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diff --git a/31296-h/31296-h.htm b/31296-h/31296-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..93047b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/31296-h/31296-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,9648 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Ethnology of the British Colonies and Dependencies, by R. G. Latham + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + body > p {text-indent: 1em;} + p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;} + h1,h2,h3,.hd1 {font-weight: normal;} + h1,h3,.prf {line-height: 1.5;} + h2,.hd1 {margin-top: 2em;} + hr {width: 65%; margin: 2em auto;} + .tb {width: 45%;} + .adt {width: 10%;} + table,.adt,.poem {margin: 1em auto;} + td {vertical-align: bottom; text-align: left;} + .td1 {padding-top: 2em;} + .td2 {text-align: justify; width: 34em; padding-top: 1em;} + .center,.td1,h1,h2,h3,.hd1 {text-align: center;} + .rgt,.pgn {text-align: right;} + .lft {text-align: left;} + .td2,.td3 {padding-right: 4em;} + body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .pgn {position: absolute; text-indent: 0; font-style: normal; right: 1%;} + .blockquot,.bk2 {margin: 1em 10%;} + .smcap,.smcapl {font-variant: small-caps;} + .smcapl {text-transform: lowercase;} + .figc {margin: 2em auto; width: 93px;} + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px; margin-top: 2em;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: 0.25em; font-size: .8em;} + .poem {text-align: left; width: 35em;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .bk4 {margin-left: 4em;} + .trn {border: solid 1px; margin: 3em 15%; padding: .25em 1em; text-align: justify;} + img {border: none;} + a:link,a:visited {text-decoration: none;} + .fs,.bk1 p,.pgn {font-size: small;} + .bk1 {margin: 1em 10% 2em;} + .bk1 p,.bk2 p,.ad1,.ad2 {padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + .bk2 p,.ad1 {margin: .25em auto;} + .bk3 {margin: 1em 20%;} + ul {list-style-type: none;} + + .noin {text-indent: 0em;} + + .abv, .blw {font-size: 70%; font-family: Verdana, Arial, sans-serif;} + .abv {vertical-align: 0.7ex;} + .blw {vertical-align: -0.3ex;} + + .bb {border-bottom: solid 1px;} + .br {border-right: solid 1px;} + .bl {border-left: solid 1px;} + + .tab1 td {border-right: solid 1px; text-align: right; font-size: small;} + .tab2 td {text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;} + .tr1 td {border-top: solid 1px; border-bottom: solid 1px; line-height: 1; text-align: center;} + .tr2 td {border-bottom: solid 1px;} + .tr3 td {border-top: solid 1px; border-right: solid 1px; padding: 1em;} + .tr4 td {padding: 0 .5em;} + .tda {vertical-align: 50%; text-align: center; padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em;} + .tdb {vertical-align: 50%;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ethnology of the British Colonies and +Dependencies, by Robert Gordon Latham + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Ethnology of the British Colonies and Dependencies + +Author: Robert Gordon Latham + +Release Date: February 16, 2010 [EBook #31296] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ETHNOLOGY OF THE BRITISH COLONIES *** + + + + +Produced by Colin Bell, Stephen Blundell and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="trn"><p><big><b>Transcriber's Note:</b></big></p> + +<p>Archaic, dialect and variant spellings (including quoted proper nouns) +remain as printed, except where noted. Minor typographical errors +have been corrected without note; significant amendments have been +listed at the end of the text.</p> + +<p>Greek text appears as originally printed, but with a mouse-hover transliteration, <span title="Biblos">Βιβλος</span>.</p></div> + +<h1><small>THE</small><br /> +ETHNOLOGY<br /> +<small><small>OF</small></small><br /> +THE BRITISH COLONIES<br /> +<small><small>AND</small></small><br /> +DEPENDENCIES.</h1> + +<h2><span class="fs">BY</span><br /> +R. G. LATHAM, M.D., F.R.S.,<br /> +<span class="fs">CORRESPONDING MEMBER TO THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, NEW YORK, +ETC. ETC.</span></h2> + +<div class="figc"><img src="images/001.png" width="93" height="111" alt="Device" title="" /></div> + +<div class="center"><big>LONDON:</big><br /> +JOHN VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.<br /> +<small>M.DCCC.LI.</small></div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="center">LONDON:<br /> +<small>Printed by <span class="smcap">Samuel Bentley</span> and <span class="smcap">Co.</span>,<br /> +Bangor House, Shoe Lane.</small></div> + +<hr /><p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><td class="rgt" colspan="2"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="2"><big>CHAPTER I.</big></td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">DEPENDENCIES IN EUROPE.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td2">Heligoland and the Frisians.—Gibraltar and the Spanish Stock.—Malta.—The +Ionian Islands.—The Channel Islands.</td><td class="rgt"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="td1" colspan="2"><big>CHAPTER II.</big></td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">DEPENDENCIES IN AFRICA.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td2">The Gambia Settlements.—Sierra Leone.—The Gold Coast.—The +Cape.—The Mauritius.—The Negroes of America.</td><td class="rgt"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="td1" colspan="2"><big>CHAPTER III.</big></td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">BRITISH COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES IN ASIA.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td2">Aden.—The Mongolian Variety.—The Monosyllabic Languages.—Hong +Kong.—The Tenasserim Provinces; Maulmein, Ye, Tavoy, Tenasserim, +the Mergui Archipelago.—The Môn, Siamese, Avans, Kariens, and +Silong.—Arakhan.—Mugs, Khyens.—Chittagong, Tippera, and +Sylhet.—Kuki.—Kasia.—Cachars.—Assam.—Nagas.—Singpho.—Jili.—Khamti.—Mishimi.—Abors +and Bor-Abors.—Dufla.—Aka.—Muttucks +and Miri, and other Tribes of the Valley of Assam.—The Garo.—Classification.—Mr. +Brown's Tables.—The Bodo.—Dhimal.—Kocch.—Lepchas +of Sikkim.—Rawat of Kumaon.—Polyandria.—The Tamulian +Populations.—Rajmahali Mountaineers.—Kúlis, Khonds, Goands, +Chenchwars.—Tudas, &c.—Bhils.—Waralis.—The Tamul, Telinga, +Kanara, and Malayalam Languages.</td><td class="rgt"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="td1" colspan="2"><big>CHAPTER IV.</big><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td2">The Sanskrit Language.—Its Relations to certain Modern Languages +of India; to the Slavonic and Lithuanic of Europe.—Inferences.—Brahminism +of the Puranas.—Of the Institutes of Menu.—Extract.—Of +the Vedas.—Extract.—Inferences.—The Hindús.—Sikhs.—Biluchi.—Afghans.—Wandering +Tribes.—Miscellaneous Populations.—Ceylon.—Buddhism.—Devil-worship.—Vaddahs.</td><td class="rgt"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="td1" colspan="2"><big>CHAPTER V.</big></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td2">British Dependencies in the Malayan Peninsula.—The Oceanic Stock +and its Divisions.—The Malay, Semang, and Dyak Types.—The Orang +Binua.—Jakuns.—The Biduanda Kallang.—The Orang Sletar.—The +Sarawak Tribes.—The New Zealanders.—The Australians.—The +Tasmanians.</td><td class="rgt"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="td1" colspan="2"><big>CHAPTER VI.</big></td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">DEPENDENCIES IN AMERICA.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td2">The Athabaskans of the Hudson's Bay Country.—The Algonkin Stock.—The +Iroquois.—The Sioux.—Assineboins.—The Eskimo.—The +Kolúch.—The Nehanni.—Digothi.—The Atsina.—Indians of British +Oregon, Quadra's and Vancouver's Island.—Haidah.—Chimsheyan.—Billichula.—Hailtsa.—Nutka.—Atna.—Kitunaha Indians.—Particular Algonkin Tribes.—The Nascopi.—The Bethuck.—Numerals +from Fitz-Hugh Sound.—The Moskito Indians.—South American +Indians of British Guiana.—Caribs.—Warows.—Wapisianas.—Tarumas.—Caribs +of St. Vincent.—Trinidad.</td><td class="rgt"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr /> +<h2>PREFACE.</h2> + +<div class="bk3"><p class="prf">The following pages represent a Course of +Six Lectures delivered at the Royal Institution, +Manchester, in the months of February and +March of the present year; the matter being +now laid before the public in a somewhat fuller +and more systematic form than was compatible +with the original delivery.</p></div> + +<hr /><p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + +<h1>ETHNOLOGY<br /> +<small><small>OF</small></small><br /> +THE BRITISH DEPENDENCIES.</h1> + +<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2> + +<h3>DEPENDENCIES IN EUROPE.</h3> + +<div class="bk1"><p>HELIGOLAND AND THE FRISIANS.—GIBRALTAR AND THE SPANISH +STOCK.—MALTA.—THE IONIAN ISLANDS.—THE CHANNEL +ISLANDS.</p></div> + +<p><i>Heligoland.</i>—We learn from a passage in the +<i>Germania</i> of Tacitus, that certain tribes agreed +with each other in the worship of a goddess who +was revered as <i>Earth the Mother</i>; that a sacred +grove, in a sacred island, was dedicated to her; +and that, in that grove, there stood a holy wagon, +covered with a pall, and touched by the priest +only. The goddess herself was drawn by heifers; +and as long as she vouchsafed her presence among +men, there was joy, and feasts, and hospitality; +and peace amongst otherwise fierce tribes instead +of war and violence. After a time, however, the +goddess withdrew herself to her secret temple—satiated +with the converse of mankind; and then<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +the wagon, the pall, and the deity herself were +bathed in the holy lake. The administrant slaves +were sucked up by its waters. There was terror +and there was ignorance; the reality being revealed +to those alone who thus suddenly passed +from life to death.</p> + +<p>Now we know, by name at least, five of the +tribes who are thus connected by a common +worship—mysterious and obscure as it is. They +are the Reudigni, the Aviones, the Eudoses, the +Suardones, and the Nuithones.</p> + +<p>Two others we know by something more than +name—the Varini and the Langobardi.</p> + +<p>The eighth is our own parent stock—the <i>Angli</i>.</p> + +<p>Such is one of the earliest notices of the old +creed of our German forefathers; and, fragmentary +and indefinite as it is, it is one of the fullest +which has reached us. I subjoin the original +text, premising that, instead of <i>Herthum</i>, certain +MSS. read <i>Nerthum</i>.</p> + +<p>"——Langobardos paucitas nobilitat: plurimis +ac valentissimis nationibus cincti, non per obsequium +sed prœliis et periclitando tuti sunt. Reudigni +deinde, et Aviones, et <i>Angli</i>, et Varini, et +Eudoses, et Suardones, et Nuithones, fluminibus +aut silvis muniuntur: nec quidquam notabile in +singulis, nisi quod in commune Herthum, id est, +Terram matrem colunt, eamque intervenire rebus +hominum, invehi populis, arbitrantur. Est in<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +insula Oceani Castum nemus, dicatumque in eo +vehiculum, veste contectum, attingere uni sacerdoti +concessum. Is adesse penetrali deam intelligit, +vectamque bobus feminis multâ cum veneratione +prosequitur. Læti tunc dies, festa loca, +quæcumque adventu hospitioque dignatur. Non +bella ineunt, non arma sumunt, clausum omne +ferrum; pax et quies tunc tantùm nota, tunc +tantùm amata, donec idem sacerdos satiatam conversatione +mortalium deam templo reddat; mox +vehiculum et vestes, et, si credere velis, numen +ipsum secreto lacu abluitur. Servi ministrant, +quos statim idem lacus haurit. Arcanus hinc +terror, sanctaque ignorantia, quid sit id, quod +tantùm perituri vident."—"De Moribus Germanorum," +40.</p> + +<p>What connects the passage with the ethnology +of Heligoland? Heligoland is, probably, the +<i>island of the Holy Grove</i>. Its present name indicates +this—<i>the holy land</i>. Its position in the +main sea, or <i>Ocean</i>, does the same. So does its +vicinity to the country of Germans.</p> + +<p>At the same time it must not be concealed from +the reader that the Isle of Rugen, off the coast of +Pomerania, has its claims. It is an island—but +not an island of the <i>Ocean</i>. It is full of religious +remains—but those remains are <i>Slavonic</i> rather +than <i>German</i>.</p> + +<p>I believe, for my own part, that the seat of the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +worship of <i>Earth the Mother</i>, was the island which +we are now considering.</p> + +<p>In respect to its inhabitants, it must serve as a +slight text for a long commentary. A population +of about two thousand fishers; characterized, like +the ancient Venetians, by an utter absence of +horses, mules, ponies, asses, carts, wagons, or any +of the ordinary applications of animal power to +the purposes of locomotion, confined to a small +rock, and but little interrupted with foreign elements, +is, if considered in respect to itself alone, +no great subject for either the ethnologist or the +geographer. But what if its relations to the population +of the continent be remarkable? What if +the source of its population be other than that +which, from the occupants of the nearest portion +of the continent, we are prepared to expect? In +this case, the narrow area of an isolated rock assumes +an importance which its magnitude would +never have created.</p> + +<p>The nearest part of the opposite continent is +German—Cuxhaven, Bremen, and Hamburg, +being all German towns. And what the towns +are the country is also—or nearly so. It is +German—which Heligoland is <i>not</i>.</p> + +<p>The Heligolanders are no Germans, but <i>Frisians</i>. +I have lying before me the Heligoland +version of <i>God save the Queen</i>. A Dutchman +would understand this, easier than a Low German,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +a Low German easier than an Englishman, and +(I <i>think</i>) an Englishman easier than a German of +Bavaria. The same applies to another sample of +the Heligoland muse—<i>the contented Heligolander's +wife</i> (<i>Dii tofreden Hjelgelünnerin</i>), a pretty +little song in Hettema's collection of Frisian +poems; with which, however, the native literature +ends. There is plenty of Frisian verse in general; +but little enough of the particular Frisian of +Heligoland.</p> + +<p>A difference like that between the Frisians of +Heligoland and the Germans of Hanover, is +always suggestive of an ethnological alternative; +since it is a general rule, supported both by +induction and common sense, that, except under +certain modifying circumstances, islands derive +their inhabitants from the nearest part of the +nearest continent. When, however, the populations +differ, one of two views has to be taken. +Either some more distant point than the one +which geographical proximity suggests has supplied +the original occupants, or a change has taken +place on the part of one or both of the populations +since the period of the original migration.</p> + +<p>Which has been the case here? The latter. +The present Germans of the coast between the +Elbe and Weser are not the Germans who peopled +Heligoland, nor yet the descendants of +them. Allied to them they are; inasmuch as<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +Germany is a wide country, and German a +comprehensive term; but they are not the +same. The two peoples, though like, are different.</p> + +<p>Of what sort, then, were the men and women +that the present Germans of the Oldenburg and +Hanoverian coast have displaced and superseded? +Let us investigate. Whoever rises from the +perusal of those numerous notices of the ancient +Germans which we find in the classical writers, +to the usual tour of Rhenish Germany, will find +a notable contrast between the natives of that +region as they <i>were</i> and as they <i>are</i>. His mind +may be full of their <i>golden</i> hair, expecting to find +it <i>flaxen</i> at least. Blue and grey eyes, too, he will +expect to preponderate over the black and hazel. +This is what he will have read about, and what +he will <i>not</i> find—at least along the routine lines +of travel. As little will there be of massive muscularity +in the limbs, and height in the stature. +Has the type changed, or have the old records +been inaccurate? Has the wrong part of Germany +been described? or has the contrast between +the Goth and the Italian engendered an +exaggeration of the differences? It is no part +of the present treatise to enter upon this question. +It is enough to indicate the difference +between the actual German of the greater part +of Germany in respect to the colour of his<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +hair, eyes, and skin, and the epithets of the +classical writers.</p> + +<p>But all is not bare from Dan to Beersheba. +The German of the old Germanic type is to be +found if sought for. His locality, however, is +away from the more frequented parts of his country. +Still it is the part which Tacitus knew best, +and which he more especially described. This is +the parts on the Lower rather than the Upper +Rhine; and it is the parts about the Ems and +Weser rather than those of the Rhine at all—sacred +as is this latter stream to the patriotism of +the Prussian and Suabian. It is Lower rather than +Upper Germany, Holland rather than Germany +at all, and Friesland rather than any of the other +Dutch provinces. It is Westphalia, and Oldenburg, +as much, perhaps, as Friesland. The +tract thus identified extends far into the Cimbric +Peninsula,—so that the Jutlander, though a Dane +in tongue, is a Low German in appearance.</p> + +<p>The preceding observations are by no means +the present writer's, who has no wish to be +responsible for the apparent paradox that the +<i>Germans in Germany are not Germanic</i>. It is +little more than a repetition of one of Prichard's,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> +in which he is supported by both Niebuhr and +the Chevalier Bunsen. The former expressly<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +states that the yellow or red hair, blue eyes, +and light complexion has now become uncommon, +whilst the latter has "often looked in vain for the +auburn or golden locks and the light cerulean +eyes of the old Germans, and never verified the +picture given by the ancients of his countrymen, +till he visited Scandinavia; there he found himself +surrounded by the Germans of Tacitus."</p> + +<p>For <i>Scandinavia</i>, I would simply substitute the +<i>fen districts of Friesland, Oldenburg, Hanover, +and Holstein</i>—all of them the old area of the +Frisian.</p> + +<p>Such is the physiognomy. What are the other +peculiarities of the Frisian? His language, his +distribution, his history.</p> + +<p>The Frisian of Friesland, is not the Dutch of +Holland; nor yet a mere provincial dialect of it. +Instead of the infinitive moods and plural numbers +ending in -<i>n</i> as in Holland, the former end in -<i>a</i>, +the latter in -<i>ar</i>. And so they did when the +language was first reduced to writing,—which it +has been for nearly a thousand years. So they +did when the laws of the Old Frisian republic +were composed, and when the so-called <i>Old</i> +Frisian was the language of the country. So +they did in the sixteenth century, when the popular +poet, Gysbert Japicx, wrote in the <i>Middle</i> +Frisian; and so they do now—when, under the +auspices of Postumus and Hettema, we have<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +Frisian translations of Shakespeare's "As You +Like it," "Julius Cæsar," and "Cymbeline."</p> + +<p>Now the oldest Frisian is older than the oldest +Dutch; in other words, of the two languages it +was the former which was first reduced to writing. +Yet the doctrine that it is the mother-tongue of +the Dutch, is as inaccurate as the opposite notion +of its being a mere provincial dialect. I state +this, because I doubt whether the Dutch forms in +-<i>n</i>, could well be evolved out of the Frisian in +-<i>r</i>, or -<i>a</i>. The -<i>n</i> belongs to the older form,—which +at one time was common to both languages, +but which in the Frisian became omitted as early +as the tenth century; whereas, in the Dutch, it +remains up to the present day.</p> + +<p>If the Frisian differ from the Dutch, it differs +still more from the proper Low German dialects +of Westphalia, Oldenburg, and Holstein; all of +which have the differential characteristics of the +Dutch in a greater degree than the Dutch +itself.</p> + +<p>The closest likeness to the Frisian has ceased +to exist as a language. It has disappeared on +the Continent. It has changed in the island which +adopted it. That island is Great Britain.</p> + +<p>No existing nation, as tested by its language, +is so near the Angle of England as the Frisian of +Friesland. This, to the Englishman, is the great +element of its interest.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p> + +<p>The history of the Frisian Germans must begin +with their present distribution. They constitute +the present agricultural population of the province +of Friesland; so that if Dutch be the language +of the towns, it is Frisian which we find in +the villages and lone farm-houses. And this is the +case with that remarkable series of islands which +runs like a row of breakwaters from the Helder to +the Weser, and serves as a front to the continent +behind them. Such are Ameland, Terschelling, +Wangeroog, and the others—each with its dialect +or sub-dialect.</p> + +<p>But beyond this, the continuity of the range of +language is broken. Frisian is <i>not</i> the present +dialect of Groningen. Nor yet of Oldenburg +generally—though in one or two of the fenniest +villages of that duchy a remnant of it still continues +to be spoken; and is known to philologists +and antiquarians as the <i>Saterland</i> dialect.</p> + +<p>It was spoken in parts of East Friesland as late +as the middle of the last century—but only in +parts; the Low German, or Platt-Deutsch, being +the current tongue of the districts around.</p> + +<p>It is spoken—as already stated—in Heligoland.</p> + +<p>And, lastly, it is spoken in an isolated locality +as far north as the Duchy of Sleswick, in the +neighbourhood of Husum and Bredsted.</p> + +<p>It was these Frisians of Sleswick who alone, +during the late struggle of Denmark against Germany,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +looked upon the contest with the same indifference +as the frogs viewed the battles of the +oxen. They were not Germans to favour the +aggressors from the South, nor Danes to feel the +patriotism of the Northmen. They were neither +one nor the other—simply Frisians, members of +an isolated and disconnected brotherhood.</p> + +<p>The epithet <i>free</i> originated with the Frisians of +Friesland Proper, and it has adhered to them. +With their language they have preserved many of +their old laws and privileges, and from first to +last, have always contrived that the authority +of the sovereigns of the Netherlands should sit +lightly on them.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, they are a broken and disjointed +population; inasmuch, as the natural inference +from their present distribution is the doctrine +that, at some earlier period, they were spread +over the whole of the sea-coast from Holland +to Jutland, in other words, that they were the +oldest inhabitants of Friesland, Oldenburg, Lower +Hanover, and Holstein. If so, they must have +been the <i>Frisii</i> of Tacitus. No one doubts this. +They must also have been the <i>Chauci</i> of that +writer, the German form of whose names, as we +know from the oldest Anglo-Saxon poems, was +<i>Hocing</i>. This is not so universally admitted; +nevertheless, it is difficult to say who the Chauci +were if they were not Frisians, or why we find<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +Frisians to the north of the Elbe, unless the population +was at one time continuous.</p> + +<p>When was this continuity disturbed? From the +earliest times the sea-coast of Germany seems to +have been Frisian, and from the earliest times the +tribes of the interior seem to have moved from +the inland country towards the sea. Their faces +were turned towards Britain; or, if not towards +Britain, towards France, or the Baltic. I believe, +then, that as early as 100 <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span> the displacement +of some of the occupants of the Frisian area +had begun; this being an inference from the +statement of Cæsar, that the Batavians of Holland +were, in his own time, considered to have +been an immigrant population. From these +Batavians have come the present Dutch, and as +the present Dutch differ from the Frisians of +<span class="smcapl">A.D.</span> 1851, so did their respective great ancestors +in <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span> 100—there, or thereabouts. But the encroachment +of the Dutch upon the Frisian was but +slow. The map tells us this. Just as in some parts +of Great Britain we have <i>Shiptons</i> and <i>Charltons</i>, +whereas in others the form is <i>Skipton</i> and <i>Carlton</i>; +just as in Scotland they talk of the <i>kirk</i>, and in +England of the <i>church</i>;<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and just as such differences +are explained by the difference of dialect on the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +part of the original occupants, so do we see in +Holland that certain places have the names in a +Dutch, and others in a Frisian form. The Dutch +compounds of <i>man</i> are like the English, and end +in -<i>n</i>. The Frisians never end so. They +drop the consonant, and end in -<i>a</i>; as <i>Hettema</i>, +<i>Halberts-ma</i>, &c. Again—all three languages—English, +Dutch, and Frisian—have numerous +compounds of the word <i>hám</i>=<i>home</i>, as <i>Threekingham</i>, +<i>Eastham</i>, <i>Petersham</i>, &c. In English +the form is what we have just seen. In Holland +the termination is -<i>hem</i>, as in <i>Arn-hem</i>, <i>Berg-hem</i>. +In Frisian the vowel is <i>u</i>, and the <i>h</i> is omitted +altogether, <i>e.g.</i>, <i>Dokk-um</i>, <i>Borst-um</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>Bearing this in mind, we may take up a map of +the Netherlands. Nine places out of ten in +Friesland end in -<i>um</i>, and none in -<i>hem</i>. In +Groningen the proportion is less; and in Guelderland +and Overijssel, it is less still. Nevertheless, +as far south as the Maas, and in parts of the true +Dutch Netherlands, where no approach to the +Frisian language can now be discovered, a certain +per-centage of Frisian forms for geographical +localities occurs.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> + +<p>The remainder of the displacement of the Frisians +was, most probably, effected by the introduction<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +of the Low Germans of the empire of +Charlemagne, into the present countries of Oldenburg +and Hanover; and I believe that the same +series of conquests, which then broke up the +speakers of the Frisian, annihilated the Germanic +representatives of the Anglo-Saxons of England; +since it is an undeniable fact that of the numerous +dialects of the country called Lower Saxony, +all (with the exception of the Frisian) are forms of +the Platt-Deutsch, and none of them descendants +of the Anglo-Saxon. Hence, as far as the language +represents the descent, whatever we Anglo-Saxons +may be in Great Britain, America, Hindostan, +Australia, New Zealand, or Africa, we +are the least of our kith and kin in Germany. +And we can afford to be so. Otherwise, if we +were a petty people, and given to ethnological sentimentality, +we might talk about the Franks of +Charlemagne, as the Celts talk of us; for, without +doubt, the same Franks either exterminated +or denationalized us in the land of our birth, and +displaced the language of Alfred and Ælfric in the +country upon which it first reflected a literature.</p> + +<p>There are no absolute descendants of the ancestors +of the English in their ancestral country of +Germany; the Germans that eliminated them +being but step-brothers at best. But there is +something of the sort. The conquest that destroyed +the Angles, broke up the Frisians. Each<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +shared each other's ruin. This gives the common +bond of misfortune. But there is more than this. +It is quite safe to say that the Saxons and Frisians<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> +were closely—<i>very</i> closely—connected in respect +to all the great elements of ethnological affinity—language, +traditions, geographical position, history. +Nor is this confined to mere generalities. +The opinion, first, I believe, indicated by Archbishop +Usher, and recommended to further consideration +by Mr. Kemble, that the Frisians took +an important part in the Anglo-Saxon invasion +of Great Britain is gaining ground. True, indeed, +it is that the current texts from Beda and +the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle make no mention +of them. They speak only of Saxons, Angles, +and Jutes. And true it is, that no provincial +dialect has been discovered in England which +stands in the same contrast to the languages of +the parts about it, as the Frisian does to the +Dutch and Low German. Yet it is also true +that, according to some traditions, Hengist was a +Frisian hero. And it is equally true that, in the +Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, we find more than one +incidental mention of Frisians in England—their +presence being noticed as a matter of course, and +without any reference to their introduction. This +is shown in the following extract:—"That same<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +year, the armies from among the East-Anglians, +and from among the North-Humbrians, harassed +the land of the West-Saxons chiefly, most of all +by their <i>æscs</i>, which they had built many years +before. Then King Alfred commanded long ships +to be built to oppose the æscs; they were full-nigh +twice as long as the others; some had sixty +oars, and some had more; they were both swifter +and steadier, and also higher than the others. +They were shapen neither like the Frisian nor +the Danish, but so as it seemed to him that they +would be most efficient. Then some time in the +same year, there came six ships to Wight, and +there did much harm, as well as in Devon, and +elsewhere along the sea-coast. Then the king +commanded nine of the new ships to go thither, +and they obstructed their passage from the port +towards the outer sea. Then went they with +three of their ships out against them; and three +lay in the upper part of the port in the dry; the +men were gone from them ashore. Then took +they two of the three ships at the outer part of +the port, and killed the men, and the other ship +escaped; in that also the men were killed except +five; they got away because the other ships were +aground. They also were aground very disadvantageously, +three lay aground on that side of +the deep on which the Danish ships were aground, +and all the rest upon the other side, so that no<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +one of them could get to the others. But when +the water had ebbed many furlongs from the +ships, the Danish men went from their three ships +to the other three which were left by the tide on +their side, and then they there fought against +them. There was slain Lucumon the king's +reeve, and Wulfheard the Frisian, and Æbbe the +Frisian, and Æthelhere the Frisian, and Æthelferth +the king's <i>geneat</i>, and of all the men, Frisians +and English, seventy-two; and of the Danish men +one hundred and twenty."</p> + +<p>Lastly, we have the evidence of Procopius that +"three numerous nations inhabit Britain,—the +Angles, the Frisians, and the Britons."<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> + +<p>Whatever interpretation we may put upon the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +preceding extracts, it is certain that the Frisians +are the nearest German representatives of our +Germanic ancestors; whilst it is not uninteresting +to find that the little island of Heligoland, +is the only part of the British Empire where the +ethnological and political relations coincide.</p> + +<p><i>Gibraltar.</i>—This isolated possession serves as +a text for the ethnology of Spain; and there +is no country wherein the investigation is more +difficult.</p> + +<p>It is difficult, if we look at the analysis of the +present population, and attempt to ascertain the +proportion of its different ingredients. There is +Moorish blood, and there is Gothic, Roman, +and Phœnician; some little Greek, and, older +than any, the primitive and original Iberic. Perhaps, +too, there is a Celtic element,—at least such +is the inference from the term <i>Celtiberian</i>. Yet +it is doubtful whether it be a true one; and, +even if it be, there still stands over the question +whether the <i>Celtic</i> or the <i>Iberic</i> element be the +older.</p> + +<p>When this is settled, the hardest problem of all +remains behind; <i>viz.</i>, the ethnological position of +the Iberians. What they were, in themselves, +we partially know from history; and what their +descendants are we know also from their language. +But we only know them as an isolated +branch of the human species. Their <i>relation</i> to<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +the neighbouring families is a mystery. Reasons +may be given for connecting them with the Celts +of Gaul; reasons for connecting them with the +Africans of the other side of the Straits; and +reasons for connecting them with tribes and +families so distant in place, and so different in +manners as the Finns of Finland, and the Laps of +Lapland. Nay more,—affinities have been found +between their language and the Hebrew, Arabic, +and Syriac; between it and the Georgian; between +it and half the tongues of the Old World. +Even in the forms of speech of America, <i>analogies</i> +have been either found or fancied.</p> + +<p>Be this, however, as it may, the oldest inhabitants +of the Spanish peninsula were the different +tribes of the Iberians proper, and the +Celtiberians; the first being the most easily +disposed of. They it was, whose country was +partially colonized by Phœnician colonists; either +directly from Tyre and Sidon, or indirectly from +Carthage. They it was who, at a somewhat later +period, came in contact with the Greeks of Marseilles +and their own town of <i>Emporia</i>. They +it was who could not fail to receive some intermixture +of African blood; whether it were from +Africans crossing over on their own account, or +from the Libyans, Gætulians, and Mauritanians +of the Carthaginian levies.</p> + +<p>And now the great western peninsula becomes<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +the battle-ground for Rome and Carthage; the +theatre of the Scipios on the one side, and the +great family of the Barcas on the other. On +Iberian ground does Hannibal swear his deadly +and undying enmity to Rome. At this time, +the numerous primitive tribes of Spain may boast +a civilization equal to that of the most favoured +spots of the earth,—Greece, and the parts between +the Nile, the Euphrates and the Mediterranean +alone being excepted. As tested by their agricultural +mode of life, their commercial and mining +industry, their susceptibility of discipline as +soldiers, and, above all, by the size and number +of their cities, the Iberian of Spain is on the same +level with the Celt of Gaul, and the Celt of Gaul +on that of the Italian of Italy,—<i>i.e.</i>, <i>as far as the +civilization of the latter is his own, and not of +Greek origin</i>. But this is a point of European +rather than Spanish ethnology.</p> + +<p>That the obstinate spirit of resistance to organized +armies by means of a <i>guerilla</i> warfare, +the savage patriotism which suggests such expressions +as <i>war even to the knife</i>, and the endurance +behind stone walls, which characterizes the +modern Spaniards, is foreshadowed in the times +of their earliest history, has often been remarked, +and that truly. Numantia is an early Saragossa, +Saragossa a modern Numantia. Viriathus has +had innumerable counterparts. Where the indomitable<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +Cantabrian held out against the power of +Rome, the Biscayan of the year 1851 adheres to +his privileges and his language; and what the +Cantabrian was to the Roman, the Asturian was +to the Moor. Both trusted their freedom to +their impracticable mountains and stubborn +spirits—and kept it accordingly. It is an easy +matter to refer the peculiarities of the Spanish +character to the infusion of Oriental blood; and +with some of them it may be the case. But with +many of them, the reference is a false one. Half +the Spanish character was Iberic and Lusitanian +before either Jew or Saracen had seen the Rock +of Gibraltar.</p> + +<p>Of the early Spanish religion, we know but +little. A remarkable passage in Strabo speaks +to their literature. They had an <i>alphabet</i>. This +is known from coins and inscriptions. And it +was of foreign origin—Greek or Phœnician. +This nothing but the most inconsiderate and uncritical +patriotism can deny. Denied, however, +it has been; and the indigenous and independent +evolution of an alphabet has been claimed; the +particular tribe to which it has more especially +been ascribed being the <i>Turdetani</i>. These—and +the passage I am about to quote is the passage of +Strabo just alluded to—are "put forward as the +wisest of the Iberi, and they have the use of +letters; and they have records of ancient history,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +and poems, and metrical laws for six thousand +years—as they say."<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> + +<p>Now, whatever may be the doubts implied by +the last three words of this extract, the evidence +is to the effect that the old Iberians were a lettered +nation; the antiquity of their civilization +being another question. To modify our +scepticism on the point, the text has been +tampered with, and it has been proposed to read +<i>poems</i> (<span title="epôn">ἐπῶν</span>) instead of years (<span title="etôn">ἐτῶν</span>). The change, +to be sure, is slight enough—that of a single +letter—from <i>p</i> (<span title="p">π</span>) to <i>t</i> (<span title="t">τ</span>); nevertheless, as it is +more than cautious criticism will allow, the reading +must stand as it is, and the claim of the Turdetanians +must be for a literature nearly as old as the +supposed age of the world in the current century,—a +long date, and a date which would be improbable, +even if we divided it by twelve, and +rendered <span title="etos">ἔτος</span> by <i>month</i> instead of <i>year</i>. It denotes +either some shorter period (perhaps a day) +or nothing at all.</p> + +<p>So much for the Iberians; of which the Lusitanians +of Portugal were a branch; and of which +there were several divisions and subdivisions involving +considerable varieties both of manners<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +and language. In respect to the latter there is +the special evidence of Strabo that their tongues +and alphabets differed. And so did their mythologies. +The Callaici had the reputation of +being <i>atheists</i>; whilst the Celtiberi worshipped +an anonymous God,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> at the full of the moon, +with feasts and dances.</p> + +<p>But who were the Celtiberi? I have already +said that there were difficulties upon this point. +The name makes them a mixed people; half Celt +and half Iberic. If so, the French influence in +the Spanish Peninsula was as great in the time of +Hannibal, as it was wished to be in the time of +Louis XIV.</p> + +<p>With the exception of Niebuhr, the chief +authorities have considered the Iberi as the aborigines, +and the Celts as emigrants from Gaul. +To this, however, Niebuhr took exceptions. He +considered the warlike character of the Iberians; +and this made him unwilling to think that any +invader from the north had displaced them. And +he considered the geographical <i>distribution</i> of the +Celtiberi. This was not in the fertile plains nor +along the banks of fertilizing rivers, nor yet in +the districts of the golden corn and the precious +wool of Hispania, but in the rougher mountain +tracts, in the quarters whereto an aboriginal inhabitant +would be more likely to retire, than an<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +invading conqueror to covet, I admit the difficulty +implied in his objection; but I admit it +only as a <i>presumption</i>—against which there is a +decided preponderance of material facts.</p> + +<p>In the first place, there are the oldest names +of the geographical localities throughout Spain. +These, as shown by the well-known monograph +of Humboldt, are <i>not</i> Celtic, and are <i>Iberic</i>.</p> + +<p>In the next place, the Celtic frontier was by no +means so near the geographical boundary of the +Peninsula as it is often supposed to have been. +Instead of the Celtic of Gaul reaching the +Pyrenees, the Iberic of Spain reached the Loire—so +that the province of Aquitania, although +Gallic in politics, was Iberic in ethnology. This, +again, is shown by Humboldt.</p> + +<p>For my own part, instead of discussing the relation +of the Celts of Celtiberia to the other +inhabitants of Spain, I would open a new question, +and investigate the grounds upon which we +believe in an intermixture at all. Whatever +respect we may pay to the statements of the +classical writers, the <i>name</i> itself is not conclusive; +since it would be just as likely to be given from +an approach on the part of an Iberic population +to the Celtic manners, or from the adoption of +any <i>supposed</i> Celtic characteristic, as from absolute +ethnological intermixture. Like modern observers, +the ancient writers were too fond of gratuitously<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +assuming an intermixture of blood for +the explanation of the results of common physical +or social conditions. Hence—without pressing +my opinion on the reader—I confine myself to an +expression of doubt as to the existence of Celts +amongst the Celtiberi <i>at all</i>.</p> + +<p>But this only simplifies the question as to the +ethnological position of the Iberic variety of the +human species. It does not even suggest an +answer. They were the aborigines of Spain. +They are the ancestors of the present Biscayans. +Their tongue survives in the north-west provinces +of Spain, and in the north-east corner +of France. It <i>has no recognized affinity with +any known tongue; and it has undeniable points +of contrast with all the languages of the countries +around.</i></p> + +<p>Yet it is only by means of the Basque language +that the problem can be attempted. The physical +conformation of the still extant Iberians, has +nothing definitely characteristic about it. The +ancient mythology has died away. The tribes +most immediately allied have ceased to be other +than unmixed. So the language alone remains—and +that has yet to find its interpreter.</p> + +<p>An Iberic basis—Greek, Phœnician, and Mauritanian +intermixtures—possibly a Celtic element—Roman +sufficient to change the language through +four-fifths of the Peninsula—Gothic blood introduced<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +by the followers of Euric—Arabian +influences, second in importance to those of +Rome only—such is the analysis of ethnological +elements of the Spanish stock. The proportions, +of course, differ in different parts of the Peninsula, +and, although they are nowhere ascertained, it is +reasonable to suppose that the Arab blood increases +as we go southwards, and the Gothic and +Iberic as we approach the Pyrenees. This makes +Gibraltar the most Moorish part of Europe; and +such I believe it to be.</p> + +<p><i>Malta.</i>—When we have subtracted the English, +Italians, Greeks, and other nations of the +Levant from the population of Malta, there still +remain the primitive islanders, with their peculiar +language.</p> + +<p>Now this language is a form of the Arabic; +and, with the exception of some of the dialects +of Syria, it is the only instance of that language +in the mouth of a Christian population. So +thoroughly are the language and the religion of +the Koran co-extensive.</p> + +<p>At what period this tongue found its way to +Malta is undetermined. As compared with any +of the present languages of the island it is <i>ancient</i>. +But it is not certain that, though old, it is +the earliest. Carthaginians may have preceded +the Arabs; Greeks the Carthaginians; and, +possibly, Sicanians, or the earliest occupants of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +Sicily, the Greeks. I am unable, however, to +carry my reader beyond the simple fact of the +<i>language being Arabic</i>.</p> + +<p>The only other Arabic dependency of Great +Britain is Aden.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> + +<p><i>The Ionian Islands.</i>—The reader may have remarked +the peculiar character of European ethnology. +It consists chiefly in the <i>analysis</i> of the +component parts of particular populations; and +this it investigates so exclusively as to leave no +room for the description of manners, customs, +physiognomy, and the like—paramount in importance +as these matters are when we come to the other +quarters of the world. There are two reasons for +this difference. First—the peculiarities of the +European nations are by no means of the same +extent and character with those of the ruder +families of mankind. A similar civilization, and +a similar religion, have effected a remarkable +amount of uniformity; and, hence, the differences +are those that the historian deals with more appropriately +than the ethnologist. Secondly—such +external and palpable differences as exist +are generally known and appreciated. The <i>analysis</i><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +of blood, or stock, which, partially, accounts +for them, is less completely understood.</p> + +<p>Hence, in treating of the Maltese, there was no +description of the Arabic stock at all. All that +was stated was a reason for believing that the +Maltese belonged to it. Such also, to a great +degree, was the case with the Gibraltar population, +and the Heligolanders. And such will be the case +with the Ionian Islanders. It will not be thought +necessary to enlarge upon the Greeks; it will +only be requisite to ask how far the group in +question is Grecian.</p> + +<p>The very oldest population of the Ionian Islands +I believe to have been <i>barbarous</i>—a term which, in +the present classical localities, is convenient.</p> + +<p>In the smaller islands, such as Ithaca and Zacynthus, +the population had become Hellenized at +the time of the composition of the Homeric poems. +In Corcyra, on the other hand, the original +barbarism lasted longer. Such, at least, is the +way in which I interpret the passages in the +Odyssey concerning the Phæacians (who were +certainly not Greek), and the later language of +Thucydides respecting the relations of the Corinthian +colonies of Epidamnus, and Corcyra. The +whole context leads to the belief that, originally, +the <span title="apoikoi">ἄποικοι</span> were Greeks in contact with a population +which was <i>not</i> Greek.</p> + +<p>In respect to the stock to which these early<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +and ante-Hellenic islanders belonged, the presumption +is in favour of its having been the Illyrian; +a stock known only in its probable remains—the +Skipitar (Albanians, or Arnaouts) of Albania.</p> + +<p>Time, however, made them all equally Hellenic, +a result which was, probably, completed +before the decline of Greek independence; since +which epoch there have been the following elements +of intermixture:—</p> + +<p>1. Albanian blood, from the opposite coast.</p> + +<p>2. Slavonic, from Dalmatia.</p> + +<p>3. Italian, from Italy.</p> + +<p>4. Turk—I have no pretence to the minute +ethnological knowledge which would enable me +even to guess at the proportions.</p> + +<p>Upon the whole, however, I believe the Ionian +islanders to be what their language represents +them—Greek. At the same time they are Greeks +of an exceedingly mixed blood.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> + +<p>Again—of the foreign elements I imagine the +Italian to be the chief. This, however, is an impression +rather than a matured opinion.</p> + +<p>The Slavonic element, too, is likely to be considerable. +The Byzantine historians speak of +numerous and permanent settlements, during the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +twelfth and thirteenth centuries, both in Thessaly, +and in the Morea; statements which the frequency +of Slavonic names for Greek geographical +localities confirms.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Neither, however, outweighs +the undoubted Hellenic character of the language, +which is still the representative of the great medium +of the fathers of literature and philosophy.</p> + +<p><i>The Channel Islands.</i>—As Guernsey, Jersey, +Alderney, and Sark, are no parts of Great Britain, +and are, nevertheless, European, I make a +brief mention of them; although they are neither +colonies nor dependencies: indeed, in strict history, +Great Britain is a dependency of theirs.</p> + +<p>They are <i>Norman</i> rather than <i>French</i>, and the +illustration of this distinction, which will re-appear +when we come to the Canadas—concludes the +chapter.</p> + +<p>The <i>earliest</i> population of France was twofold—Celtic +for the north, Iberic for the south.</p> + +<p>Its <i>second</i> population was Roman.</p> + +<p>Its language is Roman—all that remains of +the old tongues of the tribes which Cæsar conquered +being (1) certain words in the present<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +French, (2) the Breton of Brittany, which is closely +akin to the Welsh Celtic, and (3) the Basque dialects +of Gascony, which is Iberic.</p> + +<p>Now whether the old Gallic blood be as fully +displaced by that of the Roman conquerors, as +the old Gallic language has been displaced by the +Latin is uncertain. It is only certain that the old +and indigenous elements of the French nation, +however indeterminate in amount—were not of a +uniform character, <i>i.e.</i>, neither wholly Celtic, nor +wholly Iberic; but Celtic for one part of the +country, and Iberic for another.</p> + +<p>The ancient tribes of Normandy were <i>Celtic</i>. +Hence, when the third element of the present +Norman population was introduced, all that was +not Italian was Welsh—just as it was in Picardy +and Orleans, and just as it was <i>not</i> in Gascony +and Poitou. <i>There</i> the old element was Iberic.</p> + +<p>The <i>third element</i>—just alluded to—was Germanic; +Germanic of different kinds, but chiefly +Frank or Burgundian.</p> + +<p>The <i>fourth</i> great element was the Norse or +Scandinavian; introduced by the so-called <i>Sea-kings</i> +of Denmark and Norway in the ninth and +tenth centuries. These, as the empire of Charlemagne +declined, insulted and dismembered it. +They converted Neustria in <i>Normandy</i>=<i>the +country of the Northmen</i>. The exact amount +of their influence has not been ascertained; nor is<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +the investigation easy. The process, however, by +which we measured the original extent of the +Frisian area is applicable to that of the Northmen. +There are Norse names for French localities. +Of these the most important are the compounds +of -<i>tot</i>, -<i>fleur</i>, and -<i>bec</i>; like Yve-<i>tot</i>, Har-<i>fleur</i>, +and Caude-<i>bec</i>.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="td3"><span class="smcap">French.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcap">Norse.</span></td><td><span class="smcap">English.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3">-tot</td><td class="td3">toft</td><td><i>village</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3">-fleur</td><td class="td3">flöt</td><td><i>stream</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3">-bec</td><td class="td3">beck</td><td><i>brook</i>.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Names of places thus ending are almost exclusively +limited to Normandy; occurring, even there, +most numerously within a few miles of either the +sea or the Seine.