diff options
Diffstat (limited to '3150.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 3150.txt | 4680 |
1 files changed, 4680 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/3150.txt b/3150.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4c6675b --- /dev/null +++ b/3150.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4680 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Human Nature, by Joseph Butler, Edited by +Henry Morley + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Human Nature + and Other Sermons + + +Author: Joseph Butler + +Editor: Henry Morley + +Release Date: May 1, 2007 [eBook #3150] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HUMAN NATURE*** + + + + +Transcribed from the 1887 Cassell & Co. edition by David Price, email +ccx074@pglaf.org + + + + + +HUMAN NATURE +AND +OTHER SERMONS + + +BY +JOSEPH BUTLER +BISHOP OF DURHAM. + +CASSELL & COMPANY, LIMITED: +_LONDON_, _PARIS_, _NEW YORK & MELBOURNE_. +1887 + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +Joseph Butler was born in 1692, youngest of eight children of a +linendraper at Wantage, in Berkshire. His father was a Presbyterian, and +after education at the Wantage Free Grammar School Joseph Butler was sent +to be educated for the Presbyterian ministry in a training academy at +Gloucester, which was afterwards removed to Tewkesbury. There he had a +friend and comrade, Secker, who afterwards became Archbishop of +Canterbury. Butler and Secker inquired actively, and there was +foreshadowing of his future in the fact that in 1713, at the age of +twenty-one, Butler was engaged in anonymous discussion with Samuel Clarke +upon his book on the _a priori_ demonstration of the Divine Existence and +Attributes. + +When the time drew near for call to the ministry, Butler, like his friend +Secker, had reasoned himself into accordance with the teaching of the +Church of England. Butler's father did not oppose his strong desire to +enter the Church, and he was entered in 1714 at Oriel College, Oxford. At +college a strong friendship was established between Butler and a fellow- +student, Edward Talbot, whose father was a Bishop, formerly of Oxford and +Salisbury, then of Durham. Through Talbot's influence Butler obtained in +1718 the office of Preacher in the Rolls Chapel, which he held for the +next eight years. In 1722 Talbot died, and on his death-bed urged his +father on behalf of his friend Butler. The Bishop accordingly presented +Joseph Butler to the living of Houghton-le-Spring. But it was found that +costs of dilapidations were beyond his means at Houghton, and Butler had +a dangerous regard for building works. He was preferred two years +afterwards to the living of Stanhope, which then became vacant, and which +yielded a substantial income. Butler sought nothing for himself, his +simplicity of character, real worth, and rare intellectual power, secured +him friends, and the love of two of them--Talbot first, and afterwards +Secker, who made his own way in the Church, and became strong enough to +put his friend as well as himself in the way of worldly advancement, +secured for Butler all the patronage he had, until the Queen also became +his active friend. + +Joseph Butler was seven years at Stanhope, quietly devoted to his parish +duties, preaching, studying, and writing his "Analogy of Religion, +Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature." In +1727, while still at Stanhope, he was appointed to a stall in Durham +Cathedral. Secker, having become chaplain to the Queen, encouraged her +in admiration of Butler's sermons. He told her that the author was not +dead, but buried, and secured her active interest in his behalf. From +Talbot, who had become Lord Chancellor, Secker had no difficulty in +obtaining for Butler a chaplaincy which exempted him from the necessity +of residence at Stanhope. Butler, in accepting it, stipulated for +permission to live and work in his parish for six months in every year. +Next he was made chaplain to the King, and Rector of St. James's, upon +which he gave up Stanhope. In 1736 Queen Caroline appointed him her +Clerk of the Closet, an office which gave Butler the duty of attendance +upon her for two hours every evening. In that year he published his +"Analogy," of which the purpose was to meet, on its own ground, the +scepticism of his day. The Queen died in 1737, and, in accordance with +the strong desire expressed in her last days, in 1738 Butler was made a +Bishop. But his Bishopric was Bristol, worth only 300 or 400 pounds a +year. The King added the Deanery of St. Paul's, when that became vacant +in 1740, and in 1750, towards the close of his life, Joseph Butler was +translated to the Bishopric of Durham. He died in 1752. + +No man could be less self-seeking. He owed his rise in the Church wholly +to the intellectual power and substantial worth of character that +inspired strong friendship. Seeing how little he sought worldly +advancement for himself, while others were pressing and scrambling, +Butler's friends used their opportunities of winning for him the +advancement he deserved. He was happiest in doing his work, of which a +chief part was in his study, where he employed his philosophic mind in +strengthening the foundations of religious faith. Faith in God was +attacked by men who claimed especially to be philosophers, and they were +best met by the man who had, beyond all other divines of his day--some +might not be afraid to add, of any day--the philosophic mind. + +H. M. + + + + +SERMON I. UPON HUMAN NATURE. + + + ROMANS xii. 4, 5. + + _For as we have many members in one body_, _and all members have not + the same office_: _so we_, _being many_, _are one body in Christ_, + _and every one members one of another_. + +The Epistles in the New Testament have all of them a particular reference +to the condition and usages of the Christian world at the time they were +written. Therefore as they cannot be thoroughly understood unless that +condition and those usages are known and attended to, so, further, though +they be known, yet if they be discontinued or changed, exhortations, +precepts, and illustrations of things, which refer to such circumstances +now ceased or altered, cannot at this time be urged in that manner and +with that force which they were to the primitive Christians. Thus the +text now before us, in its first intent and design, relates to the decent +management of those extraordinary gifts which were then in the Church, +{1} but which are now totally ceased. And even as to the allusion that +"we are one body in Christ," though what the apostle here intends is +equally true of Christians in all circumstances, and the consideration of +it is plainly still an additional motive, over and above moral +considerations, to the discharge of the several duties and offices of a +Christian, yet it is manifest this allusion must have appeared with much +greater force to those who, by the many difficulties they went through +for the sake of their religion, were led to keep always in view the +relation they stood in to their Saviour, who had undergone the same: to +those, who, from the idolatries of all around them, and their +ill-treatment, were taught to consider themselves as not of the world in +which they lived, but as a distinct society of themselves; with laws and +ends, and principles of life and action, quite contrary to those which +the world professed themselves at that time influenced by. Hence the +relation of a Christian was by them considered as nearer than that of +affinity and blood; and they almost literally esteemed themselves as +members one of another. + +It cannot, indeed, possibly be denied, that our being God's creatures, +and virtue being the natural law we are born under, and the whole +constitution of man being plainly adapted to it, are prior obligations to +piety and virtue than the consideration that God sent his Son into the +world to save it, and the motives which arise from the peculiar relation +of Christians as members one of another under Christ our head. However, +though all this be allowed, as it expressly is by the inspired writers, +yet it is manifest that Christians at the time of the Revelation, and +immediately after, could not but insist mostly upon considerations of +this latter kind. + +These observations show the original particular reference to the text, +and the peculiar force with which the thing intended by the allusion in +it must have been felt by the primitive Christian world. They likewise +afford a reason for treating it at this time in a more general way. + +The relation which the several parts or members of the natural body have +to each other and to the whole body is here compared to the relation +which each particular person in society has to other particular persons +and to the whole society; and the latter is intended to be illustrated by +the former. And if there be a likeness between these two relations, the +consequence is obvious: that the latter shows us we were intended to do +good to others, as the former shows us that the several members of the +natural body were intended to be instruments of good to each other and to +the whole body. But as there is scarce any ground for a comparison +between society and the mere material body, this without the mind being a +dead unactive thing, much less can the comparison be carried to any +length. And since the apostle speaks of the several members as having +distinct offices, which implies the mind, it cannot be thought an +allowable liberty, instead of the _body_ and _its members_, to substitute +the _whole nature_ of _man_, and _all the variety of internal principles +which belong to it_. And then the comparison will be between the nature +of man as respecting self, and tending to private good, his own +preservation and happiness; and the nature of man as having respect to +society, and tending to promote public good, the happiness of that +society. These ends do indeed perfectly coincide; and to aim at public +and private good are so far from being inconsistent that they mutually +promote each other: yet in the following discourse they must be +considered as entirely distinct; otherwise the nature of man as tending +to one, or as tending to the other, cannot be compared. There can no +comparison be made, without considering the things compared as distinct +and different. + +From this review and comparison of the nature of man as respecting self +and as respecting society, it will plainly appear that _there are as real +and the same kind of indications in human nature_, _that we were made for +society and to do good to our fellow-creatures_, _as that we were +intended to take care of our own life and health and private good_: _and +that the same objections lie against one of these assertions as against +the other_. For, + +First, there is a natural principle of _benevolence_ {2} in man, which is +in some degree to _society_ what _self-love_ is to the _individual_. And +if there be in mankind any disposition to friendship; if there be any +such thing as compassion--for compassion is momentary love--if there be +any such thing as the paternal or filial affections; if there be any +affection in human nature, the object and end of which is the good of +another, this is itself benevolence, or the love of another. Be it ever +so short, be it in ever so low a degree, or ever so unhappily confined, +it proves the assertion, and points out what we were designed for, as +really as though it were in a higher degree and more extensive. I must, +however, remind you that though benevolence and self-love are different, +though the former tends most directly to public good, and the latter to +private, yet they are so perfectly coincident that the greatest +satisfactions to ourselves depend upon our having benevolence in a due +degree; and that self-love is one chief security of our right behaviour +towards society. It may be added that their mutual coinciding, so that +we can scarce promote one without the other, is equally a proof that we +were made for both. + +Secondly, this will further appear, from observing that the _several +passions_ and _affections_, which are distinct {3} both from benevolence +and self-love, do in general contribute and lead us to _public good_ as +really as to _private_. It might be thought too minute and particular, +and would carry us too great a length, to distinguish between and compare +together the several passions or appetites distinct from benevolence, +whose primary use and intention is the security and good of society, and +the passions distinct from self-love, whose primary intention and design +is the security and good of the individual. {4} It is enough to the +present argument that desire of esteem from others, contempt and esteem +of them, love of society as distinct from affection to the good of it, +indignation against successful vice--that these are public affections or +passions, have an immediate respect to others, naturally lead us to +regulate our behaviour in such a manner as will be of service to our +fellow-creatures. If any or all of these may be considered likewise as +private affections, as tending to private good, this does not hinder them +from being public affections too, or destroy the good influence of them +upon society, and their tendency to public good. It may be added that as +persons without any conviction from reason of the desirableness of life +would yet of course preserve it merely from the appetite of hunger, so, +by acting merely from regard (suppose) to reputation, without any +consideration of the good of others, men often contribute to public good. +In both these instances they are plainly instruments in the hands of +another, in the hands of Providence, to carry on ends--the preservation +of the individual and good of society--which they themselves have not in +their view or intention. The sum is, men have various appetites, +passions, and particular affections, quite distinct both from self-love +and from benevolence: all of these have a tendency to promote both public +and private good, and may be considered as respecting others and +ourselves equally and in common; but some of them seem most immediately +to respect others, or tend to public good; others of them most +immediately to respect self, or tend to private good: as the former are +not benevolence, so the latter are not self-love: neither sort are +instances of our love either to ourselves or others, but only instances +of our Maker's care and love both of the individual and the species, and +proofs that He intended we should be instruments of good to each other, +as well as that we should be so to ourselves. + +Thirdly, there is a principle of reflection in men, by which they +distinguish between, approve and disapprove their own actions. We are +plainly constituted such sort of creatures as to reflect upon our own +nature. The mind can take a view of what passes within itself, its +propensions, aversions, passions, affections as respecting such objects, +and in such degrees; and of the several actions consequent thereupon. In +this survey it approves of one, disapproves of another, and towards a +third is affected in neither of these ways, but is quite indifferent. +This principle in man, by which he approves or disapproves his heart, +temper, and actions, is conscience; for this is the strict sense of the +word, though sometimes it is used so as to take in more. And that this +faculty tends to restrain men from doing mischief to each other, and +leads them to do good, is too manifest to need being insisted upon. Thus +a parent has the affection of love to his children: this leads him to +take care of, to educate, to make due provision for them--the natural +affection leads to this: but the reflection that it is his proper +business, what belongs to him, that it is right and commendable so to +do--this, added to the affection, becomes a much more settled principle, +and carries him on through more labour and difficulties for the sake of +his children than he would undergo from that affection alone, if he +thought it, and the cause of action it led to, either indifferent or +criminal. This indeed is impossible, to do that which is good and not to +approve of it; for which reason they are frequently not considered as +distinct, though they really are: for men often approve of the action of +others which they will not imitate, and likewise do that which they +approve not. It cannot possibly be denied that there is this principle +of reflection or conscience in human nature. Suppose a man to relieve an +innocent person in great distress; suppose the same man afterwards, in +the fury of anger, to do the greatest mischief to a person who had given +no just cause of offence. To aggravate the injury, add the circumstances +of former friendship and obligation from the injured person; let the man +who is supposed to have done these two different actions coolly reflect +upon them afterwards, without regard to their consequences to himself: to +assert that any common man would be affected in the same way towards +these different actions, that he would make no distinction between them, +but approve or disapprove them equally, is too glaring a falsity to need +being confuted. There is therefore this principle of reflection or +conscience in mankind. It is needless to compare the respect it has to +private good with the respect it has to public; since it plainly tends as +much to the latter as to the former, and is commonly thought to tend +chiefly to the latter. This faculty is now mentioned merely as another +part in the inward frame of man, pointing out to us in some degree what +we are intended for, and as what will naturally and of course have some +influence. The particular place assigned to it by nature, what authority +it has, and how great influence it ought to have, shall be hereafter +considered. + +From this comparison of benevolence and self-love, of our public and +private affections, of the courses of life they lead to, and of the +principle of reflection or conscience as respecting each of them, it is +as manifest that _we were made for society_, _and to promote the +happiness of it_, _as that we were intended to take care of our own life +and health and private good_. + +And from this whole review must be given a different draught of human +nature from what we are often presented with. Mankind are by nature so +closely united, there is such a correspondence between the inward +sensations of one man and those of another, that disgrace is as much +avoided as bodily pain, and to be the object of esteem and love as much +desired as any external goods; and in many particular cases persons are +carried on to do good to others, as the end their affection tends to and +rests in; and manifest that they find real satisfaction and enjoyment in +this course of behaviour. There is such a natural principle of +attraction in man towards man that having trod the same tract of land, +having breathed in the same climate, barely having been born in the same +artificial district or division, becomes the occasion of contracting +acquaintances and familiarities many years after; for anything may serve +the purpose. Thus relations merely nominal are sought and invented, not +by governors, but by the lowest of the people, which are found sufficient +to hold mankind together in little fraternities and copartnerships: weak +ties indeed, and what may afford fund enough for ridicule, if they are +absurdly considered as the real principles of that union: but they are in +truth merely the occasions, as anything may be of anything, upon which +our nature carries us on according to its own previous bent and bias; +which occasions therefore would be nothing at all were there not this +prior disposition and bias of nature. Men are so much one body that in a +peculiar manner they feel for each other shame, sudden danger, +resentment, honour, prosperity, distress; one or another, or all of +these, from the social nature in general, from benevolence, upon the +occasion of natural relation, acquaintance, protection, dependence; each +of these being distinct cements of society. And therefore to have no +restraint from, no regard to, others in our behaviour, is the speculative +absurdity of considering ourselves as single and independent, as having +nothing in our nature which has respect to our fellow-creatures, reduced +to action and practice. And this is the same absurdity as to suppose a +hand, or any part, to have no natural respect to any other, or to the +whole body. + +But, allowing all this, it may be asked, "Has not man dispositions and +principles within which lead him to do evil to others, as well as to do +good? Whence come the many miseries else which men are the authors and +instruments of to each other?" These questions, so far as they relate to +the foregoing discourse, may be answered by asking, Has not man also +dispositions and principles within which lead him to do evil to himself, +as well as good? Whence come the many miseries else--sickness, pain, and +death--which men are instruments and authors of to themselves? + +It may be thought more easy to answer one of these questions than the +other, but the answer to both is really the same: that mankind have +ungoverned passions which they will gratify at any rate, as well to the +injury of others as in contradiction to known private interest: but that +as there is no such thing as self-hatred, so neither is there any such +thing as ill-will in one man towards another, emulation and resentment +being away; whereas there is plainly benevolence or good-will: there is +no such thing as love of injustice, oppression, treachery, ingratitude, +but only eager desires after such and such external goods; which, +according to a very ancient observation, the most abandoned would choose +to obtain by innocent means, if they were as easy and as effectual to +their end: that even emulation and resentment, by any one who will +consider what these passions really are in nature, {5} will be found +nothing to the purpose of this objection; and that the principles and +passions in the mind of man, which are distinct both from self-love and +benevolence, primarily and most directly lead to right behaviour with +regard to others as well as himself, and only secondarily and +accidentally to what is evil. Thus, though men, to avoid the shame of +one villainy, are sometimes guilty of a greater, yet it is easy to see +that the original tendency of shame is to prevent the doing of shameful +actions; and its leading men to conceal such actions when done is only in +consequence of their being done; _i.e._, of the passion's not having +answered its first end. + +If it be said that there are persons in the world who are in great +measure without the natural affections towards their fellow-creatures, +there are likewise instances of persons without the common natural +affections to themselves. But the nature of man is not to be judged of +by either of these, but by what appears in the common world, in the bulk +of mankind. + +I am afraid it would be thought very strange, if to confirm the truth of +this account of human nature, and make out the justness of the foregoing +comparison, it should be added that from what appears, men in fact as +much and as often contradict that _part_ of their nature which respects +_self_, and which leads them to their _own private_ good and happiness, +as they contradict that _part_ of it which respects _society_, and tends +to _public_ good: that there are as few persons who attain the greatest +satisfaction and enjoyment which they might attain in the present world, +as who do the greatest good to others which they might do; nay, that +there are as few who can be said really and in earnest to aim at one as +at the other. Take a survey of mankind: the world in general, the good +and bad, almost without exception, equally are agreed that were religion +out of the case, the happiness of the present life would consist in a +manner wholly in riches, honours, sensual gratifications; insomuch that +one scarce hears a reflection made upon prudence, life, conduct, but upon +this supposition. Yet, on the contrary, that persons in the greatest +affluence of fortune are no happier than such as have only a competency; +that the cares and disappointments of ambition for the most part far +exceed the satisfactions of it; as also the miserable intervals of +intemperance and excess, and the many untimely deaths occasioned by a +dissolute course of life: these things are all seen, acknowledged, by +every one acknowledged; but are thought no objections against, though +they expressly contradict, this universal principle--that the happiness +of the present life consists in one or other of them. Whence is all this +absurdity and contradiction? Is not the middle way obvious? Can +anything be more manifest than that the happiness of life consists in +these possessed and enjoyed only to a certain degree; that to pursue them +beyond this degree is always attended with more inconvenience than +advantage to a man's self, and often with extreme misery and unhappiness? +Whence, then, I say, is all this absurdity and contradiction? Is it +really the result of consideration in mankind, how they may become most +easy to themselves, most free from care, and enjoy the chief happiness +attainable in this world? Or is it not manifestly owing either to this, +that they have not cool and reasonable concern enough for themselves to +consider wherein their chief happiness in the present life consists; or +else, if they do consider it, that they will not act conformably to what +is the result of that consideration--_i.e._, reasonable concern for +themselves, or cool self-love, is prevailed over by passions and +appetite? So that from what appears there is no ground to assert that +those principles in the nature of man, which most directly lead to +promote the good of our fellow-creatures, are more generally or in a +greater degree violated than those which most directly lead us to promote +our own private good and happiness. + +The sum of the whole is plainly this: The nature of man considered in his +single capacity, and with respect only to the present world, is adapted +and leads him to attain the greatest happiness he can for himself in the +present world. The nature of man considered in his public or social +capacity leads him to right behaviour in society, to that course of life +which we call virtue. Men follow or obey their nature in both these +capacities and respects to a certain degree, but not entirely: their +actions do not come up to the whole of what their nature leads them to in +either of these capacities or respects: and they often violate their +nature in both; _i.e._, as they neglect the duties they owe to their +fellow-creatures, to which their nature leads them, and are injurious, to +which their nature is abhorrent, so there is a manifest negligence in men +of their real happiness or interest in the present world, when that +interest is inconsistent with a present gratification; for the sake of +which they negligently, nay, even knowingly, are the authors and +instruments of their own misery and ruin. Thus they are as often unjust +to themselves as to others, and for the most part are equally so to both +by the same actions. + + + + +SERMON II., III. UPON HUMAN NATURE. + + + ROMANS ii. 14. + + _For when the Gentiles_, _which have not the law_, _do by nature the + things contained in the law_, _these_, _having not the law_, _are a + law unto themselves_. + +As speculative truth admits of different kinds of proof, so likewise +moral obligations may be shown by different methods. If the real nature +of any creature leads him and is adapted to such and such purposes only, +or more than to any other, this is a reason to believe the Author of that +nature intended it for those purposes. Thus there is no doubt the eye +was intended for us to see with. And the more complex any constitution +is, and the greater variety of parts there are which thus tend to some +one end, the stronger is the proof that such end was designed. However, +when the inward frame of man is considered as any guide in morals, the +utmost caution must be used that none make peculiarities in their own +temper, or anything which is the effect of particular customs, though +observable in several, the standard of what is common to the species; and +above all, that the highest principle be not forgot or excluded, that to +which belongs the adjustment and correction of all other inward movements +and affections; which principle will of course have some influence, but +which being in nature supreme, as shall now be shown, ought to preside +over and govern all the rest. The difficulty of rightly observing the +two former cautions; the appearance there is of some small diversity +amongst mankind with respect to this faculty, with respect to their +natural sense of moral good and evil; and the attention necessary to +survey with any exactness what passes within, have occasioned that it is +not so much agreed what is the standard of the internal nature of man as +of his external form. Neither is this last exactly settled. Yet we +understand one another when we speak of the shape of a human body: so +likewise we do when we speak of the heart and inward principles, how far +soever the standard is from being exact or precisely fixed. There is +therefore ground for an attempt of showing men to themselves, of showing +them what course of life and behaviour their real nature points out and +would lead them to. Now obligations of virtue shown, and motives to the +practice of it enforced, from a review of the nature of man, are to be +considered as an appeal to each particular person's heart and natural +conscience: as the external senses are appealed to for the proof of +things cognisable by them. Since, then, our inward feelings, and the +perceptions we receive from our external senses, are equally real, to +argue from the former to life and conduct is as little liable to +exception as to argue from the latter to absolute speculative truth. A +man can as little doubt whether his eyes were given him to see with as he +can doubt of the truth of the science of _optics_, deduced from ocular +experiments. And allowing the inward feeling, shame, a man can as little +doubt whether it was given him to prevent his doing shameful actions as +he can doubt whether his eyes were given him to guide his steps. And as +to these inward feelings themselves, that they are real, that man has in +his nature passions and affections, can no more be questioned than that +he has external senses. Neither can the former be wholly mistaken, +though to a certain degree liable to greater mistakes than the latter. + +There can be no doubt but that several propensions or instincts, several +principles in the heart of man, carry him to society, and to contribute +to the happiness of it, in a sense and a manner in which no inward +principle leads him to evil. These principles, propensions, or instincts +which lead him to do good are approved of by a certain faculty within, +quite distinct from these propensions themselves. All this hath been +fully made out in the foregoing discourse. + +But it may be said, "What is all this, though true, to the purpose of +virtue and religion? these require, not only that we do good to others +when we are led this way, by benevolence or reflection happening to be +stronger than other principles, passions, or appetites, but likewise that +the _whole_ character be formed upon thought and reflection; that _every_ +action be directed by some determinate rule, some other rule than the +strength and prevalency of any principle or passion. What sign is there +in our nature (for the inquiry is only about what is to be collected from +thence) that this was intended by its Author? Or how does so various and +fickle a temper as that of man appear adapted thereto? It may indeed be +absurd and unnatural for men to act without any reflection; nay, without +regard to that particular kind of reflection which you call conscience, +because this does belong to our nature. For as there never was a man but +who approved one place, prospect, building, before another, so it does +not appear that there ever was a man who would not have approved an +action of humanity rather than of cruelty; interest and passion being +quite out of the case. But interest and passion do come in, and are +often too strong for and prevail over reflection and conscience. Now as +brutes have various instincts, by which they are carried on to the end +the Author of their nature intended them for, is not man in the same +condition--with this difference only, that to his instincts (_i.e._, +appetites and passion) is added the principle of reflection or +conscience? And as brutes act agreeably to their nature, in following +that principle or particular instinct which for the present is strongest +in them, does not man likewise act agreeably to his nature, or obey the +law of his creation, by following that principle, be it passion or +conscience, which for the present happens to be strongest in him? Thus +different men are by their particular nature hurried on to pursue honour +or riches or pleasure; there are also persons whose temper leads them in +an uncommon degree to kindness, compassion, doing good to their fellow- +creatures, as there are others who are given to suspend their judgment, +to weigh and consider things, and to act upon thought and reflection. Let +every one, then, quietly follow his nature, as passion, reflection, +appetite, the several parts of it, happen to be strongest; but let not +the man of virtue take upon him to blame the ambitious, the covetous, the +dissolute, since these equally with him obey and follow their nature. +Thus, as in some cases we follow our nature in doing the works _contained +in the law_, so in other cases we follow nature in doing contrary." + +Now all this licentious talk entirely goes upon a supposition that men +follow their nature in the same