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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Forests of Mount Rainier National Park, by 
+Grenville F. Allen
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Forests of Mount Rainier National Park
+
+Author: Grenville F. Allen
+
+Release Date: April 15, 2010 [EBook #31994]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FORESTS OF MT RAINIER NAT. PARK ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Greg Bergquist and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+The punctuation and spelling from the original text have been faithfully
+preserved.
+
+
+ FORESTS OF MOUNT RAINIER
+ NATIONAL PARK
+
+ [Illustration]
+
+ DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
+ OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY
+ 1916
+
+For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,
+Washington, D.C. Price, 20 cents.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLICATIONS ON MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK SOLD BY THE SUPERINTENDENT
+OF DOCUMENTS.
+
+
+Remittances for these publications should be by money order, payable to
+the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,
+D.C., or in cash. Checks and postage stamps can not be accepted.
+
+Features of the Flora of Mount Rainier National Park, by J.B. Flett.
+1916. 48 pages, including 40 illustrations. 25 cents.
+
+     Contains descriptions of the flowering trees and shrubs in the
+     park.
+
+Mount Rainier and Its Glaciers, by F.E. Matthes. 1914. 48 pages,
+including 26 illustrations. 15 cents.
+
+     Contains a general account of the glaciers of Mount Rainier and of
+     the development of the valleys and basins surrounding the peak.
+
+Panoramic view of Mount Rainier National Park, 20 by 19 inches, scale 1
+mile to the inch. 25 cents.
+
+
+
+
+THE FORESTS OF MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK.
+
+By G.F. ALLEN, _United States Forest Service_.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL STATEMENT.
+
+
+The remarkable development of the forests about the base of Mount
+Rainier results from climatic conditions peculiarly favorable to tree
+growth. The winters are mild and short. The ocean winds that pass
+through the gaps of the Coast Range are laden with moisture which falls
+in the form of rain or snow on the west slope of the Cascades. The trees
+are nourished by this moisture through a long season of annual growth,
+and form an evergreen forest which is, in some respects, the most
+remarkable in the world. This forest, distinguished by the extraordinary
+size and beauty of the trees and by the density of the stand, extends
+into the deep valleys of the rivers which have their sources in the
+glaciers. On the dividing ridges and in the upper stream basins the
+composition and character of the forest change with the increasing
+severity of the climate.
+
+The distribution of the different species of trees according to the
+intervals of altitude at which they occur separate the forests of the
+Mount Rainier National Park into different types. The lines of
+separation are to some extent also determined by complex conditions of
+slope, exposure, and moisture. The successive forest belts are uniform
+in the composition of their central areas, but blend and overlap where
+they come together.
+
+The low valleys of the main and west forks of White River, of the
+Carbon, the Mowich, the Nisqually, and the Ohanopecosh are covered with
+a dense and somber forest of fir, hemlock, and cedar. The trees, pushing
+upward for light, are very tall and free from limbs for more than half
+their height. Their tops form a continuous cover which the sunshine
+rarely penetrates, and on which the light snows of early winter fall and
+melt, without reaching the ground. Even in midsummer the light is soft
+and shaded, and the air cool and humid. In the wintertime the young
+growth is sheltered from wind and the severity of the cold is tempered
+by the protecting mountain ranges. Saved from fire by the uniform
+dampness of the air the trees grow until they decay and fall from old
+age. They are succeeded by the suppressed younger trees. The forest
+remains mature, not uniformly sound and vigorous, yet not decreasing as
+a whole in size and volume. Individuals perish, but the character of the
+forest is constant. The deep alluvial soil covered with moss and decayed
+vegetation nourishes a luxuriant tangled undergrowth of vine maple,
+willow, and devil's-club. The forest floor is covered with a deep layer
+of decayed vegetation and is encumbered with fallen and mossy logs and
+upturned stumps. The explorer who leaves the trails must be a strong and
+active man if he can carry his pack 6 or 8 miles in a long summer day.
+
+Ascending from the river bottoms to the lower slopes of the dividing
+ridges the forest becomes more open and the trees are smaller. Salal,
+Oregon grape, and huckleberry bushes take the place of the taller
+undergrowth of the valleys. Up to 3,000 feet the Douglas fir and the
+hemlock still are the dominant species. Above this altitude new species
+are found intermingled with the trees typical of the lowland, but
+forming a distinct forest type. The noble and amabilis fir appear,
+sometimes growing in pure stands, but more often associated with the
+Douglas fir and western hemlock at the lower limits of the type, and
+with alpine fir and mountain hemlock at the upper limit.
+
+Nearly all the trees of this type have deep and wide-spreading roots
+which serve to hold in place the surface deposit of volcanic pumice
+which covers the slopes of the mountain. Evidence afforded by the after
+effects of forest fires in other parts of the Cascades indicates that
+the destruction of the forest on the mountain sides is followed by
+erosion. Heavy rains and the melting of the upper snow banks by warm
+Chinook winds combine to produce a surface run-off that denudes the
+steeper declivities down to the underlying bedrock.
+
+At elevations above 4,500 feet the lowland trees have disappeared
+entirely. Subalpine species adapted to withstand the burden of deep snow
+take their place. Mountain hemlock, alpine fir, and Engelmann spruce
+grow singly and in scattered groups or form open groves alternating with
+grassy parks and rocky ridges. The symmetrical outline of the slender
+pyramidal crowns and rapidly tapering trunks of the spruce and alpine
+fir trees that stand singly on the greensward of the open parks bring to
+mind the closely trimmed cultivated evergreens that adorn city parks and
+lawns. Their lower branches reach the ground and the tops terminate in
+slender upright spires.
+
+As timber line is approached tree growth is confined to dwarfed and
+flattened mountain hemlocks, alpine firs, and the white-bark pines
+firmly rooted among the crevices of the rocks.
+
+The extreme limit of tree growth on Mount Rainier is 7,600 feet above
+sea level. There is no well-defined timber line. Scattered clumps of low
+stunted trees occur up to 7,000 feet. A few very small and flattened
+mountain hemlocks grow above this elevation. A very large part of the
+area above 4,500 feet consists of glaciers, talus slopes, barren rocky
+peaks, and open parks. Basins at the heads of canyons in the high
+mountains are usually treeless, on account of the great depth of snow
+which accumulates in them during the winter. On the steep, smooth upper
+inclines the snow banks frequently slip and form slides which acquire
+momentum as they rush down the mountain side and break and carry away
+large trees. Repeated snowslides in the same place keep the slopes
+nonforested, and their track is marked by light green strips of brush
+and herbage.
+
+The transition of the forest from its lowland to its extreme alpine type
+is one of the most interesting features of a visit to the mountain.
+Entering the park at the western boundary close to the Nisqually River
+the road skirts the base of the lightly timbered spurs and passes into a
+forest of large and old Douglas fir and western hemlock. Red cedars grow
+along the streams that cross the road. Little yew trees and vine maples
+mingle with the young conifers that form the undergrowth; the gloom of
+the forest is occasionally relieved by the white bark of alders and the
+smooth gray stems of the cottonwoods that grow on the sandy bank of the
+Nisqually. After the road crosses the Rainier Fork, noble fir and
+amabilis fir appear, but the Douglas fir and western hemlock are still
+the prevailing species.
+
+Above Longmire Springs the noble and amabilis fir, mixed with western
+hemlock, become the dominant type. The trees are shorter and the
+branches heavier. Mountain ash and yellow cypress grow on the margin of
+the mountain streams. Huckleberry bushes take the place of the taller
+undergrowth of the valley.
+
+Above Narada Falls the forest is more open, and the trees are still
+smaller. Mountain hemlock and alpine fir succeed the trees of the lower
+slope. Little glades and mountain meadows are seen. They become larger
+and more numerous and the traveler soon enters the open park of Paradise
+Valley, in which are but scattered groves of trees. The same successive
+altitudinal types are met in ascending to Moraine and Grand Parks by way
+of the Carbon Valley, and in following the Mowich watershed, Crater
+Lake, and Spray Park routes.
+
+Approaching the park from the east the routes pass through open western
+yellow pine forests and western larch stands. Since Mount Rainier is
+west of and apart from the summit line, these species which are peculiar
+to the eastern slope are not found within the limits of the park.
+
+
+
+
+EFFECTS OF FIRE.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Whitened spectral monuments of a former forest
+which was swept by a severe forest fire in 1885. Taken along the road to
+Camp of the Clouds at an altitude of 5,500 feet.
+
+Photograph by A.H. Barnes.]
+
+
+Notwithstanding the shortness of the summer season at high altitudes,
+the subalpine forests in some parts of the park have suffered severely
+from fire (fig. 1). The bare white trunks of fire-killed amabilis and
+alpine firs bear witness to numerous fires which occurred from time to
+time before the regulations governing the park went into effect. The
+little resin pockets in the bark of these trees blaze fiercely for a
+short time and the heat separates the bark from the trunk. In this way
+the tree is killed, although the naked trunk is left untouched by fire.
+The destruction of the alpine forest in this way is often erroneously
+attributed to disease or to the depredations of insects.
+
+There has been little apparent change in the alpine burns within the
+last 30 years. Reforestation at high altitudes is extremely slow. The
+seed production is rather scanty and the ground conditions are not
+favorable for its reproduction. It will take more than one century for
+nature to replace the beautiful groves which have been destroyed by the
+carelessness of the first visitors to the mountain.
+
+At low elevations the forest recovers more rapidly from the effects of
+fire. Between the subalpine areas and the river valleys there are
+several large ancient burns which are partly reforested. The most
+extensive of these tracts is the Muddy Fork burn. It is crossed by the
+Stevens Canyon Trail from Reflection Lakes through the Ohanopecosh Hot
+Springs. This burn includes an area of 20 square miles in the park and
+extends north nearly to the glaciers and south for several miles beyond
+the park boundary nearly to the main Cowlitz River. The open sunlit
+spaces and wide outlooks afforded by reforested tracts of this character
+present a strong contrast to the deep shades and dim vistas of the
+primitive forest. On the whole they have a cheerful and pleasing
+appearance, very different from the sad, desolate aspect of the alpine
+burns which less kindly conditions of climate and exposure have kept
+from reforestation.
+
+The original forest was fire killed many years before the coming of the
+white man. A few naked and weather beaten stubs are still standing. Only
+the larger of the fallen trunks remain, and these are rotten except for
+a few seasoned and weatherworn shells. The second growth is of all ages,
+from seedlings to trees 12 to 14 inches in diameter. Vine maple, willow,
+and mountain ash have sprung up along the streams and the hillsides are
+covered with huckleberry bushes and a variety of grasses and flowering
+plants.
+
+Similar old burns are found on the ridge between Huckleberry Creek and
+White River, in the northeastern part of the park, and on the ridge
+between Tahoma Creek and Kautz Creek below Henrys Hunting Ground.
+
+The old burns in the middle altitudes of the park occupy regions once
+frequented by the Klickitat Indians. Every summer parties of hunters and
+berry pickers from the sagebrush plains crossed the Cascades with their
+horses. They followed the high divides and open summits of the secondary
+ridges until they came around to the open parks about Mount Rainier
+where they turned their horses out to graze and made their summer camp.
+The woman picked huckleberries and the men hunted deer and goats. They
+made great fires to dry their berries and kindled smudges to protect
+their horses from flies. It was also their custom to systematically set
+out fires as they returned. Burning made the country better for the
+Indians. The fires kept down the brush and made it more accessible. Deer
+could be more easily seen and tracked and the huckleberry patches spread
+more widely over the hills.
+
+No considerable part of the lower forests of the park has been burned.
+The principal danger is from lightning. However, few of the trees struck
+are ignited and these fires are usually extinguished by the rain. On
+account of the coolness of the air and its greater humidity the fire
+danger in the forests on the lower slopes of Mount Rainier seems much
+less than it is in corresponding situations in the main range of the
+Cascades.
+
+
+
+
+AGE AND DIMENSIONS OF TREES.
+
+
+Trees grow more rapidly at low altitudes than at higher and cooler
+elevations. Under similar conditions some species increase in size
+faster than others, but the rate of growth depends principally upon
+environment. The average increase at the stump in valley land is about 1
+inch in 6 years. A Douglas fir growing along the stage road between the
+park boundary and Longmire's, at the age of 90 to 120 years may have a
+breast diameter of 20 inches and yield 700 feet of saw timber. But many
+of the trees of this size may be much older on account of having grown
+in the shade or under other adverse conditions. The trees between 200
+and 300 years of age are often 40 to 50 inches in diameter and may yield
+an average of from 2,700 to 5,500 board feet. The largest Douglas firs
+are sometimes over 400 years old and 60 to 70 inches in diameter. Such
+trees when sound will produce over 8,000 feet of lumber.
+
+The western red cedar has a shorter and more tapering trunk and its
+volume in board feet is proportionally smaller. A tree 50 inches in
+diameter and 175 feet high contains about 3,400 board feet.
+
+The size of the trees decreases rapidly at higher elevations. In the
+subalpine forest the annual growth is very small. At elevations of 6,000
+feet the white-bark pine requires 200 years to attain a diameter of 10
+or 12 inches. The annual rings are so close together that they can not
+be distinguished without a magnifying glass.
+
+
+
+
+DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIES.
+
+
+DOUGLAS FIR (PSEUDOTSUGA TAXIFOLIA).
+
+The Douglas fir (figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5) is the best known and the most
+important timber tree of western North America. It is found from
+British Columbia southward to northern Mexico. The finest forests occur
+in Oregon and Washington at low elevations. The Douglas fir is common in
+the park up to 3,500 feet, sometimes in nearly pure stands, but more
+often mixed with other species. It grows in all situations. In the
+higher mountains it prefers warm southern exposures and is seldom found
+on wind-swept ridges. It seeds annually, but most profusely at intervals
+three or four years apart. The red squirrels gather and store large
+quantities of the cones in order to provide a supply of the seeds for
+their winter rations. The growth of the young tree is very rapid. As the
+tree becomes older the rate of growth varies with the situation and the
+character of the soil so that the size does not closely determine the
+age of the tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_).]
+
+The Douglas fir is a long-lived tree, and specimens are occasionally
+found 250 to 270 feet high and over 8 feet in diameter and between 400
+and 500 years in age. It reaches its greatest height and most perfect
+proportions in mature even-age stands growing on fairly moist
+well-drained bench lands. Under these conditions it is a very tall and
+beautiful tree. The trunk is straight, round, and free from branches for
+two-thirds of its height and tapers gently to the crown. The dark-brown
+deep-furrowed bark is 5 to 10 inches thick at the base of the tree.
+
+The Douglas fir ranks first among the trees of the Pacific slope in
+importance for the production of lumber. It is often sold under the name
+of Oregon pine. Lumber dealers class the coarse-grained reddish wood
+produced by the young growth in open forests as "red fir." The older
+growth produced when the forest is more dense is a finer grained and
+more valuable wood, sold under the name of "yellow fir."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_).]
+
+The Douglas fir is used for nearly all purposes where durability,
+strength, and hardness are desirable. It is made into dimension timbers,
+lumber, flooring, and is particularly adapted for masts and spars. The
+lumber is shipped by rail to the Middle Western States. The foreign
+cargo shipments are made to all parts of the world. The greatest amount
+goes to Australia, the west and east coasts of South America, China, the
+United Kingdom, and Europe, Japan, and the South Sea Islands. Coastwise
+shipments are made to California, Alaska, and Panama. Large quantities
+of the seed of this tree are sent to Europe, where the Douglas fir is
+grown for timber and for ornament.
+
+
+WESTERN RED CEDAR (THUJA PLICATA.)[1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_).]
+
+The western red cedar (title page and fig. 5) ranges from south-eastern
+Alaska to northern California. It is a common tree in the park. It
+occurs in patches along the river bottoms where the flat scalelike
+foliage is conspicuous among the needle-shaped leaves of the hemlock and
+fir. The bark is fibrous in appearance and may be readily separated into
+long strips. The trunks of the older trees are swelled and irregularly
+fluted at the base. The leaves are fragrant and the wood has a pleasing
+aromatic odor. Nearly all the large trees are hollow at the butt. The
+roots spread laterally to a great distance, but extend only for a short
+distance below the surface of the ground. The tree is easily overthrown
+by the wind and usually grows in sheltered localities. On account of the
+thinness of the bark it is easily killed by fire.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Two big Douglas firs and a western red cedar (on
+the left) along the road up the Nisqually Valley, Mount Rainier National
+Park.
+
+Photograph by A.H. Denman.]
+
+The red cedar flourishes on fertile and well-watered soils near sea
+level, where it grows to an enormous size. In the park it is a smaller
+tree, 150 to 170 feet high and rarely more than 4 or 5 feet through
+above the swollen butt. It grows occasionally up to an altitude of 4,000
+feet, but is a small and insignificant tree in the high mountains.
+
+In the sapling stage the red cedar grows rapidly. The mature tree
+increases very slowly in size. It exceeds all other trees in the
+Cascades in longevity. Individuals more than 500 years old are not
+uncommon and there is a well-authenticated instance where the annual
+rings indicated a growth of more than 1,100 years.
+
+While the red cedar forms no great proportion of the forest of the
+Pacific Northwest, it is peculiarly valuable to the pioneer on account
+of the durability of the wood and the ease with which it can be split
+into boards, shakes, and planking. The early settlers used cedar split
+by hand as a substitute for sawn lumber in flooring and finishing their
+cabins and for the tables and shelves with which they were furnished.