</p> + +<p>Furthermore, there is a fresh element suggested +by a term of the "Notitia Utriusque Imperii," a +document of the latter end of the fourth century. +This is <i>Litus Saxonicum per Britannias</i>, a +tract extending from the Wash to Portsmouth. +Now the opposite shore of the continent was a +<i>litus Saxonicum</i> also; within which lay Normandy. +I believe that these Saxons were part of +the same branch of Germans which invaded England; +in other words, that portions of France, like +portions of England, were <i>Anglicized</i>; the two +processes differing in respect to their extent and +duration. What was general and permanent on<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +the island, was partial and temporary on the continent. +That there were Saxons at Bayeux in +the tenth century is asserted by express evidence.</p> + +<p>Taking in the account the preceding invasions, +and remembering that, both from Germany and +Italy, Normandy is one of the most distant of the +French provinces, we arrive at the following +analysis.</p> + +<p>The Channel Islanders are what the Normans +are.</p> + +<p>The Normans are Romanized Celts; the Roman +element being somewhat less than it is elsewhere.</p> + +<p>The Frank and Burgundian elements are also +less.</p> + +<p>But a Saxon element is greater.</p> + +<p>And a Norse element is pre-eminently Norman.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> "Natural History of Man," p. 197.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The form in <i>c</i> and <i>sk</i> (<i>Skipton</i> and <i>Carlton</i>) being of +Danish, whilst those in <i>ch</i> and <i>sh</i> are of Anglo-Saxon origin.—<i>See</i> +"Quarterly Review," No. <span class="smcapl">CLXIV</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The details of this investigation are given in full in the +present writer's "Taciti Germania with Ethnological notes," +now in course of publication.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> I include in this term the so-called old Saxons of Westphalia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The original passage is as follows:—"<span title="Brittian de tên +nêson ethnê tria polyanthrôpotata echousi, basileus te heis +autôn hekastô ephestêken, onomata de keitai tois ethnesi +toutois Angiloi te kai Phrissones kai hoi tê nêsô homônymoi +Brittônes. Tosautê de hê tônde tôn ethnôn +polyanthrôpia phainetai ousa hôste ana pan etos kata pollous enthende +metanistamenoi xyn gynaixi kai paisin es Phrangous chôrousin.">Βριττίαν δὲ τὴν νῆσον ἔθνη +τρία πολυανθρωπότατα ἔχουσι, βασιλεύς τε εἷς αὐτῶν ἑκάστῳ ἐφέστηκεν, +ὀνόματα δὲ κεῖται τοῖς ἔθνεσι τούτοις Ἀγγίλοι τε καὶ Φρίσσονες καὶ οἱ τῆ +νήσῳ ὁμώνυμοι Βρίττωνες. Τοσαύτη δὲ ἡ τῶνδε τῶν ἐθνῶν πολυανθρωπία +φαίνεται οὖσα ὥστε ἀνὰ πᾶν ἔτος κατὰ πολλοὺς ἐνθένδε μετανιστάμενοι ξὺν +γυναιξὶ καὶ παισὶν ἐς Φράγγους χώρουσιν.</span>"—Procop. +B. G. iv. 20. +</p><p> +Reasons which have induced me to go farther than any previous +writer in respect to the importance of the Frisian element +in the Anglo-Saxon invasion, and to believe that instead of +<i>Saxon</i> being a native German name for any portion of the +Germanic population, it was only a Celtic and Roman term for +the Germans of the sea-coast, and (amongst these) for the +Frisians most especially, are given, at large, in my ethnological +edition of the "Germania of Tacitus."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <span title="Sophôtatoi d' exetazontai tôn Ibêrôn houtoi, kai grammatikê +chrôntai; kai tês palaias mnêmês echousi ta syngrammata, +kai poiêmata kai nomous emmetrous hexakischiliôn etôn, hôs +phasi.">Σοφώτατοι δ' ἐξεταζονται τῶν Ἰβήρων οὗτοι, καὶ γραμματικῆ χρῶνται· +καὶ τῆς παλαιᾶς μνήμης ἔχουσι τὰ συγγράμματα, καὶ ποιήματα καὶ νόμους +ἐμμέτρους ἑξακισχιλίων ἐτῶν, ὥς φασι.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> This was probably the case with the Callaici.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The famous Knighthood of Malta—<i>without fear</i>, but +(though, perhaps, the best of its class) not <i>without reproach</i>, +has no place here. Its ethnology belongs to the different +countries which it dignified by its valour, or dishonoured by +its profligacy.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> This I believe to have been the case with the ancient +Greeks also; though the proof would require an elaborate +monograph.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The two together have led to a doctrine which has been +best developed by Fallmerayer. It is this—<i>that the modern +Greeks are Sclavonians</i>. The Russian school are the chief +believers of this. In the few countries where ethnology is +scientific rather than political, the more moderate opinion of +the modern Greeks being a mixed stock prevails.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Or <i>beck</i>.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr /><p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2> + +<h3>DEPENDENCIES IN AFRICA.</h3> + +<div class="bk1"><p>THE GAMBIA SETTLEMENTS.—SIERRA LEONE.—THE GOLD COAST.—THE +CAPE.—THE MAURITIUS.—THE NEGROES OF AMERICA.</p></div> + +<p><i>The Gambia.</i>—All our settlements on the +Gambia are in the Mandingo country.</p> + +<p>Of all the true and unequivocal Negroes, the +Mandingos are the most civilized; the basis of +their civilization being Arab, and their religion +that of the Koran. Hence, they have priests, or +Marabouts, the use of the Arabic alphabet, and a +monotheistic creed.</p> + +<p>Of all the Negroes, too, the Mandingos are the +most commercial, not as mere slave-dealers, but +as truly industrial merchants.</p> + +<p>Of all the families of the African stock, with +the exception of the Kaffres, the Mandingo is the +most widely spread. It also falls into numerous +divisions and subdivisions. Hence the term has +a twofold power. Sometimes it is a generic +name for a large group; sometimes the designation +of a particular section of that group. The<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +Mandingos of the Lower Gambia are Mandingos +in the restricted meaning of the word.</p> + +<p>For the Mandingo tribes, when we use the term +in a general sense, the most convenient classification +is into the <i>Mahometan</i> and the <i>Pagan</i>. +That this division should exist is natural; since, +with the exception of the Wolofs, the Mandingos +are the most northern of all the western +Negroes, and, consequently, those who are most +in contact with the Mahometan Arabs, and the +equally Mahometan Kabyles of Barbary and the +Great Desert,—a fact sufficient to account for the +monotheistic creeds of the northern tribes.</p> + +<p>As for the Paganism of the others, we must +remember how far southwards and inland the +same great stock extends—indefinitely towards +the interior, and as far as the back of the Ashanti +country, in the direction of the equator.</p> + +<p>This prepares us for finding Mandingos at our +next settlement.</p> + +<p><i>Sierra Leone.</i>—The native populations which +encircle this settlement are two—the <i>Timmani</i> +towards the north, and <i>Bullom</i> towards the +south.</p> + +<p>Both are Negroes of the most typical kind, in +respect to their physical conformation.</p> + +<p>Both are Pagans.</p> + +<p>Both speak what seem to be mutually unintelligible +languages, but which have an undoubted<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +relationship to each other, and to the numerous +Mandingo dialects as well. It is this which induces +me to place them in the same section with +the more civilized Africans of the Gambia.</p> + +<p>It is safe to say that they are amongst the +rudest members of the stock; indeed it is only in +the eyes of the etymologist that they are Mandingo +at all. Practically, they, and several +tribes like them, are Mandingo, in the way that +a wolf is a dog, or a goat a sheep.</p> + +<p>The Bullom and Timmani are the frontagers to +Sierra Leone; and it was with Bullom and Timmani +potentates that the land of the settlement +was bargained for. The settlers themselves are +of different origin. Mixed beyond all other populations +of Africa, the occupants of Free Town +are in the same category with the Negroes of +Jamaica and St. Domingo; concerning whom we +can only predicate that they have dark skins, and +that they come from Africa. The analysis of +their several origins, and their distribution amongst +the separate branches of the African family, would +be one of the most difficult feats in minute ethnology; +and this would be but a fraction of the +investigation. When the several countries which +supplied the several victims of the slave-trade had +been ascertained, the complicated question of +<i>intermixture</i> would stand over; and there we +should find lineages of every degree of hybridism—children,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +whose ancestors originated on different +sides of Africa, themselves the parents of a lighter-coloured +offspring, the effect of European intercourse.</p> + +<p>At present it is sufficient to state that the +nucleus of the Free Town population consists of +what is called the <i>Maroon</i> Negroes. These were +slaves of Jamaica, who, having recovered their +freedom during the Spanish dominion in the +island, were removed, by the English, in the first +instance to Nova Scotia, and afterwards to their +present locality.</p> + +<p>Round this has collected an equally miscellaneous +population of rescued slaves; and, besides +these, there are immigrants, labourers, and barterers +from all the neighbouring parts of the +Continent—Krumen more especially.</p> + +<p>A writer who, when we come to the Negroes of +the Gold Coast, will be freely quoted, calls the +Krumen the <i>Scotchmen</i> of Africa, since, with +unusual industry, enterprise, and perseverance, they +leave, without reluctance, their own country to +push their fortunes wherever they can find a wider +field. They are ready for any employment +which may enable them to increase their means, +and ensure a return to their own country in a +state of improved prosperity. There the Kruman's +ambition is to purchase one or two head of +cattle, and one or two head of wives, to enjoy the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +luxuries of rum and tobacco, and pass the remainder +of his days as</p> + +<div class="poem" style="width: 21em;"> +<span class="i0">"A gentleman of Africa who sits at home at ease."<br /></span> +</div> + +<p class="noin">Half the Africans that we see in Liverpool are +Krumen, who have left their own country when +young, and taken employment on board a ship, +where they exhibit a natural aptitude for the sea. +Without being nice as to the destination of the +vessel in which they engage, they return home as +soon as they can; and rarely or never contract +matrimony before their return. In Cape Coast +Town, as well as in Sierra Leone, they form a +bachelor community—quiet and orderly; and in +that respect stand in strong contrast to the other +tribes around them. Besides which, with all their +blackness, and all their typical Negro character, +they are distinguishable from most other western +Africans; having the advantage of them in make, +features, and industry.</p> + +<p>A Kruman is pre-eminently the <i>free labourer</i> of +Africa. In the slave trade he has engaged less +than any of his neighbours, attaches himself +readily to the whites, and, in his native country, +as well as in Sierra Leone, Coast Town, and +other places of his temporary denizenship, is +quick of perception and amenable to instruction. +His language is the <i>Grebo</i> tongue, and it has been +reduced to writing by the American missionaries<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +of Cape Palmas. It has decided affinities with +those of the Mandingo tongues to the north, +the Fanti dialects of the Gold Coast, and, in all +probability, still closer ones with those of the +Ivory coast. These last, however, are but imperfectly +known; indeed, a single vocabulary of +the <i>Avekvom</i> language, in the "American Oriental +Journal," furnishes nine-tenths of our philological +data for the parts between Cape Palmas +and Cape Apollonia.</p> + +<p>The best measure of the heterogeneousness of +the Sierra Leone population is to be found in +Mrs. Kilham's vocabularies. That lady collected, +at Free Town, specimens of thirty-one African +tongues, from Negroes then and there resident. +Of these—</p> + +<p>A. Eight belonged to the Mandingo group, +<i>viz.</i>, Mandingo Proper, Susu, Bambara, Kossa, +Pessa, Kissi, Bullom, and Timmani.</p> + +<p>B. Two were dialects of the Grebo (Kru): the +Kru, and the Bassa.</p> + +<p>C. Two were Fanti: the Fanti and the +Ashanti, closely allied dialects.</p> + +<p>D. Two were Dahoman: the Fot, and the +Popo.</p> + +<p>E. Two Benin: the Benin Proper, and the +Moko, languages of a tract but little known.</p> + +<p>F. One Wolof, from the Senegal.</p> + +<p>G. Eight from the parts between the rivers<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +Formosa and Loango, <i>viz.</i>, the Bongo, the Ako, +the Ibu, the Rungo, the Akuonga, the Karaba, +the Uobo, the Kouri.</p> + +<p>H. One from the river Kongo, <i>i.e.</i>, the Kongo +properly so-called.</p> + +<p>I. Two from the Lower Niger, but, still separated +from the coast—the Tapua (Nufi) and +Appa.</p> + +<p>K. Three from the widely-spread nations of +the interior—the Fulah, the Haussa, and the +Bornu.</p> + +<p>I do not say that all Mrs. Kilham's specimens +represent mutually unintelligible tongues; probably +they do not. At the same time, as several +decidedly different languages are omitted, the list +understates, rather than exaggerates, the number +of the divisions and subdivisions of the western +African populations, as inferred from the divisions +and subdivisions of the language.</p> + +<p>Thus, no samples are given of the—</p> + +<p>1. <i>Sereres.</i>—Pastoral tribes about Cape Verde.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Serawolli.</i>—On the Middle Senegal, different, +in many respects, from the Sereres, the +Wolofs, and the Fulahs; nations with which +they are in geographical contact.</p> + +<p>3. <i>The Feloops.</i>—Between the Gambia and +Cacheo, along the coast.</p> + +<p>4. <i>The Papels.</i>—South of the Cacheo; and also +coastmen.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> + +<p>5. <i>The Balantes.</i>—Coast-men to the south of +the Papels.</p> + +<p>6. <i>The Bagnon.</i>—Conterminous with the Feloops +of the river Cacheo.</p> + +<p>7. <i>The Bissago.</i>—Fierce occupants of the islands +so-called.</p> + +<p>8. <i>The Naloos.</i>—On the Nun and river Grande.</p> + +<p>9. <i>The Sapi.</i>—Conterminous with the Naloo, +and like all the preceding tribes, from the Feloops +downwards, pre-eminently rude, fierce, intractable, +and imperfectly known.</p> + +<p>Southward, the unrepresented languages are +equally numerous—especially for the Ivory Coast, +and for the Delta of the Niger. Of these I shall +only notice one—the Vey.</p> + +<p>The settlement with which the tribes speaking +the Vey language is in contact is one of which the +tongue is English, but not the political relations. +It is the American free Negro settlement of +Liberia.</p> + +<p>In the Vey language, it had been known for +some time to the American missionaries, that +there were <i>written books</i>, a fact not likely to be +undervalued by those who felt warmly on the +social and civilizational prospects of the coloured +divisions of our species. One of these books was +discovered by Lieutenant Forbes, of H.M.S. +the Bonetta; local inquiry was further made +by the Rev. W. S. Koelle; and the MS. was<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +critically analyzed by Mr. Norris, of the Asiatic +Society.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> + +<p>The phenomenon, if properly measured, is by +no means a very significant one; since, although the +Vey alphabet, the invention of a man now living, +so far differs from the Mandingo, as to be spelt by +the <i>syllable</i> rather than the <i>letter</i>, it is anything +but an independent creation of the Negro brain. +Doala Bukara, its composer, an imperfect Mahometan, +had seen Mahometan books, and, although +he was no Christian, had seen an English +Bible also. He knew, then, what spelling or +writing was. He knew, too, the phonetic analysis +of the Mandingo, a tongue closely allied to his +own. And this is nine parts out of ten in the +so-called invention of alphabets.</p> + +<p>The true claims of Doala, in this way, are those +of the phonetic reformers in England, as compared +with those of Toth or Cadmus—real but +moderate. His own account of the matter, as he +gave it to Mr. Koelle, was, that the fact of sounds +being <i>written</i>, haunted him in a dream, wherein +he was shown a series of signs adapted to his +native tongue. These he forgot in the morning; +but remembered the impression. So he consulted +his friends; and they and he, laying their heads together, +coined new ones. The king of the country +made its introduction a matter of state, and built<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +a large house in Dshondu, as a day-school. But +a war with the Guru people disturbed both the +learners and teachers, so that the latter removed +to Bandakoro, where all grown-up people, of both +sexes, can now read and write.</p> + +<p>This alphabet is a <i>syllabarium</i>.</p> + +<p>The books written in it are essentially Mahometan; +the Koran appearing in them much in +the same way as the Bible appears in the more +degenerate legends of the middle ages.</p> + +<p>How far the Vey alphabet will be an instrument +of civilization, is a difficult question. For my +own part, I half regret its evolution; since the +Arabic that served for the Mandingo, would have +served for the Vey as well—or if not the Arabic, +the English.</p> + +<p>As a measure of African capacity it is of some +value; and in this respect, it speaks for the Negro +just as the Cherokee alphabet speaks for the +American Indian. This latter was invented by +a native named Sequoyah. Like Doala, he knew +what reading was. Like Doala, too, he had +a language adapted to a <i>syllabarium</i>. Hence, +both the Vey and the Cherokee, the two latest +coinages in the way of alphabets, are both syllabic.</p> + +<p>We now move southwards to the—</p> + +<p><i>Gold Coast Settlements.</i>—The climate of Western +Africa requires notice. It suits the native, +but destroys the European. Of the two settlements,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +already mentioned, the Gambia is the +most deadly; though Sierra Leone has the worst +name. <i>Both</i> are on the coast; both, consequently, +on the lower courses of the rivers, and both on +low levels. The import of these remarks applies +to the Negroes of America. At present, it +ushers in a brief notice of the climate of the +Gold Coast; this district being chosen for the +purpose of description because it makes the +nearest approach to the equator of any English +settlement in Africa. Consequently, it may +serve as a typical sample of the malarious parts +of the coast in question.</p> + +<p>From April till August is the rainy season, +which gradually passes into the dry; heavy fogs +forming during the transition. These last till the +end of September. Occasional showers, too, continue +till November. Then the weather becomes +really clear and dry, until, towards the end of +January, the dry parching wind, called the Harmattan, +sets in, with its over-stimulant action +upon the human system, and clouds of penetrating +impalpable sand. If this is not blowing, the +atmosphere is loaded with moisture; and this it +is, combined with the heat of an intertropical sun, +and the effluvia engendered by the decay of an +over-luxuriant vegetation, which makes Western +Africa the white man's grave. Not that the soil, +even on the coast, is always swampy and alluvial.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +About Cape Coast it is rocky and undulating. +Still, it is inordinately wooded, as well as full of +spots where water accumulates and exhalations +multiply. Yet the thermometer ranges between +78° and 86° Fahrenheit—a low <i>maximum</i> for the +neighbourhood of the equator; a high one, however, +to feel cold in. Nevertheless, such is the +case. "From this peculiarity of the atmosphere, +the sensations of an individual almost invariably +indicate a degree of <i>cold</i>, especially when sitting +in a room, or not taking bodily exercise; so that, +to ensure a feeling of comfortable warmth, it becomes +necessary to dress in a thicker material than +what is usually considered best adapted for tropical +wear, and to have a fire lighted in one's bedroom +for some time before one retires to rest."<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p> + +<p>The chief Africans of these parts—and we now +approach the great <i>officina servorum</i>—alone tolerant +of the heats, and droughts, and rains, and +exhalations are—</p> + +<p>1. The Fantis.</p> + +<p>2. The Ghans.</p> + +<p>3. The Avekvom (?)</p> + +<p>A. <i>The Fantis.</i>—Of the true natives of the +country these are the chief.</p> + +<p>The term <i>Fanti</i>, like the term <i>Mandingo</i>, has a +double sense—a general and a specific signification.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p> + +<p>The particular population of the parts about +Cape Coast is Fanti in the limited sense of the term.</p> + +<p>The great section of the Negro family, which +comprises, besides the Fantis Proper, the Ashanti, +Boroom, and several other populations, is <i>Fanti</i> in +the wide sense of the term.</p> + +<p>The Fanti, Ashanti, and Boroom forms of +speech are merely dialects of one and the same +language.</p> + +<p>A great proportion of the vocabularies of "Bowdich's +Ashanti" are the same.</p> + +<p>So are the Fetu, Affotoo, and other vocabularies +of the "Mithridates."</p> + +<p>The inhabitants of the Native Town of Cape +Coast, a mixed population of Krumen, Fantis, and +Mulattoes, amounting to as many as 10,000, are +no true specimens of the African of the Gold +Coast. European influences have too long been +at work on them. Before the town was English +it was Dutch; and it was English as early as 1661.</p> + +<p>More than this. It is not certain that their +fathers' fathers were the <i>exact</i> aborigines; in +other words, a tribe akin to, but slightly different +from them, seems to have been the earlier possessors. +These were the Fetu—the remains of +which can doubtless be met with among the populations +of the neighbourhood; since we find +in the "Mithridates" a <i>Fetu</i> vocabulary and an +<i>Affotoo</i> one as well.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p> + +<p>Now the Fantis that thus displaced the Fetu, +were themselves fugitives from the conquering +Ashantis; all, however, being the members of one +stock, and the pressure being from the highlands +of the interior towards the lowlands of the coast.</p> + +<p>All three are truly Negro in conformation, and +miserably Pagan in creed, the best measure of +their political capacity being the organized kingdom +of the Ashantis; and the lowest form of it, the +system of clanships, chieftainships, or captainships +of the proper Fantis of the coast. The details of +these are of importance.</p> + +<p>I cannot ascertain upon what principle those +different divisions which are sometimes called +<i>tribes</i>, sometimes <i>clans</i>, are formed; since it is +by no means safe to assume that they necessarily +consist of descendants from one common ancestor. +The investigations concerning the <i>tribes</i> of ancient +Rome show this.</p> + +<p>It is easier to enumerate their external characteristics, +and material elements of their union. +In the Native Town there are four quarters, each +occupied by a separate section of the population. +This section has its own proper head, its own +proper standards, and its own proper band of +music.</p> + +<p>What follows seems to apply to the rude state +of society in the country around. Each division +has its badge or device; so that we have<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +the tribe, or clan, of the leopard, the cat, the +dog, the hawk, the parrot, &c. On certain days +there are certain festivals and processions, when +the chief is carried in a long basket on the +heads of two men, with umbrellas above him, and +attendants around proportionate to his rank. +When in distress, the Fanti has a claim upon the +good offices of his tribe.</p> + +<p>When a Fanti government becomes extensive +enough to require organization, we find absolute +monarchs with satraps (caboceers) under them; +under these the heads of the different villages or +towns, and under these captains of hundreds, +fifties, and tens—an organization which is, perhaps, +of military rather than social origin. The +Ashanti kingdom gives us the best measure of +extent to which a branch of the Fanti stock has +developed itself into a political influence. As +for the <i>Constitution</i>, it is a simple and unmitigated +despotism; of which the most remarkable point is +the law of succession. This follows the female +lines, so that the heir-apparent is the eldest son of +the reigning king's eldest sister. The same applies +to the caboceers; except that, in cases of +mental or physical incapacity, the rightful heir is +set aside, and a path opened to the ambition of +private adventurers.</p> + +<p>Slavery is what we expect; and on the coast +of Guinea it meets us at every turn, though not<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +in the worst forms of the <i>Trade</i>. This flourishes +in Dahomey, and along the whole of the Bight of +Benin. In the Fanti countries, however, the +milder form of <i>domestic</i> servitude preponderates; +and along with it a chronic state of warfare. +These two evils are connected with one another, +as cause and effect. The conquest supplies the +slaves; the slaves provoke the conquest.</p> + +<p>Besides this there is a sort of temporary servitude, +which reminds us of the <i>Nexi</i> of the +Romans. This occurs when "a person, in order +to raise a particular sum of money, voluntarily +sells himself for a certain period, or until such +time as he is enabled to pay the amount so borrowed, +together with whatever interest may have +been agreed upon. This is called the system of +pawning, and the people so sold, pawns. Thus +a native, in order to make a great display on any +particular occasion, as on his marriage, or to have +a grand 'custom' for a deceased relative, will +forfeit his labour for a definite time, or give one +of his slaves for a period agreed upon. Neither +these pawns, however, nor the domestic slaves, +entertain any feeling of disgrace, but on the +contrary are happy and contented."<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> + +<p>Everything connected with the administration +of justice is rude and savage; the severity of the +punishment upon detection being the chief preventive.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +The awards, of course, depend much +upon the individual character of the chiefs; and +there are but few who have not exhibited horrible +proofs of cruelty. These, however, are no measures +of the temper of the people at large. The legitimate, +normal, established, and familiar forms of +torture give us this. It may just be a shade or +two better than that of the autocrats—though +bad at best. I still draw upon the writer already +quoted. "The most common mode of torture is +what is termed tying Guinea-fashion. In this +the arms are closely drawn together behind the +back, by means of a cord tied tightly round +them, about midway between the elbows and +shoulders. A piece of wood to act as a rack, +having been previously introduced, is then used so +as to tighten the cord, and so intense is the agony +that one application is generally sufficient to +occasion the wretch so tortured to confess to anything +that is required of him. There are various +other modes of torture in common use among the +natives of Guinea. One is tying the head, feet, +and hands, in such a way that by turning the +body backwards, they may be drawn together by +the cords employed. Another is securing a +wrist or ankle to a block of wood by an iron +staple. By means of a hammer any degree of +pressure may thus be applied, while the suffering +so produced is continuous, only being relieved by<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +the wood being split, and the staples removed, +but this may not be done until a crime has been +confessed by a person who never committed it, +and even then his limb has generally been destroyed. +It would not be interesting to here +enumerate the various tortures employed by a +barbarous people, but when we recollect the +refinement of the art of torture in our own +country in the days of the maiden, the boot, +and thumb-screws, we will cease to wonder that +substitutes for these should be used in a country +where civilization has not yet begun to elevate +a people who are generally allowed to be the +lowest of the human race.</p> + +<p>"There are some superstitious rites employed +by Fetish-men for the detection of crime; and +whether it is that these people really possess +such powerful influence over their wretched +dupes, as to frighten into confession of his +guilt the perpetrator of crime, or whether it is +that they manage by their numerous spies to +obtain a clue sufficient in most cases to lead to +the detection of the person, is more than I can +venture to assert; but, be the means employed +what they may, a Fetish-man will assuredly very +often bring a crime home to the right person, +even after the most patient investigation in the +ordinary way has failed to elicit the slightest +clue.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p> + +<p>"There is also what is called Trial by +Dhoom. This consists in whoever are suspected +of having committed a crime being made to swallow +a decoction of <i>dhoom</i> wood of the country, +and it is believed that whoever is innocent will +immediately eject the deleterious draught, but the +guilty person will die. This, however, is not +much to be depended upon; for while it causes +death in one instance, it may do so in all +who partake of it; or on the other hand, from +some accident in its preparation, it may be +productive of no effect either upon the guilty +or the innocent.</p> + +<p>"The Rice test, although practised in this +part of Africa, is, I believe, not peculiar to it, +being also employed in the West Indies, and +South America. Although no doubt originally +introduced by a people in a low state of civilization, +it is interesting in so far that it exemplifies +the powerful influence which the mind possesses +over the corporeal functions, and as it appears +to have been in use among the blacks for centuries, +we may give them the credit of having +been practically aware that 'conscience doth make +cowards of us all,' long before the Bard of Avon +chronicled the fact. In the employment of this +test in Guinea, those who are suspected of having +committed a crime are assembled, and to each<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +a small portion of rice is given, which they +are required to masticate, and afterwards produce +on the hand; and it is invariably the case +that while all but the real culprit will produce +their rice in a soft pulpy mass, his will be as +dry as if ground in a mill, the salivary glands +having, under the influence exerted upon the +nervous system by fear, refused to perform their +ordinary functions."</p> + +<p>Something like this is common in many savage +countries. In the shape of the <i>dhoom</i> test, +it re-appears in Old Calabar, and, probably, elsewhere. +There, the "king and chief inhabitants +ordinarily constitute a court of justice, in which +all country disputes are adjusted, and to which +every prisoner suspected of capital offences is +brought, to undergo examination and judgment. +If found guilty, they are usually forced to swallow +a deadly potion made from the poisonous +seeds of an aquatic leguminous plant, which +rapidly destroys life. This poison is obtained by +pounding the seeds, and macerating them in +water, which acquires a white milky colour. +The condemned person, after swallowing a certain +portion of the liquid, is ordered to walk +about, until its effects become palpable. If, +however, after the lapse of a definite period, the +accused should be so fortunate as to throw the +poison from off his stomach, he is considered as<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +innocent, and allowed to depart unmolested. In +native <i>parlance</i> this ordeal is designated as 'chopping +nut.'"<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + +<p>The hardest workers amongst the Fantis are +the fishers, who use a canoe of wood of the +bombax, from ten to twelve feet in length, and +strengthened by cross timbers. The net—a +casting net—is made from the fibres of the +aloe or the pine-apple, and is about twenty feet +in diameter (?).</p> + +<p>Next to these come the farmers, whose rough +agriculture consists in the cultivation of maize, +bananas, yams, and pumpkins; and lastly, the +gold-seekers. Of this there is abundance; and +where the European coin of the coast ceases, +the native currency of gold-dust begins. Sums +of so small a value as three half-pence are thus +paid; smaller ones being represented by cowries.</p> + +<p>The highest of their arts is that of manufacturing +gold ornaments, and this is the hereditary +craft of certain families. These transmit the +secret of their skill from father to son, and keep +the corporation to which they belong up to a due +degree of closeness, by avoiding intermarriage +with any of the more unskilled labourers. A +little weaving, and a little potting, constitute the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +remaining arts of the Fanti—as far, at least, as +they are either <i>fine</i> or <i>useful</i>.</p> + +<p>The craft of the <i>Fetish-man</i> comes under +none of the preceding categories. He is the +priest, sorcerer, or medicine man; the representative +of "Paganism, in its lowest and most +hideous form, the objects of their worship +being the most repulsive reptiles, and their +ceremonies the most degrading. They certainly +have some idea of the existence of a First +Cause, and believe themselves to be in the +power of the <i>Great Fetish</i>, their protection or +destruction being dependent upon the will of this +power, of whose attributes they know nothing +further. They also believe in the existence of a +spirit of evil, and on some parts of the coast consider +his power over them so great, that they address +their supplications, and erect, for his especial +service, small mud huts, usually of a conical +shape, built under the shade of some stately palm +or wild fig-tree, in one of the most inviting spots +to be found. These huts bear the unattractive +name among Europeans of 'devil's temples.' It +will be seen thus, that this belief in the existence +of the Great Fetish professed by the Fantees, is a +faint glimmering of that natural religion which all +nations possess. Of the creation of our species, +they do not appear to entertain very correct ideas, +unless it be that they owe their being to this<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +Fetish, who, they say, in the beginning made two +people, one of whom was black, the other white, +and that both originally occupied the Fantee +country. It would seem, however, from their +account, that, after these two men were brought +into existence, the Fetish was at a loss to know +how to dispose of them, and in order to prevent +any jealousy arising between them, had recourse to +a sort of lottery, where there were all prizes and +no blanks. Two packets were accordingly placed +before them, and the black man drew first; nor +was he disappointed with his prize, for it consisted +of such a quantity of gold-dust, that it has +not been taken out of the country yet. The +remaining packet was of course the lawful property +of the white man, and in the long run he +had no cause to complain—for, on being opened, +it was found to contain a book which taught him +everything; and so do the poor wretches account +for the superior intellect of whites, and the inexhaustible +treasures of their own country.</p> + +<p>"In the neighbourhood of Cape Coast, the +natives seem to believe that this Fetish occupies +more especially particular localities, and exists in +the form of a particular animal, so that an isolated +portion of rock is frequently called a Fetish-stone, +and snakes even of the most poisonous description, +in a certain locality, are preserved and allowed to +propagate, undisturbed, their venomous species.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +In some places on the coast, temples dedicated to +snake-worship are built, and the Fetish men, or +priests, connected with them are frequently +esteemed particularly holy, no doubt from the +familiar terms upon which they, in course of +time, become with the horrid reptiles, upon which +the people look as the personification of their +Fetish. The offerings made at these temples are +often very valuable, the cupidity of the deities +within not being easily satisfied. Gold-dust and +clothes are the most acceptable offerings; but when +these are not to be obtained, it is perfectly wonderful +how large a quantity of rum and tobacco the +<i>snakes</i> will consume before they vouchsafe their +good offices for the removal of a disease from a +cow, a wife, a child, or the detection of a thief, +who, not unlikely, has been employed by themselves.</p> + +<p>"These Fetish men and women, too, for there +are Fetish women, and, consequently Fetish +children, have spies in different directions, forming +as many links of communication between the +priesthood in various parts of the country, so +that very few occurrences take place of which +they have not the means of making themselves +acquainted."<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> + +<p>The same writer continues, "Religious observances, +properly so called, the Fantees have<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +none, but each particular class has a certain day +of the week upon which they cease from following +their ordinary avocations—thus, a fisherman +will not go to sea on a Tuesday; nor will a +bushman enter the forest on a Friday—these +days being dedicated to the Fetish, and thus, +in some degree, representing the Sabbath of +Christian nations. There are, in addition, several +days throughout the year—apparently occurring +at the desire of the Fetish men—in which +the Fantees abstain from work, and during a +period of war, it often happens that the movements +of the opposing armies are much interfered +with by the numerous occasions upon +which it becomes necessary to propitiate the +Fetish. One of these especial Fetish days may +be here noticed, it being, apparently, the most +important of those that occur during the whole +year, and its object no less important than driving +the devil out of the village. The period when +this desirable object is effected, occurs during the +month of December, the night-time being chosen +as the most fitting for the ceremony. As soon as +darkness has closed in, the inhabitants of a village +collect at an appointed rendezvous, with sticks +and staves, and under the directions of a leader, +sally out, entering every house in their way, +through the various apartments of which they +knock about, and yell and howl with such violence<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +that they would actually scare any devil but a +most impertinent one. Having, as they think, +completely rid the town of him, they pursue the +retreating enemy for some distance into the +bush, after which they return and spend the remainder +of the night in carousals.</p> + +<p>"There is another festival, which, as it partakes +somewhat of a religious nature, may also be +noticed here, <i>viz.</i>, the yam-custom, which is held +in September, to celebrate the goodness of the +Fetish, in having granted an abundant harvest. +On this occasion, the king of the village and +the staff of Fetish men connected with it, take +part. All the people who can by any possibility +attend, assemble, a procession is formed, and then +the most extraordinary mixture of costumes, the +noises produced by numerous tom-toms, horns +made from elephants' tusks, and the still ruder, +if possible, rattle of two pieces of wood, or +common metal, which the women beat together to +a tune similar to what in Ireland is known as the +Kentish fire. The constant firing of musketry, +and the obscene dances performed by the two sexes +form one of the most debasing and savage exhibitions +it is possible to see. In this way does the +procession parade the principal streets, the king +seated in his basket carried by his slaves, and protected +by the umbrellas, according to his rank—the +Fetish-men dressed in white robes, also in<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +their baskets. On arriving at the king's house +sacrifices are usually offered—some fowls or eggs +being now substituted in the vicinity of our settlements +for a human being, but we have still too +good reasons to believe, that even as near as the +capital of Ashantee many human lives are sacrificed +on this particular occasion, as well as in +other festivals of various descriptions. The offerings +being made, the Fetish-man partakes of the +yam; the king then eats of the valued root; and +after these two have pronounced them ripe and fit +for food, the people consider themselves at liberty +to commence digging.</p> + +<p>"A being named <i>Tahbil</i> resides in the substance +of the rock, upon which Cape Coast is built, and +watches the town. Every morning, offerings of +food or flowers are left for him on the rock. Most +villages have a corresponding deity; and in earlier +times, there is good reason for believing that +human beings were sacrificed to him."</p> + +<p>Likely enough—as may be seen from the practices +at Fanti funerals, and as may be inferred +from the analogy of the other parts of Western +Africa.</p> + +<p>If the survivors of a deceased Fanti be poor, +the corpse is quietly interred in one of the denser +spots of the jungles; and if rich, the funeral is at +once costly and bloody; since gold and jewels are +buried along with the dead body, and human<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +victims as well. The ceremonial is as follows. +The coffin is carried to the grave by slaves, +when the retainers and friends press forwards, +fix the number required (in general four), stun +the selected individuals by a sudden blow on +the head, throw the still breathing bodies into the +grave of their master, and, whilst life yet remains, +cover in the earth.</p> + +<p>This horrible custom is truly West-African. +How near we must approach the Mandingo frontier, +before we get rid of it on the north, or how +far south it extends, I am not exactly able to say. +In Dahomey, where it attains its <i>maximum</i> development, +it is worse than amongst the Ashantis, and +amongst the Ashantis worse than in the proper +Fanti districts. It certainly reaches as far southwards +as Old Calabar, where, upon the death of +Ephraim, a well-known Caboceer, "some hundreds +of men, women, and children were immolated to his +manes,—decapitation, burning alive, and the administration +of the poison-nut, being the methods +resorted to for terminating their existence. When +King Eyeo, father of the present Chief of Creek +Town, died, an eye-witness, who had only arrived +just after the completion of the funeral rites, +informed me that a large pit had been dug, in +which several of the deceased's wives were bound +and thrown in, until a certain number had been +procured; the earth was then thrown over them,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +and so great was the agony of these victims, that +the ground for several minutes was agitated with +their convulsive throes. So fearful, in former +times, was the observance of this barbarous custom, +that many towns narrowly escaped depopulation. +The graves of the kings are invariably concealed, +so as, it is stated, to prevent an enemy from +obtaining their skulls as trophies, which is not the +case with those of the common people."<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p> + +<p>I have said that it is in Dahomey, where the +immolation of human beings is the bloodiest; and +I now add that it is in Dahomey where those +who look for the more characteristic peculiarities +of the Negro stock, must search. But it is the +bad side which will preponderate; it is the +darkest practices which will develop themselves +most typically. What we find in germs and remnants +elsewhere, grow, in Dahomey, to inordinate +and incredible proportions.</p> + +<p>The sacro-sanctitude of the snake is doubled +in Dahomey.</p> + +<p>Slavery, bad along the whole Bight of Benin, +is worse, still, in Dahomey.</p> + +<p>In Akkim we find a <i>female</i> colonel. In Dahomey +there is an army of Amazons, as indicated +by Mr. Duncan, and as described in detail by +Captain Forbes.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>The Gha.</i>—Accra, and the forts lately purchased +from the Danes—Christiansborg and others,—are +the localities of the <i>Gha</i> nation. I say <i>Gha</i> (or +<i>Ghan</i>) because the author of a paper soon about +to be noticed states, that this is the indigenous +name of the people which we call <i>Acra</i>, <i>Akra</i>, +<i>Accrah</i>, or <i>Inkra</i>—and it is always best to give +the native name if we can.</p> + +<p>Adelung, on the authority of Romer and Isert, +gives the following account of the Negroes speaking +the Gha language. He calls it Akra.</p> + +<p>They began with conquering and reducing to a +state of servitude the <i>Adampi</i>, or <i>Tambi</i>, Negroes +of the hill country; these being a portion of +their own stock, and speaking a mutually intelligible +language.</p> + +<p>But, in time, they were themselves conquered +by the <i>Akvambu</i>, and broke up into two parts. +One of these remained <i>in situ</i>, and is represented +by the present Gha of Christiansborg. The other +fled to the Little Popo, an island off the coast of +Dahomey, and there settled.</p> + +<p>What remained then on the Gold Coast were +the Gha and Akvambu; and these were afterwards +conquered by the Akkim Fantis, themselves +eventually reduced by the Ashantis.</p> + +<p>In no more than nine or ten villages, lying +within nine or ten miles of Fort St. James and +Christiansborg, was the Akra language spoken in<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +the time of Protten (<span class="smcapl">A.D.</span> 1794), and of the Ghas +thus speaking it each understood the Fanti.</p> + +<p>This makes the Gha a decreasing, and, for practical +purposes, an unimportant population. At the +same time I should be glad to direct the attention +of some investigator to their ethnology. Their +exact relations to the Akvambu are uncertain. +The only work known to me where specimens +of the latter language are to be found is out of +reach.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> + +<p>Then as to the <i>Adampi</i>. Bowdich states that +it radically differs from the Gha; the numerals, +which agree, being borrowed from the one tongue +into the other. But his collation rests on only +seven words.</p> + +<p>Again,—<i>Adampi</i>, <i>Tembi</i>, and <i>Tambu</i> are words +so much alike as to pass for the same. Yet a +<i>Tembu</i> vocabulary in the "Mithridates" differs +from a <i>Tambu</i> one in the same work—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">ENGLISH.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">TEMBU.</span></td><td><span class="smcapl">TAMBU.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Sky</i></td><td class="td3">so</td><td>giom.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Sun</i></td><td class="td3">wis</td><td>pum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Moon</i></td><td class="td3">igodi</td><td>horamb.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Man</i></td><td class="td3">naa</td><td>nyummu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3">...</td><td class="td3">ibalu</td><td>numero.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Woman</i></td><td class="td3">alo</td><td>in.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Head</i></td><td class="td3">knynoo</td><td>ii.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Foot</i></td><td class="td3">navorree</td><td>nandi.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>One</i></td><td class="td3">kuddum</td><td>kaki.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Two</i></td><td class="td3">noalee</td><td>ennu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Three</i></td><td class="td3">nodoso</td><td>ettee.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Again—the <i>Tembu</i> is related to the vocabulary +of a language called <i>Kouri</i>, which the <i>Tambu</i> is +<i>not</i>.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">ENGLISH.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">TEMBU.</span></td><td><span class="smcapl">KOURI.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Sun</i></td><td class="td3">wis</td><td>nosi.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Man</i></td><td class="td3">ibalu</td><td>abalu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Woman</i></td><td class="td3">alo</td><td>alu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>One</i></td><td class="td3">kuddum</td><td>kotum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Two</i></td><td class="td3">noalee</td><td>nalee.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Three</i></td><td class="td3">nodoso</td><td>natisu.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Thirdly, the <i>Tjemba</i> of Balbi's "Atlas Ethnologique" +is called <i>Kassenti</i>.</p> + +<p>Lastly, the <i>Gha</i>, as far as very short comparison +goes, is neither <i>Tambu</i> nor <i>Tembu</i>: nor yet +<i>Kouri</i>—though it has a few resemblances to +all.</p> + +<p>The author of the paper alluded to above is the +Rev. Mr. Hanson—himself a Gha by birth. It +was laid before the British Association in 1849. +Two points characterize the theory that it exhibits; +but as the publication of the paper <i>in +extenso</i>, is contemplated, I merely state what they +are.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p> + +<p>1. A remarkable number of customs common +to the <i>Jews</i> and the <i>Gha</i>.</p> + +<p>2. The probable origin of the latter population +in some part of the interior of Africa, north of +their present locality, and, perhaps, in the parts +about Timbuktu.</p> + +<p><i>The Quaquas.</i>—I am not sure that this name is +the best that can be given to the class in question. +Hence, it is merely provisional. The language +that is spoken by them is called the <i>Avekvom</i>. +They constitute the chief population of the <i>Ivory</i>—just +as the Krumen do that of the <i>Grain</i> and +the Fantis that of the <i>Gold</i>—Coast. <i>Apollonia</i> is +the English dependency where we find members +of the <i>Quaqua</i> stock.</p> + +<p>The Avekvom dialects of the Quaqua tribes +seem to belong to a different tongue from that +of the Krumen and Fantis; and I imagine that +the three are mutually unintelligible. Still, it +is difficult to predicate this from the mere inspection +of vocabularies; the more so, as no language +of the western coast of Africa is less known +than the Avekvom—the only specimen of any +length being one in the last number of the "Journal +of the American Oriental Society." With +numerous miscellaneous affinities, it is more +Fanti and Grebo than aught else; and, perhaps, +is transitional in character to those two +languages.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p> + +<p>At any rate it is no isolated tongue, as may +be seen from the following table, where <i>Yebu</i> +means the language of the Yarriba country, at +the back of Dahomey, and <i>Efik</i> that of Old Calabar:—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">ENGLISH.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">AVEKVOM.</span></td><td><span class="smcapl">OTHER IBO-ASHANTI LANGUAGES.