>æstel</b>, m., <i>book-mark</i> [Lat. hastula].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">156b</span> +<p><b>æt</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), <i>at, +in</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +with <b>leornian</b>, <i>to learn</i>, <b>geðicgan</b>, <i>to +receive</i>, and other verbs of similar import,</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>æt</b> = <i>from</i>: <a href = "#line115_18">115, 18</a>; <a href = +"#lineVI_630">137, 8</a>, etc.</p> + +<p><b>ætberan</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), <i>bear to, +hand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ætgæd(e)re</b>, adv., <i>together</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ætsteppan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), <i>step up, +advance</i>; pret. sing., <b>ætstōp</b>.</p> + +<p><b>æðele</b>, <i>noble, excellent</i>.</p> + +<p><b>æðeling</b>, m., <i>a noble, prince</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Æðelwulfing</b>, m., <i>son of Ethelwulf</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Æðered</b>, m., <i>Ethelred</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āfeallan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), +<i>fall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āfierran</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>remove</i> [<b>feor</b>].</p> + +<p><b>āgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_136">§ <b>136</b></a>), <i>to own, +possess</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āgen</b>, adj.-part., <i>own</i>; dat. sing., <b>āgnum</b> +[<b>āgan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>āgiefan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), <i>give +back</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āglǣca</b> (<b>ǣglǣca</b>), m., <i>monster, champion</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āhton</b>, see <b>āgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ālǣtan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>let go, +leave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>aldor</b>, see <b>ealdor</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ālęcgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b>, Note</a>), <i>lay +down</i> [<b>licgan</b>]; past part., <b>ālēd</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Ālīesend</b>, m., <i>Redeemer</i> [<b>ālīesan</b> = <i>release, +ransom</i>].</p> + +<p><b>ālimpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>befall, +occur</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ālȳfan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>entrust, +permit</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ambor</b>, m., <i>measure</i>; gen. pl., <b>ambra</b> (<a href = +"#sec_27">§ <b>27</b>, (4)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>ambyre</b>, <i>favorable</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ān</b> (<a href = "#sec_89">§ <b>89</b></a>), <i>one</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>āna</b>, <i>alone, only</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ānra gehwylcum</b> <a href = "#lineVI_785">141, 15</a> = <i>to each +one</i>.</p> +<p class = "inset"> +(See <a href = "#linenoteVI_769">140, 15, Note</a>.)</p> + +<p><b>anda</b>, m., <i>zeal, injury, indignation</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>hæleðum on andan</b> <a href = "#lineVII_105">153, 6</a> = <i>harmful +to men</i>.</p> + +<p><b>andēfn</b>, f., <i>proportion, amount</i>.</p> + +<p><b>andgiet</b> (<b>-git</b>), n., <i>sense, meaning</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">157</span> +<a name = "page157" id = "page157"> </a> +<p><b>andgitfullīce</b>, <i>intelligibly</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>-gitfullīcost</b>, <i>superlative</i>.</p> + +<p><b>andswaru</b>, f., <i>answer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>andwyrdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>to +answer</i>; pret., <b>andwyrde</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Angel</b>, n., <i>Anglen</i> (in Denmark); dat. sing., +<b>Angle</b> (<a href = "#sec_27">§ <b>27</b> (4)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>Angelcynn</b>, n., <i>English kin</i>, <i>English people</i>, +<i>England</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ānhaga</b> (<b>-hoga</b>), m., <i>a solitary</i>, <i>wanderer</i> +[<b>ān</b> + <b>hogian</b>, <i>to meditate</i>].</p> + +<p><b>ānlīpig</b>, <i>single</i>, <i>individual</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ānunga</b> (<a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b>, (2)</a>), <i>once for +all</i> [<b>ān</b>].</p> + +<p><b>apostol</b>, m., <i>apostle</i> [Gr. <span class = "greek" title = +"apostolos">ἀπόστολος</span>].</p> + +<p><b>ār</b>, f., <i>honor</i>, <i>property</i>, <i>favor</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>āre gebīdeð</b> <a href = "#lineVII_1">148, 3</a> = <i>waits for +divine favor</i> (gen.).</p> + +<p><b>ārǣd</b>, adj., <i>inexorable</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ārǣdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>read</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āręcc(e)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>translate</i>, <i>expound</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ārfæstnis</b>, f., <i>virtue</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ārīsan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>arise</i>.</p> + +<p><b>asca</b>, see <b>aesc</b>.</p> + +<p><b>āsęcgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_132">§ <b>132</b></a>), <i>say</i>, +<i>relate</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āsęttan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>set</i>, +<i>place</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āsingan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>sing</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āspęndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>spend</i>, <i>expend</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āstīgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>ascend</i>, <i>arise</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āstǫndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), <i>stand +up</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ātēah</b>, see <b>ātēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>atelīc</b>, <i>horrible</i>, <i>dire</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ātēon</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>), <i>draw</i>, +<i>draw away</i>, <i>take</i> (as a journey).</p> + +<p><b>atol</b>, <i>horrible</i>, <i>dire</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āttor</b>, n., <i>poison</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ātuge</b>, see <b>ātēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>āð</b>, m., <i>oath</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āðer</b>, see <b>ǣgðer</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">157b</span> +<p><b>āwęccan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), <i>awake</i>, +<i>arouse</i>; pret. sing., <b>āweahte</b>, <b>āwęhte</b>.</p> + +<p><b>aweg</b>, <i>away</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āwęndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>turn</i>, +<i>translate</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āwrītan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>write</i>, +<i>compose</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āwyrcan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), <i>work</i>, +<i>do</i>, <i>perform</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_B" id = "gloss1_B" href = "#gloss_I">B.</a></h5> + +<p><b>Bāchsęcg</b>, m., <i>Bagsac</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bæcbord</b>, n., <i>larboard</i>, <i>left side of a ship</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bǣl</b>, n., <i>funeral fire</i>, <i>funeral pile</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bān</b>, n., <i>bone</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bān-fāg</b>, <i>adorned with bones</i> or <i>antlers</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bān-loca</b>, m., <i>flesh</i> [bone-locker].</p> + +<p><b>Basengas</b>, m. pl., <i>Basing</i> (in Hantshire).</p> + +<p><b>be</b> (<b>bī</b>) (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), +<i>by</i>, <i>about</i>, <i>concerning</i>, <i>near</i>, <i>along</i>, +<i>according to</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>be norðan þǣm wēstenne</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(4)</a>), <i>north of the waste</i> (<i>desert</i>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>be fullan</b>, <i>fully</i>, <i>perfectly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bēag</b>, see <b>būgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bēag-hroden</b>, <i>ring-adorned</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bēah</b> (<b>bēag</b>), m., <i>ring</i>, <i>bracelet</i>, +<i>collar</i> [<b>būgan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>bealo-nīð</b>, m., <i>dire hatred</i>, <i>poison</i>, +<i>venom</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bearn</b>, n., <i>child</i>, <i>son</i> [bairn].</p> + +<p><b>bebēodan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>command</i>, <i>bid</i>, <i>entrust</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>bebīo-</b>, see <b>bebēo-</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bebohte</b>, see <b>bebycgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bebycgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>sell</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bēc</b>, see <b>bōc</b>.</p> + +<p><b>becuman</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), <i>come</i>, +<i>arrive</i>, <i>befall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bedǣlan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>separate</i>, <i>deprive</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">158</span> +<a name = "page158" id = "page158"> </a> +<p><b>bedrēosan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>deprive</i>; past part. pl., <b>bedrorene</b> (<b>bidrorene</b>) +[dross, dreary].</p> + +<p><b>befǣstan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>fasten</i>, <i>implant</i>.</p> + +<p><b>befēolan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>apply +one’s self</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðāra ðe ðā spēda hæbben ðǣt hīe ðǣm befēolan mægen</b> <a href = +"#line119_20">119, 20</a> = <i>of those who have the means by which they +may apply themselves to it</i>.</p> + +<p><b>beforan</b>, prep. with dat., <i>before</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bēgen</b> (declined like <b>twēgen</b>, <a href = "#sec_89">§ +<b>89</b></a>), <i>both</i>.</p> + +<p><b>begeondan</b> (<b>begiondan</b>), prep. with dat., +<i>beyond</i>.</p> + +<p><b>begietan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), <i>get</i>, +<i>obtain</i>, <i>find</i>.</p> + +<p><b>beginnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>begin</i>.</p> + +<p><b>beheonan</b> (<b>behionan</b>), prep. with dat., <i>on this +side of</i>.</p> + +<p><b>behreōsan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), <i>fall +upon</i>, <i>cover</i>; past part. pl., <b>behrorene</b> +(<b>bihrorene</b>).</p> + +<p><b>belimpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>pertain</i>, <i>belong</i>.</p> + +<p><b>beniman</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), <i>take</i>, +<i>derive</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bęnn</b>, f., <i>wound</i> [<b>bana</b> = <i>murderer</i>].</p> + +<p><b>bēon</b> (<b>bīon</b>) (<a href = "#sec_134">§ <b>134</b></a>), +<i>be</i>, <i>consist</i>.</p> + +<p><b>beorh</b> (<b>beorg</b>, <b>biorh</b>), m., <i>mound</i> +[barrow].</p> + +<p><b>beorht</b>, <i>bright</i>, <i>glorious</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Beormas</b>, m. pl., <i>Permians</i>.</p> + +<p><b>beorn</b>, m., <i>man</i>, <i>hero</i>, <i>chief</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bēor-þęgu</b>, f., <i>beer-drinking</i> [<b>þicgan</b> = +<i>receive</i>].</p> + +<p><b>bēot</b>, n., <i>boast</i>.</p> + +<p><b>beran</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), +<i>bear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>berēafian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>bereave</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>since berēafod</b> <a href = "#lineVI_2747">145, 22</a> = <i>bereft +of treasure</i>.</p> + +<p><b>beren</b>, adj., <i>of a bear</i>, <i>bear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>berstan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>burst</i>, +<i>crack</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">158b</span> +<p><b>besmiðian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>make +hard</i> (as at the forge of a smith).</p> + +<p><b>bęt</b>, see <b>wel</b> (<a href = "#sec_97">§ <b>97</b>, +(2)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>bētan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>make +good</i>, <i>requite</i>; past part. pl., <b>gebētte</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bętera</b> (<b>bętra</b>), see <b>gōd</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ +<b>96</b>, (3)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>betlīc</b>, <i>excellent</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bętsta</b>, see <b>gōd</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, +(3)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>betuh</b> (<b>betux</b>) (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(1)</a>), <i>between</i>.</p> + +<p><b>betwēonan</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), +<i>between</i>.</p> + +<p><b>betȳnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>close</i>, +<i>end</i> [<b>tūn</b> = <i>enclosure</i>].</p> + +<p><b>bewāwan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>blow +upon</i>; past part. pl., <b>bewāune</b> (<b>biwāune</b>, +<b>bewāwene</b>).</p> + +<p><b>bewrēon</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>, 1), +<i>enwrap</i>; pret. 3d sing., <b>bewrāh</b> (<b>biwrāh</b>).</p> + +<p><b>bī</b>, see <b>be</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bi-</b>, see <b>be-</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bīdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>bide</i>, +<i>await</i>, <i>expect</i>, <i>endure</i> (with gen.).</p> + +<p><b>biddan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>bid</i>, <i>pray</i>, <i>request</i> (<a href = +"#sec_65">§ <b>65</b>, Note 3</a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>bæd hine blīðne</b> <a href = "#lineVI_618">136, 7</a> = <i>bade him +be blithe</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bindan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>bind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bīo</b>, see <b>bēo</b> (imperative sing.).</p> + +<p><b>bisceop</b> (<b>biscep</b>), m., <i>bishop</i> [Lat. +episcopus].</p> + +<p><b>bisceop-stōl</b>, m., <i>episcopal seat</i>, <i>bishopric</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bisigu</b>, f., <i>business</i>, <i>occupation</i>; dat. pl., +<b>bisgum</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bītan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>bite</i>, +<i>cut</i>.</p> + +<p><b>biwrāh</b>, see <b>bewrēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>blǣd</b>, m., <i>glory</i>, <i>prosperity</i> [<b>blāwan</b> = +<i>blow</i>, <i>inflate</i>].</p> + +<p><b>Blēcinga-ēg</b>, f., <i>Blekingen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bliss</b>, f., <i>bliss</i> [<b>blīðe</b>].</p> + +<p><b>blīðe</b>, <i>blithe</i>, <i>happy</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">159</span> +<a name = "page159" id = "page159"> </a> +<p><b>blōd</b>, n., <i>blood</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bōc</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (1), Note 1</a>), f., +<i>book</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bōcere</b>, m., <i>scribe</i> [<b>bōc</b>].</p> + +<p><b>bǫna</b> (<b>bana</b>), m., <i>murderer</i> [bane].</p> + +<p><b>bōt</b>, f., <i>boot</i>, <i>remedy</i>, <i>help</i>, +<i>compensation</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brād</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (1)</a>), +<i>broad</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brǣdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>extend</i>, +<i>spread</i> [<b>brād</b>].</p> + +<p><b>brǣdra</b>, see <b>brād</b>.</p> + +<p><b>brægd</b>, see <b>bregdan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>brēac</b>, see <b>brūcan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>breahtm</b>, m., <i>noise</i>, <i>revelry</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>burgwara breahtma lēase</b> <a href = "#lineVII_86">152, 10</a> = +<i>bereft of the revelries of citizens</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bregdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>brandish</i>, <i>draw</i> [braid]; pret. ind. 3d sing., +<b>brægd</b>.</p> + +<p><b>brenting</b>, m., <i>high ship</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brēost</b>, n., <i>breast</i> (the pl. has the same meaning as the +sing.).</p> + +<p><b>brēost-cofa</b>, m., <i>breast-chamber</i>, <i>heart</i>, +<i>mind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brēost-gehygd</b>, n., <i>breast-thought</i>, <i>thought of the +heart</i>, <i>emotion</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brim</b>, n., <i>sea</i>, <i>ocean</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brimfugol</b>, m., <i>sea-fowl</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bringan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>bring</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brōhte</b>, <b>brōhton</b>, see <b>bringan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>brōðor</b> (<b>brōður</b>) (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, +(2)</a>), m., <i>brother</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brūcan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b>, Note 1</a>), +<i>use</i>, <i>enjoy</i> (<a href = "#sec_62">§ <b>62</b>, Note +1</a>; but Alfred frequently employs the acc. with <b>brūcan</b>).</p> + +<p><b>brycg</b>, f., <i>bridge</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brȳcð</b>, see <b>brūcan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>brytta</b>, m., <i>distributor</i>, <i>dispenser</i> +[<b>brēotan</b> = <i>break in pieces</i>].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">159b</span> +<p><b>būan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>dwell</i>, <i>cultivate</i> [bower].</p> + +<p><b>būde</b>, see <b>būan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bufan</b>, prep. with dat. and acc., <i>above</i>.</p> + +<p><b>būgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b>, Note 1</a>), +<i>bow</i>, <i>bend</i>, <i>turn</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bune</b>, f., <i>cup</i>.</p> + +<p><b>burg</b> (<b>burh</b>) (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (1), +Note</a>), f., <i>city</i>, <i>borough</i>; dat. sing., +<b>byrig</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Burgenda</b>, m. gen. pl., <i>of the Burgundians</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>Burgenda land</b>, <i>Bornholm</i>.</p> + +<p><b>burgware</b> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ <b>47</b></a>), m. pl., +<i>burghers</i>, <i>citizens</i>.</p> + +<p><b>burh</b>, see <b>burg</b>.</p> + +<p><b>būtan</b> (<b>būton</b>), prep. (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(1)</a>), <i>without</i>, <i>except</i>, <i>except for</i>, +<i>but</i>.</p> + +<p><b>būtan</b> (<b>būton</b>), conj., <i>except that</i>, +<i>unless</i>.</p> + +<p><b>būtū</b>, <i>both</i> (= <i>both</i>—<i>two</i>.</p> +<p class = "inset"> +The word is compounded of the combined neuters of <b>bēgen</b> and +<b>twēgen</b>, but is m. and f. as well as n.).</p> + +<p><b>bȳn</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>cultivated</i>.</p> + +<p><b>byrde</b>, adj., <i>of high rank</i>, <i>aristocratic</i>.</p> + +<p><b>byrig</b>, see <b>burg</b>.</p> + +<p><b>byrne</b>, f., <i>byrnie</i>, <i>corselet</i>, <i>coat of +mail</i>.</p> + +<p><b>byrnwiga</b>, m., <i>byrnie-warrior</i>, <i>mailed +soldier</i>.</p> + +<p><b>byrð</b>, see <b>beran</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_C" id = "gloss1_C" href = "#gloss_I">C.</a></h5> + +<p><b>canōn</b>, m., <i>sacred canon</i>, <i>Bible</i> [Lat. canon, Gr. +<span class = "greek" title = "kanôn">κανών</span>].</p> + +<p><b>cearu</b> (<b>cearo</b>), f., <i>care</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ceaster-būend</b>, m., <i>castle-dweller</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cēne</b>, <i>keen</i>, <i>bold</i>, <i>brave</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">160</span> +<a name = "page160" id = "page160"> </a> +<p><b>cēosan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), <i>choose</i>, +<i>accept</i>, <i>encounter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cild</b>, n., <i>child</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cirice</b>, f., <i>church</i>; nom. pl., <b>ciricean</b>.</p> + +<p><b>cirr</b> (<b>cierr</b>), m., <i>turn</i>, <i>time</i>, +<i>occasion</i> [char, chore, ajar = on char, on the turn].</p> + +<p><b>cirran</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>turn</i>.</p> + +<p><b>clǣne</b>, <i>clean</i>, <i>pure</i>.</p> + +<p><b>clǣne</b>, adv., <i>entirely </i> [“clean out of the way,” +Shaks.].</p> + +<p><b>clūdig</b>, <i>rocky</i> [having boulders or masses like +<i>clouds</i>].</p> + +<p><b>clyppan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>embrace</i>, <i>accept</i> [clip = clasp for letters, papers, +etc.].</p> + +<p><b>cnapa</b>, m., <i>boy</i> [knave].</p> + +<p><b>cnēo</b> (<b>cnēow</b>), n., <i>knee</i>; acc. pl., +<b>cnēo</b>.</p> + +<p><b>cniht</b>, m., <i>knight</i>, <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cnyssan</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), +<i>beat</i>.</p> + +<p><b>collenferð</b> (<b>-ferhð</b>), <i>proud-minded</i>, +<i>fierce</i>.</p> + +<p><b>costnung</b>, f., <i>temptation</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Crēcas</b> (<b>Crēacas</b>), m. pl., <i>Greeks</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cringan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>cringe</i>, <i>fall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Crīst</b>, m., <i>Christ</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Crīsten</b>, <i>Christian</i>; nom. pl. m., <b>Crīstene</b>, +<b>Crīstne</b>.</p> + +<p><b>cuma</b>, m., <i>new-comer</i>, <i>stranger</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cuman</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), <i>come</i>. +(See <a href = "#linenoteVI_647">p. 138, Note on ll. 2-6</a>.)</p> + +<p><b>cunnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_137">§ <b>137</b></a>), <i>know</i>, +<i>can</i>, <i>understand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cunnian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>make trial +of</i>, <i>experience</i> [<b>cunnan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>cure</b>, see <b>cēosan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>cūð</b>, <i>well-known</i>, <i>familiar</i> [past part. of +<b>cunnan</b>: cf. uncouth].</p> + +<p><b>cūðe</b>, <b>cūðen</b>, <b>cūðon</b>, see <b>cunnan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>cwǣden</b>, <b>cwǣdon</b>, see <b>cweðan</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">160b</span> +<p><b>cwalu</b>, f., <i>death</i>, <i>murder</i> [<b>cwelan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>cwealm-cuma</b>, m., <i>murderous comer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cwelan</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), <i>die</i> [to +quail].</p> + +<p><b>cwēn</b>, f., <i>queen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Cwēnas</b>, m. pl., <i>a Finnish tribe</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cweðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), <i>say</i>, +<i>speak</i> [quoth, bequeath].</p> + +<p><b>cwic</b>, <i>living</i>, <i>alive</i> [quicksilver; the quick and +the dead].</p> + +<p><b>cwidegiedd</b>, n., <i>word</i>, <i>utterance</i> [<b>cweðan</b> +and <b>gieddian</b>, both meaning <i>to speak</i>].</p> + +<p><b>cwīðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>bewail</i> +(trans.).</p> + +<p><b>cwōm</b>, see <b>cuman</b>.</p> + +<p><b>cyle</b> (<b>ciele</b>), m., <i>cold</i> [chill];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>cyle gewyrcan</b> <a href = "#line110_7">110, 7</a> = <i>produce +cold</i>, <i>freeze</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cyme</b>, m., <i>coming</i> [<b>cuman</b>].</p> + +<p><b>cyn(n)</b>, n., <i>kin</i>, <i>race</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cyn(n)</b>, adj. (used only in pl.), <i>fitting things</i>, +<i>etiquette</i>, <i>proprieties</i>, <i>courtesies</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>cynna gemyndig</b> <a href = "#lineVI_614">136, 3</a> = <i>mindful of +courtesies</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cynerīce</b>, n., <i>kingdom</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cyning</b>, m., <i>king</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cyssan</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), +<i>kiss</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cyst</b>, f., <i>the choice</i>, <i>the pick</i>, <i>the best</i> +[<b>cēosan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>cȳðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>make +known</i>, <i>display</i>, [<b>cūð</b>];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +2d sing. imperative, <b>cȳð</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_D" id = "gloss1_D" href = "#gloss_I">D.