+The Indians hollowed the great trunks with fire and made them into
+canoes, some of which were large and seaworthy enough to be used on the
+Sound and in making voyages along the coast. They wove the fibrous roots
+into baskets that carried water and plaited the bark into matting. The
+wood of the red cedar is reddish brown in color. It is soft, light, and
+very brittle, but very durable. It is extensively used for shingles, the
+manufacture of which forms one of the important industries of the State.
+The clear logs are sawed into lumber used for siding, interior and
+exterior finish, moldings, tank stock, and similar purposes. Common logs
+are utilized for shingles. In many localities the entire tree is cut
+into 52-inch bolts, which are hauled to the mills or floated to them
+down the streams.
+
+The western red cedar makes excellent posts and rails for farm fences.
+The young trees are used for telegraph and telephone poles.
+
+
+WESTERN HEMLOCK (TSUGA HETEROPHYLLA).
+
+Next to the Douglas fir the western hemlock is the most abundant tree in
+the forests of Oregon and Washington. It occurs from Alaska southward to
+northern California. About Mount Rainier it is found up to an altitude
+of 5,000 feet. In the river valleys in moist situations it is a large
+tree, sometimes reaching a height of 250 feet and a diameter of 5 feet.
+On the high ridges it is stunted. It grows best on moist deep soils in
+dense forests, but thrives under almost all conditions of soil and
+exposure if provided with plenty of moisture.
+
+Western hemlock (figs. 6 and 7) is usually associated with Douglas fir
+and red cedar, but sometimes forms a forest of nearly pure growth. The
+hemlock produces abundant seed each year, although it is more prolific
+at irregular intervals. The seeds germinate readily on decayed moss and
+rotten wood as well as upon the mineral soil. Seedlings frequently grow
+on fallen logs and extend their vigorous roots around the side until
+they reach the ground and become firmly anchored in it. Young hemlocks
+thrive in the shade. On logged-off areas which have not been burned over
+and which are partially shaded by uncut trees, the reproduction of
+hemlock springs up, to the exclusion of the more valuable Douglas fir.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The lower slope forest, near Longmire Springs,
+altitude 3,000 feet, here composed largely of western hemlock (_Tsuga
+heterophylla_); the tree on the extreme left is a Douglas fir
+(_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_).
+
+Photograph by A.H. Barnes.]
+
+The hemlock is long lived and grows slowly. The largest trees are from
+200 to 500 years old and are usually hollow-hearted. The bark is thin
+and the tree very easily killed by ground fire. The wood of the hemlock
+is tough, light, and straight grained. It is not as durable as the
+Douglas fir and decays rapidly when exposed to the weather. The clear
+lumber is suitable for interior finish. The wood is also used for
+flooring, joists, lath, and paper pulp. The common and rough lumber does
+not find a ready market, except for the limited amount used in temporary
+construction. The western hemlock is, however, superior to the eastern
+hemlock, and its value will probably be recognized as its usefulness for
+many purposes becomes better known.
+
+
+WESTERN WHITE PINE (PINUS MONTICOLA).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--A forest of Douglas fir, with an understory of
+western hemlock, on the lower slopes of the hills, Mount Rainier
+National Park.
+
+Photograph by A.H. Denman.]
+
+The western white pine (fig. 8) is found from southern Alaska to
+northern California. In the park it occurs occasionally up to 4,000
+feet. It usually grows on level benches and gentle slopes associated
+with Douglas fir, western hemlock, and noble and amabilis fir. It
+reaches its best development at elevations of from 3,000 to 3,500 feet,
+where it attains a height of 150 feet and a diameter of 40 inches. The
+shaft is straight, cylindrical, and clear of limbs. It bears a small,
+narrow crown of drooping branches. In open areas, where it is exposed to
+sunlight, its mode of growth is wholly different. The trunk is short,
+rapidly tapering, and bears wide-spreading branches nearly to the
+ground. At high elevations the western white pine is very short and
+stunted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Western white pine (_Pinus monticola_).
+
+Diameter 24 inches, height 50 feet.]
+
+Although the western white pine is not a common tree in the park, it is
+often noticed on account of its abundance of slender, pendant cones, 6
+to 10 inches long. They mature every two years and shed their seed early
+in September. The seed are provided with long wings and are often
+carried by the wind for a great distance from the parent tree.
+
+The wood is light, soft, free from pitch, and the most valuable of any
+of the pines of the Cascades. It is used for interior finish, pattern
+making, and other purposes. The supply of this tree is so limited that
+it is not of great commercial importance in the Mount Rainier region.
+
+
+AMABILIS FIR (ABIES AMABILIS).[2]
+
+Amabilis fir (figs. 9 and 10) ranges from southern Alaska to Oregon. It
+is abundant in the park at elevations from 2,500 to 5,000 feet on level
+bench lands, and gentle slopes with a northern exposure. It is rarely
+found in unmixed stands, but is usually associated with western hemlock,
+Douglas fir, and noble fir. The largest trees are 150 to 180 feet high
+and 3 to 5 feet in diameter. In dense forests the stem is free from
+branches for 50 to 100 feet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Amabilis fir (_Abies amabilis_).]
+
+At altitudes over 4,000 feet, small amabilis firs often occur in
+clusters and open groves. The trunk is covered with branches which grow
+to the ground, turning downward and outward in long graceful curves,
+admirably adapted to withstand the pressure of the frozen snow. The
+foliage is a deep and brilliant green, forming a strong contrast to the
+dark-purple cones. The seeds ripen each year early in October. Like the
+seed of the other alpine species of trees that grow in the cold and
+humid climate of the high Cascades, they soon lose their vitality when
+stored in dry places. The amabilis fir is grown in Europe as an
+ornamental tree. Under cultivation it loses much of the natural grace
+and beauty which it acquired in adapting itself to the deep snows and
+long winters of its native environment.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--The forests of western hemlock, amabilis fir,
+and other species, on the middle slopes of the mountains, along the
+Crater Lake trail, Mount Rainier National Park.
+
+Photograph by Geo. O. Ceasar.]
+
+The bark is thin and the tree is easily killed by fire. The wood is
+straw colored, compact, and straight grained. It is not strong and
+splits easily. It is sold to some extent under the name of larch or
+mixed with inferior grades of fir and hemlock. The lumber is of little
+value commercially.
+
+
+NOBLE FIR (ABIES NOBILIS).
+
+The noble fir (figs. 11 and 12) is a common mountain tree in the western
+parts of Washington and Oregon. Like amabilis fir, it is usually called
+larch by lumbermen. About Mount Rainier it grows at elevations of from
+3,500 to 5,000 feet in dense stands associated with amabilis fir,
+western hemlock, and Douglas fir. The noble fir avoids steep side hills
+and exposed situations. In moist soils on flats and gentle slopes it
+often reaches a height of from 150 to 200 feet. The tall and upright
+trunk supports a rounded crown of bluish green foliage, which is very
+noticeable among the purer green leaves of its associates. The branches
+are short, thick, and crowded with stiff, flattened leaves, which turn
+upward and outward. The light-green bract-covered cones are sometimes 6
+inches long and nearly 3 inches thick. They ripen early in September.
+Seed is borne every year, although in some seasons it is much more
+abundant than in others.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Noble fir (_Abies nobilis_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Noble fir (_Abies nobilis_), 6 feet in
+diameter.]
+
+The wood is strong, close grained, and elastic. It is used for lumber
+and particularly for inside finishing. The noble fir is a slow-growing
+and long-lived tree. Old trees in mixed forests are easily distinguished
+from the associated species by the ashy-brown outer bark broken into
+large irregular plates.
+
+
+ALPINE FIR (ABIES LASIOCARPA).[3]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--A cluster of Alpine firs (_Abies lasiocarpa_),
+whose spire-shaped crowns are characteristic, at 5,500 feet altitude, in
+Cowlitz Park, Mount Rainier National Park.
+
+Photograph by A.H. Barnes.]
+
+The alpine fir (fig. 13) ranges from Alaska to New Mexico. It is a
+common tree in the park at elevations above 4,500 feet. It is a tree of
+the high mountains and with the white bark pine and the mountain
+hemlock, is found up to the limit of arborescent life. It demands
+moisture and is generally restricted to regions of deep snowfall.
+
+The alpine fir occurs in unmixed stands, but is often associated with
+the mountain hemlock. At the lower levels of its range it is a
+fair-sized tree 50 or 60 feet high. The crown of deep-green foliage is
+broad at the base and tapers to the top, where it terminates in a
+slender, pointed tip. At its upper limit it becomes a stunted shrub,
+with wide extended branches resting on the ground.
+
+The alpine fir bears upright clusters of deep-purple cones. It seeds
+sparingly each year. The seasons of heavy seed production occur at
+intervals of three or four years. The wood is soft and splits easily. It
+is of no commercial value. The tree is easily killed by fire, which
+blisters the thin bark and frequently springs into the drooping lower
+branches.
+
+
+GRAND FIR (ABIES GRANDIS.)[4]
+
+The grand fir (fig. 14), like several other species, is generally given
+the name of white fir on account of its smooth, light-colored bark. It
+is a common tree in the river bottoms from British Columbia south to
+northern California. In the Mount Rainier National Park it occurs up to
+4,000 feet. The grand fir is a moisture-loving tree and is usually found
+firmly rooted in deep alluvial bottom lands along the banks of streams.
+With the Douglas fir, hemlock, and red cedar it forms the dense forest
+characteristic of the lower mountain valleys.
+
+In favorable conditions the grand fir grows to a height of from 100 to
+200 feet and is a noble and stately tree. The trunk tapers rapidly and
+bears a rounded pyramidal crown. In dense forests the trunk is clear for
+half its height, but where the trees stand in the open it carries its
+branches nearly to the ground. The leaves are a bright and shining
+green. The large light-green cones mature early in the fall. The wood is
+soft and very heavy before it is seasoned. It rots in a very short time
+when laid on the ground. When dry it is white, coarse-grained, light,
+and odorous. It is used for interior finish and for crates and packing
+boxes, but is of little value commercially.
+
+
+ENGELMANN SPRUCE (PICEA ENGELMANNI).
+
+The Engelmann spruce (fig. 15) is a mountain tree ranging from British
+Columbia to Arizona and New Mexico. It is common along the summit and on
+the east side of the Cascade Range and occurs on the northeastern and
+eastern slopes of Mount Rainier at elevations of from 3,500 to 6,000
+feet.
+
+This tree requires a moist soil and prefers cool northern exposures. Up
+to 5,000 feet it commonly grows in sheltered basins at the head of
+canyons and in stream valleys. At its upper limits it is common on flats
+and depressions and about lakes on level summits. It avoids steep
+mountain sides and exposed situations.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Grand fir (_Abies grandis_).]
+
+The Engelmann spruce is easily distinguished from its associates by its
+stiff, bluish-green pointed leaves, which prick the hand when they are
+grasped. In the mountain parks it is a handsome tree 50 to 60 feet high.
+When it stands apart from other trees the lower branches are thick and
+long and extend to the ground. The crown is very broad at the base, but
+narrow and spirelike at the top. The Engelmann spruce reaches its best
+development at low elevations, where it often grows in dense, pure
+stands. Under these conditions it reaches a height of 100 feet. The bole
+is straight and free from limbs and the top is short and compact.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Engelmann spruce (_Picea engelmanni_).]
+
+The young cones are massed in upright green and purple clusters at the
+tips of the upper branches. They are notable for the purity and
+brilliance of their coloring. As they mature they become pendant and
+fade to a light brown. The seed is produced in abundance nearly every
+year, although small and seedling trees are not usually numerous.
+
+The wood is soft, white, compact, and even grained. It is free from
+pitch and odor. It is valuable for boxing, cooperage, and certain kinds
+of finish. It is also an excellent material for the tops of violins and
+other stringed instruments. The Engelmann spruce is, however, of little
+importance as a timber tree on account of its scarcity and the scattered
+stands in which it grows. It is a long-lived tree unless attacked by
+fire, to which it is very vulnerable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--A group of yellow cypresses (_Chamaecyparis
+nootkatensis_) on the high slopes of Mount Rainier National Park,
+altitude about 6,000 feet.
+
+Photograph by A.H. Barnes.]
+
+
+YELLOW CYPRESS (CHAMAECYPARIS NOOTKATENSIS).
+
+Yellow cypress (fig. 16) ranges from the seacoast of southern Alaska
+south to the mountains of Washington and Oregon. It occurs in the park
+up to the elevation of 7,000 feet. It is common on northern exposures,
+along streams, and in basins at the head of canyons. It also grows on
+crests and ridges, where the frequent showers and fogs supply the
+moisture which it demands. In sheltered localities it grows to a height
+of 75 or 80 feet, but it is commonly a small tree with, a bent and
+twisted stem, which, with its pendulous branches, presents a somewhat
+scrubby appearance. The foliage is green, sometimes with a bluish tinge.
+It resembles that of the common western red cedar, but the leaves are
+sharper, more pointed, and rougher to handle. The small, rounded,
+inconspicuous cones are produced somewhat sparingly. The bark of the
+young tree is red. On the mature tree it becomes gray and fibrous. The
+wood is yellow, close grained, and aromatic. Unlike that of the western
+red cedar, the trunk is usually sound to the center. The wood is used
+for boat building and cabinetwork. It is very durable.
+
+The yellow cypress grows very slowly, particularly at high elevations.
+The number of annual rings on trees 15 to 20 inches in diameter indicate
+that they are over 200 years old.
+
+
+LODGEPOLE PINE (PINUS CONTORTA).
+
+Lodgepole pine (fig. 17) is widely distributed from Alaska to Lower
+California and eastward through the Rockies to Dakota and Colorado. It
+occurs sparingly in the park up to 5,000 feet above sea level. It adapts
+itself easily to the different conditions of soil, moisture, and
+exposure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Lodgepole pine (_Pinus contorta_), 60 inches in
+diameter.]
+
+This tree varies greatly in the different regions where it is found.
+About Mount Rainier it does not often exceed 20 to 40 feet in height
+and is often a much smaller tree. It produces cones at the age of 5 to 7
+years. The foliage is a yellowish green. At high elevations the leaves
+have a peculiar whorled appearance which gives it a different aspect
+from that of the other pines. The short, heavily limbed trunk bears no
+resemblance to the tall and slender shaft of the lodgepole pine of the
+Rocky Mountains. The root system is shallow and the tree is easily fire
+killed. The wood of the variety which grows in the park is of no
+commercial value.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--The feathery foliage of mountain hemlock
+(_Tsuga mertensiana_), Grand Park, Mount Rainier National Park.
+
+Photograph by A.H. Denman.]
+
+
+MOUNTAIN HEMLOCK (TSUGA MERTENSIANA).
+
+The mountain hemlock (figs. 18, 19, and 20) is found on the Pacific
+coast from the Sierras of California to the northern part of Alaska
+where it grows at sea level. On Mount Rainier it occurs at altitudes of
+from 3,500 to 7,500 feet. It forms dense forests under 4,500 feet, where
+it is often a fair-sized tree 50 to 90 feet high. With the ascent of the
+mountain it diminishes in height and the branches become gnarled and
+twisted. Near timber line the trunk is dwarfed and bent at the base and
+the crown becomes a flattened mass of branches lying close to the ground
+(fig. 20).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Two solitary mountain hemlocks (_Tsuga
+mertensiana_), Spray Park, Mount Rainier National Park.
+
+Photograph by Geo. O. Ceasar.]
+
+The mountain hemlock is abundant on high, rocky ridges, but the best
+stands are on cool, moist soil at the heads of ravines, on flats, and on
+gentle slopes with a northern exposure.
+
+This tree seeds every year. In good seed years the upper branches are
+laden with a profusion of beautiful, deep-purple cones, often in such
+abundance as to bend down the branchlets with their weight. The
+reproduction is slow. In the high mountains the trees are buried in snow
+from October to late in June, and the growing season is very short.
+
+
+WHITE-BARK PINE (PINUS ALBICAULIS).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--A gnarled, wind-swept mountain hemlock (_Tsuga
+mertensiana_), near the upper limits of tree growth, Spray Park, Mount
+Rainier National Park.
+
+Photograph by A.H. Denman.]
+
+The white-bark pine (fig. 21) grows close to timber line in the
+mountains of the Pacific coast from British Columbia to southern
+California. In the Canadian Rockies it extends north to the fifty-third
+parallel. It is the most alpine of all the pines. Its lower limit on
+Mount Rainier is about 5,000 feet above sea level. In sheltered places
+where the soil is deep the trees are sometimes 30 to 40 feet high and 20
+inches in diameter. The trunks are free from limbs for 8 or 10 feet. The
+outer bark, from which the tree derives its name, consists of thin,
+light-gray scales.
+
+As the white-bark pine advances up the mountain its habit changes
+rapidly. The stem shortens and becomes gnarled and twisted. The tough,
+flexible branches reach the ground and spread over it to a great
+distance from the tree. On rocky summits and the bleak crests of
+wind-swept ridges the twisted trunk and branches are quite prostrate and
+the crown is a dense flattened mass of foliage.
+
+The roots of the tree are deep, long, and tenacious. They spread wide
+and deep and cling so firmly to the rocks that the tree is rarely
+overthrown by the violent winds that sweep over the mountain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--A white-bark pine (_Pinus albicaulis_) in its
+characteristic mountain habitat, Mount Rainier National Park.
+
+Photograph by A.H. Denman.]
+
+The thick, purple cones require two years to mature. They ripen early in
+September and produce chocolate-brown seeds a little larger than a grain
+of corn. They are much relished by the Klickitat Indians, who go to
+considerable pains to secure them. The wood is close grained and
+resinous. It makes excellent fuel for the camp fires of sheep herders
+and mountain travelers.