sense, in violating the known rules of +justice and honesty for the sake of a present gratification, as they do +in following those rules when they have no temptation to the contrary. +And if this were true, that could not be so which St. Paul asserts, that +men are _by nature a law to themselves_. If by following nature were +meant only acting as we please, it would indeed be ridiculous to speak of +nature as any guide in morals; nay, the very mention of deviating from +nature would be absurd; and the mention of following it, when spoken by +way of distinction, would absolutely have no meaning. For did ever any +one act otherwise than as he pleased? And yet the ancients speak of +deviating from nature as vice, and of following nature so much as a +distinction, that according to them the perfection of virtue consists +therein. So that language itself should teach people another sense to +the words _following nature_ than barely acting as we please. Let it, +however, be observed that though the words _human nature_ are to be +explained, yet the real question of this discourse is not concerning the +meaning of words, any other than as the explanation of them may be +needful to make out and explain the assertion, that _every man is +naturally a law to himself_, that _every one may find within himself the +rule of right_, _and obligations to follow it_. This St. Paul affirms in +the words of the text, and this the foregoing objection really denies by +seeming to allow it. And the objection will be fully answered, and the +text before us explained, by observing that _nature_ is considered in +different views, and the word used in different senses; and by showing in +what view it is considered, and in what sense the word is used, when +intended to express and signify that which is the guide of life, that by +which men are a law to themselves. I say, the explanation of the term +will be sufficient, because from thence it will appear that in some +senses of the word _nature_ cannot be, but that in another sense it +manifestly is, a law to us. + +I. By nature is often meant no more than some principle in man, without +regard either to the kind or degree of it. Thus the passion of anger, +and the affection of parents to their children, would be called equally +_natural_. And as the same person hath often contrary principles, which +at the same time draw contrary ways, he may by the same action both +follow and contradict his nature in this sense of the word; he may follow +one passion and contradict another. + +II. _Nature_ is frequently spoken of as consisting in those passions +which are strongest, and most influence the actions; which being vicious +ones, mankind is in this sense naturally vicious, or vicious by nature. +Thus St. Paul says of the Gentiles, _who were dead in trespasses and +sins_, _and walked according to the spirit of disobedience_, _that they +were by nature the children of wrath_. {6} They could be no otherwise +_children of wrath_ by nature than they were vicious by nature. + +Here, then, are two different senses of the word _nature_, in neither of +which men can at all be said to be a law to themselves. They are +mentioned only to be excluded, to prevent their being confounded, as the +latter is in the objection, with another sense of it, which is now to be +inquired after and explained. + +III. The apostle asserts that the Gentiles _do by NATURE the things +contained in the law_. Nature is indeed here put by way of distinction +from revelation, but yet it is not a mere negative. He intends to +express more than that by which they _did not_, that by which they _did_, +the works of the law; namely, by _nature_. It is plain the meaning of +the word is not the same in this passage as in the former, where it is +spoken of as evil; for in this latter it is spoken of as good--as that by +which they acted, or might have acted, virtuously. What that is in man +by which he is _naturally a law to himself_ is explained in the following +words: _Which show the work of the law written in their hearts_, _their +consciences also bearing witness_, _and their thoughts the meanwhile +accusing or else excusing one another_. If there be a distinction to be +made between the _works written in their hearts_, and the _witness of +conscience_, by the former must be meant the natural disposition to +kindness and compassion to do what is of good report, to which this +apostle often refers: that part of the nature of man, treated of in the +foregoing discourse, which with very little reflection and of course +leads him to society, and by means of which he naturally acts a just and +good part in it, unless other passions or interest lead him astray. Yet +since other passions, and regards to private interest, which lead us +(though indirectly, yet they lead us) astray, are themselves in a degree +equally natural, and often most prevalent, and since we have no method of +seeing the particular degrees in which one or the other is placed in us +by nature, it is plain the former, considered merely as natural, good and +right as they are, can no more be a law to us than the latter. But there +is a superior principle of reflection or conscience in every man, which +distinguishes between the internal principles of his heart, as well as +his external actions; which passes judgement upon himself and them, +pronounces determinately some actions to be in themselves just, right, +good, others to be in themselves evil, wrong, unjust: which, without +being consulted, without being advised with, magisterially exerts itself, +and approves or condemns him the doer of them accordingly: and which, if +not forcibly stopped, naturally and always of course goes on to +anticipate a higher and more effectual sentence, which shall hereafter +second and affirm its own. But this part of the office of conscience is +beyond my present design explicitly to consider. It is by this faculty, +natural to man, that he is a moral agent, that he is a law to himself, +but this faculty, I say, not to be considered merely as a principle in +his heart, which is to have some influence as well as others, but +considered as a faculty in kind and in nature supreme over all others, +and which bears its own authority of being so. + +This _prerogative_, this _natural supremacy_, of the faculty which +surveys, approves, or disapproves the several affections of our mind and +actions of our lives, being that by which men _are a law to themselves_, +their conformity or disobedience to which law of our nature renders their +actions, in the highest and most proper sense, natural or unnatural, it +is fit it be further explained to you; and I hope it will be so, if you +will attend to the following reflections. + +Man may act according to that principle or inclination which for the +present happens to be strongest, and yet act in a way disproportionate +to, and violate his real proper nature. Suppose a brute creature by any +bait to be allured into a snare, by which he is destroyed. He plainly +followed the bent of his nature, leading him to gratify his appetite: +there is an entire correspondence between his whole nature and such an +action: such action therefore is natural. But suppose a man, foreseeing +the same danger of certain ruin, should rush into it for the sake of a +present gratification; he in this instance would follow his strongest +desire, as did the brute creature; but there would be as manifest a +disproportion between the nature of a man and such an action as between +the meanest work of art and the skill of the greatest master in that art; +which disproportion arises, not from considering the action singly in +_itself_, or in its _consequences_, but from _comparison_ of it with the +nature of the agent. And since such an action is utterly +disproportionate to the nature of man, it is in the strictest and most +proper sense unnatural; this word expressing that disproportion. +Therefore, instead of the words _disproportionate to his nature_, the +word _unnatural_ may now be put; this being more familiar to us: but let +it be observed that it stands for the same thing precisely. + +Now what is it which renders such a rash action unnatural? Is it that he +went against the principle of reasonable and cool self-love, considered +_merely_ as a part of his nature? No; for if he had acted the contrary +way, he would equally have gone against a principle, or part of his +nature--namely, passion or appetite. But to deny a present appetite, +from foresight that the gratification of it would end in immediate ruin +or extreme misery, is by no means an unnatural action: whereas to +contradict or go against cool self-love for the sake of such +gratification is so in the instance before us. Such an action then being +unnatural, and its being so not arising from a man's going against a +principle or desire barely, nor in going against that principle or desire +which happens for the present to be strongest, it necessarily follows +that there must be some other difference or distinction to be made +between these two principles, passion and cool self-love, than what I +have yet taken notice of. And this difference, not being a difference in +strength or degree, I call a difference in _nature_ and in _kind_. And +since, in the instance still before us, if passion prevails over self- +love the consequent action is unnatural, but if self-love prevails over +passion the action is natural, it is manifest that self-love is in human +nature a superior principle to passion. This may be contradicted without +violating that nature; but the former cannot. So that, if we will act +conformably to the economy of man's nature, reasonable self-love must +govern. Thus, without particular consideration of conscience, we may +have a clear conception of the _superior nature_ of one inward principle +to another, and see that there really is this natural superiority, quite +distinct from degrees of strength and prevalency. + +Let us now take a view of the nature of man, as consisting partly of +various appetites, passions, affections, and partly of the principle of +reflection or conscience, leaving quite out all consideration of the +different degrees of strength in which either of them prevails, and it +will further appear that there is this natural superiority of one inward +principle to another, and that it is even part of the idea of reflection +or conscience. + +Passion or appetite implies a direct simple tendency towards such and +such objects, without distinction of the means by which they are to be +obtained. Consequently it will often happen there will be a desire of +particular objects, in cases where they cannot be obtained without +manifest injury to others. Reflection or conscience comes in, need +disapproves the pursuit of them in these circumstances; but the desire +remains. Which is to be obeyed, appetite or reflection? Cannot this +question be answered, from the economy and constitution of human nature +merely, without saying which is strongest? Or need this at all come into +consideration? Would not the question be _intelligibly_ and fully +answered by saying that the principle of reflection or conscience being +compared with the various appetites, passions, and affections in men, the +former is manifestly superior and chief, without regard to strength? And +how often soever the latter happens to prevail, it is mere _usurpation_: +the former remains in nature and in kind its superior; and every instance +of such prevalence of the latter is an instance of breaking in upon and +violation of the constitution of man. + +All this is no more than the distinction, which everybody is acquainted +with, between _mere power_ and _authority_: only instead of being +intended to express the difference between what is possible and what is +lawful in civil government, here it has been shown applicable to the +several principles in the mind of man. Thus that principle by which we +survey, and either approve or disapprove our own heart, temper, and +actions, is not only to be considered as what is in its turn to have some +influence--which may be said of every passion, of the lowest +appetites--but likewise as being superior, as from its very nature +manifestly claiming superiority over all others, insomuch that you cannot +form a notion of this faculty, conscience, without taking in judgment, +direction, superintendency. This is a constituent part of the idea--that +is, of the faculty itself; and to preside and govern, from the very +economy and constitution of man, belongs to it. Had it strength, as it +had right; had it power, as it had manifest authority, it would +absolutely govern the world. + +This gives us a further view of the nature of man; shows us what course +of life we were made for: not only that our real nature leads us to be +influenced in some degree by reflection and conscience, but likewise in +what degree we are to be influenced by it, if we will fall in with, and +act agreeably to, the constitution of our nature: that this faculty was +placed within to be our proper governor, to direct and regulate all under +principles, passions, and motives of action. This is its right and +office: thus sacred is its authority. And how often soever men violate +and rebelliously refuse to submit to it, for supposed interest which they +cannot otherwise obtain, or for the sake of passion which they cannot +otherwise gratify--this makes no alteration as to the _natural right_ and +_office_ of conscience. + +Let us now turn this whole matter another way, and suppose there was no +such thing at all as this natural supremacy of conscience--that there was +no distinction to be made between one inward principle and another, but +only that of strength--and see what would be the consequence. + +Consider, then, what is the latitude and compass of the actions of man +with regard to himself, his fellow-creatures, and the Supreme Being? What +are their bounds, besides that of our natural power? With respect to the +two first, they are plainly no other than these: no man seeks misery, as +such, for himself; and no one unprovoked does mischief to another for its +own sake. For in every degree within these bounds, mankind knowingly, +from passion or wantonness, bring ruin and misery upon themselves and +others. And impiety and profaneness--I mean what every one would call so +who believes the being of God--have absolutely no bounds at all. Men +blaspheme the Author of nature, formally and in words renounce their +allegiance to their Creator. Put an instance, then, with respect to any +one of these three. Though we should suppose profane swearing, and in +general that kind of impiety now mentioned, to mean nothing, yet it +implies wanton disregard and irreverence towards an infinite Being our +Creator; and is this as suitable to the nature of man as reverence and +dutiful submission of heart towards that Almighty Being? Or suppose a +man guilty of parricide, with all the circumstances of cruelty which such +an action can admit of. This action is done in consequence of its +principle being for the present strongest; and if there be no difference +between inward principles, but only that of strength, the strength being +given you have the whole nature of the man given, so far as it relates to +this matter. The action plainly corresponds to the principle, the +principle being in that degree of strength it was: it therefore +corresponds to the whole nature of the man. Upon comparing the action +and the whole nature, there arises no disproportion, there appears no +unsuitableness, between them. Thus the _murder of a father_ and the +_nature of man_ correspond to each other, as the same nature and an act +of filial duty. If there be no difference between inward principles, but +only that of strength, we can make no distinction between these two +actions, considered as the actions of such a creature; but in our coolest +hours must approve or disapprove them equally: than which nothing can be +reduced to a greater absurdity. + + + + +SERMON III. + + +The natural supremacy of reflection or conscience being thus established, +we may from it form a distinct notion of what is meant by _human nature_ +when virtue is said to consist in following it, and vice in deviating +from it. + +As the idea of a civil constitution implies in it united strength, +various subordinations under one direction--that of the supreme +authority--the different strength of each particular member of the +society not coming into the idea--whereas, if you leave out the +subordination, the union, and the one direction, you destroy and lose +it--so reason, several appetites, passions, and affections, prevailing in +different degrees of strength, is not _that_ idea or notion of _human +nature_; but _that nature_ consists in these several principles +considered as having a natural respect to each other, in the several +passions being naturally subordinate to the one superior principle of +reflection or conscience. Every bias, instinct, propension within, is a +natural part of our nature, but not the whole: add to these the superior +faculty whose office it is to adjust, manage, and preside over them, and +take in this its natural superiority, and you complete the idea of human +nature. And as in civil government the constitution is broken in upon +and violated by power and strength prevailing over authority; so the +constitution of man is broken in upon and violated by the lower faculties +or principles within prevailing over that which is in its nature supreme +over them all. Thus, when it is said by ancient writers that tortures +and death are not so contrary to human nature as injustice, by this, to +be sure, is not meant that the aversion to the former in mankind is less +strong and prevalent than their aversion to the latter, but that the +former is only contrary to our nature considered in a partial view, and +which takes in only the lowest part of it, that which we have in common +with the brutes; whereas the latter is contrary to our nature, considered +in a higher sense, as a system and constitution contrary to the whole +economy of man. {7} + +And from all these things put together, nothing can be more evident than +that, exclusive of revelation, man cannot be considered as a creature +left by his Maker to act at random, and live at large up to the extent of +his natural power, as passion, humour, wilfulness, happen to carry him, +which is the condition brute creatures are in; but that _from his make_, +_constitution_, _or nature_, _he is in the strictest and most proper +sense a law to himself_. He hath the rule of right within: what is +wanting is only that he honestly attend to it. + +The inquiries which have been made by men of leisure after some general +rule, the conformity to or disagreement from which should denominate our +actions good or evil, are in many respects of great service. Yet let any +plain, honest man, before he engages in any course of action, ask +himself, Is this I am going about right, or is it wrong? Is it good, or +is it evil? I do not in the least doubt but that this question would be +answered agreeably to truth and virtue, by almost any fair man in almost +any circumstance. Neither do there appear any cases which look like +exceptions to this, but those of superstition, and of partiality to +ourselves. Superstition may perhaps be somewhat of an exception; but +partiality to ourselves is not, this being itself dishonesty. For a man +to judge that to be the equitable, the moderate, the right part for him +to act, which he would see to be hard, unjust, oppressive in another, +this is plain vice, and can proceed only from great unfairness of mind. + +But allowing that mankind hath the rule of right within himself, yet it +may be asked, "What obligations are we under to attend to and follow it?" +I answer: It has been proved that man by his nature is a law to himself, +without the particular distinct consideration of the positive sanctions +of that law: the rewards and punishments which we feel, and those which +from the light of reason we have ground to believe, are annexed to it. +The question, then, carries its own answer along within it. Your +obligation to obey this law is its being the law of your nature. That +your conscience approves of and attests to such a course of action is +itself alone an obligation. Conscience does not only offer itself to +show us the way we should walk in, but it likewise carries its own +authority with it, that it is our natural guide; the guide assigned us by +the Author of our nature: it therefore belongs to our condition of being; +it is our duty to walk in that path, and follow this guide, without +looking about to see whether we may not possibly forsake them with +impunity. + +However, let us hear what is to be said against obeying this law of our +nature. And the sum is no more than this: "Why should we be concerned +about anything out of and beyond ourselves? If we do find within +ourselves regards to others, and restraints of we know not how many +different kinds, yet these being embarrassments, and hindering us from +going the nearest way to our own good, why should we not endeavour to +suppress and get over them?" + +Thus people go on with words, which when applied to human nature, and the +condition in which it is placed in this world, have really no meaning. +For does not all this kind of talk go upon supposition, that our +happiness in this world consists in somewhat quite distinct from regard +to others, and that it is the privilege of vice to be without restraint +or confinement? Whereas, on the contrary, the enjoyments--in a manner +all the common enjoyments of life, even the pleasures of vice--depend +upon these regards of one kind or another to our fellow-creatures. Throw +off all regards to others, and we should be quite indifferent to infamy +and to honour; there could be no such thing at all as ambition; and +scarce any such thing as covetousness; for we should likewise be equally +indifferent to the disgrace of poverty, the several neglects and kinds of +contempt which accompany this state, and to the reputation of riches, the +regard and respect they usually procure. Neither is restraint by any +means peculiar to one course of life; but our very nature, exclusive of +conscience and our condition, lays us under an absolute necessity of it. +We cannot gain any end whatever without being confined to the proper +means, which is often the most painful and uneasy confinement. And in +numberless instances a present appetite cannot be gratified without such +apparent and immediate ruin and misery that the most dissolute man in the +world chooses to forego the pleasure rather than endure the pain. + +Is the meaning, then, to indulge those regards to our fellow-creatures, +and submit to those restraints which upon the whole are attended with +more satisfaction than uneasiness, and get over only those which bring +more uneasiness and inconvenience than satisfaction? "Doubtless this was +our meaning." You have changed sides then. Keep to this; be consistent +with yourselves, and you and the men of virtue are _in general_ perfectly +agreed. But let us take care and avoid mistakes. Let it not be taken +for granted that the temper of envy, rage, resentment, yields greater +delight than meekness, forgiveness, compassion, and good-will; especially +when it is acknowledged that rage, envy, resentment, are in themselves +mere misery; and that satisfaction arising from the indulgence of them is +little more than relief from that misery; whereas the temper of +compassion and benevolence is itself delightful; and the indulgence of +it, by doing good, affords new positive delight and enjoyment. Let it +not be taken for granted that the satisfaction arising from the +reputation of riches and power, however obtained, and from the respect +paid to them, is greater than the satisfaction arising from the +reputation of justice, honesty, charity, and the esteem which is +universally acknowledged to be their due. And if it be doubtful which of +these satisfactions is the greatest, as there are persons who think +neither of them very considerable, yet there can be no doubt concerning +ambition and covetousness, virtue and a good mind, considered in +themselves, and as leading to different courses of life; there can, I +say, be no doubt, which temper and which course is attended with most +peace and tranquillity of mind, which with most perplexity, vexation, and +inconvenience. And both the virtues and vices which have been now +mentioned, do in a manner equally imply in them regards of one kind or +another to our fellow-creatures. And with respect to restraint and +confinement, whoever will consider the restraints from fear and shame, +the dissimulation, mean arts of concealment, servile compliances, one or +other of which belong to almost every course of vice, will soon be +convinced that the man of virtue is by no means upon a disadvantage in +this respect. How many instances are there in which men feel and own and +cry aloud under the chains of vice with which they are enthralled, and +which yet they will not shake off! How many instances, in which persons +manifestly go through more pains and self-denial to gratify a vicious +passion, than would have been necessary to the conquest of it! To this +is to be added, that when virtue is become habitual, when the temper of +it is acquired, what was before confinement ceases to be so by becoming +choice and delight. Whatever restraint and guard upon ourselves may be +needful to unlearn any unnatural distortion or odd gesture, yet in all +propriety of speech, natural behaviour must be the most easy and +unrestrained. It is manifest that, in the common course of life, there +is seldom any inconsistency between our duty and what is _called_ +interest: it is much seldomer that there is an inconsistency between duty +and what is really our present interest; meaning by interest, happiness +and satisfaction. Self-love, then, though confined to the interest of +the present world, does in general perfectly coincide with virtue, and +leads us to one and the same course of life. But, whatever exceptions +there are to this, which are much fewer than they are commonly thought, +all shall be set right at the final distribution of things. It is a +manifest absurdity to suppose evil prevailing finally over good, under +the conduct and administration of a perfect mined. + +The whole argument, which I have been now insisting upon, may be thus +summed up, and given you in one view. The nature of man is adapted to +some course of action or other. Upon comparing some actions with this +nature, they appear suitable and correspondent to it: from comparison of +other actions with the same nature, there arises to our view some +unsuitableness or disproportion. The correspondence of actions to the +nature of the agent renders them natural; their disproportion to it, +unnatural. That an action is correspondent to the nature of the agent +does not arise from its being agreeable to the principle which happens to +be the strongest: for it may be so and yet be quite disproportionate to +the nature of the agent. The correspondence therefore, or disproportion, +arises from somewhat else. This can be nothing but a difference in +nature and kind, altogether distinct from strength, between the inward +principles. Some then are in nature and kind superior to others. And +the correspondence arises from the action being conformable to the higher +principle; and the unsuitableness from its being contrary to it. +Reasonable self-love and conscience are the chief or superior principles +in the nature of man; because an action may be suitable to this nature, +though all other principles be violated, but becomes unsuitable if either +of those are. Conscience and self-love, if we understand our true +happiness, always lead us the same way. Duty and interest are perfectly +coincident; for the most part in this world, but entirely and in every +instance if we take in the future and the whole; this being implied in +the notion of a good and perfect administration of things. Thus they who +have been so wise in their generation as to regard only their own +supposed interest, at the expense and to the injury of others, shall at +last find, that he who has given up all the advantages of the present +world, rather than violate his conscience and the relations of life, has +infinitely better provided for himself, and secured his owns interest and +happiness. + + + + +SERMON IV. UPON THE GOVERNMENT OF THE TONGUE. + + + JAMES i. 26. + + _If any man among you seem to be religious_, _and bridleth not his + tongue_, _but deceiveth his own heart_, _this man's religion is vain_. + +The translation of this text would be more determinate by being more +literal, thus: _If any man among you seemeth to be religious_, _not +bridling his tongue_, _but deceiving his own heart_, _this man's religion +is vain_. This determines that the words, _but deceiveth his own heart_, +are not put in opposition to _seemeth to be religious_, but to _bridleth +not his tongue_. The certain determinate meaning of the text then being, +that he who seemeth to be religious, and bridleth not his tongue, but in +that particular deceiveth his own heart, this man's religion is vain, we +may observe somewhat very forcible and expressive in these words of St. +James. As if the apostle had said, No man surely can make any pretences +to religion, who does not at least believe that he bridleth his tongue: +if he puts on any appearance or face of religion, and yet does not govern +his tongue, he must surely deceive himself in that particular, and think +he does; and whoever is so unhappy as to deceive himself in this, to +imagine he keeps that unruly faculty in due subjection when indeed he +does not, whatever the other part of his life be, his religion is vain; +the government of the tongue being a most material restraint which virtue +lays us under: without it no man can be truly religious. + +In treating upon this subject, I will consider, + +First, what is the general vice or fault here referred to; or what +disposition in men is supposed in moral reflections and precepts +concerning _bridling the tongue_. + +Secondly, when it may be said of any one, that he has a due government +over himself in this respect. + +I. Now, the fault referred to, and the disposition supposed, in precepts +and reflections concerning the government of the tongue, is not +evil-speaking from malice, nor lying or bearing false witness from +indirect selfish designs. The disposition to these, and the actual vices +themselves, all come under other subjects. The tongue may be employed +about, and made to serve all the purposes of vice, in tempting and +deceiving, in perjury and injustice. But the thing here supposed and +referred to, is talkativeness: a disposition to be talking, abstracted +from the consideration of what is to be said; with very little or no +regard to, or thought of doing, either good or harm. And let not any +imagine this to be a slight matter, and that it deserves not to have so +great weight laid upon it, till he has considered what evil is implied in +it, and the bad effects which follow from it. It is perhaps true, that +they who are addicted to this folly would choose to confine themselves to +trifles and indifferent subjects, and so intend only to be guilty of +being impertinent: but as they cannot go on for ever talking of nothing, +as common matters will not afford a sufficient fund for perpetual +continued discourse, where subjects of this kind are exhausted they will +go on to defamation, scandal, divulging of secrets, their own secrets as +well as those of others--anything rather than be silent. They are +plainly hurried on in the heat of their talk to say quite different +things from what they first intended, and which they afterwards wish +unsaid: or improper things, which they had no other end in saying, but +only to afford employment to their tongue. And if these people expect to +be heard and regarded--for there are some content merely with +talking--they will invent to engage your attention: and, when they have +heard the least imperfect hint of an affair, they will out of their own +head add the circumstances of time and place and other matters to make +out their story and give the appearance of probability to it: not that +they have any concern about being believed, otherwise than as a means of +being heard. The thing is, to engage your attention; to take you up +wholly for the present time: what reflections will be made afterwards, is +in truth the least of their thoughts. And further, when persons who +indulge themselves in these liberties of the tongue are in any degree +offended with another--as little disgusts and misunderstandings will +be--they allow themselves to defame and revile such a one without any +moderation or bounds; though the offence is so very slight, that they +themselves would not do, nor perhaps wish him, an injury in any other +way. And in this case the scandal and revilings are chiefly owing to +talkativeness, and not bridling their tongue, and so come under our +present subject. The least occasion in the world will make the humour +break out in this particular way or in another. It as like a torrent, +which must and will flow; but the least thing imaginable will first of +all give it either this or another direction, turn it into this or that +channel: or like a fire--the nature of which, when in a heap of +combustible matter, is to spread and lay waste all around; but any one of +a thousand little accidents will occasion it to break out first either in +this or another particular part. + +The subject then before us, though it does run up into, and can scarce be +treated as entirely distinct from all others, yet it needs not be so much +mixed or blended with them as it often is. Every faculty and power may +be used as the instrument of premeditated vice and wickedness, merely as +the most proper and effectual means of executing such designs. But if a +man, from deep malice and desire of revenge, should