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diff --git a/31994-8.txt b/31994-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4391e19 --- /dev/null +++ b/31994-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1390 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Forests of Mount Rainier National Park, by +Grenville F. Allen + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Forests of Mount Rainier National Park + +Author: Grenville F. Allen + +Release Date: April 15, 2010 [EBook #31994] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FORESTS OF MT RAINIER NAT. PARK *** + + + + +Produced by Greg Bergquist and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + +Transcriber's Note + +The punctuation and spelling from the original text have been faithfully +preserved. + + + FORESTS OF MOUNT RAINIER + NATIONAL PARK + + [Illustration] + + DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR + OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY + 1916 + +For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, +Washington, D.C. Price, 20 cents. + + + + +PUBLICATIONS ON MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK SOLD BY THE SUPERINTENDENT +OF DOCUMENTS. + + +Remittances for these publications should be by money order, payable to +the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, +D.C., or in cash. Checks and postage stamps can not be accepted. + +Features of the Flora of Mount Rainier National Park, by J.B. Flett. +1916. 48 pages, including 40 illustrations. 25 cents. + + Contains descriptions of the flowering trees and shrubs in the + park. + +Mount Rainier and Its Glaciers, by F.E. Matthes. 1914. 48 pages, +including 26 illustrations. 15 cents. + + Contains a general account of the glaciers of Mount Rainier and of + the development of the valleys and basins surrounding the peak. + +Panoramic view of Mount Rainier National Park, 20 by 19 inches, scale 1 +mile to the inch. 25 cents. + + + + +THE FORESTS OF MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK. + +By G.F. ALLEN, _United States Forest Service_. + + + + +GENERAL STATEMENT. + + +The remarkable development of the forests about the base of Mount +Rainier results from climatic conditions peculiarly favorable to tree +growth. The winters are mild and short. The ocean winds that pass +through the gaps of the Coast Range are laden with moisture which falls +in the form of rain or snow on the west slope of the Cascades. The trees +are nourished by this moisture through a long season of annual growth, +and form an evergreen forest which is, in some respects, the most +remarkable in the world. This forest, distinguished by the extraordinary +size and beauty of the trees and by the density of the stand, extends +into the deep valleys of the rivers which have their sources in the +glaciers. On the dividing ridges and in the upper stream basins the +composition and character of the forest change with the increasing +severity of the climate. + +The distribution of the different species of trees according to the +intervals of altitude at which they occur separate the forests of the +Mount Rainier National Park into different types. The lines of +separation are to some extent also determined by complex conditions of +slope, exposure, and moisture. The successive forest belts are uniform +in the composition of their central areas, but blend and overlap where +they come together. + +The low valleys of the main and west forks of White River, of the +Carbon, the Mowich, the Nisqually, and the Ohanopecosh are covered with +a dense and somber forest of fir, hemlock, and cedar. The trees, pushing +upward for light, are very tall and free from limbs for more than half +their height. Their tops form a continuous cover which the sunshine +rarely penetrates, and on which the light snows of early winter fall and +melt, without reaching the ground. Even in midsummer the light is soft +and shaded, and the air cool and humid. In the wintertime the young +growth is sheltered from wind and the severity of the cold is tempered +by the protecting mountain ranges. Saved from fire by the uniform +dampness of the air the trees grow until they decay and fall from old +age. They are succeeded by the suppressed younger trees. The forest +remains mature, not uniformly sound and vigorous, yet not decreasing as +a whole in size and volume. Individuals perish, but the character of the +forest is constant. The deep alluvial soil covered with moss and decayed +vegetation nourishes a luxuriant tangled undergrowth of vine maple, +willow, and devil's-club. The forest floor is covered with a deep layer +of decayed vegetation and is encumbered with fallen and mossy logs and +upturned stumps. The explorer who leaves the trails must be a strong and +active man if he can carry his pack 6 or 8 miles in a long summer day. + +Ascending from the river bottoms to the lower slopes of the dividing +ridges the forest becomes more open and the trees are smaller. Salal, +Oregon grape, and huckleberry bushes take the place of the taller +undergrowth of the valleys. Up to 3,000 feet the Douglas fir and the +hemlock still are the dominant species. Above this altitude new species +are found intermingled with the trees typical of the lowland, but +forming a distinct forest type. The noble and amabilis fir appear, +sometimes growing in pure stands, but more often associated with the +Douglas fir and western hemlock at the lower limits of the type, and +with alpine fir and mountain hemlock at the upper limit. + +Nearly all the trees of this type have deep and wide-spreading roots +which serve to hold in place the surface deposit of volcanic pumice +which covers the slopes of the mountain. Evidence afforded by the after +effects of forest fires in other parts of the Cascades indicates that +the destruction of the forest on the mountain sides is followed by +erosion. Heavy rains and the