+
+
+WESTERN YEW (TAXUS BREVIFOLIA).[5]
+
+The western yew is found from southern Alaska to northern California. It
+occurs in the park up to 4,000 feet, growing in rich, gravelly soil on
+moist flats and benches and in deep ravines. It is a small branching
+tree, rarely over 20 feet high. The bark is purple or reddish brown. The
+branches extend almost to the ground. It bears a small, bright,
+amber-red berry.
+
+The dark-brown or red heartwood is very tough, hard and heavy. It takes
+a fine polish and is used for fancy cabinetwork. The Indians use it for
+spear handles, bows, and fishhooks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Broadleaf maple (_Acer macrophyllum_).]
+
+
+DECIDUOUS TREES.
+
+The silva of the Western Cascades is rich in evergreens remarkable for
+their size and beauty. The deciduous trees are few and insignificant.
+The forests of the park are almost wholly coniferous. Vine maple and
+willow are found as undergrowth. On the margins of rivers there are
+occasional groves of alders and cottonwoods. The lighter hues of the
+branching trunks and the changing tints of the foliage in these patches
+of broad-leaved woodland present a pleasing diversity to the evergreen
+forest.
+
+Broadleaf maple (_Acer macrophyllum_) (fig. 22), the largest of the
+Pacific coast maples, ranges from Alaska to southern California. Near
+sea level it often attains a height of 50 or 60 feet. In the park it is
+a short-stemmed, branching tree, occasionally found on the borders of
+streams. It grows at elevations under 3,000 feet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Vine maple (_Acer circinatum_).]
+
+Vine maple (_Acer circinatum_) (fig. 23) is abundant from British
+Columbia to northern California. On rich river bottoms it is sometimes
+15 to 20 feet high and 6 inches in diameter. In the park it is usually a
+bush or low shrub with a bent and curiously crooked stem, growing along
+streams and as undergrowth in the forest. It is very common up to 3,000
+feet. In autumn the leaves are a bright scarlet. The wood is tough and
+elastic and makes a hot and lasting fire.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Red alder (_Alnus oregona_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Black cottonwood (_Populus trichocarpa_).]
+
+Red alder (_Alnus oregona_) (fig. 24) occurs from Alaska to southern
+California. It is common about Mount Rainier, in river bottoms, on the
+banks of large streams, and in swampy places. It usually grows to a
+height of 30 or 40 feet. The bark varies from nearly white to light
+gray. It is the most abundant of all the deciduous trees in the park.
+
+Black cottonwood (_Populus trichocarpa_) (fig. 25) is common from Alaska
+to southern California. It is occasionally found in the park up to 4,000
+feet. It grows along streams and on sandy river bottoms often associated
+with the alder. The leaves are almost always in motion, very gentle
+winds being sufficient to make them twinkle and turn.
+
+The wood is soft, but tough and compact. It is used for staves,
+woodenware, wood pulp, trunks, barrels, and for drawer bottoms.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+[1] This species is known as arbor vitæ in Glacier Park.
+
+[2] This species is known as silver fir in Crater Lake Park.
+
+[3] This species is known as balsam in Glacier and Yellowstone Parks.
+
+[4] This species is known as silver fir in Yellowstone and Glacier
+Parks.
+
+[5] This species is known as Oregon yew in Crater Lake National Park and
+as yew in Yellowstone and Glacier Parks.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX TO SPECIES DESCRIBED.
+
+[Roman numerals indicate pages containing descriptions; italic numerals
+indicate pages containing illustrations.]
+
+
+ _Abies amabilis_ 15-16, _15_, _16_
+   _grandis_     20, _21_
+   _lasiocarpa_     19-20, _19_
+   _nobilis_   17-19, _17_, _18_
+
+ _Acer circinatum_    30, _30_
+   _macrophyllum_ 29, _29_
+
+ Alder, red (_Alnus oregona_) 30, _31_
+
+ _Alnus oregona_ 30, _31_
+
+ Alpine fir (_Abies lasiocarpa_) 19-20, _19_
+
+ Amabilis fir (_Abies amabilis_) 15-16, _15_, _16_
+
+ Arbor vitæ. _See_ Western red cedar.
+
+
+ Balsam. _See_ Alpine fir.
+
+ Black cottonwood (_Populus trichocarpa_) 30-32, _31_
+
+ Broadleaf maple (_Acer macrophyllum_) 29, _29_
+
+
+ Cedar, western red (_Thuja plicata_) 9-11, _10_
+
+ _Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_ 23-24, _23_
+
+ Cottonwood, black (_Populus trichocarpa_) 30-32, _31_
+
+ Cypress, yellow (_Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) 23-24, _23_
+
+
+ Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_) 6-8, _7_, _8_, _9_, _10_,
+   _12_, _13_
+
+
+ Engelmann spruce (_Picea engelmanni_) 20-23, _22_
+
+
+ Fir, alpine (_Abies lasiocarpa_)    19-20, _19_
+   amabilis (_Abies amabilis_) 15-16, _15_, _16_
+   Douglas (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_) 6-8, _7_, _8_, _9_, _10_,
+    _12_, _13_
+   grand (_Abies grandis_) 20, _21_
+   noble (_Abies nobilis_) 17-19, _17_, _18_
+   silver. _See_ Fir, amabilis; Fir, grand.
+
+
+ Grand fir (_Abies grandis_) 20, _21_
+
+
+ Hemlock, mountain (_Tsuga mertensiana_) 25-27, _25_, _26_, _27_
+   western (_Tsuga heterophylla_) 11-13, _12_, _13_, _16_
+
+
+ Larch. _See_ Noble fir; Amabilis fir.
+
+ Lodgepole pine (_Pinus contorta_) 24-25, _24_
+
+
+ Maple, broadleaf (_Acer macrophyllum_) 29, _29_
+   vine (_Acer circinatum_) 30, _30_
+
+ Mountain hemlock (_Tsuga mertensiana_) 25-27, _25_, _26_, _27_
+
+
+ Noble fir (_Abies nobilis_) 17-19, _17_, _18_
+
+
+ Oregon yew. _See_ Western yew.
+
+
+ _Picea engelmanni_ 20-23, _22_
+
+ Pine, lodgepole (_Pinus contorta_) 24-25, _24_
+   western white (_Pinus monticola_) 13-15, _14_
+   white-bark (_Pinus albicaulis_) 27-28, _28_
+
+ _Pinus albicaulis_ 27-28, _28_
+   _contorta_ 24-25, _24_
+   _monticola_ 13-15, _14_
+
+ _Populus trichocarpa_ 30-32, _31_
+
+ _Pseudotsuga taxifolia_ 6-8, _7_, _8_, _9_, _10_, _12_, _13_
+
+
+ Red alder (_Alnus oregona_) 30, _31_
+   cedar, western (_Thuja plicata_) 9-11, _10_
+
+
+ Silver fir. _See_ Amabilis fir; Grand fir.
+
+ Spruce, Engelmann (_Picea engelmanni_)   20-23, _22_
+
+
+ _Taxus brevifolia_ 28-29
+
+ _Thuja plicata_ 9-11, _10_
+
+ _Tsuga heterophylla_ 11-13, _12_, _13_, _16_
+   _mertensiana_ 25-27, _25_, _26_, _27_
+
+
+ Vine maple (_Acer circinatum_) 30, _30_
+
+
+ Western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_) 11-13, _12_, _13_, _16_
+   red cedar (_Thuja plicata_) 9-11, _10_
+   white pine (_Pinus monticola_) 13-15, _14_
+   yew (_Taxus brevifolia_) 28-29
+
+ White-bark pine (_Pinus albicaulis_) 27-28, _28_
+
+ White pine, western (_Pinus monticola_) 13-15, _14_
+
+
+ Yellow cypress (_Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) 23-24, _23_
+
+ Yew, Oregon. _See_ Yew, western.
+   western (_Taxus brevifolia_) 28-29
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Forests of Mount Rainier National
+Park, by Grenville F. Allen
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+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Forest of Mount Rainier National
+      Park, by G.F. Allen.
+    </title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Forests of Mount Rainier National Park, by 
+Grenville F. Allen
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Forests of Mount Rainier National Park
+
+Author: Grenville F. Allen
+
+Release Date: April 15, 2010 [EBook #31994]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FORESTS OF MT RAINIER NAT. PARK ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Greg Bergquist and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="tn">
+<p class="center"><big><b>Transcriber&#8217;s Note</b></big></p>
+<p class="center">The punctuation and spelling from the original text have been faithfully preserved.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+<h1>
+FORESTS OF MOUNT RAINIER<br />
+NATIONAL PARK</h1>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="title_page" id="title_page"></a>
+<img src="images/i002.jpg" width="500" height="619" alt="title page" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR<br />
+OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY<br />
+1916</p>
+
+<p class="center"><small>For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Price, 20 cents.</small></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h3>PUBLICATIONS ON MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK SOLD BY<br />
+THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Remittances for these publications should be by money order, payable to the
+Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., or
+in cash. Checks and postage stamps can not be accepted.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Features of the Flora of Mount Rainier National Park, by J.B. Flett. 1916. 48
+pages, including 40 illustrations. 25 cents.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Contains descriptions of the flowering trees and shrubs in the park.</p></div>
+
+<p class="hang">Mount Rainier and Its Glaciers, by F.E. Matthes. 1914. 48 pages, including 26
+illustrations. 15 cents.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Contains a general account of the glaciers of Mount Rainier and of the development of the valleys
+and basins surrounding the peak.</p></div>
+
+<p class="hang">Panoramic view of Mount Rainier National Park, 20 by 19 inches, scale 1 mile to
+the inch. 25 cents.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE FORESTS OF MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK.</h2>
+
+<p class="center">By <span class="smcap">G.F. Allen</span>, <i>United States Forest Service</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>GENERAL STATEMENT.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The remarkable development of the forests about the base of
+Mount Rainier results from climatic conditions peculiarly favorable
+to tree growth. The winters are mild and short. The ocean winds
+that pass through the gaps of the Coast Range are laden with
+moisture which falls in the form of rain or snow on the west slope
+of the Cascades. The trees are nourished by this moisture through
+a long season of annual growth, and form an evergreen forest which
+is, in some respects, the most remarkable in the world. This forest,
+distinguished by the extraordinary size and beauty of the trees and
+by the density of the stand, extends into the deep valleys of the rivers
+which have their sources in the glaciers. On the dividing ridges and
+in the upper stream basins the composition and character of the
+forest change with the increasing severity of the climate.</p>
+
+<p>The distribution of the different species of trees according to the
+intervals of altitude at which they occur separate the forests of the
+Mount Rainier National Park into different types. The lines of separation
+are to some extent also determined by complex conditions of
+slope, exposure, and moisture. The successive forest belts are uniform
+in the composition of their central areas, but blend and overlap
+where they come together.</p>
+
+<p>The low valleys of the main and west forks of White River, of
+the Carbon, the Mowich, the Nisqually, and the Ohanopecosh are
+covered with a dense and somber forest of fir, hemlock, and cedar.
+The trees, pushing upward for light, are very tall and free from
+limbs for more than half their height. Their tops form a continuous
+cover which the sunshine rarely penetrates, and on which
+the light snows of early winter fall and melt, without reaching the
+ground. Even in midsummer the light is soft and shaded, and the
+air cool and humid. In the wintertime the young growth is sheltered
+from wind and the severity of the cold is tempered by the protecting
+mountain ranges. Saved from fire by the uniform dampness of the
+air the trees grow until they decay and fall from old age. They are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>
+succeeded by the suppressed younger trees. The forest remains
+mature, not uniformly sound and vigorous, yet not decreasing as a
+whole in size and volume. Individuals perish, but the character of
+the forest is constant. The deep alluvial soil covered with moss and
+decayed vegetation nourishes a luxuriant tangled undergrowth of
+vine maple, willow, and devil's-club. The forest floor is covered with
+a deep layer of decayed vegetation and is encumbered with fallen
+and mossy logs and upturned stumps. The explorer who leaves the
+trails must be a strong and active man if he can carry his pack
+6 or 8 miles in a long summer day.</p>
+
+<p>Ascending from the river bottoms to the lower slopes of the dividing
+ridges the forest becomes more open and the trees are smaller.
+Salal, Oregon grape, and huckleberry bushes take the place of the
+taller undergrowth of the valleys. Up to 3,000 feet the Douglas fir
+and the hemlock still are the dominant species. Above this altitude
+new species are found intermingled with the trees typical of the lowland,
+but forming a distinct forest type. The noble and amabilis
+fir appear, sometimes growing in pure stands, but more often
+associated with the Douglas fir and western hemlock at the lower
+limits of the type, and with alpine fir and mountain hemlock at the
+upper limit.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all the trees of this type have deep and wide-spreading
+roots which serve to hold in place the surface deposit of volcanic
+pumice which covers the slopes of the mountain. Evidence afforded
+by the after effects of forest fires in other parts of the Cascades
+indicates that the destruction of the forest on the mountain sides is
+followed by erosion. Heavy rains and the melting of the upper
+snow banks by warm Chinook winds combine to produce a surface
+run-off that denudes the steeper declivities down to the underlying
+bedrock.</p>
+
+<p>At elevations above 4,500 feet the lowland trees have disappeared
+entirely. Subalpine species adapted to withstand the burden of deep
+snow take their place. Mountain hemlock, alpine fir, and Engelmann
+spruce grow singly and in scattered groups or form open
+groves alternating with grassy parks and rocky ridges. The symmetrical
+outline of the slender pyramidal crowns and rapidly tapering
+trunks of the spruce and alpine fir trees that stand singly on the
+greensward of the open parks bring to mind the closely trimmed
+cultivated evergreens that adorn city parks and lawns. Their lower
+branches reach the ground and the tops terminate in slender upright
+spires.</p>
+
+<p>As timber line is approached tree growth is confined to dwarfed
+and flattened mountain hemlocks, alpine firs, and the white-bark
+pines firmly rooted among the crevices of the rocks.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p><p>The extreme limit of tree growth on Mount Rainier is 7,600 feet
+above sea level. There is no well-defined timber line. Scattered
+clumps of low stunted trees occur up to 7,000 feet. A few very small
+and flattened mountain hemlocks grow above this elevation. A very
+large part of the area above 4,500 feet consists of glaciers, talus
+slopes, barren rocky peaks, and open parks. Basins at the heads of
+canyons in the high mountains are usually treeless, on account of
+the great depth of snow which accumulates in them during the
+winter. On the steep, smooth upper inclines the snow banks frequently
+slip and form slides which acquire momentum as they rush
+down the mountain side and break and carry away large trees. Repeated
+snowslides in the same place keep the slopes nonforested, and
+their track is marked by light green strips of brush and herbage.</p>
+
+<p>The transition of the forest from its lowland to its extreme alpine
+type is one of the most interesting features of a visit to the mountain.
+Entering the park at the western boundary close to the Nisqually
+River the road skirts the base of the lightly timbered spurs and
+passes into a forest of large and old Douglas fir and western hemlock.
+Red cedars grow along the streams that cross the road. Little yew
+trees and vine maples mingle with the young conifers that form the
+undergrowth; the gloom of the forest is occasionally relieved by the
+white bark of alders and the smooth gray stems of the cottonwoods
+that grow on the sandy bank of the Nisqually. After the road
+crosses the Rainier Fork, noble fir and amabilis fir appear, but the
+Douglas fir and western hemlock are still the prevailing species.</p>
+
+<p>Above Longmire Springs the noble and amabilis fir, mixed with
+western hemlock, become the dominant type. The trees are shorter
+and the branches heavier. Mountain ash and yellow cypress grow
+on the margin of the mountain streams. Huckleberry bushes take
+the place of the taller undergrowth of the valley.</p>
+
+<p>Above Narada Falls the forest is more open, and the trees are still
+smaller. Mountain hemlock and alpine fir succeed the trees of the
+lower slope. Little glades and mountain meadows are seen. They
+become larger and more numerous and the traveler soon enters the
+open park of Paradise Valley, in which are but scattered groves of
+trees. The same successive altitudinal types are met in ascending to
+Moraine and Grand Parks by way of the Carbon Valley, and in following
+the Mowich watershed, Crater Lake, and Spray Park routes.</p>
+
+<p>Approaching the park from the east the routes pass through open
+western yellow pine forests and western larch stands. Since Mount
+Rainier is west of and apart from the summit line, these species
+which are peculiar to the eastern slope are not found within the
+limits of the park.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p>
+<h3>EFFECTS OF FIRE.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_1" id="Fig_1"></a>
+<img src="images/i007.jpg" width="500" height="706" alt="Fig. 1." title="" />
+<div class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Whitened spectral monuments of a former forest which was swept by
+a severe forest fire in 1885. Taken along the road to Camp of the Clouds at
+an altitude of 5,500 feet.<br /></div>
+
+<p class="center"><small>Photograph by A.H. Barnes.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the shortness of the summer season at high altitudes,
+the subalpine forests in some parts of the park have suffered
+severely from fire (<a href="#Fig_1">fig. 1</a>). The bare white trunks of fire-killed
+amabilis and alpine firs bear witness to numerous fires which occurred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+from time to time before the regulations governing the park
+went into effect. The little resin pockets in the bark of these trees
+blaze fiercely for a short time and the heat separates the bark from
+the trunk. In this way the tree is killed, although the naked trunk
+is left untouched by fire. The destruction of the alpine forest in
+this way is often erroneously attributed to disease or to the depredations
+of insects.</p>
+
+<p>There has been little apparent change in the alpine burns within
+the last 30 years. Reforestation at high altitudes is extremely slow.