meditate a falsehood +with a settled design to ruin his neighbour's reputation, and should with +great coolness and deliberation spread it, nobody would choose to say of +such a one that he had no government of his tongue. A man may use the +faculty of speech as an instrument of false witness, who yet has so +entire a command over that faculty as never to speak but from forethought +and cool design. Here the crime is injustice and perjury, and, strictly +speaking, no more belongs to the present subject than perjury and +injustice in any other way. But there is such a thing as a disposition +to be talking for its own sake; from which persons often say anything, +good or bad, of others, merely as a subject of discourse, according to +the particular temper they themselves happen to be in, and to pass away +the present time. There is likewise to be observed in persons such a +strong and eager desire of engaging attention to what they say, that they +will speak good or evil, truth or otherwise, merely as one or the other +seems to be most hearkened to: and this though it is sometimes joined, is +not the same with the desire of being thought important and men of +consequence. There is in some such a disposition to be talking, that an +offence of the slightest kind, and such as would not raise any other +resentment, yet raises, if I may so speak, the resentment of the +tongue--puts it into a flame, into the most ungovernable motions. This +outrage, when the person it respects is present, we distinguish in the +lower rank of people by a peculiar term: and let it be observed, that +though the decencies of behaviour are a little kept, the same outrage and +virulence, indulged when he is absent, is an offence of the same kind. +But, not to distinguish any further in this manner, men race into faults +and follies which cannot so properly be referred to any one general head +as this--that they have not a due government over their tongue. + +And this unrestrained volubility and wantonness of speech is the occasion +of numberless evils and vexations in life. It begets resentment in him +who is the subject of it, sows the seed of strife and dissension amongst +others, and inflames little disgusts and offences which if let alone +would wear away of themselves: it is often of as bad effect upon the good +name of others, as deep envy or malice: and to say the least of it in +this respect, it destroys and perverts a certain equity of the utmost +importance to society to be observed--namely, that praise and dispraise, +a good or bad character, should always be bestowed according to desert. +The tongue used in such a licentious manner is like a sword in the hand +of a madman; it is employed at random, it can scarce possibly do any +good, and for the most part does a world of mischief; and implies not +only great folly and a trifling spirit, but great viciousness of mind, +great indifference to truth and falsity, and to the reputation, welfare, +and good of others. So much reason is there for what St. James says of +the tongue, _It is a fire_, _a world of iniquity_, _it defileth the whole +body_, _setteth on fire the course of nature_, _and is itself set on fire +of hell_. {8} This is the faculty or disposition which we are required +to keep a guard upon: these are the vices and follies it runs into when +not kept under due restraint. + +II. Wherein the due government of the tongue consists, or when it may be +said of any one in a moral and religious sense that he _bridleth his +tongue_, I come now to consider. + +The due and proper use of any natural faculty or power is to be judged of +by the end and design for which it was given us. The chief purpose for +which the faculty of speech was given to man is plainly that we might +communicate our thoughts to each other, in order to carry on the affairs +of the world; for business, and for our improvement in knowledge and +learning. But the good Author of our nature designed us not only +necessaries, but likewise enjoyment and satisfaction, in that being He +hath graciously given, and in that condition of life He hath placed us +in. There are secondary uses of our faculties: they administer to +delight, as well as to necessity; and as they are equally-adapted to +both, there is no doubt but He intended them for our gratification as +well as for the support and continuance of our being. The secondary use +of speech is to please and be entertaining to each other in conversation. +This is in every respect allowable and right; it unites men closer in +alliances and friendships; gives us a fellow-feeling of the prosperity +and unhappiness of each other; and is in several respects servicable to +virtue, and to promote good behaviour in the world. And provided there +be not too much time spent in it, if it were considered only in the way +of gratification and delight, men must have strange notion of God and of +religion to think that He can be offended with it, or that it is any way +inconsistent with the strictest virtue. But the truth is, such sort of +conversation, though it has no particular good tendency, yet it has a +general good one; it is social and friendly, and tends to promote +humanity, good-nature, and civility. + +As the end and use, so likewise the abuse of speech, relates to the one +or other of these: either to business or to conversation. As to the +former: deceit in the management of business and affairs does not +properly belong to the subject now before us: though one may just mention +that multitude, that heedless number of words with which business is +perplexed, where a much fewer would, as it should seem, better serve the +purpose; but this must be left to those who understand the matter. The +government of the tongue, considered as a subject of itself, relates +chiefly to conversation; to that kind of discourse which usually fills up +the time spent in friendly meetings and visits of civility. And the +danger is, lest persons entertain themselves and others at the expense of +their wisdom and their virtue, and to the injury or offence of their +neighbour. If they will observe and keep clear of these, they may be as +free and easy and unreserved as they can desire. + +The cautions to be given for avoiding these dangers, and to render +conversation innocent and agreeable, fall under the following +particulars: silence; talking of indifferent things; and, which makes up +too great a part of conversation, giving of characters, speaking well or +evil of others. + +The Wise Man observes that "there is a time to speak, and a time to keep +silence." One meets with people in the world who seem never to have made +the last of these observations. And yet these great talkers do not at +all speak from their having anything to say, as every sentence shows, but +only from their inclination to be talking. Their conversation is merely +an exercise of the tongue: no other human faculty has any share in it. It +is strange these persons can help reflecting, that unless they have in +truth a superior capacity, and are in an extraordinary manner furnished +for conversation if they are entertaining, it is at their own expense. Is +it possible that it should never come into people's thoughts to suspect +whether or no it be to their advantage to show so very much of +themselves? "O that you would altogether hold your peace, and it should +be your wisdom." {9} Remember likewise there are persons who love fewer +words, an inoffensive sort of people, and who deserve some regard, though +of too still and composed tempers for you. Of this number was the Son of +Sirach: for he plainly speaks from experience when he says, "As hills of +sand are to the steps of the aged, so is one of many words to a quiet +man." But one would think it should be obvious to every one, that when +they are in company with their superiors of any kind--in years, +knowledge, and experience--when proper and useful subjects are discoursed +of, which they cannot bear a part in, that these are times for silence, +when they should learn to hear, and be attentive, at least in their turn. +It is indeed a very unhappy way these people are in; they in a manner cut +themselves out from all advantage of conversation, except that of being +entertained with their own talk: their business in coming into company +not being at all to be informed, to hear, to learn, but to display +themselves, or rather to exert their faculty, and talk without any design +at all. And if we consider conversation as an entertainment, as somewhat +to unbend the mind, as a diversion from the cares, the business, and the +sorrows of life, it is of the very nature of it that the discourse be +mutual. This, I say, is implied in the very notion of what we +distinguish by conversation, or being in company. Attention to the +continued discourse of one alone grows more painful, often, than the +cares and business we come to be diverted from. He, therefore, who +imposes this upon us is guilty of a double offence--arbitrarily enjoining +silence upon all the rest, and likewise obliging them to this painful +attention. + +I am sensible these things are apt to be passed over, as too little to +come into a serious discourse; but in reality men are obliged, even in +point of morality and virtue, to observe all the decencies of behaviour. +The greatest evils in life have had their rise from somewhat which was +thought of too little importance to be attended to. And as to the matter +we are now upon, it is absolutely necessary to be considered. For if +people will not maintain a due government over themselves, in regarding +proper times and seasons for silence, but _will_ be talking, they +certainly, whether they design it or not at first, will go on to scandal +and evil-speaking, and divulging secrets. + +If it were needful to say anything further to persuade men to learn this +lesson of silence, one might put them in mind how insignificant they +render themselves by this excessive talkativeness: insomuch that, if they +do chance to say anything which deserves to be attended to and regarded, +it is lost in the variety and abundance which they utter of another sort. + +The occasions of silence then are obvious, and one would think should be +easily distinguished by everybody: namely, when a man has nothing to say; +or nothing but what is better unsaid: better, either in regard to the +particular persons he is present with; or from its being an interruption +to conversation itself; or to conversation of a more agreeable kind; or +better, lastly, with regard to himself. I will end this particular with +two reflections of the Wise Man; one of which, in the strongest manner, +exposes the ridiculous part of this licentiousness of the tongue; and the +other, the great danger and viciousness of it. _When he that is a fool +walketh by the way side_, _his wisdom faileth him_, _and he saith to +every one that he is a fool_. {10} The other is, _In the multitude of +words there wanteth not sin_. {11} + +As to the government of the tongue in respect to talking upon indifferent +subjects: after what has been said concerning the due government of it in +respect to the occasions and times for silence, there is little more +necessary than only to caution men to be fully satisfied that the +subjects are indeed of an indifferent nature; and not to spend too much +time in conversation of this kind. But persons must be sure to take heed +that the subject of their discourse be at least of an indifferent nature: +that it be no way offensive to virtue, religion, or good manners: that it +be not of a licentious, dissolute sort, this leaving always ill +impressions upon the mind; that it be no way injurious or vexatious to +others; and that too much time be not spent this way, to the neglect of +those duties and offices of life which belong to their station and +condition in the world. However, though there is not any necessity that +men should aim at being important and weighty in every sentence they +speak: yet since useful subjects, at least of some kinds, are as +entertaining as others, a wise man, even when he desires to unbend his +mind from business, would choose that the conversation might turn upon +somewhat instructive. + +The last thing is, the government of the tongue as relating to discourse +of the affairs of others, and giving of characters. These are in a +manner the same; and one can scarce call it an indifferent subject, +because discourse upon it almost perpetually runs into somewhat criminal. + +And, first of all, it were very much to be wished that this did not take +up so great a part of conversation; because it is indeed a subject of a +dangerous nature. Let any one consider the various interests, +competitions, and little misunderstandings which arise amongst men; and +he will soon see that he is not unprejudiced and impartial; that he is +not, as I may speak, neutral enough to trust himself with talking of the +character and concerns of his neighbour, in a free, careless, and +unreserved manner. There is perpetually, and often it is not attended +to, a rivalship amongst people of one kind or another in respect to wit, +beauty, learning, fortune, and that one thing will insensibly influence +them to speak to the disadvantage of others, even where there is no +formed malice or ill-design. Since therefore it is so hard to enter into +this subject without offending, the first thing to be observed is that +people should learn to decline it; to get over that strong inclination +most have to be talking of the concerns and behaviour of their neighbour. + +But since it is impossible that this subject should be wholly excluded +conversation; and since it is necessary that the characters of men should +be known: the next thing is that it is a matter of importance what is +said; and, therefore, that we should be religiously scrupulous and exact +to say nothing, either good or bad, but what is true. I put it thus, +because it is in reality of as great importance to the good of society, +that the characters of bad men should be known, as that the characters of +good men should. People who are given to scandal and detraction may +indeed make an ill-use of this observation; but truths, which are of +service towards regulating our conduct, are not to be disowned, or even +concealed, because a bad use may be made of them. This however would be +effectually prevented if these two things were attended to. First, That, +though it is equally of bad consequence to society that men should have +either good or ill characters which they do not deserve; yet, when you +say somewhat good of a man which he does not deserve, there is no wrong +done him in particular; whereas, when you say evil of a man which he does +not deserve, here is a direct formal injury, a real piece of injustice +done him. This therefore makes a wide difference; and gives us, in point +of virtue, much greater latitude in speaking well than ill of others. +Secondly, A good man is friendly to his fellow-creatures, and a lover of +mankind; and so will, upon every occasion, and often without any, say all +the good he can of everybody; but, so far as he is a good man, will never +be disposed to speak evil of any, unless there be some other reason for +it, besides, barely that it is true. If he be charged with having given +an ill character, he will scarce think it a sufficient justification of +himself to say it was a true one, unless he can also give some further +account how he came to do so: a just indignation against particular +instances of villainy, where they are great and scandalous; or to prevent +an innocent man from being deceived and betrayed, when he has great trust +and confidence in one who does not deserve it. Justice must be done to +every part of a subject when we are considering it. If there be a man, +who bears a fair character in the world, whom yet we know to be without +faith or honesty, to be really an ill man; it must be allowed in general +that we shall do a piece of service to society by letting such a one's +true character be known. This is no more than what we have an instance +of in our Saviour himself; {12} though He was mild and gentle beyond +example. However, no words can express too strongly the caution which +should be used in such a case as this. + +Upon the whole matter: If people would observe the obvious occasions of +silence, if they would subdue the inclination to tale-bearing, and that +eager desire to engage attention, which is an original disease in some +minds, they would be in little danger of offending with their tongue; and +would, in a moral and religious sense, have due government over it. + +I will conclude with some precepts and reflections of the Son of Sirach +upon this subject. _Be swift to hear_; _and_, _if thou hast +understanding_, _answer thy neighbour_; _if not_, _lay thy hand upon thy +mouth_. _Honour and shame is in talk_. _A man of an ill tongue is +dangerous in his city_, _and he that is rash in his talk shall be hated_. +_A wise man wilt hold his tongue till he see opportunity_; _but a babbler +and a fool will regard no time_. _He that useth many words shall be +abhorred_; _and he that taketh to himself authority therein shall be +hated_. _A backbiting tongue hath disquieted many_; _strong cities hath +it pulled down_, _and overthrown the houses of great men_. _The tongue +of a man is his fall_; _but if thou love to hear_, _thou shall receive +understanding_. + + + + +SERMON V. UPON COMPASSION. + + + ROM. xii. 15. + + _Rejoice with them that do rejoice_, _and weep with them that weep_. + +Every man is to be considered in two capacities, the private and public; +as designed to pursue his own interest, and likewise to contribute to the +good of others. Whoever will consider may see that, in general, there is +no contrariety between these; but that from the original constitution of +man, and the circumstances he is placed in, they perfectly coincide, and +mutually carry on each other. But, among the great variety of affections +or principles of actions in our nature, some in their primary intention +and design seem to belong to the single or private, others to the public +or social capacity. The affections required in the text are of the +latter sort. When we rejoice in the prosperity of others, and +compassionate their distresses, we as it were substitute them for +ourselves, their interest for our own; and have the same kind of pleasure +in their prosperity, and sorrow in their distress, as we have from +reflection upon our own. Now there is nothing strange or unaccountable +in our being thus carried out, and affected towards the interests of +others. For, if there be any appetite, or any inward principle besides +self-love; why may there not be an affection to the good of our fellow- +creatures, and delight from that affection's being gratified, and +uneasiness from things going contrary to it? {13} + +Of these two, delight in the prosperity of others, and compassion for +their distresses, the last is felt much more generally than the former. +Though men do not universally rejoice with all whom they see rejoice, +yet, accidental obstacles removed, they naturally compassionate all, in +some degree, whom they see in distress; so far as they have any real +perception or sense of that distress: insomuch that words expressing this +latter, pity, compassion, frequently occur: whereas we have scarce any +single one by which the former is distinctly expressed. Congratulation +indeed answers condolence: but both these words are intended to signify +certain forms of civility rather than any inward sensation or feeling. +This difference or inequality is so remarkable that we plainly consider +compassion as itself an original, distinct, particular affection in human +nature; whereas to rejoice in the good of others is only a consequence of +the general affection of love and good-will to them. The reason and +account of which matter is this: when a man has obtained any particular +advantage or felicity, his end is gained; and he does not in that +particular want the assistance of another: there was therefore no need of +a distinct affection towards that felicity of another already obtained; +neither would such affection directly carry him on to do good to that +person: whereas men in distress want assistance; and compassion leads us +directly to assist them. The object of the former is the present +felicity of another; the object of the latter is the present misery of +another. It is easy to see that the latter wants a particular affection +for its relief, and that the former does not want one because it does not +want assistance. And upon supposition of a distinct affection in both +cases, the one must rest in the exercise of itself, having nothing +further to gain; the other does not rest in itself, but carries us on to +assist the distressed. + +But, supposing these affections natural to the mind, particularly the +last; "Has not each man troubles enough of his own? must he indulge an +affection which appropriates to himself those of others? which leads him +to contract the least desirable of all friendships, friendships with the +unfortunate? Must we invert the known rule of prudence, and choose to +associate ourselves with the distressed? or, allowing that we ought, so +far as it is in our power to relieve them, yet is it not better to do +this from reason and duty? Does not passion and affection of every kind +perpetually mislead us? Nay, is not passion and affection itself a +weakness, and what a perfect being must be entirely free from?" Perhaps +so, but it is mankind I am speaking of; imperfect creatures, and who +naturally and, from the condition we are placed in, necessarily depend +upon each other. With respect to such creatures, it would be found of as +bad consequence to eradicate all natural affections as to be entirely +governed by them. This would almost sink us to the condition of brutes; +and that would leave us without a sufficient principle of action. Reason +alone, whatever any one may wish, is not in reality a sufficient motive +of virtue in such a creature as man; but this reason joined with those +affections which God has impressed upon his heart, and when these are +allowed scope to exercise themselves, but under strict government and +direction of reason, then it is we act suitably to our nature, and to the +circumstances God has placed us in. Neither is affection itself at all a +weakness; nor does it argue defect, any otherwise than as our senses and +appetites do; they belong to our condition of nature, and are what we +cannot be without. God Almighty is, to be sure, unmoved by passion or +appetite, unchanged by affection; but then it is to be added that He +neither sees nor hears nor perceives things by any senses like ours; but +in a manner infinitely more perfect. Now, as it is an absurdity almost +too gross to be mentioned, for a man to endeavour to get rid of his +senses, because the Supreme Being discerns things more perfectly without +them; it is as real, though not so obvious an absurdity, to endeavour to +eradicate the passions He has given us, because He is without them. For, +since our passions are as really a part of our constitution as our +senses; since the former as really belong to our condition of nature as +the latter; to get rid of either is equally a violation of and breaking +in upon that nature and constitution He has given us. Both our senses +and our passions are a supply to the imperfection of our nature; thus +they show that we are such sort of creatures as to stand in need of those +helps which higher orders of creatures do not. But it is not the supply, +but the deficiency; as it is not a remedy, but a disease, which is the +imperfection. However, our appetites, passions, senses, no way imply +disease: nor indeed do they imply deficiency or imperfection of any sort; +but only this, that the constitution of nature, according to which God +has made us, is such as to require them. And it is so far from being +true, that a wise man must entirely suppress compassion, and all fellow- +feeling for others, as a weakness; and trust to reason alone to teach and +enforce upon him the practice of the several charities we owe to our +kind; that, on the contrary, even the bare exercise of such affections +would itself be for the good and happiness of the world; and the +imperfection of the higher principles of reason and religion in man, the +little influence they have upon our practice, and the strength and +prevalency of contrary ones, plainly require these affections to be a +restraint upon these latter, and a supply to the deficiencies of the +former. + +First, The very exercise itself of these affections in a just and +reasonable manner and degree would upon the whole increase the +satisfactions and lessen the miseries of life. + +It is the tendency and business of virtue and religion to procure, as +much as may be, universal good-will, trust, and friendship amongst +mankind. If this could be brought to obtain; and each man enjoyed the +happiness of others, as every one does that of a friend; and looked upon +the success and prosperity of his neighbour as every one does upon that +of his children and family; it is too manifest to be insisted upon how +much the enjoyments of life would be increased. There would be so much +happiness introduced into the world, without any deduction or +inconvenience from it, in proportion as the precept of _rejoicing with +those who rejoice_ was universally obeyed. Our Saviour has owned this +good affection as belonging to our nature in the parable of the _lost +sheep_, and does not think it to the disadvantage of a perfect state to +represent its happiness as capable of increase from reflection upon that +of others. + +But since in such a creature as man, compassion or sorrow for the +distress of others seems so far necessarily connected with joy in their +prosperity, as that whoever rejoices in one must unavoidably +compassionate the other; there cannot be that delight or satisfaction, +which appears to be so considerable, without the inconveniences, whatever +they are, of compassion. + +However, without considering this connection, there is no doubt but that +more good than evil, more delight than sorrow, arises from compassion +itself; there being so many things which balance the sorrow of it. There +is first the relief which the distressed feel from this affection in +others towards them. There is likewise the additional misery which they +would feel from the reflection that no one commiserated their case. It +is indeed true that any disposition, prevailing beyond a certain degree, +becomes somewhat wrong; and we have ways of speaking, which, though they +do not directly express that excess, yet always lead our thoughts to it, +and give us the notion of it. Thus, when mention is made of delight in +being pitied, this always conveys to our mind the notion of somewhat +which is really a weakness. The manner of speaking, I say, implies a +certain weakness and feebleness of mind, which is and ought to be +disapproved. But men of the greatest fortitude would in distress feel +uneasiness from knowing that no person in the world had any sort of +compassion or real concern for them; and in some cases, especially when +the temper is enfeebled by sickness, or any long and great distress, +doubtless, would feel a kind of relief even from the helpless goodwill +and ineffectual assistances of those about them. Over against the sorrow +of compassion is likewise to be set a peculiar calm kind of satisfaction, +which accompanies it, unless in cases where the distress of another is by +some means so brought home to ourselves as to become in a manner our own; +or when from weakness of mind the affection rises too high, which ought +to be corrected. This tranquillity, or calm satisfaction, proceeds +partly from consciousness of a right affection and temper of mind, and +partly from a sense of our own freedom from the misery we compassionate. +This last may possibly appear to some at first sight faulty; but it +really is not so. It is the same with that positive enjoyment, which +sudden ease from pain for the present affords, arising from a real sense +of misery, joined with a sense of our freedom from it; which in all cases +must afford some degree of satisfaction. + +To these things must be added the observation which respects both the +affections we are considering; that they who have got over all fellow- +feeling for others have withal contracted a certain callousness of heart, +which renders them insensible to most other satisfactions but those of +the grossest kind. + +Secondly, Without the exercise of these affections men would certainly be +much more wanting in the offices of charity they owe to cache other, and +likewise more cruel and injurious than they are at present. + +The private interest of the individual would not be sufficiently provided +for by reasonable and cool self-love alone; therefore the appetites and +passions are placed within as a guard and further security, without which +it would not be taken due care of. It is manifest our life would be +neglected were it not for the calls of hunger and thirst and weariness; +notwithstanding that without them reason would assure us that the +recruits of food and sleep are the necessary means of our preservation. +It is therefore absurd to imagine that, without affections, the same +reason alone would be more effectual to engage us to perform the duties +we owe to our fellow-creatures. One of this make would be as defective, +as much wanting, considered with respect to society, as one of the former +make would be defective, or wanting, considered as an individual, or in +his private capacity. Is it possible any can in earnest think that a +public spirit, _i.e._, a settled reasonable principle of benevolence to +mankind, is so prevalent and strong in the species as that we may venture +to throw off the under affections, which are its assistants, carry it +forward and mark out particular courses for it; family, friends, +neighbourhood, the distressed, our country? The common joys and the +common sorrows, which belong to these relations and circumstances, are as +plainly useful to society as the pain and pleasure belonging to hunger, +thirst, and weariness are of service to the individual. In defect of +that higher principle of reason, compassion is often the only way by +which the indigent can have access to us: and therefore, to eradicate +this, though it is not indeed formally to deny them that assistance which +is their due; yet it is to cut them off from that which is too frequently +their only way of obtaining it. And as for those who have shut up this +door against the complaints of the miserable, and conquered this +affection in themselves; even these persons will be under great +restraints from the same affection in others. Thus a man who has himself +no sense of injustice, cruelty, oppression, will be kept from running the +utmost lengths of wickedness by fear of that detestation, and even +resentment of inhumanity, in many particular instances of it, which +compassion for the object towards whom such inhumanity is exercised, +excites in the bulk of mankind. And this is frequently the chief danger +and the chief restraint which tyrants and the great oppressors of the +world feel. + +In general, experience will show that, as want of natural appetite to +food supposes and proceeds from some bodily disease; so the apathy the +Stoics talk of as much supposes, or is accompanied with, somewhat amiss +in the moral character, in that which is the health of the mind. Those +who formerly aimed at this upon the foot of philosophy appear to have had +better success in eradicating the affections of tenderness and compassion +than they had with the passions of envy, pride, and resentment: these +latter, at best, were but concealed, and that imperfectly too. How far +this observation may be extended to such as endeavour to suppress the +natural impulses of their affections, in order to form themselves for +business and the world, I shall not determine. But there does not appear +any capacity or relation to be named, in which men ought to be entirely +deaf to the calls of affection, unless the judicial one is to be +excepted. + +And as to those who are commonly called the men of pleasure, it is +manifest that the reason they set up for hardness of heart is to avoid +being interrupted in their course by the ruin and misery they are the +authors of; neither are persons of this character always the most free +from the impotencies of envy and resentment. What may men at last bring +themselves to, by suppressing their passions and affections of one kind, +and leaving those of the other in their full strength? But surely it +might be expected that persons who make pleasure their study and their +business, if they understood what they profess, would reflect, how many +of the entertainments of life, how many of those kind of amusements which +seem peculiarly to belong to men of leisure and education they became +insensible to by this acquired hardness of heart. + +I shall close these reflections with barely mentioning the behaviour of +that divine Person, who was the example of all perfection in human +nature, as represented in the Gospels mourning, and even, in a literal +sense, weeping over the distresses of His creatures. + +The observation already made, that, of the two affections mentioned in +the text, the latter exerts itself much more than the former; that, from +the original constitution of human nature, we much more generally and +sensibly compassionate the distressed than rejoice within the prosperous, +requires to be particularly considered. This observation, therefore, +with the reflections which arise out of it, and which it leads our +thoughts to, shall be the subject of another discourse. + +For the conclusion of this, let me just take notice of the danger of over- +great refinements; of going beside or beyond the plain, obvious, first +appearances of things, upon the subject of morals and religion. The +least observation will show how little the generality