melting of the upper snow banks by warm +Chinook winds combine to produce a surface run-off that denudes the +steeper declivities down to the underlying bedrock. + +At elevations above 4,500 feet the lowland trees have disappeared +entirely. Subalpine species adapted to withstand the burden of deep snow +take their place. Mountain hemlock, alpine fir, and Engelmann spruce +grow singly and in scattered groups or form open groves alternating with +grassy parks and rocky ridges. The symmetrical outline of the slender +pyramidal crowns and rapidly tapering trunks of the spruce and alpine +fir trees that stand singly on the greensward of the open parks bring to +mind the closely trimmed cultivated evergreens that adorn city parks and +lawns. Their lower branches reach the ground and the tops terminate in +slender upright spires. + +As timber line is approached tree growth is confined to dwarfed and +flattened mountain hemlocks, alpine firs, and the white-bark pines +firmly rooted among the crevices of the rocks. + +The extreme limit of tree growth on Mount Rainier is 7,600 feet above +sea level. There is no well-defined timber line. Scattered clumps of low +stunted trees occur up to 7,000 feet. A few very small and flattened +mountain hemlocks grow above this elevation. A very large part of the +area above 4,500 feet consists of glaciers, talus slopes, barren rocky +peaks, and open parks. Basins at the heads of canyons in the high +mountains are usually treeless, on account of the great depth of snow +which accumulates in them during the winter. On the steep, smooth upper +inclines the snow banks frequently slip and form slides which acquire +momentum as they rush down the mountain side and break and carry away +large trees. Repeated snowslides in the same place keep the slopes +nonforested, and their track is marked by light green strips of brush +and herbage. + +The transition of the forest from its lowland to its extreme alpine type +is one of the most interesting features of a visit to the mountain. +Entering the park at the western boundary close to the Nisqually River +the road skirts the base of the lightly timbered spurs and passes into a +forest of large and old Douglas fir and western hemlock. Red cedars grow +along the streams that cross the road. Little yew trees and vine maples +mingle with the young conifers that form the undergrowth; the gloom of +the forest is occasionally relieved by the white bark of alders and the +smooth gray stems of the cottonwoods that grow on the sandy bank of the +Nisqually. After the road crosses the Rainier Fork, noble fir and +amabilis fir appear, but the Douglas fir and western hemlock are still +the prevailing species. + +Above Longmire Springs the noble and amabilis fir, mixed with western +hemlock, become the dominant type. The trees are shorter and the +branches heavier. Mountain ash and yellow cypress grow on the margin of +the mountain streams. Huckleberry bushes take the place of the taller +undergrowth of the valley. + +Above Narada Falls the forest is more open, and the trees are still +smaller. Mountain hemlock and alpine fir succeed the trees of the lower +slope. Little glades and mountain meadows are seen. They become larger +and more numerous and the traveler soon enters the open park of Paradise +Valley, in which are but scattered groves of trees. The same successive +altitudinal types are met in ascending to Moraine and Grand Parks by way +of the Carbon Valley, and in following the Mowich watershed, Crater +Lake, and Spray Park routes. + +Approaching the park from the east the routes pass through open western +yellow pine forests and western larch stands. Since Mount Rainier is +west of and apart from the summit line, these species which are peculiar +to the eastern slope are not found within the limits of the park. + + + + +EFFECTS OF FIRE. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Whitened spectral monuments of a former forest +which was swept by a severe forest fire in 1885. Taken along the road to +Camp of the Clouds at an altitude of 5,500 feet. + +Photograph by A.H. Barnes.] + + +Notwithstanding the shortness of the summer season at high altitudes, +the subalpine forests in some parts of the park have suffered severely +from fire (fig. 1). The bare white trunks of fire-killed amabilis and +alpine firs bear witness to numerous fires which occurred from time to +time before the regulations governing the park went into effect. The +little resin pockets in the bark of these trees blaze fiercely for a +short time and the heat separates the bark from the trunk. In this way +the tree is killed, although the naked trunk is left untouched by fire. +The destruction of the alpine forest in this way is often erroneously +attributed to disease or to the depredations of insects. + +There has been little apparent change in the alpine burns within the +last 30 years. Reforestation at high altitudes is extremely slow. The +seed production is rather scanty and the ground conditions are not +favorable for its reproduction. It will take more than one century for +nature to replace the beautiful groves which have been destroyed by the +carelessness of the first visitors to the mountain. + +At low elevations the forest recovers more rapidly from the effects of +fire. Between the subalpine areas and the river valleys there are +several large ancient burns which are partly reforested. The most +extensive of these tracts is the Muddy Fork burn. It is crossed by the +Stevens Canyon Trail from Reflection Lakes through the Ohanopecosh Hot +Springs. This burn includes an area of 20 square miles in the park and +extends north nearly to the glaciers and south for several miles beyond +the park boundary nearly to the main Cowlitz River. The open sunlit +spaces and wide outlooks afforded by reforested tracts of this character +present a strong contrast to the deep shades and dim vistas of the +primitive forest. On the whole they have a cheerful and pleasing +appearance, very different from the sad, desolate aspect of the alpine +burns which less kindly conditions of climate and exposure have kept +from reforestation. + +The original forest was fire killed many years before the coming of the +white man. A few naked and weather beaten stubs are still standing. Only +the larger of the fallen trunks remain, and these are rotten except for +a few seasoned and weatherworn shells. The second growth is of all ages, +from seedlings to trees 12 to 14 inches in diameter. Vine maple, willow, +and mountain ash have sprung up along the streams and the hillsides are +covered with huckleberry bushes and a variety of grasses and flowering +plants. + +Similar old burns are found on the ridge between Huckleberry Creek and +White River, in the northeastern part of the park, and on the ridge +between Tahoma Creek and Kautz Creek below Henrys Hunting Ground. + +The old burns in the middle altitudes of the park occupy regions once +frequented by the Klickitat Indians. Every summer parties of hunters and +berry pickers from the sagebrush plains crossed the Cascades with their +horses. They followed the high divides and open summits of the secondary +ridges until they came around to the open parks about Mount Rainier +where they turned their horses out to graze and made their summer camp. +The woman picked huckleberries and the men hunted deer and goats. They +made great fires to dry their berries and kindled smudges to protect +their horses from flies. It was also their custom to systematically set +out fires as they returned. Burning made the country better for the +Indians. The fires kept down the brush and made it more accessible. Deer +could be more easily seen and tracked and the huckleberry patches spread +more widely over the hills. + +No considerable part of the lower forests of the park has been burned. +The principal danger is from lightning. However, few of the trees struck +are ignited and these fires are usually extinguished by the rain. On +account of the coolness of the air and its greater humidity the fire +danger in the forests on the lower slopes of Mount Rainier seems much +less than it is in corresponding situations in the main range of the +Cascades. + + + + +AGE AND DIMENSIONS OF TREES. + + +Trees grow more rapidly at low altitudes than at higher and cooler +elevations. Under similar conditions some species increase in size +faster than others, but the rate of growth depends principally upon +environment. The average increase at the stump in valley land is about 1 +inch in 6 years. A Douglas fir growing along the stage road between the +park boundary and Longmire's, at the age of 90 to 120 years may have a +breast diameter of 20 inches and yield 700 feet of saw timber. But many +of the trees of this size may be much older on account of having grown +in the shade or under other adverse conditions. The trees between 200 +and 300 years of age are often 40 to 50 inches in diameter and may yield +an average of from 2,700 to 5,500 board feet. The largest Douglas firs +are sometimes over 400 years old and 60 to 70 inches in diameter. Such +trees when sound will produce over 8,000 feet of lumber. + +The western red cedar has a shorter and more tapering trunk and its +volume in board feet is proportionally smaller. A tree 50 inches in +diameter and 175 feet high contains about 3,400 board feet. + +The size of the trees decreases rapidly at higher elevations. In the +subalpine forest the annual growth is very small. At elevations of 6,000 +feet the white-bark pine requires 200 years to attain a diameter of 10 +or 12 inches. The annual rings are so close together that they can not +be distinguished without a magnifying glass. + + + + +DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIES. + + +DOUGLAS FIR (PSEUDOTSUGA TAXIFOLIA). + +The Douglas fir (figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5) is the best known and the most +important timber tree of western North America. It is found from +British Columbia southward to northern Mexico. The finest forests occur +in Oregon and Washington at low elevations. The Douglas fir is common in +the park up to 3,500 feet, sometimes in nearly pure stands, but more +often mixed with other species. It grows in all situations. In the +higher mountains it prefers warm southern exposures and is seldom found +on wind-swept ridges. It seeds annually, but most profusely at intervals +three or four years apart. The red squirrels gather and store large +quantities of the cones in order to provide a supply of the seeds for +their winter rations. The growth of the young tree is very rapid. As the +tree becomes older the rate of growth varies with the situation and the +character of the soil so that the size does not closely determine the +age of the tree. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_).] + +The Douglas fir is a long-lived tree, and specimens are occasionally +found 250 to 270 feet high and over 8 feet in diameter and between 400 +and 500 years in age. It reaches its greatest height and most perfect +proportions in mature even-age stands growing on fairly moist +well-drained bench lands. Under these conditions it is a very tall and +beautiful tree. The trunk is straight, round, and free from branches for +two-thirds of its height and tapers gently to the crown. The dark-brown +deep-furrowed bark is 5 to 10 inches thick at the base of the tree. + +The Douglas fir ranks first among the trees of the Pacific slope in +importance for the production of lumber. It is often sold under the name +of Oregon pine. Lumber dealers class the coarse-grained reddish wood +produced by the young growth in open forests as "red fir." The older +growth produced when the forest is more dense is a finer grained and +more valuable wood, sold under the name of "yellow fir." + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_).] + +The Douglas fir is used for nearly all purposes where durability, +strength, and hardness are desirable. It is made into dimension timbers, +lumber, flooring, and is particularly adapted for masts and spars. The +lumber is shipped by rail to the Middle Western States. The foreign +cargo shipments are made to all parts of the world. The greatest amount +goes to Australia, the west and east coasts of South America, China, the +United Kingdom, and Europe, Japan, and the South Sea Islands. Coastwise +shipments are made to California, Alaska, and Panama. Large quantities +of the seed of this tree are sent to Europe, where the Douglas fir is +grown for timber and for ornament. + + +WESTERN RED CEDAR (THUJA PLICATA.)