</a></h5> + +<p><b>dǣd</b>, f., <i>deed</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dæg</b>, m., <i>day</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dæg-hwīl</b>, f., <i>day-while</i>, <i>day</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>hē dæg-hwīla gedrogen hæfde eorðan wynne</b> <a href = +"#lineVI_2727">145, 2</a> = <i>he had spent his days of earth’s +joy</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">161</span> +<a name = "page161" id = "page161"> </a> +<p><b>dæg-rīm</b>, n., <b>number of days</b> [day-rime];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>dōgera daeg-rīm</b> <a href = "#lineVI_824">143, 7</a> = <i>the +number of his days</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dæl</b>, n., <i>dale</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dǣl</b>, m., <i>part</i>, <i>deal</i>, <i>division</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dēad</b>, <i>dead</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dēað</b>, m., <i>death</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dēman</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>deem</i>, +<i>judge</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Dęnamearc</b>, see <b>Dęnemearc</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Dęne</b> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ <b>47</b></a>), m. pl., +<i>Danes</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Dęnemearc</b> (<b>Dęnemearce</b>), f., <i>Denmark</i>; dat. sing., +<b>Dęnemearce</b> (strong), <b>Dęnemearcan</b> (weak).</p> + +<p><b>Dęnisc</b>, <i>Danish</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðā Dęniscan</b>, <i>the Danes</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dēofol</b>, m<ins class = "correction" title = ", missing">.,</ins> n., +<i>devil</i>; gen. sing., <b>dēofles</b> (<a href = "#sec_27">§ +<b>27</b>, (4)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>dēope</b>, <i>deeply</i>, <i>profoundly</i> [<b>dēop</b>].</p> + +<p><b>dēor</b>, n., <i>wild animal</i> [deer].</p> + +<p><b>deorc</b>, <i>dark</i>, <i>gloomy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dōgor</b>, n., <i>day</i>; gen. pl., <b>dōgora</b>, <b>dōgera</b>, +<b>dōgra</b>.</p> + +<p><b>dōgor-gerīm</b>, n., <i>number of days</i>, <i>lifetime</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dōm</b>, m., <i>doom</i>, <i>judgment</i>, <i>glory</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dōmgeorn</b>, adj., <i>eager for glory</i> +[<i>doom-yearning</i>].</p> + +<p><b>dōn</b> (<a href = "#sec_135">§ <b>135</b></a>), <i>do</i>, +<i>cause</i>, <i>place</i>, <i>promote</i>, <i>remove</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dorste</b>, <b>dorston</b>, see <b>durran</b>.</p> + +<p><b>drēam</b>, m., <i>joy</i>, <i>mirth</i> [dream].</p> + +<p><b>drēogan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>endure</i>, <i>enjoy</i>, <i>spend</i> [Scotch dree].</p> + +<p><b>drēorig</b>, <i>dreary</i>, <i>sad</i>.</p> + +<p><b>drēorighlēor</b>, adj., <i>with sad face</i> [<b>hlēor</b> = +<i>cheek</i>, <i>face</i>, <i>leer</i>].</p> + +<p><b>drēosan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), <i>fall</i>, +<i>perish</i> [dross].</p> + +<p><b>drīfan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>drive</i>.</p> + +<p><b>drihten</b>, see <b>dryhten</b>.</p> + +<p><b>drincan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>drink</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">161b</span> +<p><b>drohtoð</b> (<b>-að</b>), m., <i>mode of living</i>, +<i>occupation</i> [<b>drēogan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>drugon</b>, see <b>drēogan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>dryhten</b> (<b>drihten</b>), m., <i>lord</i>, <i>Lord</i>; dat. +sing., <b>dryhtne</b>.</p> + +<p><b>dryht-sęle</b>, m., <i>lordly hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>duguð</b>, f., <i>warrior-band</i>, <i>host</i>, <i>retainers</i> +[<b>doughtiness</b>].</p> +<p class = "inset"> +In <b>duguð</b> and <b>geogoð</b>, the higher (older) and lower +(younger) ranks are represented, the distinction corresponding roughly +to the mediæval distinction between knights and squires.</p> + +<p><b>durran</b> (<a href = "#sec_137">§ <b>137</b></a>), +<i>dare</i>.</p> + +<p><b>duru</b>, f., <i>door</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dyde</b>, see <b>dōn</b>.</p> + +<p><b>dynnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), <b>resound</b> +[din].</p> + +<p><b>dȳre</b> (<b>dīere</b>, <b>dēore</b>, <b>dīore</b>), <i>dear</i>, +<i>costly</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_E" id = "gloss1_E" href = "#gloss_I">E.</a></h5> + +<p><b>ēa</b>, f., <i>river</i>; gen. sing., <b>ēas</b>; dat. and acc. +sing., <b>ēa</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ēac</b>, <i>also</i>, <i>likewise</i> [a nickname = an eek-name. +See <a href = "#sec_65">§ <b>65</b>, Note 2</a>];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ēac swilce</b> (<b>swelce</b>) <a href = "#line112_3">112, 3</a> = +<i>also</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēaca</b>, m., <i>addition</i> [<b>ēac</b>];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō ēacan</b> = <i>in addition to</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ +<b>94</b>, (4)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>ēage</b>, n., <i>eye</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eahta</b>, <i>eight</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēalā</b>, <i>oh!</i> <i>alas!</i></p> + +<p><b>ealað</b>, see <b>ealu</b>.</p> + +<p><b>eald</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (2)</a>), +<i>old</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ealdor</b> (<b>aldor</b>), n., <i>life</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>gif ðū ðæt ęllenweorc aldre gedīgest</b> <a href = "#lineVI_662">138, +17</a> = <i>if thou survivest that feat with thy life</i> (instr.).</p> + +<p><b>ealdor-dæg</b> (<b>aldor-</b>, <b>ealder-</b>), m., <i>day of +life</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">162</span> +<a name = "page162" id = "page162"> </a> +<p><b>ealdor-gedāl</b> (<b>aldor-</b>), n., <i>death</i> +[life-deal].</p> + +<p><b>ealdormǫn</b>, m., <i>alderman</i>, <i>chief</i>, +<i>magistrate</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ealgian</b>, (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>protect</i>, <i>defend</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eall</b> (<b>eal</b>), <i>all</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ealne weg</b>, <i>all the way</i> (<a href = "#sec_98">§ <b>98</b>, +(1)</a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ealneg</b> (< <b>ealne weg</b>), <i>always</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ealles</b> (<a href = "#sec_98">§ <b>98</b>, (3)</a>), adv., +<i>altogether</i>, <i>entirely</i>.</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>Eall</b> (<b>eal</b>) is frequently used with partitive gen. = <i>all +of</i>: <a href = "#lineVI_836">143, 19</a>; <a href = +"#lineVI_2728">145, 3</a>.</p> + +<p><b>ealu</b> (<b>ealo</b>) (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b></a>), n., +<i>ale</i>; gen. sing., <b>ealað</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ealu-scerwen</b>, f., <i>mortal panic</i> [ale-spilling].</p> + +<p><b>eard</b>, m., <i>country</i>, <i>home</i> [<b>eorðe</b>].</p> + +<p><b>eardgeard</b>, m. <i>earth</i> [earth-yard].</p> + +<p><b>eardian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>dwell</i> +[<b>eard</b>].</p> + +<p><b>eardstapa</b>, m., <i>wanderer</i> [earth-stepper].</p> + +<p><b>ēare</b>, n., <i>ear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>earfoð</b> (<b>earfeð</b>), n. <i>hardship</i>, <i>toil</i>; gen. +pl., <b>earfeða</b>.</p> + +<p><b>earfoðlīc</b>, adj., <i>full of hardship</i>, <i>arduous</i>.</p> + +<p><b>earm</b>, m., <i>arm</i>.</p> + +<p><b>earm</b>, adj., <i>poor</i>, <i>wretched</i>.</p> + +<p><b>earmcearig</b>, <i>wretched</i>, <i>miserable</i>.</p> + +<p><b>earmlīc</b>, <i>wretched</i>, <i>miserable</i>.</p> + +<p><b>earnung</b>, f., <i>merit</i> [earning].</p> + +<p><b>ēast</b>, <i>east</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēastan</b> (<a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b>, (5)</a>), <i>from the +east</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Ēast-Dęne</b> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ <b>47</b></a>), +<i>East-Danes</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēasteweard</b>, <i>eastward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēastrihte</b> (<b>ēastryhte</b>) (<a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b>, +(6)</a>), <i>eastward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Ēastron</b>, pl., <i>Easter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēaðe</b>, <i>easily</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēaðmōdlīce</b>, <i>humbly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eaxl</b>, f., <i>shoulder</i> [axle].</p> + +<p><b>Ebrēisc</b>, adj., <i>Hebrew</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">162b</span> +<p><b>ēce</b>, <i>eternal</i>, <i>everlasting</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ęcg</b>, f., <i>sword</i> [edge].</p> + +<p><b>edor</b>, m., <i>enclosure</i>, <i>dwelling</i>; nom. pl., +<b>ederas</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ēdrum</b>, see <b>ǣdre</b>.</p> + +<p><b>efne</b>, adv., <i>just</i>, <i>only</i> [evenly].</p> + +<p><b>eft</b>, adv., <i>again</i>, <i>afterwards</i> [aft].</p> + +<p><b>ęgesa</b>, m., <i>fear</i>, <i>terror</i> [awe].</p> + +<p><b>ęllen</b>, n., <i>strength</i>, <i>courage</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>mid ęlne</b> = <i>boldly</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on ęlne</b> <a href = "#lineVI_2817">147, 17</a> = <i>mightily</i>, +<i>suddenly</i>, or <i>in their</i> (<i>earls’</i>) <i>strength</i> +(<i>prime</i>).</p> + +<p><b>ęllen-mǣrðu</b>, f. <i>fame for strength</i>, <i>feat of +strength</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ęllen-weorc</b>, n., <i>feat of strength</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ęllenwōdnis</b>, f., <i>zeal</i>, <i>fervor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ęllor-gāst</b>, m., <i>inhuman monster</i> [alien ghost].</p> + +<p><b>ęln</b>, f., <i>ell</i> [el-bow].</p> + +<p><b>ęlne</b>, <i>see</i> <b>ęllen</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ęlra</b>, adj. comparative, <i>another</i> [<b>*ęle</b> cognate +with Lat. alius];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on ęlran męn</b> <a href = "#lineVI_753">139, 14</a> = <i>in another +man</i>.</p> + +<p><b>emnlong</b> (<b>-lang</b>), <i>equally long</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on emnlange</b> = <i>along</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(4)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>ęnde</b>, m., <i>end</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ęndebyrdnes</b>, f., <i>order</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ęnde-dæg</b>, m., <i>end-day</i>, <i>day of death</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ęnde-lāf</b>, f., <i>last remnant</i> [end-leaving].</p> + +<p><b>ęngel</b>, m., <i>angel</i> [Lat. angelus].</p> + +<p><b>Ęnglafeld</b> (<a href = "#sec_51">§ <b>51</b></a>), m., +<i>Englefield</i> (in Berkshire).</p> + +<p><b>Ęngle</b> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ <b>47</b></a>), m. pl., +<i>Angles</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Ęnglisc</b>, adj., <i>English</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on Ęnglisc</b> <a href = "#line117_18">117, 18</a> and 19 = <i>in +English</i>, <i>into English</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Ęngliscgereord</b>, n., <i>English language</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">163</span> +<a name = "page163" id = "page163"> </a> +<p><b>ęnt</b>, m., <i>giant</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēode</b>, see <b>gān</b>.</p> + +<p><b>eodorcan</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>ruminate</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eorl</b>, m., <i>earl</i>, <i>warrior</i>, <i>chieftain</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eorlīc</b>, <i>earl-like</i>, <i>noble</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eorð-draca</b>, m., <b>dragon</b> [earth-drake].</p> + +<p><b>eorðe</b>, f., <i>earth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eorð-ręced</b>, n., <i>earth-hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eorðscræf</b>, n., <i>earth-cave</i>, <i>grave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eoten</b>, m., <i>giant</i>, <i>monster</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēow</b>, see <b>ðū</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Ēowland</b>, n., <i>Öland</i> (an island in the Baltic Sea).</p> + +<p><b>ęrian</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), <i>plow</i> [to +ear].</p> + +<p><b>Estland</b>, n., <i>land of the Estas</i> (on the eastern coast of +the Baltic Sea).</p> + +<p><b>Estmęre</b>, m., <i>Frische Haff</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Estum</b>, dat. pl., <i>the Estas</i>.</p> + +<p><b>etan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), <i>eat</i> +[<b>ort</b>].</p> + +<p><b>ęttan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>graze</i> +[<b>etan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>ēðel</b>, m., <i>territory</i>, <i>native land</i> [allodial].</p> + +<p><b>ēðel-weard</b>, m., <i>guardian of his country</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_F" id = "gloss1_F" href = "#gloss_I">F.</a></h5> + +<p><b>fæc</b>, n., <i>interval</i>, <i>space</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fæder</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (2)</a>), m., +<i>father</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fægen</b>, <i>fain</i>, <i>glad</i>, <i>exultant</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fæger</b> (<b>fǣger</b>), <i>fair</i>, <i>beautiful</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fǣlsian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>cleanse</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fǣrlīce</b>, <i>suddenly</i> [<b>fǣr</b> = <i>fear</i>].</p> + +<p><b>fæst</b>, <i>fast</i>, <i>held fast</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fæste</b>, adv., <i>fast</i>, <i>firmly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fæstnung</b>, f., <i>security</i>, <i>safety</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fæt</b>, n., <i>vessel</i> [wine-fat, vat].</p> + +<p><b>fǣtels</b>, m., <i>vessel</i>; acc. pl., <b>fǣtels</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fæðm</b>, m., <i>embrace</i>, <i>bosom</i> [fathom = the space +<i>embraced</i> by the extended arms].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">163b</span> +<p><b>fāg</b> (<b>fāh</b>), <i>hostile</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>hē wæs fāg wið God</b> <a href = "#lineVI_812">142, 18</a> = <i>he +was hostile to God</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fāh</b> (<b>fāg</b>), <i>variegated</i>, <i>ornamented</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Falster</b>, <i>Falster</i> (island in the Baltic Sea).</p> + +<p><b>fandian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>try</i>, +<i>investigate</i> [<b>findan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>faran</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), <i>go</i> +[fare].</p> + +<p><b>feallan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>fall</i>, +<i>flow</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fealu</b>, <i>fallow</i>, <i>pale</i>, <i>dark</i>; nom. pl. m., +<b>fealwe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fēawe</b> (<b>fēa</b>, <b>fēawa</b>), pl., <i>few</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fela</b> (indeclinable), <i>much</i>, <i>many</i> (with gen.).</p> + +<p><b>feld</b> (<a href = "#sec_51">§ <b>51</b></a>), m., +<i>field</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fell</b> (<b>fel</b>), n., <i>fell</i>, <i>skin</i>, +<i>hide</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fēng</b>, see <b>fōn</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fęn-hlið</b>, n., <i>fen-slope</i>. <!-- a truly zen concept! +--></p> + +<p><b>fęn-hop</b>, n., <i>fen-retreat</i>.</p> + +<p><b>feoh</b>, n., <i>cattle</i>, <i>property</i> [fee]; gen. and dat. +sing., <b>fēos</b>, <b>fēo</b>.</p> + +<p><b>feohgīfre</b>, <i>greedy of property</i>, <i>avaricious</i>.</p> + +<p><b>feohtan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>fight</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fēol</b>, see <b>feallan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fēond</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (3)</a>), m., +<i>enemy</i>, <i>fiend</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fēond-grāp</b>, f., <i>fiend-grip</i>.</p> + +<p><b>feor</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (4)</a>), adj., +<i>far</i>, <i>far from</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>feor</b>, adv., <i>far</i>, <i>far back</i> (time).</p> + +<p><b>feorh</b>, m., n., <i>life</i>.</p> + +<p><b>feorh-bęnn</b>, f., <i>life-wound</i>, <i>mortal wound</i>.</p> + +<p><b>feorh-lęgu</b>, f., <i>laying down of life</i>. (See <a href = +"#linenoteVI_2800">p. 146, Note on l. 13.</a>)</p> + +<p><b>feorh-sēoc</b>, <i>life-sick</i>, <i>mortally wounded</i>.</p> + +<p><b>feorm</b> (<b>fiorm</b>), f., <i>use</i>, <i>benefit</i> +(<i>food</i>, <i>provisions</i>) [farm].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">164</span> +<a name = "page164" id = "page164"> </a> +<p><b>feormian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>eat</i>, +<i>devour</i>.</p> + +<p><b>feorran</b>, <i>from afar</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fēowertig</b>, <i>forty</i>; gen., <b>fēowertiges</b> (<a href = +"#sec_91">§ <b>91</b>, Note 1</a>).</p> + +<p><b>ferhð</b> (<b>ferð</b>), m., <i>heart</i>, <i>mind</i>, +<i>spirit</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fęrian</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), <i>carry</i>, +<i>transport</i> [to ferry];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>fęrede in forðwege</b> <a href = "#lineVII_81">152, 5</a> = +<i>carried away</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fers</b>, n., <i>verse</i> [Lat. versus].</p> + +<p><b>fersc</b>, <i>fresh</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ferðloca</b> (<b>ferhð-</b>), m., <i>heart</i>, <i>mind</i>, +<i>spirit</i> [heart-locker].</p> + +<p><b>fēt</b>, see <b>fōt</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fetor</b>, f., <i>fetter</i> [<b>fōt</b>]; instr. pl., +<b>feterum</b>.</p> + +<p><b>feðer</b>, f., <i>feather</i>; acc. pl., <b>feðra</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fierd</b>, f., <i>English army</i> [<b>faran</b>].</p> + +<p><b>fīf</b>, <i>five</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fīftīene</b>, <i>fifteen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fīftig</b>, <i>fifty</i>; gen. sing., <b>fīftiges</b> (<a href = +"#sec_91">§ <b>91</b>, Note 1</a>); dat. pl., <b>fīftegum</b> (<a href = +"#sec_91">§ <b>91</b>, Note 3</a>).</p> + +<p><b>findan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>find</i>.</p> + +<p><b>finger</b>, m., <i>finger</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Finnas</b>, m. pl., <i>Fins</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fiorm</b>, see <b>feorm</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fīras</b>, m. pl., <i>men</i> [<b>feorh</b>]; gen. pl., +<b>fīra</b>; dat. pl., <b>fīrum</b>.</p> + +<p><b>firrest</b> (<b>fierrest</b>), see <b>feor</b> (<a href = +"#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (4)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>first</b>, m., <i>time</i>, <i>period</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fiscað</b> (<b>fiscnað</b>), m., <i>fishing</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fiscere</b>, m., <i>fisherman</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fiscnað</b>, see <b>fiscað</b>.</p> + +<p><b>flēon</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>, II.), +<i>flee</i>.</p> + +<p><b>flēotan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>float</i>.</p> + +<p><b>flęt</b>, n., <i>floor of the hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>flōd</b>, m., <i>flood</i>, <i>wave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>folc</b>, n., <i>folk</i>, <i>people</i>.</p> + +<p><b>folc-cwēn</b>, f., <i>folk-queen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>folc-cyning</b>, m., <i>folk-king</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">164b</span> +<p><b>folcgefeoht</b>, n., <i>folk-fight</i>, <i>battle</i>, <i>general +engagement</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fold-bold</b>, n., <i>earth-building</i>, <i>hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>folde</b>, f., <i>earth</i>, <i>land</i>, <i>country</i> +[<b>feld</b>].</p> + +<p><b>folm</b>, f., <i>hand</i> [<b>fēlan</b> = <i>feel</i>].</p> + +<p><b>fōn</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>), <i>seize</i>, +<i>capture</i>, <i>take</i> [fang];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō rīce fōn</b> = <i>come to</i> (<i>ascend</i>) <i>the +throne</i>.</p> + +<p><b>for</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), <i>for</i>, +<i>on account of</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>for ðǣm</b> (<b>ðe</b>), <b>for ðon</b> (<b>ðe</b>), +<i>because</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>for ðon</b>, <b>for ðȳ</b>, <b>for ðǣm</b> (<b>for-ðām</b>), +<i>therefore</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fōr</b>, see <b>faran</b>.</p> + +<p><b>forbærnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>burn +thoroughly</i> [<b>for</b> is intensive, like Lat. per].</p> + +<p><b>forgiefan</b> (<b>-gifan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_115">§ +<b>115</b></a>), <i>give</i>, <i>grant</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forhęrgian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>harry</i>, <i>lay waste</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forhogdnis</b>, f., <i>contempt</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forht</b>, <i>fearful</i>, <i>afraid</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forhwæga</b>, <i>about</i>, <i>at least</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forlǣtan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), +<i>abandon</i>, <i>leave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forlēt</b>, <b>forlēton</b>, see <b>forlǣtan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>forma</b>, <i>first</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>forman sīðe</b>, <i>the first time</i> (instr.).</p> + +<p><b>forniman</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), <i>take +off</i>, <i>destroy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forspęndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>spend</i>, <i>squander</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forstǫndan</b> (<b>-standan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_116">§ +<b>116</b></a>), <i>understand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forswāpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>sweep +away</i>; pret. 3d sing. indic., <b>forswēop</b>.</p> + +<p><b>forswęrian</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), +<i>forswear</i> (with dat.); past part., <b>forsworen</b>.</p> + +<p><b>forð</b>, <i>forth</i>, <i>forward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forðolian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>miss</i>, <i>go without</i> (with dat.) [not to <i>thole</i> or +experience].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">165</span> +<a name = "page165" id = "page165"> </a> +<p><b>forðweg</b>, m., <i>way forth</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>in forðwege</b>, <i>away</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fōt</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (1)</a>), m. +<i>foot</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Frǣna</b>, m., <i>Frene</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frætwe</b>, f. pl., <i>fretted armor</i>, <i>jewels</i> +[fret].</p> + +<p><b>fram</b>, see <b>frǫm</b>.</p> + +<p><b>frēa</b>, m., <i>lord</i>, <i>Lord</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frēa-drihten</b>, m., <i>lord</i>, <i>master</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frēfran</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>console</i>, <i>cheer</i> [<b>frōfor</b>].</p> + +<p><b>fręmde</b>, <i>strange</i>, <i>foreign</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðā fręmdan</b>, <i>the strangers</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fręmman</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), +<i>accomplish</i>, <i>perform</i>, <i>support</i> [to frame].</p> + +<p><b>fręmsumnes</b> (<b>-nis</b>), f., <i>kindness</i>, +<i>benefit</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frēo</b> (<b>frīo</b>), <i>free</i>; gen. pl., <b>frēora</b> +(<b>frīora</b>).</p> + +<p><b>frēodōm</b>, m., <i>freedom</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frēolīc</b>, <i>noble</i> [free-like].</p> + +<p><b>frēomǣg</b>, m., <i>free kinsman</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frēond</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (3)</a>), m., +<i>friend</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frēondlēas</b>, <i>friendless</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frēondlīce</b>, <i>in a friendly manner</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frēorig</b>, <i>cold</i>, <i>chill</i> [<b>frēoran</b>].</p> + +<p><b>frīora</b>, see <b>frēo</b>.</p> + +<p><b>frið</b>, m., n., <i>peace</i>, <i>security</i> +[bel-<i>fry</i>].</p> + +<p><b>frōd</b>, <i>old</i>, <i>sage</i>, <i>prudent</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frōfor</b>, f., <i>comfort</i>, <i>consolation</i>, +<i>alleviation</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>fyrena frōfre</b> <a href = "#lineVI_629">137, 7</a> = <i>as an +alleviation of outrages</i> (dat.).</p> + +<p><b>frǫm</b> (<b>fram</b>) (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), +<i>from</i>, <i>by</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frǫm</b>, adv., <i>away</i>, <i>forth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fruma</b>, m., <i>origin</i>, <i>beginning</i> [<b>frǫm</b>].</p> + +<p><b>frumsceaft</b>, f., <i>creation</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fugela</b>, see <b>fugol</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fugelere</b>, m., <i>fowler</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fugol</b> (<b>fugel</b>), m., <i>fowl</i>, <i>bird</i>; gen. pl., +<b>fugela</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">165b</span> +<p><b>ful</b>, n., <i>cup</i>, <i>beaker</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fūl</b>, <i>foul</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fūlian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>grow +foul</i>, <i>decompose</i>.