of men are capable +of speculations. Therefore morality and religion must be somewhat plan +and easy to be understood: it must appeal to what we call plain common +sense, as distinguished from superior capacity and improvement; because +it appeals to mankind. Persons of superior capacity and improvement have +often fallen into errors which no one of mere common understanding could. +Is it possible that one of this latter character could even of himself +have thought that there was absolutely no such thing in mankind as +affection to the good of others? suppose of parents to their children; or +that what he felt upon seeing a friend in distress was only fear for +himself; or, upon supposition of the affections of kindness and +compassion, that it was the business of wisdom and virtue to set him +about extirpating them as fast as he could? And yet each of these +manifest contradictions to nature has been laid down by men of +speculation as a discovery in moral philosophy; which they, it seems, +have found out through all the specious appearances to the contrary. This +reflection may be extended further. The extravagances of enthusiasm and +superstition do not at all lie in the road of common sense; and +therefore, so far as they are _original mistakes_, must be owing to going +beside or beyond it. Now, since inquiry and examination can relate only +to things so obscure and uncertain as to stand in need of it, and to +persons who are capable of it; the proper advice to be given to plain +honest men, to secure them from the extremes both of superstition and +irreligion, is that of the Son of Sirach: _In every good work trust thy +own soul_; _for this is the keeping of the commandment_. {14} + + + + +SERMON VI. UPON COMPASSION. +PREACHED THE FIRST SUNDAY IN LENT. + + + Rom. xii. 15. + + _Rejoice with then that do rejoice_, _and weep with them that weep_. + +There is a much more exact correspondence between the natural and moral +world than we are apt to take notice of. The inward frame of man does in +a peculiar manner answer to the external condition and circumstances of +life in which he is placed. This is a particular instance of that +general observation of the Son of Sirach: _All things are double one +against another_, _and God hath made nothing imperfect_. {15} The +several passions and affections in the heart of man, compared with the +circumstances of life in which he is placed, afford, to such as will +attend to them, as certain instances of final causes, as any whatever, +which are more commonly alleged for such: since those affections lead him +to a certain determinate course of action suitable to those +circumstances; as (for instance) compassion to relieve the distressed. +And as all observations of final causes, drawn from the principles of +action in the heart of man, compared with the condition he is placed in, +serve all the good uses which instances of final causes in the material +world about us do; and both these are equally proofs of wisdom and design +in the Author of nature: so the former serve to further good purposes; +they show us what course of life we are made for, what is our duty, and +in a peculiar manner enforce upon us the practice of it. + +Suppose we are capable of happiness and of misery in degrees equally +intense and extreme, yet, we are capable of the latter for a much longer +time, beyond all comparison. We see men in the tortures of pain for +hours, days, and, excepting the short suspensions of sleep, for months +together, without intermission, to which no enjoyments of life do, in +degree and continuance, bear any sort of proportion. And such is our +make and that of the world about us that any thing may become the +instrument of pain and sorrow to us. Thus almost any one man is capable +of doing mischief to any other, though he may not be capable of doing him +good; and if he be capable of doing him some good, he is capable of doing +him more evil. And it is, in numberless cases, much more in our power to +lessen the miseries of others than to promote their positive happiness, +any otherwise than as the former often includes the latter; ease from +misery occasioning for some time the greatest positive enjoyment. This +constitution of nature, namely, that it is so munch more in our power to +occasion and likewise to lessen misery than to promote positive +happiness, plainly required a particular affection to hinder us from +abusing, and to incline us to make a right use of the former powers, +_i.e._, the powers both to occasion and to lessen misery; over and above +what was necessary to induce us to make a right use of the latter power, +that of promoting positive happiness. The power we have over the misery +of our fellow-creatures, to occasion or lessen it, being a more important +trust than the power we have of promoting their positive happiness; the +former requires and has a further, an additional, security and guard +against its being violated, beyond and over and above what the latter +has. The social nature of man, and general goodwill to his species, +equally prevent him from doing evil, incline him to relieve the +distressed, and to promote the positive happiness of his +fellow-creatures; but compassion only restrains from the first, and +carries him to the second; it hath nothing to do with the third. + +The final causes, then, of compassion are to prevent and to relieve +misery. + +As to the former: this affection may plainly be a restraint upon +resentment, envy, unreasonable self-love; that is, upon all the +principles from which men do evil to one another. Let us instance only +in resentment. It seldom happens, in regulated societies, that men have +an enemy so entirely in their power as to be able to satiate their +resentment with safety. But if we were to put this case, it is plainly +supposable that a person might bring his enemy into such a condition, as +from being the object of anger and rage, to become an object of +compassion, even to himself, though the most malicious man in the world; +and in this case compassion would stop him, if he could stop with safety, +from pursuing his revenge any further. But since nature has placed +within us more powerful restraints to prevent mischief, and since the +final cause of compassion is much more to relieve misery, let us go on to +the consideration of it in this view. + +As this world was not intended to be a state of any great satisfaction or +high enjoyment, so neither was it intended to be a mere scene of +unhappiness and sorrow. Mitigations and reliefs are provided by the +merciful Author of nature for most of the afflictions in human life. +There is kind provision made even against our frailties: as we are so +constituted that time abundantly abates our sorrows, and begets in us +that resignment of temper, which ought to have been produced by a better +cause; a due sense of the authority of God, and our state of dependence. +This holds in respect too far the greatest part of the evils of life; I +suppose, in some degree, as to pain and sickness. Now this part of the +constitution or make of man, considered as some relief to misery, and not +as provision for positive happiness, is, if I may so speak, an instance +of nature's compassion for us; and every natural remedy or relief to +misery may be considered in the same view. + +But since in many cases it is very much in our power to alleviate the +miseries of each other; and benevolence, though natural in man to man, +yet is in a very low degree kept down by interest and competitions; and +men, for the most part, are so engaged in the business and pleasures of +the world, as to overlook and turn away from objects of misery; which are +plainly considered as interruptions to them in their way, as intruders +upon their business, their gaiety, and mirth: compassion is an advocate +within us in their behalf, to gain the unhappy admittance and access, to +make their case attended to. If it sometimes serves a contrary purpose, +and makes men industriously turn away from the miserable, these are only +instances of abuse and perversion: for the end, for which the affection +was given us, most certainly is not to make us avoid, but to make us +attend to, the objects of it. And if men would only resolve to allow +thus much to it: let it bring before their view, the view of their mind, +the miseries of their fellow-creatures; let it gain for them that their +case be considered; I am persuaded it would not fail of gaining more, and +that very few real objects of charity would pass unrelieved. Pain and +sorrow and misery have a right to our assistance: compassion puts us in +mind of the debt, and that we owe it to ourselves as well as to the +distressed. For, to endeavour to get rid of the sorrow of compassion by +turning from the wretched, when yet it is in our power to relieve them, +is as unnatural as to endeavour to get rid of the pain of hunger by +keeping from the sight of food. That we can do one with greater success +than we can the other is no proof that one is less a violation of nature +than the other. Compassion is a call, a demand of nature, to relieve the +unhappy as hunger is a natural call for food. This affection plainly +gives the objects of it an additional claim to relief and mercy, over and +above what our fellow-creatures in common have to our goodwill. +Liberality and bounty are exceedingly commendable; and a particular +distinction in such a world as this, where men set themselves to contract +their heart, and close it to all interests but their own. It is by no +means to be opposed to mercy, but always accompanies it: the distinction +between them is only that the former leads our thoughts to a more +promiscuous and undistinguished distribution of favours; to those who are +not, as well as those who are, necessitous; whereas the object of +compassion is misery. But in the comparison, and where there is not a +possibility of both, mercy is to have the preference: the affection of +compassion manifestly leads us to this preference. Thus, to relieve the +indigent and distressed, to single out the unhappy, from whom can be +expected no returns either of present entertainment or future service, +for the objects of our favours; to esteem a man's being friendless as a +recommendation; dejection, and incapacity of struggling through the +world, as a motive for assisting him; in a word, to consider these +circumstances of disadvantage, which are usually thought a sufficient +reason for neglect and overlooking a person, as a motive for helping him +forward: this is the course of benevolence which compassion marks out and +directs us to: this is that humanity which is so peculiarly becoming our +nature and circumstances in this world. + +To these considerations, drawn from the nature of man, must be added the +reason of the thing itself we are recommending, which accords to and +shows the same. For since it is so much more in our power to lessen the +misery of our fellow-creatures than to promote their positive happiness; +in cases where there is an inconsistency, we shall be likely to do much +more good by setting ourselves to mitigate the former than by +endeavouring to promote the latter. Let the competition be between the +poor and the rich. It is easy, you will say, to see which will have the +preference. True; but the question is, which ought to have the +preference? What proportion is there between the happiness produced by +doing a favour to the indigent, and that produced by doing the same +favour to one in easy circumstances? It is manifest that the addition of +a very large estate to one who before had an affluence, will in many +instances yield him less new enjoyment or satisfaction than an ordinary +charity would yield to a necessitous person. So that it is not only true +that our nature, _i.e._, the voice of God within us, carries us to the +exercise of charity and benevolence in the way of compassion or mercy, +preferably to any other way; but we also manifestly discern much more +good done by the former; or, if you will allow me the expressions, more +misery annihilated and happiness created. If charity and benevolence, +and endeavouring to do good to our fellow-creatures, be anything, this +observation deserves to be most seriously considered by all who have to +bestow. And it holds with great exactness, when applied to the several +degrees of greater and less indigency throughout the various ranks in +human life: the happiness or good produced not being in proportion to +what is bestowed, but in proportion to this joined with the need there +was of it. + +It may perhaps be expected that upon this subject notice should be taken +of occasions, circumstances, and characters which seem at once to call +forth affections of different sorts. Thus vice may be thought the object +both of pity and indignation: folly, of pity and of laughter. How far +this is strictly true, I shall not inquire; but only observe upon the +appearance, how much more humane it is to yield and give scope to +affections, which are most directly in favour of, and friendly towards, +our fellow-creatures; and that there is plainly much less danger of being +led wrong by these than by the other. + +But, notwithstanding all that has been said in recommendation of +compassion, that it is most amiable, most becoming human nature, and most +useful to the world; yet it must be owned that every affection, as +distinct from a principle of reason, may rise too high, and be beyond its +just proportion. And by means of this one carried too far, a man +throughout his life is subject to much more uneasiness than belongs to +his share; and in particular instances, it may be in such a degree as to +incapacitate him from assisting the very person who is the object of it. +But as there are some who upon principle set up for suppressing this +affection itself as weakness, there is also I know not what of fashion on +this side; and, by some means or other, the whole world almost is run +into the extremes of insensibility towards the distresses of their fellow- +creatures: so that general rules and exhortations must always be on the +other side. + +And now to go on to the uses we should make of the foregoing reflections, +the further ones they lead to, and the general temper they have a +tendency to beget in us. There being that distinct affection implanted +in the nature of man, tending to lessen the miseries of life, that +particular provision made for abating its sorrows, more than for +increasing its positive happiness, as before explained; this may suggest +to us what should be our general aim respecting ourselves, in our passage +through this world: namely, to endeavour chiefly to escape misery, keep +free from uneasiness, pain, and sorrow, or to get relief and mitigation +of them; to propose to ourselves peace and tranquillity of mind, rather +than pursue after high enjoyments. This is what the constitution of +nature before explained marks out as the course we should follow, and the +end we should aim at. To make pleasure and mirth and jollity our +business, and be constantly hurrying about after some gay amusement, some +new gratification of sense or appetite, to those who will consider the +nature of man and our condition in this world, will appear the most +romantic scheme of life that ever entered into thought. And yet how many +are there who go on in this course, without learning better from the +daily, the hourly disappointments, listlessness, and satiety which +accompany this fashionable method of wasting away their days! + +The subject we have been insisting upon would lead us into the same kind +of reflections by a different connection. The miseries of life brought +home to ourselves by compassion, viewed through this affection considered +as the sense by which they are perceived, would beget in us that +moderation, humility, and soberness of mind which has been now +recommended; and which peculiarly belongs to a season of recollection, +the only purpose of which is to bring us to a just sense of things, to +recover us out of that forgetfulness of ourselves, and our true state, +which it is manifest far the greatest part of men pass their whole life +in. Upon this account Solomon says that _it is better to go to the house +of mourning than to go to the house of feasting_; _i.e._, it is more to a +man's advantage to turn his eyes towards objects of distress, to recall +sometimes to his remembrance the occasions of sorrow, than to pass all +his days in thoughtless mirth and gaiety. And he represents the wise as +choosing to frequent the former of these places; to be sure not for his +own sake, but because _by the sadness of the countenance_, _the heart is +made better_. Every one observes how temperate and reasonable men are +when humbled and brought low by afflictions in comparison of what they +are in high prosperity. By this voluntary resort to the house of +mourning, which is here recommended, we might learn all those useful +instructions which calamities teach without undergoing them ourselves; +and grow wiser and better at a more easy rate than men commonly do. The +objects themselves, which in that place of sorrow lie before our view, +naturally give us a seriousness and attention, check that wantonness +which is the growth of prosperity and ease, and head us to reflect upon +the deficiencies of human life itself; that _every man at his best estate +is altogether vanity_. This would correct the florid and gaudy prospects +and expectations which we are too apt to indulge, teach us to lower our +notions of happiness and enjoyment, bring them down to the reality of +things, to what is attainable, to what the frailty of our condition will +admit of, which, for any continuance, is only tranquillity, ease, and +moderate satisfactions. Thus we might at once become proof against the +temptations with which the whole world almost is carried away; since it +is plain that not only what is called a life of pleasure, but also +vicious pursuits in general, aim at somewhat besides and beyond these +moderate satisfactions. + +And as to that obstinacy and wilfulness, which renders men so insensible +to the motives of religion; this right sense of ourselves and of the +world about us would bend the stubborn mind, soften the heart, and make +it more apt to receive impression; and this is the proper temper in which +to call our ways to remembrance, to review and set home upon ourselves +the miscarriages of our past life. In such a compliant state of mind, +reason and conscience will have a fair hearing; which is the preparation +for, or rather the beginning of, that repentance, the outward show of +which we all put on at this season. + +Lastly, The various miseries of life which lie before us wherever we turn +our eyes, the frailty of this mortal state we are passing through, may +put us in mind that the present world is not our home; that we are merely +strangers and travellers in it, as all our fathers were. It is therefore +to be considered as a foreign country; in which our poverty and wants, +and the insufficient supplies of them, were designed to turn our views to +that higher and better state we are heirs to: a state where will be no +follies to be overlooked, no miseries to be pitied, no wants to be +relieved; where the affection we have been now treating of will happily +be lost, as there will be no objects to exercise it upon: for _God shall +wipe away all tears from their eyes_, _and there shall be no more death_, +_neither sorrow_, _nor crying_; _neither shall there be any more pain_; +_for the former things are passed away_. + + + + +SERMON VII. UPON THE CHARACTER OF BALAAM. +PREACHED THE SECOND SUNDAY AFTER EASTER. + + + NUMBERS xxiii. 10. + + _Let me die the death of the righteous_, _and let my last end be like + his_. + +These words, taken alone, and without respect to him who spoke them, lead +our thoughts immediately to the different ends of good and bad men. For +though the comparison is not expressed, yet it is manifestly implied; as +is also the preference of one of these characters to the other in that +last circumstance, death. And, since dying the death of the righteous or +of the wicked necessarily implies men's being righteous or wicked; +_i.e._, having lived righteously or wickedly; a comparison of them in +their lives also might come into consideration, from such a single view +of the words themselves. But my present design is to consider them with +a particular reference or respect to him who spoke them; which reference, +if you please to attend, you will see. And if what shall be offered to +your consideration at this time be thought a discourse upon the whole +history of this man, rather than upon the particular words I have read, +this is of no consequence: it is sufficient if it afford reflection of +use and service to ourselves. + +But, in order to avoid cavils respecting this remarkable relation in +Scripture, either that part of it which you have heard in the first +lesson for the day, or any other; let me just observe that as this is not +a place for answering them, so they no way affect the following +discourse; since the character there given is plainly a real one in life, +and such as there are parallels to. + +The occasion of Balaam's coming out of his own country into the land of +Moab, where he pronounced this solemn prayer or wish, he himself relates +in the first parable or prophetic speech, of which it is the conclusion. +In which is a custom referred to, proper to be taken notice of: that of +devoting enemies to destruction before the entrance upon a war with them. +This custom appears to have prevailed over a great part of the world; for +we find it amongst the most distant nations. The Romans had public +officers, to whom it belonged as a stated part of their office. But +there was somewhat more particular in the case now before us: Balaam +being looked upon as an extraordinary person, whose blessing or curse was +thought to be always effectual. + +In order to engage the reader's attention to this passage, the sacred +historian has enumerated the preparatory circumstances, which are these. +Balaam requires the king of Moab to build him seven altars, and to +prepare him the same number of oxen and of rams. The sacrifice being +over, he retires alone to a solitude sacred to these occasions, there to +wait the Divine inspiration or answer, for which the foregoing rites were +the preparation. _And God met Balaam_, _and put a word in his mouth_; +{16} upon receiving which, he returns back to the altars, where was the +king, who had all this while attended the sacrifice, as appointed; he and +all the princes of Moab standing, big with expectation of the Prophet's +reply. _And he took up his parable_, _and said_, _Balak the king of Moab +hath brought me from Aram_, _out of the mountains of the east_, _saying_, +_Come_, _curse me Jacob_, _and come_, _defy Israel_. _How shall I +curse_, _whom God hath not cursed_? _Or how shall I defy_, _whom the +Lord hath not defied_? _For from the top of the rocks I see him_, _and +from the hills I behold him_: _lo_, _the people shall dwell alone_, _and +shall not be reckoned among the nations_. _Who can count the dust of +Jacob_, _and the number of the fourth part of Israel_? _Let me die the +death of the righteous_, _and let my last end be like his_. {17} + +It is necessary, as you will see in the progress of this discourse, +particularly to observe what he understood by _righteous_. And he +himself is introduced in the book of Micah {18} explaining it; if by +_righteous_ is meant _good_, as to be sure it is. _O my people_, +_remember now what Balak king of Moab consulted_, _and what Balaam the +son of Beor answered him from Shittim unto Gilgal_. From the mention of +Shittim it is manifest that it is this very story which is here referred +to, though another part of it, the account of which is not now extant; as +there are many quotations in Scripture out of books which are not come +down to us. _Remember what Balaam answered_, _that ye may know the +righteousness of the Lord_; _i.e._, the righteousness which God will +accept. Balak demands, _Wherewith shall I come before the Lord_, _and +bow myself before the high God_? _Shall I come before him with burnt- +offerings_, _with calves of a year old_? _Will the Lord be pleased with +thousands of rams_, _or with ten thousands of rivers of oil_? _Shall I +give my first-born for my transgression_, _the fruit of my body for the +sin of my soul_? Balaam answers him, _he hath showed thee_, _O man_, +_what is good_: _and what doth the Lord require of thee_, _but to do +justly_, _and to love mercy_, _and to walk humbly with thy God_? Here is +a good man expressly characterised, as distinct from a dishonest and a +superstitious man. No words can more strongly exclude dishonesty and +falseness of heart than _doing justice and loving mercy_; and both these, +as well as _walking humbly with God_, are put in opposition to those +ceremonial methods of recommendation, which Balak hoped might have served +the turn. From hence appears what he meant by the _righteous_, whose +_death_ he desires to die. + +Whether it was his own character shall now be inquired; and in order to +determine it, we must take a view of his whole behaviour upon this +occasion. When the elders of Noah came to him, though he appears to have +been much allured with the rewards offered, yet he had such regard to the +authority of God as to keep the messengers in suspense until he had +consulted His will. _And God said to him_, _Thou shalt not go with +them_; _thou shalt not curse the people_, _for they are blessed_. {19} +Upon this he dismisses the ambassadors, with an absolute refusal of +accompanying them back to their king. Thus far his regards to his duty +prevailed, neither does there anything appear as yet amiss in his +conduct. His answer being reported to the king of Moab, a more +honourable embassy is immediately despatched, and greater rewards +proposed. Then the iniquity of his heart began to disclose itself. A +thorough honest man would without hesitation have repeated his former +answer, that he could not be guilty of so infamous a prostitution of the +sacred character with which he was invested, as in the name of a prophet +to curse those whom he knew to be blessed. But instead of this, which +was the only honest part in these circumstances that lay before him, he +desires the princes of Moab to tarry that night with him also; and for +the sake of the reward deliberates, whether by some means or other he +might not be able to obtain leave to curse Israel; to do that, which had +been before revealed to him to be contrary to the will of God, which yet +he resolves not to do without that permission. Upon which, as when this +nation afterwards rejected God from reigning over them, He gave them a +king in His anger; in the same way, as appears from other parts of the +narration, He gives Balaam the permission he desired: for this is the +most natural sense of the words. Arriving in the territories of Moab, +and being received with particular distinction by the king, and he +repeating in person the promise of the rewards he had before made to him +by his ambassadors, he seeks, the text says, by _sacrifices_ and +_enchantments_ (what these were is not to our purpose), to obtain leave +of God to curse the people; keeping still his resolution, not to do it +without that permission: which not being able to obtain, he had such +regard to the command of God as to keep this resolution to the last. The +supposition of his being under a supernatural restraint is a mere fiction +of Philo: he is plainly represented to be under no other force or +restraint than the fear of God. However, he goes on persevering in that +endeavour, after he had declared that _God had not beheld iniquity in +Jacob_, _neither had he seen perverseness in Israel_; {20} _i.e._, they +were a people of virtue and piety, so far as not to have drawn down by +their iniquity that curse which he was soliciting leave to pronounce upon +them. So that the state of Balaam's mind was this: he wanted to do what +he knew to be very wicked, and contrary to the express command of God; he +had inward checks and restraints which he could not entirely get over; he +therefore casts about for ways to reconcile this wickedness with his +duty. How great a paradox soever this may appear, as it is indeed a +contradiction in terms, it is the very account which the Scripture gives +us of him. + +But there is a more surprising piece of iniquity yet behind. Not daring +in his religious character, as a prophet, to assist the king of Moab, he +considers whether there might not be found some other means of assisting +him against that very people, whom he himself by the fear of God was +restrained from cursing in words. One would not think it possible that +the weakness, even of religious self-deceit in its utmost excess, could +have so poor a distinction, so fond an evasion, to serve itself of. But +so it was; and he could think of no other method than to betray the +children of Israel to provoke His wrath, who was their only strength and +defence. The temptation which he pitched upon was that concerning which +Solomon afterwards observed, that it had _cast down many wounded_; _yea_, +_many strong men had been slain by it_: and of which he himself was a sad +example, when _his wives turned away his heart after other gods_. This +succeeded: the people sin against God; and thus the Prophet's counsel +brought on that destruction which he could by no means be prevailed upon +to assist with the religious ceremony of execration, which the king of +Moab thought would itself have affected it. Their crime and punishment +are related in Deuteronomy {21} and Numbers. {22} And from the relation +repeated in Numbers, {23} it appears, that Balaam was the contriver of +the whole matter. It is also ascribed to him in the Revelation, {24} +where he is said to have _taught Balak to cast a stumbling-block before +the children of Israel_. + +This was the man, this Balaam, I say, was the man, who desired to _die +the death of the righteous_, and that his _last end might be like his_; +and this was the state of his mind when he pronounced these words. + +So that the object we have now before us is the most astonishing in the +world: a very wicked man, under a deep sense of God and religion, +persisting still in his wickedness, and preferring the wages of +unrighteousness, even when he had before him a lively view of death, and +that approaching period of his days, which should deprive him of all +those advantages for which he was prostituting himself; and likewise a +prospect, whether certain or uncertain, of a future state of retribution; +all this joined with an explicit ardent wish that, when he was to leave +this world, he might be in the condition of a righteous man. Good God! +what inconsistency, what perplexity is here! With what different views +of things, with what contradictory principles of action, must such a mind +be torn and distracted! It was not unthinking carelessness, by which he +ran on headlong in vice and folly, without ever making a stand to ask +himself what he was doing: no; he acted upon the cool motives of interest +and advantage. Neither was he totally hard and callous to impressions of +religion, what we call abandoned; for he absolutely denied to curse +Israel. When reason assumes her place, when convinced of his duty, when +he owns and feels, and is actually under the influence of the divine +authority; whilst he is carrying on his views to the grave, the end of +all temporal greatness; under this sense of things, with the better +character and more desirable state present--full before him--in his +thoughts, in his wishes, voluntarily to choose the worse--what fatality +is here! Or how otherwise can such a character be explained? And yet, +strange as it may appear, it is not altogether an uncommon one: nay, with +some small alterations, and put a little lower, it is applicable to a +very considerable part of the world. For if the reasonable choice be +seen and acknowledged, and yet men make the unreasonable one, is not this +the same contradiction; that very inconsistency, which appeared so +unaccountable? + +To give some little opening to such characters and behaviour, it is to be +observed in general that there is no account to be given in the way of +reason, of men's so strong attachments to the present world: our hopes +and fears and pursuits are in degrees beyond all proportion to the known +value of the things they respect. This may be said without taking into +consideration religion and a future state; and when these are considered, +the disproportion is infinitely heightened. Now when men go against +their reason, and contradict a more important interest at a distance, for +one nearer, though of less consideration; if this be the whole of the +case, all that can be said is, that strong passions, some kind of brute +force within, prevails over the principle of rationality. However, if +this be with a clear, full, and distinct view of the truth of things, +then it is doing the utmost violence to themselves, acting in the most +palpable contradiction to their very nature. But if there be any such +thing in mankind as putting half-deceits upon themselves; which there +plainly is, either by avoiding reflection, or (if they do reflect) by +religious equivocation, subterfuges, and palliating matters to +themselves; by these means conscience may be laid asleep, and they may go +on in a course of wickedness with less disturbance. All the various +turns, doubles, and intricacies in a dishonest heart cannot be unfolded +or laid open; but that there is somewhat of that kind is manifest, be it +to be called self-deceit, or by any other name. Balaam had before his +eyes the authority of God, absolutely forbidding him what he, for the +sake of a reward, had the strongest inclination to: he was likewise in a +state of mind sober enough to consider death and his last end: by these +considerations he was restrained, first from going to the king of Moab, +and after