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Arm</i></td><td class="td3">ebo</td><td>ubok, <i>Efik</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Blood</i></td><td class="td3">evie</td><td>eyip, <i>Efik</i>; eye, <i>Yebu</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Bone</i></td><td class="td3">ewi</td><td>beu, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Box</i></td><td class="td3">ebru</td><td>brânh, <i>Grebo</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Canoe</i></td><td class="td3">edie</td><td>tonh, <i>Grebo</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Chair</i></td><td class="td3">fata</td><td>bada, <i>Grebo</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Dark</i></td><td class="td3">eshim</td><td>esum, <i>Fanti</i>; ekim, <i>Efik</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Dog</i></td><td class="td3">etye</td><td>aja, ayga, <i>Yebu</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Door</i></td><td class="td3">eshinavi</td><td>usuny, <i>Efik</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Ear</i></td><td class="td3">eshibe</td><td>esoa, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Fire</i></td><td class="td3">eya</td><td>ija, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Fish</i></td><td class="td3">etsi</td><td>eja, eya, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Fowl</i></td><td class="td3">esu</td><td>suseo, <i>Mandingo</i>; edia, <i>Yebu</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Ground-nut</i></td><td class="td3">ngeti</td><td>nkatye, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Hair</i></td><td class="td3">emu</td><td>ihwi, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Honey</i></td><td class="td3">ajo</td><td>ewo, <i>Fanti</i>; oyi, <i>Yebu</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>House</i></td><td class="td3">eva</td><td>ifi, <i>Fanti</i>; ufog, <i>Efik</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Moon</i></td><td class="td3">efe</td><td>hâbo, <i>Grebo</i>; ofiong, <i>Efik</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Mosquito</i></td><td class="td3">efo</td><td>obong, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Oil</i></td><td class="td3">inyu</td><td>ingo, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Rain</i></td><td class="td3">efuzumo-sohn</td><td>sanjio, <i>Mandingo</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Rainy season</i></td><td class="td3">eshi</td><td>ojo, <i>rain</i>, <i>Yebu</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Salt</i></td><td class="td3">etsa</td><td>ta, <i>Grebo</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Sand</i></td><td class="td3">esian-na</td><td>utan, <i>Efik</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Sea</i></td><td class="td3">etyu</td><td>idu, <i>Grebo</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Stone</i></td><td class="td3">desi</td><td>sia, shia, <i>Grebo</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Thread</i></td><td class="td3">jesi</td><td>gise, <i>Grebo</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Tooth</i></td><td class="td3">enena</td><td>nyeng, <i>Mandingo</i>; gne, <i>Grebo</i>.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Water</i></td><td class="td3">esonh</td><td>nsu, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Wife</i></td><td class="td3">emise</td><td>muso, <i>Mandingo</i>; mbesia, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Cry</i></td><td class="td3">yaru</td><td>isu, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Give</i></td><td class="td3">nae</td><td>nye, <i>Grebo</i>; no, <i>Efik</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Go</i></td><td class="td3">le</td><td>olo, <i>Yebu</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Kill</i></td><td class="td3">bai</td><td>fa, <i>Mandingo</i>; pa, <i>Yebu</i>.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>There has been war and displacement here as +well as in the Gha country. In the seventeenth +century the parts about Cape Apollonia were +contended for by two tribes called the Issini (or +Oshin) and the Ghiomo. The former gave way +to the latter, and having retreated to the country +of the Veteres, were joined by that tribe against +the Esiep.</p> + +<p>A Quaqua prayer is given in the "Mithridates." +It is uttered every morning by the tribes on the +Issini, after a previous ablution in that river—<i>Anghiume +mame maro, mame orie, mame shikke e +okkori, mame akaka, mame frembi, mame anguan e +awnsan</i>—<i>O Anghiume! give rice, give yams, give +gold, give aigris, give slaves, give riches, give (to be) +strong and swift.</i></p> + +<p>What is here written about the ethnology of +Apollonia is written doubtfully; since here, as at +Acra, the simple ethnology of the pure and proper +Fantis becomes complicated.</p> + +<p><i>The Cape of Good Hope.</i>—The aboriginal population<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +of the Cape is divided between two great +families:—</p> + +<p>1. The Hottentot.</p> + +<p>2. The Kaffre.</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Hottentots.</i>—Of the two families this is +the most western; it is the one which the colonists +came first in contact with, and it is the one which +has been most displaced by Europeans. The +names of fourteen extinct tribes of Hottentots are +known; of which it is only necessary to mention +the Gunyeman and Sussaqua the nearest the +Cape, and the Heykom, so far eastwards and +northwards as Port Natal. The displacement of +these last has not been effected by Europeans. +African subdued African; and it was the Kaffres +who did the work of conquest here.</p> + +<p>Of the extant Hottentots, within the limits of +the colony of the Cape, the most remote are the +<i>Gonaqua</i>, on the head-waters of the Great Fish +River; or rather on the water-shed between it +and the Orange River. They are fast becoming +either extinct, or amalgamated with the Kaffres; +inasmuch as they are the Hottentots of the Amakosa +frontier, and suffer, at least, as much from +the Kaffres as from their white neighbours.</p> + +<p>The <i>Namaquas</i> occupy the <i>lower</i> part of the +Orange River, the Great and Little Namaqualand.</p> + +<p><i>The Koranas.</i>—This branch of the Hottentots<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +has its locality on the middle part of the Gariep, +with the Griquas to the north, the Bechuana +Kaffres to the east, and the Saabs in the middle +of them. Their number is, perhaps, 10,000. +Their exact relation to the other Hottentots is +uncertain. They are a better formed people than +the Gonaqua and Namaqua, but whether they be +the best samples of the Hottentot stock altogether +is uncertain. Probably a tribe far up in the +north-western parts of South Africa, and beyond +Namaqualand, may dispute the honour with them. +These are the Dammaras—themselves disputed +Hottentots. Their country lies beyond the British +colony, but it must be noticed for the sake of +taking in all the branches of the stock in question. +It is the tract between Benguela and Namaqualand, +marked in the maps as <i>sterile country</i>; in +the northern parts of which we sometimes find +notices of a fierce nation called <i>Jagas</i>. Walvisch +Bay lies in the middle of it. Now some writers +make the Dammaras of this country Hottentot; +others Kaffre; and that both rightly and wrongly. +They are both—partly one, partly the other; +since Dammara is a geographical term, and some +of the tribes to which it applies are Kaffre, some +Hottentot. The Dammaras of the plains, or the +Cattle Dammaras are the former; the Dammaras<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> +of the hills, the latter. Between the Dammara<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +and the Korana a much nearer approach to +Kaffre type is made than is usually supposed.</p> + +<p>A branch of the Koranas—those of the valley of +the Hartebeest River—deserves particular attention. +They caution us against overvaluing differences; +and Dr. Prichard has quoted the evidence +of Mr. Thompson with this especial object. They +are Koranas who have suffered in war, lost their +cattle, and been partially expatriated by the +more powerful sections of their stock. Hence, +want and poverty have acted upon them; and the +effect has been that they have become hunters +instead of shepherds, have been reduced to a precarious +subsistence, and as the consequence of +altered circumstances, have receded from the level +of the other Koranas, and approached that of +the—</p> + +<p><i>Saabs or Bushmen.</i>—These belong to the parts +between the Roggeveld and Orange River; parts +which rival the <i>sterile country</i> of the map in barrenness. +As is the country so are the inhabitants; +starved, miserable hunters—hunters rather than +shepherds or herdsmen.</p> + +<p>The Lap is not more strongly contrasted with +the Finlander, than the Korana with the Saab; +and the deadly enmity between these two populations +is as marked as the differences in their +physical appearances. I think, however, that +undue inferences have been drawn from the difference;<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +in other words, that the distance between +the Korana and the Saab has been exaggerated. +The languages are unequivocally allied.</p> + +<p>I think, too, that a similarly undue inference +has been drawn from the extent to which the +Kaffre and the Korana are <i>alike</i>; inasmuch as an +infusion of Kaffre has been assumed for the sake +of accounting for it. Of this, however, no proof +exists.</p> + +<p>The Saabs are described as having constitutions +"so much enfeebled by the dissolute life they +lead, and the constant smoking of <i>dacha</i>, that +nearly all, including the young people, look old +and wrinkled; nevertheless, they are remarkable +for vanity, and decorate their ears, legs, and arms +with beads, and iron, copper, or brass rings. The +women likewise stain their faces red, or paint +them, either wholly or in part. Their clothing +consists of a few sheepskins, which hang about +their bodies, and thus form the mantle or covering, +commonly called a <i>kaross</i>. This is their only +clothing by day or night. The men wear old hats, +which they obtain from the farmers, or else caps +of their own manufacture. The women wear caps +of skins, which they stiffen and finish with a high +peak, and adorn with beads and metal rings. The +dwelling of the Bushman is either a low wretched +hut, or a circular cavity, on the open plain, into +which, at night, he creeps with his wife and<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +children, and which, though it shelters him from +the wind, leaves him exposed to the rain. In +this neighbourhood, in which rocks abound, they +had formerly their habitations in them, as is +proved by the many rude figures of oxen, horses, +serpents, &c. still existing. It is not a little interesting +to see these poor degraded people, who +formerly were considered and treated as little +better than wild beasts in their rocky retreats. +Many of those who have forsaken us live in such +cavities not far from our settlement, and we have +thus an opportunity of observing them in their +natural condition. Several who, when they came +to us from the farmers, were decently clothed and +possessed a flock of sheep, which they had earned, +in a short time returned to their fastnesses in a +state of nakedness and indigence, rejoicing that +they had got free from the farmers, and could live +as they pleased in the indulgence of their sensual +appetites. Such fugitives from civilised life, I +have never seen otherwise occupied than with +their bows and arrows. The bows are small, but +made of good elastic wood; the arrows are formed +of small reeds, the points furnished with a well-wrought +piece of bone, and a double barb, which +is steeped in a potent poison of a resiny appearance. +This poison is distilled from the leaves of +an indigenous tree. Many prefer these arrows to +fire-arms, under the idea that they can kill more<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +game by means of a weapon that makes no report. +On their return from the chase, they feast till +they are tired and drowsy, and hunger alone +rouses them to renewed exertion. In seasons of +scarcity they devour all kinds of wild roots, ants, +ants' eggs, locusts, snakes, and even roasted skins. +Three women of this singular tribe were not long +since met with, several days' journey from this +place, who had forsaken their husbands, and lived +very contentedly on wild honey and locusts. As +enemies, the Bushmen are not to be despised. +They are adepts in stealing cattle and sheep; +and the wounds they inflict when pursued, are +ordinarily fatal if the wounded part is not immediately +cut out. The animals they are unable to +carry off, they kill or mutilate.</p> + +<p>"To our great comfort, even some of these +poor outcasts have shown eagerness to become +acquainted with the way of salvation. The +children of such as are inhabitants of the settlement, +attend the school diligently, and of them +we have the best hopes.</p> + +<p>"The language of the Bushman has not one +pleasing feature; it seems to consist of a collection +of snapping, hissing, grunting, sounds; all +more or less nasal. Of their religious creed it is +difficult to obtain any information; as far as I +have been able to learn, they have a name for the +Supreme Being; and the Kaffre word <i>tixo</i> is<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +derived from the <i>tixme</i> of the Bushmen. Sorcerers +exist among them. One of the Bushmen +residing here being sick, a sorceress was sent for +before we were aware of it, who pretended, by +the virtue of mystic dance, to extract an antelope +horn from the head of the patient."<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> + +<p><i>The Griquas.</i>—The Griquas, called also Baastaards, +are a pastoral population, upwards of +15,000 in number, on the north side of the +great bend of the Orange River. They are the +descendants of Dutch fathers and Hottentot +mothers.</p> + +<p>A mixture of Griquas and Hottentots occurs +also on the Kat River, a feeder of the Great +Fish River, in the district of Somerset, and on +the Kaffre frontier. Here they are distributed in +a series of district locations, amid the dales and +fastnesses of the eastern frontier. A great proportion +of them are discharged soldiers—so that +in reality, like the borderers of old, they form +a sort of military colony.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Kaffres.</i>—The British districts in contact +with the Kaffre populations are the eastern, +and of these Albany and Somerset most especially. +The Kaffre nation in most immediate contact with +Albany and Somerset is—</p> + +<p><i>The Amakosa.</i>—This is the population which +constituted the authority of Hintza, and to which<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +Pato, Gaika, and the other chiefs of the last war +belonged. To this, too, belong the troublesome +chiefs of the present. Next to the Amakosa, and +in alliance with them, come—</p> + +<p><i>The Amatembu</i>, or <i>Tambuki</i> (<i>Tambookies</i>), occupants +of the upper part of the river Kei, as +the Amakosa are of the lower Keiskamma.</p> + +<p>Between the Amatembu and Port Natal lie <i>the +Amaponda</i>, or <i>Mambuki</i> (<i>Mambookies</i>), the northern +extremity of which reaches the country of—</p> + +<p><i>The Amazulu</i>, or <i>Zulu</i> (<i>Zooloos</i>), the chief +frontagers (conjointly with the <i>Mambuki</i>) of Port +Natal.</p> + +<p>The last division of the Kaffres of the coast is +that of—</p> + +<p><i>The Fingos.</i>—In 1835, a numerous population, +called Fingos, was found by Sir B. D'Urban in +the Kaffre chief Hintza's country, and in a state +of abject servitude to the Amakosas. They +were from different tribes; darker and shorter +than the Amakosas—but still true Kaffres. +They were offered land between the lower Keiskamma +and the Great Fish River, and were +emancipated and brought safe into the colony to +the amount of 17,000.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Since then, they have +served as a sort of military police on the Kaffre +frontier; and as shepherds in Australia—whither +they have been advantageously introduced.</p> +<p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p> +<p>But, besides the Kaffres of the coast there are +those of the interior. These speak a modified +form of the Kosa (or Amakosa), called Si-<i>chuana</i>, +the name of the people being Bi-<i>chuana</i>. They lie +due north of the Koranas; beyond the boundaries +of the colony; but not beyond the influence of +its missionaries, or the range of its explorers. +Litaku, Kurrichani, and other similar <i>towns</i> are +<i>Sichuana</i>; the Kaffre civilization being said to +attain its <i>maximum</i> hereabouts.</p> + +<p>There are plenty of points of contrast between +the Kaffre and the typical Negro; so many indeed +as to have suggested the doctrine that the +former class belongs to some division of the +human species other than the African. And +these points of contrast are widely distributed, <i>i.e.</i>, +they appear and re-appear, whatever may be the +view taken of the Kaffre stock. They appear in +the descriptions of their skin and skeletons; they +appear in the notice of their language; and they +appear in the history of the Kaffre wars of the +Cape frontier—wars more obstinate and troublesome +than any which have been conducted by the +true Negro; and which approach the character of +the Kabyle struggle for independence in Algeria. +In investigating these differences we must guard +against the exaggeration of their import.</p> + +<p>Physically, the Kaffre has the advantage of the +Negro in the conformation of the face and skull.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +His forehead betokens greater capacity; being +more prominent, more vaulted, and with a greater +facial angle. His teeth, too, are more vertically +inserted, and the nasal bones less depressed. I +have not heard of aquiline noses in Kaffraria; but +should not be surprised if I did.</p> + +<p>The cheek-bones of the Kaffre project outwards; +and where the cheek-bones so project +beyond a certain limit, the chin appears to taper +downwards, and the vertex upwards. When this +becomes exaggerated we hear of <i>lozenge-shaped</i> +crania; the Malay skulls being currently quoted +as instances thereof. Be this as it may, the +breadth in the malar portion of the face is a +remarkable feature in the Kaffre physiognomy. +This he has in common with the Hottentot. +His hair is also tufted like the Hottentot's: while +his lips are thick like the Negro's. Tall in stature, +wiry and elastic in his muscles, the Kaffre varies +in colour, through all the shades of black and +brown; being, in some portions of his area nearly +as dark as the Negro, in others simply brown +like the Arab. The eye is sometimes oblique; +the opening generally narrow.</p> + +<p>An opinion often gives a better picture than a +description. Kaffres, that have receded in the +greatest degree from the Negro type, have been +so likened to the more southern Arabs as to have<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +engendered the hypothesis of an infusion of Arab +blood.</p> + +<p>The manners of the Kaffres of the Cape are +those of pastoral tribes under chieftains; tribes +which, from their habits and social relations, are +naturally active, locomotive, warlike, and jealous +of encroachment. Next to marauding on the +hunting-grounds of an American Indian, interference +with the pasture of a shepherd population +is the surest way to warfare.</p> + +<p>It would be strange indeed if the Kaffre life +and Kaffre physiognomy had no peculiarities. +However little in the way of physical influence +we may attribute to the geography of a country, +no man ignores them altogether. Now Kaffreland +has very nearly a latitude of its own; inhabited +lands similarly related to the southern tropic +being found in South America and Australia +only. And it has a soil still more exclusively +South-African. We connect the idea of the +<i>desert</i> with that of sand; whilst <i>steppe</i> is a term +which is limited to the vast tracts of central Asia. +Now the Kaffre, and still more the Hottentot, +area, dry like the desert, and elevated like the +steppe, is partially a <i>karro</i>. Its soil is often a +hard, cracked, and parched clay rather than a waste +of sand, and it constitutes an argillaceous table-land. +Its vegetation has strongly marked characters. +Its Fauna has the same.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p> + +<p>The language is peculiar. If English were +spoken on Kosa or Sichuana principles we should +say</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td><i>b</i>un beam</td><td class="center">instead of</td><td><i>s</i>un beam.</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>l</i>oon light</td><td class="center">...</td><td><i>m</i>oon light.</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>s</i>rand-son</td><td class="center">...</td><td><i>g</i>rand-son, &c.,</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="noin">since, in the Kaffre languages throughout, subordinate +words in certain syntactic combinations, +accommodate their initial letter to that of the +leading word of the term.</p> + +<p>Their polity and manners, too, are peculiar. +The head man of the village settles disputes; his +tribunal being in the open air. From him an +appeal lies to a chief of higher power; and from +him to some superior, higher still. In this way +there is a long chain of feudal or semi-feudal dependency.</p> + +<p>But the power of the chief is checked by that +of the priest. A supposed skill in medicine, +imaginary arts of divination, and an accredited +power over the elements are the prerogatives of +certain witches and wizards. Thus, when a murrain +among the cattle, or the death of an important +individual has taken place, the blame is laid +upon some unfortunate victim whom the witch +or wizard points out. And the ordeal to which +he must submit, is equal in cruelty to those of +the Gold Coast. He is beaten with sticks, and +then pegged down to the ground. Whilst thus<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +helpless, a nest of venomous bush-ants is broken +over his racked and quivering body. If this fail +to extort a confession, he is singed to death with +red-hot stones.</p> + +<p>This tells us what is meant by Kaffre chiefs +and Kaffre wizards.</p> + +<p>The wife is the slave to the husband; and he +<i>buys</i> her in order that she should be so. The +purchase implies a seller. This is always a +member of another tribe. Hence the wish +of a Kaffre is to see his wife the mother of +many children, girls being more valuable than +boys.</p> + +<p>Why a man should not sell his offspring to the +members of his own tribe is uncertain. It is +clear, however, that the practice of doing so makes +marriage between even distant relations next to +impossible. To guard against the chances of this, +a rigid and suspicious system of restraint has +been developed in cases of consanguinity; and +relations must do all they can to avoid meeting. +To sit in the same room, to meet on the same +road, is undesirable. To converse is but just +allowable, and then all who choose must hear what +is said. So thorough, however, has been the +isolation in many cases, that persons of different +sexes have lived as near neighbours for many +years without having conversed with each other; +and such communication as there has been, has<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +taken place through the medium of a third person. +No gift will induce a Kaffre female to violate +this law.</p> + +<p>Is the immolation of human beings at the +death of chieftains a Kaffre custom, as it was +one of western Africa? The following extract +gives an answer in the affirmative, the only difference +being the <i>pretext</i> of the murders. On +the "death of the mother of Chaka, the great +Zulu chief, a public mourning was held, which +lasted for the space of two days, the people being +assembled at the kraal of the chief to the number +of sixty or eighty thousand souls. Mr. Fynn, who +was present, describes the scene as the most terrific +which it is possible for the human mind to conceive. +The immense multitude were all engaged +in rending the air with the most doleful shrieks, +and discordant cries and lamentations; whilst, in +the event of their ceasing to utter them, they +were instantly butchered as guilty of a crime +against the reigning tyrant. It is said that no +less than six or seven thousand persons were +destroyed on this occasion, charged with no other +offence than exhausted nature in the performance +of this horrid rite, their brains being mercilessly +dashed out amidst the surrounding throng. As a +suitable <i>finale</i> to this dreadful tragedy, it is said +that ten females were actually buried alive with +the royal corpse; whilst all who witnessed the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +funeral were obliged to remain on the spot for a +whole year."</p> + +<p>Details of Kaffre manners may be multiplied +almost <i>ad infinitum</i>; and as their history and +habits are likely to fill a Blue Book, a short treatise +can only notice their more prominent peculiarities.</p> + +<p>However, lest an undue inference be drawn +from their contrast to the Hottentot, we must +remember that the former has encroached upon +the latter, and that such transitional populations +as existed have been swept away.</p> + +<p>Now comes a coloured population—not indigenous, +but the descendants of the <i>slaves</i> of the +colony. This consists of—</p> + +<p>1. Negroes.</p> + +<p>2. Malays from the Indian Archipelago.</p> + +<p>3. Malagasi from Madagascar.</p> + +<p>To which we must add, as of mixed blood, the +offspring of—</p> + +<p>1. Negroes and Dutch, English, &c.</p> + +<p>2. Malays and Dutch, English, &c.</p> + +<p>3. Malagasi and Dutch, English, &c.</p> + +<p>This seems to be the limit of the intermixture; +since, between the Malays and Negroes, +&c., there is but little intermarriage. The <i>possible</i> +elements, however, of hybridity are numerous, +<i>e.g.</i>, Griquas and Negroes, Griquas and Malays, +Malays and Kaffres, &c.</p> + +<p><i>The so-called yellow men.</i>—On the 4th of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +August, 1782, the "Grosvenor" Indiaman was +wrecked on the coast of Natal. Of the crew +who escaped, some reached the Cape and others +remained amongst the natives. In 1790, an expedition +was undertaken in search of them.</p> + +<p>In this expedition, Mr. Van Reenens, considered +that he had discovered a village where the +people were descended from the whites, and in +which there were three old women who had +been wrecked when very young. They could not +tell to what country they belonged; were treated +as superior beings; and, when offered a safe +convoy to the Cape, were at first pleased with the +prospect, but eventually refused to leave their +children and grandchildren. Now, whatever these +old women were, they were not of the crew of +the "Grosvenor," and I doubt whether they were +Europeans at all.</p> + +<p>Again—Mr. Thomson, when at Litaku, heard +of yellow <i>cannibals</i>, with long hair, whose invasions +were the dread of the country; a statement +which merely means that some tribes of South +Africa, are lighter coloured, and more savage in +their appetite than others.</p> + +<p>Lastly, Lieutenant Farewell saw one of these +yellow men at Natal, who was described as a cannibal, +and <i>who shrunk abashed from the lieutenant</i>.</p> + +<p>Be it so. The evidence that "there are descendants +of Europeans and Africans now widely<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +diffusing their offspring throughout the country; +whose services might be turned to good account in +civilizing the native tribes," is still incomplete.</p> + +<p><i>Mauritius.</i>—The coloured population, which is +far greater than that of the white, consists in the +Mauritius of—</p> + +<p>1. True Africans—chiefly from the east coast, +and, consequently, of the Kaffre stock; the word +being used in its most general sense. Darker +than the Kaffres of the Cape, they, nevertheless, +recede from the Negro type in the shape of the +jaw, lips, and forehead. The hair also is less +woolly. They are strong and powerful individuals.</p> + +<p>2. Malagasi, or natives of Madagascar.—These +are <i>not</i> Africans to the same extent as the +Kaffres of the coast. As far back as the time of +Reland it was known that the affinities of the +Malagasi language were with the Malay and Polynesian +tongues of Asia; but it was also known +that the similarity in physiognomy was less than +that of language. Hence came a conflict of difficulties. +The speech indicated one origin, the +colour another—whilst the fact of an island so +near to Africa, and so far from Malacca, as Madagascar, +being other than what its geographical position +indicated, is, and has been, a mystery. Some +writers have assumed an intermixture of blood; +others have limited the Malay element to the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +dominant population. Lastly, Mr. Crawfurd has +denied the inferences from the similarity of language +<i>in toto</i>; considering that there is "nothing +in common between the two races, and nothing in +common between the character of their languages." +The comparative philologist is slow to admit this—indeed, +he denies it.</p> + +<p>The blacks form the great majority of the +coloured population. Besides these, however, +there are—</p> + +<p>3. Arabs.</p> + +<p>4. Chinese.</p> + +<p>5. Hindús, from the continent of India; convicts +being transported to the Mauritius for life, +and worked on the roads of the colony.</p> + +<p>6. Cingalese from Ceylon—the Kandian chiefs +whose presence in their native country was thought +likely to endanger the tranquillity of the island, +were sent hither.</p> + +<p>The whites of the Mauritius are chiefly French; +though not wholly of pure blood. The first settlers +took their wives from Madagascar. The +English form the smallest part of the population.</p> + +<p><i>Rodrigues</i>—occupied by a few French colonists +from the Mauritius.</p> + +<p><i>The Seychelles</i>—The same; the coloured population +outnumbering the white in the proportion +of ten to one. Here there is a Portuguese admixture. +From Maha, the chief town of the Seychelles,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +to Madagascar, is five hundred and seventy-six +miles—a fact to be borne in mind when we +speculate upon the origin of the population of +that island.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><i>The Africans of British America.—Honduras, +Belize, the West India Islands, and Demerara.</i>—The +usual distribution of the population of these +parts is—</p> + +<div class="hd1">WHITE.</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. European whites, born in Europe.</p> + +<p>2. Creoles, or whites born in the island.</p></div> + +<div class="hd1">COLOURED.</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center"><i>a. Pure Blood.</i></p> + +<p>1. Mandingos, from the river-systems of the +Senegal and Gambia.</p> + +<p>2. Coromantines—from the Ivory and Gold +Coast.</p> + +<p>3. Whydahs—from Dahomey.</p> + +<p>4. Ibos—from the Lower Niger.</p> + +<p>5. Congos—from Portuguese Africa.</p></div> + +<div class="center"><i>b. Mixed Blood.</i></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Sambos, intermixture of the Negro and Mulatto.</p> + +<p>2. Mulattoes—Negro and white.</p> + +<p>3. Quadroons—Mulatto and white.</p> + +<p>4. Mestis—Quadroon and white.</p></div><p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p> + +<p>Such is what I find in Mr. Martin's valuable +work on the Colonies, and it is, undoubtedly, a +convenient and practical classification. Yet for the +purposes of ethnology, it is deficient in detail. +Without even guessing at the proportion of +American slaves which the different parts of the +western coast of Africa may have supplied, I subjoin +a brief notice of tract between the Senegal +and Benguela.</p> + +<p>1. First come the <i>Wolof</i>, between the Senegal +and Cape Verde. To the back of these +lie—</p> + +<p>2. The <i>Serawolli</i>—and around Cape Verde—</p> + +<p>3. The <i>Sereres</i>—none of these are truly +Mandingo; nor is it certain that many slaves +have come from them; such as do, however, +are probably Mandingos in the current classification.</p> + +<p>4. The Fulahs of Fouta-Torro and Fouta-Jallo +possess the higher part of the Senegambian system. +Imperfect Mahometans, they are lighter-coloured +than either the Wolof or the Mandingo. Notwithstanding +the great Fulah conquests—for +under a leader named Danfodio this has been +one of the encroaching and subjugating families +of Africa—there are still American slaves of +Fulah blood—though, perhaps, but few. Mr. +Hodgson procured his vocabulary from a Fulah +slave of Virginia; and what we find in the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +United States, we may find in the British possessions +also.</p> + +<p>5. The Mandingos Proper are the Negroes of +the Gambia; but the following Africans, all +within the range of the old slave trade, belong to +the same class.</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> The Susu; whose language is spoken from +the River Pongos to Sierra Leone.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> The Timmani.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> The Bullom—each in contact with that settlement.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> The Vey—the written language already +noticed.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> The Mendi—conterminous with the Vey.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> The Kissi—like the last two, spoken in the +country behind Cape Mount, and on the boundaries +of Liberia.</p> + +<p>South of the Gambia and north of the Pongos, +the Mandingo tongues, though spoken in the interior, +do not reach the coast. On the contrary, +they encircle the populations on the mouths of +the Cacheo, Rio Grande, and Nun—and truly +barbarous populations these are. Of these the +most northern are—</p> + +<p>6. <i>The Felúp</i> (Feloops)—between the Gambia +and Cacheo.</p> + +<p>7. <i>The Papel</i>—south of the Cacheo.</p> + +<p>8. <i>The Balantes</i>—south of the Papel.</p> + +<p>9. <i>The Bagnon</i>—on the Lower Cacheo.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span></p> + +<p>10. <i>The Bissago</i>—islanders off the Cacheo.</p> + +<p>11. <i>Nalú</i> (<i>Naloos</i>)—on the Lower Nun.</p> + +<p>12. <i>Sapi</i>—<i>ibid</i>.</p> + +<p>After these come the Susu, &c.; down to the +tribes about Cape Mount and Cape Mesurado.</p> + +<p>Between Cape Mesurado and Cape Palmas +come—</p> + +<p>13. <i>The Krumen.</i> Next to them—</p> + +<p>14. <i>The Quaquas</i>, of the Ivory Coast; speaking +different Avekvom dialects.</p> + +<p>Somewhere hereabouts come the—</p> + +<p>15, 16, 17. Kanga, Mangree, and Gien; three +undetermined vocabularies of the "Mithridates." +Then—</p> + +<p>18, 19, 20. The Fanti, Gha, and Adampi (?) of +the Gold Coast. We now approach the great +marts—</p> + +<p>21, 22. Benin and Dahomey; and—almost +equal in infamous notoriety—the countries of the +Delta, of the Niger, or of the—</p> + +<p>23, 24, 25. Ibu, Bonny, and Efik (Old Calabar) +Africans; at the back of which lie—</p> + +<p>26, 27. Yarriba, and the Nufi country. In +Fernando Po the population is—</p> + +<p>28. Ediya. About the Bimbia river and mountain—</p> + +<p>29. Isubu.</p> + +<p>30, 31, 32. The <i>Banaka</i> (or <i>Batanga</i>), the +<i>Panwi</i>, and the <i>Mpoongwe</i> take us from the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +Gaboon to Loango; forming a transition from the +true Negroes to the Kaffres.</p> + +<p>33, 34, 35, 36. <i>Loango</i>, <i>Congo</i>, <i>Angola</i>, and +<i>Benguela</i>—the Kaffre type, both in form and language, +is now more closely approached. Below +Benguela there has been little or no exportation.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> "Journal of the Geographical Society," 1850.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> "United Service Magazine," Dec., 1850.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> "United Service Journal," Nov., 1850.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Daniell in "Transactions of the Ethnological Society."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> "United Service Journal," Nov., 1850.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Dr. Daniell on the Natives of Old Calabar, "Transactions +of the Ethnological Society."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Rask.—<i>Vejledning tel Acra-sproget, paa Kysten Ginea, +med et Tillaeg om Akvambuisk.</i>—Copenhagen, 1828. <i>Introduction +to the Acra Language, on the Coast of Guinea, with +an Appendix on the Akvambu.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> "Journal of the American Oriental Society," vol. i. no. 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> "British Colonies." By M. Martin.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> "Journal of the Geographical Society," vol. v. p. 319.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr /><p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2> + +<h3>BRITISH COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES IN ASIA.</h3> + +<div class="bk1"><p>ADEN.—THE MONGOLIAN VARIETY.—THE MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES.—HONG +KONG.—THE TENASSERIM PROVINCES; MAULMEIN, +YE, TAVOY, TENASSERIM, THE MERGUI ARCHIPELAGO.—THE +MÔN, SIAMESE, AVANS, KARIENS, AND SILONG.—ARAKHAN.—MUGS, +KHYENS.—CHITTAGONG, TIPPERA, AND SYLHET.—KUKI.—KASIA.—CACHARS.—ASSAM.—NAGAS.—SINGPHO.—JILI.—KHAMTI.—MISHIMI.—ABORS +AND BOR-ABORS.—DUFLA.—AKA.—MUTTUCKS +AND MIRI, AND OTHER TRIBES OF THE VALLEY +OF ASSAM.—THE GARO.—CLASSIFICATION.—MR. BROWN'S +TABLES.—THE BODO.—DHIMAL.—KOCCH.—LEPCHAS OF SIKKIM.—RAWAT +OF KUMAON.—POLYANDRIA.—THE TAMULIAN +POPULATIONS.—RAJMAHALI MOUNTAINEERS.—KÚLIS, KHONDS, +GOANDS, CHENCHWARS.—TUDAS, ETC.—BHILS.—WARALIS.—THE +TAMUL, TELINGA, KANARA AND MALAYALAM LANGUAGES.</p></div> + +<p><i>Aden.</i>—The ethnology of the Arab stock would +fill a volume. It is sufficient to state that the +British political dependency of Aden is, ethnologically, +an Arab town.</p> + +<p>Far more important possessions direct our attention +towards India. Nevertheless, there are +certain preliminaries to its ethnology.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p> + +<p>Mongolia and China—each of these countries +illustrates an important ethnological phenomenon.</p> + +<p>The first is a physical one. Cheek-bones that +project outwards, a broad and flat face, a depressed +nose, an oblique eye, a somewhat slanting insertion +of the teeth, a scanty beard, an undersized +frame, and a tawny or yellow skin, characterize +the Mongol of Mongolia.</p> + +<p>The second is a philological one. A comparative +absence of grammatical inflexions, and a +disproportionate preponderance of monosyllabic +words, characterize the language of China.</p> + +<p>So much for the simple elementary facts; the +former of which will be spoken of under the designation +of <i>Mongolian conformation</i>; the second +under that of <i>monosyllabic language</i>.</p> + +<p>Neither term is limited to the nation by which +it has been illustrated. Plenty of populations +besides those of Mongolia Proper are Mongol in +physiognomy. Plenty of nations besides the +Chinese are monosyllabic in language.</p> + +<p>All the nations speaking monosyllabic tongues +are Mongol in physiognomy; though all the +nations which have a Mongol physiognomy do <i>not</i> +speak monosyllabic tongues. This makes the +latter group, which for shortness will be called +that of the <i>monosyllabic</i> nations or tribes—a section, +or division, of the former.</p> + +<p>Little Tibet, Ladakh, Tibet Proper, Butan, and<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +China, are all Mongol in form, and monosyllabic +in language. So are Ava, Pegu, Siam, Cambojia, +and Cochin China, the countries which constitute +the great peninsula, sometimes called <i>Indo-Chinese</i>, +and sometimes <i>Transgangetic</i>.</p> + +<p>The extremity however—the Malayan peninsula—is +<i>not</i> monosyllabic.</p> + +<p><i>The British possessions of Hindostan are monosyllabic +on their Tibetan and Burmese frontiers.</i></p> + +<p><i>Hong-Kong.</i>—Aden was disposed of briefly. So +is Hong-Kong; and that for the same reason. +Politically, British, it is ethnologically Chinese.</p> + +<p><i>Maulmein, Ye, Tavoy, Tenasserim, and the +Mergui Archipelago.</i>—These constitute what are +sometimes called the <i>ceded</i>, sometimes the <i>Tenasserim</i> +provinces. They came into possession of +the British at the close of the Burmese war of +1825. Unlike our dependencies in Hindostan, they +are cut off from connection with any of the great +centres of British power in Asia—in which respect +they agree with the smaller and still more isolated +settlements of the Malaccan Peninsula. The +power that ceded them was the Burmese, so that +it is with the existing subjects of that empire that +their present limits are in contact; though only +for the northern part. To the south they abut +upon Siam.</p> + +<p>The population throughout is monosyllabic; +except so far as it is modified by foreign intermixture—of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +which by far the most important element +is the Indian. Everything in the way of +religious creed which is not native and pagan is +Indian and Buddhist. The alphabets, too, of the +lettered populations are Indian in origin.</p> + +<p>The population of the <i>continental</i> part of these +British dependencies is referable to four divisions—of +unequal and imperfectly ascertained value. +1. The Môn. 2. The Siamese. 3. The Avans. +4. The Kariens.</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Môn.</i>—Môn is the native name of the +indigenous population of Pegu, so that the Môn +of Maulmein, or Amherst, the most northern of +the provinces in question, on the left bank of the +lower Salwín, are part and parcel of the present +occupants of the delta of the Irawaddi, and the +country about Cape Negrais. The Burmese call +them <i>Talieng</i>, and under that designation they are +described in Dr. Helfer's Report.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> The Siamese +appellation is <i>Ming-môn</i>; apparently the native +name in a state of composition. In the early +Portuguese notices a still more composite form +appears—and we hear of the ancient empire of +<i>Kalamenham</i>, supposed to have been founded by +the <i>Pandalús</i> of Môn or Pegu.</p> + +<p>None of the <i>lettered</i> languages of the Indo-Chinese +peninsula are less known than that of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +Pegu. At the same time its unequivocally monosyllabic +character is beyond doubt. The alphabet +is a slight variation of the Avan.</p> + +<p>The geographical position of the Môn at the +extremity of a promontory, and on the delta of +a river, taken along with their philological isolation, +is remarkable. They have evidently been +encroached upon by the Avans in latter times; +whilst, at an earlier period, they themselves probably +encroached upon others. Whether they +are the oldest occupants of Maulmein is uncertain; +it is only certain that they are older than +their conquerors.</p> + +<p>To the Môn of Pegu the exchange of Avan for +British rule, has been a great and an appreciated +advantage.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Siamese.</i>—The native name for the +Siamese language is <i>Tha'y</i>, and <i>Tha'y</i> is the +national and indigenous denomination of the +Siamese. It is the Avans who call them <i>Sian</i> or +<i>Shan</i>; from whence the European term has been +derived through the Portuguese.</p> + +<p>The Siamese population is of course greatest +on the Siamese frontier; so that, increasing as +we go south, it attains its <i>maximum</i> in Tenasserim +just as the Môn did in Maulmein. It seems, +also, to have been introduced at different times; a +fact which gives us a distinction between the +native Siamese and the recent settlers.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span></p> + +<p>Like the <i>Môn</i>, the Tha'y, at least in its more +classical dialect, is a lettered language; the alphabet, +like the Buddhist religion, being Indian. +Unlike, however, the <i>Môn</i>, which is the only +representative of the family to which it belongs, +the <i>Tha'y</i> tribes constitute a vast class, falling +into divisions and subdivisions, and exceedingly +remarkable in respect to its geographical distribution.</p> + +<p>The Siamese of Siam, the kingdom of which +Bankok is the capital, form but a fraction of this +great stock. The <i>upper</i> half of the river Menam +is occupied by what are called the <i>Laú</i>, or +<i>Laos</i>. These are partly wholly independent, and +partly in nominal dependence upon China; and +proportionate to their independence is the unlettered +character of their language, and the absence +of Indian influences. Nor is this all. The +Menam is pre-eminently the river of the Tha'y +stock, and along the water-system of the Menam +its chief branches are to be found; their position +being between the Burmese populations of the +west, and the Khomen of Cambojia on the east. +This distribution is <i>vertical</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, it is characterized +by its length, rather than its breadth, and runs +from south to north. So far does it reach in this +direction that, as high as 28° North lat., in upper +Assam we find a branch of it. This is the <i>Khamti</i>. +In a valuable comparison of languages, well-known<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +as "Brown's Tables,"<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> the proportion of the +Khamti words to the South Siamese is ninety-two +<i>per cent.</i></p> + +<p>Of the physical appearance of the Siamese, we +find the best account in "Crawfurd's Embassy," the +classical work for the ethnology of the southern +part of the Indo-Chinese peninsula. Their stature +is low; the tallest man out of twenty having +been five feet eight inches, the shortest five feet +three. The complexion, darker than that of the +Chinese, is lighter than that of the Malay; the +eye oblique; the jaw square; and the cheek-bones +broad.</p> + +<p><i>Tha'y</i> is an ethnological term, and denotes all +the nations and tribes akin to the Siamese of the +southern, the Khamti of the northern, or the Laú +of the intermediate area. The difference between +the first and the last of these three should be +noticed. Some members of the family are Indianized +in religion, and organized in politics. +Such are the Siamese of Bankok. Others retain +both their independence and their original Paganism. +Such are some of the Laú. <i>Mutatis +mutandis</i>, the same applies to the next family.</p> + +<p>This is the <i>Burmese</i>, to which both the Avans +and the Kariens belong; but as it has been already +stated that the divisions under consideration<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +are by no means of equal value, the two branches +will be considered separately.</p> + +<p>3. <i>The Avans.</i>—<i>Avan</i> is a more convenient +term than <i>Burmese</i>, inasmuch as it is more definite; +the <i>Burmese Empire</i> containing not only +very distant members of the great <i>Burmese</i> family, +but also populations which belong to other +groups. <i>Ava</i>, on the other hand, is the centre +of the dominant division.</p> + +<p>Whether the <i>Môn</i>, or a family yet to be mentioned, +represent the aborigines of <i>Maulmein</i>, it +is certain that the Avans of that country are of +comparatively recent introduction.</p> + +<p>Again, whether the <i>Tha'y</i>, or a family yet to +be mentioned, represent the aborigines of <i>Tenasserim</i>, +it is certain that the Avans of that country +are of comparatively recent origin.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, there are Avans in each; and in +Maulmein, although the Môn preponderate in +number, they all are able to speak the language +of their conquerors. I say <i>conquerors</i>, because +the Avans are for all the parts south of 18° +North lat., an intrusive population: the end of +the eighteenth century being the date, when, +under Alompra, an Avan or Umerapúra dynasty +broke up and subjected, in different degrees, the +Môn and Tha'y populations to the south, as well +as several others more akin to itself on the east, +west, and north.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p> + +<p>The kingdom of Ava, next to those of China +and Siam, best represents the civilization of those +families whose tongue is monosyllabic. This implies +that it has an organized polity, a lettered +language, and a Buddhist creed; in other words +that the influences of either China or India have +acted on it. Of these two nations it is the latter +which has most modified the Indianized members +of the great Burmese stock. In strong contrast +with these is the fourth and last branch of the +<i>continental</i> population for the provinces in question, +the</p> + +<p>4. <i>Karien.</i>—The Kariens are partially independent; +chiefly pagan; and their language, belonging +to the same class with the Avan, is unlettered. +They are the first of a long list.</p> + +<p>Their geographical distribution is remarkable, +like that of the Tha'y. Its direction is north and +south; its dimensions linear, rather than broad; +and it bears nearly the same relation to the water-system +of the Salwín that that of the Siamese does +to the river Menam. There are Kariens as far +south as 11° North lat. and there are Kariens as far +north as 25° North lat. Hence we have them in +Maulmein, and in Tenasserim, and in the intermediate +provinces of Ye and Tavoy as well. All +these, like the Môn, have been eased by the transfer +from Avan oppression to British rule; though +this says but little. Hence, with one exception,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +the other members of their family are decreasing; +the exception being the so-called <i>Red</i> Karien.</p> + +<p>This epithet indicates a change in physiognomy; +and, indeed, the physical conformation of the +Burmese tribes requires attention. It is Mongolian +in the way that the Siamese is Mongolian; +but changes have set in. The beard increases; +the hair becomes crisper; and the complexion +darkens. The Kyo,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> the isolated occupants of a +single village on the river Koladyng, are so much +darker than their neighbours as to have been +considered half Bengali; and, as a general rule, +the nearer we approach India, the deeper becomes +the complexion. The Môn, too, of Pegu, +are very dark. What is this the effect of? Certainly +not of latitude, since we are moving northward. +Of intermarriage? There is no proof of +this. The greater amount of low alluvial soils, +like those of the Ganges and Irawaddi, is, in +my mind, the truer reason. But this is too +general a question to be allowed to delay us. +The Red Kariens are instances of an Asiatic tribe +with an American colour; just as the Red Fulahs +were in Africa. Such are the occupants of the +<i>continent</i>.</p> + +<p>5. <i>The Silong.</i>—In the <i>islands</i> of the Mergui +Archipelago, there is another variety; but whether<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +it form a class itself, or belong to any of the previous +ones, is uncertain. Their language is said +to be peculiar;<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> but of this we have no specimen. +As it is probably that of the oldest inhabitants +of the continent opposite, this is to be +regretted.</p> + +<p>They are called <i>Silong</i>, are a sort of sea-gipsy; +and amount to about one thousand. Of all the +creeds of either India or the Indo-Chinese peninsula +theirs is the most primitive; so primitive as +to be characterized by little except its negative +characters. They believe that the land, air, trees, +and waters are inhabited by <i>Nat</i>, or spirits, who +direct the phenomena of Nature. How far they +affect that of man, except indirectly, is unascertained. +"We do not think about that," was the +invariable answer, when any one was questioned +about a future state. Too vague for monotheism, +the Silong creed is also said to be too vague for +idolatry, too vague for sacrifices.</p> + +<p>The Kariens, also, believe in <i>Nat</i>, but, as <i>they</i> +believe in their influence on human affairs, they +sacrifice to them accordingly.