</p> + +<p><b>full</b> (<b>ful</b>), adj., <i>full</i> (with gen.);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>be fullan</b>, <i>fully</i>, <i>perfectly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>full</b> (<b>ful</b>) adv., <i>fully</i>, <i>very</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fultum</b>, m., <i>help</i>.</p> + +<p><b>furðor</b> (<b>furður</b>), adv., <i>further</i>.</p> + +<p><b>furðum</b>, adv., <i>even</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fylð</b>, see <b>feallan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fyren</b> (<b>firen</b>), f., <i>crime</i>, <i>violence</i>, +<i>outrage</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fyrhtu</b>, f., <i>fright</i>, <i>terror</i>; dat. sing., +<b>fyrhtu</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fyrst</b>, adj., superlative, <i>first</i>, <i>chief</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fȳsan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>make +ready</i>, <i>prepare</i> [<b>fūs</b> = <i>ready</i>];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>gūðe gefȳsed</b> <a href = "#lineVI_631">137, 9</a> = <i>ready for +battle</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_G" id = "gloss1_G" href = "#gloss_I">G.</a></h5> + +<p><b>gād</b>, n., <i>lack</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gǣst</b>, see <b>gāst</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gafol</b>, n., <i>tax</i>, <i>tribute</i>.</p> + +<p><b>galan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), <i>sing</i> +[nightingale].</p> + +<p><b>gālnes</b>, f., <i>lust</i>, <i>impurity</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gān</b> (<a href = "#sec_134">§ <b>134</b></a>), <i>go</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gār</b>, m., <i>spear</i> [gore, gar-fish].</p> + +<p><b>gār-wiga</b>, m., <i>spear-warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gāst</b> (<b>gǣst</b>), m., <i>spirit</i>, <i>ghost</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gāstlīc</b> (<b>gǣstlīc</b>), <i>ghastly</i>, <i>terrible</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ge</b>, <i>and</i>; see <b>ǣgðer</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gē</b>, <i>ye</i>; see <b>ðū</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geador</b>, <i>together</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geǣmetigian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>disengage from</i> (with acc. of person and gen. of thing) +[empty].</p> + +<p><b>geærnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>gain by +running</i> [<b>iernan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gēap</b>, <i>spacious</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">166</span> +<a name = "page166" id = "page166"> </a> +<p><b>gēar</b>, n., <i>year</i>; gen. pl., <b>gēara</b>, is used +adverbially = <i>of yore</i>, <i>formerly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gēardæg</b>, m., <i>day of yore</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geare</b> (<b>gearo</b>, <b>gearwe</b>), <i>readily</i>, +<i>well</i>, <i>clearly</i> [yarely].</p> + +<p><b>Gēat</b>, m., <i>a Geat</i>, <i>the Geat</i> (i.e. Beowulf).</p> + +<p><b>Gēatas</b>, m. pl., <i>the Geats</i> (a people of South +Sweden).</p> + +<p><b>Gēat-mecgas</b>, m. pl., <i>Geat men</i> (= the fourteen who +accompanied Beowulf to Heorot).</p> + +<p><b>gebēorscipe</b>, m., <i>banquet</i>, <i>entertainment</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gebētan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>make +amends for</i> [<b>bōt</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gebīdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>wait</i>, +<i>bide one’s time</i> (intrans.); <i>endure</i>, <i>experience</i> +(trans., with acc.).</p> + +<p><b>gebind</b>, n., <i>commingling</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gebindan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>bind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gebrēowan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>brew</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gebrowen</b>, see <b>gebrēowan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gebūd</b>, <b>gebūn</b>, see <b>būan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ +<b>126</b>, Note 2</a>).</p> + +<p><b>gebyrd</b>, n., <i>rank</i>, <i>social distinction</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gecēosan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>choose</i>, <i>decide</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gecnāwan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>know</i>, +<i>understand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gecoren</b>, see <b>gecēosan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gecringan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>fall</i>, <i>die</i> [cringe].</p> + +<p><b>gedǣlan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>deal +out</i>, <i>give</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>dēaðe gedǣlde</b> <a href = "#lineVII_83">152, 7</a> = <i>apportioned +to death</i> (dat.), or, <i>tore</i> (?) <i>in death</i> (instr.).</p> + +<p><b>gedafenian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>become</i>, <i>befit</i>, <i>suit</i> (impersonal, usually with dat., +but with acc. <a href = "#line112_10">112, 10</a>).</p> + +<p><b>gedīgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>endure</i>, <i>survive</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">166b</span> +<p><b>gedōn</b> (<a href = "#sec_135">§ <b>135</b></a>), <i>do</i>, +<i>cause</i>, <i>effect</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gedræg</b>, n., <i>company</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gedrēosan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>fall</i>, <i>fail</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gedriht</b> (<b>gedryht</b>), n., <i>band</i>, <i>troop</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gedrogen</b>, see <b>drēogan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gedrync</b>, n., <i>drinking</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geęndian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>end</i>, +<i>finish</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gefaran</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), <i>go</i>, +<i>die</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gefēa</b>, m., <b>joy</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gefeaht</b>, see <b>gefeohtan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gefeh</b>, see <b>gefēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gefēng</b>, see <b>gefōn</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gefeoht</b>, n., <i>fight</i>, <i>battle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gefeohtan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>fight</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gefēon</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>, v.), <i>rejoice +at</i> (with dat.); pret. 3d sing., <b>gefeah</b>, <b>gefeh</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gefēra</b>, m., <i>companion</i>, <i>comrade</i> [co-farer].</p> + +<p><b>geflīeman</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>put to +flight</i> [<b>flēon</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gefohten</b>, see <b>gefeohtan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gefōn</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>, vii.), +<i>seize</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gefōr</b>, see <b>gefaran</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gefrǣge</b>, n., <i>hearsay</i>, <i>report</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>mīne gefrǣge</b> (instr.) <a href = "#lineVI_777">141, 7</a> = <i>as +I have heard say</i>, <i>according to my information</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gefręmman</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), +<i>perform</i>, <i>accomplish</i>, <i>effect</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gefultumian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>help</i> [<b>fultum</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gefylce</b>, n., <i>troop</i>, <i>division</i> [<b>folc</b>]; dat. +pl., <b>gefylcum</b>, <b>gefylcium</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gefyllan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>fill</i> +(with gen.); past part. pl., f., <b>gefylda</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geglęngan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>adorn</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gehātland</b>, n., <i>promised land</i> [<b>gehātan</b> = <i>to +promise</i>].</p> + +<p><b>gehealdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), +<i>hold</i>, <i>maintain</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">167</span> +<a name = "page167" id = "page167"> </a> +<p><b>gehīeran</b> (<b>gehȳran</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ +<b>126</b></a>), <i>hear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gehīersumnes</b>, f., <i>obedience</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gehola</b>, m., <i>protector</i> [<b>helan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gehwā</b> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b>, Note</a>), +<i>each</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on healfa gehwone</b> <a href = "#lineVI_801">142, 7</a> (see <a href += "#linenoteVI_769">Note 140, 15</a>. Observe that the pron. may, as +here, be masc. and the gen. fem.).</p> + +<p><b>gehwæðer</b> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b>, Note</a>), +<i>each</i>, <i>either</i>, <i>both</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gehwylc</b> (<b>gehwilc</b>) (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b>, +Note</a>), <i>each</i> (with gen. pl. See <a href = +"#linenoteVI_769">Note 140, 15</a>).</p> + +<p><b>gehwyrfan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>convert</i>, <i>change</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gehȳdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>hide</i>, +<i>conceal</i>, <i>consign</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gehygd</b>, f., n., <i>thought</i>, <i>purpose</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gehȳran</b>, see <b>gehīeran</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gehȳrnes</b>, f., <i>hearing</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>eal ðā hē in gehȳrnesse geleornian meahte</b> <a href = +"#line115_14">115, 14</a> = <i>all things that he could learn by +hearing</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gelǣdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>lead</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gelǣred</b>, part.-adj., <i>learned</i>; superlative, +<b>gelǣredest</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gelafian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>lave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gelęnge</b>, <i>along of</i>, <i>belonging to</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>geleornian</b> (<b>-liornian</b>) (<a href = "#sec_130">§ +<b>130</b></a>), <i>learn</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gelīce</b>, <i>likewise</i>; <i>in like manner to</i> (with +dat.).</p> + +<p><b>gelīefan</b> (<b>gelȳfan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ +<b>126</b></a>), <i>believe</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðæt hēo on ǣnigne eorl gelȳfde</b> <a href = "#lineVI_628">137, 6</a> += <i>that she believed in any earl</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gelimpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>happen</i>, <i>be fulfilled</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gelimplīc</b>, <i>proper</i>, <i>fitting</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gelȳfan</b>, see <b>gelīefan</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">167b</span> +<p><b>gelȳfed</b>, <i>weak</i>, <i>infirm</i> [left (hand)].</p> + +<p><b>gēmde</b>, see <b>gīeman</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gemet</b>, n., <i>meter</i>, <i>measure</i>, <i>ability</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gemētan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>meet</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gemǫn</b>, see <b>gemunan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gemunan</b> (<a href = "#sec_136">§ <b>136</b></a>), +<i>remember</i>; indic. pres. 1st and 3d sing., <b>gemǫn</b>; pret. +sing., <b>gemunde</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gemynd</b>, n., <i>memory</i>, <i>memorial</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō gemyndum</b> <a href = "#lineVI_2805">147, 5</a> = <i>as a +memorial</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gemyndgian</b> (<b>-mynian</b>) (<a href = "#sec_130">§ +<b>130</b></a>), <i>remember</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>mid hine gemyndgade</b> <a href = "#line115_15">115, 15</a> = <i>he +treasured in his memory</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>gemyne mǣrðo</b> <a href = "#lineVI_660">138, 15</a> = <i>be mindful +of glory</i> (imperative 2d sing.).</p> + +<p><b>gemyndig</b>, <i>mindful of</i> (with gen.).</p> + +<p><b>genāp</b>, see <b>genīpan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geneahhe</b>, <i>enough</i>, <i>often</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>genehost</b>, superlative, <i>very often</i>.</p> + +<p><b>genip</b>, n., <i>mist</i>, <i>darkness</i>.</p> + +<p><b>genīpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>grow +dark</i>.</p> + +<p><b>genīwian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>renew</i>.</p> + +<p><b>genōh</b>, <i>enough</i>.</p> + +<p><b>genumen</b>, see <b>niman</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geoc</b>, n., <i>yoke</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gēocor</b>, <i>dire</i>, <i>sad</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geogoð</b>, f., <i>youth</i>, <i>young people</i>, <i>young +warriors</i>. (See <b>duguð</b>.)</p> + +<p><b>geond</b> (<b>giond</b>) (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(2)</a>), <i>throughout</i> [yond].</p> + +<p><b>geondhweorfan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>pass +over</i>, <i>traverse</i>, <i>recall</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðonne māga gemynd mōd geondhweorfeð</b> <a href = "#lineVII_51">150, +15</a> = <i>then his mind recalls the memory of kinsmen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geondscēawian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), survey, +review;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>georne geondscēawað</b> <a href = "#lineVII_52">150, 16</a> = +<i>eagerly surveys them</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">168</span> +<a name = "page168" id = "page168"> </a> +<p><b>geondðęnc(e)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>think over</i>, <i>consider</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geong</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (2)</a>), +<i>young</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>giengest</b>, (<b>gingest</b>), superlative, <i>youngest</i>, +<i>latest</i>, <i>last</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geong</b> = <b>gǫng</b>, see <b>gǫngan</b> (imperative 2d +sing.).</p> + +<p><b>gēong</b> (<b>gīong</b>), see <b>gǫngan</b> (pret. 3d sing.).</p> + +<p><b>georn</b> (<b>giorn</b>), <i>eager</i>, <i>desirous</i>, +<i>zealous</i>, <i>sure</i> [yearn].</p> + +<p><b>georne</b>, <i>eagerly</i>, <i>certainly</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>wiste ðē geornor</b> <a href = "#lineVI_822">143, 5</a> = <i>knew the +more certainly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geornfulnes</b>, f., <i>eagerness</i>, <i>zeal</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geornlīce</b>, <i>eagerly</i>, <i>attentively</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geornor</b>, see <b>georne</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geręcednes</b>, f., <i>narration</i> [<b>ręccan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gerisenlīc</b>, <i>suitable</i>, <i>becoming</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gerȳman</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>extend</i>, (trans.) [<b>rūm</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gesǣliglīc</b>, <i>happy</i>, <i>blessed</i> [silly].</p> + +<p><b>gesamnode</b>, see <b>gesǫmnian</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gesceaft</b>, f., <i>creature</i>, <i>creation</i>, <i>destiny</i> +[<b>scieppan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gesceap</b>, n., <i>shape</i>, <i>creation</i>, <i>destiny</i> +[<b>scieppan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gescieldan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>shield</i>, <i>defend</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gesealde</b>, see <b>gesęllan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geseglian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>sail</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geselda</b>, m., <i>comrade</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gesęllan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>give</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gesēon</b> (<b>gesīon</b>) (<a href = "#sec_118">§ +<b>118</b></a>), <i>see</i>, <b>observe</b>; pres. indic. 3d sing., +<b>gesihð</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geset</b>, n., <i>habitation</i>, <i>seat</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gesęttan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>set</i>, +<i>place</i>, <i>establish</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gesewen</b>, see <b>sēon</b>, <b>gesēon</b> (past part.).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">168b</span> +<p><b>gesewenlīc</b>, <i>seen</i>, <i>visible</i> [seen-like].</p> + +<p><b>gesiglan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>sail</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gesihð</b>, see <b>gesēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gesittan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>sit</i> (trans., as <i>to sit a horse</i>, <i>to sit a boat</i>, +etc.); <i>sit</i>, <i>sit down</i> (intrans.).</p> + +<p><b>geslægen</b>, see <b>slēan</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ +<b>118</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>gesǫmnian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>assemble</i>, <i>collect</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gesǫmnung</b>, f., <i>collection</i>, <i>assembly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gestāh</b>, see <b>gestīgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gestaðelian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>establish</i>, <i>restore</i> [<b>standan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gesteal</b>, n., <i>establishment</i>, <i>foundation</i> +[stall].</p> + +<p><b>gestīgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>ascend</i>, <i>go</i> [stile, stirrup, sty (= a <i>rising</i> on +the eye)].</p> + +<p><b>gestrangian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>strengthen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gestrēon</b>, n., <i>property</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gestrȳnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>obtain</i>, <i>acquire</i> [<b>gestrēon</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gesweorcan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>grow +dark</i>, <i>become sad</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>For ðon ic geðęncan ne mæg geond ðās woruld for hwan mōdsefa mīn ne +gesweorce</b> <a href = "#lineVII_58">151, 3-4</a> = <i>Therefore in +this world I may not understand wherefore my mind does not grow “black +as night.”</i> (Brooke.)</p> + +<p><b>geswīcan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>cease</i>, <i>cease from</i> (with gen.).</p> + +<p><b>getæl</b>, n., <i>something told</i>, <i>narrative</i>.</p> + +<p><b>getruma</b>, m., <i>troop</i>, <i>division</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geðanc</b>, m., n., <i>thought</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geðeah</b>, see <b>geðicgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geðęnc(e)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>think</i>, <i>remember</i>, <i>understand</i>, <i>consider</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">169</span> +<a name = "page169" id = "page169"> </a> +<p><b>geðēodan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>join</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geðēode</b> (<b>-ðīode</b>), n., <i>language</i>, +<i>tribe</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geðēodnis</b>, f., <i>association</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +but in <a href = "#line112_2">112, 2</a> this word is used to render the +Lat. <i>appetitus</i> = <i>desire</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geðicg(e)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>take</i>, <i>receive</i>; pret. indic. 3d sing., <b>geðeah</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geðungen</b>, part.-adj., <i>distinguished</i>, <i>excellent</i> +[<b>ðēon</b>, <i>to thrive</i>].</p> + +<p><b>geðyldig</b>, <i>patient</i> [<b>ðolian</b>].</p> + +<p><b>geweald</b> (<b>gewald</b>), n., <i>control</i>, +<i>possession</i>, <i>power</i> [wield].</p> + +<p><b>geweorc</b>, n., <i>work</i>, <i>labor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geweorðian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>honor</i> [to attribute <i>worth</i> to].</p> + +<p><b>gewīcian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>dwell</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gewin(n)</b>, n., <i>strife</i>, <i>struggle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gewindan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>flee</i> +[wend].</p> + +<p><b>gewissian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>guide</i>, <i>direct</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gewītan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>go</i>, +<i>depart</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geworht</b>, see <b>gewyrcan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gewrit</b>, n., <i>writing</i>, <i>Scripture</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gewunian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>be +accustomed</i>, <i>be wont</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gewyrc(e)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>work</i>, <i>create</i>, <i>make</i>, <i>produce</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gid(d)</b>, n., <i>word</i>, <i>speech</i>.</p> + +<p><b>giefan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), +<i>give</i>.</p> + +<p><b>giefstōl</b>, m., <i>gift-stool</i>, <i>throne</i>.</p> + +<p><b>giefu</b> (<b>gifu</b>), f., <i>gift</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gielp</b> (<b>gilp</b>), m., n., <i>boast</i> [yelp].</p> + +<p><b>gīeman</b> (<b>gēman</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>endeavor</i>, <i>strive</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gīet</b> (<b>gīt</b>, <b>gȳt</b>), <i>yet</i>, <i>still</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gif</b> (<b>gyf</b>), <i>if</i> [not related to <i>give</i>].</p> + +<p><b>gifeðe</b> (<b>gyfeðe</b>), <i>given</i>, <i>granted</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gilp</b>, see <b>gielp</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gilp-cwide</b>, m., <i>boasting speech</i> +[<i>yelp</i>-speech].</p> + +<p><b>gingest</b>, see <b>geong</b> (adj.).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">169b</span> +<p><b>giohðo</b> (<b>gehðu</b>), f., <i>care</i>, <i>sorrow</i>, +<i>grief</i>.</p> + +<p><b>giū</b> (<b>iū</b>), <i>formerly</i>, <i>of old</i>.</p> + +<p><b>glæd</b> (<b>glǣd</b>), <i>glad</i>.</p> + +<p><b>glēaw</b>, <i>wise</i>, <i>prudent</i>.</p> + +<p><b>glīwstæf</b>, m., <i>glee</i>, <i>joy</i>; instr. pl. (used +adverbially), <b>glīwstafum</b> <a href = "#lineVII_52">150, 16</a> = +<i>joyfully</i>.</p> + +<p><b>God</b>, m., <i>God</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gōd</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (3)</a>), +<i>good</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>mid his gōdum</b> <a href = "#line115_12">115, 12</a> = <i>with his +possessions</i> (<i>goods</i>).</p> + +<p><b>godcund</b>, <i>divine</i> [<b>God</b>].</p> + +<p><b>godcundlīce</b>, <i>divinely</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gold</b>, n., <i>gold</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gold-ǣht</b>, f., <i>gold treasure</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gold-fāh</b>, <i>gold-adorned</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gold-hroden</b>, part.-adj., <i>gold-adorned</i>.</p> + +<p><b>goldwine</b>, m., <i>prince</i>, <i>giver of gold</i>, <i>lord</i> +[gold-friend].</p> + +<p><b>gomel</b> (<b>gomol</b>), <i>old</i>, <i>old man</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gǫngan</b> (<b>gangan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_117">§ +<b>117</b></a>), <i>go</i> [gang]; imperative 2d sing., <b>geong</b>; +pret. sing., <b>gēong</b>, <b>gīong</b>, <b>gēng</b>; past part., +<b>gegǫngen</b>, <b>gegangen</b>.</p> +<p class = "inset"> +The most commonly used pret. is <b>ēode</b>, which belongs to <b>gān</b> +(<a href = "#sec_134">§ <b>134</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Gotland</b>, n., <i>Jutland</i> (in <i>Ohthere’s Second +Voyage</i>), <i>Gothland</i> (in <i>Wulfstan’s Voyage</i>).</p> + +<p><b>gram</b>, <i>grim</i>, <i>angry</i>, <i>fierce</i>, <i>the angry +one</i>.</p> + +<p><b>grāp</b>, f., <i>grasp</i>, <i>clutch</i>, <i>claw</i>.</p> + +<p><b>grētan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>greet</i>, +<i>attack</i>, <i>touch</i>.</p> + +<p><b>grōwan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b>, (2)</a>), +<i>grow</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gryre-lēoð</b>, n., <i>terrible song</i> [grisly lay].</p> + +<p><b>guma</b>, m., <i>man</i>, <i>hero</i> [groom; see <a href = +"#sec_65">§ <b>65</b>, Note 1</a>].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">170</span> +<a name = "page170" id = "page170"> </a> +<p><b>gūð</b>, f., <i>war</i>, <i>battle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gūð-bill</b>, n., <i>sword</i> [war-bill].