[1] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_).] + +The western red cedar (title page and fig. 5) ranges from south-eastern +Alaska to northern California. It is a common tree in the park. It +occurs in patches along the river bottoms where the flat scalelike +foliage is conspicuous among the needle-shaped leaves of the hemlock and +fir. The bark is fibrous in appearance and may be readily separated into +long strips. The trunks of the older trees are swelled and irregularly +fluted at the base. The leaves are fragrant and the wood has a pleasing +aromatic odor. Nearly all the large trees are hollow at the butt. The +roots spread laterally to a great distance, but extend only for a short +distance below the surface of the ground. The tree is easily overthrown +by the wind and usually grows in sheltered localities. On account of the +thinness of the bark it is easily killed by fire. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Two big Douglas firs and a western red cedar (on +the left) along the road up the Nisqually Valley, Mount Rainier National +Park. + +Photograph by A.H. Denman.] + +The red cedar flourishes on fertile and well-watered soils near sea +level, where it grows to an enormous size. In the park it is a smaller +tree, 150 to 170 feet high and rarely more than 4 or 5 feet through +above the swollen butt. It grows occasionally up to an altitude of 4,000 +feet, but is a small and insignificant tree in the high mountains. + +In the sapling stage the red cedar grows rapidly. The mature tree +increases very slowly in size. It exceeds all other trees in the +Cascades in longevity. Individuals more than 500 years old are not +uncommon and there is a well-authenticated instance where the annual +rings indicated a growth of more than 1,100 years. + +While the red cedar forms no great proportion of the forest of the +Pacific Northwest, it is peculiarly valuable to the pioneer on account +of the durability of the wood and the ease with which it can be split +into boards, shakes, and planking. The early settlers used cedar split +by hand as a substitute for sawn lumber in flooring and finishing their +cabins and for the tables and shelves with which they were furnished. +The Indians hollowed the great trunks with fire and made them into +canoes, some of which were large and seaworthy enough to be used on the +Sound and in making voyages along the coast. They wove the fibrous roots +into baskets that carried water and plaited the bark into matting. The +wood of the red cedar is reddish brown in color. It is soft, light, and +very brittle, but very durable. It is extensively used for shingles, the +manufacture of which forms one of the important industries of the State. +The clear logs are sawed into lumber used for siding, interior and +exterior finish, moldings, tank stock, and similar purposes. Common logs +are utilized for shingles. In many localities the entire tree is cut +into 52-inch bolts, which are hauled to the mills or floated to them +down the streams. + +The western red cedar makes excellent posts and rails for farm fences. +The young trees are used for telegraph and telephone poles. + + +WESTERN HEMLOCK (TSUGA HETEROPHYLLA). + +Next to the Douglas fir the western hemlock is the most abundant tree in +the forests of Oregon and Washington. It occurs from Alaska southward to +northern California. About Mount Rainier it is found up to an altitude +of 5,000 feet. In the river valleys in moist situations it is a large +tree, sometimes reaching a height of 250 feet and a diameter of 5 feet. +On the high ridges it is stunted. It grows best on moist deep soils in +dense forests, but thrives under almost all conditions of soil and +exposure if provided with plenty of moisture. + +Western hemlock (figs. 6 and 7) is usually associated with Douglas fir +and red cedar, but sometimes forms a forest of nearly pure growth. The +hemlock produces abundant seed each year, although it is more prolific +at irregular intervals. The seeds germinate readily on decayed moss and +rotten wood as well as upon the mineral soil. Seedlings frequently grow +on fallen logs and extend their vigorous roots around the side until +they reach the ground and become firmly anchored in it. Young hemlocks +thrive in the shade. On logged-off areas which have not been burned over +and which are partially shaded by uncut trees, the reproduction of +hemlock springs up, to the exclusion of the more valuable Douglas fir. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The lower slope forest, near Longmire Springs, +altitude 3,000 feet, here composed largely of western hemlock (_Tsuga +heterophylla_); the tree on the extreme left is a Douglas fir +(_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_). + +Photograph by A.H. Barnes.] + +The hemlock is long lived and grows slowly. The largest trees are from +200 to 500 years old and are usually hollow-hearted. The bark is thin +and the tree very easily killed by ground fire. The wood of the hemlock +is tough, light, and straight grained. It is not as durable as the +Douglas fir and decays rapidly when exposed to the weather. The clear +lumber is suitable for interior finish. The wood is also used for +flooring, joists, lath, and paper pulp. The common and rough lumber does +not find a ready market, except for the limited amount used in temporary +construction. The western hemlock is, however, superior to the eastern +hemlock, and its value will probably be recognized as its usefulness for +many purposes becomes better known. + + +WESTERN WHITE PINE (PINUS MONTICOLA). + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--A forest of Douglas fir, with an understory of +western hemlock, on the lower slopes of the hills, Mount Rainier +National Park. + +Photograph by A.H. Denman.] + +The western white pine (fig. 8) is found from southern Alaska to +northern California. In the park it occurs occasionally up to 4,000 +feet. It usually grows on level benches and gentle slopes associated +with Douglas fir, western hemlock, and noble and amabilis fir. It +reaches its best development at elevations of from 3,000 to 3,500 feet, +where it attains a height of 150 feet and a diameter of 40 inches. The +shaft is straight, cylindrical, and clear of limbs. It bears a small, +narrow crown of drooping branches. In open areas, where it is exposed to +sunlight, its mode of growth is wholly different. The trunk is short, +rapidly tapering, and bears wide-spreading branches nearly to the +ground. At high elevations the western white pine is very short and +stunted. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Western white pine (_Pinus monticola_). + +Diameter 24 inches, height 50 feet.] + +Although the western white pine is not a common tree in the park, it is +often noticed on account of its abundance of slender, pendant cones, 6 +to 10 inches long. They mature every two years and shed their seed early +in September. The seed are provided with long wings and are often +carried by the wind for a great distance from the parent tree. + +The wood is light, soft, free from pitch, and the most valuable of any +of the pines of the Cascades. It is used for interior finish, pattern +making, and other purposes. The supply of this tree is so limited that +it is not of great commercial importance in the Mount Rainier region. + + +AMABILIS FIR (ABIES AMABILIS).[2] + +Amabilis fir (figs. 9 and 10) ranges from southern Alaska to Oregon. It +is abundant in the park at elevations from 2,500 to 5,000 feet on level +bench lands, and gentle slopes with a northern exposure. It is rarely +found in unmixed stands, but is usually associated with western hemlock, +Douglas fir, and noble fir. The largest trees are 150 to 180 feet high +and 3 to 5 feet in diameter. In dense forests the stem is free from +branches for 50 to 100 feet. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Amabilis fir (_Abies amabilis_).] + +At altitudes over 4,000 feet, small amabilis firs often occur in +clusters and open groves. The trunk is covered with branches which grow +to the ground, turning downward and outward in long graceful curves, +admirably adapted to withstand the pressure of the frozen snow. The +foliage is a deep and brilliant green, forming a strong contrast to the +dark-purple cones. The seeds ripen each year early in October. Like the +seed of the other alpine species of trees that grow in the cold and +humid climate of the high Cascades, they soon lose their vitality when +stored in dry places. The amabilis fir is grown in Europe as an +ornamental tree. Under cultivation it loses much of the natural grace +and beauty which it acquired in adapting itself to the deep snows and +long winters of its native environment. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--The forests of western hemlock, amabilis fir, +and other species, on the middle slopes of the mountains, along the +Crater Lake trail, Mount Rainier National Park. + +Photograph by Geo. O. Ceasar.] + +The bark is thin and the tree is easily killed by fire. The wood is +straw colored, compact, and straight grained. It is not strong and +splits easily. It is sold to some extent under the name of larch or +mixed with inferior grades of fir and hemlock. The lumber is of little +value commercially. + + +NOBLE FIR (ABIES NOBILIS). + +The noble fir (figs. 11 and 12) is a common mountain tree in the western +parts of Washington and Oregon. Like amabilis fir, it is usually called +larch by lumbermen. About Mount Rainier it grows at elevations of from +3,500 to 5,000 feet in dense stands associated with amabilis fir, +western hemlock, and Douglas fir. The noble fir avoids steep side hills +and exposed situations. In moist soils on flats and gentle slopes it +often reaches a height of from 150 to 200 feet. The tall and upright +trunk supports a rounded crown of bluish green foliage, which is very +noticeable among the purer green leaves of its associates. The branches +are short, thick, and crowded with stiff, flattened leaves, which turn +upward and outward. The light-green bract-covered cones are sometimes 6 +inches long and nearly 3 inches thick. They ripen early in September. +Seed is borne every year, although in some seasons it is much more +abundant than in others. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Noble fir (_Abies nobilis_).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Noble fir (_Abies nobilis_), 6 feet in +diameter.] + +The wood is strong, close grained, and elastic. It is used for lumber +and particularly for inside finishing. The noble fir is a slow-growing +and long-lived tree. Old trees in mixed forests are easily distinguished +from the associated species by the ashy-brown outer bark broken into +large irregular plates. + + +ALPINE FIR (ABIES LASIOCARPA).