</p> + +<p>Little, then, as we know, respecting these +two families, we know that the common practice +of <i>Nat</i> worship connects them; and this worship +connects many other members of the <i>Burmese</i> +stock. Consequently it helps us to place<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +the Silong in that group. It also favours the +notion of the Tenasserim aborigines being Burmese.</p> + +<p>It is the delta of the Irawaddi which isolates +the <i>Tenasserim provinces</i>; and the British dependency +from which it separates them is—</p> + +<p><i>Arakhan.</i>—We are prepared for the ethnological +position of the Arakhan populations. +They are <i>Burmese</i>.</p> + +<p>We are likewise prepared for a division of +them; there will be the Indianized and the +Pagan—paganism and political independence going, +to a certain degree, together.</p> + +<p>We are prepared for even minuter detail; the +paganism will be Nat-worship; the Indian creed +Buddhism: the alphabet also, where the language +is written, will be Indian also. In Captain +Tower's vocabulary,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> only seven words out of +fifty differ between the Burmese of Arakhan, and +the Burmese of Ava; and some of these are mere +differences of pronunciation.</p> + +<p>The language itself is called <i>Rukheng</i> by those +who use it; but the Bengali name is <i>Mug</i>.</p> + +<p>This applies to the Indianized part of the population, +the analogues of the Avans and Siamese +of Tenasserim, and of the Môn of Maulmein. +What are the Arakhan equivalents to the Karien?</p> + +<p><i>The Khyen.</i>—These inhabit the Yuma mountains<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +between Arakhan and Ava. A full notice of +them is given by Lieutenant Trant, in the sixteenth +volume of the "Asiatic Researches." But +as they are chiefly independent tribes, it is enough +to state that they form the Anglo-Burmese +frontier. It is also added that there are numerous +Khyen slaves in Arakhan.</p> + +<p>Farther notice of them is the less important, +because a closely allied population will occur +amongst the hill-tribes of—</p> + +<p><i>Chittagong.</i>—Hindú elements now increase. +Even in Arakhan, Buddhism had ceased to be the +only creed of western origin. There were Mahometans +who spoke a mixed dialect called the +<i>Ruinga</i>;<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> and Brahminical Hindús who spoke +another called the <i>Rosawn</i>. In Chittagong, then, +we must look about us for the aborigines; so intrusive +have become the Hindú elements. Intrusive, +however, they are, and intrusive they will +be for some time to come.</p> + +<p>The foot of the hill, and the hill itself, are important +points of difference in Indian ethnology. +On the <i>lower</i> ranges of the mountains on the +north-east of Chittagong are the <i>Khumia</i> (<i>Choomeeas</i>) +or <i>villagers</i>; <i>khum</i> (<i>choom</i>) meaning <i>village</i>. +These are definitely distinguished from +the Hindús, by a flat nose, small eye, and broad +round face, in other words by Mongolian characteristics<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +in the way of physiognomy. But the +<i>Khumia</i> are less perfect samples of their class than +the true mountaineers. These are the <i>Kuki</i>,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>—hunters +and warriors, divided into tribes, each +under elective chiefs, themselves subordinate to a +hereditary <i>Raja</i>,—at least such is the Hindú +phraseology.</p> + +<p>Their creed consists in the belief of <i>Khogein +Pootteeang</i> as a superior, and <i>Sheem Sauk</i> as an +inferior deity; the destruction of numerous enemies +being the best recommendation to their +favour. A wooden figure, of human shape, represents +the latter. The skulls of their enemies +they keep as trophies. In the month of January +there is a solemn festival.</p> + +<p>Language and tradition alike tell us that the +Kuki (and most likely the Khumia as well) are +unmodified Mugs. The displacement of their +family has been twofold—first by Hindús, secondly +by Buddhist (or modified) Mugs at the time of the +Burmese conquest. The Kuki population extends +to the wilder parts of the district of <i>Tippera</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Sylhet.</i>—On the southern frontier we have +Kukis; on the eastern Cachari; on the northern +Coosyas (<i>Kasia</i>). Due west of these last lie the +Garo. I imagine that both these last-named +populations are members of the same group—but +cannot speak confidently. If so, we have departed<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +considerably from the more typical Burmese of +Arakhan and Ava. Still we are within the same +great class. The Garo will command a somewhat +full notice.</p> + +<p>The Cachars depart still more from the more +typical Burmese; the group to which they most +closely belong being one which will also be enlarged +on.</p> + +<p>North of the Kasia we reach the western portion +of the southern frontier of—</p> + +<p><i>Assam.</i>—Here it will be convenient to take the +whole of the valley—Upper as well as Middle and +Lower Assam—although parts of the former are +independent rather than British—and to go round +it; beginning with the Kasia country and the +Jaintia mountains on the south-west. I imagine—but +am not certain—that the Kasia and Jaintia +mountaineers are very closely allied.</p> + +<p>Next to the Cachars on the southern, or Manipur, +frontier are—</p> + +<p><i>The Nagas.</i>—These are in the same class with +the Kuki; <i>i.e.</i>, the wild tribes of Manipur, speaking +a not very altered dialect of the Burmese.</p> + +<p><i>The Singpho.</i>—This people is said to have come +from a locality between their present position and +the north-eastern corner of Assam and the Chinese +frontier. An imperfect Buddhism, and an unappreciated +alphabet of Siamese origin, are the +chief phenomena of their civilization.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>The Jili.</i>—These are conterminous with the +Singpho; to whom they are closely allied, in +language, at least; seventy words out of one hundred +agreeing in the two vocabularies.</p> + +<p>The <i>Khamti</i> come in now. These have been +mentioned as Tha'y in their most northern localities. +They occupy north-eastern Assam, and +are conterminous with the Singpho. The Khamti +language, with its per-centage of ninety-two words +common to it and the Siamese of Bankok, ten +degrees southwards, has only three out of one +hundred that agree with the Singpho, and ten in +one hundred with the Jili. This shows the remarkable +character of their ethnological distribution, +and, at the same time, suggests the idea of +great displacement.</p> + +<p><i>The Mishimi.</i>—These occupy the north-east +extremity of Assam. With the Mishimi we turn +the corner, and find ourself on the northern or +Tibetan frontier. Here it is the most western +tribes which come first; and these are—</p> + +<p><i>The Abors and Padam Bor-Abors.</i>—The first, +like the Kuki, on the mountain-tops; the latter, +like the Khumia, on the lower ranges.</p> + +<p><i>The Dufla.</i>—Mountaineers west of the Abors, +with whom they are conterminous in about 94° +East lon.</p> + +<p><i>The Aka.</i>—Mountaineers west of the Dufla, +with whom they are conterminous in about 92°<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +East lon. The Akas bound Lower Assam, the +eastern part of which lies between them and the +Cachari country.</p> + +<p>The tribes hitherto mentioned, although sufficiently +numerous, represent the mountaineers of +the Manipur and Tibetan <i>frontiers</i> only. The +native tribes of the valley still stand over. These +are—</p> + +<p>1. The <i>Muttuck</i> or <i>Moa Mareya</i>, <i>south</i> of the +Brahmaputra, and so far Indianized as to be +Brahminical in religion. Their locality is the +south bank of the Brahmaputra; opposite to that +of—</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Miri</i>, on the <i>north</i>.—The Miri are +backed on the north by the Bor-Abors.</p> + +<p>3. <i>The Mikir.</i>—Mr. Robertson looks upon these +as an intrusive people from the Jaintia hills: +their present locality being the district of Nowgong, +where they are mixed up with—</p> + +<p>4. <i>The Lalong.</i>—I cannot say whether the +Lalong speak their originally monosyllabic +tongue, or have learnt the Bengali—a phenomenon +which does much to disguise the true ethnology of +more than one of the forthcoming tribes; one of +which is certainly—</p> + +<p>5. <i>The Dhekra</i>, occupants of Lower Assam and +Kamrup, where they are mixed up with other +sections of the population.</p> + +<p>6. <i>The Rabhá.</i>—Like the Dhekra, these are<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +Hindús. Like the Dhekra they speak Bengali. +Hence, like the Dhekra, their true affinities are +disguised. It is, however, pretty generally admitted +by the best authorities that what may be +predicated of the Garo and Bodo—two families +of which a fuller notice will be given in the sequel—may +be predicated of the sections in question, +as also of—</p> + +<p>7. <i>The Hajong</i> or <i>Hojai</i>.—Hindús, speaking a +form of the Bengali at the foot of the Garo hills; +and who join the Rabhá, whose locality is between +Gwahatti and Sylhet, <i>i.e.</i>, at the entrance of the +Assam valley.</p> + +<p>The <i>Garo</i> of the Garo hills to the north-east of +Bengal now require notice. A mountaineer of +these parts has much in common with the Coosya; +yet the languages are, <i>perhaps</i>, mutually unintelligible. +In form they are exceedingly alike.</p> + +<p>Now, a Garo<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> is hardy, stout, and surly-looking, +with a flattened nose, blue or brown eyes, large +mouth, thick lips, round face, and brown complexion. +Their <i>buniahs</i> (<i>booneeahs</i>) or chiefs, are +distinguished by a silken turban. They have a +prejudice against milk; but in the matter of +other sorts of food are omnivorous. Their houses, +called <i>chaungs</i>, are built on piles, from three to +four feet from the ground, from ten to forty in +breadth, and from thirty to one hundred and fifty<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +in length. They drink, feast, and dance freely; +and, in their matrimonial forms, much resemble +the Bodo. The youngest daughter inherits. The +widow marries the brother of the deceased; if he +die, the next; if all, the father.</p> + +<p>The dead are kept for four days; then burnt. +Then the ashes are buried in a hole on the place +where the fire was. A small thatched building is +next raised over them; which is afterwards railed +in. For a month, or more, a lamp is lit every +night in this building. The clothes of the deceased +hang on poles—one at each corner of the +railing. When the pile is set fire to, there is +great feasting and drunkenness.</p> + +<p>The Garo are no Hindús. Neither are they +unmodified pagans. Mahadeva they invoke—perhaps, +worship. Nevertheless, their creed is +mixed. They worship the sun and the moon, +or rather the sun <i>or</i> the moon; since they ascertain +which is to be invoked by taking a cup of +water and some wheat. The priest then calls on +the name of the sun, and drops corn into the +water. If it sink, the sun is worshipped. If not, +a similar experiment is tried with the name of the +moon. Misfortunes are attributed to supernatural +agency: and averted by sacrifice.</p> + +<p>Sometimes they swear on a stone; sometimes +they take a tiger's bone between their teeth and +then tell their tale.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p> + +<p>Lastly, they have an equivalent to the <i>Lycanthropy</i> +of the older European nations:—</p> + +<p>"Among the Garrows a madness exists, which +they call transformation into a tiger, from the +person who is afflicted with this malady walking +about like that animal, shunning all society. It +is said, that, on their being first seized with this +complaint they tear their hair and the rings from +their ears, with such force as to break the lobe. +It is supposed to be occasioned by a medicine +applied to the forehead; but I endeavoured to +procure some of the medicine thus used, without +effect. I imagine it rather to be created by frequent +intoxications, as the malady goes off in the +course of a week or fortnight. During the time +the person is in this state, it is with the utmost +difficulty he is made to eat or drink. I questioned +a man, who had thus been afflicted, as to +the manner of his being seized, and he told me +he only felt a giddiness without any pain, and +that afterwards he did not know what happened +to him."<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p> + +<p>In a paper of Captain C. S. Reynolds, in the +"Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,"<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> we +have the notice of a hitherto undescribed superstition; +that of the <i>Korah</i>. A <i>Korah</i> is a dish of +bell-metal, of uncertain manufacture. A small +kind, called Deo Korah, is hung up as a household<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +god and worshipped. Should the monthly +sacrifice of a fowl be neglected, punishment is expected. +If "a person perform his devotion to the +spirit which inhabits the Korah with increasing +fervour and devotion, he is generally rewarded by +seeing the embossed figures gradually expand. +The Garos believe that when the whole household +is wrapped in sleep, the Deo Korahs make expeditions +in search of food, and when they have satisfied +their appetites return to their snug retreats +unobserved."</p> + +<p>The Miri are supposed to believe the same of +what are called <i>Deo Guntas</i>, brought from Tibet.</p> + +<p>Now what is the classification of all these +tribes? Preliminary to the answer on this point, +there are eleven dialects spoken in the parts +about Manipur—besides the proper language of +Manipur itself—to be enumerated. These are +as follows:—1. Songpu. 2. Kapwi. 3. Koreng. +4. Maram. 5. Champhung. 6. Luhuppa. 7, 8, +9. Northern, Central, and Southern Tangkhul. +10. Khoibu; and 11. Maring. Now these twelve +(the Manipur being included) have been tabulated +by Mr. Brown, in such a way as to show the per-centage +of words that each has with all the others; +and not only these, but nearly all the tongues +which we have had to deal with, are similarly put +in order for being compared. The part of the +table necessary for the present use is as follows:<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table class="tab1" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="bl"></td> +<td>Á<br />k<br />á</td> +<td>Á<br />b<br />o<br />r</td> +<td>M<br />i<br />s<br />h<br />i<br />m<br />í</td> +<td>B<br />u<br />r<br />m<br />e<br />s<br />e</td> +<td>K<br />a<br />r<br />e<br />n</td> +<td>S<br />i<br />n<br />g<br />p<br />h<br />o</td> +<td>J<br />i<br />l<br />í</td> +<td>G<br />á<br />r<br />o</td> +<td>M<br />a<br />n<br />i<br />p<br />u<br />r<br />í</td> +<td>S<br />o<br />n<br />g<br />p<br />ú</td> +<td>K<br />a<br />p<br />w<br />í</td> +<td>K<br />o<br />r<br />e<br />n<br />g</td> +<td>M<br />a<br />r<br />á<br />m</td> +<td>C<br />h<br />a<br />m<br />p<br />h<br />u<br />n<br />g</td> +<td>L<br />u<br />h<br />u<br />p<br />p<br />a</td> +<td>N.<br /><br />T<br />á<br />n<br />g<br />k<br />h<br />u<br />l</td> +<td>C.<br /><br />T<br />á<br />n<br />g<br />k<br />h<br />u<br />l</td> +<td>S.<br /><br />T<br />á<br />n<br />g<br />k<br />h<br />u<br />l</td> +<td>K<br />h<br />o<br />i<br />b<br />ú</td> +<td>M<br />a<br />r<br />i<br />n<br />g</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="bl lft">Áká</td><td> </td><td>47</td><td>20</td><td>17</td><td>12</td><td>15</td><td>15</td><td>5</td><td>11</td><td>3</td><td>10</td><td>3</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>10</td><td>8</td><td>10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">Ábor</td><td>47</td><td> </td><td>20</td><td>11</td><td>10</td><td>18</td><td>11</td><td>6</td><td>15</td><td>6</td><td>11</td><td>5</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>18</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">Mishimí</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td> </td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>13</td><td>10</td><td>11</td><td>0</td><td>11</td><td>0</td><td>3</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>13</td><td>10</td><td>8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">Burmese</td><td>17</td><td>11</td><td>10</td><td> </td><td>23</td><td>23</td><td>26</td><td>12</td><td>16</td><td>8</td><td>20</td><td>6</td><td>11</td><td>11</td><td>11</td><td>10</td><td>13</td><td>13</td><td>16</td><td>16</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">Karen</td><td>12</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>23</td><td> </td><td>17</td><td>21</td><td>8</td><td>15</td><td>10</td><td>15</td><td>8</td><td>12</td><td>4</td><td>12</td><td>8</td><td>12</td><td>12</td><td>10</td><td>15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">Singpho</td><td>15</td><td>18</td><td>10</td><td>23</td><td>17</td><td> </td><td>70</td><td>16</td><td>25</td><td>10</td><td>18</td><td>11</td><td>11</td><td>13</td><td>15</td><td>13</td><td>25</td><td>13</td><td>20</td><td>18</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">Jilí</td><td>15</td><td>11</td><td>13</td><td>26</td><td>21</td><td>70</td><td> </td><td>22</td><td>16</td><td>10</td><td>21</td><td>13</td><td>11</td><td>11</td><td>18</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>13</td><td>20</td><td>20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">Gáro</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>10</td><td>12</td><td>8</td><td>16</td><td>22</td><td> </td><td>10</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>5</td><td>8</td><td>5</td><td>8</td><td>13</td><td>11</td><td>5</td><td>5</td><td>5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">Manipurí</td><td>11</td><td>15</td><td>11</td><td>16</td><td>15</td><td>25</td><td>16</td><td>10</td><td> </td><td>21</td><td>41</td><td>18</td><td>25</td><td>28</td><td>31</td><td>28</td><td>35</td><td>33</td><td>40</td><td>50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">Songpú</td><td>3</td><td>6</td><td>0</td><td>8</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>5</td><td>21</td><td> </td><td>35</td><td>50</td><td>53</td><td>20</td><td>23</td><td>15</td><td>15</td><td>13</td><td>8</td><td>15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">Kapwí</td><td>10</td><td>11</td><td>11</td><td>20</td><td>15</td><td>18</td><td>21</td><td>6</td><td>41</td><td>35</td><td> </td><td>30</td><td>33</td><td>20</td><td>35</td><td>30</td><td>40</td><td>45</td><td>38</td><td>40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">Koreng</td><td>3</td><td>5</td><td>0</td><td>6</td><td>8</td><td>11</td><td>13</td><td>5</td><td>18</td><td>50</td><td>30</td><td> </td><td>41</td><td>18</td><td>21</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>11</td><td>10</td><td>15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">Marám</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>3</td><td>11</td><td>12</td><td>11</td><td>11</td><td>8</td><td>25</td><td>53</td><td>33</td><td>41</td><td> </td><td>21</td><td>28</td><td>25</td><td>20</td><td>16</td><td>23</td><td>26</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">Champhung</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>5</td><td>11</td><td>4</td><td>13</td><td>11</td><td>5</td><td>28</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>18</td><td>21</td><td> </td><td>40</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>16</td><td>15</td><td>25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">Luhuppa</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>11</td><td>12</td><td>15</td><td>18</td><td>8</td><td>31</td><td>23</td><td>35</td><td>21</td><td>28</td><td>40</td><td> </td><td>63</td><td>55</td><td>36</td><td>33</td><td>40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">N. Tángkhul</td><td>5</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>10</td><td>8</td><td>13</td><td>20</td><td>13</td><td>28</td><td>15</td><td>30</td><td>20</td><td>25</td><td>20</td><td>63</td><td> </td><td>85</td><td>30</td><td>31</td><td>31</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">C. Tángkhul</td><td>6</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>13</td><td>12</td><td>25</td><td>20</td><td>11</td><td>35</td><td>15</td><td>40</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>55</td><td>85</td><td> </td><td>41</td><td>45</td><td>41</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">S. Tángkhul</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>13</td><td>13</td><td>12</td><td>13</td><td>13</td><td>5</td><td>33</td><td>13</td><td>45</td><td>11</td><td>16</td><td>16</td><td>36</td><td>30</td><td>41</td><td> </td><td>43</td><td>43</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl lft">Khoibú</td><td>8</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>16</td><td>10</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>5</td><td>40</td><td>8</td><td>38</td><td>10</td><td>23</td><td>15</td><td>33</td><td>31</td><td>45</td><td>43</td><td> </td><td>78</td></tr> +<tr class="tr2"><td class="bl lft">Maring</td><td>10</td><td>18</td><td>8</td><td>16</td><td>15</td><td>18</td><td>20</td><td>5</td><td>50</td><td>15</td><td>40</td><td>15</td><td>26</td><td>25</td><td>40</td><td>31</td><td>41</td><td>43</td><td>78</td><td> </td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The last eleven dialects are not spoken in +any British dependency; and they have only +been mentioned for the sake of explaining the +table.</p> + +<p>All belong to one and the same class; a point +upon which I see no room for doubt; although +respecting the <i>value</i> of that class I admit that +some exists.</p> + +<p>For this, the term <i>Burmese</i> is as good as any +other—without professing to be better; yet, +should it seem too precise, there is no objection to +the sufficiently general term of <i>monosyllabic</i> being +substituted for it.</p> + +<p>The reader, however, may doubt the fact of the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +affinities. This has been done. Long before the +present writer knew of such dialects as the Jili, +Mishimi, Aka, Abor, Singpho, and the like, he had +satisfied himself that the Garo was monosyllabic, +and had so expressed himself in 1844,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> when +Brown's Tables had been published, though not +seen by him. It was with surprise, then, that he +found the author of them writing, that "it would +be difficult to decide from the specimens before +us, whether it is to be ranked with the monosyllabic +or polysyllabic languages. It probably +belongs to the latter."</p> + +<p>Again, Mr. Hodgson makes the Garo Tamulian, +<i>i.e.</i>, polysyllabic; a fact which will be noticed +again when the Bodo, Dhimal, and Kocch have +been disposed of.</p> + +<p><i>The Kocch</i>, <i>Bodo</i>, and <i>Dhimal</i> is the title of +one of that writer's works—a model of an ethnological +monograph. This gives us a new class. +The Bodo of Hodgson are the wild tribes that +skirt the Himalayas, from Assam to Sikkim. +West of these, between the river Konki and the +river Dhorla are the Dhimal, a small tribe mixed +with Bodo; and, southwards, in Kocch Behar, +are the Kocch. The two former are so much +described together that a separation is difficult. +This leaves us at liberty to follow the details of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +either one population or of both. The history of +a Bodo from his cradle to his grave is as follows. +The birth is attended with a <i>minimum</i> amount +of ceremonies. Midwives there are none; but +labours are easy. Neither has the priest much to +do with ushering-in the new-comer to the world. +A short period of uncleanness is recognized, but +it is only a short one; the purification consisting +in the acts of bathing and shaving performed by +the parties themselves. Four or five days after +delivery, the mother goes out into the world; and +at that time, the child is named. Any passing +event determines this; as there are no family +names, and no names taken from their mythology. +The account, however, of Mr. Hodgson, in this +respect is somewhat obscure, "A Bhotia chief +arrives at the village, and the child is named +Jinkháp; or a hill peasant arrives, and it is +named Gongar, after the titular, or general designation +of the Bhotias."</p> + +<p>As long as a mother can suckle a child (or +<i>children</i>) she continues to do so, sometimes for so +long a period as three years, when the last and +last but one may be seen sucking together.</p> + +<p>The period of weaning is thus delayed; and, +notwithstanding the current notion as to the +prematurity of marriages in warm climates, that +of wedlock is delayed as well: the male waits till +he is twenty or twenty-five, the female till between<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +fifteen and twenty. The parties least concerned +are the bride and bridegroom; the parents +do the courtship. Those of the lady take a payment. +This is called a <i>Jan</i> amongst the Bodo, +and varies from ten to fifteen rupees. With the +Dhimal it is a <i>Gandi</i>, and amounts to a higher +sum, ranging from fifteen to forty-five. Failing +this, service must be done by the youth; and a +wife be earned as Jacob earned Leah and Rachel. +This is the <i>Gabor</i> of the Bodo, and the <i>Gharjya</i> +of the Dhimal.</p> + +<p>Such marriages are easily dissolved, <i>i.e.</i>, at +the option of either party. In case, however, +of infidelity on the part of a wife having caused +a divorce, the wedding-money is repaid. Adoption +is common, concubinage rare; each being +on a level with marriage in respect to the <i>status</i> +of the children. Of these, all males inherit alike; +but the rights of the female are limited.</p> + +<p>The ceremony itself begins with a procession +on the part of the bridegroom's friends to the +bride's house, two females accompanying them. +Of these, it is the business to put red-lead +and oil on the bride-elect's hair. A feast follows; +after which the husband takes his wife +home. Thus far the Bodo forms agree with +the Dhimal; but they differ in what follows.</p> + +<p><i>The Bodo</i> sacrifices a cock and a hen in the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +names of the bridegroom and the bride, respectively +to the Sun.</p> + +<p><i>The Dhimal</i> propitiate <i>Data</i> and <i>Bedata</i> by +presents of betel-leaf and red-lead.</p> + +<p>Both bury their dead, and purify themselves +by ablution in the nearest stream when the +funeral procession is over. The family, however, +of the deceased is considered as unclean +for three days.</p> + +<p>A feast with sacrifices attends the purification. +Before sitting down, they repair once +more to the grave, and present the dead with some +of the food from the banquet;—"take and eat, +heretofore you have eaten and drunk with us; +you can do so no more; you were one of us, +you can be so no longer; we come no more to +you; come you not to us." After this each +member of the party takes from his wrist a +bracelet of thread, and throws it on the grave.</p> + +<p>A ceremonial implies a priesthood. Under +this class come the Deoshi, the Dhami, the +Ojha, and the Phantwal.</p> + +<p>The first of these is the village, the second +the district, priest.</p> + +<p>The Ojha is the village exorcist; and the +Phantwal a subordinate of the Deoshi. The +influence of this clerical body, although probably +higher than Mr. Hodgson places it, is, evidently, +anything but exorbitant.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p> + +<p>I cannot find anything in the Bodo and Dhimal +superstitions higher than what was found in Africa. +Nor yet is anything <i>essentially</i> different. Similar +intellectual conditions develop similar creeds, independent +of intercourse; a fact which, the +more we go into the natural history of religions, +the more we shall verify. We read indeed of +<i>oaths</i> and <i>ordeals</i>; but oaths and ordeals are by +no means, what they have too loosely been supposed +to be, appeals to the moral nature of the +Divinity. The <i>dhoom</i> test, in Old Calabar, is an +ordeal. The criminal tests of the Fantis are the +same. Indeed, few, if any tribes, are without +them. What the real ideas are which determine +such and such-like ceremonies is difficult for intellectual +adults to understand. The way towards +their appreciation lies in the phenomena of a +child's mind; the true clue to the psychology of +rude populations.</p> + +<p>If we take the Bodo and Dhimal religions in +detail we find ourselves in a familiar field, with +well-known forms of superstition around us.</p> + +<p>Diseases are attributed to supernatural agency; +and the medicine-man, exorcist, or Ojha, is more +priest than surgeon.</p> + +<p>The <i>feticism</i> of Africa re-appears; at least such +is my inference from the following extract. "<i>Batho</i> +is clearly and indisputably identifiable with +<i>something tangible</i>, <i>viz.</i>, the <i>Sij</i> or <i>Euphorbia</i>;<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +though why that useless and even exotic plant +should have been thus selected to type the Godhead, +I have failed to learn."</p> + +<p>Euhemerism, or the worship of dead men +deified, is to be found either in its germs or its +rudiments; at any rate, one of their deities bears +the name of Hajo, a known historic personage. +But this may be referable to Hindú influences +unequivocally traceable in other parts of the +Pantheon.</p> + +<p>It is the rites and ceremonies of a country +that give us its religion in the concrete. All +beyond is an abstraction. These, with the Bodo +and Dhimal, are numerous. Invocations, deprecations, +and thanksgivings are all mentioned by +Mr. Hodgson; and they are all attended by offerings +or sacrifices; libations attend the sacrifices, +and feasting follows the libations.</p> + +<p>The great festivals of the year are four for +the Bodo, three for the Dhimal.</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> In December or January, when the cotton-crop +is ready, the Bodo hold their <i>Shurkhar</i>, the +Dhimal their <i>Harejata</i>.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> In February or March, the Bodo hold the +<i>Wagaleno</i>.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> In July or August, the rice comes into ear. +This brings on the Bodo <i>Phulthepno</i>, and the +Dhimal <i>Gavipuja</i>.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p> + +<p>All these are celebrated out of doors, and on +agricultural occasions.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> The fourth great festival is held at home; +its time being the month of October; its name +<i>Aihuno</i> in Bodo, and <i>Pochima paka</i> in Dhimal. +Here, in the <i>Aihuno</i> at least, the family assembles, +the priest joins it, and the Sij, or Euphorbia, +represents Batho. This is placed in the +middle of the room, has prayers offered to it, +and a <i>cock</i> as a sacrifice; whilst Mainou's offering +is a <i>hog</i>; Agrang's a <i>he-goat</i>, and so on, +through the whole list of the nine <i>nooni madai</i>, +or deities thus worshipped. As for the symbols +which represent them, besides the Sij, which +stands for Batho, there is a bamboo post about +three feet high, surmounted by a small cup of +rice, denoting Mainou; but the equivalents of +the other seven are somewhat uncertain.</p> + +<p>The Wagaleno festival was witnessed by Mr. +Hodgson and Dr. Campbell. The account of it +is something lengthy. I mention it, however, +for the sake of one of its principal actors—the +Déódá. This is the <i>possessed</i>, who, "when filled +with the god, answers by inspiration to the question +of the priest as to the prospects of the +coming season. When we first discerned him, he +was sitting on the ground, panting, and rolling +his eyes so significantly that I at once conjectured +his function. Shortly afterwards, the rite<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +still proceeding, the Déódá got up, entered the +circle, and commenced dancing with the rest, +but more wildly. He held a short staff in his +hand, with which, from time to time, he struck +the bedizened poles, one by one, and lowering it +as he struck. The chief dancer with the odd-shaped +instrument waxed more and more vehement +in his dance; the inspired grew more and +more maniacal; the music more and more rapid; +the incantation more and more solemn and earnest; +till, at last, amid a general lowering of the heads +of the decked bamboo poles, so that they met and +formed a canopy over him, the Déódá went off +in an affected fit, and the ceremony closed without +any revelation." This self-excited state of +ecstasy is an element of most religions in the +same stage of development; and a low level it +indicates. In Greece, in Africa, and in Northern +Asia, we find it as regularly as we find a coarse +and material creed; and to the coarseness of the +materialism of such a creed it is generally proportionate.</p> + +<p>Witches, and the discovery of them, and the +influence of the evil eye are part and parcel of the +Bodo and Dhimal superstitions.</p> + +<p><i>Kocch</i> means a population, which possibly +amounts to as much as a million souls, extended +from about 88° to 93½° East long., and 25° to 27° +North lat., and of which Kocch Behar is the political<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +centre. The term is <i>ethnological</i>—not political. +It is ethnological, and not political, because, +although originally native, it has since been partially +abandoned. <i>All</i> the inhabitants of the parts +in question <i>once</i> called themselves Kocch; and +Kocch they were called by their neighbours the +Mech. At this time the country was unequivocally +other than Indian; <i>i.e.</i>, in the same category +with that of the Garo and Bodo. Since then, +however, great changes have taken place; so that, +just as Wales is partially Anglicized, the Welsh +language being replaced by the English, the +Kocch—the native tongue—is under the process +of being replaced by a Hindú dialect. Nevertheless, +just as many a Welshman who speaks +nothing but English is still a Welshman, so are +the Kocch, who have changed their languages, +Bodo, Garo, or something closely akin, in ethnological +position.</p> + +<p>The extent to which different portions of the +once great Kocch nation have abandoned or retained +their original characteristics is easily measured.</p> + +<p>1. Those who have changed most speak a form +of the Bengali, and are imperfect Mahometans; +imperfect, because their creed is strongly tinctured +with Hinduism. Thus the very epithet +which they apply to themselves is Brahminical; +<i>Rájbansi</i>=<i>Suryabansi</i>=<i>Sun-born</i>. The converted<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +Kocch of the Mahometan creed are chiefly of the +lower order of the province of Behar.</p> + +<p>2. Those who have changed, but changed less +than the <i>Mahometans</i> of Behar, are either Brahminists +or Buddhists—speaking the same Bengali +dialect as the last. These are chiefly the higher +classes of the population of Behar. They are +Kocch in the way that the Cornishmen are Welsh. +They consider them <i>Rájbansi</i> also. Doubtless, +their Hinduism is imperfect; <i>i.e.</i>, tinctured with +the original paganism.</p> + +<p>3. The primitive, unconverted, or <i>Pani</i> Kocch, +have either not changed at all, or changed but little. +They retain the original name of Kocch; which +is not endured by the others. They retain their +original tongue, which, according to Buchanan, +has no affinity with any of the Hindú tongues. +They retain their original customs; and they retain +their original paganism. Lastly, Mr. Hodgson +attests the "entire conformity of the physiognomy +of all—with that of the other aborigines +around them." He adds that he cannot improve +on Buchanan's account of them, which is as follows:—"The +primitive or Páni Kocch live amid +the woods, frequently changing their abode in +order to cultivate lands enriched by a fallow. +They cultivate entirely with the hoe, and more +carefully than their neighbours who use the +plough, for they weed their crops, which the others<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +do not. As they keep hogs and poultry they +are better fed than the Hindús, and as they make +a fermented liquor from rice, their diet is more +strengthening. The clothing of the Páni Kocch +is made by the women, and is in general blue, +dyed by themselves with their own indigo, the +borders red, dyed with Morinda. The material is +cotton of their own growth, and they are better +clothed than the mass of the Bengalese. Their +huts are at least as good, nor are they raised +on posts like the houses of the Indo-Chinese, +at least, not generally so. Their only arms are +spears: but they use iron-shod implements of +agriculture, which the Bengalese often do not. +They eat swine, goats, sheep, deer, buffaloes, rhinoceros, +fowls, and ducks—not beef, nor dogs, +nor cats, nor frogs, nor snakes. They use tobacco +and beer, but reject opium and hemp. They eat +no tame animal without offering it to God (the +Gods), and consider that he who is least restrained +is most exalted, allowing the Gárós to be their +superiors, because the Gárós may eat beef. The +men are so gallant as to have made over all +property to the women, who in return are most +industrious, weaving, spinning, brewing, planting, +sowing; in a word, doing all work not above +their strength. When a woman dies the family +property goes to her daughters, and when a man +marries he lives with his wife's mother, obeying<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +her as his wife. Marriages are usually arranged +by mothers in nonage, but consulting the destined +bride. Grown up women may select a husband +for themselves, and another, if the first die. A +girl's marriage costs the mother ten rupees—a +boy's five rupees. This sum is expended in a +feast with sacrifice, which completes the ceremony. +Few remain unmarried, or live long. I saw no +grey hairs. Girls, who are frail, can always +marry their lover. Under such rule, polygamy, +concubinage, and adultery are not tolerated. The +last subjects to a ruinous fine, which if not paid, +the offender becomes a slave. No one can marry +out of his own tribe. If he do, he is fined. Sutties +are unknown, and widows always having property +can pick out a new husband at discretion. +The dead are kept two days, during which the +family mourn, and the kindred and friends assemble +and feast, dance and sing. The body is then +burned by a river's side, and each person having +bathed returns to his usual occupation. A funeral +costs ten rupees, as several pigs must be sacrificed +to the manes. This tribe has no letters; but a +sort of priesthood called Déóshi, who marry and +work like other people. Their office is not hereditary, +and everybody employs what Déóshi he +pleases, but some one always assists at every sacrifice +and gets a share. The Kocch sacrifice to the +sun, moon, and stars, to the gods of rivers, hills<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +and woods, and every year, at harvest-home, they +offer fruits and a fowl to deceased parents, though +they believe not in a future state! Their chief +gods are Rishi and his wife Jágó. After the +rains the whole tribe make a grand sacrifice to +these gods, and occasionally also, in cases of distress. +There are no images. The gods get the +blood of sacrifices; their votaries, the meat. Disputes +are settled among themselves by juries of +Elders, the women being excluded here, however +despotic at home. If a man incurs a fine, he +cannot pay with purse, he must with person, becoming +a bondman, on food and raiment only, +unless his wife can and will redeem him."</p> + +<p>I must now request particular attention on the +part of the reader to the terms which Mr. Hodgson +applies to the physical conformation of these +northern, or sub-Himalayan tribes; and still closer +attention must be given to his nomenclature. He +calls the stock in question <i>Tamulian</i>. This connects +it with the <i>South</i> Indian. He contrasts it +with the <i>Hindú</i>. By this he means the Brahminical +elements of the Indian populations.</p> + +<p>Let us then see what points he considers to be +<i>Tamulian</i>.</p> + +<p>1. There is "less height, less symmetry, more +dumpiness and flesh."</p> + +<p>2. There is "a somewhat lozenge contour (of +face) caused by the large cheek-bones."<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p> + +<p>3. There is "less perpendicularity of features +in the front—a larger proportion of face to head—a +broader flatter face—a shorter wider nose, +often clubbed at the end, and furnished with +round nostrils."</p> + +<p>4. There is a smaller eye, "less fully opened, +and less evenly crossing the face by their line of +aperture." In other words, there is the <i>oblique</i> +eye, so much considered in the Chinese physiognomy.</p> + +<p>5. Lastly, there are larger ears, thicker lips, +and less beard.</p> + +<p>I submit that all these points are Mongolian; +and this is what Mr. Hodgson evidently thinks +also.</p> + +<p>The whole class has passed beyond the hunter +state, if ever such existed. It has passed beyond +the pastoral or nomadic state also; if such existed. +It is at present—and, perhaps, has always been—an +agricultural state of society. On the other hand—the +industrial state, the development represented +by towns and commerce, has not been attained.</p> + +<p>The whole stock is essentially agricultural. +Likewise, the agriculture is peculiar. We may +explain it by the term <i>erratic</i>. They "never +cultivate the same field beyond the second year, +or remain in the same village beyond the fourth +to sixth year. After the lapse of four or five +years they frequently return to their old fields<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +and resume their cultivation, if in the interim the +jungle has grown well, and they have not been +anticipated by others, for there is no pretence of +appropriation other than possessory, and if, therefore, +another party have preceded them, or, if the +slow growth of the jungle give no sufficient promise +of a good stratum of ashes for the land when +cleared by fire, they move on to another site, new +or old. If old, they resume the identical fields +they tilled before, but never the old houses or +site of the old village, that being deemed unlucky. +In general, however, they prefer new land to old, +and having still abundance of unbroken forest +around them, they are in constant movement, +more especially as, should they find a new spot +prove unfertile, they decamp after the first harvest +is got in."</p> + +<p><i>Arva in annos mutant et superest ager.</i> This +passage is explained by their customs.</p> + +<p>In respect to their social constitution, they +dwell in small communities of from ten to forty +houses; each of which community is under a +<i>grà</i> or head. This is Hindú—except that as the +Hindú villages are both larger and more permanent, +the functionaries, in addition to the <i>headman</i>, +are more numerous. This is noted, because +the difference in the two sorts of village government +seems to be one of <i>degree</i> rather than +<i>kind</i>.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p> + +<p>And now comes more in the way of classification. +The Bodo are Kachars, or the Kachars are +Bodo. Their languages are the same, so are +their gods, so is their name; since Kachar is a +Hindú, and no native term—the native name +(<i>i.e.</i>, of the Kachars) being <i>Bodo</i>. On the other +hand, the <i>Hindú</i> name of the Bodo is Mech. +Whoever looks to a map will find that the outline +of the Bodo area is very deeply indented; implying +either a great original irregularity of area, or +great subsequent displacement.</p> + +<p>Now follow the Garo. One fourth—fifteen out +of sixty—of the words of Mr. Brown's Garo +vocabulary is Bodo. The inference? That the +Bodo and Garo are in the same category. What +is this? Mr. Hodgson makes both Tamulian or +Indian. In my own mind both are Burmese. +But be this as it may, one fact is certain; <i>viz.</i>, +that a transition between the tongues of the Indian +and the tongues of the Indo-Chinese peninsula +exists, and that the lines of demarcation which +divide them are less broad and trenchant than is +generally supposed.</p> + +<p>The Dhimal bring us to Sikkim. The dominant +nation of Sikkim are—</p> + +<p><i>The Lepchas.</i>—Their language also is monosyllabic; +but it is Tibetan rather than Burmese. +They are a Sikkim rather than a British Indian +population.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p> + +<p>When we have passed the rajahship of Sikkim, +we reach that of Nepâl. This, again, is independent. +Such being the case, the line of frontier +between the Hindú populations and the populations +of the Bodo and Garo character lies beyond +the pale of the British dependencies.</p> + +<p>But in proceeding westward, we pass Nepâl, +and reach Kumaon.</p> + +<p>This is British, and, as it extends as far north +as the Himalayas, it may contain monosyllabic +languages, and tribes speaking them. It may +present also instances of intermixture like those +which we have already found in Behar—the line +of demarcation being equally difficult and undefined. +Difficult and undefined it really is—because, +although it is an easy matter to take a +portion of the Sirmor, Gurhwal, or Kumaon +population, and say, "this is Hindú because both +language and creed make it so," it is by no means +so easy to prove that the blood, pedigree, or descent +is Hindú also. To repeat an illustration +already in use—many such populations may be +Hindú only as the Cornishmen are English.</p> + +<p>Now the populations of the Tibetan stock to +the west of Nepâl, so little known in detail, must +be illustrated by means of our knowledge of the +tribes of Nepâl and Tibet most closely related to +them—by those of Nepâl on the east, and those +of Tibet on the north.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p> + +<p>For neither of these areas are there any very +minute <i>data</i>. For the aborigines of <i>eastern</i> and +<i>central</i> Nepâl, we have plenty of information. +They are tribes speaking monosyllabic languages, +and tribes in different degrees of intercourse +with the Hindús; being by name—1. The Magars. +2. The Gurungs. 3. The Jariyas. 4. The +Newars. 5. The Murmis. 6. The Kirata. 7. The +Limbu; and 8. The Lepchas, common to the +eastern boundary of Nepâl, to the western part +of Butan, and to Sikkim. This, however, will +not bring us far west enough for the Kumaon +frontier; indeed, for the forests of Nepâl <i>west</i> of +the Great Valley, we have the notice of one +family only—the Chepang. For this, as for so +much more, we are indebted to Mr. Hodgson. It +falls into three tribes; the Chepang proper, the +Kusunda, and the Haju. Its language (known +to us by a vocabulary) is monosyllabic; its +physical conformation, that of the unmodified +Indian.</p> + +<p>So much for analogy. In the way of direct +information we simply know that the Pariahs, or +outcasts, of Kumaon<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> are called <i>Doms</i>. These +have darker skins and curlier hair than the +Hindús. Are these enslaved and partially amalgamated<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +aborigines? Probably. Nay more; in +the eastern part of the province, amidst the +forests at the foot of the Himalayas, a community +of about twenty families, pertinaciously adheres +to the customs of their ancestors, resembles the +<i>Doms</i> in looks, and is called <i>Rawat</i> or <i>Raji</i>. +Though I have seen no specimen of their language, +I have little doubt as to the <i>Rawat</i> of +Kumaon being the equivalents to the Chepang of +Nepâl.</p> + +<p>From Konawur we have three monosyllabic +vocabularies, the Sumchu, the Theburskud, and +the Milchan; but the exact amount to which the +Tibetan and the Hindú populations indent each +other along the western Himalayas is more than I +can give.</p> + +<p>Here end the monosyllabic tongues spoken in +British India. But they fringe the Himalayas +throughout, and occur in the country of Gholab +Singh, as well as in the independent rajahships +between the Sutlege and Cashmeer. My latest +researches have carried them even further westward +than Little Tibet; as far as the Kohistan, +or mountain country, of Cabul—the Der, Lughmani, +Tirhai, and other languages, known, wholly +or chiefly, through the vocabularies of Lieutenant +Leach, being essentially monosyllabic in structure, +and definitely connected with the tongues of +Tibet, and Nepâl in respect to their vocables.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span></p> + +<p>But this is episodical to the subject—a subject +still requiring the notice of a very important +phenomenon.</p> + +<p><i>Polyandria</i><a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> is a term in ethnology, even as +it is in botany. Its meaning, however, is different. +Etymologically, it denotes a form of <i>polygamy</i>. +<i>Polygamy</i>, however, being restricted to +that particular form of marriage which consists in +a multiplicity of <i>wives</i>, <i>polyandria</i> expresses the +reverse, <i>viz.</i>, the plurality of <i>husbands</i>.</p> + +<p>At the first glance, the word <i>polyandria</i> looks +like a learned name for a common thing; and +suggests the inquiry as to how it differs from +simple promiscuity of intercourse; or, at least, +how far the Tibetan wife differs from the fair frail +one who was always constant to the 85th regiment. +The answer is not easy. Still it is certain +that some difference exists—if not in form, at +least, in its effects. One of these, in certain +countries where <i>polyandria</i> prevails, is the law of +succession to property. This follows the female +line, rather than the male.</p> + +<p>Again—the marriage of the widow with the +surviving brother of her husband, is polyandria +under another form.</p> + +<p>What the exact polyandria of Tibet is, is uncertain. +I am not prepared to deny its existence +even in so extreme a form as that of <i>one woman<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +being married to several husbands, all alive at once</i>. +Still, I think it more likely that either the circle +of community was limited to certain degrees of +relationships, or else that the multiplied husbands +were successive, rather than simultaneous. Still, +the facts of the Tibetan <i>polyandria</i> require further +investigation.</p> + +<p>One thing, only, is certain—<i>viz.</i>, that as an +ethnological criterion the practice is of no great +value. Capable, as it has been shown to be, of +modification in form, it is anything but limited to +either Tibet, or the families allied to the Tibetan. +It occurs in many parts of the world. It is a +Malabar practice; where it is, probably, as truly +Tibetan as in Tibet itself. But it is also Jewish, +African, Siberian, and North American; so that +nothing would more mislead us in the classification +of the varieties of man than to mistake it for +a phenomenon <i>per se</i>, and allow it to separate +allied, or to connect distinct populations.</p> + +<p><i>Necdum finitus Orestes.</i>—There are several populations +which, on fair grounds, have been believed +to be in the same category with the Dhekra, +<i>i.e.</i>, which are Hindú in language and creed, +though monosyllabic in blood. The Kudi, Batar, +Kebrat, Pallah, Gangai, Maraha, Dhanak, Kichak, +and Tharu, are oftener alluded to than described—though, +doubtless, a better-informed investigator +in such special matters than the present<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +writer could find several definite details concerning +them. They seem chiefly referable to Behar +and north-eastern Bengal. The <i>Dhungers</i>—in +the same class—the husbandmen of South Behar, +bring us down to the vicinity of the population +next to be noticed; a population which is generally +considered with reference to the nations, +tribes, and families of <i>Southern</i> rather than <i>Northern</i> +India.