he did go, from cursing Israel. But notwithstanding this, +there was great wickedness in his heart. He could not forego the rewards +of unrighteousness: he therefore first seeks for indulgences, and when +these could not be obtained, he sins against the whole meaning, end, and +design of the prohibition, which no consideration in the world could +prevail with him to go against the letter of. And surely that impious +counsel he gave to Balak against the children of Israel was, considered +in itself, a greater piece of wickedness than if he had cursed them in +words. + +If it be inquired what his situation, his hopes, and fears were, in +respect to this his wish; the answer must be, that consciousness of the +wickedness of his heart must necessarily have destroyed all settled hopes +of dying the death of the righteous: he could have no calm satisfaction +in this view of his last end: yet, on the other hand, it is possible that +those partial regards to his duty, now mentioned, might keep him from +perfect despair. + +Upon the whole it is manifest that Balaam had the most just and true +notions of God and religion; as appears, partly from the original story +itself, and more plainly from the passage in Micah; where he explains +religion to consist in real virtue and real piety, expressly +distinguished from superstition, and in terms which most strongly exclude +dishonesty and falseness of heart. Yet you see his behaviour: he seeks +indulgences for plain wickedness, which not being able to obtain he +glosses over that same wickedness, dresses it up in a new form, in order +to make it pass off more easily with himself. That is, he deliberately +contrives to deceive and impose upon himself in a matter which he knew to +be of the utmost importance. + +To bring these observations home to ourselves: it is too evident that +many persons allow themselves in very unjustifiable courses who yet make +great pretences to religion; not to deceive the world, none can be so +weak as to think this will pass in our age; but from principles, hopes, +and fears, respecting God and a future state; and go on thus with a sort +of tranquillity and quiet of mind. This cannot be upon a thorough +consideration, and full resolution, that the pleasures and advantages +they propose are to be pursued at all hazards, against reason, against +the law of God, and though everlasting destruction is to be the +consequence. This would be doing too great violence upon themselves. No, +they are for making a composition with the Almighty. These of His +commands they will obey; but as to others--why, they will make all the +atonements in their power; the ambitious, the covetous, the dissolute +man, each in a way which shall not contradict his respective pursuit. +Indulgences before, which was Balaam's first attempt, though he was not +so successful in it as to deceive himself, or atonements afterwards, are +all the same. And here, perhaps, come in faint hopes that they may, and +half-resolves that they will, one time or other, make a change. + +Besides these there are also persons, who, from a more just way of +considering things, see the infinite absurdity of this, of substituting +sacrifice instead of obedience; there are persons far enough from +superstition, and not without some real sense of God and religion upon +their minds; who yet are guilty of most unjustifiable practices, and go +on with great coolness and command over themselves. The same dishonesty +and unsoundness of heart discovers itself in these another way. In all +common ordinary cases we see intuitively at first view what is our duty, +what is the honest part. This is the ground of the observation, that the +first thought is often the best. In these cases doubt and deliberation +is itself dishonesty, as it was in Balaam upon the second message. That +which is called considering what is our duty in a particular case is very +often nothing but endeavouring to explain it away. Thus those courses, +which, if men would fairly attend to the dictates of their own +consciences, they would see to be corruption, excess, oppression, +uncharitableness; these are refined upon--things were so and so +circumstantiated--great difficulties are raised about fixing bounds and +degrees, and thus every moral obligation whatever may be evaded. Here is +scope, I say, for an unfair mind to explain away every moral obligation +to itself. Whether men reflect again upon this internal management and +artifice, and how explicit they are with themselves, is another question. +There are many operations of the mind, many things pass within, which we +never reflect upon again; which a bystander, from having frequent +opportunities of observing us and our conduct, may make shrewd guesses +at. + +That great numbers are in this way of deceiving themselves is certain. +There is scarce a man in the world, who has entirely got over all +regards, hopes, and fears, concerning God and a future state; and these +apprehensions in the generality, bad as we are, prevail in considerable +degrees: yet men will and can be wicked, with calmness and thought; we +see they are. There must therefore be some method of making it sit a +little easy upon their minds; which, in the superstitious, is those +indulgences and atonements before mentioned, and this self-deceit of +another kind in persons of another character. And both these proceed +from a certain unfairness of mind, a peculiar inward dishonesty; the +direct contrary to that simplicity which our Saviour recommends, under +the notion of _becoming little children_, as a necessary qualification +for our entering into the kingdom of heaven. + +But to conclude: How much soever men differ in the course of life they +prefer, and in their ways of palliating and excusing their vices to +themselves; yet all agree in one thing, desiring to _die the death of the +righteous_. This is surely remarkable. The observation may be extended +further, and put thus: even without determining what that is which we +call guilt or innocence, there is no man but would choose, after having +had the pleasure or advantage of a vicious action, to be free of the +guilt of it, to be in the state of an innocent man. This shows at least +the disturbance and implicit dissatisfaction in vice. If we inquire into +the grounds of it, we shall find it proceeds partly from an immediate +sense of having done evil, and partly from an apprehension that this +inward sense shall one time or another be seconded by a higher judgment, +upon which our whole being depends. Now to suspend and drown this sense, +and these apprehensions, be it by the hurry of business or of pleasure, +or by superstition, or moral equivocations, this is in a manner one and +the same, and makes no alteration at all in the nature of our case. +Things and actions are what they are, and the consequences of them will +be what they will be: why, then, should we desire to be deceived? As we +are reasonable creatures, and have any regard to ourselves, we ought to +lay these things plainly and honestly before our mind, and upon this, act +as you please, as you think most fit: make that choice, and prefer that +course of life, which you can justify to yourselves, and which sits most +easy upon your own mind. It will immediately appear that vice cannot be +the happiness, but must upon the whole be the misery, of such a creature +as man; a moral, an accountable agent. Superstitious observances, self- +deceit though of a more refined sort, will not in reality at all mend +matters with us. And the result of the whole can be nothing else, but +that with simplicity and fairness we _keep innocency_, _and take heed +unto the thing that is right_; _for this alone shall bring a man peace at +the last_. + + + + +SERMON XI. {24a} UPON THE LOVE OF OUR NEIGHBOUR. +PREACHED ON ADVENT SUNDAY. + + + ROMANS xiii. 9. + + _And if there be any other commandment_, _it is briefly comprehended + in this saying_, _namely_, _Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself_. + +It is commonly observed that there is a disposition in men to complain of +the viciousness and corruption of the age in which they live as greater +than that of former ones; which is usually followed with this further +observation, that mankind has been in that respect much the same in all +times. Now, not to determine whether this last be not contradicted by +the accounts of history; thus much can scarce be doubted, that vice and +folly takes different turns, and some particular kinds of it are more +open and avowed in some ages than in others; and, I suppose, it may be +spoken of as very much the distinction of the present to profess a +contracted spirit, and greater regards to self-interest, than appears to +have been done formerly. Upon this account it seems worth while to +inquire whether private interest is likely to be promoted in proportion +to the degree in which self-love engrosses us, and prevails over all +other principles; _or whether the contracted affection may not possibly +be so prevalent as to disappoint itself_, _and even contradict its own +and private good_. + +And since, further, there is generally thought to be some peculiar kind +of contrariety between self-love and the love of our neighbour, between +the pursuit of public and of private good; insomuch that when you are +recommending one of these, you are supposed to be speaking against the +other; and from hence arises a secret prejudice against, and frequently +open scorn of, all talk of public spirit and real good-will to our fellow- +creatures; it will be necessary to _inquire what respect benevolence hath +to self-love_, _and the pursuit of private interest to the pursuit of +public_: or whether there be anything of that peculiar inconsistence and +contrariety between them over and above what there is between self-love +and other passions and particular affections, and their respective +pursuits. + +These inquiries, it is hoped, may be favourably attended to; for there +shall be all possible concessions made to the favourite passion, which +hath so much allowed to it, and whose cause is so universally pleaded: it +shall be treated with the utmost tenderness and concern for its +interests. + +In order to do this, as well as to determine the forementioned questions, +it will be necessary to _consider the nature_, _the object_, _and end of +that self-love_, _as distinguished from other principles or affections in +the mind_, _and their respective objects_. + +Every man hath a general desire of his own happiness; and likewise a +variety of particular affections, passions, and appetites to particular +external objects. The former proceeds from, or is, self-love; and seems +inseparable from all sensible creatures, who can reflect upon themselves +and their own interest or happiness so as to have that interest an object +to their minds; what is to be said of the latter is, that they proceed +from or together make up that particular nature, according to which man +is made. The object the former pursues is somewhat internal--our own +happiness, enjoyment, satisfaction; whether we have, or have not, a +distinct particular perception what it is, or wherein it consists: the +objects of the latter are this or that particular external thing, which +the affections tend towards, and of which it hath always a particular +idea or perception. The principle we call self-love never seeks anything +external for the sake of the thing, but only as a means of happiness or +good: particular affections rest in the external things themselves. One +belongs to man as a reasonable creature reflecting upon his own interest +or happiness. The other, though quite distinct from reason, are as much +a part of human nature. + +That all particular appetites and passions are towards _external things +themselves_, distinct from the _pleasure arising from them_, is +manifested from hence; that there could not be this pleasure, were it not +for that prior suitableness between the object and the passion: there +could be no enjoyment or delight from one thing more than another, from +eating food more than from swallowing a stone, if there were not an +affection or appetite to one thing more than another. + +Every particular affection, even the love of our neighbour, is as really +our own affection as self-love; and the pleasure arising from its +gratification is as much my own pleasure as the pleasure self-love would +have from knowing I myself should be happy some time hence would be my +own pleasure. And if, because every particular affection is a man's own, +and the pleasure arising from its gratification his own pleasure, or +pleasure to himself, such particular affection must be called self-love; +according to this way of speaking, no creature whatever can possibly act +but merely from self-love; and every action and every affection whatever +is to be resolved up into this one principle. But then this is not the +language of mankind; or if it were, we should want words to express the +difference between the principle of an action, proceeding from cool +consideration that it will be to my own advantage; and an action, suppose +of revenge or of friendship, by which a man runs upon certain ruin, to do +evil or good to another. It is manifest the principles of these actions +are totally different, and so want different words to be distinguished +by; all that they agree in is that they both proceed from, and are done +to gratify, an inclination in a man's self. But the principle or +inclination in one case is self-love; in the other, hatred or love of +another. There is then a distinction between the cool principle of self- +love, or general desire of our own happiness, as one part of our nature, +and one principle of action; and the particular affections towards +particular external objects, as another part of our nature, and another +principle of action. How much soever therefore is to be allowed to self- +love, yet it cannot be allowed to be the whole of our inward +constitution; because, you see, there are other parts or principles which +come into it. + +Further, private happiness or good is all which self-love can make us +desire, or be concerned about: in having this consists its gratification: +it is an affection to ourselves; a regard to our own interest, happiness, +and private good: and in the proportion a man hath this, he is +interested, or a lover of himself. Let this be kept in mind; because +there is commonly, as I shall presently have occasion to observe, another +sense put upon these words. On the other hand, particular affections +tend towards particular external things: these are their objects: having +these is their end: in this consists their gratification: no matter +whether it be, or be not, upon the whole, our interest or happiness. An +action done from the former of these principles is called an interested +action. An action proceeding from any of the latter has its denomination +of passionate, ambitious, friendly, revengeful, or any other, from the +particular appetite or affection from which it proceeds. Thus self-love +as one part of human nature, and the several particular principles as the +other part, are, themselves, their objects and ends, stated and shown. + +From hence it will be easy to see how far, and in what ways, each of +these can contribute and be subservient to the private good of the +individual. Happiness does not consist in self-love. The desire of +happiness is no more the thing itself than the desire of riches is the +possession or enjoyment of them. People might love themselves with the +most entire and unbounded affection, and yet be extremely miserable. +Neither can self-love any way help them out, but by setting them on work +to get rid of the causes of their misery, to gain or make use of those +objects which are by nature adapted to afford satisfaction. Happiness or +satisfaction consists only in the enjoyment of those objects which are by +nature suited to our several particular appetites, passions, and +affections. So that if self-love wholly engrosses us, and leaves no room +for any other principle, there can be absolutely no such thing at all as +happiness or enjoyment of any kind whatever; since happiness consists in +the gratification of particular passions, which supposes the having of +them. Self-love then does not constitute _this_ or _that_ to be our +interest or good; but, our interest or good being constituted by nature +and supposed, self-love only puts us upon obtaining and securing it. +Therefore, if it be possible that self-love may prevail and exert itself +in a degree or manner which is not subservient to this end; then it will +not follow that our interest will be promoted in proportion to the degree +in which that principle engrosses us, and prevails over others. Nay, +further, the private and contracted affection, when it is not subservient +to this end, private good may, for anything that appears, have a direct +contrary tendency and effect. And if we will consider the matter, we +shall see that it often really has. _Disengagement_ is absolutely +necessary to enjoyment; and a person may have so steady and fixed an eye +upon his own interest, whatever he places it in, as may hinder him from +_attending_ to many gratifications within his reach, which others have +their minds _free_ and _open_ to. Over-fondness for a child is not +generally thought to be for its advantage; and, if there be any guess to +be made from appearances, surely that character we call selfish is not +the most promising for happiness. Such a temper may plainly be, and +exert itself in a degree and manner which may give unnecessary and +useless solicitude and anxiety, in a degree and manner which may prevent +obtaining the means and materials of enjoyment, as well as the making use +of them. Immoderate self-love does very ill consult its own interest: +and, how much soever a paradox it may appear, it is certainly true that +even from self-love we should endeavour to get over all inordinate regard +to and consideration of ourselves. Every one of our passions and +affections hath its natural stint and bound, which may easily be +exceeded; whereas our enjoyments can possibly be but in a determinate +measure and degree. Therefore such excess of the affection, since it +cannot procure any enjoyment, must in all cases be useless; but is +generally attended with inconveniences, and often is downright pain and +misery. This holds as much with regard to self-love as to all other +affections. The natural degree of it, so far as it sets us on work to +gain and make use of the materials of satisfaction, may be to our real +advantage; but beyond or besides this, it is in several respects an +inconvenience and disadvantage. Thus it appears that private interest is +so far from being likely to be promoted in proportion to the degree in +which self-love engrosses us, and prevails over all other principles, +that _the contracted affection may be so prevalent as to disappoint +itself_, _and even contradict its own and private good_. + +"But who, except the most sordidly covetous, ever thought there was any +rivalship between the love of greatness, honour, power, or between +sensual appetites and self-love? No, there is a perfect harmony between +them. It is by means of these particular appetites and affections that +self-love is gratified in enjoyment, happiness, and satisfaction. The +competition and rivalship is between self-love and the love of our +neighbour: that affection which leads us out of ourselves, makes us +regardless of our own interest, and substitute that of another in its +stead." Whether, then, there be any peculiar competition and contrariety +in this case shall now be considered. + +Self-love and interestedness was stated to consist in or be an affection +to ourselves, a regard to our own private good: it is therefore distinct +from benevolence, which is an affection to the good of our +fellow-creatures. But that benevolence is distinct from, that is, not +the same thing with self-love, is no reason for its being looked upon +with any peculiar suspicion; because every principle whatever, by means +of which self-love is gratified, is distinct from it; and all things +which are distinct from each other are equally so. A man has an +affection or aversion to another: that one of these tends to, and is +gratified by, doing good, that the other tends to, and is gratified by, +doing harm, does not in the least alter the respect which either one or +the other of these inward feelings has to self-love. We use the word +_property_ so as to exclude any other persons having an interest in that +of which we say a particular man has the property. And we often use the +word _selfish_ so as to exclude in the same manner all regards to the +good of others. But the cases are not parallel: for though that +exclusion is really part of the idea of property; yet such positive +exclusion, or bringing this peculiar disregard to the good of others into +the idea of self-love, is in reality adding to the idea, or changing it +from what it was before stated to consist in, namely, in an affection to +ourselves. {25} This being the whole idea of self-love, it can no +otherwise exclude good-will or love of others, than merely by not +including it, no otherwise, than it excludes love of arts or reputation, +or of anything else. Neither on the other hand does benevolence, any +more than love of arts or of reputation exclude self-love. Love of our +neighbour, then, has just the same respect to, is no more distant from, +self-love, than hatred of our neighbour, or than love or hatred of +anything else. Thus the principles, from which men rush upon certain +ruin for the destruction of an enemy, and for the preservation of a +friend, have the same respect to the private affection, and are equally +interested, or equally disinterested; and it is of no avail whether they +are said to be one or the other. Therefore to those who are shocked to +hear virtue spoken of as disinterested, it may be allowed that it is +indeed absurd to speak thus of it; unless hatred, several particular +instances of vice, and all the common affections and aversions in +mankind, are acknowledged to be disinterested too. Is there any less +inconsistence between the love of inanimate things, or of creatures +merely sensitive, and self-love, than between self-love and the love of +our neighbour? Is desire of and delight in the happiness of another any +more a diminution of self-love than desire of and delight in the esteem +of another? They are both equally desire of and delight in somewhat +external to ourselves; either both or neither are so. The object of self- +love is expressed in the term self; and every appetite of sense, and +every particular affection of the heart, are equally interested or +disinterested, because the objects of them all are equally self or +somewhat else. Whatever ridicule therefore the mention of a +disinterested principle or action may be supposed to lie open to, must, +upon the matter being thus stated, relate to ambition, and every appetite +and particular affection as much as to benevolence. And indeed all the +ridicule, and all the grave perplexity, of which this subject hath had +its full share, is merely from words. The most intelligible way of +speaking of it seems to be this: that self-love and the actions done in +consequence of it (for these will presently appear to be the same as to +this question) are interested; that particular affections towards +external objects, and the actions done in consequence of those affections +are not so. But every one is at liberty to use words as he pleases. All +that is here insisted upon is that ambition, revenge, benevolence, all +particular passions whatever, and the actions they produce, are equally +interested or disinterested. + +Thus it appears that there is no peculiar contrariety between self-love +and benevolence; no greater competition between these than between any +other particular affections and self-love. This relates to the +affections themselves. Let us now see whether there be any peculiar +contrariety between the respective courses of life which these affections +lead to; whether there be any greater competition between the pursuit of +private and of public good, than between any other particular pursuits +and that of private good. + +There seems no other reason to suspect that there is any such peculiar +contrariety, but only that the course of action which benevolence leads +to has a more direct tendency to promote the good of others, than that +course of action which love of reputation suppose, or any other +particular affection leads to. But that any affection tends to the +happiness of another does not hinder its tending to one's own happiness +too. That others enjoy the benefit of the air and the light of the sun +does not hinder but that these are as much one's own private advantage +now as they would be if we had the property of them exclusive of all +others. So a pursuit which tends to promote the good of another, yet may +have as great tendency to promote private interest, as a pursuit which +does not tend to the good of another at all, or which is mischievous to +him. All particular affections whatever, resentment, benevolence, love +of arts, equally lead to a course of action for their own gratification; +_i.e._, the gratification of ourselves; and the gratification of each +gives delight: so far, then, it is manifest they have all the same +respect to private interest. Now take into consideration, further, +concerning these three pursuits, that the end of the first is the harm, +of the second, the good of another, of the last, somewhat indifferent; +and is there any necessity that these additional considerations should +alter the respect, which we before saw these three pursuits had to +private interest, or render any one of them less conducive to it, than +any other? Thus one man's affection is to honour as his end; in order to +obtain which he thinks no pains too great. Suppose another, with such a +singularity of mind, as to have the same affection to public good as his +end, which he endeavours with the same labour to obtain. In case of +success, surely the man of benevolence hath as great enjoyment as the man +of ambition; they both equally having the end their affections, in the +same degree, tended to; but in case of disappointment, the benevolent man +has clearly the advantage; since endeavouring to do good, considered as a +virtuous pursuit, is gratified by its own consciousness, _i.e._, is in a +degree its own reward. + +And as to these two, or benevolence and any other particular passions +whatever, considered in a further view, as forming a general temper, +which more or less disposes us for enjoyment of all the common blessings +of life, distinct from their own gratification, is benevolence less the +temper of tranquillity and freedom than ambition or covetousness? Does +the benevolent man appear less easy with himself from his love to his +neighbour? Does he less relish his being? Is there any peculiar gloom +seated on his face? Is his mind less open to entertainment, to any +particular gratification? Nothing is more manifest than that being in +good humour, which is benevolence whilst it lasts, is itself the temper +of satisfaction and enjoyment. + +Suppose then, a man sitting down to consider how he might become most +easy to himself, and attain the greatest pleasure he could, all that +which is his real natural happiness. This can only consist in the +enjoyment of those objects which are by nature adapted to our several +faculties. These particular enjoyments make up the sum total of our +happiness, and they are supposed to arise from riches, honours, and the +gratification of sensual appetites. Be it so; yet none profess +themselves so completely happy in these enjoyments, but that there is +room left in the mind for others, if they were presented to them: nay, +these, as much as they engage us, are not thought so high, but that human +nature is capable even of greater. Now there have been persons in all +ages who have professed that they found satisfaction in the exercise of +charity, in the love of their neighbour, in endeavouring to promote the +happiness of all they had to do with, and in the pursuit of what is just +and right and good as the general bent of their mind and end of their +life; and that doing an action of baseness or cruelty would be as great +violence to _their_ self, as much breaking in upon their nature, as any +external force. Persons of this character would add, if they might be +heard, that they consider themselves as acting in the view of an Infinite +Being, who is in a much higher sense the object of reverence and of love, +than all the world besides; and therefore they could have no more +enjoyment from a wicked action done under His eye than the persons to +whom they are making their apology could if all mankind were the +spectators of it; and that the satisfaction of approving themselves to +his unerring judgment, to whom they thus refer all their actions, is a +more continued settled satisfaction than any this world can afford; as +also that they have, no less than others, a mind free and open to all the +common innocent gratifications of it, such as they are. And if we go no +further, does there appear any absurdity in this? Will any one take upon +him to say that a man cannot find his account in this general course of +life as much as in the most unbounded ambition, and the excesses of +pleasure? Or that such a person has not consulted so well for himself, +for the satisfaction and peace of his own mind, as the ambitious or +dissolute man? And though the consideration that God himself will in the +end justify their taste, and support their cause, is not formally to be +insisted upon here, yet thus much comes in, that all enjoyments whatever +are much more clear and unmixed from the assurance that they will end +well. Is it certain, then, that there is nothing in these pretensions to +happiness? especially when there are not wanting persons who have +supported themselves with satisfactions of this kind in sickness, +poverty, disgrace, and in the very pangs of death; whereas it is manifest +all other enjoyments fail in these circumstances. This surely looks +suspicions of having somewhat in it. Self-love, methinks, should be +alarmed. May she not possibly pass over greater pleasures than those she +is so wholly taken up with? + +The short of the matter is no more than this. Happiness consists in the +gratification of certain affections, appetites, passions, with objects +which are by nature adapted to them. Self-love may indeed set us on work +to gratify these, but happiness or enjoyment has no immediate connection +with self-love, but arises from such gratification alone. Love of our +neighbour is one of those affections. This, considered as a _virtuous +principle_, is gratified by a consciousness of _endeavouring_ to promote +the good of others, but considered as a natural affection, its +gratification consists in the actual accomplishment of this endeavour. +Now indulgence or gratification of this affection, whether in that +consciousness or this accomplishment, has the same respect to interest as +indulgence of any other affection; they equally proceed from or do not +proceed from self-love, they equally include or equally exclude this +principle. Thus it appears, that _benevolence and the pursuit of public +good hath at least as great respect to self-love and the pursuit of +private good as any other particular passions_, _and their respective +pursuits_. + +Neither is covetousness, whether as a temper or pursuit, any exception to +this. For if by covetousness is meant the desire and pursuit of riches +for their own sake, without any regard to, or consideration of, the uses +of them, this hath as little to do with self-love as benevolence hath. +But by this word is usually meant, not such madness and total distraction +of mind, but immoderate affection to and pursuit of riches as possessions +in order to some further end, namely, satisfaction, interest, or good. +This, therefore, is not a particular affection or particular pursuit, but +it is the general principle of self-love, and the general pursuit of our +own interest, for which reason the word _selfish_ is by every one +appropriated to this temper and pursuit. Now as it is ridiculous to +assert that self-love and the love of our neighbour are the same, so +neither is it asserted that following these different affections hath the +same tendency and respect to our own interest. The comparison is not +between self-love and the love of our neighbour, between pursuit of our +own interest and the interest of others, but between the several +particular affections in human nature towards external objects, as one +part of the comparison, and the one particular affection to the good of +our neighbour as the other part of it: and it has been shown that all +these have the same respect to self-love and private interest. + +There is indeed frequently an inconsistence or interfering between self- +love or private interest and the several particular appetites, passions, +affections, or the pursuits they lead to. But this competition or +interfering is merely accidental, and happens much oftener between pride, +revenge, sensual gratifications, and private interest, than between +private interest and benevolence. For nothing is more common than to see +men give themselves up to a passion or an affection to their known +prejudice and ruin, and in direct contradiction to manifest and real +interest, and the loudest calls of self-love: whereas the seeming +competitions and interfering, between benevolence and private interest, +relate much more to the materials or means of enjoyment than to enjoyment +itself. There is often an interfering in the former when there is none +in the latter. Thus as to riches: so much money as a man gives away, so +much less will remain in his possession. Here is a real interfering. But +though a man cannot possibly give without lessening his fortune, yet +there