</p> + +<p><b>gūð-gewǣde</b>, n., <i>armor</i> [war-weeds].</p> + +<p><b>gūð-hrēð</b>, f., <i>war-fame</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gūð-wine</b>, m., <i>sword</i> [war-friend].</p> + +<p><b>gyddian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>speak +formally</i>, <b>chant</b> [giddy; the original meaning of <i>giddy</i> +was <i>mirthful</i>, as when one sings].</p> + +<p><b>gyf</b>, see <b>gif</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gyfeðe</b>, see <b>gifeðe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gyldan</b> (<b>gieldan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>), <i>pay</i>; indic. 3d sing., <b>gylt</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gylden</b>, <i>golden</i> [<b>gold</b>].</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_H" id = "gloss1_H" href = "#gloss_I">H.</a></h5> + +<p><b>habban</b> (<a href = "#sec_133">§ <b>133</b></a>), +<i>have</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hād</b>, m., <i>order</i>, <i>rank</i>, <i>office</i>, +<i>degree</i> [-hood, -head].</p> + +<p><b>hæfta</b>, m., <i>captive</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hægel</b> (<b>hagol</b>), m., <i>hail</i>; instr. sing., +<b>hagle</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hæglfaru</b>, f., <i>hail-storm</i> [hail-faring].</p> + +<p><b>hæle</b>, see <b>hæleð</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hǣl</b>, f., <i>hail</i>, <i>health</i>, <i>good luck</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hæleð</b> (<b>hæle</b>), m., <i>hero</i>, <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hǣt</b>, see <b>hātan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hǣðen</b>, <i>heathen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Hǣðum</b> (<b>æt Hǣðum</b>), <i>Haddeby</i> (= +<i>Schleswig</i>).</p> + +<p><b>hāl</b>, <i>hale</i>, <i>whole</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hālettan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>greet</i>, <i>salute</i> [to hail].</p> + +<p><b>Halfdęne</b>, <i>Halfdane</i> (proper name).</p> + +<p><b>hālga</b>, m., <i>saint</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Hālgoland</b>, <i>Halgoland</i> (in ancient Norway).</p> + +<p><b>hālig</b>, <i>holy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hālignes</b>, f., <i>holiness</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">170b</span> +<p><b>hām</b>, m., <i>home</i>; dat. sing., <b>hāme</b>, <b>hām</b> (p. +104, Note);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +used adverbially in <b>hām ēode</b> <a href = "#line112_18">112, 18</a> += <i>went home</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hand</b>, see <b>hǫnd</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hār</b>, <i>hoary</i>, <i>gray</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hāt</b>, <i>hot</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hātan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>call</i>, <i>name</i>, <i>command</i>; pret. sing., <b>heht</b>, +<b>hēt</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hātheort</b>, <i>hot-hearted</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hātte</b>, see <b>hātan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hē</b>, <b>hēo</b>, <b>hit</b> (<a href = "#sec_53">§ +<b>53</b></a>), <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, <i>it</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hēafod</b>, n., <i>head</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hēah</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (2)</a>), <i>high</i>; +acc. sing, m., <b>hēanne</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hēah-sęle</b>, m., <i>high hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hēahðungen</b>, <i>highly prosperous</i>, <i>aristocratic</i> +[<b>hēah</b> + past part. of <b>ðēon</b> (<a href = +"#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>)].</p> + +<p><b>healdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>hold</i>, +<i>govern</i>, <i>possess</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<a href = "#lineVI_2720">144, 9</a> = <i>hold up</i>, +<i>sustain</i>.</p> + +<p><b>healf</b>, adj., <i>half</i>.</p> + +<p><b>healf</b>, f., <i>half</i>, <i>side</i>, <i>shore</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heall</b>, f., <i>hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heals</b>, m., <i>neck</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hēan</b>, <i>abject</i>, <i>miserable</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hēanne</b>, see <b>hēah</b>.</p> + +<p><b>heard</b>, <i>hard</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heard-hicgende</b>, <i>brave-minded</i> [hard-thinking].</p> + +<p><b>hearm-scaða</b>, m., <i>harmful foe</i> [harm-scather].</p> + +<p><b>hearpe</b>, f., <i>harp</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heaðo-dēor</b>, <i>battle-brave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heaðo-mǣre</b>, <i>famous in battle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heaðo-wylm</b>, m., <i>flame-surge</i>, <i>surging of fire</i> +[battle-welling].</p> + +<p><b>hēawan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>hew</i>, +<i>cut</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hębban</b>, <b>hōf</b>, <b>hōfon</b>, <b>gehafen</b> (<a href = +"#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>heave</i>, <i>lift</i>, +<i>raise</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">171</span> +<a name = "page171" id = "page171"> </a> +<p><b>hęfig</b>, <i>heavy</i>, <i>oppressive</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heht</b>, see <b>hātan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>helan</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), +<i>conceal</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hęll</b>, f., <i>hell</i>.</p> + +<p><b>helm</b>, m., <i>helmet</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Helmingas</b>, m. pl., <i>Helmings</i> (Wealtheow, Hrothgar’s +queen, is a Helming).</p> + +<p><b>help</b>, f., <i>help</i>.</p> + +<p><b>helpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>help</i> +(with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>heofon</b>, m., <i>heaven</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heofonlīc</b>, <i>heavenly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heofonrīce</b>, n., <i>kingdom of heaven</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hēold</b>, see <b>healdan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>heolstor</b> (<b>-ster</b>), n., <i>darkness</i>, +<i>concealment</i>, <i>cover</i> [holster].</p> + +<p><b>heora</b> (<b>hiera</b>), see <b>hē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>heord</b>, f., <b>care</b>, <b>guardianship</b> [hoard].</p> + +<p><b>heoro-drēorig</b>, <i>bloody</i> [sword-dreary].</p> + +<p><b>Heorot</b>, <i>Heorot</i>, <i>Hart</i> (the famous hall which +Hrothgar built).</p> + +<p><b>heorte</b>, f., <i>heart</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hēr</b>, <i>here</i>, <i>hither</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +in the <i>Chronicle</i> the meaning frequently is <i>at this date</i>, +<i>in this year</i>: <a href = "#line99_1">99, 1</a>.</p> + +<p><b>hęre</b>, m., <i>Danish army</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hęrenis</b>, f., <i>praise</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hęrgian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>raid</i>, +<i>harry</i>, <i>ravage</i> [<b>hęre</b>].</p> + +<p><b>hęrgung</b>, f., <i>harrying</i>, <i>plundering</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hęrian</b> (<b>hęrigean</b>) (<a href = "#sec_125">§ +<b>125</b></a>), <i>praise</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hērsumedon</b>, see <b>hīersumian</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hēt</b>, see <b>hātan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hider</b> (<b>hieder</b>), <i>hither</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hiera</b>, see <b>hē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hīeran</b> (<b>hȳran</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>hear</i>, <i>belong</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hierde</b>, m., <i>shepherd</i>, <i>instigator</i> [keeper of a +<i>herd</i>].</p> + +<p><b>hierdebōc</b>, f., <i>pastoral treatise</i> +<span class = "pagenum">171b</span> +[shepherd-book, a translation of Lat. <i>Cura Pastoralis</i>].</p> + +<p><b>hīerra</b>, see <b>hēah</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hīersumian</b> (<b>hȳr-</b>, <b>hēr-</b>) (<a href = "#sec_130">§ +<b>130</b></a>), <i>obey</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>hige</b> (<b>hyge</b>), m., <i>mind</i>, <i>heart</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hige-ðihtig</b>, <i>bold-hearted</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hild</b>, f., <i>battle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hilde-dēor</b>, <i>battle-brave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hilde-mecg</b>, m., <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hilde-sæd</b>, <i>battle-sated</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hin-fūs</b>, <i>eager to be gone</i> [hence-ready].</p> + +<p><b>hira</b>, see <b>hē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hlǣw</b> (<b>hlāw</b>), m., <i>mound</i>, <i>burial mound</i> +[Lud<i>low</i> and other place-names, <i>low</i> meaning +<i>hill</i>].</p> + +<p><b>hlāford</b>, m., <i>lord</i>, <i>master</i> [loaf-ward?].</p> + +<p><b>hleahtor</b>, m., <i>laughter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hlēo</b>, m., <i>refuge</i>, <i>protector</i> [lee].</p> + +<p><b>hlīfian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>rise</i>, +<i>tower</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hlyn</b>, m., <i>din</i>, <i>noise</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hlynsian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>resound</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hof</b>, n., <i>court</i>, <i>abode</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hogode</b>, see <b>hycgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>holm</b>, m., <i>sea</i>, <i>ocean</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hǫnd</b> (<b>hand</b>), f., <i>hand</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on gehwæðre hǫnd</b>, <i>on both sides</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hord</b>, m., n., <i>hoard</i>, <i>treasure</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hordcofa</b>, m., <i>breast</i>, <i>heart</i> [hoard-chamber]</p> + +<p><b>hors</b>, n., <i>horse</i>.</p> + +<p><b>horshwæl</b>, m., <i>walrus</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hrædwyrde</b>, <i>hasty of speech</i> [<b>hræd</b> = +<i>quick</i>].</p> + +<p><b>hrægel</b>, n., <i>garment</i>; dat. sing., <b>hrægle</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hrān</b>, m., <i>reindeer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hraðe</b>, <i>quickly</i>, <i>soon</i> [<i>rath</i>-er].</p> + +<p><b>hrēo</b> (<b>hrēoh</b>), <i>rough</i>, <i>cruel</i>, +<i>sad</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hrēosan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>fall</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">172</span> +<a name = "page172" id = "page172"> </a> +<p><b>hrēran</b> (§ <b>126)</b>, <i>stir</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hreðer</b>, m., n., <i>breast</i>, <i>purpose</i>; dat. sing., +<b>hreðre</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hrīm</b>, m., <i>rime</i>, <i>hoarfrost</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hrīmceald</b>, <i>rime-cold</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hring</b>, m., <i>ring</i>, <i>ring-mail</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hrīð</b>, f. (?), <i>snow-storm</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hrōf</b>, m., <i>roof</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Hrones næss</b>, literally <i>Whale’s Ness</i>, <i>whale’s +promontory</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +see <b>næss</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hrūse</b>, f., <i>earth</i> [<b>hrēosan</b>: deposit].</p> + +<p><b>hryre</b>, m., <i>fall</i>, <i>death</i> [<b>hrēosan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>hrȳðer</b>, n., <i>cattle</i> [rinder-pest].</p> + +<p><b>hryðig</b>, <i>ruined</i> (?), <i>storm-beaten</i>; nom. pl. m., +<b>hryðge</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hū</b>, <i>how</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Humbre</b>, f., <i>river Humber</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hund</b>, <i>hundred</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hunig</b>, n., <i>honey</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hunta</b>, m., <i>hunter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>huntoð</b> (<b>-tað</b>), m., <i>hunting</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hūru</b>, adv., <i>about</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hūs</b>, n., <i>house</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwā</b>, <b>hwæt</b> (<a href = "#sec_74">§ <b>74</b></a>), +<i>who?</i> <i>what?</i> <b>swā hwæt swā</b> (<a href = +"#sec_77">§ <b>77</b>, Note</a>), <i>whatsoever</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +indefinite, <i>any one</i>, <i>anything</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>for hwan</b> (instr.), <i>wherefore</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwæl</b>, m., <i>whale</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwælhunta</b>, m., <i>whale-hunter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwælhuntað</b>, m., <i>whale-fishing</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwǣr</b>, <i>where?</i> <b>hwǣr ... swā</b>, +<i>wheresoever</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>wel hwǣr</b>, <i>nearly everywhere</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwæthwugu</b>, <i>something</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwæðer</b>, <i>whether</i>, <i>which of two?</i></p> + +<p><b>hwæðre</b>, <i>however</i>, <i>nevertheless</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwēne</b>, see <b>hwōn</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hweorfan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>turn</i>, +<i>go</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwider</b>, <i>whither</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">172b</span> +<p><b>hwīl</b>, f., <i>while</i>, <i>time</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ealle ðā hwīle ðe</b>, <i>all the while that</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>hwīlum</b> (instr. pl.), <i>sometimes</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwilc</b> (<b>hwylc</b>, <b>hwelc</b>) (<a href = "#sec_74">§ +<b>74</b>, Note 1</a>), <i>which?</i> <i>what?</i></p> + +<p><b>hwōn</b>, n., <i>a trifle</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>hwēne</b> (instr. sing.), <i>somewhat</i>, <i>a little</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwǫnan</b>, <i>when</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hȳ</b>, see <b>hīe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hycgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_132">§ <b>132</b></a>), <i>think</i>, +<i>resolve</i>; pret. 3d sing., <b>hogode</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hȳd</b>, f., <i>hide</i>, <i>skin</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hyge</b>, see <b>hige</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hyra</b> (<b>hiera</b>), see <b>hē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hȳran</b>, see <b>hīeran</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hyrde</b>, see <b>hierde</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hys</b> (<b>his</b>), see <b>hē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hyt</b> (<b>hit</b>), see <b>hē</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_I" id = "gloss1_I" href = "#gloss_I">I.</a></h5> + +<p><b>ic</b> (<a href = "#sec_72">§ <b>72</b></a>), <i>I</i>.</p> + +<p><b>īdel</b>, <i>idle</i>, <i>useless</i>, <i>desolate</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ides</b>, f., <i>woman</i>, <i>lady</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ieldra</b>, adj., see <b>eald</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ieldra</b>, m., <i>an elder</i>, <i>parent</i>, +<i>ancestor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>iernan</b> (<b>yrnan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_112">§ <b>112</b></a>), +<i>run</i>.</p> + +<p><b>īglǫnd</b> (<b>īgland</b>), n., <i>island</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ilca</b> (<b>ylca</b>), <i>the same</i> [of that ilk].</p> + +<p><b>Ilfing</b>, <i>the Elbing</i>.</p> + +<p><b>in</b>, <i>in</i>, <i>into</i> (with dat. and acc.);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>in on</b>, <i>in on</i>, <i>to</i>, <i>toward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>inbryrdnis</b> (<b>-nes</b>), f., <i>inspiration</i>, +<i>ardor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>indryhten</b>, <i>very noble</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ingǫng</b>, m., <i>entrance</i>.</p> + +<p><b>innan</b>, adv., <i>within</i>, <i>inside</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on innan</b>, <i>within</i>.</p> + +<p><b>innanbordes</b>, adv.-gen., <i>within borders</i>, <i>at +home</i>.</p> + +<p><b>inne</b>, adv., <i>within</i>, <i>inside</i>.</p> + +<p><b>intinga</b><ins class = "correction" title = ". for ,">, </ins>m., +<i>cause</i>, <i>sake</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">173</span> +<a name = "page173" id = "page173"> </a> +<p><b>inweardlīce</b>, <i>inwardly</i>, <i>fervently</i>.</p> + +<p><b>inwid-sorg</b> (<b>inwit-sorh</b>), f., <i>sorrow caused by an +enemy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>inwit-ðanc</b>, m., <i>hostile intent</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Īraland</b>, n., <i>Ireland</i> (but in <i>Ohthere’s Second +Voyage</i>, <i>Iceland</i> is probably meant).</p> + +<p><b>īren</b>, n., <i>iron</i>, <i>sword</i>; gen. pl., <b>īrenna</b>, +<b>īrena</b>.</p> + +<p><b>īren-bęnd</b>, m., f., <i>iron-band</i>.</p> + +<p><b>īu</b>, see <b>gīu</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_K" id = "gloss1_K" href = "#gloss_I">K.</a></h5> + +<p><b>kynerīce</b>, see <b>cynerīce</b>.</p> + +<p><b>kyning</b>, see <b>cyning</b>.</p> + +<p><b>kyrtel</b>, m., <i>kirtle</i>, <i>coat</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_L" id = "gloss1_L" href = "#gloss_I">L.</a></h5> + +<p><b>Lǣden</b>, <i>Latin</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Lǣdengeðēode</b> (<b>-ðīode</b>), n., <i>Latin language</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Lǣdenware</b> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ <b>47</b></a>), m. pl., +<i>Latin people</i>, <i>Romans</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lǣfan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>leave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lǣge</b>, see <b>licgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Lǣland</b>, n., <i>Laaland</i> (in Denmark).</p> + +<p><b>lǣn</b>, n., <i>loan</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō lǣne</b> <a href = "#line121_2">121, 2</a> = <i>as a loan</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lǣne</b>, adj., <i>as a loan</i>, <i>transitory</i>, +<i>perishable</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lǣran</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>teach</i>, +<i>advise</i>, <i>exhort</i> [<b>lār</b>].</p> + +<p><b>lǣssa</b>, <b>lǣsta</b>, see <b>lȳtel</b>.</p> + +<p><b>lǣstan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>last</i>, +<i>hold out</i> (intrans.); <i>perform</i>, <i>achieve</i> (trans.).</p> + +<p><b>lǣtan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>let</i>, +<i>leave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lāf</b>, f., <i>something left</i>, <i>remnant</i>, +<i>heirloom</i> (often a <i>sword</i>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō lāfe</b>, <i>as a remnant</i>, <i>remaining</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">173b</span> +<p><b>lagulād</b>, f., <i>sea</i> [lake-way, <b>lād</b> = +<i>leading</i>, <i>direction</i>, <i>way</i><ins class = "correction" +title = ") for ]">].</ins></p> + +<p><b>land</b>, see <b>lǫnd</b>.</p> + +<p><b>lang</b>, see <b>lǫng</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Langaland</b>, n., <i>Langeland</i> (in Denmark).</p> + +<p><b>lār</b>, f., <i>lore</i>, <i>teaching</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lārcwide</b>, m., <i>precept</i>, <i>instruction</i>, +[<b>cwide</b> < <b>cweðan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>lārēow</b>, m., <i>teacher</i> [<b>lār</b> + <b>ðēow</b>].</p> + +<p><b>lāst</b>, m., <i>track</i>, <i>footprint</i> [shoemaker’s +last];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on lāst(e)</b>, <i>in the track of</i>, <i>behind</i> (with +dat.).</p> + +<p><b>lāð</b>, <i>loathsome</i>, <i>hateful</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lēas</b>, <i>loose</i>, <i>free from</i>, <i>bereft of</i> (with +gen.).</p> + +<p><b>lēasung</b>, f., <i>leasing</i>, <i>deception</i>, +<i>falsehood</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lęcgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b>, Note</a>), +<i>lay</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lēfdon</b>, see <b>līefan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>leger</b>, n., <i>lying in</i>, <i>illness</i> +[<b>licgan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>lęng</b>, see <b>lǫnge</b>.</p> + +<p><b>lęngra</b>, see <b>lǫng</b>.</p> + +<p><b>lēod</b>, m., <i>prince</i>, <i>chief</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lēod</b>, f., <i>people</i>, <i>nation</i> (the plural has the +same meaning).</p> + +<p><b>lēod-scipe</b>, m., <i>nation</i> [people-ship].</p> + +<p><b>lēof</b>, <i>dear</i> [lief].</p> + +<p><b>leoht</b>, adj., <i>light</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lēoht</b>, n., <i>light</i>, <i>brightness</i>.</p> + +<p><b>leornere</b>, m., <i>learner</i>, <i>disciple</i>.</p> + +<p><b>leornian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>learn</i>.</p> + +<p><b>leornung</b> (<b>liornung</b>), f., <i>learning</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lēoð</b>, n., <i>song</i> [lay?].</p> + +<p><b>lēoðcræft</b>, m., <i>poetic skill</i> [lay-craft].</p> + +<p><b>lēoðsǫng</b>, n., <i>song</i>, <i>poem</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lēt</b>, see <b>lǣtan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>libban</b> (<a href = "#sec_133">§ <b>133</b></a>), <i>live</i>; +pres. part., <b>lifigende</b>, <i>living</i>, <i>alive</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">174</span> +<a name = "page174" id = "page174"> </a> +<p><b>līc</b>, n., <i>body</i>, <i>corpse</i> [lich-gate, +Lichfield].</p> + +<p><b>licgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>lie</i>, <i>extend</i>, <i>flow</i>, <i>lie dead</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +3d sing. indic. pres., <b>ligeð</b>, <b>līð</b>.</p> + +<p><b>līchama</b> (<b>-hǫma</b>), m., <i>body</i> [body-covering].</p> + +<p><b>līcian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>please</i> +(with dat.) [like].</p> + +<p><b>līc-sār</b>, n., <i>body-sore</i>, <i>wound in the body</i>.</p> + +<p><b>līefan</b> (<b>lēfan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>permit</i>, <i>allow</i> (with dat.) [grant +<i>leave</i> to].</p> + +<p><b>līf</b>, n., <i>life</i>.</p> + +<p><b>līf-dagas</b>, m. pl., <i>life-days</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lifigende</b>, see <b>libban</b>.</p> + +<p><b>līg</b>, m., <i>flame</i>, <i>fire</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ligeð</b>, see <b>licgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>lim</b>, n., <i>limb</i>.</p> + +<p><b>list</b>, f., <i>cunning</i>; dat. pl., <b>listum</b>, is used +adverbially = <i>cunningly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>līð</b>, see <b>licgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>lof</b>, m., <i>praise</i>, <i>glory</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lǫnd</b> (<b>land</b>), n., <i>land</i>, <i>country</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lǫng</b> (<b>lang</b>) (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (2)</a>), +<i>long</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lǫnge</b> (<b>lange</b>) (<a href = "#sec_97">§ <b>97</b>, +(2)</a>), <i>long</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>lǫnge on dæg</b>, <i>late in the day</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lufan</b>, see <b>lufu</b>.</p> + +<p><b>lufian</b> (<b>lufigean</b>) (<a href = "#sec_131">§ +<b>131</b></a>), <i>love</i>.</p> + +<p><b>luflīce</b>, <i>lovingly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lufu</b>, f., <i>love</i>; dat. sing. (weak), <b>lufan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>lungre</b>, <i>quickly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lust</b>, m., <i>joy</i> [lust];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on lust</b>, <i>joyfully</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lȳt</b>, indeclinable, <i>little</i>, <i>few</i> (with partitive +gen.).</p> + +<p><b>lȳtel</b> (<b>lītel</b>) (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, +(2)</a>), <i>little</i>, <i>small</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_M" id = "gloss1_M" href = "#gloss_I">M.</a></h5> + +<p><b>mā</b>, see <b>micle</b> (<a href = "#sec_97">§ <b>97</b>, +(2)</a>).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">174b</span> +<p><b>mæg</b>, see <b>magan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mǣg</b>, m., <i>kinsman</i>; nom. pl., <b>māgas</b> (<a href = +"#sec_27">§ <b>27</b>, (2)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>mægen</b> n., <i>strength</i>, <i>power</i> [might and +<i>main</i>].</p> + +<p><b>mægen-ęllen</b>, n., <i>main strength</i>, <i>mighty +courage</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǣgð</b>, f., <i>tribe</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mægðhād</b>, m., <i>maidenhood</i>, <i>virginity</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǣl-gesceaft</b>, f., <i>appointed time</i> [<b>mǣl</b> = +<i>meal</i>, <i>time</i>].