+The seed production is rather scanty and the ground conditions are
+not favorable for its reproduction. It will take more than one century
+for nature to replace the beautiful groves which have been destroyed
+by the carelessness of the first visitors to the mountain.</p>
+
+<p>At low elevations the forest recovers more rapidly from the effects
+of fire. Between the subalpine areas and the river valleys there are
+several large ancient burns which are partly reforested. The most
+extensive of these tracts is the Muddy Fork burn. It is crossed by the
+Stevens Canyon Trail from Reflection Lakes through the Ohanopecosh
+Hot Springs. This burn includes an area of 20 square miles in
+the park and extends north nearly to the glaciers and south for several
+miles beyond the park boundary nearly to the main Cowlitz
+River. The open sunlit spaces and wide outlooks afforded by reforested
+tracts of this character present a strong contrast to the deep
+shades and dim vistas of the primitive forest. On the whole they
+have a cheerful and pleasing appearance, very different from the
+sad, desolate aspect of the alpine burns which less kindly conditions
+of climate and exposure have kept from reforestation.</p>
+
+<p>The original forest was fire killed many years before the coming
+of the white man. A few naked and weather beaten stubs are still
+standing. Only the larger of the fallen trunks remain, and these
+are rotten except for a few seasoned and weatherworn shells. The
+second growth is of all ages, from seedlings to trees 12 to 14 inches
+in diameter. Vine maple, willow, and mountain ash have sprung up
+along the streams and the hillsides are covered with huckleberry
+bushes and a variety of grasses and flowering plants.</p>
+
+<p>Similar old burns are found on the ridge between Huckleberry
+Creek and White River, in the northeastern part of the park, and
+on the ridge between Tahoma Creek and Kautz Creek below Henrys
+Hunting Ground.</p>
+
+<p>The old burns in the middle altitudes of the park occupy regions
+once frequented by the Klickitat Indians. Every summer parties
+of hunters and berry pickers from the sagebrush plains crossed the
+Cascades with their horses. They followed the high divides and open
+summits of the secondary ridges until they came around to the
+open parks about Mount Rainier where they turned their horses out<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+to graze and made their summer camp. The woman picked huckleberries
+and the men hunted deer and goats. They made great fires
+to dry their berries and kindled smudges to protect their horses from
+flies. It was also their custom to systematically set out fires as they
+returned. Burning made the country better for the Indians. The
+fires kept down the brush and made it more accessible. Deer could
+be more easily seen and tracked and the huckleberry patches spread
+more widely over the hills.</p>
+
+<p>No considerable part of the lower forests of the park has been
+burned. The principal danger is from lightning. However, few of
+the trees struck are ignited and these fires are usually extinguished
+by the rain. On account of the coolness of the air and its greater
+humidity the fire danger in the forests on the lower slopes of Mount
+Rainier seems much less than it is in corresponding situations in the
+main range of the Cascades.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h3>AGE AND DIMENSIONS OF TREES.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Trees grow more rapidly at low altitudes than at higher and
+cooler elevations. Under similar conditions some species increase in
+size faster than others, but the rate of growth depends principally
+upon environment. The average increase at the stump in valley land
+is about 1 inch in 6 years. A Douglas fir growing along the stage
+road between the park boundary and Longmire's, at the age of 90 to
+120 years may have a breast diameter of 20 inches and yield 700 feet
+of saw timber. But many of the trees of this size may be much
+older on account of having grown in the shade or under other
+adverse conditions. The trees between 200 and 300 years of age are
+often 40 to 50 inches in diameter and may yield an average of from
+2,700 to 5,500 board feet. The largest Douglas firs are sometimes
+over 400 years old and 60 to 70 inches in diameter. Such trees when
+sound will produce over 8,000 feet of lumber.</p>
+
+<p>The western red cedar has a shorter and more tapering trunk and
+its volume in board feet is proportionally smaller. A tree 50 inches
+in diameter and 175 feet high contains about 3,400 board feet.</p>
+
+<p>The size of the trees decreases rapidly at higher elevations. In the
+subalpine forest the annual growth is very small. At elevations of
+6,000 feet the white-bark pine requires 200 years to attain a diameter
+of 10 or 12 inches. The annual rings are so close together that they
+can not be distinguished without a magnifying glass.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h3>DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIES.</h3>
+
+
+<h4>DOUGLAS FIR (PSEUDOTSUGA TAXIFOLIA).</h4>
+
+<p>The Douglas fir (<a href="#Fig_2">figs. 2</a>, <a href="#Fig_3">3</a>, <a href="#Fig_4">4</a>, and <a href="#Fig_5">5</a>) is the best known and the
+most important timber tree of western North America. It is found<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+from British Columbia southward to northern Mexico. The finest
+forests occur in Oregon and Washington at low elevations. The
+Douglas fir is common in the park up to 3,500 feet, sometimes in
+nearly pure stands, but more often mixed with other species. It
+grows in all situations. In the higher mountains it prefers warm
+southern exposures and is seldom found on wind-swept ridges. It
+seeds annually, but most profusely at intervals three or four years
+apart. The red squirrels gather and store large quantities of the
+cones in order to provide a supply of the seeds for their winter rations.
+The growth of the young tree is very rapid. As the tree becomes
+older the rate of growth varies with the situation and the
+character of the soil so that the size does not closely determine the
+age of the tree.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_2" id="Fig_2"></a>
+<img src="images/i010.jpg" width="500" height="425" alt="Fig. 2." title="" />
+<p class="center"><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Douglas fir (<i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i>).</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Douglas fir is a long-lived tree, and specimens are occasionally
+found 250 to 270 feet high and over 8 feet in diameter and between
+400 and 500 years in age. It reaches its greatest height and
+most perfect proportions in mature even-age stands growing on fairly
+moist well-drained bench lands. Under these conditions it is a very
+tall and beautiful tree. The trunk is straight, round, and free from
+branches for two-thirds of its height and tapers gently to the crown.
+The dark-brown deep-furrowed bark is 5 to 10 inches thick at the
+base of the tree.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p><p>The Douglas fir ranks first among the trees of the Pacific slope in
+importance for the production of lumber. It is often sold under
+the name of Oregon pine. Lumber dealers class the coarse-grained
+reddish wood produced by the young growth in open forests as "red
+fir." The older growth produced when the forest is more dense
+is a finer grained and more valuable wood, sold under the name of
+"yellow fir."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_3" id="Fig_3"></a>
+<img src="images/i011.jpg" width="500" height="404" alt="Fig. 3." title="" />
+<p class="center"><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Douglas fir (<i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i>).</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Douglas fir is used for nearly all purposes where durability,
+strength, and hardness are desirable. It is made into dimension
+timbers, lumber, flooring, and is particularly adapted for masts and
+spars. The lumber is shipped by rail to the Middle Western States.
+The foreign cargo shipments are made to all parts of the world.
+The greatest amount goes to Australia, the west and east coasts of
+South America, China, the United Kingdom, and Europe, Japan,
+and the South Sea Islands. Coastwise shipments are made to California,
+Alaska, and Panama. Large quantities of the seed of this
+tree are sent to Europe, where the Douglas fir is grown for timber
+and for ornament.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+<h4>WESTERN RED CEDAR (THUJA PLICATA.)<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_4" id="Fig_4"></a>
+<img src="images/i012.jpg" width="500" height="633" alt="Fig. 4." title="" />
+<p class="center"><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Douglas fir (<i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i>).</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The western red cedar (<a href="#title_page">title page</a> and <a href="#Fig_5">fig. 5</a>) ranges from south-eastern
+Alaska to northern California. It is a common tree in the
+park. It occurs in patches along the river bottoms where the flat
+scalelike foliage is conspicuous among the needle-shaped leaves of
+the hemlock and fir. The bark is fibrous in appearance and may be
+readily separated into long strips. The trunks of the older trees are
+swelled and irregularly fluted at the base. The leaves are fragrant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+and the wood has a pleasing aromatic odor. Nearly all the large
+trees are hollow at the butt. The roots spread laterally to a great
+distance, but extend only for a short distance below the surface of the
+ground. The tree is easily overthrown by the wind and usually
+grows in sheltered localities. On account of the thinness of the bark
+it is easily killed by fire.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_5" id="Fig_5"></a>
+<img src="images/i013.jpg" width="500" height="401" alt="Fig. 5." title="" />
+<div class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Two big Douglas firs and a western red cedar (on the left) along the
+road up the Nisqually Valley, Mount Rainier National Park.<br /></div>
+
+<p class="center"><small>Photograph by A.H. Denman.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The red cedar flourishes on fertile and well-watered soils near sea
+level, where it grows to an enormous size. In the park it is a smaller
+tree, 150 to 170 feet high and rarely more than 4 or 5 feet through
+above the swollen butt. It grows occasionally up to an altitude of
+4,000 feet, but is a small and insignificant tree in the high mountains.</p>
+
+<p>In the sapling stage the red cedar grows rapidly. The mature
+tree increases very slowly in size. It exceeds all other trees in the
+Cascades in longevity. Individuals more than 500 years old are not
+uncommon and there is a well-authenticated instance where the annual
+rings indicated a growth of more than 1,100 years.</p>
+
+<p>While the red cedar forms no great proportion of the forest of the
+Pacific Northwest, it is peculiarly valuable to the pioneer on account
+of the durability of the wood and the ease with which it can be split<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+into boards, shakes, and planking. The early settlers used cedar
+split by hand as a substitute for sawn lumber in flooring and finishing
+their cabins and for the tables and shelves with which they were
+furnished. The Indians hollowed the great trunks with fire and
+made them into canoes, some of which were large and seaworthy
+enough to be used on the Sound and in making voyages along the
+coast. They wove the fibrous roots into baskets that carried water
+and plaited the bark into matting. The wood of the red cedar is
+reddish brown in color. It is soft, light, and very brittle, but very
+durable. It is extensively used for shingles, the manufacture of
+which forms one of the important industries of the State. The clear
+logs are sawed into lumber used for siding, interior and exterior
+finish, moldings, tank stock, and similar purposes. Common logs
+are utilized for shingles. In many localities the entire tree is cut
+into 52&ndash;inch bolts, which are hauled to the mills or floated to them
+down the streams.</p>
+
+<p>The western red cedar makes excellent posts and rails for farm
+fences. The young trees are used for telegraph and telephone poles.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WESTERN HEMLOCK (TSUGA HETEROPHYLLA).</h4>
+
+<p>Next to the Douglas fir the western hemlock is the most abundant
+tree in the forests of Oregon and Washington. It occurs from
+Alaska southward to northern California. About Mount Rainier it
+is found up to an altitude of 5,000 feet. In the river valleys in moist
+situations it is a large tree, sometimes reaching a height of 250 feet
+and a diameter of 5 feet. On the high ridges it is stunted. It grows
+best on moist deep soils in dense forests, but thrives under almost all
+conditions of soil and exposure if provided with plenty of moisture.</p>
+
+<p>Western hemlock (<a href="#Fig_6">figs. 6</a> and <a href="#Fig_7">7</a>) is usually associated with Douglas
+fir and red cedar, but sometimes forms a forest of nearly pure growth.
+The hemlock produces abundant seed each year, although it is more
+prolific at irregular intervals. The seeds germinate readily on decayed
+moss and rotten wood as well as upon the mineral soil. Seedlings
+frequently grow on fallen logs and extend their vigorous roots
+around the side until they reach the ground and become firmly anchored
+in it. Young hemlocks thrive in the shade. On logged-off
+areas which have not been burned over and which are partially
+shaded by uncut trees, the reproduction of hemlock springs up, to the
+exclusion of the more valuable Douglas fir.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_6" id="Fig_6"></a>
+<img src="images/i015.jpg" width="500" height="717" alt="Fig. 6." title="" />
+<div class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;The lower slope forest, near Longmire Springs, altitude 3,000 feet,
+here composed largely of western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla); the tree
+on the extreme left is a Douglas fir (<i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i>).</div>
+
+<p class="center"><small>Photograph by A.H. Barnes.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The hemlock is long lived and grows slowly. The largest trees
+are from 200 to 500 years old and are usually hollow-hearted. The
+bark is thin and the tree very easily killed by ground fire. The wood
+of the hemlock is tough, light, and straight grained. It is not as
+durable as the Douglas fir and decays rapidly when exposed to the
+weather. The clear lumber is suitable for interior finish. The wood
+is also used for flooring, joists, lath, and paper pulp. The common
+and rough lumber does not find a ready market, except for the
+limited amount used in temporary construction. The western hemlock<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+is, however, superior to the eastern hemlock, and its value will
+probably be recognized as its usefulness for many purposes becomes
+better known.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WESTERN WHITE PINE (PINUS MONTICOLA).</h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_7" id="Fig_7"></a>
+<img src="images/i016.jpg" width="500" height="617" alt="Fig. 7." title="" />
+<div class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;A forest of Douglas fir, with an understory of western hemlock, on the
+lower slopes of the hills, Mount Rainier National Park.</div>
+
+<p class="center"><small>Photograph by A.H. Denman.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The western white pine (<a href="#Fig_8">fig. 8</a>) is found from southern Alaska to
+northern California. In the park it occurs occasionally up to 4,000
+feet. It usually grows on level benches and gentle slopes associated
+with Douglas fir, western hemlock, and noble and amabilis fir. It
+reaches its best development at elevations of from 3,000 to 3,500
+feet, where it attains a height of 150 feet and a diameter of 40 inches.
+The shaft is straight, cylindrical, and clear of limbs. It bears a small,
+narrow crown of drooping branches. In open areas, where it is
+exposed to sunlight, its mode of growth is wholly different. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+trunk is short, rapidly tapering, and bears wide-spreading branches
+nearly to the ground. At high elevations the western white pine is
+very short and stunted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_8" id="Fig_8"></a>
+<img src="images/i017.jpg" width="500" height="492" alt="Fig. 8." title="" />
+<p class="center"><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Western white pine (<i>Pinus monticola</i>).</span><br />
+
+<small>Diameter 24 inches, height 50 feet.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although the western white pine is not a common tree in the park,
+it is often noticed on account of its abundance of slender, pendant
+cones, 6 to 10 inches long. They mature every two years and shed
+their seed early in September. The seed are provided with long
+wings and are often carried by the wind for a great distance from the
+parent tree.</p>
+
+<p>The wood is light, soft, free from pitch, and the most valuable of
+any of the pines of the Cascades. It is used for interior finish, pattern
+making, and other purposes. The supply of this tree is so limited
+that it is not of great commercial importance in the Mount
+Rainier region.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
+<h4>AMABILIS FIR (ABIES AMABILIS).<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></h4>
+
+<p>Amabilis fir (<a href="#Fig_9">figs. 9</a> and <a href="#Fig_10">10</a>) ranges from southern Alaska to Oregon.
+It is abundant in the park at elevations from 2,500 to 5,000 feet
+on level bench lands, and gentle slopes with a northern exposure. It
+is rarely found in unmixed stands, but is usually associated with
+western hemlock, Douglas fir, and noble fir. The largest trees are
+150 to 180 feet high and 3 to 5 feet in diameter. In dense forests the
+stem is free from branches for 50 to 100 feet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_9" id="Fig_9"></a>
+<img src="images/i018.jpg" width="500" height="550" alt="Fig. 9." title="" />
+<p class="center"><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Amabilis fir (<i>Abies amabilis</i>).</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>At altitudes over 4,000 feet, small amabilis firs often occur in
+clusters and open groves. The trunk is covered with branches which
+grow to the ground, turning downward and outward in long graceful
+curves, admirably adapted to withstand the pressure of the
+frozen snow. The foliage is a deep and brilliant green, forming
+a strong contrast to the dark-purple cones. The seeds ripen each year<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+early in October. Like the seed of the other alpine species of trees
+that grow in the cold and humid climate of the high Cascades, they
+soon lose their vitality when stored in dry places. The amabilis fir
+is grown in Europe as an ornamental tree. Under cultivation it loses
+much of the natural grace and beauty which it acquired in adapting
+itself to the deep snows and long winters of its native environment.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_10" id="Fig_10"></a>
+<img src="images/i019.jpg" width="500" height="406" alt="Fig. 10." title="" />
+<div class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;The forests of western hemlock, amabilis fir, and other species, on the
+middle slopes of the mountains, along the Crater Lake trail, Mount Rainier
+National Park.<br /></div>
+
+<p class="center"><small>Photograph by Geo. O. Ceasar.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The bark is thin and the tree is easily killed by fire. The wood is
+straw colored, compact, and straight grained. It is not strong and
+splits easily. It is sold to some extent under the name of larch or
+mixed with inferior grades of fir and hemlock. The lumber is of little
+value commercially.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NOBLE FIR (ABIES NOBILIS).</h4>
+
+<p>The noble fir (<a href="#Fig_11">figs. 11</a> and <a href="#Fig_12">12</a>) is a common mountain tree in the
+western parts of Washington and Oregon. Like amabilis fir, it is
+usually called larch by lumbermen. About Mount Rainier it grows
+at elevations of from 3,500 to 5,000 feet in dense stands associated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+with amabilis fir, western hemlock, and Douglas fir. The noble fir
+avoids steep side hills and exposed situations. In moist soils on flats
+and gentle slopes it often reaches a height of from 150 to 200 feet.