[3] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--A cluster of Alpine firs (_Abies lasiocarpa_), +whose spire-shaped crowns are characteristic, at 5,500 feet altitude, in +Cowlitz Park, Mount Rainier National Park. + +Photograph by A.H. Barnes.] + +The alpine fir (fig. 13) ranges from Alaska to New Mexico. It is a +common tree in the park at elevations above 4,500 feet. It is a tree of +the high mountains and with the white bark pine and the mountain +hemlock, is found up to the limit of arborescent life. It demands +moisture and is generally restricted to regions of deep snowfall. + +The alpine fir occurs in unmixed stands, but is often associated with +the mountain hemlock. At the lower levels of its range it is a +fair-sized tree 50 or 60 feet high. The crown of deep-green foliage is +broad at the base and tapers to the top, where it terminates in a +slender, pointed tip. At its upper limit it becomes a stunted shrub, +with wide extended branches resting on the ground. + +The alpine fir bears upright clusters of deep-purple cones. It seeds +sparingly each year. The seasons of heavy seed production occur at +intervals of three or four years. The wood is soft and splits easily. It +is of no commercial value. The tree is easily killed by fire, which +blisters the thin bark and frequently springs into the drooping lower +branches. + + +GRAND FIR (ABIES GRANDIS.)[4] + +The grand fir (fig. 14), like several other species, is generally given +the name of white fir on account of its smooth, light-colored bark. It +is a common tree in the river bottoms from British Columbia south to +northern California. In the Mount Rainier National Park it occurs up to +4,000 feet. The grand fir is a moisture-loving tree and is usually found +firmly rooted in deep alluvial bottom lands along the banks of streams. +With the Douglas fir, hemlock, and red cedar it forms the dense forest +characteristic of the lower mountain valleys. + +In favorable conditions the grand fir grows to a height of from 100 to +200 feet and is a noble and stately tree. The trunk tapers rapidly and +bears a rounded pyramidal crown. In dense forests the trunk is clear for +half its height, but where the trees stand in the open it carries its +branches nearly to the ground. The leaves are a bright and shining +green. The large light-green cones mature early in the fall. The wood is +soft and very heavy before it is seasoned. It rots in a very short time +when laid on the ground. When dry it is white, coarse-grained, light, +and odorous. It is used for interior finish and for crates and packing +boxes, but is of little value commercially. + + +ENGELMANN SPRUCE (PICEA ENGELMANNI). + +The Engelmann spruce (fig. 15) is a mountain tree ranging from British +Columbia to Arizona and New Mexico. It is common along the summit and on +the east side of the Cascade Range and occurs on the northeastern and +eastern slopes of Mount Rainier at elevations of from 3,500 to 6,000 +feet. + +This tree requires a moist soil and prefers cool northern exposures. Up +to 5,000 feet it commonly grows in sheltered basins at the head of +canyons and in stream valleys. At its upper limits it is common on flats +and depressions and about lakes on level summits. It avoids steep +mountain sides and exposed situations. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Grand fir (_Abies grandis_).] + +The Engelmann spruce is easily distinguished from its associates by its +stiff, bluish-green pointed leaves, which prick the hand when they are +grasped. In the mountain parks it is a handsome tree 50 to 60 feet high. +When it stands apart from other trees the lower branches are thick and +long and extend to the ground. The crown is very broad at the base, but +narrow and spirelike at the top. The Engelmann spruce reaches its best +development at low elevations, where it often grows in dense, pure +stands. Under these conditions it reaches a height of 100 feet. The bole +is straight and free from limbs and the top is short and compact. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Engelmann spruce (_Picea engelmanni_).] + +The young cones are massed in upright green and purple clusters at the +tips of the upper branches. They are notable for the purity and +brilliance of their coloring. As they mature they become pendant and +fade to a light brown. The seed is produced in abundance nearly every +year, although small and seedling trees are not usually numerous. + +The wood is soft, white, compact, and even grained. It is free from +pitch and odor. It is valuable for boxing, cooperage, and certain kinds +of finish. It is also an excellent material for the tops of violins and +other stringed instruments. The Engelmann spruce is, however, of little +importance as a timber tree on account of its scarcity and the scattered +stands in which it grows. It is a long-lived tree unless attacked by +fire, to which it is very vulnerable. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--A group of yellow cypresses (_Chamaecyparis +nootkatensis_) on the high slopes of Mount Rainier National Park, +altitude about 6,000 feet. + +Photograph by A.H. Barnes.] + + +YELLOW CYPRESS (CHAMAECYPARIS NOOTKATENSIS). + +Yellow cypress (fig. 16) ranges from the seacoast of southern Alaska +south to the mountains of Washington and Oregon. It occurs in the park +up to the elevation of 7,000 feet. It is common on northern exposures, +along streams, and in basins at the head of canyons. It also grows on +crests and ridges, where the frequent showers and fogs supply the +moisture which it demands. In sheltered localities it grows to a height +of 75 or 80 feet, but it is commonly a small tree with, a bent and +twisted stem, which, with its pendulous branches, presents a somewhat +scrubby appearance. The foliage is green, sometimes with a bluish tinge. +It resembles that of the common western red cedar, but the leaves are +sharper, more pointed, and rougher to handle. The small, rounded, +inconspicuous cones are produced somewhat sparingly. The bark of the +young tree is red. On the mature tree it becomes gray and fibrous. The +wood is yellow, close grained, and aromatic. Unlike that of the western +red cedar, the trunk is usually sound to the center. The wood is used +for boat building and cabinetwork. It is very durable. + +The yellow cypress grows very slowly, particularly at high elevations. +The number of annual rings on trees 15 to 20 inches in diameter indicate +that they are over 200 years old. + + +LODGEPOLE PINE (PINUS CONTORTA). + +Lodgepole pine (fig. 17) is widely distributed from Alaska to Lower +California and eastward through the Rockies to Dakota and Colorado. It +occurs sparingly in the park up to 5,000 feet above sea level. It adapts +itself easily to the different conditions of soil, moisture, and +exposure. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Lodgepole pine (_Pinus contorta_), 60 inches in +diameter.] + +This tree varies greatly in the different regions where it is found. +About Mount Rainier it does not often exceed 20 to 40 feet in height +and is often a much smaller tree. It produces cones at the age of 5 to 7 +years. The foliage is a yellowish green. At high elevations the leaves +have a peculiar whorled appearance which gives it a different aspect +from that of the other pines. The short, heavily limbed trunk bears no +resemblance to the tall and slender shaft of the lodgepole pine of the +Rocky Mountains. The root system is shallow and the tree is easily fire +killed. The wood of the variety which grows in the park is of no +commercial value. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.--The feathery foliage of mountain hemlock +(_Tsuga mertensiana_), Grand Park, Mount Rainier National Park. + +Photograph by A.H. Denman.] + + +MOUNTAIN HEMLOCK (TSUGA MERTENSIANA). + +The mountain hemlock (figs. 18, 19, and 20) is found on the Pacific +coast from the Sierras of California to the northern part of Alaska +where it grows at sea level. On Mount Rainier it occurs at altitudes of +from 3,500 to 7,500 feet. It forms dense forests under 4,500 feet, where +it is often a fair-sized tree 50 to 90 feet high. With the ascent of the +mountain it diminishes in height and the branches become gnarled and +twisted. Near timber line the trunk is dwarfed and bent at the base and +the crown becomes a flattened mass of branches lying close to the ground +(fig. 20). + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Two solitary mountain hemlocks (_Tsuga +mertensiana_), Spray Park, Mount Rainier National Park. + +Photograph by Geo. O. Ceasar.] + +The mountain hemlock is abundant on high, rocky ridges, but the best +stands are on cool, moist soil at the heads of ravines, on flats, and on +gentle slopes with a northern exposure. + +This tree seeds every year. In good seed years the upper branches are +laden with a profusion of beautiful, deep-purple cones, often in such +abundance as to bend down the branchlets with their weight. The +reproduction is slow. In the high mountains the trees are buried in snow +from October to late in June, and the growing season is very short. + + +WHITE-BARK PINE (PINUS ALBICAULIS). + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.--A gnarled, wind-swept mountain hemlock (_Tsuga +mertensiana_), near the upper limits of tree growth, Spray Park, Mount +Rainier National Park. + +Photograph by A.H. Denman.] + +The white-bark pine (fig. 21) grows close to timber line in the +mountains of the Pacific coast from British Columbia to southern +California. In the Canadian Rockies it extends north to the fifty-third +parallel. It is the most alpine of all the pines. Its lower limit on +Mount Rainier is about 5,000 feet above sea level. In sheltered places +where the soil is deep the trees are sometimes 30 to 40 feet high and 20 +inches in diameter. The trunks are free from limbs for 8 or 10 feet. The +outer bark, from which the tree derives its name, consists of thin, +light-gray scales. + +As the white-bark pine advances up the mountain its habit changes +rapidly. The stem shortens and becomes gnarled and twisted. The tough, +flexible branches reach the ground and spread over it to a great +distance from the tree. On rocky summits and the bleak crests of +wind-swept ridges the twisted trunk and branches are quite prostrate and +the crown is a dense flattened mass of foliage. + +The roots of the tree are deep, long, and tenacious. They spread wide +and deep and cling so firmly to the rocks that the tree is rarely +overthrown by the violent winds that sweep over the mountain. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--A white-bark pine (_Pinus albicaulis_) in its +characteristic mountain habitat, Mount Rainier National Park. + +Photograph by A.H. Denman.] + +The thick, purple cones require two years to mature. They ripen early in +September and produce chocolate-brown seeds a little larger than a grain +of corn. They are much relished by the Klickitat Indians, who go to +considerable pains to secure them. The wood is close grained and +resinous. It makes excellent fuel for the camp fires of sheep herders +and mountain travelers. + + +WESTERN YEW (TAXUS BREVIFOLIA).[5] + +The western yew is found from southern Alaska to northern California. It +occurs in the park up to 4,000 feet, growing in rich, gravelly soil on +moist flats and benches and in deep ravines. It is a small branching +tree, rarely over 20 feet high. The bark is purple or reddish brown. The +branches extend almost to the ground. It bears a small, bright, +amber-red berry. + +The dark-brown or red heartwood is very tough, hard and heavy. It takes +a fine polish and is used for fancy cabinetwork. The Indians use it for +spear handles, bows, and fishhooks. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Broadleaf maple (_Acer macrophyllum_).] + + +DECIDUOUS TREES. + +The silva of the Western Cascades is rich in evergreens remarkable for +their size and beauty. The deciduous trees are few and insignificant. +The forests of the park are almost wholly coniferous. Vine maple and +willow are found as undergrowth. On the margins of rivers there are +occasional groves of alders and cottonwoods. The lighter hues of the +branching trunks and the changing tints of the foliage in these patches +of broad-leaved woodland present a pleasing diversity to the evergreen +forest. + +Broadleaf maple (_Acer macrophyllum_) (fig. 22), the largest of the +Pacific coast maples, ranges from Alaska to southern California. Near +sea level it often attains a height of 50 or 60 feet. In the park it is +a short-stemmed, branching tree, occasionally found on the borders of +streams. It grows at elevations under 3,000 feet. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Vine maple (_Acer circinatum_).] + +Vine maple (_Acer circinatum_) (fig. 23) is abundant from British +Columbia to northern California. On rich river bottoms it is sometimes +15 to 20 feet high and 6 inches in diameter. In the park it is usually a +bush or low shrub with a bent and curiously crooked stem, growing along +streams and as undergrowth in the forest. It is very common up to 3,000 +feet. In autumn the leaves are a bright scarlet. The wood is tough and +elastic and makes a hot and lasting fire. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Red alder (_Alnus oregona_).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Black cottonwood (_Populus trichocarpa_).] + +Red alder (_Alnus oregona_) (fig. 24) occurs from Alaska to southern +California. It is common about Mount Rainier, in river bottoms, on the +banks of large streams, and in swampy places. It usually grows to a +height of 30 or 40 feet. The bark varies from nearly white to light +gray. It is the most abundant of all the deciduous trees in the park. + +Black cottonwood (_Populus trichocarpa_) (fig. 25) is common from Alaska +to southern California. It is occasionally found in the park up to 4,000 +feet. It grows along streams and on sandy river bottoms often associated +with the alder. The leaves are almost always in motion, very gentle +winds being sufficient to make them twinkle and turn. + +The wood is soft, but tough and compact. It is used for staves, +woodenware, wood pulp, trunks, barrels, and for drawer bottoms. + + +FOOTNOTES + +[1] This species is known as arbor vitæ in Glacier Park. + +[2] This species is known as silver fir in Crater Lake Park. + +[3] This species is known as balsam in Glacier and Yellowstone Parks. + +[4] This species is known as silver fir in Yellowstone and Glacier +Parks. + +[5] This species is known as Oregon yew in Crater Lake National Park and +as yew in Yellowstone and Glacier Parks. + + + + +INDEX TO SPECIES DESCRIBED. + +[Roman numerals indicate pages containing descriptions; italic numerals +indicate pages containing illustrations.] + + + _Abies amabilis_ 15-16, _15_, _16_ + _grandis_ 20, _21_ + _lasiocarpa_ 19-20, _19_ + _nobilis_ 17-19, _17_, _18_ + + _Acer circinatum_ 30, _30_ + _macrophyllum_ 29, _29_ + + Alder, red (_Alnus oregona_) 30, _31_ + + _Alnus oregona_ 30, _31_ + + Alpine fir (_Abies lasiocarpa_) 19-20, _19_ + + Amabilis fir (_Abies amabilis_) 15-16, _15_, _16_ + + Arbor vitæ. _See_ Western red cedar. + + + Balsam. _See_ Alpine fir. + + Black cottonwood (_Populus trichocarpa_) 30-32, _31_ + + Broadleaf maple (_Acer macrophyllum_) 29, _29_ + + + Cedar, western red (_Thuja plicata_) 9-11, _10_ + + _Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_ 23-24, _23_ + + Cottonwood, black (_Populus trichocarpa_) 30-32, _31_ + + Cypress, yellow (_Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) 23-24, _23_ + + + Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_) 6-8, _7_, _8_, _9_, _10_, + _12_, _13_ + + + Engelmann spruce (_Picea engelmanni_) 20-23, _22_ + + + Fir, alpine (_Abies lasiocarpa_) 19-20, _19_ + amabilis (_Abies amabilis_) 15-16, _15_, _16_ + Douglas (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_) 6-8, _7_, _8_, _9_, _10_, + _12_, _13_ + grand (_Abies grandis_) 20, _21_ + noble (_Abies nobilis_) 17-19, _17_, _18_ + silver. _See_ Fir, amabilis; Fir, grand. + + + Grand fir (_Abies grandis_) 20, _21_ + + + Hemlock, mountain (_Tsuga mertensiana_) 25-27, _25_, _26_, _27_ + western (_Tsuga heterophylla_) 11-13, _12_, _13_, _16_ + + + Larch. _See_ Noble fir; Amabilis fir. + + Lodgepole pine (_Pinus contorta_) 24-25, _24_ + + + Maple, broadleaf (_Acer macrophyllum_) 29, _29_ + vine (_Acer circinatum_) 30, _30_ + + Mountain hemlock (_Tsuga mertensiana_) 25-27, _25_, _26_, _27_ + + + Noble fir (_Abies nobilis_) 17-19, _17_, _18_ + + + Oregon yew. _See_ Western yew. + + + _Picea engelmanni_ 20-23, _22_ + + Pine, lodgepole (_Pinus contorta_) 24-25, _24_ + western white (_Pinus monticola_) 13-15, _14_ + white-bark (_Pinus albicaulis_) 27-28, _28_ + + _Pinus albicaulis_ 27-28, _28_ + _contorta_ 24-25, _24_ + _monticola_ 13-15, _14_ + + _Populus trichocarpa_ 30-32, _31_ + + _Pseudotsuga taxifolia_ 6-8, _7_, _8_, _9_, _10_, _12_, _13_ + + + Red alder (_Alnus oregona_) 30, _31_ + cedar, western (_Thuja plicata_) 9-11, _10_ + + + Silver fir. _See_ Amabilis fir; Grand fir. + + Spruce, Engelmann (_Picea engelmanni_) 20-23, _22_ + + + _Taxus brevifolia_ 28-29 + + _Thuja plicata_ 9-11, _10_ + + _Tsuga heterophylla_ 11-13, _12_, _13_, _16_ + _mertensiana_ 25-27, _25_, _26_, _27_ + + + Vine maple (_Acer circinatum_) 30, _30_ + + + Western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_) 11-13, _12_, _13_, _16_ + red cedar (_Thuja plicata_) 9-11, _10_ + white pine (_Pinus monticola_) 13-15, _14_ + yew (_Taxus brevifolia_) 28-29 + + White-bark pine (_Pinus albicaulis_) 27-28, _28_ + + White pine, western (_Pinus monticola_) 13-15, _14_ + + + Yellow cypress (_Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) 23-24, _23_ + + Yew, Oregon. _See_ Yew, western. + western (_Taxus brevifolia_) 28-29 + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Forests of Mount Rainier National +Park, by Grenville F. 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