</p> + +<p><b>mǣran</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>make +famous</i>, <i>honor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǣre</b>, <i>famous</i>, <i>glorious</i>, <i>notorious</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǣrðo</b> (<b>mǣrðo</b>, <b>mǣrð</b>), f., <i>glory</i>, +<i>fame</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mæsseprēost</b>, m., <i>mass-priest</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǣst</b>, see <b>micel</b>.</p> + +<p><b>magan</b> (<a href = "#sec_137">§ <b>137</b></a>), <i>be able</i>, +<i>may</i>.</p> + +<p><b>māgas</b>, see <b>mǣg</b>.</p> + +<p><b>magu</b> (<b>mago</b>), m., <i>son</i>, <i>man</i>.</p> + +<p><b>maguðegn</b>, m., <i>vassal</i>, <i>retainer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>man(n)</b>, see <b>mǫn(n)</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mancus</b>, m., <i>mancus</i>, <i>half-crown</i>; gen. pl., +<b>mancessa</b>.</p> + +<p><b>māndǣd</b>, f., <i>evil deed</i>.</p> + +<p><b>manig</b>, see <b>mǫnig</b>.</p> + +<p><b>manigfeald</b>, see <b>mǫnigfeald</b>.</p> + +<p><b>māra</b>, see <b>micel</b>.</p> + +<p><b>maðelian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>harangue</i>, <i>speak</i>.</p> + +<p><b>māðum</b> (<b>māððum</b>), m., <i>gift</i>, <i>treasure</i>, +<i>jewel</i>; gen. pl., <b>māðma</b>.</p> + +<p><b>māððumgyfa</b>, m., <i>treasure-giver</i>, <i>lord</i>.</p> + +<p><b>māððum-wela</b>, m., <i>wealth of treasure</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mē</b>, see <b>ic</b>.</p> + +<p><b>meaht</b>, f., <i>might</i>, <i>power</i>.</p> + +<p><b>meahte</b>, see <b>magan</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">175</span> +<a name = "page175" id = "page175"> </a> +<p><b>mearc</b>, f., <i>boundary</i>, <i>limit</i> [mark, march].</p> + +<p><b>mearg</b> (<b>mearh</b>), m., <i>horse</i>; nom. pl., +<b>mēaras</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mearð</b>, m., <i>marten</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mec</b>, see <b>ic</b>.</p> + +<p><b>medmicel</b>, <i>moderately large</i>, <i>short</i>, +<i>brief</i>.</p> + +<p><b>medu</b> (<b>medo</b>), m., <i>mead</i>.</p> + +<p><b>medu-bęnc</b>, f., <i>mead-bench</i>.</p> + +<p><b>medu-ful</b>, n., <i>mead-cup</i>.</p> + +<p><b>medu-heall</b>, f., <i>mead-hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>męn</b>, see <b>mǫn(n)</b>.</p> + +<p><b>męngan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>mingle</i>, +<i>mix</i>.</p> + +<p><b>męnigu</b> (<b>męnigeo</b>), f., <i>multitude</i> [many].</p> + +<p><b>męnniscnes</b>, f., <i>humanity</i>, <i>incarnation</i> [man].</p> + +<p><b>meolc</b>, f., <i>milk</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Mēore</b>, <i>Möre</i> (in Sweden).</p> + +<p><b>męre</b>, m., <i>lake</i>, <i>mere</i>, <i>sea</i> [mermaid].</p> + +<p><b>Meretūn</b>, m., <i>Merton</i> (in Surrey).</p> + +<p><b>mētan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>meet</i>, +<i>find</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Metod</b> (<b>Meotod</b>, <b>Metud</b>), m., <i>Creator</i>, +<i>God</i>.</p> + +<p><b>metod-sceaft</b>, f., <i>appointed doom</i>, <i>eternity</i>.</p> + +<p><b>micel</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (3)</a>), +<i>great</i>, <i>mighty</i>, <i>strong</i>, <i>large</i> [mickle];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>māra</b>, <i>more</i>, <i>stronger</i>, <i>larger</i>.</p> + +<p><b>micle</b> (<b>micele</b>), <i>greatly</i>, <i>much</i>.</p> + +<p><b>miclum</b>, (<a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b>, (4)</a>), +<i>greatly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mid</b>, <i>with</i>, <i>amid</i>, <i>among</i> (with dat. and +acc.).</p> + +<p><b>middangeard</b>, m., <i>earth</i>, <i>world</i> [middle-yard].</p> + +<p><b>middeweard</b>, <i>midward</i>, <i>toward the middle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Mierce</b>, m. pl., <i>Mercians</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mihte</b>, see <i>magan</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mīl</b>, f., <i>mile</i> [Lat. mille].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">175b</span> +<p><b>mildheortnes</b>, f., <i>mild-heartedness</i>, <i>mercy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>milts</b>, f., <i>mildness</i>, <i>mercy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mīn</b> (<a href = "#sec_76">§ <b>76</b></a>), <i>my</i>, +<i>mine</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mislīc</b>, <i>various</i>.</p> + +<p><b>missenlīc</b>, <i>various</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōd</b>, n., <i>mood</i>, <i>mind</i>, <i>courage</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōdcearig</b>, <i>sorrowful of mind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōdega</b>, <b>mōdga</b>, see <b>mōdig</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mōdgeðanc</b>, m., <i>purpose of mind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōdig</b>, <i>moody</i>, <i>brave</i>, <i>proud</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōdor</b>, f., <i>mother</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōdsefa</b>, m., <i>mind</i>, <i>heart</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǫn(n)</b> (<b>man</b>, <b>mann</b>) (<a href = "#sec_68">§ +<b>68</b></a>; <a href = "#sec_70">§ <b>70</b>, Note</a>), m., +<i>man</i>, <i>one</i>, <i>person</i>, <i>they</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōna</b>, m., <i>moon</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōnað</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (1), Note</a>), m., +<i>month</i> [<b>mōna</b>]; dat. sing., <b>mōnðe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mǫn(n)cynn</b>, n., <i>mankind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǫndryhten</b>, m., <i>liege lord</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǫnian</b> (<b>manian</b>) (<a href = "#sec_130">§ +<b>130</b></a>), <i>admonish</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǫnig</b> (<b>manig</b>, <b>mǫneg</b>, <b>mænig</b>), +<i>many</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǫnigfeald</b> (<b>manig-</b>), <i>manifold</i>, +<i>various</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōnðe</b>, see <b>mōnað</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mōr</b>, m., <i>moor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>morgen</b>, m., <i>morning</i>; dat. sing., <b>morgen(n)e</b>.</p> + +<p><b>morðor-bealu</b> (<b>-bealo</b>), n., <i>murder</i> +[murder-bale];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +see <b>ðurfan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mōste</b>, see <b>mōtan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mōtan</b> (<a href = "#sec_137">§ <b>137</b></a>), <i>may</i>, +<i>be permitted</i>, <i>must</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mund-gripe</b>, m., <i>hand-grip</i>.</p> + +<p><b>munuc</b>, m., <i>monk</i> [Lat. monachus].</p> + +<p><b>munuchād</b>, m., <i>monkhood</i>, <i>monastic rank</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">176</span> +<a name = "page176" id = "page176"> </a> +<p><b>mūð</b>, m., <i>mouth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>myntan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>be +minded</i>, <i>intend</i>; pret. indic. 3d sing., <b>mynte</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mynster</b>, n., <i>monastery</i> [Lat. monasterium]; dat. sing., +<b>mynstre</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mȳre</b>, f., <i>mare</i> [<b>mearh</b>].</p> + +<p><b>myrð</b>, f., <i>joy</i>, <i>mirth</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>mōdes myrðe</b> <a href = "#lineVI_811">142, 17</a> = <i>with joy of +heart</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_N" id = "gloss1_N" href = "#gloss_I">N.</a></h5> + +<p><b>nā</b> (<b>nō</b>), <i>not</i> [<b>ne ā</b> = <i>n-ever</i>];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>nā ne</b>, <i>not</i>, <i>not at all</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nabban</b> (p. 32, Note), <i>not to have</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nǣdre</b>, f., <i>serpent</i>, <i>adder</i>.</p> + +<p><b>næfde</b>, see <b>nabban</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nǣfre</b>, <i>never</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nǣnig</b> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b></a>), <i>no one</i>, +<i>no</i>, <i>none</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nǣre</b>, <b>nǣren</b>, <b>nǣron</b>, see <a href = "#sec_40">§ +<b>40</b>, Note 2</a>.</p> + +<p><b>næs</b> = <b>ne wæs</b>, see <a href = "#sec_40">§ <b>40</b>, Note +2</a>.</p> + +<p><b>næss</b>, m., <i>ness</i>, <i>headland</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nāht</b>, see <b>nōht</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nālæs</b> (<b>nāles</b>), <i>not at all</i> [<b>nā +ealles</b>].</p> + +<p><b>nam</b>, see <b>niman</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nama</b>, see <b>nǫma</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nāmon</b>, see <b>niman</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nān</b>, <i>not one</i>, <i>no</i>, <i>none</i> [<b>ne +ān</b>].</p> + +<p><b>nānwuht</b>, n., <i>nothing</i> [no whit].</p> + +<p><b>ne</b>, <i>not</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nē</b>, <i>nor</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>nē ... nē</b>, <i>neither ... nor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nēah</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (4)</a>), +<i>near</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nēah</b>, adv., <i>nigh</i>, <i>near</i>, <i>nearly</i>, +<i>almost</i>; comparative, <b>nēar</b>, <i>nearer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>neaht</b>, see <b>niht</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nēalēcan</b> (<b>-lǣcan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ +<b>126</b></a>), <i>draw near to</i>, <i>approach</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">176b</span> +<p><b>nēar</b>, see <b>nēah</b>, adv.</p> + +<p><b>nēat</b>, n., <i>neat</i>, <i>cattle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nęmnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>name</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nemðe</b>, (<b>nymðe</b>), <i>except</i>, <i>unless</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nęrian</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), <i>save</i>, +<i>preserve</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nēten</b>, see <b>nīeten</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nīedbeðearf</b>, <i>needful</i>, <i>necessary</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nīehst</b>, see <b>nēah</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, +(4)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>nīeten</b> (<b>nēten</b>), n., <i>neat</i>, <i>beast</i>, +<i>cattle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nigontīene</b>, <i>nineteen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>niht</b> (<b>neaht</b>) (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (1), +Note</a>), <i>night</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nihthelm</b>, m., <i>night-helm</i>, <i>shade of night</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nihtscūa</b>, m., <i>shadow of night</i>.</p> + +<p><b>niht-weorc</b>, n., <i>night-work</i>.</p> + +<p><b>niman</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), <i>take</i>, +<i>gain</i> [nimble, numb].</p> + +<p><b>nīpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>grow +dark</i>, <i>darken</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nis</b>, see <a href = "#sec_40">§ <b>40</b>, Note 2</a>.</p> + +<p><b>nīð</b>, m., <i>malice</i>, <i>violence</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nīwe</b>, <i>new</i>, <i>novel</i>, <i>startling</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nō</b>, see <b>nā</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nōht</b> (<b>nāht</b>, <b>nā-wiht</b>), n., <i>not a whit</i>, +<i>naught</i>, <i>nothing</i>; <i>not</i>, <i>not at all</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nōhwæðer</b> (<b>nāhwæðer</b>), <i>neither</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>nōhwæðer nē ... ne ... nē ... ne</b> <a href = "#line118_8">118, +8</a> = <i>neither ... nor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nolde</b>, <b>noldon</b> = <b>ne wolde</b>, <b>ne woldon</b>, see +<b>willan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nǫma</b> (<b>nama</b>), m., <i>name</i>.</p> + +<p><b>norð</b> (<a href = "#sec_97">§ <b>97</b>, (1)</a>), <i>north</i>, +<i>in the north</i>, <i>northwards</i>.</p> + +<p><b>norðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b></a>, (5)<ins class = +"correction" title = "outer ) missing">),</ins> <i>from the +north</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>be norðan</b>, see <a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (4)</a>.</p> + +<p><b>Norð-Dęne</b>, m. pl., <i>North-Danes</i>.</p> + +<p><b>norðeweard</b>, <i>northward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Norðhymbre</b>, m. pl., <i>Northumbrians</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Norðmanna</b>, see <b>Norðmǫn</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">177</span> +<a name = "page177" id = "page177"> </a> +<p><b>Norðmęn</b>, see <b>Norðmǫn</b>.</p> + +<p><b>norðmest</b>, see <b>norð</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Norðmǫn</b> (<b>-man</b>) (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, +(1)</a>), <i>Norwegian</i>.</p> + +<p><b>norðor</b>, see <b>norð</b>.</p> + +<p><b>norðryhte</b>, <i>northward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>norðweard</b>, <i>northward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Norðweg</b>, <i>Norway</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nose</b>, f., <i>cape</i>, <i>naze</i> [ness, nose].</p> + +<p><b>notu</b>, f., <i>office</i>, <i>employment</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nū</b>, <i>now</i>; <i>now that</i>, <i>seeing that</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>nū ðā</b> <a href = "#lineVI_658">138, 13</a> = <i>now then</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nȳhst</b> (<b>nīehst</b>), see <b>nēah</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nymðe</b>, see <b>nemðe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nysse</b>, see <b>nytan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nyste</b>, see <b>nytan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nyt(t)</b>, <i>useful</i>, <i>profitable</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nytan</b> (<b>nitan</b> < <b>ne witan</b>, <a href = +"#sec_136">§ <b>136</b></a>), <i>not to know</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +3d sing. pret., <b>nysse</b>, <b>nyste</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_O" id = "gloss1_O" href = "#gloss_I">O.</a></h5> + +<p><b>of</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), <i>of</i>, +<i>from</i>, <i>concerning</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ofer</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (2)</a>), <i>over</i>, +<i>across</i>, <i>after</i>, <i>in spite of</i> (see <a href = +"#lineVI_2725">144, 14</a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ofer eorðan</b> <a href = "#lineVI_803">142, 9</a> = <i>on +earth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ofer</b>, adv., <i>over</i>, <i>across</i>.</p> + +<p><b>oferfēran</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>go +over</i>, <i>traverse</i>.</p> + +<p><b>oferfrēosan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), <i>freeze +over</i>.</p> + +<p><b>oferfroren</b>, see <b>oferfrēosan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ofgiefan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), <i>give +up</i>, <i>relinquish</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ofost</b>, f., <i>haste</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ofslægen</b>, see <b>ofslēan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ofslēan</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>), <i>slay +off</i>, <i>slay</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ofslōge</b>, see <b>ofslēan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>oft</b>, <i>oft</i>, <i>often</i>; superlative, <b>oftost</b>.</p> + +<p><b>on</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (3)</a>), <i>in</i>, +<i>into</i>, <i>on</i>, <i>against</i>, <i>to</i>, <i>among</i>, +<i>during</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on fīf oððe +<span class = "pagenum">177b</span> +syx</b> <a href = "#line109_6">109, 6</a> = <i>into five or six +parts</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on weg</b> <a href = "#lineVI_764">140, 10</a> = <i>away</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on innan</b> <a href = "#lineVI_2716">144, 5</a> = <i>within</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on unriht</b> <a href = "#lineVI_2740">145, 15</a> = +<i>falsely</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onbærnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>kindle</i>, <i>inspire</i>.</p> + +<p><b>oncȳðð</b>, f., <i>distress</i>, <i>suffering</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǫnd</b> (<b>and</b>), <i>and</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǫndsaca</b>, m., <i>adversary</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǫndswarian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>answer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǫndweard</b>, adj., <i>present</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onfēng</b>, see <b>onfōn</b>.</p> + +<p><b>onfeohtan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>fight</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onfindan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>find +out</i>, <i>discover</i>; pret. indic. 3d sing., <b>onfunde</b>.</p> + +<p><b>onfōn</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>), <i>receive</i>, +<i>seize violently</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onfunde</b>, see <b>onfindan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ongēan</b>, prep., <i>against</i>, <i>towards</i> (with dat. and +acc.).</p> + +<p><b>ongēan</b>, adv., <i>just across</i>, <i>opposite</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Ǫngelcynn</b> (<b>Angel-</b>), n., <i>Angle kin</i>, <i>English +people</i>, <i>England</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Ǫngelðēod</b> (<b>Angel-</b>), f., <i>the English people or +nation</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ongemang</b> (<b>-mǫng</b>), <i>among</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>ongietan</b> (<b>-gitan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_115">§ +<b>115</b></a>), <i>perceive</i>, <i>see</i>, <i>understand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onginnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>begin</i>, <i>attempt</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onlūtan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), <i>bow</i>, +<i>incline</i> (intrans.) [lout = a stooper].</p> + +<p><b>onrīdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>ride +against</i>, <i>make a raid on</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onsęndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>send</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onslǣpan</b> (<b>onslēpan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ +<b>126</b></a>), <i>fall asleep</i>, <i>sleep</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onspǫnnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), +<i>loosen</i> [unspan]; pret. 3d sing. indic., <b>onspēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>onspringan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>spring +apart</i>, <i>unspring</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">178</span> +<a name = "page178" id = "page178"> </a> +<p><b>onstāl</b>, m., <i>institution</i>, <i>supply</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onstęllan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>establish</i>; pret. 3d sing. indic., <b>onstealde</b>.</p> + +<p><b>onwæcnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>awake</i> +(intrans.).</p> + +<p><b>onweald</b> (<b>-wald</b>), m., <i>power</i>, <i>authority</i> +[wield].</p> + +<p><b>onwęndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>change</i>, <i>overturn</i> [to wind].</p> + +<p><b>ōr</b>, n., <i>beginning</i>.</p> + +<p><b>oð</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (2)</a>), <i>until</i>, +<i>as far as</i> (of time and place);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>oð ðæt</b>, <b>oð ðe</b>, <i>until</i>.</p> + +<p><b>oðberan</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), <i>bear +away</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ōðer</b>, <i>other</i>, <i>second</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ōðer ... ōðer</b>, <i>the one ... the other</i>.</p> + +<p><b>oðfæstan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>set +to</i> (a task).</p> + +<p><b>oðfeallan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>) <i>fall +off</i>, <i>decline</i>.</p> + +<p><b>oððe</b>, <i>or</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>oððe ... oððe</b>, <i>either ... or</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_P" id = "gloss1_P" href = "#gloss_I">P.</a></h5> + +<p><b>plega</b>, m., <i>play</i>, <i>festivity</i>.</p> + +<p><b>port</b>, m., <i>port</i> [Lat. portus].</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_R" id = "gloss1_R" href = "#gloss_I">R.</a></h5> + +<p><b>rād</b>, f., <i>raid</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rǣcan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>reach</i>; +pret. 3d sing., <b>rǣhte</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ræst</b>, see <b>ręst</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Rēadingas</b>, m. pl., <i>Reading</i> (in Berkshire).</p> + +<p><b>ręccan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>narrate</i>, <i>tell</i>; pret. pl. indic., <b>ręhton</b>, +<b>reahton</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ręccelēas</b>, <i>reckless</i>, <i>careless</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ręced</b>, n., <i>house</i>, <i>hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>regnian</b> (<b>rēnian</b>) (<a href = "#sec_130">§ +<b>130</b></a>), <i>adorn</i>, <i>prepare</i>; past part., +<b>geregnad</b>.</p> + +<p><b>regollīc</b> (<b>-lec</b>), <i>according to rule</i>, +<i>regular</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rēn-weard</b>, m., <i>mighty warden</i>, <i>guard</i>, +<i>champion</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">178b</span> +<p><b>ręst</b> (<b>ræst</b>), f., <i>rest</i>, <i>resting-place</i>, +<i>bed</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rēðe</b>, <i>fierce</i>, <i>furious</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rīce</b>, <i>rich</i>, <i>powerful</i>, <i>aristocratic</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rīce</b>, n., <i>realm</i>, <i>kingdom</i> [bishopric].</p> + +<p><b>rīcsian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>rule</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rīdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>ride</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rīman</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>count</i> +[rime].</p> + +<p><b>rinc</b>, m., <i>man</i>, <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rōd</b>, f., <i>rood</i>, <i>cross</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>rōde tācen</b>, <i>sign of the cross</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Rōmware</b>, m. pl., <i>Romans</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rǫnd</b> (<b>rand</b>), m., <i>shield</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rūn</b>, f., <i>rune</i>, <i>secret meditation</i> [to round = to +whisper].</p> + +<p><b>rycene</b> (<b>ricene</b>), <i>quickly</i>, <i>rashly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ryhtnorðanwind</b>, m., <i>straight north-wind</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_S" id = "gloss1_S" href = "#gloss_I">S.</a></h5> + +<p><b>sǣ</b>, f., <i>sea</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sǣ-bāt</b>, m., <i>sea-boat</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sǣd</b>, n., <i>seed</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sǣde</b>, see <b>sęcgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sǣl</b>, m<ins class = "correction" title = ", missing">.,</ins> +f., <i>time</i>, <i>happiness</i> [sil-ly];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on sǣlum</b> <a href = "#lineVI_644">137, 22</a> = <i>joyous</i>, +<i>merry</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sǣlan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>bind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sǣ-līðend</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (3)</a>), m., +<i>seafarer</i> (nom. and acc. pl. same as nom. and acc. sing.).</p> + +<p><b>sam ... sam</b>, <i>whether ... or</i>.</p> + +<p><b>same</b>, <i>similarly</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>swā same</b>, <i>just the same</i>, <i>in like manner</i>.</p> + +<p><b>samod</b>, see <b>sǫmod</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sanct</b>, m., f., <i>saint</i> [Lat. sanctus]; gen. sing., +<b>sanctæ</b>, f., <b>sancti</b>, m.</p> + +<p><b>sang</b>, see <b>sǫng</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sār</b>, f., n., <i>sore</i>, <i>pain</i>, <i>wound</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sār</b>, adj., <i>sore</i>, <i>grievous</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sāre</b>, <i>sorely</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">179</span> +<a name = "page179" id = "page179"> </a> +<p><b>sāwan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>,) <i>sow</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sāwol</b>, f., <i>soul</i>; oblique cases, sing., <b>sāwle</b> (<a +href = "#sec_39">§ <b>39</b>, Note</a>).</p> + +<p><b>scacan</b> (<b>sceacan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_116">§ +<b>116</b></a>), <i>shake</i>, <i>go</i>, <i>depart</i>; past part., +<b>scacen</b>, <b>sceacen</b>.</p> + +<p><b>scadu-helm</b>, m., <i>cover of night</i>, <i>shadow-covering</i> +[shadow-helm];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>scadu-helma gesceapu</b>, see <a href = "#lineVI_647">Note on 138, +2-6</a>.