+The tall and upright trunk supports a rounded crown of bluish
+green foliage, which is very noticeable among the purer green leaves
+of its associates. The branches are short, thick, and crowded with
+stiff, flattened leaves, which turn upward and outward. The light-green
+bract-covered cones are sometimes 6 inches long and nearly
+3 inches thick. They ripen early in September. Seed is borne
+every year, although in some seasons it is much more abundant than
+in others.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_11" id="Fig_11"></a>
+<img src="images/i020.jpg" width="500" height="613" alt="Fig. 11." title="" />
+<p class="center"><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Noble fir (<i>Abies nobilis</i>).</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_12" id="Fig_12"></a>
+<img src="images/i021.jpg" width="500" height="693" alt="Fig. 12." title="" />
+<p class="center"><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Noble fir (<i>Abies nobilis</i>), 6 feet in diameter.</span>
+</p></div>
+
+<p>The wood is strong, close grained, and elastic. It is used for
+lumber and particularly for inside finishing. The noble fir is a
+slow-growing and long-lived tree. Old trees in mixed forests are
+easily distinguished from the associated species by the ashy-brown
+outer bark broken into large irregular plates.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p>
+<h4>ALPINE FIR (ABIES LASIOCARPA).<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_13" id="Fig_13"></a>
+<img src="images/i022.jpg" width="500" height="663" alt="Fig. 13." title="" />
+<div class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;A cluster of Alpine firs (<i>Abies lasiocarpa</i>), whose spire-shaped crowns
+are characteristic, at 5,500 feet altitude, in Cowlitz Park, Mount Rainier
+National Park.<br /></div>
+
+<p class="center"><small>Photograph by A.H. Barnes.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The alpine fir (<a href="#Fig_13">fig. 13</a>) ranges from Alaska to New Mexico. It
+is a common tree in the park at elevations above 4,500 feet. It is a
+tree of the high mountains and with the white bark pine and the
+mountain hemlock, is found up to the limit of arborescent life. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+demands moisture and is generally restricted to regions of deep
+snowfall.</p>
+
+<p>The alpine fir occurs in unmixed stands, but is often associated
+with the mountain hemlock. At the lower levels of its range it is
+a fair-sized tree 50 or 60 feet high. The crown of deep-green foliage
+is broad at the base and tapers to the top, where it terminates in a
+slender, pointed tip. At its upper limit it becomes a stunted shrub,
+with wide extended branches resting on the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The alpine fir bears upright clusters of deep-purple cones. It
+seeds sparingly each year. The seasons of heavy seed production
+occur at intervals of three or four years. The wood is soft and splits
+easily. It is of no commercial value. The tree is easily killed by
+fire, which blisters the thin bark and frequently springs into the
+drooping lower branches.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GRAND FIR (ABIES GRANDIS.)<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></h4>
+
+<p>The grand fir (<a href="#Fig_14">fig. 14</a>), like several other species, is generally
+given the name of white fir on account of its smooth, light-colored
+bark. It is a common tree in the river bottoms from British Columbia
+south to northern California. In the Mount Rainier National
+Park it occurs up to 4,000 feet. The grand fir is a moisture-loving
+tree and is usually found firmly rooted in deep alluvial bottom
+lands along the banks of streams. With the Douglas fir, hemlock,
+and red cedar it forms the dense forest characteristic of the lower
+mountain valleys.</p>
+
+<p>In favorable conditions the grand fir grows to a height of from
+100 to 200 feet and is a noble and stately tree. The trunk tapers
+rapidly and bears a rounded pyramidal crown. In dense forests the
+trunk is clear for half its height, but where the trees stand in the
+open it carries its branches nearly to the ground. The leaves are a
+bright and shining green. The large light-green cones mature early
+in the fall. The wood is soft and very heavy before it is seasoned.
+It rots in a very short time when laid on the ground. When dry it is
+white, coarse-grained, light, and odorous. It is used for interior
+finish and for crates and packing boxes, but is of little value commercially.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ENGELMANN SPRUCE (PICEA ENGELMANNI).</h4>
+
+<p>The Engelmann spruce (<a href="#Fig_15">fig. 15</a>) is a mountain tree ranging from
+British Columbia to Arizona and New Mexico. It is common along
+the summit and on the east side of the Cascade Range and occurs
+on the northeastern and eastern slopes of Mount Rainier at elevations
+of from 3,500 to 6,000 feet.</p>
+
+<p>This tree requires a moist soil and prefers cool northern exposures.
+Up to 5,000 feet it commonly grows in sheltered basins at the head<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+of canyons and in stream valleys. At its upper limits it is common
+on flats and depressions and about lakes on level summits. It avoids
+steep mountain sides and exposed situations.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_14" id="Fig_14"></a>
+<img src="images/i024.jpg" width="500" height="724" alt="Fig. 14." title="" />
+<p class="center"><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Grand fir (<i>Abies grandis</i>).</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Engelmann spruce is easily distinguished from its associates
+by its stiff, bluish-green pointed leaves, which prick the hand when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+they are grasped. In the mountain parks it is a handsome tree 50 to
+60 feet high. When it stands apart from other trees the lower
+branches are thick and long and extend to the ground. The crown
+is very broad at the base, but narrow and spirelike at the top. The
+Engelmann spruce reaches its best development at low elevations,
+where it often grows in dense, pure stands. Under these conditions
+it reaches a height of 100 feet. The bole is straight and free from
+limbs and the top is short and compact.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_15" id="Fig_15"></a>
+<img src="images/i025.jpg" width="500" height="626" alt="Fig. 15." title="" />
+<p class="center"><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Engelmann spruce (<i>Picea engelmanni</i>).</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The young cones are massed in upright green and purple clusters
+at the tips of the upper branches. They are notable for the purity
+and brilliance of their coloring. As they mature they become pendant
+and fade to a light brown. The seed is produced in abundance
+nearly every year, although small and seedling trees are not usually
+numerous.</p>
+
+<p>The wood is soft, white, compact, and even grained. It is free
+from pitch and odor. It is valuable for boxing, cooperage, and certain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+kinds of finish. It is also an excellent material for the tops of
+violins and other stringed instruments. The Engelmann spruce is,
+however, of little importance as a timber tree on account of its
+scarcity and the scattered stands in which it grows. It is a long-lived
+tree unless attacked by fire, to which it is very vulnerable.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_16" id="Fig_16"></a>
+<img src="images/i026.jpg" width="500" height="654" alt="Fig. 16." title="" />
+<div class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;A group of yellow cypresses (<i>Chamaecyparis nootkatensis</i>) on the
+high slopes of Mount Rainier National Park, altitude about 6,000 feet.<br /></div>
+
+<p class="center"><small>Photograph by A.H. Barnes.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4>YELLOW CYPRESS (CHAMAECYPARIS NOOTKATENSIS).</h4>
+
+<p>Yellow cypress (<a href="#Fig_16">fig. 16</a>) ranges from the seacoast of southern
+Alaska south to the mountains of Washington and Oregon. It occurs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+in the park up to the elevation of 7,000 feet. It is common on northern
+exposures, along streams, and in basins at the head of canyons.
+It also grows on crests and ridges, where the frequent showers and
+fogs supply the moisture which it demands. In sheltered localities it
+grows to a height of 75 or 80 feet, but it is commonly a small tree
+with, a bent and twisted stem,
+which, with its pendulous
+branches, presents a somewhat
+scrubby appearance. The foliage
+is green, sometimes with a
+bluish tinge. It resembles that
+of the common western red cedar,
+but the leaves are sharper,
+more pointed, and rougher to
+handle. The small, rounded,
+inconspicuous cones are produced
+somewhat sparingly.
+The bark of the young tree is
+red. On the mature tree it becomes
+gray and fibrous. The
+wood is yellow, close grained,
+and aromatic. Unlike that of
+the western red cedar, the trunk
+is usually sound to the center.
+The wood is used for boat
+building and cabinetwork. It
+is very durable.</p>
+
+<p>The yellow cypress grows
+very slowly, particularly at
+high elevations. The number
+of annual rings on trees 15 to 20
+inches in diameter indicate that
+they are over 200 years old.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LODGEPOLE PINE (PINUS
+CONTORTA).</h4>
+
+<p>Lodgepole pine (<a href="#Fig_17">fig. 17</a>) is
+widely distributed from Alaska
+to Lower California and eastward
+through the Rockies to Dakota and Colorado. It occurs
+sparingly in the park up to 5,000 feet above sea level. It adapts
+itself easily to the different conditions of soil, moisture, and exposure.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_17" id="Fig_17"></a>
+<img src="images/i027.jpg" width="300" height="694" alt="Fig. 17." title="" />
+<div class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Lodgepole pine (<i>Pinus contorta</i>),
+60 inches in diameter.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This tree varies greatly in the different regions where it is found.
+About Mount Rainier it does not often exceed 20 to 40 feet in height<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+and is often a much smaller tree. It produces cones at the age of 5
+to 7 years. The foliage is a yellowish green. At high elevations the
+leaves have a peculiar whorled appearance which gives it a different
+aspect from that of the other pines. The short, heavily limbed trunk
+bears no resemblance to the tall and slender shaft of the lodgepole
+pine of the Rocky Mountains. The root system is shallow and the
+tree is easily fire killed. The wood of the variety which grows in
+the park is of no commercial value.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_18" id="Fig_18"></a>
+<img src="images/i028.jpg" width="500" height="615" alt="Fig. 18." title="" />
+<div class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;The feathery foliage of mountain hemlock (<i>Tsuga mertensiana</i>),
+Grand Park, Mount Rainier National Park.<br /></div>
+
+<p class="center"><small>Photograph by A.H. Denman.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4>MOUNTAIN HEMLOCK (TSUGA MERTENSIANA).</h4>
+
+<p>The mountain hemlock (<a href="#Fig_18">figs. 18</a>, <a href="#Fig_19">19</a>, and <a href="#Fig_20">20</a>) is found on the Pacific
+coast from the Sierras of California to the northern part of Alaska<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+where it grows at sea level. On Mount Rainier it occurs at altitudes
+of from 3,500 to 7,500 feet. It forms dense forests under 4,500 feet,
+where it is often a fair-sized tree 50 to 90 feet high. With the ascent
+of the mountain it diminishes in height and the branches become
+gnarled and twisted. Near timber line the trunk is dwarfed and
+bent at the base and the crown becomes a flattened mass of branches
+lying close to the ground (<a href="#Fig_20">fig. 20</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_19" id="Fig_19"></a>
+<img src="images/i029.jpg" width="500" height="868" alt="Fig. 19." title="" />
+<div class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Two solitary mountain hemlocks (<i>Tsuga mertensiana</i>), Spray Park,
+Mount Rainier National Park.<br /></div>
+
+<p class="center"><small>Photograph by Geo. O. Ceasar.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The mountain hemlock is abundant on high, rocky ridges, but the
+best stands are on cool, moist soil at the heads of ravines, on flats, and
+on gentle slopes with a northern exposure.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p><p>This tree seeds every year. In good seed years the upper branches
+are laden with a profusion of beautiful, deep-purple cones, often
+in such abundance as to bend down the branchlets with their weight.
+The reproduction is slow. In the high mountains the trees are
+buried in snow from October to late in June, and the growing season
+is very short.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WHITE-BARK PINE (PINUS ALBICAULIS).</h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_20" id="Fig_20"></a>
+<img src="images/i030.jpg" width="500" height="403" alt="Fig. 20." title="" />
+<div class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;A gnarled, wind-swept mountain hemlock (<i>Tsuga mertensiana</i>), near
+the upper limits of tree growth, Spray Park, Mount Rainier National Park.<br /></div>
+
+<p class="center"><small>Photograph by A.H. Denman.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The white-bark pine (<a href="#Fig_21">fig. 21</a>) grows close to timber line in the
+mountains of the Pacific coast from British Columbia to southern
+California. In the Canadian Rockies it extends north to the
+fifty-third parallel. It is the most alpine of all the pines. Its lower limit
+on Mount Rainier is about 5,000 feet above sea level. In sheltered
+places where the soil is deep the trees are sometimes 30 to 40 feet
+high and 20 inches in diameter. The trunks are free from limbs for
+8 or 10 feet. The outer bark, from which the tree derives its name,
+consists of thin, light-gray scales.</p>
+
+<p>As the white-bark pine advances up the mountain its habit changes
+rapidly. The stem shortens and becomes gnarled and twisted. The
+tough, flexible branches reach the ground and spread over it to a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+great distance from the tree. On rocky summits and the bleak crests
+of wind-swept ridges the twisted trunk and branches are quite prostrate
+and the crown is a dense flattened mass of foliage.</p>
+
+<p>The roots of the tree are deep, long, and tenacious. They spread
+wide and deep and cling so firmly to the rocks that the tree is rarely
+overthrown by the violent winds that sweep over the mountain.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_21" id="Fig_21"></a>
+<img src="images/i031.jpg" width="500" height="599" alt="Fig. 21." title="" />
+<div class="hang2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;A white-bark pine (<i>Pinus albicaulis</i>) in its characteristic mountain
+habitat, Mount Rainier National Park.<br /></div>
+
+<p class="center"><small>Photograph by A.H. Denman.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The thick, purple cones require two years to mature. They ripen
+early in September and produce chocolate-brown seeds a little larger
+than a grain of corn. They are much relished by the Klickitat Indians,
+who go to considerable pains to secure them. The wood is
+close grained and resinous. It makes excellent fuel for the camp fires
+of sheep herders and mountain travelers.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
+<h4>WESTERN YEW (TAXUS BREVIFOLIA).<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></h4>
+
+<p>The western yew is found from southern Alaska to northern California.
+It occurs in the park up to 4,000 feet, growing in rich,
+gravelly soil on moist flats and benches and in deep ravines. It is
+a small branching tree, rarely over 20 feet high. The bark is purple
+or reddish brown. The branches extend almost to the ground. It
+bears a small, bright, amber-red berry.</p>
+
+<p>The dark-brown or red heartwood is very tough, hard and heavy.
+It takes a fine polish and is used for fancy cabinetwork. The Indians
+use it for spear handles, bows, and fishhooks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_22" id="Fig_22"></a>
+<img src="images/i032.jpg" width="500" height="418" alt="Fig. 22." title="" />
+<p class="center"><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;Broadleaf maple (<i>Acer macrophyllum</i>).</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4>DECIDUOUS TREES.</h4>
+
+<p>The silva of the Western Cascades is rich in evergreens remarkable
+for their size and beauty. The deciduous trees are few and insignificant.
+The forests of the park are almost wholly coniferous. Vine
+maple and willow are found as undergrowth. On the margins of
+rivers there are occasional groves of alders and cottonwoods. The
+lighter hues of the branching trunks and the changing tints of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+foliage in these patches of broad-leaved woodland present a pleasing
+diversity to the evergreen forest.</p>
+
+<p>Broadleaf maple (<i>Acer macrophyllum</i>) (<a href="#Fig_22">fig. 22</a>), the largest of
+the Pacific coast maples, ranges from Alaska to southern California.
+Near sea level it often attains a height of 50 or 60 feet. In
+the park it is a short-stemmed, branching tree, occasionally found
+on the borders of streams. It grows at elevations under 3,000 feet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_23" id="Fig_23"></a>
+<img src="images/i033.jpg" width="500" height="567" alt="Fig. 23." title="" />
+<p class="center"><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;Vine maple (<i>Acer circinatum</i>).</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Vine maple (<i>Acer circinatum</i>) (<a href="#Fig_23">fig. 23</a>) is abundant from British
+Columbia to northern California. On rich river bottoms it is
+sometimes 15 to 20 feet high and 6 inches in diameter. In the park
+it is usually a bush or low shrub with a bent and curiously crooked
+stem, growing along streams and as undergrowth in the forest. It is
+very common up to 3,000 feet. In autumn the leaves are a bright scarlet.