are multitudes might give without lessening their own enjoyment, +because they may have more than they can turn to any real use or +advantage to themselves. Thus the more thought and time any one employs +about the interests and good of others, he must necessarily have less to +attend his own: but he may have so ready and large a supply of his own +wants, that such thought might be really useless to himself, though of +great service and assistance to others. + +The general mistake, that there is some greater inconsistence between +endeavouring to promote the good of another and self-interest, than +between self-interest and pursuing anything else, seems, as hath already +been hinted, to arise from our notions of property, and to be carried on +by this property's being supposed to be itself our happiness or good. +People are so very much taken up with this one subject, that they seem +from it to have formed a general way of thinking, which they apply to +other things that they have nothing to do with. Hence in a confused and +slight way it might well be taken for granted that another's having no +interest in an affection (_i.e._, his good not being the object of it) +renders, as one may speak, the proprietor's interest in it greater; and +that if another had an interest in it this would render his less, or +occasion that such affection could not be so friendly to self-love, or +conducive to private good, as an affection or pursuit which has not a +regard to the good of another. This, I say, might be taken for granted, +whilst it was not attended to, that the object of every particular +affection is equally somewhat external to ourselves, and whether it be +the good of another person, or whether it be any other external thing, +makes no alteration with regard to its being one's own affection, and the +gratification of it one's own private enjoyment. And so far as it is +taken for granted that barely having the means and materials of enjoyment +is what constitutes interest and happiness; that our interest or good +consists in possessions themselves, in having the property of riches, +houses, lands, gardens, not in the enjoyment of them; so far it will even +more strongly be taken for granted, in the way already explained, that an +affection's conducing to the good of another must even necessarily +occasion it to conduce less to private good, if not to be positively +detrimental to it. For, if property and happiness are one and the same +thing, as by increasing the property of another you lessen your own +property, so by promoting the happiness of another you must lessen your +own happiness. But whatever occasioned the mistake, I hope it has been +fully proved to be one, as it has been proved, that there is no peculiar +rivalship or competition between self-love and benevolence: that as there +may be a competition between these two, so there many also between any +particular affection whatever and self-love; that every particular +affection, benevolence among the rest, is subservient to self-love by +being the instrument of private enjoyment; and that in one respect +benevolence contributes more to private interest, _i.e._, enjoyment or +satisfaction, than any other of the particular common affections, as it +is in a degree its own gratification. + +And to all these things may be added that religion, from whence arises +our strongest obligation to benevolence, is so far from disowning the +principle of self-love, that it often addresses itself to that very +principle, and always to the mind in that state when reason presides, and +there can no access be had to the understanding, but by convincing men +that the course of life we would persuade them to is not contrary to +their interest. It may be allowed, without any prejudice to the cause of +virtue and religion, that our ideas of happiness and misery are of all +our ideas the nearest and most important to us; that they will, nay, if +you please, that they ought to prevail over those of order, and beauty, +and harmony, and proportion, if there should ever be, as it is impossible +there ever should be, any inconsistence between them, though these last, +too, as expressing the fitness of actions, are real as truth itself. Let +it be allowed, though virtue or moral rectitude does indeed consist in +affection to and pursuit of what is right and good, as such, yet, that +when we sit down in a cool hour, we can neither justify to ourselves this +or any other pursuit, till we are convinced that it will be for our +happiness, or at least not contrary to it. + +Common reason and humanity will have some influence upon mankind, +whatever becomes of speculations; but, so far as the interests of virtue +depend upon the theory of it being secured from open scorn, so far its +very being in the world depends upon its appearing to have no contrariety +to private interest and self-love. The foregoing observations, +therefore, it is hoped, may have gained a little ground in favour of the +precept before us, the particular explanation of which shall be the +subject of the next discourse. + +I will conclude at present with observing the peculiar obligation which +we are under to virtue and religion, as enforced in the verses following +the text, in the epistle for the day, from our Saviour's coming into the +world. _The night is far spent_, _the day is at hand_; _let us therefore +cast off the works of darkness_, _and let us put on the armour of light_, +&c. The meaning and force of which exhortation is, that Christianity +lays us under new obligations to a good life, as by it the will of God is +more clearly revealed, and as it affords additional motives to the +practice of it, over and above those which arise out of the nature of +virtue and vice, I might add, as our Saviour has set us a perfect example +of goodness in our own nature. Now love and charity is plainly the thing +in which He hath placed His religion; in which, therefore, as we have any +pretence to the name of Christians, we must place ours. He hath at once +enjoined it upon us by way of command with peculiar force, and by His +example, as having undertaken the work of our salvation out of pure love +and goodwill to mankind. The endeavour to set home this example upon our +minds is a very proper employment of this season, which is bringing on +the festival of His birth, which as it may teach us many excellent +lessons of humility, resignation, and obedience to the will of God, so +there is none it recommends with greater authority, force, and advantage +than this love and charity, since it was _for us men_, _and for our +salvation_, that _He came down from heaven_, _and was incarnate_, _and +was made man_, that He might teach us our duty, and more especially that +He might enforce the practice of it, reform mankind, and finally bring us +to that _eternal salvation_, of which _He is the Author to all those that +obey Him_. + + + + +SERMON XII. UPON THE LOVE OF OUR NEIGHBOUR. + + + ROM. xiii. 9. + + _And if there be any other commandment_, _it is briefly comprehended + in this saying_, _namely_, _Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself_. + +Having already removed the prejudices against public spirit, or the love +of our neighbour, on the side of private interest and self-love, I +proceed to the particular explanation of the precept before us, by +showing, _Who is our neighbour_: _In what sense we are required to love +him as ourselves_; _The influence such love would have upon our behaviour +in life_; and lastly, _How this commandment comprehends in it all +others_. + +I. The objects and due extent of this affection will be understood by +attending to the nature of it, and to the nature and circumstances of +mankind in this world. The love of our neighbour is the same with +charity, benevolence, or goodwill: it is an affection to the good and +happiness of our fellow-creatures. This implies in it a disposition to +produce happiness, and this is the simple notion of goodness, which +appears so amiable wherever we meet with it. From hence it is easy to +see that the perfection of goodness consists in love to the whole +universe. This is the perfection of Almighty God. + +But as man is so much limited in his capacity, as so small a part of the +Creation comes under his notice and influence, and as we are not used to +consider things in so general a way, it is not to be thought of that the +universe should be the object of benevolence to such creatures as we are. +Thus in that precept of our Saviour, _Be ye perfect_, _even as your +Father_, _which is in heaven_, _is perfect_, {26} the perfection of the +divine goodness is proposed to our imitation as it is promiscuous, and +extends to the evil as well as the good; not as it is absolutely +universal, imitation of it in this respect being plainly beyond us. The +object is too vast. For this reason moral writers also have substituted +a less general object for our benevolence, mankind. But this likewise is +an object too general, and very much out of our view. Therefore persons +more practical have, instead of mankind, put our country, and made the +principle of virtue, of human virtue, to consist in the entire uniform +love of our country: and this is what we call a public spirit, which in +men of public stations is the character of a patriot. But this is +speaking to the upper part of the world. Kingdoms and governments are +large, and the sphere of action of far the greatest part of mankind is +much narrower than the government they live under: or however, common men +do not consider their actions as affecting the whole community of which +they are members. There plainly is wanting a less general and nearer +object of benevolence for the bulk of men than that of their country. +Therefore the Scripture, not being a book of theory and speculation, but +a plain rule of life for mankind, has with the utmost possible propriety +put the principle of virtue upon the love of our neighbour, which is that +part of the universe, that part of mankind, that part of our country, +which comes under our immediate notice, acquaintance, and influence, and +with which we have to do. + +This is plainly the true account or reason why our Saviour places the +principle of virtue in the love of our _neighbour_, and the account +itself shows who are comprehended under that relation. + +II. Let us now consider in what sense we are commanded to love our +neighbour _as ourselves_. + +This precept, in its first delivery by our Saviour, is thus +introduced:--_Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thine heart_, +_with all thy soul_, _and with all thy strength_; _and thy neighbour as +thyself_. These very different manners of expression do not lead our +thoughts to the same measure or degree of love, common to both objects, +but to one peculiar to each. Supposing, then, which is to be supposed, a +distinct meaning and propriety in the words, _as thyself_; the precept we +are considering will admit of any of these senses: that we bear the _same +kind_ of affection to our neighbour as we do to ourselves, or, that the +love we bear to our neighbour should have _some certain proportion or +other_ to self-love: or, lastly, that it should bear the particular +proportion of _equality_, that _it be in the same degree_. + +First, The precept may be understood as requiring only that we have the +_same kind_ of affection to our fellow-creatures as to ourselves; that, +as every man has the principle of self-love, which disposes him to avoid +misery, and consult his own happiness, so we should cultivate the +affection of goodwill to our neighbour, and that it should influence us +to have the same kind of regard to him. This at least must be commanded, +and this will not only prevent our being injurious to him, but will also +put us upon promoting his good. There are blessings in life, which we +share in common with others, peace, plenty, freedom, healthful seasons. +But real benevolence to our fellow-creatures would give us the notion of +a common interest in a stricter sense, for in the degree we love another, +his interest, his joys and sorrows, are our own. It is from self-love +that we form the notion of private good, and consider it is our own: love +of our neighbour would teach us thus to appropriate to ourselves his good +and welfare; to consider ourselves as having a real share in his +happiness. Thus the principle of benevolence would be an advocate within +our own breasts, to take care of the interests of our fellow-creatures in +all the interfering and competitions which cannot but be, from the +imperfection of our nature, and the state we are in. It would likewise, +in some measure, lessen that interfering, and hinder men from forming so +strong a notion of private good, exclusive of the good of others, as we +commonly do. Thus, as the private affection makes us in a peculiar +manner sensible of humanity, justice or injustice, when exercised towards +ourselves, love of our neighbour would give us the same kind of +sensibility in his behalf. This would be the greatest security of our +uniform obedience to that most equitable rule. _Whatsoever ye would that +men should do unto you_, _do ye even so unto them_. + +All this is indeed no more than that we should have a real love to our +neighbour; but then, which is to be observed, the words _as thyself_ +express this in the most distinct manner, and determine the precept to +relate to the affection itself. The advantage which this principle of +benevolence has over other remote considerations is, that it is itself +the temper of virtue, and likewise that it is the chief, nay, the only +effectual security of our performing the several offices of kindness we +owe to our fellow-creatures. When from distant considerations men +resolve upon any thing to which they have no liking, or perhaps an +averseness, they are perpetually finding out evasions and excuses, which +need never be wanting, if people look for them: and they equivocate with +themselves in the plainest cases in the world. This may be in respect to +single determinate acts of virtue, but it comes in much more, where the +obligation is to a general course of behaviour, and most of all, if it be +such as cannot be reduced to fixed determinate rules. This observation +may account for the diversity of the expression in that known passage of +the prophet Micah, _to do justly_, _and to love mercy_. A man's heart +must be formed to humanity and benevolence, he must _love mercy_, +otherwise he will not act mercifully in any settled course of behaviour. +As consideration of the future sanctions of religion is our only security +of preserving in our duty, in cases of great temptation: so to get our +heart and temper formed to a love and liking of what is good is +absolutely necessary in order to our behaving rightly in the familiar and +daily intercourses amongst mankind. + +Secondly, The precept before us may be understood to require that we love +our neighbour in some certain _proportion_ or other, _according as_ we +love ourselves. And indeed a man's character cannot be determined by the +love he bears to his neighbour, considered absolutely, but the proportion +which this bears to self-love, whether it be attended to or not, is the +chief thing which forms the character and influences the actions. For, +as the form of the body is a composition of various parts, so likewise +our inward structure is not simple or uniform, but a composition of +various passions, appetites, affections, together with rationality, +including in this last both the discernment of what is right, and a +disposition to regulate ourselves by it. There is greater variety of +parts in what we call a character than there are features in a face, and +the morality of that is no more determined by one part than the beauty or +deformity of this is by one single feature: each is to be judged of by +all the parts or features, not taken singly, but together. In the inward +frame the various passions, appetites, affections, stand in different +respects to each other. The principles in our mind may be contradictory, +or checks and allays only, or incentives and assistants to each other. +And principles, which in their nature have no kind of contrariety or +affinity, may yet accidentally be each other's allays or incentives. + +From hence it comes to pass, that though we were able to look into the +inward contexture of the heart, and see with the greatest exactness in +what degree any one principle is in a particular man, we could not from +thence determine how far that principle would go towards forming the +character, or what influence it would have upon the actions, unless we +could likewise discern what other principles prevailed in him, and see +the proportion which that one bears to the others. Thus, though two men +should have the affection of compassion in the same degree exactly, yet +one may have the principle of resentment or of ambition so strong in him +as to prevail over that of compassion, and prevent its having any +influence upon his actions, so that he may deserve the character of a +hard or cruel man, whereas the other having compassion in just the same +degree only, yet having resentment or ambition in a lower degree, his +compassion may prevail over them, so as to influence his actions, and to +denominate his temper compassionate. So that, how strange soever it may +appear to people who do not attend to the thing, yet it is quite manifest +that, when we say one man is more resenting or compassionate than +another, this does not necessarily imply that one has the principle of +resentment or of compassion stronger than the other. For if the +proportion which resentment or compassion bears to other inward +principles is greater in one than in the other, this is itself sufficient +to denominate one more resenting or compassionate than the other. + +Further, the whole system, as I may speak, of affections (including +rationality), which constitute the heart, as this word is used in +Scripture and on moral subjects, are each and all of them stronger in +some than in others. Now the proportion which the two general +affections, benevolence and self-love, bear to each other, according to +this interpretation of the text, demonstrates men's character as to +virtue. Suppose, then, one man to have the principle of benevolence in a +higher degree than another; it will not follow from hence that his +general temper or character or actions will be more benevolent than the +other's. For he may have self-love in such a degree as quite to prevail +over benevolence, so that it may have no influence at all upon his +action, whereas benevolence in the other person, though in a lower +degree, may yet be the strongest principle in his heart, and strong +enough to be the guide of his actions, so as to denominate him a good and +virtuous man. The case is here as in scales: it is not one weight +considered in itself, which determines whether the scale shall ascend or +descend, but this depends upon the proportion which that one weight hath +to the other. + +It being thus manifest that the influence which benevolence has upon our +actions, and how far it goes towards forming our character, is not +determined by the degree itself of this principle in our mind, but by the +proportion it has to self-love and other principles: a comparison also +being made in the text between self-love and the love of our neighbour; +these joint considerations afforded sufficient occasion for treating here +of that proportion. It plainly is implied in the precept, though it +should be questioned, whether it be the exact meaning of the words, as +_thyself_. + +Love of our neighbour, then, must bear some proportion to self-love, and +virtue, to be sure, consists in the due proportion. What this due +proportion is, whether as a principle in the mind, or as exerted in +actions, can be judged of only from our nature and condition in this +world. Of the degree in which affections and the principles of action, +considered in themselves, prevail, we have no measure: let us, then, +proceed to the course of behaviour, the actions they produce. + +Both our nature and condition require that each particular man should +make particular provision for himself: and the inquiry, what proportion +benevolence should have to self-love, when brought down to practice, will +be, what is a competent care and provision for ourselves? And how +certain soever it be that each man must determine this for himself, and +how ridiculous soever it would be for any to attempt to determine it for +another, yet it is to be observed that the proportion is real, and that a +competent provision has a bound, and that it cannot be all which we can +possibly get and keep within our grasp, without legal injustice. Mankind +almost universally bring in vanity, supplies for what is called a life of +pleasure, covetousness, or imaginary notions of superiority over others, +to determine this question: but every one who desires to act a proper +part in society would do well to consider how far any of them come in to +determine it, in the way of moral consideration. All that can be said +is, supposing what, as the world goes, is so much to be supposed that it +is scarce to be mentioned, that persons do not neglect what they really +owe to themselves; the more of their care and thought and of their +fortune they employ in doing good to their fellow-creatures the nearer +they come up to the law of perfection, _Thou shalt love thy neighbour as +thyself_. + +Thirdly, if the words _as thyself_ were to be understood of an equality +of affection, it would not be attended with those consequences which +perhaps may be thought to follow from it. Suppose a person to have the +same settled regard to others as to himself; that in every deliberate +scheme or pursuit he took their interest into the account in the same +degree as his own, so far as an equality of affection would produce this: +yet he would, in fact, and ought to be, much more taken up and employed +about himself, and his own concerns, than about others, and their +interests. For, besides the one common affection toward himself and his +neighbour he would have several other particular affections, passions, +appetites, which he could not possibly feel in common both for himself +and others. Now these sensations themselves very much employ us, and +have perhaps as great influence as self-love. So far indeed as +self-love, and cool reflection upon what is for our interest, would set +us on work to gain a supply of our own several wants, so far the love of +our neighbour would make us do the same for him: but the degree in which +we are put upon seeking and making use of the means of gratification, by +the feeling of those affections, appetites, and passions, must +necessarily be peculiar to ourselves. + +That there are particular passions (suppose shame, resentment) which men +seem to have, and feel in common, both for themselves and others, makes +no alteration in respect to those passions and appetites which cannot +possibly be thus felt in common. From hence (and perhaps more things of +the like kind might be mentioned) it follows, that though there were an +equality of affection to both, yet regards to ourselves would be more +prevalent than attention to the concerns of others. + +And from moral considerations it ought to be so, supposing still the +equality of affection commanded, because we are in a peculiar manner, as +I may speak, intrusted with ourselves, and therefore care of our own +interests, as well as of our conduct, particularly belongs to us. + +To these things must be added, that moral obligations can extend no +further than to natural possibilities. Now we have a perception of our +own interests, like consciousness of our own existence, which we always +carry about with us, and which, in its continuation, kind, and degree, +seems impossible to be felt in respect to the interests of others. + +From all these things it fully appears that though we were to love our +neighbour in the same degree as we love ourselves, so far as this is +possible, yet the care of ourselves, of the individual, would not be +neglected, the apprehended danger of which seems to be the only objection +against understanding the precept in this strict sense. + +III. The general temper of mind which the due love of our neighbour +would form us to, and the influence it would have upon our behaviour in +life, is now to be considered. + +The temper and behaviour of charity is explained at large in that known +passage of St. Paul: {27} _Charity suffereth long_, _and is kind_; +_charity envieth not_, _doth not behave itself unseemly_, _seeketh not +her own_, _thinketh no evil_, _beareth all things_, _believeth all +things_, _hopeth all things_. As to the meaning of the expressions, +_seeketh not her own_, _thinketh no evil_, _believeth all things_; +however those expressions may be explained away, this meekness, and in +some degree easiness of temper, readiness to forego our right for the +sake of peace, as well as in the way of compassion, freedom from +mistrust, and disposition to believe well of our neighbour, this general +temper, I say, accompanies, and is plainly the effect of love and +goodwill. And, though such is the world in which we live, that +experience and knowledge of it not only may, but must beget, in as +greater regard to ourselves, and doubtfulness of the characters of +others, than is natural to mankind, yet these ought not to be carried +further than the nature and course of things make necessary. It is still +true, even in the present state of things, bad as it is, that a real good +man had rather be deceived than be suspicious; had rather forego his +known right, than run the venture of doing even a hard thing. This is +the general temper of that charity, of which the apostle asserts, that if +he had it not, giving his _body to be burned would avail him nothing_; +and which he says _shall never fail_. + +The happy influence of this temper extends to every different relation +and circumstance in human life. It plainly renders a man better, more to +be desired, as to all the respects and relations we can stand in to each +other. The benevolent man is disposed to make use of all external +advantages in such a manner as shall contribute to the good of others, as +well as to his own satisfaction. His own satisfaction consists in this. +He will be easy and kind to his dependents, compassionate to the poor and +distressed, friendly to all with whom he has to do. This includes the +good neighbour, parent, master, magistrate: and such a behaviour would +plainly make dependence, inferiority, and even servitude easy. So that a +good or charitable man of superior rank in wisdom, fortune, authority, is +a common blessing to the place he lives in: happiness grows under his +influence. This good principle in inferiors would discover itself in +paying respect, gratitude, obedience, as due. It were therefore, +methinks, one just way of trying one's own character to ask ourselves, am +I in reality a better master or servant, a better friend, a better +neighbour, than such and such persons, whom, perhaps, I may think not to +deserve the character of virtue and religion so much as myself? + +And as to the spirit of party, which unhappily prevails amongst mankind, +whatever are the distinctions which serve for a supply to it, some or +other of which have obtained in all ages and countries, one who is thus +friendly to his kind will immediately make due allowances for it, as what +cannot but be amongst such creatures as men, in such a world as this. And +as wrath and fury and overbearing upon these occasions proceed, as I may +speak, from men's feeling only on their own side, so a common feeling, +for others as well as for ourselves, would render us sensible to this +truth, which it is strange can have so little influence, that we +ourselves differ from others, just as much as they do from us. I put the +matter in this way, because it can scarce be expected that the generality +of men should see that those things which are made the occasions of +dissension and fomenting the party-spirit are really nothing at all: but +it may be expected from all people, how much soever they are in earnest +about their respective peculiarities, that humanity and common goodwill +to their fellow-creatures should moderate and restrain that wretched +spirit. + +This good temper of charity likewise would prevent strife and enmity +arising from other occasions: it would prevent our giving just cause of +offence, and our taking it without cause. And in cases of real injury, a +good man will make all the allowances which are to be made, and, without +any attempts of retaliation, he will only consult his own and other men's +security for the future against injustice and wrong. + +IV. I proceed to consider, lastly, what is affirmed of the precept now +explained, that it comprehends in it all others, _i.e._, that to love our +neighbour as ourselves includes in it all virtues. + +Now the way in which every maxim of conduct, or general speculative +assertion, when it is to be explained at large should be treated, is, to +show what are the particular truths which were designed to be +comprehended under such a general observation, how far it is strictly +true, and then the limitations, restrictions, and exceptions, if there be +exceptions, with which it is to be understood. But it is only the former +of these, namely, how far the assertion in the text holds, and the ground +of the pre-eminence assigned to the precept of it, which in strictness +comes into our present consideration. + +However, in almost everything that is said, there is somewhat to be +understood beyond what is explicitly laid down, and which we of course +supply, somewhat, I mean, which would not be commonly called a +restriction or limitation. Thus, when benevolence is said to be the sum +of virtue, it is not spoken of as a blind propension, but a principle in +reasonable creatures, and so to be directed by their reason, for reason +and reflection comes into our notion of a moral agent. And that will +lead us to consider distant consequences, as well as the immediate +tendency of an action. It will teach us that the care of some persons, +suppose children and families, is particularly committed to our charge by +Nature and Providence, as also that there are other circumstances, +suppose friendship or former obligations, which require that we do good +to some, preferably to others. Reason, considered merely as subservient +to benevolence, as assisting to produce the greatest good, will teach us +to have particular regard to these relations and circumstances, because +it is plainly for the good of the world that they should be regarded. And +as there are numberless cases in which, notwithstanding appearances, we +are not competent judges, whether a particular action will upon the whole +do good or harm, reason in the same way will teach us to be cautious how +we act in these cases of uncertainty. It will suggest to our +consideration which is the safer side; how liable we are to be led wrong +by passion and private interest; and what regard is due to laws, and the +judgment of mankind. All these things must come into consideration, were +it only in order to determine which way of acting is likely to produce +the greatest good. Thus, upon supposition that it were in the strictest +sense true, without limitation, that benevolence includes in it all +virtues, yet reason must come in as its guide and director, in order to +attain its own end, the end of benevolence, the greatest public good. +Reason, then, being thus included, let us now consider the truth of the +assertion itself. + +First, It is manifest that nothing can be of consequence to mankind or +any creature but happiness. This, then, is all which any person can, in +strictness of speaking, be said to have a right to. We can therefore +_owe no man anything_, but only to farther and promote his happiness, +according to our abilities. And therefore a disposition and endeavour to +do good to all with whom we have to do, in the degree and manner which +the different relations we stand in to them require, is a discharge of +all the obligations we are under to them. + +As human nature is not one simple uniform thing but a composition of +various parts, body, spirit, appetites, particular passions, and +affections, for each of which reasonable self-love would lead men to have +due regard, and make suitable provision, so society consists of various +parts to which we stand in different respects and relations, and just +benevolence would as surely lead us to have due regard to each of these +and behave as the respective relations require. Reasonable goodwill and +right behaviour towards our fellow-creatures are in a manner the same, +only that the former expresseth the principle as it is in the mind; the +latter, the principle as it were become external, _i.e._, exerted in +actions. + +And so far as temperance, sobriety, and moderation in sensual pleasures, +and the contrary vices, have any respect to our fellow-creatures, any +influence upon their quiet, welfare, and happiness, as they always have a +real, and often a near influence upon it, so far it is manifest those +virtues may be produced by the love of our neighbour, and that the +contrary vices would be prevented by it. Indeed, if men's regard to +themselves will not restrain them from excess, it may be thought little +probable that their love to others will be sufficient: but the reason is, +that their love to others is not, any more than their regard to +themselves, just, and in its due degree. There are, however, manifest +instances of persons kept sober and temperate from regard to their +affairs, and the welfare of those who depend upon them. And it is +obvious to every one that habitual excess, a dissolute course of life, +implies a general neglect of the duties we owe towards our friends, our +families, and our country. + +From hence it is manifest that the common virtues and the common vices of +mankind may