</p> + +<p><b>sceal</b>, see <b>sculan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>scēap</b>, n., <i>sheep</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scēat</b>, m., <i>corner</i>, <i>region</i>, <i>quarter</i> +[sheet];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>eorðan scēatta</b> <a href = "#lineVI_753">139, 14</a> = <i>in the +regions of earth</i> (gen. used as locative).</p> + +<p><b>scēawi(g)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>view</i>, <i>see</i> [shew].</p> + +<p><b>scēawung</b>, f., <i>seeing</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sceolde</b>, see <b>sculan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>scēop</b> (<b>scōp</b>), see <b>scieppan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>scēowyrhta</b>, m., <i>shoe-maker</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scęððan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), +<i>injure</i>, <i>scathe</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>scieppan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), +<i>create</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Scieppend</b>, m., <i>Creator</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scīnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>shine</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scip</b> (<b>scyp</b>), n., <i>ship</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scipen</b>, n., <i>stall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sciprāp</b>, m., <i>ship-rope</i>, <i>cable</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scīr</b>, f., <i>shire</i>, <i>district</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Sciringeshēal</b>, m., <i>Sciringesheal</i> (in Norway).</p> + +<p><b>scolde</b>, see <b>sculan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>scǫmu</b>, f., <i>shame</i>, <i>dishonor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Scōnēg</b>, f., <i>Skaane</i> (southern district of the +Scandinavian peninsula).</p> + +<p><b>scopgereord</b>, n., <i>poetic language</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scrīðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>stride</i>, <i>stalk</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sculan</b> (<a href = "#sec_136">§ <b>136</b></a>; <a href = +"#sec_137">§ <b>137</b>, Note 2</a>), <i>shall</i>, <i>have to</i>, +<i>ought</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">179b</span> +<p><b>Scyldingas</b>, m. pl., <i>Scyldings</i>, <i>Danes</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scyp</b>, see <b>scip</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Scyppend</b>, see <b>Scieppend</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sē</b>, <b>sēo</b>, <b>ðæt</b> (<a href = "#sec_28">§ +<b>28</b></a>; <a href = "#sec_28">§ <b>28</b>, Note 3</a>), +<i>the</i>; <i>that</i>; <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, <i>it</i>; <i>who</i>, +<i>which</i>, <i>that</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðæs</b>, <i>from then</i>, <i>afterwards</i>, <i>therefore</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðæs ðe</b> (<a href = "#line110_2">p. 110, l. 2</a>), <i>with +what</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðȳ ... ðæt</b> (<a href = "#line110_7">p. 110, ll. 7-8</a>), <i>for +this reason ... because</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō ðǣm ... swā</b>, <i>to such an extent ... as</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðy</b> (<b>ðē</b>), <i>the</i> (adverbial, with comparatives);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðȳ ... ðȳ</b>, <i>the ... the</i>.</p> + +<p><b>seah</b>, see <b>sēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sealde</b>, see <b>sęllan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>searo-gimm</b>, m., <i>artistic gem</i>, <i>jewel</i>.</p> + +<p><b>searo-nīð</b>, m., <i>cunning hatred</i>, <i>plot</i>.</p> + +<p><b>searo-ðǫnc</b>, m., <i>cunning thought</i>, <i>device</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Seaxe</b>, m. pl., <i>Saxons</i>, <i>Saxony</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēc(e)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), <i>to +seek</i>, <i>visit</i>, <i>meet</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sęcg</b>, m., <i>man</i>, <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sęcgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_132">§ <b>132</b></a>), <i>say</i>, +<i>tell</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sefa</b>, m., <i>mind</i>, <i>spirit</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēfte</b>, <i>more easily</i> (comparative of <b>sōfte</b><ins +class = "correction" title = ") missing">).</ins></p> + +<p><b>segel</b>, m., n., <i>sail</i>; dat. sing. = <b>segle</b>.</p> + +<p><b>seglian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>sail</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sęle</b>, m., <i>hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sęledrēam</b>, m., <i>hall joy</i>, <i>festivity</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sęle-ful</b>, n., <i>hall cup</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sęlesęcg</b>, m., <i>hall warrior</i>, <i>retainer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēlest</b>, <i>best</i> (no positive).</p> + +<p><b>self</b> (<b>sylf</b>), <i>self</i>, <i>himself</i> (declined as +strong or weak adjective).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">180</span> +<a name = "page180" id = "page180"> </a> +<p><b>sęllan</b> (<b>syllan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_128">§ +<b>128</b></a>), <i>give</i> [sell, han(d)sel].</p> + +<p><b>sęmninga</b>, <i>forthwith</i>, <i>straightway</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sęndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>send</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo</b>, see <b>sē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sēoc</b>, <i>sick</i>.</p> + +<p><b>seofon</b> (<b>syfan</b>), <i>seven</i>.</p> + +<p><b>seolh</b>, m., <i>seal</i>; gen. sing. = <b>sēoles</b> (<a href = +"#sec_27">§ <b>27</b>, (3)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>sēon</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>), <i>see</i>, +<i>look</i>.</p> + +<p><b>seonu</b>, f., <i>sinew</i>; nom. pl., <b>seonowe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sess</b>, m., <i>seat</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sibb</b>, f., <i>friendship</i>, <i>peace</i> [gos<i>sip</i>].</p> + +<p><b>sidu</b> (<b>siodu</b>), m., <i>custom</i>, <i>morality</i>, +<i>good conduct</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sīe</b>, see <b>bēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>siex</b>, <i>six</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>syxa</b> (<b>siexa</b>) <b>sum</b>, see <b>sum</b>.</p> + +<p><b>siextig</b>, <i>sixty</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sige</b>, m., <i>victory</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sige-folc</b>, n., <i>victorious people</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sige-lēas</b>, <i>victory-less</i>, <i>of defeat</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sige-rōf</b>, <b>victory-famed</b>, <i>victorious</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sige-wǣpen</b>, n., <i>victory-weapon</i>.</p> + +<p><b>siglan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>sail</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Sillende</b>, <i>Zealand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sinc</b>, n., <i>treasure</i>, <i>prize</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sinc-fǣt</b>, n., see <a href = "#lineVI_623">137, 1</a> +[treasure-vat].</p> + +<p><b>sinc-ðęgu</b>, f., <i>receiving of treasure</i> +[<b>ðicgan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>sind</b>, <b>sint</b>, <b>sindon</b>, see <b>bēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>singan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>sing</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sittan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>sit</i>, <i>take position</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sīð</b>, m., <i>journey</i>, <i>time</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>forman sīðe</b> <a href = "#lineVI_741">139, 2</a> = <i>the first +time</i> (instr. sing.).</p> + +<p><b>sīðian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>journey</i>.</p> + +<p><b>siððan</b>, <i>after that</i>, <i>afterwards</i>, +<i>after</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">180b</span> +<p><b>slǣp</b>, m., <i>sleep</i>.</p> + +<p><b>slǣpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), +<i>sleep</i>.</p> + +<p><b>slēan</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>), <i>slay</i> +[slow-worm].</p> + +<p><b>slītan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>slit</i>, +<i>tear to pieces</i>.</p> + +<p><b>slīðen</b>, <i>savage</i>, <i>perilous</i>.</p> + +<p><b>smæl</b>, <i>narrow</i>.</p> + +<p><b>smalost</b>, see <b>smæl</b>.</p> + +<p><b>snāw</b>, m., <i>snow</i>.</p> + +<p><b>snot(t)or</b>, <i>wise</i>, <i>prudent</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sōhte</b>, see <b>sēcan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sǫmod</b> (<b>samod</b>), <i>together</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sōna</b>, <i>soon</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sǫng</b>, m., n., <i>song</i>, <i>poem</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sǫngcræft</b>, m., <i>art of song and poetry</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sorg</b> (<b>sorh</b>), f., <i>sorrow</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sōð</b>, <i>true</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sōð</b>, n., <i>truth</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō sōðe</b>, <i>for a truth</i>, <i>truly</i>, <i>verily</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sōð-fæst</b>, <i>truthful</i>, <i>just</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sōðlīce</b>, <i>truly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>spēd</b>, f., <i>possessions</i>, <i>success</i>, <i>riches</i> +[speed].</p> + +<p><b>spēdig</b>, <i>rich</i>, <i>prosperous</i>.</p> + +<p><b>spell</b>, n., <i>story</i>, <i>tale</i> [gospel].</p> + +<p><b>spēow</b>, see <b>spōwan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>spere</b>, n., <i>spear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>spor</b>, n., <i>track</i>, <i>footprint</i>.</p> + +<p><b>spōwan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>succeed</i> +(impersonal with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>sprǣc</b>, f., <i>speech</i>, <i>language</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sprecan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), +<i>speak</i>.</p> + +<p><b>spyrian</b> (<b>spyrigean</b>) (<a href = "#sec_130">§ +<b>130</b></a>), <i>follow</i> (intrans.) [<b>spor</b>].</p> + +<p><b>stæf</b>, <i>staff</i>, <i>rod</i>; pl. = <i>literature</i>, +<i>learning</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stælhrān</b>, m., <i>decoy-reindeer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stælwierðe</b>, <i>serviceable</i> (see p. 56, Note 2).</p> + +<p><b>stǣr</b>, n., <i>story</i>, <i>narrative</i> [Lat. historia].</p> + +<p><b>stæð</b>, n., <i>shore</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">181</span> +<a name = "page181" id = "page181"> </a> +<p><b>stān</b>, m., <i>stone</i>, <i>rock</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stān-boga</b>, m., <i>stone-arch</i> [stone-bow].</p> + +<p><b>standan</b>, see <b>stǫndan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>stānhlið</b> (<b>-hleoð</b>), n., <i>stone-cliff</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stapol</b>, m., <i>column</i> [staple].</p> + +<p><b>starian</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), <i>stare</i>, +<i>gaze</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stęde</b>, m., <i>place</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stelan</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), +<i>steal</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stęnt</b>, see <b>stǫndan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>stēorbord</b>, n., <i>starboard</i>, <i>right side of a +ship</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stęppan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), <i>step</i>, +<i>advance</i>; pret. indic. 3d sing., <b>stōp</b>.</p> + +<p><b>stilnes</b>, f., <i>stillness</i>, <i>quiet</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stǫndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), +<i>stand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stōp</b>, see <b>stęppan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>storm</b>, m., <i>storm</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stōw</b>, f., <i>place</i> [stow, and in names of places].</p> + +<p><b>strang</b>, see <b>strǫng</b>.</p> + +<p><b>stręngest</b>, see <b>strǫng</b>.</p> + +<p><b>strǫng</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (2)</a>), +<i>strong</i>.</p> + +<p><b>styccemǣlum</b>, <i>here and there</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sum</b> (<a href = "#sec_91">§ <b>91</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>some</i>, <i>certain</i>, <i>a certain one</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>hē syxa sum</b> <a href = "#line104_25">104, 25</a> = <i>he with five +others</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sumera</b>, see <b>sumor</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sumor</b>, m., <i>summer</i>; dat. sing. = <b>sumera</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sumorlida</b>, m., <i>summer-army</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sundor</b>, <i>apart</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sunne</b>, f., <i>sun</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sunu</b>, m., <i>son</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sūð</b>, <i>south</i>, <i>southwards</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sūðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b>, (5)</a>), <i>from the +south</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>be sūðan</b>, <i>south of</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(4)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>sūðeweard</b>, <i>southward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sūðryhte</b>, <i>southward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swā</b> (<b>swǣ</b>), <i>so</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>how</i>, +<i>as if</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>swā swā</b>, <i>just as</i>, <i>as far as</i>;</p> +<span class = "pagenum">181b</span> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>swā ... swā</b>, <i>the ... the</i>, <i>as ... as</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>swā hwæt swā</b>, <i>whatsoever</i> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b>, +Note</a>).</p> + +<p><b>swǣs</b>, <i>beloved</i>, <i>own</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swæð</b>, n., <i>track</i>, <i>footprint</i> [swath].</p> + +<p><b>swaðul</b>, m.? n.?, <i>smoke</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swealh</b>, see <b>swelgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>swefan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), <i>sleep</i>, +<i>sleep the sleep of death</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swefn</b>, n., <i>sleep</i>, <i>dream</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swēg</b>, m., <i>sound</i>, <i>noise</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swegle</b>, <i>bright</i>, <i>clear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swēlan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>burn</i> +[sweal].</p> + +<p><b>swelgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>swallow</i>; pret. indic. 3d sing., <b>swealh</b>; subj., +<b>swulge</b>.</p> + +<p><b>swellan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>swell</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Swēoland</b>, n., <i>Sweden</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Swēom</b>, m., dat. pl., <i>the Swedes</i><ins class = +"correction" title = ". missing">. </ins></p> + +<p><b>sweotol</b>, <i>clear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sweotole</b>, <i>clearly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swęrian</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), +<i>swear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swēte</b>, <i>sweet</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swētnes</b> (<b>-nis</b>), f., <i>sweetness</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swift</b> (<b>swyft</b>), <i>swift</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swilc</b> (<b>swylc</b>) (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b></a>), +<i>such</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swilce</b>, <i>in such manner</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>likewise</i>; +<i>as if</i>, <i>as though</i> (with subj.).</p> + +<p><b>swimman</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>swim</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swīn</b> (<b>swȳn</b>), n., <i>swine</i>, <i>hog</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swīnsung</b>, f., <i>melody</i>, <i>harmony</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swīðe</b> (<b>swȳðe</b>), <i>very</i>, <i>exceedingly</i>, +<i>greatly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swīðost</b>, <i>chiefly</i>, <i>almost</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swōr</b>, see <b>swęrian</b>.</p> + +<p><b>swulge</b>, see <b>swelgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>swuster</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (2)</a>), f., +<i>sister</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swylce</b> (<b>swelce</b>), see <b>swilce</b>.</p> + +<p><b>swȳn</b>, see <b>swīn</b>.</p> + +<p><b>swynsian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>resound</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">182</span> +<a name = "page182" id = "page182"> </a> +<p><b>swȳðe</b>, see <b>swīðe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>swȳð-ferhð</b>, <i>strong-souled</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sylf</b>, see <b>self</b>.</p> + +<p><b>syll</b>, f., <i>sill</i>, <i>floor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>syllan</b>, see <b>sęllan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>symbel</b>, n., <i>feast</i>, <i>banquet</i>.</p> + +<p><b>symle</b>, <i>always</i>.</p> + +<p><b>synd</b>, see <b>bēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>syn-dolh</b>, n., <i>ceaseless wound</i>, <i>incurable +wound</i>.</p> + +<p><b>syndriglīce</b>, <i>specially</i>.</p> + +<p><b>synn</b>, f., <i>sin</i>.</p> + +<p><b>syn-scaða</b>, m., <i>ceaseless scather</i>, <i>perpetual +foe</i>.</p> + +<p><b>syn-snǣd</b>, f., <i>huge bit</i> [ceaseless bit].</p> + +<p><b>syððan</b>, see <b>siððan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>syx</b>, see <b>siex</b>.</p> + +<p><b>syxtig</b>, see <b>siextig</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_T" id = "gloss1_T" href = "#gloss_I">T.</a></h5> + +<p><b>tācen</b>, n., <i>sign</i>, <i>token</i>; dat. sing., <b>tācne</b> +(<a href = "#sec_33">§ <b>33</b>, Note</a>).</p> + +<p><b>tǣcan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>teach</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tam</b>, <i>tame</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tela</b>, <i>properly</i>, <i>well</i> [til].</p> + +<p><b>tęllan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), <i>count</i>, +<i>deem</i> [tell]; pret. 3d sing., <b>tealde</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Tęmes</b>, f., <i>the Thames</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tēon</b>, <i>arrange</i>, <i>create</i>; pret. sing., +<b>tēode</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Terfinna</b>, m., gen. pl., <i>the Terfins</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tēð</b>, see <b>tōð</b>.</p> + +<p><b>tīd</b>, f., <i>tide</i>, <i>time</i>, <i>hour</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tīen</b> (<b>tȳn</b>), <i>ten</i>.</p> + +<p><b>til(l)</b>, <i>good</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tīma</b>, m., <i>time</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tintreglīc</b>, <i>full of torment</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tō</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), <i>to</i>, +<i>for</i>, <i>according to</i>, <i>as</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō hrōfe</b> <a href = "#line114_2">114, 2</a> = <i>for (as) a +roof</i> [cf. Biblical <i>to wife</i>, modern <i>to boot</i>].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">182b</span> +<p><b>tō</b>, adv., <i>too</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōbrecan</b> (p. 81, Note 2), <i>break to pieces</i>, <i>knock +about</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōdǣlan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>divide</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōemnes</b> (<b>tō emnes</b>) (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(4)</a>), <i>along</i>, <i>alongside</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōforan</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), +<i>before</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōgeðēodan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>join</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōhopa</b>, m., <i>hope</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōlicgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>separate</i>, <i>lie between</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +3d sing, indic. = <b>tōlīð</b>.</p> + +<p><b>tōlīð</b>, see <b>tōlicgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>tolūcan</b> (<ins class = "correction" title = "§ missing">§ +</ins><b>109</b>, Note 1), <i>destroy</i> [the prefix <b>tō</b> reverses +the meaning of <b>lūcan</b>, <i>to lock</i>].</p> + +<p><b>torn</b>, m., <i>anger</i>, <i>insult</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōð</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (1)</a>), m., +<i>tooth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōweard</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), +<i>toward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōweard</b>, adj., <i>approaching</i>, <i>future</i>.</p> + +<p><b>trēow</b>, f., <i>pledge</i>, <i>troth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>trēownes</b>, f., <i>trust</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Trūsō</b>, <i>Drausen</i> (a city on the Drausensea).</p> + +<p><b>tūn</b>, m., <i>town</i>, <i>village</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tunge</b>, f., <i>tongue</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tūngerēfa</b>, m., <i>bailiff</i> [town-reeve; so sheriff = +shire-reeve].</p> + +<p><b>tungol</b>, n., <i>star</i>.</p> + +<p><b>twā</b>, see <b>twēgen</b>.</p> + +<p><b>twēgen</b>, (<a href = "#sec_89">§ <b>89</b></a>), <i>two</i>, +<i>twain</i>.</p> + +<p><b>twēntig</b>, <i>twenty</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tȳn</b>, see <b>tīen</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_Th" id = "gloss1_Th" href = "#gloss_I">Ð.</a></h5> + +<p><b>ðā</b>, <i>then</i>, <i>when</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðā ... ðā</b>, <i>when ... then</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðā ðā</b>, <i>then when</i> = <i>when</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðā</b>, see <b>sē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðǣr</b>, <i>there</i>, <i>where</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðǣr ðǣr</b>, <i>there where</i> = <i>where</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðǣr ... +<span class = "pagenum">183</span> +<a name = "page183" id = "page183"> </a> +swā</b> <a href = "#lineVI_798">142, 4</a> = <i>wheresoever</i>; +<a href = "#lineVI_2731">145, 6</a> = <i>if so be that</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæs</b>, <i>afterwards</i>, <i>therefore</i>, <i>thus</i>, +<i>because</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +see <b>sē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt</b> (<b>ðætte</b> = <b>ðæt ðe</b>), <i>that</i>, <i>so +that</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðafian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>consent +to</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðanc</b>, see <b>ðǫnc</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðancian</b> (<b>ðǫncian</b>) (<a href = "#sec_130">§ +<b>130</b></a>), <i>thank</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðanon</b>, see <b>ðǫnan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðās</b>, see <b>ðēs</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðē</b>, see <b>sē</b> (instr. sing.) and <b>ðū</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðe</b> (<a href = "#sec_75">§ <b>75</b></a>), <i>who</i>, +<i>whom</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>that</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðēah</b>, <i>though</i>, <i>although</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðēah ðe</b>, <i>though</i>, <i>although</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðearf</b>, see <b>ðurfan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðearf</b>, f., <i>need</i>, <i>benefit</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðēaw</b>, m., <i>habit</i>, <i>custom</i> [thews].</p> + +<p><b>ðegn</b> (<b>ðegen</b>), m., <i>servant</i>, <i>thane</i>, +<i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðęnc(e)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>think</i>, <i>intend</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðening</b> (<b>-ung</b>), f., <i>service</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +the pl. may mean <i>book of service</i> (<a href = "#line117_17">117, +17</a>).</p> + +<p><b>ðēod</b>, f., <i>people</i>, <i>nation</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðēoden</b>, m., <i>prince</i>, <i>lord</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðēodscipe</b>, m., <i>discipline</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðēon</b> (<b>ðȳwan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>oppress</i> [<b>ðēow</b>].