+The wood is tough and elastic and makes a hot and lasting fire.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_24" id="Fig_24"></a>
+<img src="images/i034.jpg" width="500" height="372" alt="Fig. 24." title="" />
+<p class="center"><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;Red alder (<i>Alnus oregona</i>).</span></p>
+<br /></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_25" id="Fig_25"></a>
+<img src="images/i034a.jpg" width="500" height="342" alt="Fig. 25." title="" />
+<p class="center"><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;Black cottonwood (<i>Populus trichocarpa</i>).</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p><p>Red alder (<i>Alnus oregona</i>) (<a href="#Fig_24">fig. 24</a>) occurs from Alaska to southern
+California. It is common about Mount Rainier, in river bottoms,
+on the banks of large streams, and in swampy places. It
+usually grows to a height of 30 or 40 feet. The bark varies from
+nearly white to light gray. It is the most abundant of all the
+deciduous trees in the park.</p>
+
+<p>Black cottonwood (<i>Populus trichocarpa</i>) (<a href="#Fig_25">fig. 25</a>) is common from
+Alaska to southern California. It is occasionally found in the park
+up to 4,000 feet. It grows along streams and on sandy river bottoms
+often associated with the alder. The leaves are almost always in
+motion, very gentle winds being sufficient to make them twinkle and
+turn.</p>
+
+<p>The wood is soft, but tough and compact. It is used for staves,
+woodenware, wood pulp, trunks, barrels, and for drawer bottoms.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FOOTNOTES</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> This species is known as arbor vit&aelig; in Glacier Park.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> This species is known as silver fir in Crater Lake Park.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> This species is known as balsam in Glacier and Yellowstone Parks.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> This species is known as silver fir in Yellowstone and Glacier Parks.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> This species is known as Oregon yew in Crater Lake National Park and as yew in
+Yellowstone and Glacier Parks.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2>INDEX TO SPECIES DESCRIBED.</h2>
+
+<p class="center">[Roman numerals indicate pages containing descriptions; italic numerals indicate pages containing
+illustrations.]</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><br />
+<i>Abies amabilis</i> <a href="#Page_15">15&ndash;16</a>, <a href="#Page_15"><i>15</i></a>, <a href="#Page_16"><i>16</i></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>grandis</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;  <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21"><i>21</i></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>lasiocarpa</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;  <a href="#Page_19">19&ndash;20</a>, <a href="#Page_19"><i>19</i></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>nobilis</i>&nbsp;  <a href="#Page_17">17&ndash;19</a>, <a href="#Page_17"><i>17</i></a>, <a href="#Page_18"><i>18</i></a></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Acer circinatum</i> <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <i><a href="#Page_30">30</a></i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>macrophyllum</i> <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <i><a href="#Page_29">29</a></i></span><br />
+<br />
+Alder, red (<i>Alnus oregona</i>) <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <i><a href="#Page_31">31</a></i><br />
+<br />
+<i>Alnus oregona</i> <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <i><a href="#Page_31">31</a></i><br />
+<br />
+Alpine fir (<i>Abies lasiocarpa</i>) <a href="#Page_19">19&ndash;20</a>, <a href="#Page_19"><i>19</i></a><br />
+<br />
+Amabilis fir (<i>Abies amabilis</i>) <a href="#Page_15">15&ndash;16</a>, <a href="#Page_15"><i>15</i></a>,<a href="#Page_16"> <i>16</i></a><br />
+<br />
+Arbor vit&aelig;. <i>See</i> Western red cedar.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Balsam. <i>See</i> Alpine fir.<br />
+<br />
+Black cottonwood (<i>Populus trichocarpa</i>) <a href="#Page_30">30&ndash;32</a>, <a href="#Page_31"><i>31</i></a><br />
+<br />
+Broadleaf maple (<i>Acer macrophyllum</i>) <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_29"><i>29</i></a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Cedar, western red (<i>Thuja plicata</i>) <a href="#Page_9">9&ndash;11</a>, <a href="#Page_10"><i>10</i></a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Chamaecyparis nootkatensis</i> <a href="#Page_23">23&ndash;24</a>, <a href="#Page_23"><i>23</i></a><br />
+<br />
+Cottonwood, black (<i>Populus trichocarpa</i>) <a href="#Page_30">30&ndash;32</a>, <a href="#Page_31"><i>31</i></a><br />
+<br />
+Cypress, yellow (<i>Chamaecyparis nootkatensis</i>) <a href="#Page_23">23&ndash;24</a>, <a href="#Page_23"><i>23</i></a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Douglas fir (<i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i>) <a href="#Page_6">6&ndash;8</a>, <a href="#Page_7"><i>7</i></a>, <a href="#Page_8"><i>8</i></a>, <a href="#Page_9"><i>9</i></a>, <a href="#Page_10"><i>10</i></a>, <a href="#Page_12"><i>12</i></a>, <a href="#Page_13"><i>13</i></a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Engelmann spruce (<i>Picea engelmanni</i>) <a href="#Page_20">20&ndash;23</a>, <a href="#Page_22"><i>22</i></a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Fir, alpine (<i>Abies lasiocarpa</i>)    <a href="#Page_19">19&ndash;20</a>, <a href="#Page_19"><i>19</i></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">amabilis (<i>Abies amabilis</i>) <a href="#Page_15">15&ndash;16</a>, <a href="#Page_15"><i>15</i></a>, <a href="#Page_16"><i>16</i></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Douglas (<i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i>) <a href="#Page_6">6&ndash;8</a>, <a href="#Page_7"><i>7</i></a>, <a href="#Page_8"><i>8</i></a>, <a href="#Page_9"><i>9</i></a>, <a href="#Page_10"><i>10</i></a>, <a href="#Page_12"><i>12</i></a>, <a href="#Page_13"><i>13</i></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">grand (<i>Abies grandis</i>) <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21"><i>21</i></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">noble (<i>Abies nobilis</i>) <a href="#Page_17">17&ndash;19</a>, <a href="#Page_17"><i>17</i></a>, <a href="#Page_18"><i>18</i></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">silver. <i>See</i> Fir, amabilis; Fir, grand.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Grand fir (<i>Abies grandis</i>) <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21"><i>21</i></a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Hemlock, mountain (<i>Tsuga mertensiana</i>) <a href="#Page_25">25&ndash;27</a>, <a href="#Page_25"><i>25</i></a>, <a href="#Page_26"><i>26</i></a>, <a href="#Page_27"><i>27</i></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">western (<i>Tsuga heterophylla</i>) <a href="#Page_11">11&ndash;13</a>, <a href="#Page_12"><i>12</i></a>, <a href="#Page_13"><i>13</i></a>, <a href="#Page_16"><i>16</i></a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Larch. <i>See</i> Noble fir; Amabilis fir.<br />
+<br />
+Lodgepole pine (<i>Pinus contorta</i>) <a href="#Page_24">24&ndash;25</a>, <a href="#Page_24"><i>24</i></a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Maple, broadleaf (<i>Acer macrophyllum</i>) <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_29"><i>29</i></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">vine (<i>Acer circinatum</i>) <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_30"><i>30</i></a></span><br />
+<br />
+Mountain hemlock (<i>Tsuga mertensiana</i>) <a href="#Page_25">25&ndash;27</a>, <a href="#Page_25"><i>25</i></a>, <a href="#Page_26"><i>26</i></a>, <a href="#Page_27"><i>27</i></a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Noble fir (<i>Abies nobilis</i>) <a href="#Page_17">17&ndash;19</a>, <a href="#Page_17"><i>17</i></a>, <a href="#Page_18"><i>18</i></a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Oregon yew. <i>See</i> Western yew.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>Picea engelmanni</i> <a href="#Page_20">20&ndash;23</a>, <a href="#Page_22"><i>22</i></a><br />
+<br />
+Pine, lodgepole (<i>Pinus contorta</i>) <a href="#Page_24">24&ndash;25</a>, <a href="#Page_24"><i>24</i></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">western white (<i>Pinus monticola</i>) <a href="#Page_13">13&ndash;15</a>, <a href="#Page_14"><i>14</i></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">white-bark (<i>Pinus albicaulis</i>) <a href="#Page_27">27&ndash;28</a>, <a href="#Page_28"><i>28</i></a></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Pinus albicaulis</i> <a href="#Page_27">27&ndash;28</a>, <a href="#Page_28"><i>28</i></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>contorta</i> <a href="#Page_24">24&ndash;25</a>, <a href="#Fig_24"><i>24</i></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>monticola</i> <a href="#Page_13">13&ndash;15</a>, <a href="#Page_14"><i>14</i></a></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Populus trichocarpa</i> <a href="#Page_30">30&ndash;32</a>, <a href="#Page_31"><i>31</i></a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i> <a href="#Page_6">6&ndash;8</a>, <a href="#Page_7"><i>7</i></a>, <a href="#Page_8"><i>8</i></a>, <a href="#Page_9"><i>9</i></a>, <a href="#Page_10"><i>10</i></a>, <a href="#Page_12"><i>12</i></a>, <a href="#Page_13"><i>13</i></a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Red alder (<i>Alnus oregona</i>) <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31"><i>31</i></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cedar, western (<i>Thuja plicata</i>) <a href="#Page_9">9&ndash;11</a>, <a href="#Page_10"><i>10</i></a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Silver fir. <i>See</i> Amabilis fir; Grand fir.<br />
+<br />
+Spruce, Engelmann (<i>Picea engelmanni</i>)   <a href="#Page_20">20&ndash;23</a>, <a href="#Page_22"><i>22</i></a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>Taxus brevifolia</i> <a href="#Page_28">28&ndash;29</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Thuja plicata</i> <a href="#Page_9">9&ndash;11</a>, <a href="#Page_10"><i>10</i></a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Tsuga heterophylla</i> <a href="#Page_11">11&ndash;13</a>, <a href="#Page_12"><i>12</i></a>, <a href="#Page_13"><i>13</i></a>, <a href="#Page_16"><i>16</i></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>mertensiana</i> <a href="#Page_25">25&ndash;27</a>, <a href="#Page_25"><i>25</i></a>, <a href="#Page_26"><i>26</i></a>, <a href="#Page_27"><i>27</i></a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Vine maple (<i>Acer circinatum</i>) <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_30"><i>30</i></a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Western hemlock (<i>Tsuga heterophylla</i>) <a href="#Page_11">11&ndash;13</a>, <a href="#Page_12"><i>12</i></a>, <a href="#Page_13"><i>13</i></a>, <a href="#Page_16"><i>16</i></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">red cedar (<i>Thuja plicata</i>) <a href="#Page_9">9&ndash;11</a>, <a href="#Page_10"><i>10</i></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">white pine (<i>Pinus monticola</i>) <a href="#Page_13">13&ndash;15</a>, <a href="#Page_14"><i>14</i></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">yew (<i>Taxus brevifolia</i>) <a href="#Page_28">28&ndash;29</a></span><br />
+<br />
+White-bark pine (<i>Pinus albicaulis</i>) <a href="#Page_27">27&ndash;28</a>, <a href="#Page_28"><i>28</i></a><br />
+<br />
+White pine, western (<i>Pinus monticola</i>) <a href="#Page_13">13&ndash;15</a>, <a href="#Page_14"><i>14</i></a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Yellow cypress (<i>Chamaecyparis nootkatensis</i>) <a href="#Page_23">23&ndash;24</a>, <a href="#Page_23"><i>23</i></a><br />
+<br />
+Yew, Oregon. <i>See</i> Yew, western.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">western (<i>Taxus brevifolia</i>) <a href="#Page_28">28&ndash;29</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Forests of Mount Rainier National Park, by
+Grenville F. Allen
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Forests of Mount Rainier National Park
+
+Author: Grenville F. Allen
+
+Release Date: April 15, 2010 [EBook #31994]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FORESTS OF MT RAINIER NAT. PARK ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Greg Bergquist and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+The punctuation and spelling from the original text have been faithfully
+preserved.
+
+
+ FORESTS OF MOUNT RAINIER
+ NATIONAL PARK
+
+ [Illustration]
+
+ DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
+ OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY
+ 1916
+
+For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,
+Washington, D.C. Price, 20 cents.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLICATIONS ON MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK SOLD BY THE SUPERINTENDENT
+OF DOCUMENTS.
+
+
+Remittances for these publications should be by money order, payable to
+the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,
+D.C., or in cash. Checks and postage stamps can not be accepted.
+
+Features of the Flora of Mount Rainier National Park, by J.B. Flett.
+1916. 48 pages, including 40 illustrations. 25 cents.
+
+     Contains descriptions of the flowering trees and shrubs in the
+     park.
+
+Mount Rainier and Its Glaciers, by F.E. Matthes. 1914. 48 pages,
+including 26 illustrations. 15 cents.
+
+     Contains a general account of the glaciers of Mount Rainier and of
+     the development of the valleys and basins surrounding the peak.
+
+Panoramic view of Mount Rainier National Park, 20 by 19 inches, scale 1
+mile to the inch. 25 cents.
+
+
+
+
+THE FORESTS OF MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK.
+
+By G.F. ALLEN, _United States Forest Service_.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL STATEMENT.
+
+
+The remarkable development of the forests about the base of Mount
+Rainier results from climatic conditions peculiarly favorable to tree
+growth. The winters are mild and short. The ocean winds that pass
+through the gaps of the Coast Range are laden with moisture which falls
+in the form of rain or snow on the west slope of the Cascades. The trees
+are nourished by this moisture through a long season of annual growth,
+and form an evergreen forest which is, in some respects, the most
+remarkable in the world. This forest, distinguished by the extraordinary
+size and beauty of the trees and by the density of the stand, extends
+into the deep valleys of the rivers which have their sources in the
+glaciers. On the dividing ridges and in the upper stream basins the
+composition and character of the forest change with the increasing
+severity of the climate.
+
+The distribution of the different species of trees according to the
+intervals of altitude at which they occur separate the forests of the
+Mount Rainier National Park into different types. The lines of
+separation are to some extent also determined by complex conditions of
+slope, exposure, and moisture. The successive forest belts are uniform
+in the composition of their central areas, but blend and overlap where
+they come together.
+
+The low valleys of the main and west forks of White River, of the
+Carbon, the Mowich, the Nisqually, and the Ohanopecosh are covered with
+a dense and somber forest of fir, hemlock, and cedar. The trees, pushing
+upward for light, are very tall and free from limbs for more than half
+their height. Their tops form a continuous cover which the sunshine
+rarely penetrates, and on which the light snows of early winter fall and
+melt, without reaching the ground. Even in midsummer the light is soft
+and shaded, and the air cool and humid. In the wintertime the young
+growth is sheltered from wind and the severity of the cold is tempered
+by the protecting mountain ranges. Saved from fire by the uniform
+dampness of the air the trees grow until they decay and fall from old
+age. They are succeeded by the suppressed younger trees. The forest
+remains mature, not uniformly sound and vigorous, yet not decreasing as
+a whole in size and volume. Individuals perish, but the character of the
+forest is constant. The deep alluvial soil covered with moss and decayed
+vegetation nourishes a luxuriant tangled undergrowth of vine maple,
+willow, and devil's-club. The forest floor is covered with a deep layer
+of decayed vegetation and is encumbered with fallen and mossy logs and
+upturned stumps. The explorer who leaves the trails must be a strong and
+active man if he can carry his pack 6 or 8 miles in a long summer day.
+
+Ascending from the river bottoms to the lower slopes of the dividing
+ridges the forest becomes more open and the trees are smaller. Salal,
+Oregon grape, and huckleberry bushes take the place of the taller
+undergrowth of the valleys. Up to 3,000 feet the Douglas fir and the
+hemlock still are the dominant species. Above this altitude new species
+are found intermingled with the trees typical of the lowland, but
+forming a distinct forest type. The noble and amabilis fir appear,
+sometimes growing in pure stands, but more often associated with the
+Douglas fir and western hemlock at the lower limits of the type, and
+with alpine fir and mountain hemlock at the upper limit.
+
+Nearly all the trees of this type have deep and wide-spreading roots
+which serve to hold in place the surface deposit of volcanic pumice
+which covers the slopes of the mountain. Evidence afforded by the after
+effects of forest fires in other parts of the Cascades indicates that
+the destruction of the forest on the mountain sides is followed by
+erosion. Heavy rains and the melting of the upper snow banks by warm
+Chinook winds combine to produce a surface run-off that denudes the
+steeper declivities down to the underlying bedrock.
+
+At elevations above 4,500 feet the lowland trees have disappeared
+entirely. Subalpine species adapted to withstand the burden of deep snow
+take their place. Mountain hemlock, alpine fir, and Engelmann spruce
+grow singly and in scattered groups or form open groves alternating with
+grassy parks and rocky ridges. The symmetrical outline of the slender
+pyramidal crowns and rapidly tapering trunks of the spruce and alpine
+fir trees that stand singly on the greensward of the open parks bring to
+mind the closely trimmed cultivated evergreens that adorn city parks and
+lawns. Their lower branches reach the ground and the tops terminate in
+slender upright spires.
+
+As timber line is approached tree growth is confined to dwarfed and
+flattened mountain hemlocks, alpine firs, and the white-bark pines
+firmly rooted among the crevices of the rocks.
+
+The extreme limit of tree growth on Mount Rainier is 7,600 feet above
+sea level. There is no well-defined timber line. Scattered clumps of low
+stunted trees occur up to 7,000 feet. A few very small and flattened
+mountain hemlocks grow above this elevation. A very large part of the
+area above 4,500 feet consists of glaciers, talus slopes, barren rocky
+peaks, and open parks. Basins at the heads of canyons in the high
+mountains are usually treeless, on account of the great depth of snow
+which accumulates in them during the winter. On the steep, smooth upper
+inclines the snow banks frequently slip and form slides which acquire
+momentum as they rush down the mountain side and break and carry away
+large trees. Repeated snowslides in the same place keep the slopes
+nonforested, and their track is marked by light green strips of brush
+and herbage.
+
+The transition of the forest from its lowland to its extreme alpine type
+is one of the most interesting features of a visit to the mountain.
+Entering the park at the western boundary close to the Nisqually River
+the road skirts the base of the lightly timbered spurs and passes into a
+forest of large and old Douglas fir and western hemlock. Red cedars grow
+along the streams that cross the road. Little yew trees and vine maples
+mingle with the young conifers that form the undergrowth; the gloom of
+the forest is occasionally relieved by the white bark of alders and the
+smooth gray stems of the cottonwoods that grow on the sandy bank of the
+Nisqually. After the road crosses the Rainier Fork, noble fir and
+amabilis fir appear, but the Douglas fir and western hemlock are still
+the prevailing species.
+
+Above Longmire Springs the noble and amabilis fir, mixed with western
+hemlock, become the dominant type. The trees are shorter and the
+branches heavier. Mountain ash and yellow cypress grow on the margin of
+the mountain streams. Huckleberry bushes take the place of the taller
+undergrowth of the valley.
+
+Above Narada Falls the forest is more open, and the trees are still
+smaller. Mountain hemlock and alpine fir succeed the trees of the lower
+slope. Little glades and mountain meadows are seen. They become larger
+and more numerous and the traveler soon enters the open park of Paradise
+Valley, in which are but scattered groves of trees. The same successive
+altitudinal types are met in ascending to Moraine and Grand Parks by way
+of the Carbon Valley, and in following the Mowich watershed, Crater
+Lake, and Spray Park routes.