</p> + +<p>The name of this family has already been mentioned. +It is <i>Tamulian</i>; and the <i>Tamulian</i> physiognomy +has been described. It has been seen +to extend as far north as the Himalayas. If so, +the nations already enumerated have been Tamulian; +and no new class is now approaching. This +may or may not be the case. Another change, +however, is more undeniable. This is that of +language. It is no longer referable to the +Chinese type; since separate monosyllables have, +more or less perfectly, become <i>agglutinated</i> into +inflected forms, and the speech is as <i>poly</i>-syllabic +as the other tongues of the world in general. +As we approach the south this abandonment +of the monosyllabic character increases, and from +the <i>Tamul</i> language spoken between Pulicat and +Cape Comorin, the term <i>Tamulian</i>—applicable in +a general ethnological sense—is derived. <i>Agglutinated</i> +(or <i>agglutinate</i>) is also a technical term. +It means languages in the second stage of their<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +development; when words originally separate, +such as adverbs of time, prepositions, and personal +pronouns, have become permanently connected +with the root, so as to form tenses, cases, and +persons—the union of the two parts of an inflected +word being still sufficiently recent and +imperfect to leave their original separation and +independence visible and manifest. When the +incorporation or amalgamation, has become more +complete; so complete, as in most cases to have +obliterated all vestiges of an original independence; +the <i>agglutinate</i> character has departed, the +second stage of development has been passed, +and the language is in the same class with +those of Greece, Rome, and Germany, rather than +in that of the tongues in question, and of many +others.</p> + +<p>To return, however, to the <i>Tamulian</i> family, +meaning thereby a branch of the great Mongolian +stock, speaking, <i>either now or formerly</i>, a language +more or less allied to the Tamul of the +Dekhan.</p> + +<p>The first members of the class, as we proceed +southwards from Behar, are certain hill-tribes +of the Rajmahali Mountains—the Rajmahali +mountaineers. Their Mongolian physiognomy is +unequivocal;—a Mongolian physiognomy but +conjoined with a dark skin. They have "broad +faces, small eyes, and flattish or rather turned-up<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +noses. Their lips are thicker than those of the +inhabitants of the plain."<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> + +<p>The flattened nose reminded the writer of the +Negro, and the general character of the features +of the Chinese or Malay; though it is added that +the resemblance is in a great degree lost on closer +inspection. At the same time it has been sufficiently +recognized to have originated the hypothesis +of a descent from one of those nations as +a means of accounting for it.</p> + +<p>With a slight tincture of Brahminic Hinduism, +the Rajmahali mountaineers are Pagans. <i>Bedo</i> is +one of their gods; doubtless the <i>Potteang</i> of the +Kuki, and the <i>Batho</i> of the Bodo. <i>Gosaik</i>, too, +is either the name of a god, or a holy epithet; +this, also, being a mythological term current +amongst many other tribes of India. Other elements +in their imperfectly-known mythology +deserve notice. Their priesthood contains both +<i>Demauns</i> and <i>Dewassis</i>; the latter form being the +Bodo <i>Deoshi</i>. As the names are alike, so are +the functions. The <i>Dewassi</i> is an oracular seer. +When he vouchsafes to give answers, his inspiration +takes the form of frenzy—but he neither +hurts nor speaks to any one. He makes signs for +a cock, and for a hen's egg as well. The cock's +head he wrenches off, and sucks the bleeding +neck. The egg he eats. After this he seeks the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +solitude of the wood or stream; and is fed by the +deity. Sometimes he has ridden a snake; sometimes +put his hands in the mouth of a tiger with +impunity. Trees too large to move, or too thorny +to touch, he places on the roofs of houses. He +sees Bedo Gosaik in visions; and, in the sacrifices +therein enjoined, red paint, rice, and pigeons +make a part. From the touch of women he +abstains; so he does from the taste of flesh. +Either would make his prophecies false.</p> + +<p>There are also certain sacrifices that the <i>Maungy</i> +(chief?) of each village makes, and in which threads +of red silk play a part.</p> + +<p>One of their gods—an elemental one—is the +god of rain, and the dangers of a drought are +averted by praying to him. A ceremony called +the <i>Satane</i> determines the chief who takes the +office of invoker.</p> + +<p>A black stone, called <i>Ruxy</i>, is much of the +same sort of fetish with these mountaineers as +the Sij with the Bodo. The name, too, Ruxy +<i>Nad</i>, suggests the Nat worship of the Silong, +Kariens, and others.</p> + +<p>The northern half of the Tamulian families +are, like the Welsh, the Cornish, and the Bretons +of France, members of the same ethnological +group, but not in geographical contact with each +other. Or, rather, they are, like the Celtic population +of Wales and the Scottish Highlands, cut<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +off from one another by a vast tract of intervening +Anglo-Saxons. Yet the time was when all was +Celtic, from Cape Wrath to the Land's End; +and when the original population extended, in +its full integrity, over York and Nottingham, +as well as over Merioneth and Argyleshire. And +so it is with the populations in question. They +stand apart from each other, like islands in an +ocean; the intervening spaces being filled up by +Hindús. At the same time the isolation has +been much overvalued, and, I imagine that when +greater attention shall have been bestowed upon +this important subject, connecting links which +have hitherto been unnoticed will be detected.</p> + +<p>The next locality where we find a population +akin to the Rajmahali mountaineers, is the mountain +system of Orissa. These are called by the +Hindús <i>Kóls</i> (<i>Coolies</i>), <i>Khonds</i> and <i>Súrs</i>. Such, +however, are no native designations—no more +than the classical term <i>Barbarian</i>, or the English +word <i>Tartar</i>. The people themselves have no +collective name; but, being divided into tribes, +have a separate one for each.</p> + +<p>I say that this branch of Tamulians is isolated, +because I am not able to show its continuity; the +range of hill-country which gives rise to the +rivers between the Ganges and Mahanuddy being +but imperfectly known.</p> + +<p>In Orissa, the most northern of the hill-tribes<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +are the Kól of Cuttack. South of these come the +Khonds best studied in the neighbourhood of +Goomsoor. The following is a list of their gods, +and as <i>n</i> seems to stand for <i>d</i>, <i>Pennu</i> is but +another name for <i>Bedo</i>, and <i>Gossa Pennu</i> for +<i>Bedo Gosaik</i>:—</p> + +<div class="bk2"><p>1. Bera <i>Pennu</i>, or the earth god.</p> + +<p>2. Bella <i>Pennu</i>, the sun god, and Danzu <i>Pennu</i>, the moon god.</p> + +<p>3. Sandhi <i>Pennu</i>, the god of limits.</p> + +<p>4. Loha <i>Pennu</i>, the iron god, or god of arms.</p> + +<p>5. Jugah <i>Pennu</i>, the god of small-pox.</p> + +<p>6. Madzu <i>Pennu</i>, or the village deity, the universal <i>genius loci</i>.</p> + +<p>7. Soro <i>Pennu</i>, the hill god.</p> + +<p>8. Jori <i>Pennu</i>, the god of streams.</p> + +<p>9. Gossa <i>Pennu</i>, the forest god.</p> + +<p>10. Munda <i>Pennu</i>, the tank god.</p> + +<p>11. Sugu <i>Pennu</i>, or Sidruja <i>Pennu</i>, the god of fountains.</p> + +<p>12. Pidzu <i>Pennu</i>, the god of rain.</p> + +<p>13. Pilamu <i>Pennu</i>, the god of hunting.</p> + +<p>14. The god of births.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p></div> + +<p>The most southern of the Orissa hill-tribes are +the <i>Súr</i>; connected by language with the preceding +tribes; as they were with each other and +the Rajmahali mountaineers.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p> + +<p>These stand in remarkable contrast with the +rest of the population of Orissa; whose language +is the Udiya, a tongue which, according to many, +belongs to a wholly different class, or, at least, +to a different division of the present.</p> + +<p>South of Chicacole, however, the Tamul tongues +are spoken continuously. I cannot say where the +southern limits of the Súr population come in +contact with the northern ones of the—</p> + +<p><i>Chenchwars</i>—who occupy the same range of +mountains, in the parts between the rivers Kistna +and Pennar, and, probably, extending as far +south as the neighbourhood of Madras. Their language +is the Telugu, the language of the parts +around, and of Tamul origin.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> The contrast between +the Chenchwars of the hills, and the Telingas +of the lower country lies in their mythologies; +the former retaining much of the original creed of +their country, the latter being Brahminists.</p> + +<p>Below Madras, the mountain range changes its +direction, and the next locality under notice is +the Neilgherry hills.</p> + +<p>The families here are—</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Cohatars</i>—so little Indianized as to eat +of the flesh of the cow, amounting to about two +thousand in number, and occupants of the highest +part of the range.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p> + +<p>2. <i>The Tudas.</i>—An interesting monograph by +Captain Harkness has drawn unusual attention to +these mountaineers, the chief points of importance +being the comparative absence of all elements of +Brahminism, and the occurrence in their physiognomy +of the most favourable points of Hindú +beauty—regular and delicate features, oval face, +and a clear brunette skin. Free from the other +religious and social characteristics of Hinduism as +the Tudas may be, they still admit a sort of caste; +<i>e.g.</i>, whilst the <i>Peiki</i>, or <i>Toralli</i>, may perform any +function, the <i>Kuta</i>, or <i>Tardas</i>, are limited. +Neither did they always intermarry, though they +do now; their offspring being called <i>Mookh</i>, or +<i>descendants</i>.</p> + +<p>3. <i>The Curumbas</i>, called by the Tudas <i>Curbs</i>, +inhabit a lower level than the preceding populations, +but a higher one than—</p> + +<p>4. <i>The Erulars</i> at the foot of the hills; falling +into two divisions—<i>a</i>, the <i>Urali</i> (a name to be +noticed), and <i>b</i>, the <i>Curutali</i>.</p> + +<p>Between the Neilgherries and Cape Comorin, +the hill-tribes are worth enumerating, if only for +the sake of showing their complexity. According +to Lieutenant Conner in the "Madras Journal," +they are—1, Cowders; 2, Vaishvans; 3, Múdavenmars; +4, Arreamars, or Vailamers; 5, Ural-Uays. +Besides these, there is a population of +predial slaves, divided and subdivided.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></p> + +<ul><li>1. Vaituvan, Konaken.</li> + +<li>2. Polayers— + +<ul><li><i>a.</i> Vulluva.</li> + +<li><i>b.</i> Kunnaka.</li> + +<li><i>c.</i> Morny Pulayer.</li></ul></li> + +<li>3. Pariahs.</li> + +<li>4. Vaidurs.</li> + +<li>5. Ulanders and Naiadi.</li></ul> + +<p>To return to the Neilgherries, and follow the +western Ghauts upwards, a population more +numerous than any hitherto mentioned is that +of the—</p> + +<p><i>Buddugurs</i>, called also <i>Marvés</i>. This name +takes so many forms that <i>Berdar</i> may be one of +them. One division of Buddugurs is called +<i>Lingait</i>.</p> + +<p>I cannot follow the Ghauts consecutively; however, +when we reach the southern portion of the +Mahratta country, we find in the rajahship of +Satarah, two predatory tribes:—</p> + +<p><i>The Berdars</i>, supposed to be closely allied to +Ramusi. The—</p> + +<p><i>Ramusi</i> themselves connected by tradition and +creed, with the <i>Lingait</i> Buddugurs. But not by +language; or at any rate not wholly so. The +Ramusi dialect is a mixture of Tulava and +Marathi—the former being undoubted Tamul, +but the latter in the same category with the +Udiya.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span></p> + +<p>The continuous Tamul languages are now left +to the south of us, and the hill-tribes next in +order, will have unlearnt their native tongues, +and be found speaking the Hindú dialects of the +countries around them. Hence, the evidence of +their Tamulian descent will be less conclusive.</p> + +<p><i>Warali of the Konkan.</i>—Mountaineers of the +northern Konkan. We have seen this name +twice already, and we shall see it again. The +evidence of their Tamulian extraction is imperfect. +Their language is Marathi and their creed +an imperfect Brahminism. Their mountaineer +habits separate them from—</p> + +<p><i>The Katodi</i>—outcasts, who take their name +from preparing the <i>kat</i>, or <i>cat-echu</i>, and who hang +about the villages of the <i>plains</i>.</p> + +<p><i>The Kúli.</i>—From Poonah to Gujerat, the occupants +of the range of mountains parallel to the +coast are called <i>Kúli</i> (<i>Coolies</i>), the same in the +eyes of the Hindús of the western coast, as the <i>Kól</i> +were in those of the Bengalese and Orissans; and +similarly named. Their language is generally (perhaps +always) that of the country around them, <i>viz.</i>, +Marathi amongst the Mahrattas, and Gujerathi +in Gujerat. However, difference of habits +and creed sufficiently separate them from the +Hindús.</p> + +<p><i>The Bhils.</i>—These are generally associated with +the Kúlis; from whom they chiefly differ geographically,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +belonging, as they do to the transverse +ranges—the Satpura and Vindhia mountains—rather +than to the main line of the Ghauts with +its due north-and-south direction, and with its +parallelism to the coast.</p> + +<p><i>The Paurias.</i>—Hill-tribes in Candeish, belonging +to the Satpura range, and conterminous with +the Bhil tribes, and with—</p> + +<p><i>The Wurali of the Satpura range.</i>—The Wurali +re-appear for the fourth time. In the parts in +question they are in contact with the Bhils and +Paurias; from whom they keep themselves distinct; +and from whom they differ in dialect. +Still their language is Marathi. Pre-eminent as +they are for their Paganism, their country contains +ruins of brick buildings, and considerable +excavations.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p> + +<p>These three are the hill-tribes of the water-shed +of the rivers Tapti and Nerbudda. The water-system +of the south-western feeders of the Ganges +is more complex. Along the mountains between +Candeish and Jeypur come—</p> + +<p>Certain <i>Bhil</i> tribes.</p> + +<p><i>The Mewars</i>—under the Grasya chiefs of Joora, +Meerpoor, Oguna, and Panurwa. The political +relations of these tribes—in some cases of an undetermined +nature—are with the Rajpút governments;<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +in other words, we are now amongst the +aborigines of Rajasthan.</p> + +<p><i>The Minas.</i>—These, like the Mewars, are in +geographical contact with certain Bhil tribes; in +political contact with the Rajpúts—the Mewars +with those of Udipúr; the Minas with those of +Ajmer, Jeypur, and Kota.</p> + +<p><i>The Moghis.</i>—At present, a free company rather +than a population; although the representatives +of what was once one—<i>viz.</i>, the aborigines of +Jodpure. So little Brahminists are they that they +eat of the flesh of the jackal and the cow, and +indulge freely in fermented drinks.</p> + +<p>The hills that separate Malwah from the Haroti +country, and from the south-eastern boundary of +the valley of the River Chumbul are occupied +by—</p> + +<p><i>The Saireas.</i>—This is a name which has occurred +before and elsewhere;<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> and is almost certainly, +anything but native. Tribes, under this +name, extend into Bundelcund.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p> + +<p><i>The Goands.</i>—The central parts between Candeish +and Orissa, the head-waters of the Nerbudda +and Tapti on the west, and of the Godavery +on the east, still require notice. Here the hill +population is at its <i>maximum</i>, both in point of +numbers and characteristics; and the <i>Khond</i> forms<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +of the Tamul re-appear under the name <i>Goand</i>. +Of these we have specimens from—</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> The Gawhilghur mountains near Ellichpoor.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Chupprah.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Mundala in <i>Gundwana</i>, or the <i>Goand</i> country.</p> + +<p>Such are the chief hill-populations; which, +although they belong to Tamulian stock, differ as +to the extent to which they carry outward and +visible signs of their origin. Some, like the Rajmahali, +are merely separated geographically; and, +perhaps, not even that. Others, like the Khonds +of Orissa, are contrasted with the Tamuls of the +south, by their inferior and social condition, and +their non-Brahminical creeds. The Minas and +Bhils differ in language; whilst the Ramusis +and Berdars, probably, exhibit transitional forms +of speech. The Tudas and Chenchwars surrounded +by Telingas and Tamuls, as the Khonds +and Goands are by Udiyas and Mahrattas, are +merely the population of the parts around them +with a primitive polity and religion.</p> + +<p>The <i>lettered</i> languages of the Dekhan, where +the Tamul character is unequivocal, but where the +civilizational influences have chiefly been Hindú, +are spoken in continuity from Chicacole, east, and +the parts about Goa, west, to Cape Comorin, <i>i.e.</i>, +in the Madras Presidency, and in the countries of +Mysore, Travancore, and the coasts of Malabar<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +and Coromandel. Of these, the most northern—beginning +on the eastern coast—is—</p> + +<p><i>The Telinga or Telugu.</i>—Spoken from the +parts about Chicacole to Pulicat, where it is succeeded +by—</p> + +<p><i>The Tamul Proper.</i>—The language of the Coromandel +coast and the parts of the interior as +far as Coimbatore. Each of these tongues has a +double form, one for literature, and one for +common use; the former being called the High, +the latter the Low, Tamul or Telugu, as the case +may be, and the creed which it embodies being +either Brahminism, or some modification of it.</p> + +<p>In Travancore and on the Malabar coast the +language is—</p> + +<p><i>The Malayalma</i> or <i>Malayalam</i>—and in the +greater part of Mysore—</p> + +<p><i>The Kanara</i>—which, like the Tamul and Telinga, +is both High and Low—literary or +vulgar.</p> + +<p>Amongst these four well-known forms of the +South Tamulian tongue, may be distributed +several dialects and sub-dialects. Such as the +Tulava for the parts between Goa and Mangalore, +and the Coorgi of the Rajahship of Coorg, not to +mention the several varieties in the language of +the hill-tribes.</p> + +<p>Now all the populations of the present chapter +agree in this particular—their language is generally<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +admitted to be Tamulian at the present moment, +or if not, to have been so at some earlier period. +With the languages next under notice, the original +Tamulian character is not so admitted—indeed, +it is so far denied as to make the affirmation +of it partake of the nature of paradox.</p> + +<p>The distinction then is raised on the existence +of the doubt in question, or rather on the differences +that such a doubt implies. Hence the +division of the languages of India into the Hindú +and the Tamulian is practical rather than scientific—the +<i>Hindú</i> meaning those for which a <i>Sanskrit</i>, +rather than a <i>Tamul</i> affinity is claimed.</p> + +<p><i>Sanskrit</i> is the name of a language; a name +upon which nine-tenths of the controversial points +in Indian ethnology and in Indian history turn.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. viii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> "Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. vi. +part 2. See also pp. <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> of the present volume.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Described by Lieutenants Phayre and Latter in "Journal +of the Asiatic Society of Bengal."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Dr. Helfer, "Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. viii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> "Asiatic Researches," vol. v.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Dr. Buchanan, "Asiatic Researches," vol. v.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Macrae in "Asiatic Researches," vol. vii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Eliot, in "Asiatic Transactions," vol. iii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Eliot, <i>ut supra</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> For Jan. 1849.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> "Transactions of the British Association for the Advancement +of Science," 1844.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> "Statistical Sketch of Kumaon," by G. W. Traill, Asiatic +Researches, vol. xvi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> From the Greek <i>polys</i>=<i>many</i>, and <i>anær</i>=<i>man</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Eliot in "Asiatic Researches," vol. iv.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Captain S. C. Macpherson, "Journal of the Asiatic Society," +vol. xiii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> See Lieut. Newbold, "Journal of the Asiatic Society," vol. +viii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Lieut. C. P. Rigby, in "Transactions of the Bombay +Geographical Society," May to August 1850.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> The Soars of Orissa.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Col. Todd, "Travels in Western India."</p></div> +</div> + +<hr /><p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2> + +<div class="bk1"><p>THE SANSKRIT LANGUAGE.—ITS RELATIONS TO CERTAIN MODERN +LANGUAGES OF INDIA; TO THE SLAVONIC AND LITHUANIC OF +EUROPE.—INFERENCES.—BRAHMINISM OF THE PURANAS—OF +THE INSTITUTES OF MENU.—EXTRACT.—OF THE VEDAS.—EXTRACT.—INFERENCES.—THE +HINDÚS.—SIKHS.—BILUCHI.—AFGHANS.—WANDERING +TRIBES.—MISCELLANEOUS POPULATIONS.—CEYLON.—BUDDHISM.—DEVIL-WORSHIP.—VADDAHS.</p></div> + +<p>The language called <i>Sanskrit</i> has a peculiar +alphabet. It has long been written, and embodies +an important literature. It has been well studied; +and its ethnological affinities are understood. +They are at least as remarkable as any other of +its characters.</p> + +<p>Like most other tongues, it falls into dialects; +just like the ancient Greek. Like the Doric, +Æolic, and Ionic, these dialects were spoken over +distant countries, and cultivated at different periods. +Like them, too, each is characterized by +its peculiar literature.</p> + +<p>The Sanskrit itself, in its oldest form, is the +<i>Vedaic</i> dialect of the religious hymns called +<i>Vedas</i>—of great, but of exaggerated, antiquity.</p> + +<p>Another form of equal antiquity is the language<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +of the Persepolitan and other arrow-headed +inscriptions. These are of a known antiquity, +and range from the time of Cambyses to that of +Artaxerxes.</p> + +<p>By <i>old</i> is meant <i>old in structure</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, betraying +by its archaic forms, an early stage of development. +It is by no means <i>old</i> in chronology. In +the way of chronology, the English of Shakespeare +is older than the German of Goethe; yet the +German of Goethe is the older tongue, because it +retains more old inflections.</p> + +<p>The third form is called <i>Pali</i>. In this is +written the oldest Indian inscription; one containing +the name of Antiochus, one of Alexander's +successors. It is also the dialect of the +chief Buddhist works.</p> + +<p>A fourth form is the <i>Bactrian</i>. This occurs in +the coins of Macedonian and other Indianized +kings of Bactria, and is best studied in the +"Ariana Antiqua," of Wilson.</p> + +<p>A fifth is the <i>Zend</i> of the Zendavesta, the +Scriptures of the followers of Zoroaster.</p> + +<p>Others are called <i>Pracrit</i>. Some of the Sanskrit +works are dramatic. In the modern comedies +of Italy we find certain characters speaking +the provincial dialects of Naples, Bologna, and +other districts. The same took place here. In +the Sanskrit plays we find deflexions from the +standard language, put into the mouths of some of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +the subordinate characters. It is believed that these +Pracrits represented certain local dialects, as opposed +to the purer and more classical Sanskrit.</p> + +<p>Every spoken dialect of Hindostan has a per-centage +of Sanskrit words in it; just as every +dialect of England has an amount of Anglo-Norman. +What does this prove? That depends upon +the per-centage; and this differs in different +languages. In a general way it may be stated +that, amongst the tongues already enumerated, it +is smallest in the isolated Tamulian tongues; +larger in the Tamul of the Dekhan; and largest +in the tongues about to be enumerated; these +being the chief languages of modern Hindostan.</p> + +<p>1. The <i>Marathi</i> of the Mahrattas. Here the +Sanskrit words amount to four-fifths in the Marathi +dictionaries.</p> + +<p>2. The <i>Udiya</i>, of Cuttack and Orissa, with a +per-centage of Sanskrit greater than that of the +Marathi, but less than that of—</p> + +<p>3. The <i>Bengali</i>. Here it is at its <i>maximum</i>, +and amounts to nine-tenths.</p> + +<p>4. The <i>Hindú</i>, of Oude, and the parts between +Bengal and the Punjâb, falling into the subordinate +dialects of the Rajpút country.</p> + +<p>5. The <i>Gujerathi</i> of Gujerat.</p> + +<p>6. The <i>Scindian</i> of Scinde.</p> + +<p>7. The <i>Multani</i> of Múltan; probably a dialect +of either the Gujerathi or<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>—</p> + +<p>8. The <i>Punjabi</i> of the Punjâb.</p> + +<p>By going into minor differences this list might +be enlarged.</p> + +<p>None of the previous languages were mentioned +in the last chapter; in fact, they were those +different Hindú tongues which were contrasted +with the Tamulian, and which, in the northern +part of the Peninsula had effected those displacements +which separated, or were supposed to +separate, the Rajmahali, Kól, and Khond +dialects from each other. They formed the <i>sea</i> of +speech, in which those tongues were <i>islands</i>.</p> + +<p>Now what is the inference from these per-centages? +from such a one as the Bengali, of +ninety out of one hundred? What do they prove +as to the character of the language in which they +occur? Do they make the Sanskrit the basis of the +tongue, just as the Anglo-Saxon is of the English, +or do they merely show it as a superadded foreign +element, like the Norman—like that in kind, but +far greater in degree? The answer to this will +give us the philological position of the North-Indian +tongues. It will make the Bengali either +Tamul, with an unprecedented amount of foreign +vocables, or Sanskrit, with a few words of the +older native tongue retained.</p> + +<p>If the question were settled by a reference to +authorities, the answer would be that the Bengali +was essentially Sanskrit.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p> + +<p>It would be the same if we took only the <i>primâ +facie</i> view of the matter.</p> + +<p>Yet the answer is traversed by two facts.</p> + +<p>1. In making the per-centage of Sanskrit words +it has been assumed that, whenever the modern +and ancient tongues have any words in common, +the former has always taken them from the latter,—an +undue assumption, since the Sanskrit may +easily have adopted native words.</p> + +<p>2. The grammatical inflections are so far from +being as Sanskritic as the vocables, that they are +either non-existent altogether, unequivocally Tamul, +or else <i>controverted</i> Sanskrit.</p> + +<p>Here I pause,—giving, at present, no opinion +upon the merits of the two views. The reader +has seen the complications of the case; and is +prepared for hearing that, though most of the +highest authorities consider the languages of +northern India to be related to the Sanskrit, just +as the English is to the Anglo-Saxon, and the +Italian to the Latin; others deny such a connexion, +affirming that as the real relations of the +Sanskrit are those of the Norman-French to our +own tongue, and of the Arabic to the Spanish, +there is no such thing throughout the whole length +and breadth of Hindostan as a dialect descended +from the Sanskrit, or a spot whereon that famous +tongue can be shown to have existed as a spoken +and indigenous language.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></p> + +<p>But, perhaps, we may find in Persia what we lack +in India; and as the modern Persian is descended +from the Zend, and as the Zend is a sister to the +Sanskrit, Persia may, perhaps, supply such a locality. +The same doubts apply here.</p> + +<p>Such are the doubts that apply to an important +question in Asiatic ethnology. I am not, at +present, going beyond the simple fact of their +existence. Rightly or wrongly, there is an opinion +that the Sanskrit never was indigenous to any part +of India, not even the most north-western; and +there is an extension of this opinion which—rightly +or wrongly—similarly excludes it from +Persia. So much doubt should be relieved by +the exhibition of some universally admitted fact +as a set-off.</p> + +<p>Such a contrast shall be supplied, in the shape +of a comment on the following tables.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> It is one +of Dr. Trithem's.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">ENGLISH.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">LITHUANIC.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">RUSSIAN.</span></td><td><span class="smcapl">SANSKRIT.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Father</i></td><td class="td3">tewas</td><td class="td3">otets</td><td>pitr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Mother</i></td><td class="td3">motina</td><td class="td3">mat'</td><td>mātr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Son</i></td><td class="td3">sunai</td><td class="td3">suin</td><td>sūnu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Brother</i></td><td class="td3">brolis</td><td class="td3">brat</td><td>bhratr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Sister</i></td><td class="td3">sessu</td><td class="td3">sestra</td><td>svasr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Daughter-in-law</i></td><td class="td3">—</td><td class="td3">snokha</td><td>snushā.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Father-in-law</i></td><td class="td3">—</td><td class="td3">svekor<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></td><td>śvasúra.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Mother-in-law</i></td><td class="td3">—</td><td class="td3">svekrov'<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></td><td>śvas ru.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Brother-in-law</i></td><td class="td3">—</td><td class="td3">dever'<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></td><td>devr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>One</i></td><td class="td3">wienas</td><td class="td3">odin</td><td>eka.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Two</i></td><td class="td3">du</td><td class="td3">dva</td><td>dvā.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Three</i></td><td class="td3">trys</td><td class="td3">tri</td><td>tri.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Four</i></td><td class="td3">keturi</td><td class="td3">chetuire</td><td>chatvārah.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Five</i></td><td class="td3">penki</td><td class="td3">piat'</td><td>pancha.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Six</i></td><td class="td3">szessi</td><td class="td3">shest'</td><td>shash.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Seven</i></td><td class="td3">septyni</td><td class="td3">sedm'</td><td>saptan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Eight</i></td><td class="td3">asstuoni</td><td class="td3">osm'</td><td>ashtan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Nine</i></td><td class="td3">dewyni</td><td class="td3">deviat'</td><td>navan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Ten</i></td><td class="td3">dessimtis</td><td class="td3">desiat'</td><td>dasá.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The following similarities go the same way, +<i>viz.</i>, towards the proof of a remarkable affinity +with certain languages of <i>Europe</i>, there being +none equally strong with any existing and undoubted +Asiatic ones.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">ENGLISH.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">LITHUANIC.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">SANSKRIT.</span></td><td><span class="smcapl">ZEND.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>I</i></td><td class="td3">ass</td><td class="td3">aham</td><td>azem.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Thou</i></td><td class="td3">tu</td><td class="td3">twam</td><td>tūm.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>Ye</i></td><td class="td3">yus</td><td class="td3">yūyam</td><td>yūs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>The</i><a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></td><td class="td3">tas</td><td class="td3">ta-<i>d</i></td><td>tad.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3">—</td><td class="td3">szi</td><td class="td3">sah</td><td>ho.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="hd1"><span class="smcapl">LITHUANIC.</span><br /> +Laups-inni = <i>I praise.</i></div> + +<p class="center noin"><i>Present.</i></p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="td3">1. Laups</td><td class="td3">-innu</td><td class="td3">-innawa</td><td>-inname.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3">2. —</td><td class="td3">-inni</td><td class="td3">-innata</td><td>-innata.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3">3. —</td><td class="td3">-inna</td><td class="td3">-inna</td><td>-inna.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p> + +<div class="hd1"><span class="smcapl">SANSKRIT.</span><br /> +Jaj-ami = <i>I conquer.</i></div> + +<p class="center noin"><i>Present.</i></p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="td3">1. Jaj</td><td class="td3">-āmi</td><td class="td3">-āvah</td><td>-āmah.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3">2. —</td><td class="td3">-ăsi</td><td class="td3">-ăthah</td><td>-ătha.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3">3. —</td><td class="td3">-ăti</td><td class="td3">-ătah</td><td>-anti.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="hd1"><span class="smcapl">LITHUANIC.</span><br /> +Esmi = <i>I am.</i></div> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="td3">1. Esmi</td><td class="td3">eswa</td><td>esme.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3">2. Essi</td><td class="td3">esta</td><td>esti.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3">3. Esti</td><td class="td3">esti</td><td>esti.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="hd1"><span class="smcapl">SANSKRIT.</span><br /> +Asmi = <i>I am.</i></div> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="td3">1. Asmi</td><td class="td3">swah</td><td>smah.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3">2. Asi</td><td class="td3">sthah</td><td>stha.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3">3. Asti</td><td class="td3">stah</td><td>santi.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The inference from the vast series of philological +facts, of which the following is a specimen, has, +generally—perhaps <i>universally</i>—been as follows, +<i>viz.</i>, that the Lithuanic, Slavonic, and the allied +languages of Germany, Italy, and Greece—numerous, +widely-spread, and unequivocally European—are +<i>Asiatic</i> in origin; the Sanskrit being +first referred to Asia, and then assumed to represent +the languages of that Asiatic locality. I +merely express my dissent from this inference; +adding my belief that the relations of the Sanskrit +to the Hindú tongues are those of the Anglo-Norman +to the English, and that its relation to<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +those of the south-eastern Slavonic area, is that +of the Greek of Bactria, to the Greek of Macedon—greater, +much greater in degree, but the same +in kind.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p> + +<p>The Brahminic creed of Hindostan is the next +great characteristic. Brahminism may be viewed +in two ways. We may either take it in its later +forms, and trace its history backwards, or begin +with it in its simplest and most unmodified stage, +and notice the changes that have affected it as +they occur. At the present its principles are to +be found in the holy book called <i>Puranas</i>; the +Brahminism of the <i>Puranas</i> standing in the same +relation to certain earlier forms, as the Rabbinism +of the Talmud, or the Romanism of the fathers +does to primitive Judaism and Christianity. The +pre-eminence of a sacred caste—the sanctitude of +the cow—an impossible cosmogony—the worship +of Siva and Vishnu—and an indefinite sort of +recognition of beings like Rama, Krishna, Kali, +and others, are the leading features here; the +recognition of the Ramas and Krishnas being +of an indefinite and equivocal character, because +the extent to which the elements of their +divine nature are referable to the idea of <i>dead +men deified</i>, or the very opposite notion of <i>Gods<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +become incarnate</i>, are inextricably mixed together. +The Puranas are referable to different dates +between the twelfth and sixth centuries <span class="smcapl">A.D.</span></p> + +<p>The germs of the Brahminism of the Puranas +are the two great epics, the <i>Ramayana</i>, or the +conquest of Hindostan by Rama, and the <i>Mahabharata</i>, +or great war between the Sun and Moon +dynasties. If we call the <i>worship of dead men +deified</i>, Euhemerism, it is the Ramayana and the +Mahabharata, to which the Euhemerist elements +of the present Brahminism are to be attributed. +They increased the <i>personality</i> of the previous religion. +This is the natural effect of narrative poetry, +and one of which we may measure the magnitude +by looking at the influence and tendencies of the +great Homeric poems of Greece. It is these +which give us Kali, Rama, Krishna, Siva, and +Vishnu, and which helped to determine the preponderance +of the two last over Brahma—Brahma +being the Creator; Vishnu, the Preserver; and +Siva, the Destroyer. The highest antiquity +which has been given to the <i>epics</i> is the second +century <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span>; and this is full high enough.</p> + +<p>The Brahminism of the "Institutes of Menu," +the oldest Indian code of laws, is simpler than +that of the epics. Its Euhemerism is less. Nevertheless, +it contains the great text on the caste-system, +the <i>fulcrum</i> of priestly pre-eminence.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p> + +<div class="hd1">INSTITUTES OF MENU.</div> + +<p class="center noin"><i>Sir Graves Haughton's Translation.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. For the sake of preserving this universe, the Being, +supremely glorious, allotted separate duties to those who +sprang respectively from his mouth, his arm, his thigh, and +his foot.</p> + +<p>2. To <i>Bráhmins</i> he assigned the duties of reading the +<i>Veda</i>, of teaching it, of sacrificing, of assisting others to sacrifice, +of giving alms, <i>if they be rich</i>, and, if <i>indigent</i>, of receiving +gifts.</p> + +<p>3. To defend the people, to give alms, to sacrifice, to read +the <i>Veda</i>, to shun the allurements of sensual gratification, are, +in a few words, the duties of a <i>Cshatriya</i>.</p> + +<p>4. To keep herds of cattle, to bestow largesses, to sacrifice, +to read the scripture, to carry on trade, to lend at interest, and +to cultivate land, are <i>prescribed or permitted</i> to a <i>Vaisya</i>.</p> + +<p>5. One principal duty the Supreme Ruler assigns to a +<i>Súdra</i>; namely, to serve the before-mentioned classes, without +depreciating their worth.</p> + +<p>6. Man is declared purer above the navel; but the Self-Creating +Power declared the purest part of him to be his +mouth.</p> + +<p>7. Since the Bráhmin sprang from the most excellent part, +since he was the first born, and since he possesses the <i>Veda</i>, +he is by right the chief of this whole creation.</p> + +<p>8. Him, the Being, who exists of himself, produced in the +beginning, from his own mouth, that having performed holy +rites, he might present clarified butter to the gods, and cakes +of rice to the progenitors of mankind, for the preservation of +this world.</p> + +<p>9. What created being then can surpass Him, with whose<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> +mouth the gods of the firmament continually feast on clarified +butter, and the manes of ancestors, on hallowed cakes?</p> + +<p>10. Of created things, the most excellent are those which +are animated; of the animated, those which subsist by intelligence; +of the intelligent, mankind; and of men, the sacerdotal +class.</p> + +<p>11. Of priests those eminent in learning; of the learned, +those who know their duty; of those who know it, such as +perform it virtuously; and of the virtuous, those who seek +beatitude from a perfect acquaintance with scriptural doctrine.</p> + +<p>12. The very birth of <i>Bráhmins</i> is a constant incarnation +of <span class="smcap">Dherma</span>, <i>God of Justice</i>; for the <i>Bráhmin</i> is born to promote +justice, and to procure ultimate happiness.</p> + +<p>13. When a <i>Bráhmin</i> springs to light, he is borne above +the world, the chief of all creatures, assigned to guard the +treasury of duties, religious and civil.</p> + +<p>14. Whatever exists in the universe, is all in effect, <i>though +not in form</i>, the wealth of the <i>Bráhmin</i>; since the <i>Bráhmin</i> +is entitled to it all by his primogeniture and eminence of +birth.</p> + +<p>15. The <i>Bráhmin</i> eats but his own food; wears but his +own apparel; and bestows but his own in alms: through the +benevolence of the <i>Bráhmin</i>, indeed, other mortals enjoy +life.</p> + +<p>16. To declare the sacerdotal duties, and those of the other +classes in due order, the sage <span class="smcap">Menu</span>, sprung from the self-existing, +promulged this code of laws.</p> + +<p>17. A code which must be studied with extreme care by +every learned <i>Bráhmin</i>, and fully explained to his disciples, +but <i>must be taught</i> by no other man <i>of an inferior class</i>.</p> + +<p>18. The <i>Bráhmin</i> who studies this book, having performed +sacred rites, is perpetually free from offence in thought, in +word, and in deed.</p> + +<p>19. He confers purity on his living family, on his ancestors,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +and on his descendants, as far as the seventh person; and He +alone deserves to possess this whole earth.</p></div> + +<p>Subtract from the Brahminism of the Institutes, +the importance assigned to caste; substitute +for the Euhemerism of the Epics, an <i>elemental +religion</i>, and we ascend to the religion of the +Vedas; the nominal, but only the nominal basis, +of all Hinduism. In the following Vedaic hymns, +<i>Agni</i> is <i>fire</i>; <i>Indra</i>, the <i>sky</i>, <i>firmament</i>, or <i>atmosphere</i>; +and <i>Marut</i>, the <i>cloud</i>.</p> + +<h3>RIGVEDA SANHITA.</h3> + +<p class="center noin"><i>Wilson's Translation.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><div class="hd1">I.</div> + +<p>1. I glorify <span class="smcap">Agni</span>, the high priest of the sacrifice, the +divine, the ministrant, who presents the oblation (to the +gods), and is the possessor of great wealth.</p> + +<p>2. May that <span class="smcap">Agni</span>, who is to be celebrated by both ancient +and modern sages, conduct the gods hither.</p> + +<p>3. Through <span class="smcap">Agni</span> the worshipper obtains that affluence, +which increases day by day, which is the source of fame and +the multiplier of mankind.</p> + +<p>4. <span class="smcap">Agni</span>, the unobstructed sacrifice of which thou art on +every side the protector, assuredly reaches the gods.</p> + +<p>5. May <span class="smcap">Agni</span>, the presenter of oblations, the attainer of +knowledge; he who is true, renowned, and divine, come +hither with the gods!</p> + +<p>6. Whatever good thou mayest, <span class="smcap">Agni</span>, bestow upon the +giver (of the oblation), that verily, <span class="smcap">Angiras</span>, shall revert to +thee.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p> + +<p>7. We approach thee, <span class="smcap">Agni</span>, with reverential homage in +our thoughts, daily, both morning and evening.</p> + +<p>8. Thee, the radiant, the protector of sacrifices, the constant +illuminator of truth, increasing in thine own dwelling!</p> + +<p>9. <span class="smcap">Agni</span>, be unto us easy of access, as is a father to a son; +be ever present with us for our good!</p> + +<div class="hd1">II.</div> + +<p>1. <span class="smcap">Aświns</span>, cherishers of pious acts, long-armed, accept +with outstretched hands the sacrificial viands!</p> + +<p>2. <span class="smcap">Aświns</span>, abounding in mighty acts, guides (of devotion), +endowed with fortitude, listen with unaverted minds to our +praises!</p> + +<p>3. <span class="smcap">Aświns</span>, destroyers of foes, exempt from untruth, +leaders in the van of heroes, come to the mixed libations +sprinkled on the lopped sacred grass!</p> + +<p>4. <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, of wonderful splendour, come hither; these libations, +ever pure, expressed by the fingers (of the priests), are +desirous of thee!</p> + +<p>5. <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, apprehended by the understanding and appreciated +by the wise, approach and accept the prayers (of the +priest), as he offers the libation!</p> + +<p>6. Fleet <span class="smcap">Indra</span> with the tawny coursers, come hither to the +prayers (of the priests), and in this libation accept our (proffered) +food.</p> + +<p>7. Universal Gods! protectors and supporters of men, bestowers +(of rewards), come to the libation of the worshipper!</p> + +<p>8. May the swift-moving universal Gods, the shedders of +rain, come to the libation, as the solar rays come 'diligently' +to the days!</p> + +<p>9. May the universal Gods, who are exempt from decay, +omniscient, devoid of malice, and bearers of riches, accept the +sacrifice!</p> + +<p>10. May <span class="smcap">Saraswatí</span>, the purifier, the bestower of food, the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +recompenser of worship with wealth, be attracted by our +offered viands to our rite!</p> + +<p>11. <span class="smcap">Saraswatí</span>, the inspirer of those who delight in truth, +the instructress of the right-minded, has accepted our sacrifice!</p> + +<p>12. <span class="smcap">Saraswatí</span> makes manifest by her acts a mighty river, +and (in her own form) enlightens all understandings.</p> + +<div class="hd1">III.</div> + +<p>1. Come, <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, and be regaled with all viands and libations, +and thence, mighty in strength, be victorious (over thy +foes)!</p> + +<p>2. The libation being prepared, present the exhilarating +and efficacious (draught) to the rejoicing <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, the accomplisher +of all things.</p> + +<p>3. <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, with the handsome chin, be pleased with these +animating praises: do thou, who art to be reverenced by all +mankind, (come) to these rites (with the gods)!</p> + +<p>4. I have addressed to thee, <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, the showerer (of blessings), +the protector (of thy worshippers), praises which have +reached thee, and of which thou hast approved!</p> + +<p>5. Place before us, <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, precious and multiform riches, +for enough, and more than enough, are assuredly thine!</p> + +<p>6. Opulent <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, encourage us in this rite for the acquirement +of wealth, for we are diligent and renowned!</p> + +<p>7. Grant us, <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, wealth beyond measure or calculation, +inexhaustible, the source of cattle, of food, of all life.</p> + +<p>8. <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, grant us great renown and wealth acquired in a +thousand ways, and those (articles) of food (which are brought +from the field) in carts!</p> + +<p>9. We invoke, for the preservation of our property, <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, +the lord of wealth, the object of sacred verses, the repairer (to +the place of sacrifice), praising him with our praises!</p> + +<p>10. With libations repeatedly effused, the sacrificer glorifies<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +the vast prowess of <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, the mighty, the dweller in (an +eternal mansion)!</p> + +<div class="hd1">IV.</div> + +<p>1. The <span class="smcap">Maruts</span> who are going forth decorate themselves +like females: they are gliders (through the air), the sons of +<span class="smcap">Rudra</span>, and the doers of good works, by which they promote +the welfare of earth and heaven: heroes, who grind (the solid +rocks), they delight in sacrifices!</p> + +<p>2. They, inaugurated by the gods, have attained majesty, +the sons of <span class="smcap">Rudra</span> have established their dwelling above the +sky: glorifying him (<span class="smcap">Indra</span>) who merits to be glorified, they +have inspired him with vigour: the sons of <span class="smcap">Prisni</span> have acquired +dominion!</p> + +<p>3. When the sons of the earth embellish themselves with +ornaments, they shine resplendent in their persons with (brilliant) +decorations; they keep aloof every adversary: the waters +follow their path!</p> + +<p>4. They who are worthily worshipped shine with various +weapons: incapable of being overthrown, they are the overthrowers +(of mountains): <span class="smcap">Maruts</span>, swift as thought, intrusted +with the duty of sending rain, yoke the spotted deer to your +cars!</p> + +<p>5. When <span class="smcap">Maruts</span>, urging on the cloud, for the sake of (providing) +food, you have yoked the deer to your chariots, the +drops fall from the radiant (sun), and moisten the earth, like +a hide, with water!</p> + +<p>6. Let your quick-paced smooth-gliding coursers bear you +(hither), and, moving swiftly, come with your hands filled +with good things: sit, <span class="smcap">Maruts</span>, upon the broad seat of sacred +grass, and regale yourselves with the sweet sacrificial food!</p> + +<p>7. Confiding in their own strength, they have increased in +(power); they have attained heaven by their greatness, and +have made (for themselves) a spacious abode: may they, for<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +whom <span class="smcap">Vishnu</span> defends (the sacrifice) that bestows all desires +and confers delight, come (quickly) like birds, and sit down +upon the pleasant and sacred grass!</p> + +<p>8. Like heroes, like combatants, like men anxious for food, +the swift-moving (<span class="smcap">Maruts</span>) have engaged in battles: all beings +fear the <span class="smcap">Maruts</span>, who are the leaders (of the rain), and awful +of aspect, like princes!</p> + +<p>9. <span class="smcap">Indra</span> wields the well-made, golden, many-bladed thunderbolt, +which the skilful <span class="smcap">Twashtri</span> has framed for him, that +he may achieve great exploits in war. He has slain <span class="smcap">Vritra</span>, +and sent forth an ocean of water!</p> + +<p>10. By their power, they bore the well aloft, and clove +asunder the mountain that obstructed their path: the munificent +<span class="smcap">Maruts</span>, blowing upon their pipe, have conferred, +when exhilarated by the <i>soma</i> juice, desirable (gifts upon +the sacrificer)!