</p> + +<p><b>ðēow</b>, m., <i>servant</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðēowa</b>, m., <i>servant</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðēowotdōm</b> (<b>ðīowot-</b>), m., <i>service</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðēs</b> (<a href = "#sec_73">§ <b>73</b></a>), <i>this</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðider</b>, <i>thither</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðiderweard</b>, <i>thitherward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðīn</b> (<a href = "#sec_76">§ <b>76</b></a>), <i>thine</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðing</b>, n., <i>thing</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣnige ðinga</b>, see <a href = "#linenoteVI_769">140, 15, +Note</a>.</p> + +<p><b>ðingan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>arrange</i>, <i>appoint</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">183b</span> +<p><b>ðis</b>, see <b>ðēs</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðissum</b>, see <b>ðēs</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðōhte</b>, <b>ðōhton</b>, see <b>ðęncean</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðolian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>endure</i> +[thole].</p> + +<p><b>ðǫnan</b>, <i>thence</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðǫnc</b>, m., <i>thanks</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðone</b>, see <b>sē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðonne</b>, <i>than</i>, <i>then</i>, <i>when</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðonne ... ðonne</b>, <i>when ... then</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrāg</b>, f., <i>time</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrēa-nȳd</b>, f., <i>compulsion</i>, <i>oppression</i>, +<i>misery</i> [throe-need].</p> + +<p><b>ðrēora</b>, see <b>ðrīe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðridda</b>, <i>third</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrie</b> (<b>ðrȳ</b>) (<a href = "#sec_89">§ <b>89</b></a>), +<i>three</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrīm</b>, see <b>ðrīe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrīst-hȳdig</b>, <i>bold-minded</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrītig</b>, <i>thirty</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrōwung</b>, f., <i>suffering</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrȳ</b>, see <b>ðrīe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrym(m)</b>, m., <i>renown</i>, <i>glory</i>, <i>strength</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrȳð</b>, f., <i>power</i>, <i>multitude</i> (pl. used in sense of +sing.);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>asca ðrȳðe</b> <a href = "#lineVII_99">152, 23</a> = <i>the might of +spears</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrȳð-ærn</b>, n., <i>mighty house</i>, <i>noble hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrȳð-word</b>, n., <i>mighty word</i>, <i>excellent +discourse</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðū</b> (<a href = "#sec_72">§ <b>72</b></a>), <i>thou</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðūhte</b>, see <b>ðyncan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðurfan</b> (<a href = "#sec_136">§ <b>136</b></a>), <i>need</i>; +pres. indic. 3d sing., <b>ðearf</b>; pret. 3d sing., <b>ðorfte</b>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>for-ðām mē wītan ne ðearf Waldend fīra morðor-bealo māga</b> <a href += "#lineVI_2742">145, 17</a> = <i>therefore the Ruler of men need not +charge me with the murder of kinsmen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðurh</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (2)</a>), +<i>through</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðus</b>, <i>thus</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðūsend</b>, <i>thousand</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">184</span> +<a name = "page184" id = "page184"> </a> +<p><b>ðȳ</b>, see <b>sē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðyder</b>, see <b>ðider</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðyncan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), <i>seem</i>, +<i>appear</i> (impersonal);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>mē ðyncð</b>, <i>methinks</i>, <i>it seems to me</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>him ðūhte</b>, <i>it seemed to him</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_U" id = "gloss1_U" href = "#gloss_I">U.</a></h5> + +<p><b>ūhta</b>, m., <i>dawn</i>; gen. pl., <b>ūhtna</b>.</p> + +<p><b>unbeboht</b>, <i>unsold</i> [<b>bebycgan</b> = <i>to +sell</i>].</p> + +<p><b>uncūð</b>, <i>unknown</i>, <i>uncertain</i> [uncouth].</p> + +<p><b>under</b>, <i>under</i> (with dat. and acc.).</p> + +<p><b>understǫndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), +<i>understand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>underðēodan</b> (<b>-ðīedan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ +<b>126</b></a>), <i>subject to</i>; past part. <b>underðēoded</b> = +<i>subjected to</i>, <i>obedient to</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>unforbærned</b>, <i>unburned</i>.</p> + +<p><b>unfrið</b>, m., <i>hostility</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ungefōge</b>, <i>excessively</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ungemete</b>, <i>immeasurably</i>, <i>very</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ungesewenlīc</b>, <i>invisible</i> [past part. of <b>sēon</b> + +<b>līc</b>].</p> + +<p><b>unlyfigend</b>, <i>dead</i>, <i>dead man</i> [unliving].</p> + +<p><b>unlȳtel</b>, <i>no little</i>, <i>great</i>.</p> + +<p><b>unriht</b>, n., <i>wrong</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on unriht</b>, see <b>on</b>.</p> + +<p><b>unrihtwīsnes</b>, f., <i>unrighteousness</i>.</p> + +<p><b>unspēdig</b>, <i>poor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>unwearnum</b>, <i>unawares</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ūp</b> (<b>ūpp</b>), <i>up</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ūpāstīgnes</b>, f., <i>ascension</i> [<b>stīgan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>ūp-lang</b>, <i>upright</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ūre</b> (<a href = "#sec_76">§ <b>76</b></a>), <i>our</i>.</p> + +<p><b>usses</b> = gen. sing. neut. of <b>ūser</b>, see <b>ic</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">184b</span> +<p><b>ūt</b>, <i>out</i>, <i>outside</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ūtan</b>, <i>from without</i>, <i>outside</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ūtanbordes</b>, <i>abroad</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ūtgǫng</b>, m., <i>exodus</i>.</p> + +<p><b>uton</b>, <i>let us</i> (with infin.) [literally <i>let us go</i> +with infin. of purpose (see <a href = "#linenoteVI_641">137, 19-20, +Note</a>); <b>uton</b> = <b>wuton</b>, corrupted form of 1st pl. subj. +of <b>wītan</b>, <i>to go</i>].</p> + +<p><b>ūt-weard</b>, <i>outward bound</i>, <i>moving outwards</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_W" id = "gloss1_W" href = "#gloss_I">W.</a></h5> + +<p><b>wāc</b>, <i>weak</i>, <i>insignificant</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wacian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>watch</i>, +<i>be on guard</i>; imperative sing., <b>waca</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wadan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), <i>go</i>, +<i>tread</i> [wade].</p> + +<p><b>wǣg</b>, m., <i>wave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Wǣgmundigas</b>, m. <i>Wægmundings</i> (family to which Beowulf +and Wiglaf belonged).</p> + +<p><b>wæl</b>, n., <i>slaughter</i>, <i>the slain</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wæl-blēat</b>, <i>deadly</i> [slaughter-pitiful].</p> + +<p><b>wælgīfre</b>, <i>greedy for slaughter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wæl-rǣs</b>, m., <i>mortal combat</i> [slaughter-race].</p> + +<p><b>wæl-rēow</b>, <i>fierce in strife</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wælsliht</b> (<b>-sleaht</b>), m., <i>slaughter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wælstōw</b>, f., <i>battle-field</i> [slaughter-place];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>wælstōwe gewald</b>, <i>possession of the battle-field</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wǣpen</b>, n., <i>weapon</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wǣre</b>, see <b>bēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wæs</b>, see <b>bēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wæter</b>, n., <i>water</i>.</p> + +<p><b>waldend</b>, see <i>wealdend</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wan</b> (<b>wǫn</b>), <i>wan</i>, <i>dark</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wanhȳdig</b>, <i>heedless</i>, <i>rash</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wānigean</b> (<b>wānian</b>) (<a href = "#sec_130">§ +<b>130</b></a>), <i>bewail</i>, <i>lament</i> (trans.) [whine].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">185</span> +<a name = "page185" id = "page185"> </a> +<p><b>warian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>attend</i>, +<i>accompany</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wāt</b>, see <b>witan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>waðum</b>, m., <i>wave</i>; gen. pl., <b>waðema</b>.</p> + +<p><b>weal(l)</b>, m., <i>wall</i>, <i>rampart</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wealdend</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (3)</a>), +<i>wielder</i>, <i>ruler</i>, <i>lord</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wealh</b>, m., <i>foreigner</i>, <i>Welshman</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wealhstōd</b>, m., <i>interpreter</i>, <i>translator</i>.</p> + +<p><b>weallan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>well +up</i>, <i>boil</i>, <i>be agitated</i>; pret. 3d. sing. indic., +<b>wēoll</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wealsteal(l)</b>, m., <i>wall-place</i>, <i>foundation</i>.</p> + +<p><b>weard</b>, m., <i>ward</i>, <i>keeper</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wearð</b>, see <b>weorðan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>weaxan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>wax</i>, +<i>grow</i>.</p> + +<p><b>weg</b>, m., <i>way</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>hys weges</b>, see <a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b>, (3)</a>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on weg</b>, see <b>on</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wel(l)</b>, <i>well</i>, <i>readily</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wela</b>, m., <i>weal</i>, <i>prosperity</i>, <i>riches</i>.</p> + +<p><b>welm</b>, see <b>wielm</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wēnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>ween</i>, +<i>think</i>, <i>expect</i>.</p> + +<p><b>węndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>change</i>, +<i>translate</i> [wend, <b>windan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>węnian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>entertain</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>węnian mid wynnum</b> <a href = "#lineVII_29">149, 20</a> = +<i>entertain joyfully</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>węnede tō wiste</b> <a href = "#lineVII_36">149, 27</a> = +<i>feasted</i> (trans.).</p> + +<p><b>Weonodland</b> (<b>Weonoðland</b>), n., <i>Wendland</i>.</p> + +<p><b>weorc</b>, n., <i>work</i>, <i>deed</i>.</p> + +<p><b>weorold</b> (<b>weoruld</b>), see <b>woruld</b>.</p> + +<p><b>weorpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>throw</i>.</p> + +<p><b>weorðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>be</i>, +<i>become</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wer</b>, m., <i>man</i> [werwulf].</p> + +<p><b>wērig</b>, <i>weary</i>, <i>dejected</i>.</p> + +<p><b>werod</b>, n., <i>army</i>, <i>band</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wesan</b>, see <b>bēon</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">185b</span> +<p><b>Wesseaxe</b>, m. pl., <i>West Saxons</i>; gen. pl. = +<b>Wesseaxna</b>.</p> + +<p><b>west</b>, <i>west</i>, <i>westward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>westanwind</b>, m., <i>west wind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wēste</b>, <i>waste</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wēsten</b>, n., <i>waste</i>, <i>desert</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Westsǣ</b>, f., <i>West Sea</i> (west of Norway).</p> + +<p><b>Westseaxe</b>, m. pl., <i>West Saxons</i>, <i>Wessex</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīc</b>, n., <i>dwelling</i> [bailiwick].</p> + +<p><b>wīcian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>stop</i>, +<i>lodge</i>, <i>sojourn</i> [<b>wīc</b>].</p> + +<p><b>wīdre</b>, adv., <i>farther</i>, <i>more widely</i> (comparative +of <b>wīde</b>).</p> + +<p><b>wīdsǣ</b>, f., <i>open sea</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wielm</b> (<b>welm</b>), m., <i>welling</i>, <i>surging flood</i> +[<b>weallan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>wīf</b>, n., <i>wife</i>, <i>woman</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīg</b>, m., n., <i>war</i>, <i>battle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wiga</b>, m., <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wild</b>, <i>wild</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wildor</b>, n., <i>wild beast</i>, <i>reindeer</i>; dat. pl. = +<b>wildrum</b> (<a href = "#sec_33">§ <b>33</b>, Note</a>).</p> + +<p><b>willa</b>, m., <i>will</i>, <i>pleasure</i>; gen. pl., +<b>wilna</b> (<b>138</b>, 16).</p> + +<p><b>willan</b> (<a href = "#sec_134">§ <b>134</b></a>; <a href = +"#sec_137">§ <b>137</b>, Note 3</a>), <i>will</i>, <i>intend</i>, +<i>desire</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wilnung</b>, f., <i>wish</i>, <i>desire</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>for ðǣre wilnunga</b> <a href = "#line119_4">119, 4</a> = +<i>purposely</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Wiltūn</b>, m., <i>Wilton</i> (in Wiltshire).</p> + +<p><b>wīn</b>, n., <i>wine</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīn-ærn</b>, n., <i>wine-hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Wīnburne</b>, f., <i>Wimborne</i> (in Dorsetshire).</p> + +<p><b>wind</b>, m., <i>wind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wine</b>, m., <i>friend</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Winedas</b>, m. pl., <i>the Wends</i>, <i>the Wend +country</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wine-dryhten</b>, m., <i>friendly lord</i>.</p> + +<p><b>winelēas</b>, <i>friendless</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">186</span> +<a name = "page186" id = "page186"> </a> +<p><b>winemǣg</b>, m., <i>friendly kinsman</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīngeard</b>, m., <i>vineyard</i>.</p> + +<p><b>winnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>strive</i>, +<i>fight</i> [win].</p> + +<p><b>wīnsæl</b>, n., <i>wine-hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīn-sęle</b>, m., <i>wine-hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>winter</b>, m., <i>winter</i>; dat. sing. = <b>wintra</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wintercearig</b>, <i>winter-sad</i>, <i>winter-worn</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīs</b>, <i>wise</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīsdōm</b>, m., <i>wisdom</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīse</b>, <i>wisely</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīse</b>, f., <i>manner</i>, <i>matter</i>, <i>affair</i> [in this +wise].</p> + +<p><b>wīs-fæst</b>, <i>wise</i> [wise-fast; cf. shame-faced = +shamefast].</p> + +<p><b>wīs-hycgende</b>, <i>wise-thinking</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Wīsle</b>, f., <i>the Vistula</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Wīslemūða</b>, m., <i>the mouth of the Vistula</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wisse</b>, see <b>witan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wist</b>, f., <i>food</i>, <i>feast</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wita</b>, m., <i>wise man</i>, <i>councillor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>witan</b> (<a href = "#sec_136">§ <b>136</b></a>), <i>know</i>, +<i>show</i>, <i>experience</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wītan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>reproach</i>, <i>blame</i> (with acc. of thing, dat. of person).</p> + +<p><b>wīte</b>, n., <i>punishment</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Wītland</b>, n., <i>Witland</i> (in Prussia).</p> + +<p><b>wið</b> (<ins class = "correction" title = "§ missing">§ +</ins><b>94</b>, (3)), <i>against</i>, <i>toward</i>, <i>with</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>wið ēastan and wið ūpp on emnlange ðǣm bȳnum lande</b>, <i>toward the +east, and upwards along the cultivated land</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>wið earm gesæt</b> <a href = "#lineVI_750">139, 11</a> = <i>supported +himself on his arm</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>genęred wið nīðe</b> (dat.) <a href = "#lineVI_828">143, 11</a> = +<i>had preserved it from</i> (<i>against</i>) <i>violence</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wiðerwinna</b>, m., <i>adversary</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">186b</span> +<p><b>wiðfōn</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>), <i>grapple +with</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>wiðhabban</b> (<a href = "#sec_133">§ <b>133</b></a>), +<i>withstand</i>, <i>resist</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>wiðstǫndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), +<i>withstand</i>, <i>resist</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>wlǫnc</b>, <i>proud</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wōd</b>, see <b>wadan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wolcen</b>, n., <i>cloud</i> [welkin]; dat. pl., +<b>wolcnum</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wolde</b>, see <b>willan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wōma</b>, m., <i>noise</i>, <i>alarm</i>, <i>terror</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wǫn</b>, see <b>wan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wōp</b>, n., <i>weeping</i>.</p> + +<p><b>word</b>, n., <i>word</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wōrian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>totter</i>, +<i>crumble</i>.</p> + +<p><b>worn</b>, m., <i>large number</i>, <i>multitude</i>.</p> + +<p><b>woruld</b>, f., <i>world</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō worulde būtan ǣghwilcum ęnde</b> <a href = "#line102_18">102, +18</a> = <i>world without end</i>.</p> + +<p><b>woruldcund</b>, <i>worldly</i>, <i>secular</i>.</p> + +<p><b>woruldhād</b>, m., <i>secular life</i> [world-hood].</p> + +<p><b>woruldrīce</b>, n., <i>world-kingdom</i>, <i>world</i>.</p> + +<p><b>woruldðing</b>, n., <i>worldly affair</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wræclāst</b>, m., <i>track or path of an exile</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wrāð</b>, <i>wroth</i>, <i>angry</i>; <i>foe</i>, +<i>enemy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wrītan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>write</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wucu</b>, f., <i>week</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wudu</b>, m., <i>wood</i>, <i>forest</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wuldor</b>, n., <i>glory</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Wuldorfæder</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (2)</a>), m., +<i>Father of glory</i>; gen. sing., <b>Wuldorfæder</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Wuldur-cyning</b>, m., <i>King of glory</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wulf</b>, m., <i>wolf</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wund</b>, f., <i>wound</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wund</b>, <i>wounded</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">187</span> +<a name = "page187" id = "page187"> </a> +<p><b>wunden</b>, <i>twisted</i>, <i>woven</i>, <i>convolute</i> (past +part. of <b>windan</b>).</p> + +<p><b>wundor</b>, n., <i>wonder</i>, <i>marvel</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wundrian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>wonder +at</i> (with gen.).</p> + +<p><b>wurdon</b>, see <b>weorðan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wurðan</b>, see <b>weorðan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wylf</b>, f., <i>she wolf</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wyllað</b>, see <b>willan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wyn-lēas</b>, <i>joyless</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wynn</b>, f., <i>joy</i>, <i>delight</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wynsum</b>, <i>winsome</i>, <i>delightful</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wyrc(e)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>work</i>, <i>make</i>, <i>compose</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wyrd</b>, f., <i>weird</i>, <i>fate</i>, <i>destiny</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wyrhta</b>, m., <i>worker</i>, <i>creator</i> [-wright].</p> + +<p><b>wyrm</b>, m., <i>worm</i>, <i>dragon</i>, <i>serpent</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wyrmlīca</b>, m., <i>serpentine ornamentation</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wyrð</b> (<b>weorð</b>), <i>worthy</i>; see <a href = +"#linenote114_7">114, 7-9, Note</a>.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">187b</span> +<h5><a name = "gloss1_Y" id = "gloss1_Y" href = "#gloss_I">Y.</a></h5> + +<p><b>ylca</b>, see <b>ilca</b>.</p> + +<p><b>yldan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>delay</i>, +<i>postpone</i> [<b>eald</b>].</p> + +<p><b>yldu</b>, f., <i>age</i> [eld].</p> + +<p><b>ymbe</b> (<b>ymb</b>) (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (2)</a>), +<i>about</i>, <i>around</i>, <i>concerning</i> [<i>um</i>while];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðæs ymb iii niht</b> <a href = "#line99_2">99, 2</a> = <i>about three +nights afterwards</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ymb-ēode</b>, see <b>ymb-gān</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ymbe-sittend</b>, <i>one who sits (dwells) round about +another</i>, <i>neighbor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ymb-gān</b> (<a href = "#sec_134">§ <b>134</b></a>), <i>go +about</i>, <i>go around</i>, <i>circle</i> (with acc.).</p> + +<p><b>yrfe-weard</b>, m., <i>heir</i>.</p> + +<p><b>yrnan</b>, see <b>iernan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>yrre</b>, <i>ireful</i>, <i>angry</i>.</p> + +<p><b>yteren</b>, <i>of an otter</i> [<i>otor</i>].</p> + +<p><b>ȳðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>lay waste</i> +(as by a deluge) [<b>ȳð</b> = <i>wave</i>].</p> + +</div> + +<span class = "pagenum">188</span> +<a name = "page188" id = "page188"> </a> + + +<span class = "pagenum">189</span> +<a name = "page189" id = "page189"> </a> +<h3><a name = "gloss_II" id = "gloss_II">II. GLOSSARY.</a></h3> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h4>MODERN ENGLISH—OLD ENGLISH.</h4> + +<p class = "mynote center"> +<a href = "#gloss2_A"> A </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_B"> B </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_C"> C </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_D"> D </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_E"> E </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_F"> F </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_G"> G </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_H"> H </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_I"> I </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_K"> K </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_L"> L </a><br> +<a href = "#gloss2_M"> M </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_N"> N </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_O"> O </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_P"> P </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_Q"> Q </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_R"> R </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_S"> S </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_T"> T </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_V"> V </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_W"> W </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_Y"> Y </a> +</p> + +<div class = "glossary"> + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_A" id = "gloss2_A" href = "#gloss_II">A.</a></h5> + +<p><b>a</b>, <i>ān</i> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>abide</b>, <i>bīdan</i> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>ābīdan</i>.</p> + +<p><b>about</b>, <i>be</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), +<i>ymbe</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (2)</a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>to write about</b>, <i>wrītan be</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>to speak about</b> (= <b>of</b>), <i>sprecan ymbe</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>about two days afterwards</b>, <i>ðæs ymbe twēgen dagas</i>.</p> + +<p><b>adder</b>, <i>nǣdre</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>afterwards</b>, <i>ðæs</i> (<a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b>, +(3)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>against</b>, <i>wið</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(3)</a>), <i>on</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (3)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>Alfred</b>, <i>Ælfred</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>all</b>, <i>eall</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>also</b>, <i>ēac</i>.</p> + +<p><b>although</b>, <i>ðēah</i> (<a href = "#sec_105">§ <b>105</b></a>, +2).</p> + +<p><b>always</b>, <i>ā</i>; <i>ealne weg</i> (<a href = "#sec_98">§ +<b>98</b>, (1)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>am</b>, <i>eom</i> (<a href = "#sec_40">§ <b>40</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>an</b>, see <b>a</b>.</p> + +<p><b>and</b>, <i>ǫnd</i> (<i>and</i>).