+
+Approaching the park from the east the routes pass through open western
+yellow pine forests and western larch stands. Since Mount Rainier is
+west of and apart from the summit line, these species which are peculiar
+to the eastern slope are not found within the limits of the park.
+
+
+
+
+EFFECTS OF FIRE.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Whitened spectral monuments of a former forest
+which was swept by a severe forest fire in 1885. Taken along the road to
+Camp of the Clouds at an altitude of 5,500 feet.
+
+Photograph by A.H. Barnes.]
+
+
+Notwithstanding the shortness of the summer season at high altitudes,
+the subalpine forests in some parts of the park have suffered severely
+from fire (fig. 1). The bare white trunks of fire-killed amabilis and
+alpine firs bear witness to numerous fires which occurred from time to
+time before the regulations governing the park went into effect. The
+little resin pockets in the bark of these trees blaze fiercely for a
+short time and the heat separates the bark from the trunk. In this way
+the tree is killed, although the naked trunk is left untouched by fire.
+The destruction of the alpine forest in this way is often erroneously
+attributed to disease or to the depredations of insects.
+
+There has been little apparent change in the alpine burns within the
+last 30 years. Reforestation at high altitudes is extremely slow. The
+seed production is rather scanty and the ground conditions are not
+favorable for its reproduction. It will take more than one century for
+nature to replace the beautiful groves which have been destroyed by the
+carelessness of the first visitors to the mountain.
+
+At low elevations the forest recovers more rapidly from the effects of
+fire. Between the subalpine areas and the river valleys there are
+several large ancient burns which are partly reforested. The most
+extensive of these tracts is the Muddy Fork burn. It is crossed by the
+Stevens Canyon Trail from Reflection Lakes through the Ohanopecosh Hot
+Springs. This burn includes an area of 20 square miles in the park and
+extends north nearly to the glaciers and south for several miles beyond
+the park boundary nearly to the main Cowlitz River. The open sunlit
+spaces and wide outlooks afforded by reforested tracts of this character
+present a strong contrast to the deep shades and dim vistas of the
+primitive forest. On the whole they have a cheerful and pleasing
+appearance, very different from the sad, desolate aspect of the alpine
+burns which less kindly conditions of climate and exposure have kept
+from reforestation.
+
+The original forest was fire killed many years before the coming of the
+white man. A few naked and weather beaten stubs are still standing. Only
+the larger of the fallen trunks remain, and these are rotten except for
+a few seasoned and weatherworn shells. The second growth is of all ages,
+from seedlings to trees 12 to 14 inches in diameter. Vine maple, willow,
+and mountain ash have sprung up along the streams and the hillsides are
+covered with huckleberry bushes and a variety of grasses and flowering
+plants.
+
+Similar old burns are found on the ridge between Huckleberry Creek and
+White River, in the northeastern part of the park, and on the ridge
+between Tahoma Creek and Kautz Creek below Henrys Hunting Ground.
+
+The old burns in the middle altitudes of the park occupy regions once
+frequented by the Klickitat Indians. Every summer parties of hunters and
+berry pickers from the sagebrush plains crossed the Cascades with their
+horses. They followed the high divides and open summits of the secondary
+ridges until they came around to the open parks about Mount Rainier
+where they turned their horses out to graze and made their summer camp.
+The woman picked huckleberries and the men hunted deer and goats. They
+made great fires to dry their berries and kindled smudges to protect
+their horses from flies. It was also their custom to systematically set
+out fires as they returned. Burning made the country better for the
+Indians. The fires kept down the brush and made it more accessible. Deer
+could be more easily seen and tracked and the huckleberry patches spread
+more widely over the hills.
+
+No considerable part of the lower forests of the park has been burned.
+The principal danger is from lightning. However, few of the trees struck
+are ignited and these fires are usually extinguished by the rain. On
+account of the coolness of the air and its greater humidity the fire
+danger in the forests on the lower slopes of Mount Rainier seems much
+less than it is in corresponding situations in the main range of the
+Cascades.
+
+
+
+
+AGE AND DIMENSIONS OF TREES.
+
+
+Trees grow more rapidly at low altitudes than at higher and cooler
+elevations. Under similar conditions some species increase in size
+faster than others, but the rate of growth depends principally upon
+environment. The average increase at the stump in valley land is about 1
+inch in 6 years. A Douglas fir growing along the stage road between the
+park boundary and Longmire's, at the age of 90 to 120 years may have a
+breast diameter of 20 inches and yield 700 feet of saw timber. But many
+of the trees of this size may be much older on account of having grown
+in the shade or under other adverse conditions. The trees between 200
+and 300 years of age are often 40 to 50 inches in diameter and may yield
+an average of from 2,700 to 5,500 board feet. The largest Douglas firs
+are sometimes over 400 years old and 60 to 70 inches in diameter. Such
+trees when sound will produce over 8,000 feet of lumber.
+
+The western red cedar has a shorter and more tapering trunk and its
+volume in board feet is proportionally smaller. A tree 50 inches in
+diameter and 175 feet high contains about 3,400 board feet.
+
+The size of the trees decreases rapidly at higher elevations. In the
+subalpine forest the annual growth is very small. At elevations of 6,000
+feet the white-bark pine requires 200 years to attain a diameter of 10
+or 12 inches. The annual rings are so close together that they can not
+be distinguished without a magnifying glass.
+
+
+
+
+DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIES.
+
+
+DOUGLAS FIR (PSEUDOTSUGA TAXIFOLIA).
+
+The Douglas fir (figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5) is the best known and the most
+important timber tree of western North America. It is found from
+British Columbia southward to northern Mexico. The finest forests occur
+in Oregon and Washington at low elevations. The Douglas fir is common in
+the park up to 3,500 feet, sometimes in nearly pure stands, but more
+often mixed with other species. It grows in all situations. In the
+higher mountains it prefers warm southern exposures and is seldom found
+on wind-swept ridges. It seeds annually, but most profusely at intervals
+three or four years apart. The red squirrels gather and store large
+quantities of the cones in order to provide a supply of the seeds for
+their winter rations. The growth of the young tree is very rapid. As the
+tree becomes older the rate of growth varies with the situation and the
+character of the soil so that the size does not closely determine the
+age of the tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_).]
+
+The Douglas fir is a long-lived tree, and specimens are occasionally
+found 250 to 270 feet high and over 8 feet in diameter and between 400
+and 500 years in age. It reaches its greatest height and most perfect
+proportions in mature even-age stands growing on fairly moist
+well-drained bench lands. Under these conditions it is a very tall and
+beautiful tree. The trunk is straight, round, and free from branches for
+two-thirds of its height and tapers gently to the crown. The dark-brown
+deep-furrowed bark is 5 to 10 inches thick at the base of the tree.
+
+The Douglas fir ranks first among the trees of the Pacific slope in
+importance for the production of lumber. It is often sold under the name
+of Oregon pine. Lumber dealers class the coarse-grained reddish wood
+produced by the young growth in open forests as "red fir." The older
+growth produced when the forest is more dense is a finer grained and
+more valuable wood, sold under the name of "yellow fir."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_).]
+
+The Douglas fir is used for nearly all purposes where durability,
+strength, and hardness are desirable. It is made into dimension timbers,
+lumber, flooring, and is particularly adapted for masts and spars. The
+lumber is shipped by rail to the Middle Western States. The foreign
+cargo shipments are made to all parts of the world. The greatest amount
+goes to Australia, the west and east coasts of South America, China, the
+United Kingdom, and Europe, Japan, and the South Sea Islands. Coastwise
+shipments are made to California, Alaska, and Panama. Large quantities
+of the seed of this tree are sent to Europe, where the Douglas fir is
+grown for timber and for ornament.
+
+
+WESTERN RED CEDAR (THUJA PLICATA.)[1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_).]
+
+The western red cedar (title page and fig. 5) ranges from south-eastern
+Alaska to northern California. It is a common tree in the park. It
+occurs in patches along the river bottoms where the flat scalelike
+foliage is conspicuous among the needle-shaped leaves of the hemlock and
+fir. The bark is fibrous in appearance and may be readily separated into
+long strips. The trunks of the older trees are swelled and irregularly
+fluted at the base. The leaves are fragrant and the wood has a pleasing
+aromatic odor. Nearly all the large trees are hollow at the butt. The
+roots spread laterally to a great distance, but extend only for a short
+distance below the surface of the ground. The tree is easily overthrown
+by the wind and usually grows in sheltered localities. On account of the
+thinness of the bark it is easily killed by fire.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Two big Douglas firs and a western red cedar (on
+the left) along the road up the Nisqually Valley, Mount Rainier National
+Park.
+
+Photograph by A.H. Denman.]
+
+The red cedar flourishes on fertile and well-watered soils near sea
+level, where it grows to an enormous size. In the park it is a smaller
+tree, 150 to 170 feet high and rarely more than 4 or 5 feet through
+above the swollen butt. It grows occasionally up to an altitude of 4,000
+feet, but is a small and insignificant tree in the high mountains.
+
+In the sapling stage the red cedar grows rapidly. The mature tree
+increases very slowly in size. It exceeds all other trees in the
+Cascades in longevity. Individuals more than 500 years old are not
+uncommon and there is a well-authenticated instance where the annual
+rings indicated a growth of more than 1,100 years.
+
+While the red cedar forms no great proportion of the forest of the
+Pacific Northwest, it is peculiarly valuable to the pioneer on account
+of the durability of the wood and the ease with which it can be split
+into boards, shakes, and planking. The early settlers used cedar split
+by hand as a substitute for sawn lumber in flooring and finishing their
+cabins and for the tables and shelves with which they were furnished.
+The Indians hollowed the great trunks with fire and made them into
+canoes, some of which were large and seaworthy enough to be used on the
+Sound and in making voyages along the coast. They wove the fibrous roots
+into baskets that carried water and plaited the bark into matting. The
+wood of the red cedar is reddish brown in color. It is soft, light, and
+very brittle, but very durable. It is extensively used for shingles, the
+manufacture of which forms one of the important industries of the State.
+The clear logs are sawed into lumber used for siding, interior and
+exterior finish, moldings, tank stock, and similar purposes. Common logs
+are utilized for shingles. In many localities the entire tree is cut
+into 52-inch bolts, which are hauled to the mills or floated to them
+down the streams.
+
+The western red cedar makes excellent posts and rails for farm fences.
+The young trees are used for telegraph and telephone poles.
+
+
+WESTERN HEMLOCK (TSUGA HETEROPHYLLA).
+
+Next to the Douglas fir the western hemlock is the most abundant tree in
+the forests of Oregon and Washington. It occurs from Alaska southward to
+northern California. About Mount Rainier it is found up to an altitude
+of 5,000 feet. In the river valleys in moist situations it is a large
+tree, sometimes reaching a height of 250 feet and a diameter of 5 feet.
+On the high ridges it is stunted. It grows best on moist deep soils in
+dense forests, but thrives under almost all conditions of soil and
+exposure if provided with plenty of moisture.
+
+Western hemlock (figs. 6 and 7) is usually associated with Douglas fir
+and red cedar, but sometimes forms a forest of nearly pure growth. The
+hemlock produces abundant seed each year, although it is more prolific
+at irregular intervals. The seeds germinate readily on decayed moss and
+rotten wood as well as upon the mineral soil. Seedlings frequently grow
+on fallen logs and extend their vigorous roots around the side until
+they reach the ground and become firmly anchored in it. Young hemlocks
+thrive in the shade. On logged-off areas which have not been burned over
+and which are partially shaded by uncut trees, the reproduction of
+hemlock springs up, to the exclusion of the more valuable Douglas fir.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The lower slope forest, near Longmire Springs,
+altitude 3,000 feet, here composed largely of western hemlock (_Tsuga
+heterophylla_); the tree on the extreme left is a Douglas fir
+(_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_).
+
+Photograph by A.H. Barnes.]
+
+The hemlock is long lived and grows slowly. The largest trees are from
+200 to 500 years old and are usually hollow-hearted. The bark is thin
+and the tree very easily killed by ground fire. The wood of the hemlock
+is tough, light, and straight grained. It is not as durable as the
+Douglas fir and decays rapidly when exposed to the weather. The clear
+lumber is suitable for interior finish. The wood is also used for
+flooring, joists, lath, and paper pulp. The common and rough lumber does
+not find a ready market, except for the limited amount used in temporary
+construction. The western hemlock is, however, superior to the eastern
+hemlock, and its value will probably be recognized as its usefulness for
+many purposes becomes better known.
+
+
+WESTERN WHITE PINE (PINUS MONTICOLA).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--A forest of Douglas fir, with an understory of
+western hemlock, on the lower slopes of the hills, Mount Rainier
+National Park.
+
+Photograph by A.H. Denman.]
+
+The western white pine (fig. 8) is found from southern Alaska to
+northern California. In the park it occurs occasionally up to 4,000
+feet. It usually grows on level benches and gentle slopes associated
+with Douglas fir, western hemlock, and noble and amabilis fir. It
+reaches its best development at elevations of from 3,000 to 3,500 feet,
+where it attains a height of 150 feet and a diameter of 40 inches. The
+shaft is straight, cylindrical, and clear of limbs. It bears a small,
+narrow crown of drooping branches. In open areas, where it is exposed to
+sunlight, its mode of growth is wholly different. The trunk is short,
+rapidly tapering, and bears wide-spreading branches nearly to the
+ground. At high elevations the western white pine is very short and
+stunted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Western white pine (_Pinus monticola_).
+
+Diameter 24 inches, height 50 feet.]
+
+Although the western white pine is not a common tree in the park, it is
+often noticed on account of its abundance of slender, pendant cones, 6
+to 10 inches long. They mature every two years and shed their seed early
+in September. The seed are provided with long wings and are often
+carried by the wind for a great distance from the parent tree.
+
+The wood is light, soft, free from pitch, and the most valuable of any
+of the pines of the Cascades. It is used for interior finish, pattern
+making, and other purposes. The supply of this tree is so limited that
+it is not of great commercial importance in the Mount Rainier region.
+
+
+AMABILIS FIR (ABIES AMABILIS).[2]
+
+Amabilis fir (figs. 9 and 10) ranges from southern Alaska to Oregon. It
+is abundant in the park at elevations from 2,500 to 5,000 feet on level
+bench lands, and gentle slopes with a northern exposure. It is rarely
+found in unmixed stands, but is usually associated with western hemlock,
+Douglas fir, and noble fir. The largest trees are 150 to 180 feet high
+and 3 to 5 feet in diameter. In dense forests the stem is free from
+branches for 50 to 100 feet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Amabilis fir (_Abies amabilis_).]
+
+At altitudes over 4,000 feet, small amabilis firs often occur in
+clusters and open groves. The trunk is covered with branches which grow
+to the ground, turning downward and outward in long graceful curves,
+admirably adapted to withstand the pressure of the frozen snow. The
+foliage is a deep and brilliant green, forming a strong contrast to the
+dark-purple cones. The seeds ripen each year early in October. Like the
+seed of the other alpine species of trees that grow in the cold and
+humid climate of the high Cascades, they soon lose their vitality when
+stored in dry places. The amabilis fir is grown in Europe as an
+ornamental tree. Under cultivation it loses much of the natural grace
+and beauty which it acquired in adapting itself to the deep snows and
+long winters of its native environment.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--The forests of western hemlock, amabilis fir,
+and other species, on the middle slopes of the mountains, along the
+Crater Lake trail, Mount Rainier National Park.
+
+Photograph by Geo. O. Ceasar.]
+
+The bark is thin and the tree is easily killed by fire. The wood is
+straw colored, compact, and straight grained. It is not strong and
+splits easily. It is sold to some extent under the name of larch or
+mixed with inferior grades of fir and hemlock. The lumber is of little
+value commercially.
+
+
+NOBLE FIR (ABIES NOBILIS).
+
+The noble fir (figs. 11 and 12) is a common mountain tree in the western
+parts of Washington and Oregon. Like amabilis fir, it is usually called
+larch by lumbermen. About Mount Rainier it grows at elevations of from
+3,500 to 5,000 feet in dense stands associated with amabilis fir,
+western hemlock, and Douglas fir. The noble fir avoids steep side hills
+and exposed situations. In moist soils on flats and gentle slopes it
+often reaches a height of from 150 to 200 feet. The tall and upright
+trunk supports a rounded crown of bluish green foliage, which is very
+noticeable among the purer green leaves of its associates. The branches
+are short, thick, and crowded with stiff, flattened leaves, which turn
+upward and outward. The light-green bract-covered cones are sometimes 6
+inches long and nearly 3 inches thick. They ripen early in September.
+Seed is borne every year, although in some seasons it is much more
+abundant than in others.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Noble fir (_Abies nobilis_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Noble fir (_Abies nobilis_), 6 feet in
+diameter.]
+
+The wood is strong, close grained, and elastic. It is used for lumber
+and particularly for inside finishing. The noble fir is a slow-growing
+and long-lived tree. Old trees in mixed forests are easily distinguished
+from the associated species by the ashy-brown outer bark broken into
+large irregular plates.
+
+
+ALPINE FIR (ABIES LASIOCARPA).[3]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--A cluster of Alpine firs (_Abies lasiocarpa_),
+whose spire-shaped crowns are characteristic, at 5,500 feet altitude, in
+Cowlitz Park, Mount Rainier National Park.
+
+Photograph by A.H. Barnes.]
+
+The alpine fir (fig. 13) ranges from Alaska to New Mexico. It is a
+common tree in the park at elevations above 4,500 feet. It is a tree of
+the high mountains and with the white bark pine and the mountain
+hemlock, is found up to the limit of arborescent life. It demands
+moisture and is generally restricted to regions of deep snowfall.
+
+The alpine fir occurs in unmixed stands, but is often associated with
+the mountain hemlock. At the lower levels of its range it is a
+fair-sized tree 50 or 60 feet high. The crown of deep-green foliage is
+broad at the base and tapers to the top, where it terminates in a
+slender, pointed tip. At its upper limit it becomes a stunted shrub,
+with wide extended branches resting on the ground.
+
+The alpine fir bears upright clusters of deep-purple cones. It seeds
+sparingly each year. The seasons of heavy seed production occur at
+intervals of three or four years. The wood is soft and splits easily. It
+is of no commercial value. The tree is easily killed by fire, which
+blisters the thin bark and frequently springs into the drooping lower
+branches.
+
+
+GRAND FIR (ABIES GRANDIS.)[4]
+
+The grand fir (fig. 14), like several other species, is generally given
+the name of white fir on account of its smooth, light-colored bark. It
+is a common tree in the river bottoms from British Columbia south to
+northern California. In the Mount Rainier National Park it occurs up to
+4,000 feet. The grand fir is a moisture-loving tree and is usually found
+firmly rooted in deep alluvial bottom lands along the banks of streams.
+With the Douglas fir, hemlock, and red cedar it forms the dense forest
+characteristic of the lower mountain valleys.
+
+In favorable conditions the grand fir grows to a height of from 100 to
+200 feet and is a noble and stately tree. The trunk tapers rapidly and
+bears a rounded pyramidal crown. In dense forests the trunk is clear for
+half its height, but where the trees stand in the open it carries its
+branches nearly to the ground. The leaves are a bright and shining
+green. The large light-green cones mature early in the fall. The wood is
+soft and very heavy before it is seasoned. It rots in a very short time
+when laid on the ground. When dry it is white, coarse-grained, light,
+and odorous. It is used for interior finish and for crates and packing
+boxes, but is of little value commercially.
+
+
+ENGELMANN SPRUCE (PICEA ENGELMANNI).
+
+The Engelmann spruce (fig. 15) is a mountain tree ranging from British
+Columbia to Arizona and New Mexico. It is common along the summit and on
+the east side of the Cascade Range and occurs on the northeastern and
+eastern slopes of Mount Rainier at elevations of from 3,500 to 6,000
+feet.
+
+This tree requires a moist soil and prefers cool northern exposures. Up
+to 5,000 feet it commonly grows in sheltered basins at the head of
+canyons and in stream valleys. At its upper limits it is common on flats
+and depressions and about lakes on level summits. It avoids steep
+mountain sides and exposed situations.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Grand fir (_Abies grandis_).]
+
+The Engelmann spruce is easily distinguished from its associates by its
+stiff, bluish-green pointed leaves, which prick the hand when they are
+grasped. In the mountain parks it is a handsome tree 50 to 60 feet high.
+When it stands apart from other trees the lower branches are thick and
+long and extend to the ground. The crown is very broad at the base, but
+narrow and spirelike at the top. The Engelmann spruce reaches its best
+development at low elevations, where it often grows in dense, pure
+stands. Under these conditions it reaches a height of 100 feet. The bole
+is straight and free from limbs and the top is short and compact.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Engelmann spruce (_Picea engelmanni_).]
+
+The young cones are massed in upright green and purple clusters at the
+tips of the upper branches. They are notable for the purity and
+brilliance of their coloring. As they mature they become pendant and
+fade to a light brown. The seed is produced in abundance nearly every
+year, although small and seedling trees are not usually numerous.
+
+The wood is soft, white, compact, and even grained. It is free from
+pitch and odor. It is valuable for boxing, cooperage, and certain kinds
+of finish. It is also an excellent material for the tops of violins and
+other stringed instruments. The Engelmann spruce is, however, of little
+importance as a timber tree on account of its scarcity and the scattered
+stands in which it grows. It is a long-lived tree unless attacked by
+fire, to which it is very vulnerable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--A group of yellow cypresses (_Chamaecyparis
+nootkatensis_) on the high slopes of Mount Rainier National Park,
+altitude about 6,000 feet.
+
+Photograph by A.H. Barnes.]
+
+
+YELLOW CYPRESS (CHAMAECYPARIS NOOTKATENSIS).
+
+Yellow cypress (fig. 16) ranges from the seacoast of southern Alaska
+south to the mountains of Washington and Oregon. It occurs in the park
+up to the elevation of 7,000 feet. It is common on northern exposures,
+along streams, and in basins at the head of canyons. It also grows on
+crests and ridges, where the frequent showers and fogs supply the
+moisture which it demands. In sheltered localities it grows to a height
+of 75 or 80 feet, but it is commonly a small tree with, a bent and
+twisted stem, which, with its pendulous branches, presents a somewhat
+scrubby appearance. The foliage is green, sometimes with a bluish tinge.
+It resembles that of the common western red cedar, but the leaves are
+sharper, more pointed, and rougher to handle. The small, rounded,
+inconspicuous cones are produced somewhat sparingly. The bark of the
+young tree is red. On the mature tree it becomes gray and fibrous. The
+wood is yellow, close grained, and aromatic. Unlike that of the western
+red cedar, the trunk is usually sound to the center. The wood is used
+for boat building and cabinetwork. It is very durable.
+
+The yellow cypress grows very slowly, particularly at high elevations.
+The number of annual rings on trees 15 to 20 inches in diameter indicate
+that they are over 200 years old.
+
+
+LODGEPOLE PINE (PINUS CONTORTA).
+
+Lodgepole pine (fig. 17) is widely distributed from Alaska to Lower
+California and eastward through the Rockies to Dakota and Colorado. It
+occurs sparingly in the park up to 5,000 feet above sea level. It adapts
+itself easily to the different conditions of soil, moisture, and
+exposure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Lodgepole pine (_Pinus contorta_), 60 inches in
+diameter.]
+
+This tree varies greatly in the different regions where it is found.
+About Mount Rainier it does not often exceed 20 to 40 feet in height
+and is often a much smaller tree. It produces cones at the age of 5 to 7
+years. The foliage is a yellowish green. At high elevations the leaves
+have a peculiar whorled appearance which gives it a different aspect
+from that of the other pines. The short, heavily limbed trunk bears no
+resemblance to the tall and slender shaft of the lodgepole pine of the
+Rocky Mountains. The root system is shallow and the tree is easily fire
+killed. The wood of the variety which grows in the park is of no
+commercial value.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--The feathery foliage of mountain hemlock
+(_Tsuga mertensiana_), Grand Park, Mount Rainier National Park.
+
+Photograph by A.H. Denman.]
+
+
+MOUNTAIN HEMLOCK (TSUGA MERTENSIANA).
+
+The mountain hemlock (figs. 18, 19, and 20) is found on the Pacific
+coast from the Sierras of California to the northern part of Alaska
+where it grows at sea level. On Mount Rainier it occurs at altitudes of
+from 3,500 to 7,500 feet. It forms dense forests under 4,500 feet, where
+it is often a fair-sized tree 50 to 90 feet high. With the ascent of the
+mountain it diminishes in height and the branches become gnarled and
+twisted. Near timber line the trunk is dwarfed and bent at the base and
+the crown becomes a flattened mass of branches lying close to the ground
+(fig. 20).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Two solitary mountain hemlocks (_Tsuga
+mertensiana_), Spray Park, Mount Rainier National Park.
+
+Photograph by Geo. O. Ceasar.]
+
+The mountain hemlock is abundant on high, rocky ridges, but the best
+stands are on cool, moist soil at the heads of ravines, on flats, and on
+gentle slopes with a northern exposure.
+
+This tree seeds every year. In good seed years the upper branches are
+laden with a profusion of beautiful, deep-purple cones, often in such
+abundance as to bend down the branchlets with their weight. The
+reproduction is slow. In the high mountains the trees are buried in snow
+from October to late in June, and the growing season is very short.
+
+
+WHITE-BARK PINE (PINUS ALBICAULIS).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--A gnarled, wind-swept mountain hemlock (_Tsuga
+mertensiana_), near the upper limits of tree growth, Spray Park, Mount
+Rainier National Park.
+
+Photograph by A.H. Denman.]
+
+The white-bark pine (fig. 21) grows close to timber line in the
+mountains of the Pacific coast from British Columbia to southern
+California. In the Canadian Rockies it extends north to the fifty-third
+parallel. It is the most alpine of all the pines. Its lower limit on
+Mount Rainier is about 5,000 feet above sea level. In sheltered places
+where the soil is deep the trees are sometimes 30 to 40 feet high and 20
+inches in diameter. The trunks are free from limbs for 8 or 10 feet. The
+outer bark, from which the tree derives its name, consists of thin,
+light-gray scales.
+
+As the white-bark pine advances up the mountain its habit changes
+rapidly. The stem shortens and becomes gnarled and twisted. The tough,
+flexible branches reach the ground and spread over it to a great
+distance from the tree. On rocky summits and the bleak crests of
+wind-swept ridges the twisted trunk and branches are quite prostrate and
+the crown is a dense flattened mass of foliage.
+
+The roots of the tree are deep, long, and tenacious. They spread wide
+and deep and cling so firmly to the rocks that the tree is rarely
+overthrown by the violent winds that sweep over the mountain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--A white-bark pine (_Pinus albicaulis_) in its
+characteristic mountain habitat, Mount Rainier National Park.
+
+Photograph by A.H. Denman.]
+
+The thick, purple cones require two years to mature. They ripen early in
+September and produce chocolate-brown seeds a little larger than a grain
+of corn. They are much relished by the Klickitat Indians, who go to
+considerable pains to secure them. The wood is close grained and
+resinous. It makes excellent fuel for the camp fires of sheep herders
+and mountain travelers.
+
+
+WESTERN YEW (TAXUS BREVIFOLIA).[5]
+
+The western yew is found from southern Alaska to northern California. It
+occurs in the park up to 4,000 feet, growing in rich, gravelly soil on
+moist flats and benches and in deep ravines. It is a small branching
+tree, rarely over 20 feet high. The bark is purple or reddish brown. The
+branches extend almost to the ground. It bears a small, bright,
+amber-red berry.
+
+The dark-brown or red heartwood is very tough, hard and heavy. It takes
+a fine polish and is used for fancy cabinetwork. The Indians use it for
+spear handles, bows, and fishhooks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Broadleaf maple (_Acer macrophyllum_).]
+
+
+DECIDUOUS TREES.
+
+The silva of the Western Cascades is rich in evergreens remarkable for
+their size and beauty. The deciduous trees are few and insignificant.
+The forests of the park are almost wholly coniferous. Vine maple and
+willow are found as undergrowth. On the margins of rivers there are
+occasional groves of alders and cottonwoods. The lighter hues of the
+branching trunks and the changing tints of the foliage in these patches
+of broad-leaved woodland present a pleasing diversity to the evergreen
+forest.
+
+Broadleaf maple (_Acer macrophyllum_) (fig. 22), the largest of the
+Pacific coast maples, ranges from Alaska to southern California. Near
+sea level it often attains a height of 50 or 60 feet. In the park it is
+a short-stemmed, branching tree, occasionally found on the borders of
+streams. It grows at elevations under 3,000 feet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Vine maple (_Acer circinatum_).]
+
+Vine maple (_Acer circinatum_) (fig. 23) is abundant from British
+Columbia to northern California. On rich river bottoms it is sometimes
+15 to 20 feet high and 6 inches in diameter. In the park it is usually a
+bush or low shrub with a bent and curiously crooked stem, growing along
+streams and as undergrowth in the forest. It is very common up to 3,000
+feet. In autumn the leaves are a bright scarlet. The wood is tough and
+elastic and makes a hot and lasting fire.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Red alder (_Alnus oregona_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Black cottonwood (_Populus trichocarpa_).]
+
+Red alder (_Alnus oregona_) (fig. 24) occurs from Alaska to southern
+California. It is common about Mount Rainier, in river bottoms, on the
+banks of large streams, and in swampy places. It usually grows to a
+height of 30 or 40 feet. The bark varies from nearly white to light
+gray. It is the most abundant of all the deciduous trees in the park.
+
+Black cottonwood (_Populus trichocarpa_) (fig. 25) is common from Alaska
+to southern California. It is occasionally found in the park up to 4,000
+feet. It grows along streams and on sandy river bottoms often associated
+with the alder. The leaves are almost always in motion, very gentle
+winds being sufficient to make them twinkle and turn.
+
+The wood is soft, but tough and compact. It is used for staves,
+woodenware, wood pulp, trunks, barrels, and for drawer bottoms.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+[1] This species is known as arbor vitae in Glacier Park.
+
+[2] This species is known as silver fir in Crater Lake Park.
+
+[3] This species is known as balsam in Glacier and Yellowstone Parks.
+
+[4] This species is known as silver fir in Yellowstone and Glacier
+Parks.
+
+[5] This species is known as Oregon yew in Crater Lake National Park and
+as yew in Yellowstone and Glacier Parks.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX TO SPECIES DESCRIBED.
+
+[Roman numerals indicate pages containing descriptions; italic numerals
+indicate pages containing illustrations.]
+
+
+ _Abies amabilis_ 15-16, _15_, _16_
+   _grandis_     20, _21_
+   _lasiocarpa_     19-20, _19_
+   _nobilis_   17-19, _17_, _18_
+
+ _Acer circinatum_    30, _30_
+   _macrophyllum_ 29, _29_
+
+ Alder, red (_Alnus oregona_) 30, _31_
+
+ _Alnus oregona_ 30, _31_
+
+ Alpine fir (_Abies lasiocarpa_) 19-20, _19_
+
+ Amabilis fir (_Abies amabilis_) 15-16, _15_, _16_
+
+ Arbor vitae. _See_ Western red cedar.
+
+
+ Balsam. _See_ Alpine fir.
+
+ Black cottonwood (_Populus trichocarpa_) 30-32, _31_
+
+ Broadleaf maple (_Acer macrophyllum_) 29, _29_
+
+
+ Cedar, western red (_Thuja plicata_) 9-11, _10_
+
+ _Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_ 23-24, _23_
+
+ Cottonwood, black (_Populus trichocarpa_) 30-32, _31_
+
+ Cypress, yellow (_Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) 23-24, _23_
+
+
+ Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_) 6-8, _7_, _8_, _9_, _10_,
+   _12_, _13_
+
+
+ Engelmann spruce (_Picea engelmanni_) 20-23, _22_
+
+
+ Fir, alpine (_Abies lasiocarpa_)    19-20, _19_
+   amabilis (_Abies amabilis_) 15-16, _15_, _16_
+   Douglas (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_) 6-8, _7_, _8_, _9_, _10_,
+    _12_, _13_
+   grand (_Abies grandis_) 20, _21_
+   noble (_Abies nobilis_) 17-19, _17_, _18_
+   silver. _See_ Fir, amabilis; Fir, grand.
+
+
+ Grand fir (_Abies grandis_) 20, _21_
+
+
+ Hemlock, mountain (_Tsuga mertensiana_) 25-27, _25_, _26_, _27_
+   western (_Tsuga heterophylla_) 11-13, _12_, _13_, _16_
+
+
+ Larch. _See_ Noble fir; Amabilis fir.
+
+ Lodgepole pine (_Pinus contorta_) 24-25, _24_
+
+
+ Maple, broadleaf (_Acer macrophyllum_) 29, _29_
+   vine (_Acer circinatum_) 30, _30_
+
+ Mountain hemlock (_Tsuga mertensiana_) 25-27, _25_, _26_, _27_
+
+
+ Noble fir (_Abies nobilis_) 17-19, _17_, _18_
+
+
+ Oregon yew. _See_ Western yew.
+
+
+ _Picea engelmanni_ 20-23, _22_
+
+ Pine, lodgepole (_Pinus contorta_) 24-25, _24_
+   western white (_Pinus monticola_) 13-15, _14_
+   white-bark (_Pinus albicaulis_) 27-28, _28_
+
+ _Pinus albicaulis_ 27-28, _28_
+   _contorta_ 24-25, _24_
+   _monticola_ 13-15, _14_
+
+ _Populus trichocarpa_ 30-32, _31_
+
+ _Pseudotsuga taxifolia_ 6-8, _7_, _8_, _9_, _10_, _12_, _13_
+
+
+ Red alder (_Alnus oregona_) 30, _31_
+   cedar, western (_Thuja plicata_) 9-11, _10_
+
+
+ Silver fir. _See_ Amabilis fir; Grand fir.
+
+ Spruce, Engelmann (_Picea engelmanni_)   20-23, _22_
+
+
+ _Taxus brevifolia_ 28-29
+
+ _Thuja plicata_ 9-11, _10_
+
+ _Tsuga heterophylla_ 11-13, _12_, _13_, _16_
+   _mertensiana_ 25-27, _25_, _26_, _27_
+
+
+ Vine maple (_Acer circinatum_) 30, _30_
+
+
+ Western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_) 11-13, _12_, _13_, _16_
+   red cedar (_Thuja plicata_) 9-11, _10_
+   white pine (_Pinus monticola_) 13-15, _14_
+   yew (_Taxus brevifolia_) 28-29
+
+ White-bark pine (_Pinus albicaulis_) 27-28, _28_
+
+ White pine, western (_Pinus monticola_) 13-15, _14_
+
+
+ Yellow cypress (_Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) 23-24, _23_
+
+ Yew, Oregon. _See_ Yew, western.
+   western (_Taxus brevifolia_) 28-29
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Forests of Mount Rainier National
+Park, by Grenville F. Allen
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