be traced up to benevolence, or the want of it. And this +entitles the precept, _Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself_, to the +pre-eminence given to it, and is a justification of the apostle's +assertion, that all other commandments are comprehended in it, whatever +cautions and restrictions {28} there are, which might require to be +considered, if we were to state particularly and at length what is virtue +and right behaviour in mankind. But, + +Secondly, It might be added, that in a higher and more general way of +consideration, leaving out the particular nature of creatures, and the +particular circumstances in which they are placed, benevolence seems in +the strictest sense to include in it all that is good and worthy, all +that is good, which we have any distinct particular notion of. We have +no clear conception of any position moral attribute in the Supreme Being, +but what may be resolved up into goodness. And, if we consider a +reasonable creature or moral agent, without regard to the particular +relations and circumstances in which he is placed, we cannot conceive +anything else to come in towards determining whether he is to be ranked +in a higher or lower class of virtuous beings, but the higher or lower +degree in which that principle, and what is manifestly connected with it, +prevail in him. + +That which we more strictly call piety, or the love of God, and which is +an essential part of a right temper, some may perhaps imagine no way +connected with benevolence: yet surely they must be connected, if there +be indeed in being an object infinitely good. Human nature is so +constituted that every good affection implies the love of itself, _i.e._, +becomes the object of a new affection in the same person. Thus, to be +righteous, implies in it the love of righteousness; to be benevolent, the +love of benevolence; to be good, the love of goodness; whether this +righteousness, benevolence, or goodness be viewed as in our own mind or +another's, and the love of God as a being perfectly good is the love of +perfect goodness contemplated in a being or person. Thus morality and +religion, virtue and piety, will at last necessarily coincide, run up +into one and the same point, and _love_ will be in all senses _the end of +the commandment_. + +* * * * * + +_O Almighty God_, _inspire us with this divine principle_; _kill in us +all the seeds of envy and ill-will_; _and help us_, _by cultivating +within ourselves the love of our neighbour_, _to improve in the love of +Thee_. _Thou hast placed us in various kindreds_, _friendships_, _and +relations_, _as the school of discipline for our affections_: _help us_, +_by the due exercise of them_, _to improve to perfection_; _till all +partial affection be lost in that entire universal one_, _and thou_, _O +God_, _shalt_ be all in all. + + + + +SERMON XIII., XIV. UPON THE LOVE OF GOD. + + + MATTHEW xxii. 37. + + _Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart_, _and with all + thy soul_, _and with all thy mind_. + +Everybody knows, you therefore need only just be put in mind, that there +is such a thing as having so great horror of one extreme as to run +insensibly and of course into the contrary; and that a doctrine's having +been a shelter for enthusiasm, or made to serve the purposes of +superstition, is no proof of the falsity of it: truth or right being +somewhat real in itself, and so not to be judged of by its liableness to +abuse, or by its supposed distance from or nearness to error. It may be +sufficient to have mentioned this in general, without taking notice of +the particular extravagances which have been vented under the pretence or +endeavour of explaining the love of God; or how manifestly we are got +into the contrary extreme, under the notion of a reasonable religion; so +very reasonable as to have nothing to do with the heart and affections, +if these words signify anything but the faculty by which we discern +speculative truth. + +By the love of God I would understand all those regards, all those +affections of mind which are due immediately to Him from such a creature +as man, and which rest in Him as their end. As this does not include +servile fear, so neither will any other regards, how reasonable soever, +which respect anything out of or besides the perfection of the Divine +nature, come into consideration here. But all fear is not excluded, +because His displeasure is itself the natural proper object of fear. +Reverence, ambition of His love and approbation, delight in the hope or +consciousness of it, come likewise into this definition of the love of +God, because He is the natural object of all those affections or +movements of mind as really as He is the object of the affection, which +is in the strictest sense called love; and all of them equally rest in +Him as their end. And they may all be understood to be implied in these +words of our Saviour, without putting any force upon them: for He is +speaking of the love of God and our neighbour as containing the whole of +piety and virtue. + +It is plain that the nature of man is so constituted as to feel certain +affections upon the sight or contemplation of certain objects. Now the +very notion of affection implies resting in its object as an end. And +the particular affection to good characters, reverence and moral love of +them, is natural to all those who have any degree of real goodness in +themselves. This will be illustrated by the description of a perfect +character in a creature; and by considering the manner in which a good +man in his presence would be affected towards such a character. He would +of course feel the affections of love, reverence, desire of his +approbation, delight in the hope or consciousness of it. And surely all +this is applicable, and may be brought up to that Being, who is +infinitely more than an adequate object of all those affections; whom we +are commanded to _love with all our heart_, _with all our soul_, _and +with all our mind_. And of these regards towards Almighty God some are +more particularly suitable to and becoming so imperfect a creature as +man, in this mortal state we are passing through; and some of them, and +perhaps other exercises of the mind, will be the employment and happiness +of good men in a state of perfection. + +This is a general view of what the following discourse will contain. And +it is manifest the subject is a real one: there is nothing in it +enthusiastical or unreasonable. And if it be indeed at all a subject, it +is one of the utmost importance. + +As mankind have a faculty by which they discern speculative truth, so we +have various affections towards external objects. Understanding and +temper, reason and affection, are as distinct ideas as reason and hunger, +and one would think could no more be confounded. It is by reason that we +get the ideas of several objects of our affections; but in these cases +reason and affection are no more the same than sight of a particular +object, and the pleasure or uneasiness consequent thereupon, are the +same. Now as reason tends to and rests in the discernment of truth, the +object of it, so the very nature of affection consists in tending +towards, and resting in, its objects as an end. We do indeed often in +common language say that things are loved, desired, esteemed, not for +themselves, but for somewhat further, somewhat out of and beyond them; +yet, in these cases, whoever will attend will see that these things are +not in reality the objects of the affections, _i.e._ are not loved, +desired, esteemed, but the somewhat further and beyond them. If we have +no affections which rest in what are called their objects, then what is +called affection, love, desire, hope, in human nature, is only an +uneasiness in being at rest; an unquiet disposition to action, progress, +pursuit, without end or meaning. But if there be any such thing as +delight in the company of one person, rather than of another; whether in +the way of friendship, or mirth and entertainment, it is all one, if it +be without respect to fortune, honour, or increasing our stores of +knowledge, or anything beyond the present time; here is an instance of an +affection absolutely resting in its object as its end, and being +gratified in the same way as the appetite of hunger is satisfied with +food. Yet nothing is more common than to hear it asked, what advantage a +man hath in such a course, suppose of study, particular friendships, or +in any other; nothing, I say, is more common than to hear such a question +put in a way which supposes no gain, advantage, or interest, but as a +means to somewhat further: and if so, then there is no such thing at all +as real interest, gain, or advantage. This is the same absurdity with +respect to life as an infinite series of effects without a cause is in +speculation. The gain, advantage, or interest consists in the delight +itself, arising from such a faculty's having its object: neither is there +any such thing as happiness or enjoyment but what arises from hence. The +pleasures of hope and of reflection are not exceptions: the former being +only this happiness anticipated; the latter the same happiness enjoyed +over again after its time. And even the general expectation of future +happiness can afford satisfaction only as it is a present object to the +principle of self-love. + +It was doubtless intended that life should be very much a pursuit to the +gross of mankind. But this is carried so much further than is reasonable +that what gives immediate satisfaction, _i.e._ our present interest, is +scarce considered as our interest at all. It is inventions which have +only a remote tendency towards enjoyment, perhaps but a remote tendency +towards gaining the means only of enjoyment, which are chiefly spoken of +as useful to the world. And though this way of thinking were just with +respect to the imperfect state we are now in, where we know so little of +satisfaction without satiety, yet it must be guarded against when we are +considering the happiness of a state of perfection; which happiness being +enjoyment and not hope, must necessarily consist in this, that our +affections have their objects, and rest in those objects as an end, +_i.e._ be satisfied with them. This will further appear in the sequel of +this discourse. + +Of the several affections, or inward sensations, which particular objects +excite in man, there are some, the having of which implies the love of +them, when they are reflected upon. {29} This cannot be said of all our +affections, principles, and motives of action. It were ridiculous to +assert that a man upon reflection hath the same kind of approbation of +the appetite of hunger or the passion of fear as he hath of goodwill to +his fellow-creatures. To be a just, a good, a righteous man, plainly +carries with it a peculiar affection to or love of justice, goodness, +righteousness, when these principles are the objects of contemplation. + +Now if a man approves of, or hath an affection to, any principle in and +for itself, incidental things allowed for, it will be the same whether he +views it in his own mind or in another; in himself or in his neighbour. +This is the account of our approbation of, or moral love and affection to +good characters; which cannot but be in those who have any degrees of +real goodness in themselves, and who discern and take notice of the same +principle in others. + +From observation of what passes within ourselves, our own actions, and +the behaviour of others, the mind may carry on its reflections as far as +it pleases; much beyond what we experience in ourselves, or discern in +our fellow creatures. It may go on and consider goodness as become a +uniform continued principle of action, as conducted by reason, and +forming a temper and character absolutely good and perfect, which is in a +higher sense excellent, and proportionably the object of love and +approbation. + +Let us then suppose a creature perfect according to his created +nature--let his form be human, and his capacities no more than equal to +those of the chief of men--goodness shall be his proper character, with +wisdom to direct it, and power within some certain determined sphere of +action to exert it: but goodness must be the simple actuating principle +within him; this being the moral quality which is amiable, or the +immediate object of love as distinct from other affections of +approbation. Here then is a finite object for our mind to tend towards, +to exercise itself upon: a creature, perfect according to his capacity, +fixed, steady, equally unmoved by weak pity or more weak fury and +resentment; forming the justest scheme of conduct; going on undisturbed +in the execution of it, through the several methods of severity and +reward, towards his end, namely, the general happiness of all with whom +he hath to do, as in itself right and valuable. This character, though +uniform in itself, in its principle, yet exerting itself in different +ways, or considered in different views, may by its appearing variety move +different affections. Thus, the severity of justice would not affect us +in the same way as an act of mercy. The adventitious qualities of wisdom +and power may be considered in themselves; and even the strength of mind +which this immovable goodness supposes may likewise be viewed as an +object of contemplation distinct from the goodness itself. Superior +excellence of any kind, as well as superior wisdom and power, is the +object of awe and reverence to all creatures, whatever their moral +character be; but so far as creatures of the lowest rank were good, so +far the view of this character, as simply good, must appear amiable to +them, be the object of, or beget love. Further suppose we were conscious +that this superior person so far approved of us that we had nothing +servilely to fear from him; that he was really our friend, and kind and +good to us in particular, as he had occasionally intercourse with us: we +must be other creatures than we are, or we could not but feel the same +kind of satisfaction and enjoyment (whatever would be the degree of it) +from this higher acquaintance and friendship as we feel from common ones, +the intercourse being real and the persons equally present in both cases. +We should have a more ardent desire to be approved by his better +judgment, and a satisfaction in that approbation of the same sort with +what would be felt in respect to common persons, or be wrought in us by +their presence. + +Let us now raise the character, and suppose this creature, for we are +still going on with the supposition of a creature, our proper guardian +and governor; that we were in a progress of being towards somewhat +further; and that his scheme of government was too vast for our +capacities to comprehend: remembering still that he is perfectly good, +and our friend as well as our governor. Wisdom, power, goodness, +accidentally viewed anywhere, would inspire reverence, awe, love; and as +these affections would be raised in higher or lower degrees in proportion +as we had occasionally more or less intercourse with the creature endued +with those qualities, so this further consideration and knowledge that he +was our proper guardian and governor would much more bring these objects +and qualities home to ourselves; teach us they had a greater respect to +us in particular, that we had a higher interest in that wisdom and power +and goodness. We should, with joy, gratitude, reverence, love, trust, +and dependence, appropriate the character, as what we had a right in, and +make our boast in such our relation to it. And the conclusion of the +whole would be that we should refer ourselves implicitly to him, and cast +ourselves entirely upon him. As the whole attention of life should be to +obey his commands, so the highest enjoyment of it must arise from the +contemplation of this character, and our relation to it, from a +consciousness of his favour and approbation, and from the exercise of +those affections towards him which could not but be raised from his +presence. A Being who hath these attributes, who stands in this +relation, and is thus sensibly present to the mind, must necessarily be +the object of these affections: there is as real a correspondence between +them as between the lowest appetite of sense and its object. + +That this Being is not a creature, but the Almighty God; that He is of +infinite power and wisdom and goodness, does not render Him less the +object of reverence and love than He would be if He had those attributes +only in a limited degree. The Being who made us, and upon whom we +entirely depend, is the object of some regards. He hath given us certain +affections of mind, which correspond to wisdom, power, goodness, _i.e._ +which are raised upon view of those qualities. If then He be really +wise, powerful, good, He is the natural object of those affections which +He hath endued us with, and which correspond to those attributes. That +He is infinite in power, perfect in wisdom and goodness, makes no +alteration, but only that He is the object of those affections raised to +the highest pitch. He is not, indeed, to be discerned by any of our +senses. _I go forward_, _but He is not there_; _and backward_, _but I +cannot perceive Him_: _on the left hand where He doth work_, _but I +cannot behold Him_: _He hideth Himself on the right hand_, _that I cannot +see Him_, _Oh that I knew where I might find Him_! _that I might come +even to His seat_! {30} But is He then afar off? does He not fill heaven +and earth with His presence? The presence of our fellow-creatures +affects our senses, and our senses give us the knowledge of their +presence; which hath different kinds of influence upon us--love, joy, +sorrow, restraint, encouragement, reverence. However, this influence is +not immediately from our senses, but from that knowledge. Thus suppose a +person neither to see nor hear another, not to know by any of his senses, +but yet certainly to know, that another was with him; this knowledge +might, and in many cases would, have one or more of the effects before +mentioned. It is therefore not only reasonable, but also natural, to be +affected with a presence, though it be not the object of our senses; +whether it be, or be not, is merely an accidental circumstance, which +needs not come into consideration: it is the certainty that he is with +us, and we with him, which hath the influence. We consider persons then +as present, not only when they are within reach of our senses, but also +when we are assured by any other means that they are within such a +nearness; nay, if they are not, we can recall them to our mind, and be +moved towards them as present; and must He, who is so much more +intimately with us, that _in Him we live and move and have our being_, be +thought too distant to be the object of our affections? We own and feel +the force of amiable and worthy qualities in our fellow creatures; and +can we be insensible to the contemplation of perfect goodness? Do we +reverence the shadows of greatness here below, are we solicitous about +honour and esteem and the opinion of the world, and shall we not feel the +same with respect to Him whose are wisdom and power in the original, who +_is the God of judgment by whom actions are weighed_? Thus love, +reverence, desire of esteem, every faculty, every affection, tends +towards and is employed about its respective object in common cases: and +must the exercise of them be suspended with regard to Him alone who is an +object, an infinitely more than adequate object, to our most exalted +faculties; Him, _of whom_, _and through whom_, _and to whom are all +things_? + +As we cannot remove from this earth, or change our general business on +it, so neither can we alter our real nature. Therefore no exercise of +the mind can be recommended, but only the exercise of those faculties you +are conscious of. Religion does not demand new affections, but only +claims the direction of those you already have, those affections you +daily feel; though unhappily confined to objects not altogether +unsuitable but altogether unequal to them. We only represent to you the +higher, the adequate objects of those very faculties and affections. Let +the man of ambition go on still to consider disgrace as the greatest +evil, honour as his chief good. But disgrace in whose estimation? Honour +in whose judgment? This is the only question. If shame, and delight in +esteem, be spoken of as real, as any settled ground of pain or pleasure, +both these must be in proportion to the supposed wisdom, and worth of him +by whom we are contemned or esteemed. Must it then be thought +enthusiastical to speak of a sensibility of this sort which shall have +respect to an unerring judgment, to infinite wisdom, when we are assured +this unerring judgment, this infinite wisdom does observe upon our +actions? + +It is the same with respect to the love of God in the strictest and most +confined sense. We only offer and represent the highest object of an +affection supposed already in your mind. Some degree of goodness must be +previously supposed; this always implies the love of itself, an affection +to goodness: the highest, the adequate object of this affection, is +perfect goodness; which therefore we are to _love with all our heart_, +_with all our soul_, _and with all our strength_. "Must we then, +forgetting our own interest, as it were go out of ourselves, and love God +for His own sake?" No more forget your own interest, no more go out of +yourselves, than when you prefer one place, one prospect, the +conversation of one man to that of another. Does not every affection +necessarily imply that the object of it be itself loved? If it be not it +is not the object of the affection. You may, and ought if you can, but +it is a great mistake to think you can love or fear or hate anything, +from consideration that such love or fear or hatred may be a means of +obtaining good or avoiding evil. But the question whether we ought to +love God for His sake or for our own being a mere mistake in language, +the real question which this is mistaken for will, I suppose, be answered +by observing that the goodness of God already exercised towards us, our +present dependence upon Him, and our expectation of future benefits, +ought, and have a natural tendency, to beget in us the affection of +gratitude, and greater love towards Him, than the same goodness exercised +towards others; were it only for this reason, that every affection is +moved in proportion to the sense we have of the object of it; and we +cannot but have a more lively sense of goodness when exercised towards +ourselves than when exercised towards others. I added expectation of +future benefits because the ground of that expectation is present +goodness. + +Thus Almighty God is the natural object of the several affections, love, +reverence, fear, desire of approbation. For though He is simply one, yet +we cannot but consider Him in partial and different views. He is in +himself one uniform Being, and for ever the same without _variableness or +shadow of turning_; but His infinite greatness, His goodness, His wisdom, +are different objects to our mind. To which is to be added, that from +the changes in our own characters, together with His unchangeableness, we +cannot but consider ourselves as more or less the objects of His +approbation, and really be so. For if He approves what is good, He +cannot, merely from the unchangeableness of His nature, approve what is +evil. Hence must arise more various movements of mind, more different +kinds of affections. And this greater variety also is just and +reasonable in such creatures as we are, though it respects a Being simply +one, good and perfect. As some of these actions are most particularly +suitable to so imperfect a creature as man in this mortal state we are +passing through, so there may be other exercises of mind, or some of +these in higher degrees, our employment and happiness in a state of +perfection. + + + + +SERMON XIV. + + +Consider then our ignorance, the imperfection of our nature, our virtue, +and our condition in this world, with respect to aim infinitely good and +just Being, our Creator and Governor, and you will see what religious +affections of mind are most particularly suitable to this mortal state we +are passing through. + +Though we are not affected with anything so strongly as what we discern +with our senses, and though our nature and condition require that we be +much taken up about sensible things, yet our reason convinces us that God +is present with us, and we see and feel the effects of His goodness: He +is therefore the object of some regards. The imperfection of our virtue, +joined with the consideration of His absolute rectitude or holiness, will +scarce permit that perfection of love which entirely casts out all fear: +yet goodness is the object of love to all creatures who have any degree +of it themselves; and consciousness of a real endeavour to approve +ourselves to Him, joined with the consideration of His goodness, as it +quite excludes servile dread and horror, so it is plainly a reasonable +ground for hope of His favour. Neither fear nor hope nor love then are +excluded, and one or another of these will prevail, according to the +different views we have of God, and ought to prevail, according to the +changes we find in our own character. There is a temper of mind made up +of, or which follows from all three, fear, hope, love--namely, +resignation to the Divine will, which is the general temper belonging to +this state; which ought to be the habitual frame of our mind and heart, +and to be exercised at proper seasons more distinctly, in acts of +devotion. + +Resignation to the will of God is the whole of piety. It includes in it +all that is good, and is a source of the most settled quiet and composure +of mind. There is the general principle of submission in our nature. Man +is not so constituted as to desire things, and be uneasy in the want of +them, in proportion to their known value: many other considerations come +in to determine the degrees of desire; particularly whether the advantage +we take a view of be within the sphere of our rank. Whoever felt +uneasiness upon observing any of the advantages brute creatures have over +us? And yet it is plain they have several. It is the same with respect +to advantages belonging to creatures of a superior order. Thus, though +we see a thing to be highly valuable, yet that it does not belong to our +condition of being is sufficient to suspend our desires after it, to make +us rest satisfied without such advantage. Now there is just the same +reason for quiet resignation in the want of everything equally +unattainable and out of our reach in particular, though others of our +species be possessed of it. All this may be applied to the whole of +life; to positive inconveniences as well as wants, not indeed to the +sensations of pain and sorrow, but to all the uneasinesses of reflection, +murmuring, and discontent. Thus is human nature formed to compliance, +yielding, submission of temper. We find the principles of it within us; +and every one exercises it towards some objects or other, _i.e._ feels it +with regard to some persons and some circumstances. Now this is an +excellent foundation of a reasonable and religious resignation. Nature +teaches and inclines as to take up with our lot; the consideration that +the course of things is unalterable hath a tendency to quiet the mind +under it, to beget a submission of temper to it. But when we can add +that this unalterable course is appointed and continued by infinite +wisdom and goodness, how absolute should be our submission, how entire +our trust and dependence! + +This would reconcile us to our condition, prevent all the supernumerary +troubles arising from imagination, distant fears, impatience--all +uneasiness, except that which necessarily arises from the calamities +themselves we may be under. How many of our cares should we by this +means be disburdened of! Cares not properly our own, how apt soever they +may be to intrude upon us, and we to admit them; the anxieties of +expectation, solicitude about success and disappointment, which in truth +are none of our concern. How open to every gratification would that mind +be which was clear of these encumbrances! + +Our resignation to the will of God may be said to be perfect when our +will is lost and resolved up into His: when we rest in His will as our +end, as being itself most just and right and good. And where is the +impossibility of such an affection to what is just, and right, and good, +such a loyalty of heart to the Governor of the universe as shall prevail +over all sinister indirect desires of our own? Neither is this at bottom +anything more than faith and honesty and fairness of mind--in a more +enlarged sense indeed than those words are commonly used. And as, in +common cases, fear and hope and other passions are raised in us by their +respective objects, so this submission of heart and soul and mind, this +religious resignation, would be as naturally produced by our having just +conceptions of Almighty God, and a real sense of His presence with us. In +how low a degree soever this temper usually prevails amongst men, yet it +is a temper right in itself: it is what we owe to our Creator: it is +particularly suitable to our mortal condition, and what we should +endeavour after for our own sakes in our passage through such a world as +this, where is nothing upon which we can rest or depend, nothing but what +we are liable to be deceived and disappointed in. Thus we might +_acquaint ourselves with God_, _and be at peace_. This is piety an +religion in the strictest sense, considered as a habit of mind: an +habitual sense of God's presence with us; being affected towards Him, as +present, in the manner His superior nature requires from such a creature +as man: this is to _walk with God_. + +Little more need be said of devotion or religious worship than that it is +this temper exerted into act. The nature of it consists in the actual +exercise of those affections towards God which are supposed habitual in +good men. He is always equally present with us: but we are so much taken +up with sensible things that, _Lo_, _He goeth by us_, _and we see Him +not_: _He passeth on also_, _but we perceive Him not_. {31} Devotion is +retirement from the world He has made to Him alone: it is to withdraw +from the avocations of sense, to employ our attention wholly upon Him as +upon an object actually present, to yield ourselves up to the influence +of the Divine presence, and to give full scope to the affections of +gratitude, love, reverence, trust, and dependence; of which infinite +power, wisdom, and goodness is the natural and only adequate object. We +may apply to the whole of devotion those words of the Son of Sirach, +_When you glorify the Lord_, _exalt Him as much as you can_; _for even +yet will He far exceed_: _and when you exalt Him_, _put forth all your +strength_, _and be not weary_; _for you can never go far enough_. {32} +Our most raised affections of every kind cannot but fall short and be +disproportionate when an infinite being is the object of them. This is +the highest exercise and employment of mind that a creature is capable +of. As this divine service and worship is itself absolutely due to God, +so also is it necessary in order to a further end, to keep alive upon our +minds a sense of His authority, a sense that in our ordinary behaviour +amongst men we act under him as our Governor and Judge. + +Thus you see the temper of mind respecting God which is particularly +suitable to a state of imperfection, to creatures in a progress of being +towards somewhat further. + +Suppose now this something further attained, that we were arrived at it, +what a perception will it be to see and know and feel that our trust was +not vain, our dependence not groundless? That the issue, event, and +consummation came out such as fully to justify and answer that +resignation? If the obscure view of the divine perfection which we have +in this world ought in just consequence to beget an entire resignation, +what will this resignation be exalted into when _we shall see face to +face_, _and know as we are known_? If we cannot form any distinct notion +of that perfection of the love of God which _casts out all fear_, of that +enjoyment of Him which will be the happiness of good men hereafter, the +consideration of our wants and capacities of happiness, and that He will +be adequate supply to them, must serve us instead of such distinct +conception of the particular happiness itself. + +Let us then suppose a man entirely disengaged from business and pleasure, +sitting down alone and at leisure, to reflect upon himself and his own +condition of being. He would immediately feel that he was by no means +complete of himself, but totally insufficient for his own happiness. One +may venture to affirm that every man hath felt this, whether he hath +again reflected upon it or not. It is feeling this deficiency, that they +are unsatisfied with themselves, which makes men look out for assistance +from abroad, and which has given rise to various kinds of amusements, +altogether needless any otherwise than as they serve to fill up the blank +spaces of time, and so hinder their feeling this deficiency, and being +uneasy with themselves. Now, if these external things we take up with +were really an adequate supply to this deficiency of human nature, if by +their means our capacities and desires were all satisfied and filled up, +then it might be truly said that we had found out the proper happiness of +man, and so might sit down satisfied, and be at rest in the enjoyment of +it. But if it appears that the amusements which men usually pass their +time in are so far from coming up to or answering our notions and desires +of happiness or good that they are really no more than what they are +commonly called, somewhat to pass away the time, _i.e._ somewhat which +serves to turn us aside from, and prevent our attending to, this our +internal poverty and want; if they serve only, or chiefly, to suspend +instead of satisfying our conceptions and desires of happiness; if the +want remains, and we have found out little more than barely the means of +making it less sensible; then are we still to seek for somewhat to be an +adequate supply to it. It is plain that there is a capacity in the +nature of man which neither riches nor honours nor sensual +gratifications, nor anything in this world, can perfectly fill up or +satisfy: there is a deeper and more essential want than any of these +things can be the supply of. Yet surely there is a possibility of +somewhat which may fill up all our capacities of happiness, somewhat in +which our souls may find rest, somewhat which may be to us that +satisfactory good we are inquiring after. But it cannot be anything +which is valuable only as it tends to some further end. Those therefore +who have got this world so much into their hearts as not to be able to +consider happiness as consisting in anything but property and +possessions--which are only valuable as the means to somewhat else--cannot +have the least glimpse of the subject before us, which is the end, not +the means; the thing itself, not somewhat in order to it. But if you can +lay aside that general, confused, undeterminate notion of happiness, as +consisting in such possessions, and fix in your thoughts that it really +can consist in nothing but in a faculty's having its proper object, you +will clearly see that in the coolest way of consideration, without either +the heat of fanciful enthusiasm or the warmth of real devotion, nothing +is more certain than that an infinite Being may Himself be, if He +pleases, the supply to all the capacities of our nature. All the common +enjoyments of life are from the faculties He hath endued us with and the +objects He hath made suitable to them. He may Himself be to us +infinitely more than all these; He may be to us all that we want. As our +understanding can contemplate itself, and our affections be exercised +upon themselves by reflection, so may each be employed in the same manner +upon any other mind; and since the Supreme Mind, the Author and Cause of +all things, is the highest possible object to Himself, He may be an +adequate supply to all the faculties of our souls, a subject to our +understanding, and an object to our affections. + +Consider then: when we shall have put off this mortal body, when we shall +be divested of sensual appetites, and those possessions which are now the +means of gratification shall be of no avail, when this restless scene of +business and vain pleasures, which now diverts us from ourselves, shall +be all over, we, our proper self, shall still remain: we shall still +continue the same creatures we are, with wants to be supplied and +capacities of happiness. We must have faculties of perception, though +not sensitive ones; and pleasure or uneasiness from our perceptions, as +now we have. + +There are certain ideas which we express by the words order, harmony, +proportion, beauty, the furthest removed from anything sensual. Now what +is there in those intellectual images, forms, or ideas, which begets that +approbation, love, delight, and even rapture, which is seen in some +persons' faces upon having those objects present to their minds?