</p> + +<p><b>angel</b>, <b>ęngel</b> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>animal</b>, <i>dēor</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>are</b>, <i>sind</i>, <i>sint</i>, <i>sindon</i> (<a href = +"#sec_40">§ <b>40</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>army</b>, <i>werod</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>Danish army</b>, <i>hęre</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>English army</b>, <i>fierd</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ +<b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>art</b>, <i>eart</i> (<a href = "#sec_40">§ <b>40</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Ashdown</b>, <i>Æscesdūn</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ +<b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">189b</span> +<p><b>ask</b>, <i>biddan</i> (<a href = "#sec_65">§ <b>65</b>, Note +3</a>; <a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b>, Note 2</a>).</p> + +<p><b>away</b>, <i>aweg</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_B" id = "gloss2_B" href = "#gloss_II">B.</a></h5> + +<p><b>battle-field</b>, <i>wælstōw</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ +<b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>be</b>, <i>bēon</i> (<a href = "#sec_40">§ <b>40</b></a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>not to be</b>, see <a href = "#sec_40">§ <b>40</b>, Note 2</a>.</p> + +<p><b>bear</b>, <i>beran</i> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ +<b>114</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>because</b>, <i>for ðǣm</i> (<i>ðe</i>), <i>for ðon</i> +(<i>ðe</i>).</p> + +<p><b>become</b>, <i>weorðan</i> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>before</b> (temporal conjunction), <i>ǣr</i>, <i>ǣr ðǣm ðe</i> (<a +href = "#sec_105">§ <b>105</b></a>, 2).</p> + +<p><b>begin</b>, <i>onginnan</i> (<a href = "#sec_107">§ <b>107</b>, +(1)</a>; <a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>belong to</b>, <i>belimpan tō</i> + dative (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>best</b>, see <b>good</b>.</p> + +<p><b>better</b>, see <b>good</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bind</b>, <i>bindan</i> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>bird</b>, <i>fugol</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>bite</b>, <i>bītan</i> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ +<b>102</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>body</b>, <i>līc</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>bone</b>, <i>bān</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>book</b>, <i>bōc</i> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>both ... and</b>, <i>ǣgðer ge ... ge</i>.</p> + +<p><b>boundary</b>, <i>mearc</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ +<b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>boy</b>, <i>cnapa</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">190</span> +<a name = "page190" id = "page190"> </a> +<p><b>break</b>, <i>brēotan</i> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>brecan</i>, <i>ābrecan</i> (<a href = +"#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>brother</b>, <i>brōðor</i> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, +(2)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>but</b>, <i>ac</i>.</p> + +<p><b>by</b>, <i>frǫm</i> (<i>fram</i>) (<a href = "#sec_94">§ +<b>94</b>, (1)</a>; <a href = "#sec_141">§ <b>141</b>, +Note 1</a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_C" id = "gloss2_C" href = "#gloss_II">C.</a></h5> + +<p><b>Cædmon</b>, <i>Cædmǫn</i> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, +(1)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>call</b>, <i>hātan</i> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b>, +(1)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>cease</b>, <b>cease from</b>, <i>geswīcan</i> (<a href = +"#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>child</b>, <i>bearn</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>choose</b>, <i>cēosan</i> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ +<b>109</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Christ</b>, <i>Crīst</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>church</b>, <i>cirice</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ +<b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>come</b>, <i>cuman</i> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ +<b>114</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>comfort</b>, <i>frōfor</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ +<b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>companion</b>, <i>gefēra</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ +<b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>consolation</b>, <i>frōfor</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ +<b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>create</b>, <i>gescieppan</i> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ +<b>116</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_D" id = "gloss2_D" href = "#gloss_II">D.</a></h5> + +<p><b>Danes</b>, <i>Dęne</i> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ <b>47</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>day</b>, <i>dæg</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>dead</b>, <i>dēad</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>dear</b> (= <b>beloved</b>), <i>lēof</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ +<b>80</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>deed</b>, <i>dǣd</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>die</b>, <i>cwelan</i> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ +<b>114</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>division</b> (of troops), <i>gefylce</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ +<b>32</b></a>), <i>getruma</i> (<a href = +"#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>do</b>, <i>dōn</i> (<a href = "#sec_134">§ <b>134</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>door</b>, <i>dor</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>), +<i>duru</i> (<a href = "#sec_52">§ <b>52</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>drink</b>, <i>drincan</i> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>during</b>, <i>on</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (3)</a>). +See also <a href = "#sec_98">§ <b>98</b></a>.</p> + +<p><b>dwell in</b>, <i>būan on</i> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b>, +Note 2</a>).</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">190b</span> +<h5><a name = "gloss2_E" id = "gloss2_E" href = "#gloss_II">E.</a></h5> + +<p><b>earl</b>, <i>eorl</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>endure</b>, <i>drēogan</i> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ +<b>109</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>England</b>, <i>Ęnglalǫnd</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ +<b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>enjoy</b>, <i>brūcan</i> (<a href = "#sec_62">§ <b>62</b>, Note +1</a>; <a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b>, Note 1</a>).</p> + +<p><b>every</b>, <i>ǣlc</i> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>eye</b>, <i>ēage</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_F" id = "gloss2_F" href = "#gloss_II">F.</a></h5> + +<p><b>father</b>, <i>fæder</i> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, +(2)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>field</b>, <i>feld</i> (<a href = "#sec_51">§ <b>51</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>fight</b>, <i>feohtan</i>, <i>gefeohtan</i> (<a href = +"#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>find</b>, <i>findan</i> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>finger</b>, <i>finger</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>fire</b>, <i>fȳr</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>fisherman</b>, <i>fiscere</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>foreigner</b>, <i>wealh</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>freedom</b>, <i>frēodōm</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>friend</b>, <i>wine</i> (<a href = "#sec_45">§ <b>45</b></a>), +<i>frēond</i> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (3)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>friendship</b>, <i>frēondscipe</i> (<a href = "#sec_45">§ +<b>45</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>full</b>, <i>full</i> (with genitive) (<a href = "#sec_80">§ +<b>80</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_G" id = "gloss2_G" href = "#gloss_II">G.</a></h5> + +<p><b>gain the victory</b>, <i>sige habban</i>, <i>sige niman</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gift</b>, <i>giefu</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>give</b>, <i>giefan</i> (with dative of indirect object) (<a href += "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>glad</b>, <i>glæd</i> (<a href = "#sec_81">§ <b>81</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>glove</b>, <i>glōf</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>go</b>, <i>gān</i> (<a href = "#sec_134">§ <b>134</b></a>), +<i>faran</i> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>God</b>, <i>God</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>good</b>, <i>gōd</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_H" id = "gloss2_H" href = "#gloss_II">H.</a></h5> + +<p><b>Halgoland</b>, <i>Hālgoland</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ +<b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>hall</b>, <i>heall</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">191</span> +<a name = "page191" id = "page191"> </a> +<p><b>hand</b>, <i>hǫnd</i> (<a href = "#sec_52">§ <b>52</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>hard</b>, <i>heard</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>have</b>, <i>habban</i> (<a href = "#sec_34">§ <b>34</b></a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>not to have</b>, <i>nabban</i> (p. 32, Note).</p> + +<p><b>he</b>, <i>hē</i> (<a href = "#sec_53">§ <b>53</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>head</b>, <i>hēafod</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>hear</b>, <i>hīeran</i> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ +<b>126</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>heaven</b>, <i>heofon</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>help</b>, <i>helpan</i> (with dative) (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>herdsman</b>, <i>hierde</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>here</b>, <i>hēr</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hither</b>, <i>hider</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hold</b>, <i>healdan</i> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b>, +(2)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>holy</b>, <i>hālig</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>horse</b>, <i>mearh</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>), +<i>hors</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>house</b>, <i>hūs</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_I" id = "gloss2_I" href = "#gloss_II">I.</a></h5> + +<p><b>I</b>, <i>ic</i> (<a href = "#sec_72">§ <b>72</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>in</b>, <i>on</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (3)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>indeed</b>, <i>sōðlīce</i>.</p> + +<p><b>injure</b>, <i>scęððan</i> (with dative) (<a href = "#sec_116">§ +<b>116</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>it</b>, <i>hit</i> (<a href = "#sec_53">§ <b>53</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_K" id = "gloss2_K" href = "#gloss_II">K.</a></h5> + +<p><b>king</b>, <i>cyning</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>kingdom</b>, <i>rīce</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>), +<i>cynerīce</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_L" id = "gloss2_L" href = "#gloss_II">L.</a></h5> + +<p><b>land</b>, <i>lǫnd</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>language</b>, <i>sprǣc</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>), +<i>geðēode</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>large</b>, <i>micel</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>leisure</b>, <i>ǣmetta</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ +<b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>let us</b>, <i>uton</i> (with infinitive).</p> + +<p><b>limb</b>, <i>lim</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>little</b>, <i>lytel</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ +<b>82</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>live in</b>, <i>būan on</i> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b>, +Note 2</a>).</p> + +<p><b>lord</b>, <i>hlāford</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">191b</span> +<p><b>love</b>, <i>lufian</i> (<a href = "#sec_131">§ +<b>131</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>love</b> (noun), <i>lufu</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ +<b>38</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_M" id = "gloss2_M" href = "#gloss_II">M.</a></h5> + +<p><b>make</b>, <i>wyrcan</i> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ +<b>128</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>man</b>, <i>sęcg</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>), +<i>mǫn</i> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (1)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>many</b>, <i>mǫnig</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>mare</b>, <i>mȳre</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>mead</b>, <i>medu</i> (<a href = "#sec_51">§ <b>51</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Mercians</b>, <i>Mierce</i> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ +<b>47</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>milk</b>, <i>meolc</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>month</b>, <i>mōnað</i> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (1), +Note 1</a>).</p> + +<p><b>mouth</b>, <i>mūð</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>much</b>, <i>micel</i> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (3)</a>), +<i>micle</i> (<a href = "#sec_97">§ <b>97</b>, (2)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>murderer</b>, <i>bǫna</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ +<b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>my</b>, <i>mīn</i> (<a href = "#sec_76">§ <b>76</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_N" id = "gloss2_N" href = "#gloss_II">N.</a></h5> + +<p><b>natives</b>, <i>lǫndlēode</i> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ +<b>47</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>nephew</b>, <i>nefa</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>new</b>, <i>nīwe</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Northumbrians</b>, <i>Norðymbre</i> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ +<b>47</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>not</b>, <i>ne</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_O" id = "gloss2_O" href = "#gloss_II">O.</a></h5> + +<p><b>of</b>, see <b>about</b>.</p> + +<p><b>on</b>, <i>on</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (3)</a>), +<i>ofer</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (2)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>one</b>, <i>ān</i> (<a href = "#sec_89">§ <b>89</b></a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>the one ... the other</b>, <i>ōðer ... ōðer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>other</b>, <i>ōðer</i> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>our</b>, <i>ūre</i> (<a href = "#sec_76">§ <b>76</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>ox</b>, <i>oxa</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_P" id = "gloss2_P" href = "#gloss_II">P.</a></h5> + +<p><b>place</b>, <i>stōw</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>plundering</b>, <i>hęrgung</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ +<b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">192</span> +<a name = "page192" id = "page192"> </a> +<p><b>poor</b>, <i>earm</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>), +<i>unspēdig</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>prosperous</b>, <i>spēdig</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ +<b>82</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_Q" id = "gloss2_Q" href = "#gloss_II">Q.</a></h5> + +<p><b>queen</b>, <i>cwēn</i> (<a href = "#sec_49">§ <b>49</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_R" id = "gloss2_R" href = "#gloss_II">R.</a></h5> + +<p><b>reindeer</b>, <i>hrān</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>remain</b>, <i>bīdan</i> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>ābīdan</i>.</p> + +<p><b>retain possession of the battle-field</b>, <i>āgan wælstōwe +gewald</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rich</b>, <i>rīce</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>), +<i>spēdig</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>ride</b>, <i>rīdan</i> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ +<b>102</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_S" id = "gloss2_S" href = "#gloss_II">S.</a></h5> + +<p><b>say</b>, <i>cweðan</i> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), +<i>sęcgan</i> (<a href = "#sec_133">§ <b>133</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>scribe</b>, <i>bōcere</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>seal</b>, <i>seolh</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>see</b>, <i>sēon</i> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>), +<i>gesēon</i>.</p> + +<p><b>serpent</b>, <i>nǣdre</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ +<b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>servant</b>, <i>ðēowa</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>), +<i>ðegn</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>shall</b>, <i>sculan</i> (<a href = "#sec_136">§ <b>136</b></a>; +<a href = "#sec_137">§ <b>137</b>, Note 2</a>).</p> + +<p><b>she</b>, <i>hēo</i> (<a href = "#sec_53">§ <b>53</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>shepherd</b>, <i>hierde</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>ship</b>, <i>scip</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>shire</b>, <i>scīr</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>shoemaker</b>, <i>scēowyrhta</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ +<b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>side</b>, <b>on both sides</b>, <i>on gehwæðre hǫnd</i>.</p> + +<p><b>six</b>, <i>siex</i> (<a href = "#sec_90">§ <b>90</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>slaughter</b>, <i>wæl</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>), +<i>wælsliht</i> (<a href = "#sec_45">§ <b>45</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>small</b>, <i>lȳtel</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>son</b>, <i>sunu</i> (<a href = "#sec_51">§ <b>51</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>soul</b>, <i>sāwol</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>speak</b>, <i>sprecan</i> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ +<b>115</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>spear</b>, <i>gār</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>), +<i>spere</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">192b</span> +<p><b>stand</b>, <i>stǫndan</i> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ +<b>116</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>stone</b>, <i>stān</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>stranger</b>, <i>wealh</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>), +<i>cuma</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>suffer</b>, <i>drēogan</i> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ +<b>109</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>sun</b>, <i>sunne</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>swift</b>, <i>swift</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_T" id = "gloss2_T" href = "#gloss_II">T.</a></h5> + +<p><b>take</b>, <i>niman</i> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>than</b>, <i>ðonne</i> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, +(6)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>thane</b>, <i>ðegn</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>that</b> (conjunction), <i>ðæt</i>.</p> + +<p><b>that</b> (demonstrative), <i>sē</i>, <i>sēo</i>, <i>ðæt</i> (<a +href = "#sec_28">§ <b>28</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>that</b> (relative), <i>ðe</i> (<a href = "#sec_75">§ +<b>75</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>the</b>, <i>se</i>, <i>sēo</i>, <i>ðæt</i> (<a href = "#sec_28">§ +<b>28</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>then</b>, <i>ðā</i>, <i>ðonne</i>.</p> + +<p><b>these</b>, see <b>this</b>.</p> + +<p><b>they</b>, <i>hīe</i> (<a href = "#sec_53">§ <b>53</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>thing</b>, <i>ðing</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>thirty</b>, <i>ðrītig</i>.</p> + +<p><b>this</b>, <i>ðēs</i>, <i>ðēos</i>, <i>ðis</i> (<a href = +"#sec_73">§ <b>73</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>those</b>, see <b>that</b> (demonstrative).</p> + +<p><b>thou</b>, <i>ðū</i> (<a href = "#sec_72">§ <b>72</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>though</b>, <i>ðēah</i> (<a href = "#sec_105">§ <b>105</b></a>, +2).</p> + +<p><b>three</b>, <i>ðrīe</i> (<a href = "#sec_89">§ <b>89</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>throne</b>, <b>ascend the throne</b>, <i>tō rīce fōn</i>.</p> + +<p><b>throw</b>, <i>weorpan</i> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>to</b>, <i>tō</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>tongue</b>, <i>tunge</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ +<b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>track</b>, <i>spor</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>true</b>, <i>sōð</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>truly</b>, <i>sōðlīce</i>.</p> + +<p><b>two</b>, <i>twēgen</i> (<a href = "#sec_89">§ <b>89</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_V" id = "gloss2_V" href = "#gloss_II">V.</a></h5> + +<p><b>very</b>, <i>swīðe</i>.</p> + +<p><b>vessel</b>, <i>fæt</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>victory</b>, <i>sige</i> (<a href = "#sec_45">§ +<b>45</b></a>).</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">193</span> +<a name = "page193" id = "page193"> </a> +<h5><a name = "gloss2_W" id = "gloss2_W" href = "#gloss_II">W.</a></h5> + +<p><b>wall</b>, <i>weall</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>warrior</b>, <i>sęcg</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>), +<i>eorl</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>way</b>, <i>weg</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>weapon</b>, <i>wǣpen</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ +<b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>well</b>, <i>wel</i> (<a href = "#sec_97">§ <b>97</b>, +(2)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>Welshman</b>, <i>Wealh</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>went</b>, see <b>go</b>.</p> + +<p><b>westward</b>, <i>west</i>, <i>westrihte</i>.</p> + +<p><b>whale</b>, <i>hwæl</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>what?</b> <i>hwæt</i> (<a href = "#sec_74">§ <b>74</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>when</b>, <i>ðā</i>, <i>ðonne</i>.</p> + +<p><b>where?</b> <i>hwǣr</i>.</p> + +<p><b>which</b>, <i>ðe</i> (<a href = "#sec_75">§ <b>75</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>who?</b> <i>hwā</i> (<a href = "#sec_74">§ <b>74</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>who</b> (relative), <i>ðe</i> (<a href = "#sec_75">§ +<b>75</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>whosoever</b>, <i>swā hwā swā</i> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ +<b>77</b>, Note</a>).</p> + +<p><b>will</b>, <i>willan</i> (<a href = "#sec_134">§ <b>134</b></a>; +<a href = "#sec_137">§ <b>137</b>, Note 3</a>).</p> + +<p><b>Wilton</b>, <i>Wiltūn</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>win</b>, see <b>gain</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">193b</span> +<p><b>wine</b>, <i>wīn</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>wisdom</b>, <i>wīsdōm</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>wise</b>, <i>wīs</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>with</b>, <i>mid</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(1)</a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>to fight with</b> (= <b>against</b>), <i>gefeohtan wið</i> (<a href = +"#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (3)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>withstand</b>, <i>wiðstǫndan</i> (with dative) (<a href = +"#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>wolf</b>, <i>wulf</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>), +<i>wylf</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>woman</b>, <i>wīf</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>word</b>, <i>word</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>worm</b>, <i>wyrm</i> (<a href = "#sec_45">§ <b>45</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_Y" id = "gloss2_Y" href = "#gloss_II">Y.</a></h5> + +<p><b>ye</b>, <i>gē</i> (<a href = "#sec_72">§ <b>72</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>year</b>, <i>gēar</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>yoke</b>, <i>geoc</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>you</b>, <i>ðū</i> (singular), <i>gē</i> (plural) (<a href = +"#sec_72">§ <b>72</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>your</b>, <i>ðīn</i> (singular), <i>ēower</i> (plural) (<a href = +"#sec_76">§ <b>76</b></a>).</p> + +</div> +<!-- end div glosssary --> + +</div> +<!-- end div maintext --> + +<div class = "endnote"> +<h5><a name = "ascii_note" id = "ascii_note" href = "#linenote109_7"> +Page 109,7: linenote</a></h5> +<pre> vi v iv iii ii i 1 2 3 4 5 6 + | | | | | | X + | | | | | | XX X X + | | | | | | XXX XX XX X X + ------------------------------- XXXX XXX XXX XX XX X + _e_ _d_ _c_ _b_ _a_ + Where the horsemen The six parts of the property + assemble. placed within one mile.</pre> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + 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