</p> + +<p>11. They brought the crooked well to the place (where the +<i>Muni</i> was), and sprinkled the water upon the thirsty <span class="smcap">Gotama</span>: +the variously-radiant (<span class="smcap">Maruts</span>) come to his succour, +gratifying the desire of the sage with life-sustaining waters!</p> + +<p>12. Whatever blessings (are diffused) through the three +worlds, and are in your gift, do you bestow upon the donor (of +the libation), who addresses you with praise; bestow them, +also, <span class="smcap">Maruts</span>, upon us, and grant us, bestowers of all good, +riches, whence springs prosperity!</p></div> + +<p>If we investigate the antiquity of these hymns +we shall find no definite and unimpeachable date. +Their epoch is assigned on the score of internal +evidence. The language is so much more archaic +than that of the Institutes, and the mythology +so much simpler; whilst the Institutes +themselves are similarly circumstanced in respect<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +to the Epics. Fixing these at about 200, <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span>; +we allow so many centuries for the archaisms +of Menu, and so many more for those of the +Vedas. For the whole, eleven hundred has not +been thought too little, which places the Vedas in +the fourteenth century, <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span>, and makes them the +earliest, or nearly the earliest records in the +world.</p> + +<p>It is clear that this is but an approximation, +and, although all inquirers admit that creeds, +languages, and social conditions present the +phenomena of <i>growth</i>, the opinions as to the <i>rate</i> +of such growths are varied, and none of much +value. This is because the particular induction +required for the formation of anything better than +a mere impression has yet to be undertaken—till +when, one man's guess is as good as another's. +The age of a tree may be reckoned from its concentric +rings, but the age of a language, a doctrine, +or a polity, has neither bark nor wood, neither +teeth like a horse, nor a register like a child.</p> + +<p>Now the antiquity of the Vedas, as inferred +from the archaic character of their language, has +been shaken by the discovery of the structure of +the Persepolitan dialect of the arrow-headed inscriptions. +It approaches that of the Vedas; +being, in some points, older than the Sanskrit of +Menu. Yet its date is less than 500, <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span> Again, +the Pali is less archaic than the Sanskrit; yet the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> +Pali is the language of the oldest inscriptions in +India, indeed, of the oldest Indian records of any +sort, with a definite date.</p> + +<p>One of the few cases where the phenomena of +<i>rate</i> have been studied with due attention, is in +the evolution of the three languages of Denmark, +Norway, and Sweden out of the Icelandic. What +does this tell us? The last has altered so slowly +that a modern Icelander can read the oldest works of +his language. In Sweden, however, the speech <i>has</i> +altered. So it has in Denmark; whilst both these +languages are unintelligible to the Icelander, +and <i>vice versâ</i>. As to their respective changes, +Petersen shows that the Danish was always +about a hundred years forwarder than the Swedish, +having attained that point at (say) 1200, which +the Swedish did not reach till 1300. Both, however, +changed; and that, at a uniform rate; the +Danish having, as it were, the start of a century. +The Norwegian, however, comported itself differently. +Until the Reformation it hardly changed +at all; less than the stationary Icelandic itself. +Fifty years, however, of sudden and rapid transformation +brought it, at once, to the stage which +the Danish had been three hundred years in reaching. +How many times must the observation of +such phenomena be multiplied before we can +strike an average as to the rate of change in languages, +creeds, and polities?<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></p> + +<p>Again—it is by no means certain that the +Institutes and the Vedas represent a contemporary +state of things. All doctrinal writings +contain something appertaining to a period older +than that of their composition.</p> + +<p>Lastly,—the proof that all the writings in +question belong to the same linear series, and +represent the growth of <i>the same phenomena in the +same place</i> is deficient. The Ægyptologist believes +that contemporary kings are mistaken for +successive ones; the philologist, that difference +of dialects simulates a difference of age. Doubts +of a more specific nature dawn upon us when we +attempt to realize the alphabet in which an +Indian MS. of even only eight hundred years +<span class="smcapl">B.C.</span>, was written. No Indian MS. is fifteen +hundred years old; no inscription older than +Alexander's time. Nevertheless,—though I write +upon this subject with diffidence—the Devanagari +characters of the Sanskrit MSS. can be deduced +from the alphabet of the inscriptions; +whilst these inscriptions themselves approach the +alphabets of the Semitic character in proportion +to their antiquity: so that the oldest alphabet +of the Vedas is referable to that of the +inscriptions, and that of the inscriptions betrays +an origin external to India. Its introduction +<i>may</i> be very early; nevertheless its epoch must +be investigated with a full recognition of the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +comparatively modern date of even the earliest +alphabets of Persia, and the parts westward; early +as compared with such a date as 1400, <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span>, the +accredited epoch of the Vedas; an epoch, perhaps, +a thousand years too early.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, the existence of an alphabet, +an architecture, a coinage, and an algebra at a +period which no scepticism puts much later than +250, <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span>, is so undoubted, that they may pass as +ethnological facts, <i>i.e.</i>, facts sufficiently true to +be not merely admitted with what is called an +<i>otiose</i> belief, but to be classed with the most unexceptionable +<i>data</i> of history, and to be used as +effects from which we may argue backwards—<i>more +ethnologico</i>—to their antecedent causes; the +appreciation of these requiring a philosophy and +an induction of its own.</p> + +<p>We cannot detract from the antiquity of Indian +civilization without impugning its indigenous +origin, nor doubt this without stirring the question +as to the countries from which it was introduced. +These have been Persia, Assyria, Egypt, +and Greece; the introduction being direct or +indirect as the case might be.</p> + +<p>In this way are contrasted the views of the +general ethnologist, with those of the special orientalist, +in respect to the great and difficult question +of Indian antiquity. Yet, how far does the scepticism +of the former affect our views concerning<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> +the descent of the Hindús, the Mahrattas, the +Bengali, and those other populations, to the +languages whereof they applied? Not much. +Whichever way we decide, the population may +still be Tamulian; only, in case we make the +language Sanskritic, it is Tamulian in the same +way as the Cornish are Welsh; <i>i.e.</i>, Tamulian +with a change of tongue.</p> + +<p>The doubts, too, as to the antiquity of the +Sanskrit literature unsettle but little. They +merely make the introduction of certain foreign +elements some centuries later.</p> + +<p>Whatever may be the oldest of the great +Hindú creeds, that of the <i>Sikhs</i> is the newest. Its +founder, Nanuk, in the fifteenth century, was a +contemplative enthusiast; his successor, Govind, +a zealous man of action; himself succeeded by +similar <i>gúrús</i>, or priests, who eventually, by +means of fanaticism, organization, and union +with the state raised the power of the <i>Khalsa</i> +to the formidable height from which it has so +lately fallen. <i>Truth</i> is the great abstraction of the +Sikh creeds; and the extent to which it is at +once intolerant and eclectic may be seen from the +following extracts.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> They certainly present the +doctrine in a favourable light.</p> +<p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span></p> + +<div class="hd1">I.</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class="i0">The true name is God; without fear, without enmity; the Being without death; the Giver of salvation; the Gooroo and Grace.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Remember the primal truth; truth which was before the world began.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Truth which is, and truth, O Nânuk! which will remain.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">By reflection it cannot be attained, how much soever the attention be fixed.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">A hundred wisdoms, even a hundred thousand, not one accompanies the dead.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">How can truth be told, how can falsehood be unravelled?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">O Nânuk! by following the will of God, as by Him ordained.<br /></span> +</div> + +<div class="hd1">II.</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class="i0">Time is the only God; the First and the Last, the Endless Being; the Creator, the Destroyer; He who can make and unmake.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">God who created angels and demons, who created the East and the West, the North and the South; How can He be expressed by words?<br /></span> +</div> + +<div class="hd1">III.</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class="i0">Numerous Mahomets have there been, and multitudes of Bruhmas, Vishnoos, and Sivas.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Thousands of Peers and Prophets, and tens of thousands of saints and holy men:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">But the chief of Lords is the one Lord, the true name of God.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">O Nânuk! of God, His qualities, without end, beyond reckoning, who can understand?<br /></span> +</div> + +<div class="hd1">IV.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></div> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class="i0">Many Bruhmas wearied themselves with the study of the Veds, but found not the value of an oil seed.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Holy men and saints are sought about anxiously, but they were deceived by Maya.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">There have been, and there have passed away, ten regent Owtârs, and the wondrous Muhadeo.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Even they, wearied with the application of ashes, could not find Thee.<br /></span> +</div> + +<div class="hd1">V.</div> + +<div class="poem" style="width: 29em;"> +<span class="i0">He who speaks of me as the Lord, him will I sink into the pit of hell!<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Consider me as the slave of God; of that have no doubt in thy mind.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">I am but the slave of the Lord, come to behold the wonders of creation.<br /></span> +</div> + +<div class="hd1">VI.</div> + +<div class="poem" style="width: 18em;"> +<span class="i0">Dwell thou in flames uninjured,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Remain unharmed amid ice eternal,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Make blocks of stone thy daily food,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Spurn the earth before thee with thy foot,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Weigh the heavens in a balance,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And then ask of me to perform miracles.<br /></span> +</div> + +<div class="hd1">VII.</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class="i0">Since he fell at the feet of God, no one has appeared great in his eyes.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Ram and Ruheem, the Poorans, and the Koran, have many votaries, but neither does he regard.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Simruts, Shasters, and Veds, differ in many things; not one does he heed.<br /></span> +<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span><span class="i0">O God! under Thy favour has all been done, nought is of myself.<br /></span> +</div> + +<div class="hd1">VIII.</div> + +<div class="poem" style="width: 23em;"> +<span class="i0">All say that there are four races,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">But all are of the seed of Bruhm.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The world is but clay,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And of similar clay many pots are made.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Nânuk says man will be judged by his actions,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And that without finding God there will be no salvation.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The body of man is composed of five elements;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Who can say that one is high and another low?<br /></span> +</div> + +<div class="hd1">IX.</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class="i0">There are four races and four creeds in the world among Hindoos and Mahometans;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Selfishness, jealousy, and pride drew all of them strongly;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The Hindoos dwelt on Benares and the Ganges, the Mahometans on the Kaaba;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The Mahometans held by circumcision, the Hindoos by strings and frontal marks.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">They each called on Ram and Ruheem, one name, and yet both forgot the road.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Forgetting the Veds and the Koran, they were inveigled in the snares of the world.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Truth remained on one side, while Moollas and Brahmins disputed,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And salvation was not attained.<br /></span> +</div> + +<div class="hd1">X.</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class="i0">God heard the complaint (of virtue or truth), and Nânuk was sent into the world.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">He established the custom that the disciple should wash the feet of his Gooroo, and drink the water;<br /></span> +<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span><span class="i0">Pâr Bruhm and Poorun Bruhm, in his Kulyoog, he showed were one.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The four feet (of the animal sustaining the world) were made of faith; the four castes were made one;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The high and the low became equal: the salutation of the feet (among disciples) he established in the world;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Contrary to the nature of man, the feet were exalted above the head.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">In the Kulyoog he gave salvation; using the only true name, he taught men to worship the Lord.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">To give salvation in the Kulyoog, Gooroo Nânuk came.<br /></span> +</div> + +<h3>PARTS BEYOND THE INDUS.</h3> + +<p>The Punjâb is the most western locality of the +Indian stock, whether we call the members of it +Hindú or Tamulian. On crossing the Indus we +reach a new ethnological area, only partially, +and only recently British; <i>viz.</i>, the country of the +Bilúch, and the country of the Afghans. And +here we must prepare for new terms; for hearing +of <i>tribes</i> rather than <i>castes</i>; and for finding a +polity more like that of the Jews and Arabs than +the institutions of the Brahmins.</p> + +<p><i>The Bilúch.</i>—<i>Biluchi-stan</i> means the country of +the <i>Bilúch</i>, just as <i>Hindo-stan</i> and <i>Afghani-stan</i> +mean that of the Hindús and Afghans. It is the +south-western quarter of Persia, that is the chief +area of the tribes in question. Hence, however, +they extend into Kutch Gundava, Scinde, and +Múltan, and the northern parts of Gujerat.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +Between Kelat, the Indus, and the sea, they are +mixed with Brahúi.</p> + +<p>The Biluchi is a dialect of the Persian—sufficiently +close to be understood by a Persian +proper.</p> + +<p>There are no grounds for believing the Bilúch +to have been other than the aborigines of the +country which they occupy; as their advent lies +beyond the historical period; beyond the pale of +admissible tradition. We may, perhaps, be told +that they came from Arabia; an origin which +their Mahometanism, their division into tribes, +and their manners, suggest; an origin, too, +which their physiognomy by no means impugns. +Yet the tradition is not only unsupported, but +equivocal. The <i>Arabia</i> that it refers to is, probably, +the country of the ancient <i>Arabitæ</i>; and +that is neither more nor less than a part of the +province of Mekran, within—or nearly within—the +present Bilúch domain. Hence, they may be +<i>Arabite</i>, though not <i>Arabian</i>; or rather the old +<i>Arabitæ</i> of the <i>Arabius fluvius</i> were Bilúch.</p> + +<p>But the Arabs are not the only members of the +Semitic family with which the Bilúch have been +affiliated. A multiplicity of Jewish characteristics +has been discerned. These are all the more +visible from their contrast to the manners of the +Hindús. Intermediate in appearance to the +Hindú and the Persian, the Bilúch "cast of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> +feature is certainly Jewish;"<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> his tribual divisions +are equally so; whilst the Levitical punishment +of adultery by stoning, and the transmission +of the widow of a deceased brother to the brothers +who survive, have been duly recognized as Hebrew +characteristics. We know what follows all this; +as surely as smoke shows fire. Levitical peculiarities +suggest the ubiquitous decad of the lost +tribes of Israel. We shall soon hear of these +again.</p> + +<p>Tribes under chiefs—hereditary succession—pride +of blood—clannish sentiments—feuds between +tribe and tribe—the sacro-sanctity of revenge +as a duty—the suspension of private wars +when foreign foes threaten—greater rudeness +amongst the mountains—comparative industry in +the plains—the business of robbery tempered by +the duties of hospitality—black mail, &c. All +this is equally Bilúch, Arabian, and Highland +Scotch; and it all shows the similarity of details +which accompanies similarity of social institutions. +Ethnological relationship it does <i>not</i> show.</p> + +<p>The word <i>Bilúch</i> is Persian. The bearer of the +designation either calls himself by the name of +his tribe, or else glorifies himself by the term +<i>Usul</i> or <i>Pure</i>. The tribes or <i>khoums</i> are numerous.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +Sir H. Pottinger gives the names of no less +than fifty-eight; without going into their subdivisions.</p> + +<p>If, however, instead of details, we seek for +classes of greater generality we find that <i>three</i> +primary divisions comprise all the ramifications of +the Bilúch. The first of these is the <i>Rind</i>; the +other two are the <i>Nihro</i> and the <i>Mughsi</i>. The +daughter of a Rind may be given to a Rind as a +wife; but to marry into a tribe of Nihro or +Mughsi extraction is a degradation. Here the +elements of <i>caste</i> intermix with those of <i>tribe</i> or +<i>clan</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Afghans.</i>—<i>Afghani-stan</i> means the country of +the Afghans, just as <i>Hindo-stan</i> and <i>Biluchi-stan</i> +mean that of the Hindús and Biluchi, respectively.</p> + +<p>In India the Afghans are called <i>Patan</i>.</p> + +<p>Their language is called <i>Pushtu</i>. It is allied +to the Persian—but less closely than the Bilúch.</p> + +<p>Fully and accurately described in the admirable +work of Lord Mountstuart Elphinstone, the +Afghans have long commanded the attention of +the ethnologist; and all that has been said about +the Judaism of the Biluchi has been said in +respect to them also, though not by so good a +writer as the one just quoted. No wonder. Their +tribual organization, if not more peculiar in character, +has been more minutely described; a<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> +greater massiveness of frame and feature has been +looked upon as eminently Judaic; and, lastly, an +incorrect statement of Sir William Jones's, as to +the Hebrew character of the Pushtu language, has +added the authority of that respected scholar to +the doctrine of the Semitic origin of the Afghans. +Against this, however, stands the evidence of their +peculiar and hitherto unplaced language. I say +<i>unplaced</i>, because the criticism that separates the +modern dialects of Hindostan from the Sanskrit, +disconnects the Pushtu and the old Persian. +Nevertheless, it is anything but either Hebrew or +Arabic.</p> + +<p>Similarity of political constitution, and its attendant +spirit of independence, have given a political +importance to both the Bilúch and the +Afghan. Each is but partially—very partially—British; +and each became dependent upon Britain, +not because they were the Afghans and +Bilúch of their own rugged countries, but because +they were part and parcel of certain territories +in India. It was on the Indus that they were conquered; +and it as Indians that they are British.</p> + +<p>Four great patriarchs are the hypothetical progenitors +of the four primary Afghan divisions—though +it is uncertain whether any such quaternion +be more of an historical reality than the four +castes of Brahminism. Subordinate to these four +heads is the division called <i>Ulús</i> (<i>Ooloos</i>).<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span></p> + +<p>A minuter knowledge of the Afghan affiliations—real +or supposed—is to be gained by premising +that <i>khail</i> has much the same meaning as the +Bilúch <i>khoum</i>, so that it denotes a division of +population which we may call <i>clan</i>, <i>tribe</i>, or <i>sept</i>; +whilst the affix -<i>zye</i>, means <i>sons</i> or <i>offspring</i>. +Hence, <i>Eusof-zye</i> is equivalent to what an Arab +would call <i>Beni Yusuf</i>; a Greek, <i>Ioseph-idæ</i>; or +a Highland Gael, <i>MacJoseph</i>. All this is clear. +When, however, we try to give precision to our +nomenclature, and ask whether the <i>khail</i> contains +a number of -<i>zye</i>, or the -<i>zye</i> a number of <i>khails</i>, +difficulties begin. Sometimes the one, sometimes +the other is the larger class. And a <i>khail</i> in one +case may be divided into groups ending in -<i>zye</i>; +in others, a group denoted by -<i>zye</i> may contain +two or more <i>khails</i>. Each is a <i>generic</i> or <i>specific</i> +designation as the case may be.</p> + +<p>However, to proceed to instances, the following +groups of Afghans may be constituted.</p> + +<p>1. Three sections—the <i>Acco-zye</i>, the <i>Mulle-zye</i>, +and the <i>Lawe-zye</i>—are subdivisions of the—</p> + +<p>2. <i>Eusof.</i>—The Eusof and <i>Munder</i> being +branches of the—</p> + +<p>3. <i>Eusof-zye.</i>—Now the <i>Eusof-zye</i> is one out +of four divisions of the—</p> + +<p>4. <i>Khukkhi.</i>—The <i>Guggiani</i>, <i>Turcolani</i>, and +<i>Mahomed-zye</i>, being the other three.</p> + +<p>5. Lastly, the <i>Khukkhi</i>, the <i>Otman-khail</i>, the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +<i>Khyberi</i>, the <i>Bungush</i>, the <i>Khuttuk</i> and, probably, +some others form the <i>Berdurani</i> Afghans.</p> + +<p>But as <i>Berdurani</i> is a geographical, or political, +rather than a tribual designation; as it is the +name by which the <i>north</i>-eastern Afghans were +known to the Moghuls; and as it is equivalent to +such an expression as <i>Western</i> or <i>Eastern Highlander</i>, +rather than to names so specific as <i>Campbell</i> +or <i>MacDonald</i>, it may be excluded from the +true Afghan affiliations.</p> + +<p>With this deduction, however, the classification +is sufficiently complex; besides which, it +is, probably, much more systematic on paper +than in reality. This, however, can only be +indicated.</p> + +<p>The valley of Peshawar is the valley of the +<i>Guggiani</i>, and <i>Mahomed-zye</i> Afghans.</p> + +<p>The parts round it belong to the <i>Eusof-zye</i>, the +<i>Otman-khail</i>, the <i>Turcolani</i>, the <i>Momunds</i>, and +the <i>Khyberi</i> of the Khyber Range and Pass. +These last fall into the <i>Afridi</i>, the <i>Shainwari</i>, +and the <i>Uruk-zye</i>. Their country is chiefly to +the north of the Salt Range.</p> + +<p>The river Kúrúm gives us the two valleys of +Dowr and Bunnú<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a>—the <i>Bunnúchi</i> being as pre-eminently<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> +a mixed, as the mountaineers around +them—the <i>Vizeri</i>—are a pure branch. These, +and others, appear to belong to the great <i>Khuttuk</i> +division.</p> + +<p>The <i>south</i>-eastern Afghans are called <i>Lohani</i>; +and, as a proof of this designation being of the +same geographico-political character as <i>Berdurani</i>, +the Khuttuk Afghans are divided between the +two sections; at least the particular Khuttuks +called <i>Murwuti</i> are mentioned as Lohani, though +the Khuttuk class in general is placed in the Berdurani +branch. The chief Lohani Afghans are +the <i>Shiráni</i> near the Tukt-i-Solimán mountain, +and the <i>Storiáni</i> (<i>Storeeanees</i>, <i>Oosteraunees</i>) conterminous +with the most northern of the Bilúch.</p> + +<p>Of these the Búgti and Murri are the chief +populations of the frontier; whilst the <i>Nútkani</i>, +<i>Kúsrani</i>, <i>Lund</i>, <i>Lughari</i>, <i>Gurkhari</i>, <i>Mudari</i>, and +others, help to fill up the Muckelwand (or the +parts immediately along the course of the Indus), +and the Bilúch portions of Múltan.</p> + +<p><i>The Brahúi.</i>—The Brahúi, with whom it has +been stated that the Bilúch are intermixed, are +pastoral tribes, with a coarser physiognomy, and +a stouter make than their neighbours. Their language +also is different. A specimen of it may be +found amongst the well-known and important +vocabularies of Lieutenant Leach; and this forms +the subject of a memoir of no less a scholar than<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> +Lassen. Without placing it, he remarks that +the numerals are <i>South</i>-Indian (or Tamulian) +rather than aught else. He might have said +more. The Brahúi is a remarkable and unexplained +branch of the Tamul; but whether it be +of late introduction or indigenous origin in the +parts where it now occurs is uncertain. The +mountains between Kutch Gundava and Mekran +seem to form the area of the Brahúi; some eastern +branches of which population I presume to be +British, mixed with Bilúch.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><i>Ceylon.</i>—The inhabitants of the northern part +of Ceylon speak the Tamul language, and are +Brahminists in creed. They are not, however, +the true natives of the island. These latter use a +Hindú tongue, called the <i>Singhalese</i>. Its philological +relations are exactly those of the Mahratta, +Bengali, and Udiya,—neither better nor +worse defined, more or less unequivocal. Some +make it out to be of Sanskrit, others of Tamulian +origin. All that is certain is, that it is +more Sanskritic than the proper Tamul, and +more Tamul than the Bengali. It is <i>written</i>; +and embodies a copious, but worthless literature, +its alphabet being derived from that of the +Pali language.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span></p> + +<p>This introduces a new characteristic. The +Pali has the same relation to Buddhism, that +the Sanskrit has to Brahminism. It is the +language of the Scriptures, the priest, and the +scholar, and, although, at the present moment, +it is as little recognized as a holy tongue on +the continent of India, as the Greek of the +New Testament is at Rome, it divides with the +Arabic and Latin, the honour of being the +most widely-spread literary language of the +world. All the forms of Buddhism in the transgangetic +peninsula are embodied in Pali writings. +So are those of the Mongols; and so, to a great +extent, those of the Tibetans as well. This makes +the language and the creed nearly co-extensive. +In China, however, and Japan, where great +changes have taken place, and where either the +development, or the deterioration of Buddhism +has gone far enough to abolish the more palpable +characteristics of the original Indian doctrine, the +Pali language is no longer the medium. It <i>is</i> so, +however, for the vast area already indicated.</p> + +<p>In Buddhism, as opposed to Brahminism, there +is a greater tenderness of animal life in general, +whilst less respect is paid to the ox-tribe in particular. +There is less also of the system of caste; +and, in consequence of this, fewer of those elements +of priestly influence, which originate in the +ideas of the hereditary transmission of sacro-sanctitude.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +Buddhism, too, has the credit of running +further in the dream-land of subjective metaphysics +than Brahminism,—though this, as far as +my own very imperfect means of judging go, is +doubtful. Into practical pantheism, and into the +deification of human reason it <i>does</i> run.</p> + +<p>When self-contemplation has reached its highest +degree of abstraction, the state of <i>Nirwana</i> is +induced. This seems to mean the absorption +of the spirit within itself; a condition which at +once suggests adjectives like <i>impassive</i>, <i>subjective</i>, +<i>exalted</i>, and <i>supra-sensual</i>, or substantives like +<i>transcendentalism</i>, <i>egoism</i>, &c., and the like; in +some cases with definite ideas to correspond with +the term; oftener as mere meaningless words. +Such, however, is the nomenclature which is requisite; +a nomenclature to which I have recourse, +not for the sake of illustrating my subject, but +with the view of giving a practical notion of its +indistinctness.</p> + +<p>Buddha himself is a specimen and model of +self-absorption, consummation, perfection, or exaltation +rather than a deity, or even a prophet. +He shows what purity can effect, rather than +teaches what purity consists in. He may even +have become what he was, by his own unaided +powers of supra-sensual abstraction.</p> + +<p>All this is but a series of negations, at least in +the way of theology. But his spirit, after the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> +departure of his body from the earth,<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> became +incarnate in the body of some successor—and so +on <i>ad infinitum</i>. This connects Buddhism with +the doctrine of metempsychosis; a doctrine which +the incarnations of Brahminism also suggest.</p> + +<p>Such are some of the speculative points of +Buddhism. Its morality has been greatly, and, +perhaps, unduly extolled. So much contemplation +can scarcely exist without the condemnation +of the more palpable sins of <i>commission</i>. +Hence, those vices which are the offspring of +passion and ignorance are condemned; as is but +natural. The suspension of exertion precludes +active vice. Of the active virtues, however, the +recognition is as slight as may be; so slight as to +make it doubtful whether Buddhism be a better +rule for the formation of good citizens than Brahminism. +Which has been the most resistant to +the influences of Christianity is doubtful.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p> + +<p>Just as the Anglo-Saxon language, although it +originated in Germany, has survived and developed +itself in Britain only, the Buddhist creed, +once indigenous to the continent of Hindostan, +is now found nowhere between the Himalayas +and Cape Comorin; whilst beyond the pale<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> +of India, it is as widely extended as the English +language is beyond the limits of Germany. The +rival religion of the Brahmins expelled it. Which +of the two was the older is uncertain. Still more +difficult is it to determine how far each is a separate +substantive mythological growth, or merely a +modification of the rival creed.</p> + +<p>I lay but little stress upon the internal evidence +derivable from the character of the religions +themselves. Both are complicated and +artificial—both, perhaps, equally so. In contrast, +however, to the more speculative and +transcendental points, suggestive of recent development, +there are others indicative of great +antiquity. Nevertheless, it is as difficult to affirm +that the primitive parts of the one creed are +older than the most primitive parts of the other, +as it is to affirm that the highest transcendentalisms +are more recent.</p> + +<p>The fact of the oldest inscriptions being in the +Pali dialect, is favourable to the greater antiquity +of Buddhism, but it is not conclusive. The +notion that Sanskrit itself is comparatively recent, +of course subtracts from that of Brahminism. +But this is far from being admitted. Besides +which, it by no means follows, that because Brahminism +is, comparatively speaking, recent, Buddhism +must be ancient.</p> + +<p>The best clue in this labyrinth of conflicting<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +opinions is the study of the superstitions of the +ruder tribes of the hill-ranges of India itself, of +the sub-Himalayas, and of the Indo-Chinese peninsula; +the result of which investigation will be +that that creed which has most points in common +with the primitive and unmodified mythologies of +the Tamulian stock, and of those branches of the +monosyllabic populations nearest akin thereto, +has also the best claim to be considered as the +older.</p> + +<p>In my own mind, I believe that the <i>Bedo</i> of +the Rajmahali mountaineers, is the <i>Batho</i> of the +Bodo, the <i>Pennu</i> of the Khonds, and the <i>Potteang</i> +of the Kukis,<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a>—name for name. I believe this +without doubt or hesitation. But if I ask myself +the import of this identity, the answer is unsatisfactory. +There is doubt and hesitation in +abundance. <i>Bedo</i>, <i>Batho</i>, <i>Petto</i>, and <i>Potteang</i>, +<i>may</i> represent the germ of what afterwards became +<i>Buddh-ism</i>. They may exhibit the Indian creed +in its <i>rudiments</i>. True. But they may also represent +it in its <i>fragments</i>, so that <i>Bedo</i> and <i>Batho</i> +may be but <i>Buddh</i>, distorted in form, and but +imperfectly comprehended in import. In our +own Gospel, the name for the place of punishment, +which the Greeks called <i>Hades</i>, and the +Hebrews typified by <i>Gehenna</i>, is the name of a +Saxon goddess <i>Hela</i>; and, in this particular instance,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +a point of our original paganism has been +taken up into our present Christianity. The +same is the case with the Finnic nation, where +<i>Yumala</i> signifies <i>God</i>; Yumala being as truly +heathen as <i>Jupiter</i>. On the other hand we find +amongst the genuine pagan Gallas of Africa, an +object of respect or worship called <i>Miriam</i>. +What is this? No true piece of heathendom at +all. Dr. Beke has given good reasons for believing +that it means the Virgin Mother of the Saviour, +the only extant member of the Christian Revelation +now known to that once imperfectly Christianized +community.</p> + +<p>Buddhism, then, may claim a higher antiquity +than Brahminism under the two following conditions.</p> + +<p>1. That the names <i>Batho</i>, &c., be really a +form of <i>Buddh</i>.</p> + +<p>2. That they have belonged to superstitions in +which they occur from the beginning; and are +not in the same category with the <i>Miriam</i> of the +Gallas, <i>i.e.</i>, recent introductions from a wholly +different religion—grafts rather than embryos.</p> + +<p>How far this latter is the case must be ascertained +by a wide and minute inquiry, foreign to +the present work.</p> + +<p>It is no wonder that, side by side with a semi-philosophical +creed like Buddhism, we should +have such a phenomenon as Devil-worship. When<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> +the spirit falls short of its due degree of self-sustained +hardihood, fear finds its way to the +heart. The evil powers are then propitiated; +sometimes in a manner savouring of dignity, +sometimes with groveling and grotesque cowardice. +The Yezid of Mesopotamia, whose belief in the +power of an evil spirit is derived from the Manicheism +of old, shows his fear of the arch-enemy +by simple and not unreasonable acts of negation. +He does nothing that may offend; never mentions +his name; and dwells on his attributes as +little as possible. The devil-worshipper of +Ceylon uses such invocations as the following:—</p> + +<div class="hd1">I.</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Come, thou <i>sanguinary Devil</i>, at the sixth hour. Come, +thou <i>fierce Devil</i>, upon this stage, and accept the offerings +made to thee!</p> + +<p>The <i>ferocious Devil</i> seems to be coming measuring the +ground by the length of his feet, and giving warnings of his +approach by throwing stones and sand round about. He looks +upon the meat-offering which is kneaded with blood and +boiled rice.</p> + +<p>He stands there and plays in the shade of the tree called +<i>Demby</i>. He removes the sickness of the person which he +caused. He will accept the offerings prepared with blood, +odour, and reddish boiled rice. Prepare these offerings in the +shade of the <i>Demby</i> tree.</p> + +<p>Make a female figure of the <i>planets</i> with a monkey's face, +and its body the colour of gold. Offer four offerings in the +four corners. In the left corner, place some blood, and for<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +victims a fowl and a goat. In the evening, place the scene +representing the planets on the high ground.</p> + +<p>The face resembles a monkey's face, and the head is the +colour of gold. The head is reddish, and the bunch of hair is +black and tied. He holds blood in the left-hand, and rides on +a bullock. After this manner make the sanguinary figure of +the planets.</p> + +<div class="hd1">II.</div> + +<p>O thou great devil <i>Maha-Sohon</i>, preserve these sick persons +without delay!</p> + +<p>On the way, as he was going, by supernatural power he +made a great noise. He fought with the form of <i>Wessamoony</i>, +and wounded his head. The planet <i>Saturn</i> saw a wolf in the +midst of the forest, and broke his neck. The <i>Wessamoony</i> +gave permission to the great devil called <i>Maha-Sohon</i>.</p> + +<p>O thou great devil <i>Maha-Sohon</i>, take away these sicknesses +by accepting the offerings made frequently to thee.—The +qualities of this devil are these: he stretches his long chin, +and opens wide his mouth like a cavern: he bears a spear in +his right-hand, and grasps a great and strong elephant with his +left-hand. He is watching and expecting to drink the blood +of the elephant in the place where the two and three roads +meet together.</p> + +<p>Influenced by supernatural power, he entered the body of +the princess called <i>Godimbera</i>. He caused her to be sick +with severe trembling sickness. Come thou poor and powerless +devil <i>Maha-Sohon</i> to fight with me, and leave the princess, +if thou hast sufficient strength.</p> + +<p>On hearing these sayings, he left her, and made himself +like a blue cloud, and violently covered his whole body with +flames of fire. Furiously staring with his eyes, he said, +"Art thou come, blockhead, to fight with me who was born in +the world of men? I will take you by the legs, and dash you<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> +upon the great rock <i>Maha-meru</i>, and quickly bring you to nothing."</p> + +<p>Thou wast born on Sunday, the first day of the month, and +didst receive permission from the <i>King of Death</i>, and didst +brandish a sword like a plantain-leaf. Thou comest down at +half-past seven, to accept the offerings made to thee.</p> + +<p>If the devil <i>Maha-Sohon</i> cause the chin-cough, leanness of +the body, thirst, madness, and mad babblings, he will come +down at half-past seven, and accept the offerings made to him.</p> + +<p>These are the marks of the devil <i>Maha-Sohon</i>: three marks +on the head, one mark on the eye-brow and on the temple; +three marks on the belly, a shining moon on the thigh, a lighted +torch on the head, an offering and a flower on the breast. +The chief god of the burying-place will say, May you live +long!</p> + +<p>Make the figure of the <i>planets</i> called the emblem of the +<i>great burying-place</i>, as follows: a spear grasped by the right-hand, +an elephant's figure in the left-hand, and in the act of +drinking the blood of the elephant by bruising its proboscis.</p> + +<p>Tip the point of the spear in the hand with blood, pointed +towards the elephant's face in the left-hand. These effigies +and offerings take and offer in the burying-place,—discerning +well the sickness by means of the devil-dancer.</p> + +<p>Make a figure of the <i>wolf</i> with a large breast, full of hairs +on the body, and with long teeth separated from each other. +The effigy of the <i>Maha-Sohon</i> was made formerly so.</p> + +<p>These are the sicknesses which the great devil causes by +living among the tombs: chin-cough, itching of the body, disorders +in the bowels; windy complaints, dropsy, leanness of +the body, weakness and consumptions.</p> + +<p>He walks on high upon the lofty stones. He walks on the +ground where three ways meet. Therefore go not in the +roads by night: if you do so, you must not expect to escape +with your life.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span></p> + +<p>Make two figures of a goose, one on each side. Make a +lion and a dog to stand at the left-leg, bearing four drinking-cups +on four paws—and make a moon's image, and put it in +the burying-place.</p> + +<p>Comb the hair, and tie up a large bunch with a black string. +Put round the neck a cobra-capella, and dress him in the garments +by making nine folds round the waist. He stands on a +rock eating men's flesh. The persons that were possessed +with devils are put in the burying-place.</p> + +<p>Put a corpse at the feet, taking out the intestines through +the mouth. The principal thing for this country, and for the +Singhalese, is the worship of the planets.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p></div> + +<p>In the centre of the island is the kingdom of +Kandy; naturally fortified by impervious forests, +and long independent. This creates a variety; +the Kandyans being somewhat ruder than the +other Singhalese. It is not, however, an important +one. The really important ethnology of +Ceylon is that of the <i>Vaddahs</i>, in the eastern +districts, inland of Battacaloa. They are still +unmodified by either the Hindú habits, or the +great Indian creeds,—the true analogues of the +Khonds, and Kóls, and Bhils, &c. Their language, +however, is Singhalese; an important fact, +since it denotes one of two phenomena,—either +the antiquity of the conquest of Ceylon supposing +the extension of the Singhalese language to have +been gradual, or the thorough-going character of +it, if it be recent.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p> + +<p>Who were the <i>Padæi</i> of the following extract +from Herodotus?<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>—"Other Indians there are, +who live east of these. They are nomads, eaters +of raw flesh; and called Padæi. They are said +to have the following customs. Whenever one of +their countrymen is sick, whether man or woman, +he is killed. The males kill the males, and +amongst these the most intimate acquaintance +kill their nearest friends; for they say that +for a man to be wasted by disease is for their +own meat to be spoilt. The man denies that he +ails; but they, not letting him have his own way, +kill and feast on him. If a female be sick, the +women that are most intimate with her treat her +as the males do the men. They sacrifice and +feast upon all who arrive at old age. Few, however, +go thus far, since they kill every one who +falls sick before he reaches that stage of life."</p> + +<p>Name for name, the <i>Vaddahs</i> of Ceylon have a +claim to be <i>Padæi</i>. Besides which they are Indian.</p> + +<p>But, name for name, the <i>Battas</i><a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> of Sumatra +have a claim as well; and although they are not +exactly Indian, they are cannibals of the sort in +question—or, at any rate, cannibals in a manner +quite as remarkable.</p> + +<p>This gives us a conflict of difficulties. The +solution of them lies in the fact of neither <i>Vaddah</i><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> +nor <i>Batta</i> being <i>native</i> names; a fact which +leaves us a liberty to suppose that the <i>Padæi</i> of +Herodotus were simply some wild Indian tribe +sufficiently allied in manners to the <i>Vaddahs</i> of +Ceylon, and the <i>Battas</i> of Sumatra, to be called +by the same name, but without being necessarily +either the one or the other; or even ethnologically +connected with either.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>Now look at the <i>gipsies</i> of Great Britain. +They are wanderers without fixed habitations; +whilst, at the same time, they are more abundant +in some parts of the island than others. They +have no very definite occupation; yet they are +oftener tinkers and tinmen than aught else equally +legal. They intermarry with the English but +little. All this is <i>caste</i>, although we may not +exactly call it so. Then, again, they have a +peculiar language, although it is so imperfectly +known to the majority of the British gipsies, as +to have become well-nigh extinct.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> These gipsies +are of Indian origin, and a wandering tribe +of Hindostan, called Sikligurs, reminded Mr. +Pickering of the European gipsies more than +any other Indians he fell in with. Like these, +the Sikligurs are <i>coves</i>, or tinkers.</p> +<p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p> +<p>This, however, is by the way. Although it is +as well to make a note of the Indian extraction +of the English and other European gipsies, it is +not for this reason that they have been mentioned. +They find a place here for the sake of illustrating +what is meant by the <i>wandering tribes of India</i>, +whilst at the same time they throw a slight +illustration over the nature of <i>castes</i>. Lastly, they +are essentially parts of an ethnological investigation—ethnological +rather than either social or +political. Their characteristics are referable to a +difference of descent; and they are tinkers, wanderers, +poachers, and smugglers, not so much +because they are either gipsies, or Indians, as +because they are of a different stock from the +English. They are foreigners in the fullest sense +of the term; and they differ from their fellow-citizens +just as the Jew does—though less advantageously.</p> + +<p>Now India swarms with the analogues of the +English gipsy; so much so as to make it likely +that the latter is found as far from his original +country as Wales and Norway, simply because +he is a vagabond, not because he is an Indian.</p> + +<p>Of the chief of the tribes in question a good +account is given by Mr. Balfour. This list, +however, which is as follows, may be enlarged.</p> + +<p>1. The <i>Gohur</i> are, perhaps, better known +under the name of <i>Lumbarri</i>, and better still as<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +the <i>Brinjarri</i>, the bullock-drivers of many parts of +India, but more especially of the Dekhan. They +are corn-merchants as well. Their organization +consists of divisions called <i>Tandas</i>, at the head +of which is a <i>Naek</i>. Two Naeks paramount over +the rest, reside permanently at Hyderabad, on +the confines of the Mahratta and Telugu countries. +The bullock, <i>Hatadia</i>, devoted to the God +<i>Balajee</i>, is an object of worship. In a long line +of Brinjarri met by Mr. Pickering,<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> one of the +females was carrying a dog, which neither a +Hindú nor a Parsi would have done. Many of +them are Sikhs. There are, certainly, three divisions +of the Gohuri—the Chouhane,<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> the Rhatore, +and the Powar, and probably—</p> + +<p><i>The Purmans</i> are another branch of them; consisting +of about seventy-five families of agriculturists +on the Bombay islets.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Bhowri</i>, called also <i>Hirn-shikarri</i> and +<i>Hern-pardi</i>, though Bhowri is the native name, +are hunters. They also fall into subordinate +divisions.</p> + +<p>3. <i>The Tarremúki</i>; so-called by themselves, but +known in the Dekhan as <i>Ghissaris</i>, or <i>Bail-Kumbar</i>, +and amongst the Mahrattas, as <i>Lohars</i>, are +blacksmiths.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span></p> + +<p>4. <i>The Korawi</i>, fall in tribes which neither eat +with each other, nor intermarry, <i>viz.</i>:—</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> The Bajantri, who are musicians.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> The Teling—basket-makers and prostitutes.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> The Kolla.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> The Soli.</p> + +<p>5. <i>The Bhattu</i>, <i>Dummur</i>, or <i>Kollati</i>, are exorcists +and exhibitors of feats of strength.</p> + +<p>6. <i>The Muddikpur</i>, so called by themselves, +though known under several other names, follow +a variety of employments; some being ferrymen.</p> + +<p>All these tribes wander about the country without +any permanent home, speak a peculiar dialect +with a considerable proportion of Non-Sanskritic +words, and preserve certain peculiarities of creed; +though in different degrees—the Muddikpur being +wholly or nearly pagan, the Tarremúki Brahminic.</p> + +<p>The wandering life of these, and other similar +tribes is not, by itself, sufficient to justify us in +separating them from the other Hindús. But it +does not stand alone. The fragments of an earlier +paganism, and the fragments of an earlier language +are phenomena which must be taken in +conjunction with it. These suggest the likelihood +of the Gohuri, the Bhatti, and their like, being +in the same category with the Khonds and Bhils, +&c., <i>i.e.</i>, representatives of the earlier and more +exclusively Tamulian populations. If the gipsy +language of England had, instead of its Indian<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> +elements, an equal number of words from the +original British, it would present the same phenomena, +and lead to the same inference as that +which is drawn from the Bhatti, Bhowri, Tarremúki, +and Gohuri vocabularies,<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> <i>viz.</i>: the doctrine +that fragments of the original population +are to be sought for amongst the wanderers over +the face of the country, as well as among the +occupants of its mountain strongholds.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>In a country like India, where differences of +habit, business, extraction, and creed, are accompanied +by an inordinate amount of separation +between different sections and subsections of its +population, and where slight barriers of diverse +kinds prevent intermixture, the different sects of +its numerous religions requires notice. This, however, +may be short. As sectarianism is generally +in the direct ratio to the complexity of the creed +submitted to section, we may expect to find the +forms of Brahminism and Buddhism, not less numerous +than those of either Christianity or Mahometanism. +And such is really the case. The sects +are too numerous to enlarge upon. The Sikh creed +has been noticed from its political importance. +That of the Jains is also remarkable, since it most +closely resembles Buddhism, without being absolutely<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> +Buddhist in the current sense of the word. +It is, possibly, the actual and original Buddhism +of the continent of India—supposed to +have been driven out bodily by Brahminism, but +really with the true vitality of persecuted creeds, +still surviving in disguise. Again, in India, +though in a less degree than in China, Philosophy +replaces belief—so much so, that the different +forms of one negation—Natural Religion—must +be classed amongst the creeds of Hindostan; by +the side of which there stand many kinds of +simple philosophy; just as was the case in ancient +Greece, where, in one and the same city, there +were the philosophers of the Academy and the +believers in Zeus.</p> + +<p>There is, then, creed within creed in the two +great religions of India—to say nothing about the +numerous fragments of modified and unmodified +paganism.</p> + +<p>And besides these there are the following introduced +religions—each coinciding, more or less, +with some ethnological division.</p> + +<p>1. Christianity from, at least, four different +sources—</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> That of the Christians of Thomas on the +Malabar Coast. Here the doctrine is that of the +Syrian Church, and the population being <i>perhaps</i> (?) +Persian in origin.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> The Romanism of the French and Portuguese;<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> +the latter having its greatest development +in the Mahratta country, about Goa.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Dutch and Danish Protestantism.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> English and American Protestantism. To +which add small infusions of the Armenian and +Abyssinian churches.</p> + +<p>Of these it is only the Christians of St. Thomas +that are of much ethnological importance.</p> + +<p>2. Judaism on the coast of Malabar; or the +Judaism of the so-called <i>Black Jews</i>.</p> + +<p>3. Parseeism in Gujerat; of Persian origin, +and, probably, nearly confined to individuals of +Persian blood.</p> + +<p>4. Mahometanism.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>Of foreign blood there are numerous infusions.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Arab.</i>—On the western coast, more especially +amongst the Moplahs of the neighbourhood of +Goa; where the stock seems to be Arabian on +the father's, and Indian on the mother's side.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Persian.</i>—Amongst the Parsees and Saint +Thomas Christians (?); and, far more unequivocally, +and in greater proportions, amongst the +<i>Moghul</i> families—these being always more or less +Persian; but Persian with such heterogeneous intermixtures +of Turk and Mongol blood besides as +to make analysis almost impossible.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Afghan.</i>—The Rohillas of Rohilcund are +Afghan in origin; so are the Patani—indeed, the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> +term <i>Patan</i> means an Afghan of Hindostan wherever +he may be.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Jewish.</i></p> + +<p>5, 6, 7.—<i>Chinese</i>, <i>Malay</i>, <i>Burmese</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>8. <i>European.</i></p> + +<p>Of the <i>Indians out of India</i>, by far the most are—</p> + +<p>1. The <i>Gipsies</i>.</p> + +<p>2. The <i>Banians</i>, who are the Hindú traders of +Arabia, Persia, Cashmir, and other parts of the +East.</p> + +<p>3. The <i>Hill Coolies</i>, individuals of the Khond +and Kúli class, upon whom England is trying the +experiment of what may end in a revival of the +old crimping system, as a substitute for slave-labour +in our intertropical colonies.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>Such is a sketch of the ethnology of India; pre-eminently +complex, but not pre-eminently mysterious; +its chief problems being—</p> + +<p>1. The general ethnological relations of the +Tamulian stock.</p> + +<p>2. Those of the intrusive Brahminical Hindús.</p> + +<p>3. The relation of the intrusive population to +the aboriginal.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> "Transactions of Philological Society," No. 94.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Latin <i>nurus</i>, from <i>snurus</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Latin <i>socer</i>, Greek <span title="hekyros">ἕκυρος</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Latin <i>socrus</i>, Greek <span title="hekyra">ἕκυρα</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Latin <i>levir</i> (<i>devir</i>), Greek <span title="daêr">δαηρ</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Or <i>that</i>, <i>this</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> The full exposition of this doctrine is in the present +writer's ethnological edition of the "Germania" of Tacitus; +v. <i>Æstyi</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Taken from the Appendix to Captain Cunningham's +"History of the Sikhs."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Captain Postans, in "Transactions of Ethnological +Society," who, along with Sir H. Pottinger, is my chief +authority.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> For a description of these parts see Major Edwardes' +"Year on the Punjâb Frontier."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> The best account of the Brahúi is to be found in Sir H. +Pottinger's Travels.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> In the sixth century, <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span> according to the Buddhist +chronology.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Such, at least, is the opinion of the author of "Christianity +in Ceylon," Sir E. Tennent.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Names explained in Chapter iii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> From Callaway's "Translation of the <i>Kolán Nattannawa</i>."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Book iii. §. 99.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> The same, probably, is the case with the <span class="smcap">Bidi</span> of Java.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> From this language, I imagine that the three following +words have come into the English—two of them being slang +and one a sporting term—<i>rum</i>, <i>cove</i>, <i>jockey</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," No. 145.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> These names introduce a difficulty: They are <i>Rajpút</i> +as well.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> All of which may be found in the paper already quoted; +and all of which contain numerous Tamul roots.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Since this was written Major-General Briggs' valuable +paper on the <i>Aboriginal Tribes of India</i>, has been published +in "Transactions of the British Association," &c., for 1851. +Having been seen in MS. by the present writer it has been +freely used.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr /><p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2> + +<div class="bk1"><p>BRITISH DEPENDENCIES IN THE MALAYAN PENINSULA.—THE +OCEANIC STOCK AND ITS DIVISIONS.—THE MALAY, SEMANG, +AND DYAK TYPES.—THE ORANG BINUA.—JAKUNS.—THE +BIDUANDA KALLANG.—THE ORANG SLETAR.—THE SARAWAK +TRIBES.—THE NEW ZEALANDERS.—THE AUSTRALIANS.—THE +TASMANIANS.</p></div> + +<p>Our isolated and small settlements in the Malayan +Peninsula,<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> the depôt at Labuan, Sir James +Brooke's Rajahship of Sarawak, New Zealand, +the joint protectorate of the Sandwich Islands +and Tahiti, Australia, and Van Dieman's Land, +bring us to a new division of the human species, +which is conveniently called the <i>Oceanic</i>.</p> + +<p>Its divisions and subdivisions are as follows:—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table class="smcap" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td colspan="3"></td><td class="tda" rowspan="3"><span style="font-size: 300%;">{</span></td><td>Protonesians</td><td class="tda" rowspan="3"><span style="font-size: 300%;">{</span></td><td>Micronesians</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="tda" rowspan="5"><span style="font-size: 500%;">{</span></td><td>Amphinesians</td><td>Polynesians</td><td>Polynesians</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td>Malagasi</td><td>Proper.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oceanic</td><td colspan="5"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tda" rowspan="3"><span style="font-size: 300%;">{</span></td><td>Papuans</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="3"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>Kelænonesians</td><td>Australians</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"></td><td>Tasmanians.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span></p> + +<p>Our settlements are limited to the Protonesian, +Proper Polynesian, Australian, and Tasmanian +sections: and we have no political authority over +any of the Malagasi, Micronesians, or Papuans.</p> + +<p>With the exception of the occupants of the +Malayan Peninsula, all the Oceanic population +occupy islands. This explains the term <i>Oceanic</i>.</p> + +<p>Their <i>distribution</i> is as remarkable as their <i>extension</i>. +The Amphinesian<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> stream of population, +originating in the peninsula of Malacca, is +continued through Borneo, the Moluccas, and the +Philippines, Lord North's Island, Sonsoral, the +Pelew group, the Caroline and Marianne Isles, +the Ralik and Radack chains, the Kingsmill +group and the Gilbert and Scarborough Islands, +to the Navigators', Society, Friendly, Marquesas, +Sandwich, and New Zealand groups; having become +<i>Micronesian</i> rather than <i>Protonesian</i>, after +passing the Philippines, and <i>Proper Polynesian</i> +rather than <i>Micronesian</i>, after passing the Scarborough +and Gilbert Archipelagoes. In this +course it passes <i>round</i> New Guinea and Australia; +in each of which islands the population is Kelænonesian.</p> + +<p>The Malay of the Malacca peninsula is no +longer either monosyllabic or uninflectional, although<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +in immediate contact with the southern +dialects of the Siamese. Hence, the transition is +abrupt; although by no means conclusive as to +any broad and trenchant line of ethnological demarcation.</p> + +<p>The differences of physical form are less than +those of language. No one has denied that the +Malay configuration is a modification of the Mongolian—<i>at +least in some of its varieties</i>.</p> + +<p>I say <i>at least in some of its varieties</i>, because +within the narrow range of the Malaccan peninsula +and the island of Borneo we find no less +than three different types. In <i>Polynesia</i> one of +these, and in <i>Kelænonesia</i> another becomes exaggerated—so +much so, as to suggest the idea of +a different origin for the populations.</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> The <i>Malays</i> are referable to the first type. +Mahometans in religion, they partake of the civilization +of the Arab and Indian, and differ but +slightly from the Indo-Chinese nations; the complexion +being dark and the hair straight. The +Mahometan Malays, however, are no true aborigines. +They are not only a new people on the +peninsula, but they consider themselves as such; +and those occupants which they recognize as older +than themselves, they call <i>Orang Binua</i>, or <i>men +of the soil</i>. Of these some have a darker complexion +and crisper hair than the intruding population:<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> +and when we reach a particular section +called—</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> The <i>Semang</i>, we find them described as +having curly, crisp, matted, and even woolly hair, +thick lips, and a black skin. These, like most of +the other <i>Orang Binua</i>, are Pagans. Still their +language is essentially Malay; and their physical +conformation passes into that of the Malays by +numerous transitions.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Thirdly, we find in Borneo the <i>Dyaks</i>. +Many of these are as much fairer than the Malays +as the Semang are darker. Their language, however, +belongs to the Malay class; whilst their +religion and civilization may reasonably be supposed +to be that of the Malays previous to the +influences of Brahminism from India, Mahometanism +from Arabia, and the changes effected in +their habits, language, and appearance effected +thereby.</p> + +<p>It is not too much to say that within the peninsula +of Malaya, the Johore Archipelago, and the +island of Borneo, each of these types, and every +intermediate form as well, is to be found.</p> + +<p><i>Malacca.</i>—The town of Malacca is a town of +Mahometan Malays, but I believe that the eastern +parts of Wellesley province are on the frontier of +the <i>Jokong</i>, <i>Jakon</i>, or <i>Jakun</i>. These are <i>Orang +Binua</i>, or aborigines—at least as compared with +the true Malays.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the eighth century—I am drawing an illustration +from the history of our own island, and its +relations to continental Germany—the Anglo-Saxons +of Great Britain, themselves originally +Pagan Germans, took an interest in the spiritual +welfare of the so-called Old Saxons, a tribe of +Westphalia, immediately related to their own +continental ancestors, these Old Saxons having +retained their primitive Paganism. The mission +partly succeeded, and partly failed.</p> + +<p>Now, if in addition to this partial success of +the Anglo-Saxon mission, there had been a partial +Anglo-Saxon colonization as well, and if, side by +side with this, fragments of the old unmodified +Paganism had survived amongst the fens and +forests up to the present time, we should have had, +in the relations of England and Germany, precisely +what I imagine to have been the case with +the Malayan peninsula and the island of Sumatra. +Like Germany, the peninsula would have supplied +the original stock to the island; but, in the +island, that stock would have undergone certain +modifications. With these modifications it would—so +to say—have been <i>reflected</i> back upon the +continent—<i>re</i>-colonizing the old mother-country. +Now just what the Old Saxons of Westphalia +were to the Anglo-Saxons of the eighth century, +are the Jakun to the true Malays. They differ +from them in being something other than Mahometan;<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> +<i>i.e.</i>, in being nearly what the Mahometan +Malays were before their conversion.</p> + +<p>The Jakun are Malays, <i>minus</i> those points of +Malay civilization which are referable to the +religion of the Koran.</p> + +<p>But the Jakun are only a few out of many; a +single branch of a great stem.</p> + +<p>The most convenient term for the members in +general of this class is <i>Orang Binua</i>—a term +already explained.</p> + +<p><i>The Biduanda Kallang.</i>—The next, then, of the +<i>Orang Binua</i> that comes in contact with a British +dependency—many others <i>not</i> thus politically +connected with us being passed over—are the +<i>Biduanda Kallang</i> of the parts about Sincapore. +Their present locality is the banks of the most +southern of the rivers of the peninsula, the Pulai. +Thither they were removed when the British took +possession of the island of Sincapore; of which +they were previously the joint occupants—joint +occupants, because they shared it with the tribe +which will be next mentioned. They were an +<i>Orang Laut</i> in one sense of the word, but not +in another. <i>Orang</i> means <i>men</i> or <i>people</i>, and <i>laut</i> +means <i>sea</i> in Malay; and the Biduanda Kallang +were boatmen rather than agriculturists. But +they were only freshwater sailors; since, though +they lived on the water, they avoided the open +sea. They formerly consisted of one hundred<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +families; but have been reduced by small-pox to +eight.</p> + +<p>Their priest or physician is called <i>bomo</i>, and he +invokes the <i>hantu</i>, or deities, the <i>anito</i> of the +Philippine Islanders, the <i>tii</i> of the Tahitians; +and, probably, the <i>Wandong</i> and <i>Vintana</i> of Australia +and Madagascar respectively.</p> + +<p>They bury their dead after wrapping the corpse +in a mat; and placing on the grave one cup of +woman's milk, one of water, and one of rice; +when they entreat the deceased to seek nothing +more from them.</p> + +<p>Persons of even the remotest degree of relationship +are forbidden to intermarry.</p> + +<p>The accounts of their physical appearance is +taken from too few individuals to justify any +generalization. Two, however, of them had the +forehead broader than the cheek-bones, so that the +head was pear-shaped. In a third, it was lozenge-shaped. +The head was small, and the face flat. +The lower jaw projected; but not the upper—so +that "when viewed in profile, the features seem +to be placed on a straight line, from which the prominent +parts rise very slightly."<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p> + +<p><i>The Orang Sletar.</i>—The original joint-occupants +of Sincapore with the Biduanda Kallang, +were the <i>Orang Sletar</i>, or <i>men of the river Sletar</i>; +differing but little from the former. Of the two<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> +families they are the shyer, and the more squalid; +numbering about two hundred individuals and +forty boats. Their dialect is Malay, spoken with +a guttural pronunciation, and with a clipping of +the words.</p> + +<p>At the birth of a child they have no ceremonies; +at marriage a present of tobacco and rice to the +bride's mother confirms the match; at death the +deceased is wrapped in his garments and interred.</p> + +<p>Skin diseases and deformities are common; +nevertheless, many of their women are given in +marriage to both the Malays and Chinese; but I +know of no account of the mixed progeny.</p> + +<p>A low retreating forehead throws the face of +the <i>Orang Sletar</i> forwards, though the jaw is +rather perpendicular than projecting.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p> + +<p>Such are the <i>Orang Binua</i> originally, or at +present, in contact with the small and isolated possessions +of the British in the Malayan peninsula.</p> + +<p>Of the proper Malays I have said next to +nothing. Excellent works give full accounts of +them;<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> whilst it is not through <i>them</i> that the true +ethnological problems are to be worked.</p> + +<p>I believe that when we reach Borneo, the equivalents +to the <i>Orang Binua</i>, or the original populations<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> +in opposition to the Mahometan Malays, +become referable to a fresh type, and that instead +of being <i>darker</i> than the true Malays they are +often <i>lighter</i>. At any rate, one thing is certain, +<i>viz.</i>, that, whether the skin be brown, blackish, or +fair, the language belongs to the same stock.</p> + +<p>Again—although in one area the darker tribes +may preponderate, it is not to the absolute exclusion +of the fairer. The Dyaks of Borneo +are, generally speaking, light-complexioned; yet, +there is special evidence to the existence of dark +tribes in that island. On the other hand there is +equal evidence to the existence of families lighter-skinned +than the true Malays in the peninsula. +Nevertheless, as a general rule, the departure from +the type of that population is towards darkness +of colour on the continent, and towards lightness +in Borneo.</p> + +<p>With what physical conditions these differences +coincide is not always easy to be discerned. In +the South Sea Islands, where in one and the +same Archipelago, we find some tribes tall and +fair, whereas others are dark and ill-featured, it +has been remarked by Captain Beechy that this +contrast of complexion coincides with the geological +structure of the soil. The lower and more +coralline the island, the blacker the islanders; +the more elevated and volcanic, the lighter. In +Africa, it is the low alluvia of rivers that favour<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +the Negro configuration. Mountains or table-lands, +on the other hand, give us red or yellow +skins, rather than sable.</p> + +<p>The Dyaks, then, are light-coloured Pagans, +speaking languages allied to the Malay; little +touched by Arabic, and less by Hindú influences; +with manners and customs that, more or less, +re-appear amongst the Battas (or ruder tribes of +Sumatra), and the so-called Harafuras of Celebes—and +not only here but elsewhere. In other +words, in all the islands, where Indian and Arabic +civilization have not succeeded in wholly changing +the primitive character, analogues of the +<i>Orang Binua</i> are to be found; their greatest differences +being those of stature and complexion—differences +upon which good judges have laid +great stress; but differences which will probably +be found to coincide with certain geological conditions +in the way of physical, and with a lower +level of civilization in the way of moral causes—these +moral causes having indirectly a physical +action.</p> + +<p>The Dyaks, in general, use the <i>sumpitan</i>, +or blow-pipe, about five feet long; out of +which some tribes shoot simple, others poisoned +arrows. The utmost distance that the sumpitan +carries is about one hundred yards. At twenty it +is sure in its aim. The differences between the +Dyak weapon, and one in use with the Arawaks<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +of Guiana is but trifling—perhaps it amounts +to nothing at all.</p> + +<p>Some Dyak tribes tattoo their bodies; others +do not.</p> + +<p>Before a Dyak youth marries he must lay at +the feet of the bride-elect the head of an enemy. +This makes <i>head-hunting</i> a normal item of Dyak +courtship.</p> + +<p>Traces of the Indian mythology—measures of +the Indian influence in other respects—just exist +amongst the Dyaks—<i>e.g.</i>, <i>Battara</i> is a name in +their Pantheon, and this is an alteration of the +Brahminic <i>Avatar</i>.</p> + +<p>The pirates who harass the coasts of Borneo +and the Chinese Seas—destined, at some future +time to be, like the Kaffres, but too well-known +to the English tax-payers—are Malays rather +than <i>Orang Binua</i>, or their equivalents; the +navigation of the Dyaks being chiefly confined to +rivers.</p> + +<p>The particular tribes of Sarawak are the following—the +Lundu, the Sarambo, the Singé, +the Suntah, the Sow, and the Sibnow. It is +almost unnecessary to name the great fountain-head +for all our recent knowledge of Borneo—Sir +James Brooke.</p> + +<p>The Dyak type predominates amongst the +<i>Orang Binua</i> of Borneo. In the Philippines the +Semang complexion re-appears. But the prolongation<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> +of the eastward line of migration takes us +through the Mariannes and Ladrones to Polynesia; +and here the magnitude of the islands decreases; +in other words, the influences of the sea-air +become greater. The aliment becomes almost +wholly vegetable. The separation from the civilizational +influences of Asia amounts to absolute +isolation. Of the general ethnology of the South +Sea Islanders I say nothing. The reasons which +took me over China, Arabia, and the Malayan +peninsula, <i>sicco pede</i>, spare the necessity of details +here.</p> + +<p>In the Sandwich Islands there is a constitution. +In Tahiti, a school of native Christian Missionaries.</p> + +<p>New Zealand exhibits the contrast between +the darker and lighter-coloured Oceanic populations +in so remarkable a manner as to have engendered +the notion that two stocks occupy the +island. If it were so, the fact would be remarkable +and mysterious. How <i>one</i> population found +its way to a locality so distant is by no means an +easy question; whilst the assumption of a second +family of immigrants just doubles its difficulty.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>In Java the proper Malay influences have been<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> +so great as to leave but few traces of the <i>Orang +Binua</i>; and, earlier even than these, those of +India were actively at work.</p> + +<p>East of Bali, however, the <i>Orang Binua</i> re-appear, +and here the type is that of the Semangs. +From Ombay, parts of Ende, and parts of Sumbawa, +we have short vocabularies—short, but not +too scanty to set aside the hasty, but accredited, +assertion of the Australian language, having +nothing in common with those of the Indian +Archipelago.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p> + +<p>I feel as satisfied that Australia was peopled +from either Timor or Rotti, as I do about the +Gallic origin of the ancient Britons.</p> + +<p>I believe this because the geographical positions +of the countries suggest it.</p> + +<p>I believe it, because the older and more aboriginal +populations of Timor and Rotti approach, +in physical character, the Australian.</p> + +<p>I believe it, because the proportion of words +in the vocabularies alluded to is greater than can +be attributed to accident; whilst the words themselves +are not of that kind which is introduced by +intercourse. Besides which, no such intercourse +either occurs at the present moment, or can be +shown to have ever existed.</p> + +<p>Australia agrees with parts of Africa, South<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> +America, and Polynesia, in being partially +intertropical and wholly south of the equator—no +part of continental Asia or Europe coming +under these conditions. But it differs +from Polynesia in being continental rather than +insular in climate; from South America in the +absence of great rivers and vast alluvial tracts; +and from Africa in being wholly isolated from the +Northern Hemisphere. It is with South Africa, +however, that its closest analogies exist. Both +have but small water-systems; both vast tracts of +elevated barren country; and both a distinctive +vegetation. The animal kingdoms, however, of +the two areas have next to nothing in common. +The comparative non-existence of Australian +mammalia, higher in rank than the marsupials, +is a subject for the zoologist. Ethnology only +indicates its bearing upon the sustenance of man. +Poor in the vegetable elements of food, and +beggarly in respect to the animal, the vast continental +expanse of Australia supports the scantiest +aboriginal population of the world, and nourishes +it worst. The steppes of Asia feed the horse; +the <i>tundras</i>, the reindeer; the circumpolar icebergs, +the seal; and each of these comparatively +inhospitable tracts is more kindly towards its +Mongolian, its Samoeid, and its Eskimo occupant, +than Australia with its intertropical climate, but +wide and isolated deserts.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></p> + +<p>Except that his hair (which is often either +straight, or only crisp or wavy) has not attained +its <i>maximum</i> of frizziness, and has seldom or +never been called <i>woolly</i>, the Australian is a +Semang under a South African climate, on a +South African soil, and with more than a South +African isolation.</p> + +<p>Few Australians count as far as five, and fewer +still beyond it. This paucity of numerals is +South American as well—the Brazilian and Carib, +and other systems of numeration being equally +limited.</p> + +<p>The sound of <i>s</i> is wanting in the majority of +Australian languages. So it is in many of the +Polynesian.</p> + +<p>The social constitution is of extreme simplicity. +Many degrees removed from the industrial, almost +as far from the agricultural state, the Australian +is hardly even a hunter—except so far as the +kangaroo or wombat are beasts of chase. Families—scarcely +large enough to be called tribes +or clans—wander over wide but allotted areas. +Nowhere is the approach to an organized polity +so imperfect.</p> + +<p>This makes the differences between section and +section of the Australian population, both broad +and numerous. Nevertheless, the fundamental +unity of the whole is not only generally admitted, +but—what is better—it has been well illustrated.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> +The researches of Captain Grey, Teichelmann, +Schurrmann, and others, have chiefly contributed +to this.</p> + +<p>The appreciation of certain apparent characteristic +peculiarities has been less satisfactory; +differences having been over-rated and points of +similarity wondered at rather than investigated.</p> + +<p>The well-known instrument called the <i>boomerang</i> +is Australian, and it is, perhaps, exclusively +so.</p> + +<p>Circumcision is an Australian practice—a practice +common to certain Polynesians and Negroes, +besides—to say nothing of the Jews and Mahometans.</p> + +<p>The recognition of the <i>maternal</i> rather than +the <i>paternal</i> descent is Australian. Children +take the name of their mother. What other +points it has in common with the Malabar polyandria +has yet to be ascertained.</p> + +<p>When an Australian dies, those words which +are identical with his name, or (in case of compounds) +with any part of it, cease to be used; +and some synonym is adopted instead; just as if, +in England, whenever a Mr. <i>Smith</i> departed this +life, the parish to which he belonged should cease +to talk of <i>blacksmiths</i>, and say <i>forgemen</i>, <i>forgers</i>, +or something equally respectful to the deceased, +instead. This custom re-appears in Polynesia, +and in South America; Dobrizhoffer's account of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> +the Abiponian custom being as follows:—The +"Abiponian language is involved in new difficulties +by a ridiculous custom which the savages +have of continually abolishing words common to +the whole nation, and substituting new ones in +their stead. Funeral rites are the origin of this +custom. The Abipones do not like that anything +should remain to remind them of the dead. +Hence appellative words bearing any affinity with +the names of the deceased are presently abolished. +During the first years that I spent +amongst the Abipones, it was usual to say +<i>Hegmalkam kahamátek</i>, when will there be +a slaughtering of oxen? On account of the +death of some Abipon, the word <i>Kahamátek</i> +was interdicted, and, in its stead, they were all +commanded by the voice of a crier to say, <i>Hegmalkam +négerkatà?</i> The word <i>nihirenak</i>, a tiger, +was exchanged for <i>apanigehak</i>; <i>peû</i>, a crocodile, +for <i>Kaeprhak</i>, and <i>Kaáma</i>, Spaniards, for <i>Rikil</i>, +because these words bore some resemblance to the +names of Abipones lately deceased. Hence it is +that our vocabularies are so full of blots occasioned +by our having such frequent occasions to +obliterate interdicted words, and insert new +ones."</p> + +<p>The following custom is Australian, and it +belongs to a class which should always be noticed +when found. This is because it appears and re-appears<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> +in numerous parts of the world, in different +forms, and, apparently, independent of +ethnological affinities.</p> + +<p>A family selects some natural object as its +symbol, badge, or armorial bearing.</p> + +<p>All natural objects of the same class then +become sacred; <i>i.e.</i>, the family which has adopted, +respects them also.</p> + +<p>The modes of showing this respect are various. +If the object be an animal, it is not killed; if a +plant, not plucked.</p> + +<p>The native term for the object thus chosen is +<i>Kobong</i>.</p> + +<p>A man cannot marry a woman of the same +<i>Kobong</i>.</p> + +<p>Until we know the sequence of the cause and +effect in the case of the Australian <i>Kobong</i>, we +have but little room for speculation as to its +origin. Is the plant or animal adopted by a particular +family selected because it was previously +viewed with a mysterious awe, or is it invested +with the attributes of sacro-sanctity because it +has been chosen by the family? This has yet to +be investigated.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, as Captain Gray truly remarks, the +Australian <i>Kobong</i> has elements in common with +the Polynesian <i>tabu</i>! Might he not have added +that the <i>names</i> are probably the same? The +change from <i>t</i> to <i>k</i>, and the difference between a<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> +nasal and a vowel termination, are by no means +insuperable objections.</p> + +<p>He also adds that it has a counterpart with the +American system of <i>totem</i>; although the exact +degree to which the comparison runs on all fours +is undetermined.</p> + +<p>But the disuse of certain words on the death of +kinsmen, and the <i>Kobong</i> are not the only customs +common to the Australian and American.</p> + +<p>The admission to the duties and privileges of +manhood is preceded by a probation. What this +is in the Mandan tribe of the Sioux Americans, +and the extent to which it consists in the infliction +and endurance of revolting and almost incredible +cruelties, may be seen in Mr. Catlin's +description—the description of an eye-witness. +In Australia it is the <i>Babu</i> that cries for the +youths that have arrived at puberty. Suddenly, +and at night, a cry is heard in the woods. Upon +hearing this, the men of the neighbourhood take +the youths to a secluded spot previously fixed +upon. The ceremony then takes place. Sham +fights, dances, partial mutilations of the body, +<i>e.g.</i>, the knocking out of a front tooth, are elements +of it. And this is as much as is known of +it; except that from the time of initiation to the +time of marriage, the young men are forbidden to +speak to, or even approach a female.</p> + +<p>Surely, it is the common conditions of a hunter<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> +life which determine these probationary preparations +for the hardships which accompany it in +populations so remote as the Australian and the +American of the prairie. I say of the prairie, +because we shall find that in the proportion as +the agricultural state replaces the erratic habits of +the hunter, ceremonies of the sort in question +decrease both in number and peculiarity of character.</p> + +<p>A third regulation forbids the use of the more +enviable articles of diet, like fish, eggs, the emu, +and the choicer sorts of opossum and kangaroo +to the Australian youth.</p> + +<p>All that is known of the Australian religion is +due to the researches of the United States Exploring +Expedition. The most specific fact in +this respect is the name <i>Wandong</i> as applied to the +evil spirit. I believe this to be truly a word +belonging to the Oceanic Pantheon in general, +and—as stated above—to be the same as <i>Vintana</i> +in Malagasi, and as the root <i>anit</i> in many of the +Polynesian languages.</p> + +<p><i>The Tasmanians.</i>—A few families, the remains +of the aborigines of Van Dieman's Land, occupy +Flinder's Island, whither they have been removed.</p> + +<p>I can give but little information concerning +them.</p> + +<p>From the Australians they differ but slightly +in mental capacity, and civilizational development.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> +Perhaps their very low level in this respect is the +lower of the two.</p> + +<p>The language seems to have fallen into not less +than four mutually unintelligible forms of speech.</p> + +<p>Their <i>hair</i> constituted their chief physical difference. +This was curled, frizzy, or mopped.</p> + +<p>The <i>a priori</i> view of their origin is that they +crossed Torres Straits from Australia. I have, +however, stated elsewhere that a case may be +made out for either Timor or New Caledonia +being their mother countries; in which case the +stream of population has gone <i>round</i> Australia +rather than <i>across</i> it. Certain peculiarities of the +Tasmanian language give us the ground for thus +demurring to the <i>primâ facie</i> view of their descent. +The same help us to account for the differences in +texture of the hair.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Malacca, Wellesley Province, Penang, and Sincapore. +For excellent information about the ethnology of these parts +see Newbold's "British Settlements," and the "Journal of the +Indian Archipelago."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> From <span title="amphi">ἀμφὶ</span> (<i>amfi</i>) <i>roundabout</i>, and <span title="nêsos">νῆσος</span> (<i>næsos</i>) <i>an +island</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Logan in "Journal of the Indian Archipelago," vol. i.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Logan and Thompson in "Journal of the Indian Archipelago," +vol. i.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Especially Crawfurd's "Indian Archipelago," Sir Stamford +Raffles' "History of Java," and Marsden's "Sumatra."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Dr. Dieffenbach's work on New Zealand is the repertory +of details here—a valuable and standard book.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> The collation of these may be seen in the Appendix to +Mr. Jukes' "Voyage of the Fly."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> In the Appendix to Jukes' "Voyage of the Fly," and +in "Man and his Migrations."</p></div> +</div> + +<hr /><p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2> + +<h3>DEPENDENCIES IN AMERICA.</h3> + +<div class="bk1"><p>THE ATHABASKANS OF THE HUDSON'S BAY COUNTRY.—THE ALGONKIN +STOCK.—THE IROQUOIS.—THE SIOUX.—ASSINEBOINS.—THE +ESKIMO.—THE KOLÚCH.—THE NEHANNI.—DIGOTHI.—THE +ATSINA.—INDIANS OF BRITISH OREGON, QUADRA'S AND +VANCOUVER'S ISLAND.—HAIDAH.—CHIMSHEYAN.—BILLICHULA.—HAILTSA.—NUTKA.—ATNA.—KITUNAHA +INDIANS.—PARTICULAR +ALGONKIN TRIBES.—THE NASCOPI.—THE +BETHUCK.—NUMERALS FROM FITZ-HUGH SOUND.—THE MOSKITO +INDIANS.—SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS OF BRITISH +GUIANA.—CARIBS.—WAROWS.—WAPISIANAS.—TARUMAS.—CARIBS +OF ST. VINCENT.—TRINIDAD.</p></div> + +<p><i>The Athabaskans.</i>—The best starting-point for +the ethnology of the British dependencies in +America is the water-system of the largest of the +rivers which empty themselves into the Polar +Sea, a system which comprises the Rivers Peel, +Dahodinni, and the Rivière aux Liards, tributaries +to the McKenzie, as well as the Great Bear +Lake, the Great Slave Lake, and Lake Athabaska; +a vast tract, and one which is <i>almost</i> wholly +occupied by a population belonging to one and<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> +the same class; a class sometimes known under +the name <i>Chepewyan</i>, or <i>Chepeyan</i>, sometimes +under that of <i>Athabaskan</i>.</p> + +<p>The water-system in question forms the centre +of the great Athabaskan area—the centre, but not +the whole. <i>Eastward</i>, there are Athabaskan tribes +as far as the coasts of Hudson's Bay; westwards +as far as the immediate neighbourhood of the +Pacific; and southwards as far as the head-waters +of the Saskatchewan. Full nineteen-twentieths +of the Athabaskan population, in respect to its +political relations, is British; all that is not British +being either Russian or American. To this +we may add, that it is the Hudson's Bay territory +rather than Canada to which the British Athabaskans +belong.</p> + +<p>The divisions and subdivisions of the Athabaskans +are as follows:—</p> + +<p>1. The <i>Sí-ísaw-dinni</i> (<i>See-eesaw-dinneh</i>), or +<i>rising-sun-men</i>.—These, generally called either +<i>Chipewyans</i>, or <i>Northern Indians</i>, are the most +eastern members of the family, and extend from +the mouth of the Churchill River to Lake Athabaska. +I imagine that the <i>Brushwood</i>, <i>Birchrind</i>, +and <i>Sheep</i> Indians are particular divisions of +this branch.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Beaver Indians.</i>—From the Lake Athabaska +to the Rocky Mountain, <i>i.e.</i>, the valley of +the Peace River.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span></p> + +<p>3. The <i>Daho-dinni</i>.—On the head-waters of the +Rivière aux Liards. Called also <i>Mauvais Monde</i>.</p> + +<p>4. The <i>Strong-Bows</i>.—Mountaineers of the +upper part of the Rocky Mountains.</p> + +<p>5. The <i>Kancho</i>.—Called also <i>Hare</i> and <i>Slave</i> +Indians. Starved and miserable occupants of the +parts along the River McKenzie between the +Slave and Great Bear Lakes. Accused of occasional +cannibalism, justified by the pressure of +famine. Due east of these come—</p> + +<p>6. The <i>Dog-ribs</i>, and</p> + +<p>7. The <i>Yellow-knives</i>, on the <i>Copper River</i>; +these last being also called the Copper Indians.</p> + +<p>8, 9. The <i>Slaous-cud-dinni</i><a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> of the McKenzie +River is, probably, a division of some of the +other groups rather than a separate substantive +class.</p> + +<p>10. The <i>Takulli</i>.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a>—These fall into eleven minor +tribes or clans.</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> The <i>Taú-tin</i>; probably the same as the +<i>Naote-tains</i>.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> The <i>Tshilko-tin</i>.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> The <i>Nasko-tin</i>.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> The <i>Thetlio-tin</i>.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> The <i>Tsatsno-tin</i>.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>f.</i> The <i>Nulaáu-tin</i>.</p> + +<p><i>g.</i> The <i>Ntsaáu-tin</i>.</p> + +<p><i>h.</i> The <i>Natliáu-tin</i>.</p> + +<p><i>i.</i> The <i>Nikozliáu-tin</i>.</p> + +<p><i>j.</i> The <i>Tatshiáu-tin</i>.</p> + +<p><i>k.</i> The <i>Babine</i> Indians.</p> + +<p>11. The <i>Susi</i> (<i>Sussees</i>).—On the head-waters +of the Saskatchewan.</p> + +<p>New Caledonia is the chief area of the <i>Takulli</i>.</p> + +<p>Adjacent to them, but to the east of the Rocky +Mountains, lie—</p> + +<p>12. The <i>Tsikani</i> (<i>Sicunnies</i>).</p> + +<p>The Athabaskan is the <i>first</i> class in our list; +and, if we look only at the area which its population +occupies, it is a great one. All the Athabaskan +languages or dialects are mutually intelligible.</p> + +<p><i>The Algonkins.</i>—The <i>second</i> class is the Algonkin. +It is greater in every way than the Athabaskan—greater +in respect to the number of its +divisions and subdivisions, greater in respect to +the ground it covers, and greater in respect to +the range of difference which it embraces. All +the Algonkin languages are not mutually intelligible.</p> + +<p>Unlike the Athabaskan the Algonkin stock is +nearly equally divided between the United States +and Great Britain.</p> + +<p>Unlike, too, the Athabaskan, it is divided<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> +between the Canadas and our other possessions +and the Hudson's Bay territory.</p> + +<p>The whole of the Canadas, with one small but +important exception, the whole of New Brunswick, +Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and Prince +Edward's Isle, is Algonkin. Labrador and Newfoundland +are chiefly Algonkin.</p> + +<p>To this stock belonged and belong the extinct +and extant Indians of New England, part of New +York, part of Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, +Virginia, part of the Carolinas, and part of even +Kentucky and Tennessee; a point of American +rather than of British ethnology, but a point +necessary to be noted for the sake of duly appreciating +the magnitude of this stock.</p> + +<p>Amongst others, the Pequods, the Mohicans, +the Narragansetts, the Massachuset, the Montaug, +the Delaware, the Menomini, the Sauks, +the Ottogamis, the Kikkapús, the Potawhotamis, +the Illinois, the Miami, the Piankeshaws, +the Shawnos, &c. belong to this stock—all +within the United States.</p> + +<p>The British Algonkins are as follows:—</p> + +<p>1. The <i>Crees</i>; of which the <i>Skoffi</i> and <i>Sheshatapúsh</i> +of Labrador are branches.</p> + +<p>2. The <i>Ojibways</i>;<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> falling into—</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> The <i>Ojibways Proper</i>, of which the <i>Sauteurs</i> +are a section.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>b.</i> The <i>Ottawas</i> of the River Ottawa.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> The original Indians of Lake <i>Nipissing</i>; important +because it is believed that the form of +speech called <i>Algonkin</i>, a term since extended to +the whole class, was their particular dialect. +They are now either extinct or amalgamated with +other tribes.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> The <i>Messisaugis</i>, to the north of Lake Ontario.</p> + +<p>3. The <i>Micmacs</i> of New Brunswick, Gaspé, +Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and part of Newfoundland; +closely allied to the—</p> + +<p>4. <i>Abnaki</i> of Mayne, and the British frontier; +represented at present by the <i>St. John's Indians</i>.</p> + +<p>5. The <i>Bethuck</i>—the aborigines of Newfoundland.</p> + +<p>6. The <i>Blackfoots</i>, consisting of the—</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> <i>Satsikaa</i>, or <i>Blackfoots Proper</i>.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> The <i>Kena</i>, or <i>Blood Indians</i>.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> The <i>Piegan</i>.</p> + +<p>To these must be added numerous extinct +tribes.</p> + +<p><i>The Iroquois.</i>—The single and important exception +to the Algonkin population of the Canadas +is made by the existence of certain members of +the great Iroquois class on the New York frontier; +a class falling into two divisions. The +<i>northern</i> Iroquois belong to New York and Pennsylvania, +the <i>southern</i> to the Carolinas.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span></p> + +<p>The former of these two falls into two great confederations, +and into several unconfederate tribes.</p> + +<p>The chief of the unconfederate tribes are the +now extinct <i>Mynkasar</i> and <i>Cochnowagoes</i>—extinct, +unless either or both be represented by a +small remnant mentioned by Schoolcraft, in his +great work on the Indian tribes, now in the course +of publication, under the sanction of Congress, +as the <i>St. Regis Indians</i>.</p> + +<p>Of the second confederation the leading members +were the <i>Wyandots</i>, or <i>Hurons</i>, of the parts +between Lakes Simcoe, Huron, and Erie.</p> + +<p>The first was that of the famous and formidable +<i>Mohawks</i>. To these add the <i>Senekas</i>, the <i>Onondagos</i>, +the <i>Cayugas</i>, and the <i>Oneidas</i>, and you +have the <i>Five</i> Nations. Then add, as a later +accession, from the southern Iroquois, the <i>Tuskaroras</i>, +and the <i>Six</i> Nations are formed.</p> + +<p>Between these two there was war <i>even to the +knife</i>; the greater portion of the Wyandot league +belonging to the Algonkin class.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, a few representatives of the +whole seven tribes<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> still remain extant, their +present locality—a reserve—being the triangular +peninsula which was the original Huron area.</p> + +<p>Again, in the present site of Montreal, the earlier +occupants were the <i>Hochelaga</i>; an Iroquois tribe +also.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>The Sioux.</i>—In tracing the Nelson River from +its embouchure in Hudson's Bay, towards its +source in the Rocky Mountains, we reach Lake +Winnepeg, and the Red River Settlement—the +Red River rising within the boundary of the +United States, flowing from south to north, and +receiving, as a feeder, the Assineboin. Now the +Valley of the Assineboin is an interesting ethnological +locality.</p> + +<p>Either the river takes its name from the population, +or the population from the river; the +division to which it belongs being a new one. +Different from the Algonkins on the east, different +from the Athabaskans on the north, and (in +the present state of our knowledge) different from +the Arrapahoes on the west, the Assineboins +have all their affinities southwards. In that +direction the family to which they belong extends +as far as Louisiana. These Indians it is to whom +nine-tenths of the Valley of Missouri originally +belonged—the Indians of the great Sioux class; +Indians whose original hunting-grounds included +the vast prairie-country from the Rocky Mountains +to the Mississippi, and who again appear as +an isolated detachment on Lake Michigan. These +isolated Sioux are the Winebagoes; the others +being the Dahcota, the Yankton, the Teton, the +Upsaroka, the Mandan, the Minetari, the Missouri, +the Osage, the Konzas, the Ottos, the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> +Omahaws, the Puncas, the Ioways, and the +Quappas,—all American, <i>i.e.</i>, belonging to the +United States.</p> + +<p>None of the Sioux tribe come in contact with +the sea. None of them belong to the great <i>forest</i> +districts of America. Most of them hunt over +the country of the buffalo. This makes them +warlike, migratory hunters; with fewer approaches +to agricultural or industrial civilization than any +Indians equally favoured by soil and climate.</p> + +<p>Of this class the Assineboins are the British +representatives. They are the chief <i>Red River</i> +aborigines.</p> + +<p>It is the Iroquois, the Sioux, and certain members +of the Algonkin stock, upon which the current +and popular notions of the American Indian, the +<i>Red Man</i>, as he is called—</p> + +<div class="poem" style="width: 22em;"> +<span class="i0">The Stoic of the woods, the man without a tear, &c.,<br /></span> +</div> + +<p class="noin">have been formed. The Athabaskans, on the +other hand, have not contributed much to our +notions on this point. In the first place, they +are less known; in the next, they are less typical.</p> + +<p>But this raises their value in the eyes of the +ethnologist; and the very fact of their possessing +certain characteristics, in a comparatively slight +degree, makes them all the fitter for illustrating +the phenomena of <i>transition</i>.</p> + +<p>Previous, however, to this, we must get our<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> +other <i>extreme</i>. This is to be found in the ethnology +of—</p> + +<p><i>The Eskimo.</i>—It is a very easy matter for an +artistic ethnologist to make some fine light-and-shade +contrasts between two populations, where +he has an Iroquois or a Sioux at one end, and an +Eskimo of Labrador at the other. An oblique +eye, bleared and sore from the glare of the snow, +with a crescentic fold overshadowing the <i>caruncula +lacrymalis</i>, surmounted by a low forehead and +black shaggy locks, with cheek-bones of such +inordinate development as to make the face as +broad as it is long, are elements of ugliness which +catch the imagination, and produce a caricature, +where we want a picture. And they are elements +of ugliness which can be accumulated. We may +add to them, a nose so flat, and cheeks so fleshy, +as for a ruler, placed across the latter, to leave the +former untouched. We may then notice the state +of the teeth, from the mastication of injurious +substances; and having thus exhausted nature, +we may revert to the deformities of art. We +may observe that wherever there is a fleshy portion +of the face that can be perforated by a stone knife, +or pierced by a whalebone, there will be tattooing +and incisions; and that wherever there are incisions, +bones, nails, feathers, and such like ornaments +will be inserted. All this is the case. +What European ladies do with their ears, the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> +Eskimo does with the cartilage of his nose, the +lips, the corners of his mouth, and the cheeks. +More than this—in the lower lip, parallel to the +mouth, and taking the guise of a mouth additional, +a slit is made quite through the lip, large enough +to allow the escape of spittle and the protrusion +of the tongue. The insertion of a shell or bone, +cut into the shape of teeth, completes the adornment.</p> + +<p>Then comes the question of colour. The Indian +has a tinge of red; a tinge which enables us to +compare his skin to <i>copper</i>. The Eskimo is simply +brown, swarthy, or tawny.</p> + +<p>Again, the Eskimo hold periodical fairs. Whales +are scarce in the south, and wood in the north of +Greenland; and in consequence of this, there are +regular meetings for the business of barter. This +gives us the elements of commercial industry; +elements which must themselves be taken in conjunction +with the maritime habits of the people. +What stronger contrast can we find to all this than +the gloomy isolation of the hunters of the prairie-countries, +whether Sioux, Iroquois, or Algonkin?</p> + +<p>Again, it is safe, in the way of intellectual +capacity, to give the Eskimo credit for ingenuity +and imitativeness. The Indian, of the type which +we have chosen to judge him by, is pre-eminently +indocile and inflexible.</p> + +<p>Yet all this, with much more besides, is capable<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> +of great qualification—qualification which we find +necessary, whether we look to the extent to which +the Eskimos approach the Indian, or the Indian +the Eskimo—each receding from its own more +extreme representative.</p> + +<p>The prominence of the nasal bones is certainly +common amongst the Red Indian tribes; and +rare amongst the Eskimo. Yet it is neither +universal in the one, nor non-existent in the other. +Oval features, a mixture of red in the complexion, +an aquiline nose, have all been observed amongst +the more favoured of the Circumpolar men and +women.</p> + +<p>In respect, too, to stature, the Eskimo is less +remarkable for inferiority than is generally supposed. +His bulky, baggy dress makes him look +square and short. Measurements, however, correct +this impression. Men of the height of five +feet ten inches have been noticed as particular +specimens—better grown individuals than their +fellows. And men under five feet have also been +noticed for the contrary reasons. Numerous measurements, +however, give about five feet as the +height of an Eskimo woman, and five feet six +inches as that of a man. This is more than so +good an authority as Mr. Crawfurd gives to the +Malays; whose person is squat, and whose average +stature does not exceed five feet three or four +inches. It is more, too, than Sir R. Schomburgk<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +gives the Guiana Indians, as may be seen from +the following table:—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table class="tab2" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr class="tr3"><td class="bl" colspan="3"><i>Wapisianas.</i></td><td colspan="3"><i>Tarumas.</i></td><td colspan="4"><i>Mawackas.</i></td><td colspan="3"><i>Atorais.</i></td><td colspan="4"><i>Macusis.</i></td></tr> +<tr class="tr4"><td class="bl">Aged.</td><td>ft.</td><td class="br">in.</td><td>Aged.</td><td>ft.</td><td class="br">in.</td><td colspan="2">Aged.</td><td>ft.</td><td class="br">in.</td><td>Aged.</td><td>ft.</td><td class="br">in.</td><td colspan="2">Aged.</td><td>ft.</td><td class="br">in.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl">12</td><td>4</td><td class="br">8<span class="abv">5</span>⁄<span class="blw">10</span></td> +<td>14</td><td>4</td><td class="br">11<span class="abv">3</span>⁄<span class="blw">10</span></td> +<td>15</td><td></td><td>4</td><td class="br">10</td> +<td>35</td><td>5</td><td class="br">1<span class="abv">5</span>⁄<span class="blw">10</span></td> +<td>14</td><td class="tdb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%;">}</span></td><td rowspan="2">4</td><td class="br" rowspan="2">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl">15</td><td>4</td><td class="br">6</td> +<td class="bb br" colspan="3" rowspan="2"></td> +<td>16</td><td class="bb tdb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%;">}</span></td><td class="bb" rowspan="2">4</td><td class="bb br" rowspan="2">9<span class="abv">5</span>⁄<span class="blw">10</span></td> +<td>15</td><td>5</td><td class="br">1</td> +<td>15</td></tr> +<tr class="tr2"><td class="bl">16</td><td>5</td><td class="br">1<span class="abv">1</span>⁄<span class="blw">10</span></td> +<td>17</td> +<td class="br" colspan="3"></td> +<td>14</td><td></td><td>5</td><td class="br">0</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="noin">It is more than the average of several other +populations.</p> + +<p>Neither is the Eskimo skull so wholly different +from the American. It is, probably, larger in its +dimensions; so that its cavity contains more cubic +inches. The measurements, however, which suggest +this view, are but few. On the other hand, +the relations between the <i>width</i> and the <i>depth</i> +of the skull, are considered important and distinctive.</p> + +<p>By <i>width</i> is meant the number of inches from +side to side, from one parietal bone to the other; +in other words, the <i>parietal diameter</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Depth</i> signifies the length of the <i>occipito-frontal</i> +diameter, or the number of inches from the forehead +to the back of the skull.</p> + +<p>Now, in one out of four of the Eskimo +crania examined by Dr. Morton, the parietal diameter +so nearly approaches the occipito-frontal +as for the skull in question to be as much as +5·4 inches in width, and as little as 5·7 in depth;<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> +a measurement which makes the Eskimo brain +almost as broad as it is long. <i>Valeat quantum.</i> +It is an extreme specimen. The remainder are +as 5·5 to 7·3; as 5·1 to 7·5; and as 5 to 6·7, +proportions by no means exclusively Eskimo, +and proportions which occur in very many of the +undeniably American stocks.</p> + +<p>Likeness there is; and variety there is;—likeness +in physical feature, likeness in language, and +likeness in the general moral and intellectual +characteristics. And then there is variety—variety +in all the details of their arts; variety in their +bows, their canoes, their dwellings, their fashions +in the way of incisions and tattooings, and their +fashions in the dressing of their hair.</p> + +<p>This is as much as can be said about the Eskimo +at present. It is, however, preparatory to the +general statement that <i>all the remaining</i> Indians of +British North America recede from the Sioux and +Iroquois type, and approach that of the family in +question. Such, indeed, has been the case, though +(perhaps) in a less degree, with one of the classes +already considered—the Athabaskan.</p> + +<p><i>The Kolúch.</i>—The extreme west of the British +possessions beyond the Rocky Mountains, <i>north</i> +of latitude 55° is but imperfectly known. Indeed, +for scientific, and, perhaps, for political +purposes as well, the country is unfortunately +divided. The Russians have the long but narrow<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +strip of coast; and, consequently, limit their investigations +to its bays and archipelagoes. The +British, on the contrary, though they possess the +interior, have no great interest in the parts about +the Russian boundary. In the way of trade, +they are not sufficiently on the sea for the sea-otter, +nor near enough the mountains for other +fur-bearing animals.</p> + +<p>Now, the mouth of the Stikin River is Russian, +the head-waters British. Beyond these, we +have the water-system of the McKenzie—for +that river, although falling into the Arctic Sea, +has a western fork, which breaks through the +barrier of the Rocky Mountains, and changes in +direction from west and south-west to north. Lake +Simpson, Lake Dease, and the River Turnagain +belong to this branch; the tract in which they lie +being a range of highlands, if not of mountains.</p> + +<p>This is the country of the Nehannis; conterminous +on the south with that of the Takulli, and +on the north-east with that of the Dahodinni. +How far, however, it extends towards the Russian +boundary and in the north-west direction I +cannot say.</p> + +<p>The Nehannis are, probably, the chief British +representatives of the class called Kolúch.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> +Assuming this—although from the want of a<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +special Nehanni vocabulary, the philological evidence +is wanting—I begin with the notice of the +<i>Nehannis</i>, as known to the Hudson's Bay Company, +and afterwards superadd a sketch of the +<i>Sitkans</i>, as known to the Russians of New Archangel; +the two notices together giving us the +special description of a family, and the general +view of the class to which that family belongs.</p> + +<p>That the Nehannis are brave, warlike, and turbulent, +is no more than is expected. We are +far beyond the latitude of the peaceful Eskimo. +That they are ruled by a woman should surprise +us. Such, however, is the case. A female rules +them—and rules them, too, with a rod of iron. +Respect for sex has here attained its height. It +had begun to be recognized amongst the Athabaskans.</p> + +<p>The Nehannis are strong enough to rob; but +they are also civilized enough to barter; buying +of the inland tribes, and selling to the Russians—a +practice which seems to divert the furs of British +territory to the markets of Muscovy. But this is +no business of the ethnologist's. They are slavers +and slave-owners; ingenious and imitative; fond +of music and dancing; fish-eaters; active in body; +bold and treacherous in temper; and with the +common Kolúch physiognomy and habits.</p> + +<p><i>These</i> we must collect from the descriptions of +the Russian Kolúches—the locality where they<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> +have been best studied being Sitka Sound, or +New Archangel. We must do it, however, <i>mutatis +mutandis</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, remembering that the Sitkans +are Kolúch of an Archipelago, the Nehanni Kolúch +of a continent.</p> + +<p>The Kolúch complexion is light; the hair long +and lank; the eyes black; and the lip and chin +often bearded.</p> + +<p>The <i>Konægi</i> are the natives of the island +Kadiak. Now Lisiansky, from whom the chief +details of the Sitkan Kolúch are taken, especially +states that, with few exceptions, their +manners and customs are those of these same +Konægi; one of the minor points of difference +being the greater liveliness of the Sitkans, and +one of the more important ones, their treatment +of the dead. They <i>burn</i> the bodies (as do the +Takulli Athabaskans) and deposit the ashes in +wooden boxes placed upon pillars, painted or +carved, more or less elaborately, according to the +wealth of the deceased.</p> + +<p>On the death of a <i>toyon</i>, or chief, one of his +slaves is killed and burned with him. If, however, +the deceased be of inferior rank the victim +is <i>buried</i>. If the death be in battle, the head, +instead of being burned, is kept in a wooden box +of its own. But it is not with the shaman as with +the warrior. The shaman is merely interred; +since he is supposed to be too full of the evil<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +spirit to be consumed by fire. The reason why +burning is preferred to burying is because the +possession of a piece of flesh is supposed to +enable its owner to do what mischief he pleases.</p> + +<p><i>Now the Konægi are admitted Eskimo.</i></p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the similarity between the +Sitkans and Konægi there is no want of true +American customs amongst them. Cruelty to +prisoners, indifference to pain when inflicted on +themselves, and the habit of scalping are common +to the Indians of King George's Archipelago, and +those of the water-system of the Mississippi. On +the other hand, they share the skill in painting +and carving with the Chenúks and the aborigines +of the Oregon.</p> + +<p><i>The Digothi.</i>—The Dahodinni are Athabaskan +rather than Kolúch; the Nehanni Kolúch rather +than Athabaskan. Now I imagine that the Dahodinni +country is partially encircled by Kolúch +populations, and that a fresh branch of this stock +re-appears when we proceed northwards. On the +Lower McKenzie, in the valley of the Peel River, +and at the termination of the great Rocky Range +on the shore of the Polar Sea, we find the <i>Digothi</i> +or <i>Loucheux</i>; the only family not belonging to the +Eskimo class, which comes in contact with the +ocean; and, consequently, the only unequivocally +Indian population which interrupts the continuity +of the Eskimo from Behring's Straits to the Atlantic.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +Perhaps the alluvium of a great river like the +McKenzie, has determined this displacement. +Such an occupancy would be as naturally coveted +by an inland population, as undervalued by a +maritime one. At any rate, the Loucheux have +the appearance of being an encroaching tenantry; +indeed, few Indians have had their physical appearance +described in terms equally favourable. +Black-haired and fair-complexioned, with fine +sparkling eyes, and regular teeth, they approach +the Nehanni in physiognomy, and surpass them +in stature. The same authority which expressly +states that the Nehanni are not generally tall, +speaks to the athletic proportions and tall stature +of the Loucheux; adding that their countenances +are handsome and expressive.</p> + +<p>Whence came they? From the south-east, from +Russian America. Their points of contrast to the +Eskimo indicate this. Their points of contrast +to the Athabaskans indicate it also. Their points +of similarity to the Kolúch do more. The Loucheux +possessive pronoun is the same as the +Kenay. Thus—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">ENGLISH.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">LOUCHEUX.</span></td><td><span class="smcapl">KENAY.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>My</i>-son</td><td class="td3"><i>se</i>-jay</td><td><i>ssi</i>-ja.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3"><i>My</i>-daughter</td><td class="td3"><i>se</i>-zay</td><td><i>ssa</i>-za.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Fuller descriptions, however, of both the Loucheux +and Nehanni are required before we can +decidedly pronounce them to be Kolúch; indeed,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +so high an authority as Gallatin places the latter +amongst the Athabaskans.</p> + +<p><i>The Fall Indians.</i>—In a MS. communicated by +Mr. Gallatin to Dr. Prichard, and, by the latter +kindly lent to myself, and examined by me some +years back, was a vocabulary of the language of +the Indians of the Falls of the Saskatchewan. In +this their native name was written <i>Ahnenin</i>. Mr. +Hale, however, calls them <i>Atsina</i>. Which is correct +is difficult to say.</p> + +<p><i>Gros ventres</i> is another of their designations; +<i>Minetari of the Prairie</i> another. This last is +inconvenient, as well as incorrect, since the true +<i>Minetari</i> are a Sioux tribe, different in language, +manners, and descent.</p> + +<p><i>Arrapaho</i> is a third synonym; and this is important, +since there are other <i>Arrapahoes</i> as far +south as the Platte and Arkansas Rivers.</p> + +<p>The identity of name is <i>primâ facie</i> evidence of +two tribes so distant as those of Arkansas and the +Saskatchewan being either offsets from one another, +or else from some common stock; but it is not +more. Nothing can be less conclusive. This has +just been shown to be in the case of the term +<i>Minetari</i>.</p> + +<p>The Ahnenin, or Atsina language is peculiar; +though the confederacy to which the Indians who +speak it belong, is the Blackfoot.</p> + +<p>Of the southern Arrapaho we have no vocabulary;<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> +neither do we know whether the name +be native or not.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>A tract still stands over for notice. As we +have no exact northern limits for the Nehanni, +no exact western ones for the Dahodinni, and no +exact southern ones for the Loucheux, the parts +due east of the Russian boundary are undescribed.</p> + +<p>I can only <i>contribute</i> to the ethnology here.</p> + +<p><i>The Ugalentses.</i>—Round Mount St. Elias we +have a population of <i>Ugalentses</i> or Ugalyakhmutsi. +Though said to consist of less than forty families,<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> +as their manners are migratory, it is highly probable +that some of them are British.</p> + +<p><i>The Tshugatsi</i>.—In contact with the Ugalents, +who are transitional between the true Eskimo and +the true Kolúch, the Tshugatsi are unequivocally +Eskimo. The parts about Prince William's +Sound are their locality.</p> + +<p><i>The Haidah.</i>—Queen Charlotte's, and the +southern extremity of the Prince of Wales' Archipelago, +are the parts to which the Indians speaking +the Haidah language have been referred. In case, +however, any members of their family extend into +the British territory, they are mentioned here.</p> + +<p>Three Haidah tribes are more particularly +named—</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> The <i>Skittegat</i>.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>b.</i> The <i>Cumshahas</i>—a name remarkably like +that of the <i>Chimsheyan</i>, hereafter to be noticed.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> The <i>Kygani</i>.</p> + +<p><i>The Tungaas.</i>—This is the name of the language +of the most Northern Indians, with which +the Hudson's Bay Company comes in contact. It +is Kolúch; and more Russian than British.</p> + +<p>The chief authority is Dr. Scouler. The whole +of his valuable remarks upon the North-western +Indians, is a commentary upon the assertion +already made as to the extent which we have +formed our ideas of the Aboriginal American +upon the Algonkins and Iroquois exclusively; +and his facts are a correction to our inferences. +In what way do the moral and intellectual characters +of the Western Indians differ from those +of the Eastern? I shall give the answer in +Dr. Scouler's only terms. They are less inflexible +in character. Their range of ideas is greater. +They are imitative and docile. They are comparatively +humane.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> No scalping. No excessive +torture of prisoners. No probationary inflictions.</p> + +<p>Now—whether negative or positive—there is not +one of those characteristics wherein the Western +American differs from the Eastern, in which he +does not, at the same time, approach the Eskimo. +In the absence of the scalping-knife, the tomahawk,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> +the council fire, the wampum-belt, the +hero chief, and the metaphorical orator, the +Eskimo differs from the Ojibway, the Huron, +and the Mohawk. True. But the Haidah and +the Chimsheyan do the same.</p> + +<p>The religion of the Algonkin and Iroquois is +Shamanistic; like the Negro of Africa they attribute +to some material object mysterious powers. +As far as the term has been defined, this is Feticism. +But, then, like the Finn, and the Samoeid +of Siberia, they either seek for themselves or +reverence in others, the excitement of fasting, +charms, and dreams. As far as the term has +been defined this is Shamanism. Now lest our +notions as to the religion of the Indians be rendered +unduly favourable through the ideas of +pure theism, called up by the missionary term +<i>Great Spirit</i>, we must simply remember, in the +first place, that the term is <i>ours</i>, not <i>theirs</i>; and +that those who, by looking to facts rather than +words, have criticised it, have arrived at the conclusion +that the creed of the Indians of the St. +Lawrence and Mississippi is neither better nor +worse than the creed of the Indians of the Columbia. +Both are alike, Shamanistic. And so +is the Eskimo.</p> + +<p>The names in detail of the Indians of British +Oregon, over and above those of the Athabaskan +family already enumerated, are as follows; Dr.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> +Scouler still being the authority, and, along with +him, Mr. Tolmie and Mr. Hale.</p> + +<p>1. The <i>Chimsheyan</i>, or <i>Chimmesyan</i>, on the sea-coast +and islands about 55° North lat. Their +tribes are the <i>Naaskok</i>, the <i>Chimsheyan Proper</i>, +the <i>Kitshatlah</i>, and the <i>Kethumish</i>.</p> + +<p>2. The <i>Billichula</i>, on the mouth of the Salmon +River.</p> + +<p>3. The <i>Hailtsa</i>, on the sea-coast, from Hawkesbury +Island to Broughton's Archipelago, and +(perhaps) the northern part of Quadra's and Vancouver's +Island. Their tribes are the <i>Hyshalla</i>, +the <i>Hyhysh</i>, the <i>Esleytuk</i>, the <i>Weekenoch</i>, the +<i>Nalatsenoch</i>, the <i>Quagheuil</i>, the <i>Ttatla-shequilla</i>, +and the <i>Lequeeltoch</i>. The numerals from Fitz-Hugh +Sound will be noticed in the sequel.</p> + +<p>4. <i>The Nutka Sound Indians</i> occupy the greater +part of Quadra's and Vancouver's Island, speak the +<i>Wakash</i> language, and fall into the following +tribes—</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> <i>The Naspatl.</i></p> + +<p><i>b.</i> <i>The Nutkans Proper.</i></p> + +<p><i>c.</i> <i>The Tlaoquatsh.</i></p> + +<p><i>d.</i> <i>The Nittenat.</i></p> + +<p>5. <i>The Shushwah</i>, or <i>Atna</i>, are bounded on the +north by the Takulli, belong to the interior rather +than the coast, are members of a large family, +called the <i>Tsihaili-Selish</i>, extending far into the +United States. According to Mr. Hale, they present<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> +the remarkable phenomenon of an aboriginal +stock having increased from about four hundred +to twelve hundred, instead of diminishing.</p> + +<p>6. <i>The Kitunaha</i>, <i>Cutanies</i>, or <i>Flat-bows</i>, hardy, +brave and shrewd hunters on the Kitunaha, or +Flat-bow River, and conterminous with the Blackfoots, +are the Oregon Indians whose habits most +closely approach those of the Indians to the east +of the Rocky Mountains.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>To some of these I now return, since three points +of Algonkin ethnology require special notice.</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> <i>The Nascopi</i> or <i>Skoffi</i>.—This is a frontier +tribe. Much as we connect the ideas of cold and +cheerless sterility with the inclement climate and +naked moorlands of Labrador, and much as we +connect the Eskimo as a population with a similarly +inhospitable country, it is only the coast of +that vast region which is thus tenanted. On +Hudson's Straits there are Eskimo; on the Straits +of Belleisle there are Eskimo; along the intervening +coast there are Eskimo, and as far south +as Anticosti there are Eskimo, but in the interior +there are no Eskimo. Instead of them we +find the Skoffi, and the Sheshatapúsh—subsections +(as stated before) of the same section of the +great Algonkin stock. In them we have a measure +of the effect of external conditions upon +different members of the same class. Between<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> +the Skoffi of Mosquito Bay and the Pamticos +of Cape Hatteras we have more than 25° of +latitude combined with a difference of other physical +conditions which more than equals the difference +between north and south. Yet the contrast +between the Algonkin and other inhabitants +of Labrador is as evident (though not, perhaps, so +great) as that between the Greenlander and the +Virginian; so that just as the Norwegian is distinguishable +from the Laplander so is the Skoffi +from Eskimo.</p> + +<p>Dirtier and coarser than any other Algonkins, +the Nascopi hunts and fishes for his livelihood +exclusively; depending most upon the autumnal +migrations of the reindeer; and, next to that, +upon his net. This he sets under the ice, during +the earlier months of the winter. After December, +however, he would set them in vain; the fish +being, then, all in the deep water. Woman, generally +a drudge in North America, is pre-eminently +so with the Nascopis. All that the man does, +is the <i>killing</i> of the game. The woman brings it +home. The woman also drags the loaded sledges +from squatting to squatting, clears the ground, +and collects fuel; whilst the man sits idle and +smokes. Of such domestic slaves more than one +is allowed; so that as far as the Nascopi recognizes +marriage at all, he is a polygamist. In this +sense the contracting parties are respectively the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> +parents of the couple—the bride and bridegroom +being the last parties consulted. When all has +been arranged, the youth proceeds to his father-in-law's +tent, remains there a year, and then +departs as an independent member of the community. +Cousins are addressed as brothers or +sisters; marriage between near relations is allowed; +and so is the marriage of more than one sister +successively.</p> + +<p>The Paganism of the Nascopi is that of the +other Cree tribes; their Christianity still more +partial and still more nominal. Sometimes rolling +in abundance, sometimes starving, they are +attached to the Whites by but few artificial wants; +the few fur-bearing animals of their country being +highly prized, and, consequently, going a long +way as elements of barter. Their dress is almost +wholly of reindeer skin; their travelling gear a +leathern bag with down in it, and a kettle. In +this bag the Nascopi thrusts his legs, draws his +knees up to his chin, and defies both wind and +snow.</p> + +<p>This account has been condensed from M'Lean's +"Five and Twenty Years' Service in the Hudson's +Bay Territory." I subjoin the remainder +in his own words: "The horrid practice still +obtains among the Nascopis of destroying their +parents and relatives, when old age incapacitates +them for further exertion. I must, however, do<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> +them the justice to say, that the parent himself +expresses a wish to depart, otherwise the unnatural +deed would probably never be committed, +for they, in general, treat their old people with +much care and tenderness. The son, or nearest +relative, performs the office of executioner—the +self-devoted victim being disposed of by strangulation."</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> <i>The Aborigines of Newfoundland.</i>—Sebastian +Cabot brought three Newfoundlanders to England. +They were clothed in beasts' skin, and ate +raw flesh. This last is an accredited characteristic +of the Eskimo; and, thus far, the evidence is in +favour of the savages in question belonging to +that stock. Yet it is more than neutralized by +what follows; since Purchas states that two +years after he saw two of them, dressed like +Englishmen, "which, at that time, I could not +discover from Englishmen, till I learned what +they were."</p> + +<p>Now as the Bethuck—the aborigines in question—have +either been cruelly exterminated, or exist +in such small numbers as not to have been seen +for many years, it has been a matter of doubt +whether they were Eskimo or Micmacs, the +present occupants of the island. Reasons against +either of these views are supplied by a hitherto +unpublished Bethuck vocabulary, with which I +have been kindly furnished by my friend Dr. King,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> +of the Ethnological Society. This makes them a +<i>separate section</i> of the Algonkins. Such I believe +them to have been, and have placed them accordingly.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> <i>The Fitz-Hugh Sound Numerals.</i>—These are +nearly the same as the Hailtsa. On the other +hand, they agree with the Blackfoot in ending in +-<i>scum</i>.</p> + +<p>Now if the resemblance go farther, so as really +to connect the Blackfoot with the Hailtsa, it brings +the Algonkin class of languages across the whole +breadth of the continent, and as far as the shores +of the Pacific.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>The Moskito Indians are no subjects of England, +any more than the Tahitians are of France, or the +Sandwich Islanders of America, France, and England +conjointly. The Moskito coast is a Protectorate: +and the Moskito Indians are the subjects +of a native king.</p> + +<p>The present reigning monarch was educated +under English auspices at Jamaica, and, upon +attaining his majority, crowned at Grey Town. +I believe that his name is that of the grandfather +of our late gracious majesty. King George, then, +king of the Moskitos, has a territory extending +from the neighbourhood of Truxillo to the lower +part of the River San Juan; a territory whereof, +inconveniently for Great Britain, the United<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> +States, and the commerce of the world at large, +the limits and definition are far from being universally +recognized. Nicaragua has claims, and +the Isthmus canal suffers accordingly.</p> + +<p>The king of the Moskito coast, and the emperor +of the Brazil, are the only resident sovereigns of +the New World.</p> + +<p>The subjects of the former are, really, the +aborigines of the whole line of coast between +Nicaragua and Honduras—there being no Indians +remaining in the former republic, and but few in +the latter. Of these, too—the Nicaraguans—we +have no definite ethnological information. Mr. +Squier speaks of them as occupants of the islands +of the lakes of the interior. Colonel Galindo also +mentions them; but I infer, from his account, +that their original language is lost, and that +Spanish is their present tongue; just as it is said to +be that of the aborigines of St. Salvador and Costa +Rica. This makes it difficult to fix them. And +the difficulty is increased when we resort to history, +tradition, and archæology. History makes +them Mexicans—Asteks from the kingdom of +Montezuma, and colonists of the Peninsula, just +as the Phœnicians were of Carthage. Archæology +goes the same way. A detailed description of +Mr. Squier's discoveries, is an accession to ethnology +which is anxiously expected. At any rate, +stone ruins and carved decorations have been<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> +found; so that what Mr. Stephenson has written +about Yucatan and Guatemala, may be repeated in +the case of Nicaragua. Be it so. The difficulty +will be but increased; since whatever facts makes +Nicaragua Mexican, isolates the Moskitos. They +are now in contact with Spaniards and Englishmen—populations +whose civilization differs from +their own; and populations who are evidently +intrusive and of recent origin. Precisely the same +would be the case, if the Nicaraguans were made +Mexican. The civilization would be of another +sort; the population which introduced it would +be equally intrusive; and the only difference +would be a difference of stage and degree—a little +earlier in the way of time, and a little less contrast +in the way of skill and industry.</p> + +<p>But the evidence in favour of the Mexican +origin of the Nicaraguans, is doubtful; and so is +the fact of their having wholly lost their native +tongue; and until one of these two opinions be +proved, it will be well to suspend our judgment as +to the isolation of the Moskitos. If, indeed, either +of them be true, their ethnological position will be +a difficult question. With nothing in Honduras +to compare them with—with nothing tangible, or +with an apparently incompatible affinity in Nicaragua—with +only very general miscellaneous affinities +in Guatemala—their ethnological affinities +are as peculiar as their political constitution.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> +Nevertheless, isolated as their language is, it has +undoubted <i>general affinities with those of America +at large</i>; and this is all that it is safe to say at +present. But it is safe to say <i>this</i>. We have +plenty of data for their tongue, in a grammar of +Mr. Henderson's, published at New York, 1846.</p> + +<p>The chief fact in the history of the Moskitos, is +that they were never subject to the Spaniards. +Each continent affords a specimen of this isolated +freedom—the independence of some exceptional +and impracticable tribes, as compared +with the universal empire of some encroaching +European power. The Circassians in Caucasus, +the Tshuktshi Koriaks in North-eastern Asia, +and the Kaffres in Africa, show this. Their +relations with the buccaneers were, probably, of +an amicable description. So they were with +the Negroes—maroon and imported. And this, +perhaps, has determined their <i>differentiæ</i>. They +are intertropical American aborigines, who have +become partially European, without becoming +Spanish.</p> + +<p>Their physical conformation is that of the +South rather than the North American; and, +here it must be remembered, that we are passing +from one moiety of the new hemisphere to the +other. With a skin which is olive-coloured rather +than red, they have small limbs and undersized +frames; whilst their habits are, <i>mutatis mutandis</i>,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> +those of the intertropical African. This means, +that the exuberance of soil, and the heat of the +climate, makes them agriculturists rather than +shepherds, and idlers rather than agriculturists; +since the least possible amount of exertion gives +them roots and fruits; whilst it is only those wants +which are compatible with indolence that they +care to satisfy. They presume rather than improve +upon the warmth of their suns, and the +fertility of the soil. When they get liquor, they +get drunk; when they work hardest, they cut +mahogany. Canoes and harpoons represent the +native industry. <i>Wulasha</i> is the name of their +Evil Spirit, and <i>Liwaia</i> that of a water-god.</p> + +<p>I cannot but think that there is much intermixture +amongst them. At the same time, the <i>data</i> +for ascertaining the amount are wanting. Their +greatest intercourse has, probably, been with the +Negro; their next greatest with the Englishman. +Of the population of the interior, we know next +to nothing. Here their neighbours are Spaniards.</p> + +<p>They are frontagers to the river San Juan. +This gives them their value in politics.</p> + +<p>They are the only well-known extant Indians +between Guatemala and Veragua. This gives +them their value in ethnology.</p> + +<p>The populations to which they were most immediately +allied, have disappeared from history. +This isolates them; so that there is no class to<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> +which they can be subordinated. At the same +time, they are quite as like the nearest known +tribes as the <i>American</i> ethnologist is prepared to +expect.</p> + +<p>What they were in their truly natural state, +when, unmodified by either Englishman or Spaniard, +Black or Indian, they represented the indigenous +civilization (such as it was) of their coast, +is uncertain.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>That the difference between the North and +South American aborigines has been over-rated, +is beyond doubt. The tendency, however, to do +so, decreases. An observer like Sir R. Schomburgk, +who is at once minute in taking notice, +and quick at finding parallels, adds his suffrage to +that of Cicca de Leon and others, who enlarge +upon the extent to which the Indians of the New +World in general look "like children of one +family." On the other hand, however, there are +writers like D'Orbigny. These expatiate upon the +difference between members of the same class, so +as to separate, not only Caribs from Algonkins, or +Peruvians from Athabaskans, but Peruvians from +Caribs, and Patagonians from Brazilians.</p> + +<p>Now it is no paradox to assert that these two +views, instead of contradicting, support each +other. A writer exhibits clear and undeniable +differences between two American tribes in geographical<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> +juxtaposition to one another. But +does this prove a difference of origin, stock, or +race? Not necessarily. Such differences may +be, and often are, partial. More than this—they +may be more than neutralized by undeniable +marks of affinity. In such a case, all that they +prove is the extent to which really allied populations +may be contrasted in respect to certain +particular characters.</p> + +<p>Stature is the chief point in which the North +American has the advantage of the Southern, <i>e.g.</i>, +the Algonkin over the Carib. Such is Sir R. +Schomburgk's remark; and such is the general +rule. Yet a vast number of the Indians of the +Oregon, are shorter than the South American +Patagonian and Pampa tribes. The head is large +as compared with the trunk, and the trunk with +the limbs; the hands small; the foot large; the skin +soft, though with larger pores than in Europe.</p> + +<p><i>Indians of British Guiana.</i>—These are distributed +amongst four divisions, of very unequal +magnitude and importance.—1. The Carib. +2. The Warow. 3. The Wapisiana. 4. The +Taruma.</p> + +<p>The number of vocabularies collected by Sir R. +Schomburgk was eighteen.</p> + +<p>1. The great <i>Carib</i> group falls into three +divisions:—</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> The Caribs Proper.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>b.</i> The Tamanaks.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> The Arawaks.</p> + +<p>Of these, it is only members of the first and +last that occupy British Guiana.</p> + +<p><i>The Arawaks.</i>—The Arawaks are our nearest +neighbours, and, consequently, the most Europeanized. +Sir R. Schomburgk says, that they +and the Warows amount to about three thousand, +and from Bernau we infer, that this number is +nearly equally divided between the two; since he +reckons the Arawaks at about fifteen hundred. +Each family has its distinctive tattoo, and these +families are twenty-seven in number.</p> + +<p>The children may marry into their father's +family, but not into that of their mother. Now +as the caste is derived from their mother, this is +an analogue of the North American <i>totem</i>. Polygamy +is chiefly the privilege of the chiefs. The +<i>Pe-i-man</i> is the Arawak <i>Shaman</i>. He it is who +names the children—<i>for a consideration</i>. Failing +this, the progeny goes nameless; and to go nameless +is to be obnoxious to all sorts of misfortunes.</p> + +<p>Imposture is hereditary; and as soon as the son +of a conjuror enters his twentieth year, his right +ear is pierced, he is required to wear a ring, and +he is trusted with the secrets of the craft.</p> + +<p>In imitating what they see, and remembering +what they hear, the Arawak has, at least, an +average capacity. Neither is he destitute of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> +ingenuity. Notation he has none; and the numeration +is of the rudest kind.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr class="tr4"><td>Aba-da-kabo</td><td>=</td><td>once my hand</td><td>=</td><td><i>five</i>.</td></tr> +<tr class="tr4"><td>Biama-da-kabo</td><td>=</td><td>twice my hand</td><td>=</td><td><i>ten</i>.</td></tr> +<tr class="tr4"><td>Aba-olake</td><td>=</td><td>one man</td><td>=</td><td><i>twenty</i>.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Perfect nudity is rare amongst the women; and +some neatness in the dressing of their hair is perceptible. +It is tied up on the crown of the +head.</p> + +<p>The nearer the coast the darker the skin; the +lightest coloured families being as fair as Spaniards. +This is on the evidence of Bernau, who +adds, that, as children grow in knowledge and +receive instruction, the forehead rises, and the +physiognomy improves.</p> + +<p>The other Guiana Indians, so far as they are +Carib at all, are Caribs Proper, rather than Arawaks. +Of these, the chief are—</p> + +<p><i>The Accaways</i>,—occupants of the rivers Mazaruni +and Putara, with about six hundred fighting +men. They are jealous, quarrelsome, and cruel; +firm friends and bitter enemies. When resisted, +they kill; when unopposed, enslave.</p> + +<p>The law of revenge predominates in this tribe; +for—like certain Australians—they attribute all +deaths to contrivances of an enemy. Workers in +poison themselves, they suspect it with others.</p> + +<p>Their skin is redder than the Arawaks', but<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> +then their nudity is more complete; inasmuch as, +instead of clothing, they paint themselves; arnotto +being their red, lana their blue pigment. They +pierce the <i>septum</i> of the nose, and wear wood in +the holes, like the Eskimo, Loucheux, and others. +They paint the face in streaks, and the body +variously—sometimes blue on one side, and red +on the other. They rub their bodies with carapa +oil, to keep off insects; and <i>one</i> of the ingredients +of their numerous poisons, is a kind of black ant +called <i>muneery</i>.</p> + +<p>Their forehead is depressed.</p> + +<p>They give nicknames to each other and to +strangers, irrespective of rank; and the better +their authorities take it the greater their influence.</p> + +<p>It is the belief of the Accaways that the spirit +of the deceased hovers over the dwelling in which +death took place, and that it will not tolerate +disturbance. Hence they bury the corpse <i>in</i> the +hammock, and <i>under</i> the hut in which it became +one. This they burn and desert.</p> + +<p><i>The Carabísi.</i>—Twenty years ago the Carabísi +(<i>Carabeese</i>, <i>Carabisce</i>) mustered one thousand +fighting men. It would now be difficult to raise +one hundred. But the diminution of their +numbers and importance began earlier still. +Beyond the proper Carabísi area, there are numerous +Carabísi names of rivers, islands, and<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> +other geographical objects. Hence, their area +has decreased.</p> + +<p>Omnivorous enough to devour greedily tigers, +dogs, rats, frogs, insects, and other sorts of food, +unpopular elsewhere, they are distinguished by +their ornaments as well. The under-lip is the +part which they perforate, and wherein they wear +their usual pins; besides which they fasten a +large lump of arnotto to the hair of the front of +the head.</p> + +<p>In ordinary cases the hammock in which the +death took place, serves as a coffin, the body +is buried, and a funeral procession made once or +twice round the grave; but the bodies of persons +of importance are watched and washed by the +nearest female relations, and when nothing but +the skeleton remains, the bones are cleaned, +painted, packed in a basket and preserved. When, +however, there is a change of habitation they are +<i>burned</i>; after which the ashes are collected, and +kept.</p> + +<p>Here we have interment and cremation in one +and the same tribe; a circumstance which should +guard us against exaggerating their value as +characteristic and distinguishing customs.</p> + +<p>Again. The <i>Macusi</i> is closely akin to the Carabísi; +yet the Macusi buries his dead in a sitting +posture without coffins, and with but few ceremonies. +Now the sitting posture is common to<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> +the Peruvians, the Oregon Indians, and numerous +tribes of Brazil; indeed, Morton considers it to +be one of the most remarkable characteristics of +the Red Man of America in general.</p> + +<p>The Arawak custom is peculiar. When a man +of note dies his relations plant a field of cassava; +just as the Nicobar Islanders plant a cocoa-nut +tree. Then they lament loudly. But when twelve +moons are over, and the cassava is ripe, they +re-assemble, feast, dance, and lash each other +cruelly, and severely with whips. The whips are +then <i>hung up</i> on the spot where the person died. +Six moons later a second meeting takes place—and, +this time, the whips are <i>buried</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>Waika</i> are a small tribe of the <i>Accaways</i>; +the <i>Zapara</i> of the <i>Macusis</i>. Besides these, the +following Guiana Indians are Carib.</p> + +<p>The <i>Arecuna</i>; of which the <i>Soerikong</i> are a +section.</p> + +<p>The <i>Waiyamara</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>Guinau</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>Maiongkong</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>Woyawai</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>Mawakwa</i>, or Frog Indians—a tribe that +flattens the head.</p> + +<p>The <i>Piano-ghotto</i>; of which the <i>Zaramata</i> and +<i>Drio</i> are sections.</p> + +<p>The <i>Tiveri-ghotto</i>.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Warow</i>, <i>Waraw</i>, <i>Warau</i>, or <i>Guarauno</i>.—These<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> +are the Indians of the Delta of the Orinoco, +and the parts between that river and the Pomaroon. +Their language is peculiar, but by no +means without miscellaneous affinities. They are +the fluviatile boatmen of South America. Their +habit of taking up their residence in trees when +the ground is flooded, has given both early and +late writers an opportunity of enlarging upon +their semi-arboreal habits.</p> + +<p>3. <i>The Wapisianas</i> fall into—</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> The <i>Wapisianas</i> Proper—</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> The <i>Atorai</i>, of which the <i>Taurai</i>, or <i>Dauri</i> +(the same word under another form), and the extinct, +or nearly extinct, <i>Amaripas</i> are divisions.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> The <i>Parauana</i>.</p> + +<p>4. The <i>Tarumas</i>, on the Upper Essequibo, +have their probable affinities with the uninvestigated +tribes of Central South America.</p> + +<p>The Indians of Trinidad are Carib. So are +those of St. Vincents. In no other West Indian +islands are there any aborigines extant.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> <i>Dinni</i>, <i>tinni</i>, <i>din</i>, <i>tin</i>, &c.=<i>man</i> in the Athabaskan +tongues.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Called also <i>Carriers</i>, <i>Nagail</i>, and <i>Chin Indians</i>; though +whether the last two names are correct is uncertain.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> By no means to be confounded with the <i>Chepewyans</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> The Mohawks, Senekas, Onondagos, Cayugas, Oneidas, +Tuskaroras, and Hurons.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> See a paper of Mr. Isbester's in the "Transactions of the +British Association," 1847, p. 121.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Thirty-eight.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> This requires modification. 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Parts 1 to 3, each +2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="ad1">THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE VARIETIES OF MAN. +By <span class="smcap">Robert Gordon Latham</span>, M.D., F.R.S., Fellow of King's College, +Cambridge; Vice-President of the Ethnological Society of London; +Corresponding Member of the Ethnological Society of New York. 8vo. +illustrated, price 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="ad1">A HISTORY OF BRITISH MOLLUSCA AND THEIR SHELLS. +By <span class="smcap">Professor Edward Forbes</span>, F.R.S., and <span class="smcap">Sylvanus Hanley</span>, +B.A., F.L.S. Parts 25 to 34. 8vo. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> plain, or royal 8vo. +coloured, 5<i>s.</i> each.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><small>This Work is in continuation of the series of "British Histories," of +which the Quadrupeds and Reptiles, by Professor Bell; the Birds and +Fishes, by Mr. Yarrell; the Birds' Eggs, by Mr. Hewitson; the Starfishes, +by Professor Forbes; the Zoophytes, by Dr. Johnston; the Trees, +by Mr. Selby; and the Fossil Mammals and Birds, by Professor Owen, +are already published. Each Work is sold separately, and is perfectly +distinct and complete in itself.</small></p></div> + +<hr class="adt" /> + +<p class="center"><big>JOHN VAN VOORST, 1, PATERNOSTER ROW.</big></p></div> + +<div class="trn"> +<p><big><b>Transcriber's Amendments:</b></big></p> + +<div class="bk2"><p>p. <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, fn. <a href="#Footnote_10_10">10</a>, 'Fallermayer' amended to <i>Fallmerayer</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, 'Britany' amended to <i>Brittany</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, 'Notitiæ ...' amended to <i>Notitia Utriusque Imperii</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, 'Caffres' amended to <i>Kaffres</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, 'Woloffs' amended to <i>Wolofs</i>;<br /> +'Cabyles' amended to <i>Kabyles</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, 'Avekoom' amended to <i>Avekvom</i>;<br /> +'Woloff' amended to <i>Wolof</i>;<br /> +'Bambarra' amended to <i>Bambara</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, 'Woloffs' amended to <i>Wolofs</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, 'languge' amended to <i>language</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, 'Yorriba' amended to <i>Yarriba</i>;<br /> +'Callabar' amended to <i>Calabar</i>;<br /> +'Mosketo' amended to <i>Mosquito</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, 'Amokosa' amended to <i>Amakosa</i>: '<i>The Amakosa.</i>—This'.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, 'Caffraria' amended to <i>Kaffraria</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, 'Crawford' amended to <i>Crawfurd</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, 'Trangangetic' amended to <i>Transgangetic</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, 'Crawford's Embassy' amended to <i>Crawfurd's Embassy</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, 'Kamti' amended to <i>Khamti</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, 'ecstacy' amended to <i>ecstasy</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, 'Pottaing' amended to <i>Potteang</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, 'Kuttak' amended to <i>Cuttack</i>;<br /> +'Penna' amended to <i>Pennu</i> (twice).</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, 'Cicacole' amended to <i>Chicacole</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, 'jackall' amended to <i>jackal</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, 'Rajaship' amended to <i>Rajahship</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, 'Levitican' amended to <i>Levitical</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, 'Peshawer' amended to <i>Peshawar</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, 'Maha-Sodon' amended to <i>Maha-Sohon</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, 'Singalese' amended to <i>Singhalese</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, 'Binjarri' amended to <i>Brinjarri</i>;<br /> +'Telagu' amended to <i>Telugu</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, 'Taremuki' amended to <i>Tarremúki</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, 'Bowri' amended to <i>Bhowri</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, 'Guzerat' amended to <i>Gujerat</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, 'Skofi' amended to <i>Skoffi</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, 'tatooing' amended to <i>tattooing</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, 'tatooings' amended to <i>tattooings</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, 'Saskachewan' amended to <i>Saskatchewan</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, 'tatoo' amended to <i>tattoo</i>.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, 'Caribis' amended to <i>Carabísi</i>.</p></div> + +<p><big><b>Further Notes:</b></big></p> + +<div class="bk2"><p>p. <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, Brown's Table: Horizontal rows 'Áká' and 'Ábor' repositioned +to match data; the value for 'Koreng' (row) and 'S. Tángkhul' +(column), which originally read '—', has been amended to '11'.</p> + +<p>p. <a href="#Page_172">172-175</a>, corrections to extracts taken from <i>A History of the Sikhs</i>, +by J. D. Cunningham, 2nd Ed., London, 1853.</p></div></div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ethnology of the British Colonies +and Dependencies, by Robert Gordon Latham + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ETHNOLOGY OF THE BRITISH COLONIES *** + +***** This file should be named 31296-h.htm or 31296-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/1/2/9/31296/ + +Produced by Colin Bell, Stephen Blundell and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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