--"Mere +enthusiasm!"--Be it what it will: there are objects, works of nature and +of art, which all mankind have delight from quite distinct from their +affording gratification to sensual appetites, and from quite another view +of them than as being for their interest and further advantage. The +faculties from which we are capable of these pleasures, and the pleasures +themselves, are as natural, and as much to be accounted for, as any +sensual appetite whatever, and the pleasure from its gratification. Words +to be sure are wanting upon this subject; to say that everything of grace +and beauty throughout the whole of nature, everything excellent and +amiable shared in differently lower degrees by the whole creation, meet +in the Author and Cause of all things, this is an inadequate and perhaps +improper way of speaking of the Divine nature; but it is manifest that +absolute rectitude, the perfection of being, must be in all senses, and +in every respect, the highest object to the mind. + +In this world it is only the effects of wisdom and power and greatness +which we discern; it is not impossible that hereafter the qualities +themselves in the supreme Being may be the immediate object of +contemplation. What amazing wonders are opened to view by late +improvements! What an object is the universe to a creature, if there be +a creature who can comprehend its system! But it must be an infinitely +higher exercise of the understanding to view the scheme of it in that +mind which projected it before its foundations were laid. And surely we +have meaning to the words when we speak of going further, and viewing, +not only this system in His mind, but the wisdom and intelligence itself +from whence it proceeded. The same may be said of power. But since +wisdom and power are not God, He is a wise, a powerful Being; the divine +nature may therefore be a further object to the understanding. It is +nothing to observe that our senses give us but an imperfect knowledge of +things: effects themselves, if we knew them thoroughly, would give us but +imperfect notions of wisdom and power; much less of His being in whom +they reside. I am not speaking of any fanciful notion of seeing all +things in God, but only representing to you how much a higher object to +the understanding an infinite Being Himself is than the things which He +has made; and this is no more than saying that the Creator is superior to +the works of His hands. + +This may be illustrated by a low example. Suppose a machine, the sight +of which would raise, and discoveries in its contrivance gratify, our +curiosity: the real delight in this case would arise from its being the +effect of skill and contrivance. This skill in the mind of the artificer +would be a higher object, if we had any senses or ways to discern it. +For, observe, the contemplation of that principle, faculty, or power +which produced any effect must be a higher exercise of the understanding +than the contemplation of the effect itself. The cause must be a higher +object to the mind than the effect. + +But whoever considers distinctly what the delight of knowledge is will +see reason to be satisfied that it cannot be the chief good of man: all +this, as it is applicable, so it was mentioned with regard to the +attribute of goodness. I say goodness. Our being and all our enjoyments +are the effects of it: just men bear its resemblance; but how little do +we know of the original, of what it is in itself? Recall what was before +observed concerning the affection to moral characters--which, in how low +a degree soever, yet is plainly natural to man, and the most excellent +part of his nature. Suppose this improved, as it may be improved, to any +degree whatever, in the _spirits of just men made perfect_; and then +suppose that they had a real view of that _righteousness which is an +everlasting righteousness_, of the conformity of the Divine will to _the +law of truth_ in which the moral attributes of God consist, of that +goodness in the sovereign Mind which gave birth to the universe. Add, +what will be true of all good men hereafter, a consciousness of having an +interest in what they are contemplating--suppose them able to say, _This +God is our God for ever and ever_. Would they be any longer to seek for +what was their chief happiness, their final good? Could the utmost +stretch of their capacities look further? Would not infinite perfect +goodness be their very end, the last end and object of their affections, +beyond which they could neither have nor desire, beyond which they could +not form a wish or thought? + +Consider wherein that presence of a friend consists which has often so +strong an effect as wholly to possess the mind, and entirely suspend all +other affections and regards, and which itself affords the highest +satisfaction and enjoyment. He is within reach of the senses. Now as +our capacities of perception improve we shall have, perhaps by some +faculty entirely new, a perception of God's presence with us in a nearer +and stricter way, since it is certain He is more intimately present with +us than anything else can be. Proof of the existence and presence of any +being is quite different from the immediate perception, the consciousness +of it. What then will be the joy of heart which His presence and _the +light of His countenance_, who is the life of the universe, will inspire +good men with when they shall have a sensation that He is the sustainer +of their being, that they exist in Him; when they shall feel His +influence to cheer and enliven and support their frame, in a manner of +which we have now no conception? He will be in a literal sense _their +strength and their portion for ever_. + +When we speak of things so much above our comprehension as the employment +and happiness of a future state, doubtless it behoves us to speak with +all modesty and distrust of ourselves. But the Scripture represents the +happiness of that state under the notions of _seeing God_, _seeing Him as +He is_, _knowing as we are known_, _and seeing face to face_. These +words are not general or undetermined, but express a particular +determinate happiness. And I will be bold to say that nothing can +account for or come up to these expressions but only this, that God +Himself will be an object to our faculties, that He Himself will be our +happiness as distinguished from the enjoyments of the present state, +which seem to arise not immediately from Him but from the objects He has +adapted to give us delight. + +To conclude: Let us suppose a person tired with care and sorrow and the +repetition of vain delights which fill up the round of life; sensible +that everything here below in its best estate is altogether vanity. +Suppose him to feel that deficiency of human nature before taken notice +of, and to be convinced that God alone was the adequate supply to it. +What could be more applicable to a good man in this state of mind, or +better express his present wants and distant hopes, his passage through +this world as a progress towards a state of perfection, than the +following passages in the devotions of the royal prophet? They are +plainly in a higher and more proper sense applicable to this than they +could be to anything else. _I have seen an end of all perfection_. _Whom +have I in heaven but Thee_? _And there is none upon earth that I desire +in comparison of Thee_. _My flesh and may heart faileth_: _but God is +the strength of my heart and my portion for ever_. _Like as the hart +desireth the water-brooks_, _so longeth my soul after Thee_, _O God_. _My +soul is athirst for God_, _yea_, _even for the living God_: _when shall I +come to appear before Him_? _How excellent is Thy loving-kindness_, _O +God_! _and the children of men shall put their trust under the shadow of +Thy wings_. _They shall be satisfied with the plenteousness of Thy +house_: _and Thou shalt give them drink of Thy pleasures_, _as out of the +river_. _For with Thee is the well of life_: _and in Thy light shall we +see light_. _Blessed is the man whom Thou choosest_, _and receivest unto +Thee_: _he shall dwell in Thy court_, _and shall be satisfied with the +pleasures of Thy house_, _even of Thy holy temple_. _Blessed is the +people_, _O Lord_, _that can rejoice in Thee_: _they shall walk in the +light of Thy countenance_. _Their delight shall be daily in Thy name_, +_and in Thy righteousness shall they make their boast_. _For Thou art +the glory of their strength_: _and in Thy lovingkindness they shall be +exalted_. _As for me_, _I will behold Thy presence in righteousness_: +_and when I awake up after Thy likeness_, _I shall be satisfied with it_. +_Thou shalt shew me the path of life_; _in Thy presence is the fulness of +joy_, _and at Thy right hand there is pleasure for evermore_. + + + + +Footnotes: + + +{1} 1 Cor. xii + +{2} Suppose a man of learning to be writing a grave book upon _human +nature_, and to show in several parts of it that he had an insight into +the subject he was considering, amongst other things, the following one +would require to be accounted for--the appearance of benevolence or good- +will in men towards each other in the instances of natural relation, and +in others. {2a} Cautions of being deceived with outward show, he retires +within himself to see exactly what that is in the mind of man from whence +this appearance proceeds; and, upon deep reflection, asserts the +principle in the mind to be only the love of power, and delight in the +exercise of it. Would not everybody think here was a mistake of one word +for another--that the philosopher was contemplating and accounting for +some other _human actions_, some other behaviour of man to man? And +could any one be thoroughly satisfied that what is commonly called +benevolence or good-will was really the affection meant, but only by +being made to understand that this learned person had a general +hypothesis, to which the appearance of good-will could no otherwise be +reconciled? That what has this appearance is often nothing but ambition; +that delight in superiority often (suppose always) mixes itself with +benevolence, only makes it more specious to call it ambition than hunger, +of the two: but in reality that passion does no more account for the +whole appearances of good-will than this appetite does. Is there not +often the appearance of one man's wishing that good to another, which he +knows himself unable to procure him; and rejoicing in it, though bestowed +by a third person? And can love of power any way possibly come in to +account for this desire or delight? Is there not often the appearance of +men's distinguishing between two or more persons, preferring one before +another, to do good to, in cases where love of power cannot in the least +account for the distinction and preference? For this principle can no +otherwise distinguish between objects than as it is a greater instance +and exertion of power to do good to one rather than to another. Again, +suppose good-will in the mind of man to be nothing but delight in the +exercise of power: men might indeed be restrained by distant and +accidental consideration; but these restraints being removed, they would +have a disposition to, and delight in, mischief as an exercise and proof +of power: and this disposition and delight would arise from, or be the +same principle in the mind, as a disposition to and delight in charity. +Thus cruelty, as distinct from envy and resentment, would be exactly the +same in the mind of man as good-will: that one tends to the happiness, +the other to the misery, of our fellow-creatures, is, it seems, merely an +accidental circumstance, which the mind has not the least regard to. +These are the absurdities which even men of capacity run into when they +have occasion to belie their nature, and will perversely disclaim that +image of God which was originally stamped upon it, the traces of which, +however faint, are plainly discernible upon the mind of man. + +If any person can in earnest doubt whether there be such a thing as good- +will in one man towards another (for the question is not concerning +either the degree or extensiveness of it, but concerning the affection +itself), let it be observed that _whether man be thus_, _or otherwise +constituted_, _what is the inward frame in this particular_ is a mere +question of fact of natural history not provable immediately by reason. +It is therefore to be judged of and determined in the same way other +facts or matters of natural history are--by appealing to the external +senses, or inward perceptions respectively, as the matter under +consideration is cognisable by one or the other: by arguing from +acknowledged facts and actions for a great number of actions in the same +kind, in different circumstances, and respecting different objects, will +prove to a certainty what principles they do not, and to the greatest +probability what principles they do, proceed from: and, lastly, by the +testimony of mankind. Now that there is some degree of benevolence +amongst men may be as strongly and plainly proved in all these ways, as +it could possibly be proved, supposing there was this affection in our +nature. And should any one think fit to assert that resentment in the +mind of man was absolutely nothing but reasonable concern for our own +safety, the falsity of this, and what is the real nature of that passion, +could be shown in no other ways than those in which it may be shown that +there is such a thing in _some degree_ as real good-will in man towards +man. It is sufficient that the seeds of it be implanted in our nature by +God. There is, it is owned, much left for us to do upon our own heart +and temper; to cultivate, to improve, to call it forth, to exercise it in +a steady, uniform manner. This is our work: this is virtue and religion. + +{2a} Hobbes, "Of Human Nature," c. ix. 7. + +{3} Everybody makes a distinction between self-love and the several +particular passions, appetites, and affections; and yet they are often +confounded again. That they are totally different, will be seen by any +one who will distinguish between the passions and appetites _themselves_, +and _endeavouring_ after the means of their gratification. Consider the +appetite of hunger, and the desire of esteem: these being the occasion +both of pleasure and pain, the coolest self-love, as well as the +appetites and passions themselves, may put us upon making use of the +_proper methods of obtaining_ that pleasure, and avoiding that pain; but +the _feelings_ themselves, the pain of hunger and shame, and the delight +from esteem, are no more self-love than they are anything in the world. +Though a man hated himself, he would as much feel the pain of hunger as +he would that of the gout; and it is plainly supposable there may be +creatures with self-love in them to the highest degree, who may be quite +insensible and indifferent (as men in some cases are) to the contempt and +esteem of those upon whom their happiness does not in some further +respects depend. And as self-love and the several particular passions +and appetites are in themselves totally different, so that some actions +proceed from one and some from the other will be manifest to any who will +observe the two following very supposable cases. One man rushes upon +certain ruin for the gratification of a present desire: nobody will call +the principle of this action self-love. Suppose another man to go +through some laborious work upon promise of a great reward, without any +distinct knowledge what the reward will be: this course of action cannot +be ascribed to any particular passion. The former of these actions is +plainly to be imputed to some particular passion or affection; the latter +as plainly to the general affection or principle of self-love. That +there are some particular pursuits or actions concerning which we cannot +determine how far they are owing to one, and how far to the other, +proceeds from this, that the two principles are frequently mixed +together, and run up into each other. This distinction is further +explained in the Eleventh Sermon. + +{4} If any desire to see this distinction and comparison made in a +particular instance, the appetite and passion now mentioned may serve for +one. Hunger is to be considered as a private appetite, because the end +for which it was given us is the preservation of the individual. Desire +of esteem is a public passion; because the end for which it was given us +is to regulate our behaviour towards society. The respect which this has +to private good is as remote as the respect that has to public good; and +the appetite is no more self-love than the passion is benevolence. The +object and end of the former is merely food; the object and end of the +latter is merely esteem; but the latter can no more be gratified without +contributing to the good of society, than the former can be gratified +without contributing to the preservation of the individual. + +{5} Emulation is merely the desire and hope of equality with or +superiority over others with whom we compare ourselves. There does not +appear to be any other _grief_ in the natural passion, but only _that +want_ which is implied in desire. However, this may be so strong as to +be the occasion of great _grief_. To desire the attainment of this +equality or superiority by the _particular means_ of others being brought +down to our own level, or below it, is, I think, the distinct notion of +envy. From whence it is easy to see that the real end, which the natural +passion emulation, and which the unlawful one envy aims at, is exactly +the same; namely, that equality or superiority: and consequently, that to +do mischief is not the end of envy, but merely the means it makes use of +to attain its end. As to resentment, see the Eighth Sermon. + +{6} Ephes. ii. 3. + +{7} Every man in his physical nature is one individual single agent. He +has likewise properties and principles, each of which may be considered +separately, and without regard to the respects which they have to each +other. Neither of these is the nature we are taking a view of. But it +is the inward frame of man considered as a _system_ or _constitution_: +whose several parts are united, not by a physical principle of +individuation, but by the respects they have to each other; the chief of +which is the subjection which the appetites, passions, and particular +affections have to the one supreme principle of reflection or conscience. +The system or constitution is formed by and consists in these respects +and this subjection. Thus the body is a _system_ or _constitution_: so +is a tree: so is every machine. Consider all the several parts of a tree +without the natural reselects they have to each other, and you have not +at all the idea of a tree; but add these respects, and this gives you the +idea. This body may be impaired by sickness, a tree may decay, a machine +be out of order, and yet the system and constitution of them not totally +dissolved. There is plainly somewhat which answers to all this in the +moral constitution of man. Whoever will consider his own nature will see +that the several appetites, passions, and particular affections have +different respects amongst themselves. They are restraints upon, and are +in a proportion to, each other. This proportion is just and perfect, +when all those under principles are perfectly coincident with conscience, +so far as their nature permits, and in all cases under its absolute and +entire direction. The least excess or defect, the least alteration of +the due proportions amongst themselves, or of their coincidence with +conscience, though not proceeding into action, is some degree of disorder +in the moral constitution. But perfection, though plainly intelligible +and unsupportable, was never attained by any man. If the higher +principle of reflection maintains its place, and as much as it can +corrects that disorder, and hinders it from breaking out into action, +this is all that can be expected in such a creature as man. And though +the appetites and passions have not their exact due proportion to each +other, though they often strive for mastery with judgment or reflection, +yet, since the superiority of this principle to all others is the chief +respect which forms the constitution, so far as this superiority is +maintained, the character, the man, is good, worthy, virtuous. + +{8} Chap. iii., ver. 6. + +{9} Job xiii. 5. + +{10} Eccles. x. 3. + +{11} Prov. x. 19. + +{12} Mark xii. 38, 40. + +{13} There being manifestly this appearance of men's substituting others +for themselves, and being carried out and affected towards them as +towards themselves; some persons, who have a system which excludes every +affection of this sort, have taken a pleasant method to solve it; and +tell you it is _not another_ you are at all concerned about, but your +_self only_, when you feel the affection called compassion, _i.e._ Here +is a plain matter of fact, which men cannot reconcile with the general +account they think fit to give of things: they therefore, instead of that +manifest fact, substitute _another_, which is reconcilable to their own +scheme. For does not everybody by compassion mean an affection, the +object of which is another in distress? instead of this, but designing to +have it mistaken for this, they speak of an affection or passion, the +object of which is ourselves, or danger to ourselves. Hobbes defines +_pity_, _imagination_, _or fiction of future calamity to ourselves_, +_proceeding from the sense_ (he means sight or knowledge) _of another +man's calamity_. Thus fear and compassion would be the same idea, and a +fearful and a compassionate man the same character, which every one +immediately sees are totally different. Further, to those who give any +scope to their affections, there is no perception or inward feeling more +universal than this: that one who has been merciful and compassionate +throughout the course of his behaviour should himself be treated with +kindness, if he happens to fall into circumstances of distress. Is fear, +then, or cowardice, so great a recommendation to the favour of the bulk +of mankind? Or is it not plain that mere fearlessness (and therefore not +the contrary) is one of the most popular qualifications? This shows that +mankind are not affected towards compassion as fear, but as somewhat +totally different. + +Nothing would more expose such accounts as these of the affections which +are favourable and friendly to our fellow-creatures than to substitute +the definitions, which this author, and others who follow his steps, give +of such affections, instead of the words by which they are commonly +expressed. Hobbes, after having laid down that pity or compassion is +only fear for ourselves, goes on to explain the reason why we pity our +friends in distress more than others. Now substitute the word +_definition_ instead of the word _pity_ in this place, and the inquiry +will be, why we fear our friends, &c., which words (since he really does +not mean why we are afraid of them) make no question or sentence at all. +So that common language, the words _to compassionate_, _to pity_, cannot +be accommodated to his account of compassion. The very joining of the +words to _pity our friends_ is a direct contradiction to his definition +of pity: because those words, so joined, necessarily express that our +friends are the objects of the passion; whereas his definition of it +asserts that ourselves (or danger to ourselves) are the only objects of +it. He might indeed have avoided this absurdity, by plainly saying what +he is going to account for; namely, why the sight of the innocent, or of +our friends in distress, raises greater fear for ourselves than the sight +of other persons in distress. But had he put the thing thus plainly, the +fact itself would have been doubted; that _the sight of our friends in +distress raises in us greater fear for ourselves than the sight of others +in distress_. And in the next place it would immediately have occurred +to every one that the fact now mentioned, which at least is doubtful +whether, true or false, was not the same with this fact, which nobody +ever doubted, that _the sight of our friends in distress raises in us +greater compassion than the sight of others in distress_: every one, I +say, would have seen that these are not the same, but _two different_ +inquiries; and, consequently, that fear and compassion are not the same. +Suppose a person to be in real danger, and by some means or other to have +forgot it; any trifling accident, any sound might alarm him, recall the +danger to his remembrance, and renew his fear; but it is almost too +grossly ridiculous (though it is to show an absurdity) to speak of that +sound or accident as an object of compassion; and yet, according to Mr. +Hobbes, our greatest friend in distress is no more to us, no more the +object of compassion, or of any affection in our heart: neither the one +nor the other raises any emotion in one mind, but only the thoughts of +our liableness to calamity, and the fear of it; and both equally do this. +It is fit such sort of accounts of human nature should be shown to be +what they really are, because there is raised upon them a general scheme, +which undermines the whole foundation of common justice and honesty. See +_Hobbes of Human Nature_, c. 9. section 10. + +There are often three distinct perceptions or inward feelings upon sight +of persons in distress: real sorrow and concern for the misery of our +fellow-creatures; some degree of satisfaction from a consciousness of our +freedom from that misery; and as the mind passes on from one thing to +another it is not unnatural from such an occasion to reflect upon our own +liableness to the same or other calamities. The two last frequently +accompany the first, but it is the first _only_ which is properly +compassion, of which the distressed are the objects, and which directly +carries us with calmness and thought to their assistance. Any one of +these, from various and complicated reasons, may in particular cases +prevail over the other two; and there are, I suppose, instances, where +the bare _sight_ of distress, without our feeling any compassion for it, +may be the occasion of either or both of the two latter perceptions. One +might add that if there be really any such thing as the fiction or +imagination of danger to ourselves from sight of the miseries of others, +which Hobbes specks of, and which he has absurdly mistaken for the whole +of compassion; if there be anything of this sort common to mankind, +distinct from the reflection of reason, it would be a most remarkable +instance of what was furthest from his thoughts--namely, of a mutual +sympathy between each particular of the species, a fellow-feeling common +to mankind. It would not indeed be an example of our substituting others +for ourselves, but it would be an example of user substituting ourselves +for others. And as it would not be an instance of benevolence, so +neither would it be any instance of self-love: for this phantom of danger +to ourselves, naturally rising to view upon sight of the distresses of +others, would be no more an instance of love to ourselves than the pain +of hunger is. + +{14} Ecclus. xxxii. 28. + +{15} Ecclus. xlii. 24. + +{16} Ver. 4, 5. + +{17} Ver. 6. + +{18} Micah vi. + +{19} Chap. xxii. 12. + +{20} Ver. 21. + +{21} Chap. iv. + +{22} Chap. xxv. + +{23} Chap. xxxi. + +{24} Chap. ii. + +{24a} In the Cassell edition the sermons jump from sermon VII to XI with +no explanation as to where VIII, IX and X are. I've left the numbering +as is in case there is a good reason for it.--DP. + +{25} P. 137. + +{26} Matt. v. 48. + +{27} 1 Cor. xiii. + +{28} For instance as we are not competent judges, what is upon the whole +for the good of the world, there _may_ be other immediate ends appointed +us to pursue, besides that one of doing good or producing happiness. +Though the good of the Creation be the only end of the Author of it, yet +he may have laid us under particular obligations, which we may discern +and feel ourselves under, quite distinct from a perception, that the +observance or violation of them it for the happiness or misery of our +fellow-creatures. And this is in fart the ease, for there are certain +dispositions of mind, and certain actions, which are in themselves +approved or disapproved by mankind, abstracted from the consideration of +their tendency to the happiness or misery of the world approved or +disapproved by reflection, by that principle within, whirls is the guile +of life, the judge of right and wrong. Numberless instances of this kind +might be mentioned. There are pieces of treachery, which in themselves +appear base and detestable to every one. There are actions, which +perhaps can scarce have any other general name given them than +indecencies, which yet are odious and shocking to human nature. There is +such a thing as meanness, a little mind, which as it is quite distinct +from incapacity, so it raises a dislike and disapprobation quite +different from that contempt, which men are too apt to have, of mere +folly. On the other hand, what we call greatness of mind is the object +of another most of approbation, than superior understanding. Fidelity, +honour, strict justice, are themselves approved in the highest degree, +abstracted from the consideration of their tendency. Now, whether it be +thought that each of these are connected with benevolence in our nature, +amid so may he considered as the same thing with it, or whether some of +them he thought an inferior kind of virtues and vices, somewhat like +natural beauties and deformities, or lastly, plain exceptions to the +general rule, thus such however is certain, that the things now instanced +in, and numberless others, are approved or disapproved by mankind in +general, in quite another view than as conducive to the happiness or +misery of the world. + +{29} St. Austin observes, Amor ipse ordinate amandus est, quo bene +amatur quod amandum sit, ut sit in nobis virtue qua vivitur bene, _i.e._ +_The affection which we rightly have for what is lovely must ordinate +justly_, _in due manner end proportion_, _become the object of a new +affection_, _or be itself beloved_, _in order to our being endued with +that virtue which is the principle of a good life_. Civ. Dei, 1. xv. c. +22. + +{30} Job xxii. + +{31} Job ix. 2. + +{32} Eccius. xliii. 50. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HUMAN NATURE*** + + +******* This file should be named 3150.txt or 3150.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/1/5/3150 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://www.gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: +http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + |