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The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Forests of Mount Rainier National Park, by
Grenville F. Allen

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Title: The Forests of Mount Rainier National Park

Author: Grenville F. Allen

Release Date: April 15, 2010 [EBook #31994]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ASCII

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 FORESTS OF MOUNT RAINIER
 NATIONAL PARK

 [Illustration]

 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
 OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY
 1916

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. Price, 20 cents.




PUBLICATIONS ON MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK SOLD BY THE SUPERINTENDENT
OF DOCUMENTS.


Remittances for these publications should be by money order, payable to
the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C., or in cash. Checks and postage stamps can not be accepted.

Features of the Flora of Mount Rainier National Park, by J.B. Flett.
1916. 48 pages, including 40 illustrations. 25 cents.

     Contains descriptions of the flowering trees and shrubs in the
     park.

Mount Rainier and Its Glaciers, by F.E. Matthes. 1914. 48 pages,
including 26 illustrations. 15 cents.

     Contains a general account of the glaciers of Mount Rainier and of
     the development of the valleys and basins surrounding the peak.

Panoramic view of Mount Rainier National Park, 20 by 19 inches, scale 1
mile to the inch. 25 cents.




THE FORESTS OF MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK.

By G.F. ALLEN, _United States Forest Service_.




GENERAL STATEMENT.


The remarkable development of the forests about the base of Mount
Rainier results from climatic conditions peculiarly favorable to tree
growth. The winters are mild and short. The ocean winds that pass
through the gaps of the Coast Range are laden with moisture which falls
in the form of rain or snow on the west slope of the Cascades. The trees
are nourished by this moisture through a long season of annual growth,
and form an evergreen forest which is, in some respects, the most
remarkable in the world. This forest, distinguished by the extraordinary
size and beauty of the trees and by the density of the stand, extends
into the deep valleys of the rivers which have their sources in the
glaciers. On the dividing ridges and in the upper stream basins the
composition and character of the forest change with the increasing
severity of the climate.

The distribution of the different species of trees according to the
intervals of altitude at which they occur separate the forests of the
Mount Rainier National Park into different types. The lines of
separation are to some extent also determined by complex conditions of
slope, exposure, and moisture. The successive forest belts are uniform
in the composition of their central areas, but blend and overlap where
they come together.

The low valleys of the main and west forks of White River, of the
Carbon, the Mowich, the Nisqually, and the Ohanopecosh are covered with
a dense and somber forest of fir, hemlock, and cedar. The trees, pushing
upward for light, are very tall and free from limbs for more than half
their height. Their tops form a continuous cover which the sunshine
rarely penetrates, and on which the light snows of early winter fall and
melt, without reaching the ground. Even in midsummer the light is soft
and shaded, and the air cool and humid. In the wintertime the young
growth is sheltered from wind and the severity of the cold is tempered
by the protecting mountain ranges. Saved from fire by the uniform
dampness of the air the trees grow until they decay and fall from old
age. They are succeeded by the suppressed younger trees. The forest
remains mature, not uniformly sound and vigorous, yet not decreasing as
a whole in size and volume. Individuals perish, but the character of the
forest is constant. The deep alluvial soil covered with moss and decayed
vegetation nourishes a luxuriant tangled undergrowth of vine maple,
willow, and devil's-club. The forest floor is covered with a deep layer
of decayed vegetation and is encumbered with fallen and mossy logs and
upturned stumps. The explorer who leaves the trails must be a strong and
active man if he can carry his pack 6 or 8 miles in a long summer day.

Ascending from the river bottoms to the lower slopes of the dividing
ridges the forest becomes more open and the trees are smaller. Salal,
Oregon grape, and huckleberry bushes take the place of the taller
undergrowth of the valleys. Up to 3,000 feet the Douglas fir and the
hemlock still are the dominant species. Above this altitude new species
are found intermingled with the trees typical of the lowland, but
forming a distinct forest type. The noble and amabilis fir appear,
sometimes growing in pure stands, but more often associated with the
Douglas fir and western hemlock at the lower limits of the type, and
with alpine fir and mountain hemlock at the upper limit.

Nearly all the trees of this type have deep and wide-spreading roots
which serve to hold in place the surface deposit of volcanic pumice
which covers the slopes of the mountain. Evidence afforded by the after
effects of forest fires in other parts of the Cascades indicates that
the destruction of the forest on the mountain sides is followed by
erosion. Heavy rains and the melting of the upper snow banks by warm
Chinook winds combine to produce a surface run-off that denudes the
steeper declivities down to the underlying bedrock.

At elevations above 4,500 feet the lowland trees have disappeared
entirely. Subalpine species adapted to withstand the burden of deep snow
take their place. Mountain hemlock, alpine fir, and Engelmann spruce
grow singly and in scattered groups or form open groves alternating with
grassy parks and rocky ridges. The symmetrical outline of the slender
pyramidal crowns and rapidly tapering trunks of the spruce and alpine
fir trees that stand singly on the greensward of the open parks bring to
mind the closely trimmed cultivated evergreens that adorn city parks and
lawns. Their lower branches reach the ground and the tops terminate in
slender upright spires.

As timber line is approached tree growth is confined to dwarfed and
flattened mountain hemlocks, alpine firs, and the white-bark pines
firmly rooted among the crevices of the rocks.

The extreme limit of tree growth on Mount Rainier is 7,600 feet above
sea level. There is no well-defined timber line. Scattered clumps of low
stunted trees occur up to 7,000 feet. A few very small and flattened
mountain hemlocks grow above this elevation. A very large part of the
area above 4,500 feet consists of glaciers, talus slopes, barren rocky
peaks, and open parks. Basins at the heads of canyons in the high
mountains are usually treeless, on account of the great depth of snow
which accumulates in them during the winter. On the steep, smooth upper
inclines the snow banks frequently slip and form slides which acquire
momentum as they rush down the mountain side and break and carry away
large trees. Repeated snowslides in the same place keep the slopes
nonforested, and their track is marked by light green strips of brush
and herbage.

The transition of the forest from its lowland to its extreme alpine type
is one of the most interesting features of a visit to the mountain.
Entering the park at the western boundary close to the Nisqually River
the road skirts the base of the lightly timbered spurs and passes into a
forest of large and old Douglas fir and western hemlock. Red cedars grow
along the streams that cross the road. Little yew trees and vine maples
mingle with the young conifers that form the undergrowth; the gloom of
the forest is occasionally relieved by the white bark of alders and the
smooth gray stems of the cottonwoods that grow on the sandy bank of the
Nisqually. After the road crosses the Rainier Fork, noble fir and
amabilis fir appear, but the Douglas fir and western hemlock are still
the prevailing species.

Above Longmire Springs the noble and amabilis fir, mixed with western
hemlock, become the dominant type. The trees are shorter and the
branches heavier. Mountain ash and yellow cypress grow on the margin of
the mountain streams. Huckleberry bushes take the place of the taller
undergrowth of the valley.

Above Narada Falls the forest is more open, and the trees are still
smaller. Mountain hemlock and alpine fir succeed the trees of the lower
slope. Little glades and mountain meadows are seen. They become larger
and more numerous and the traveler soon enters the open park of Paradise
Valley, in which are but scattered groves of trees. The same successive
altitudinal types are met in ascending to Moraine and Grand Parks by way
of the Carbon Valley, and in following the Mowich watershed, Crater
Lake, and Spray Park routes.

Approaching the park from the east the routes pass through open western
yellow pine forests and western larch stands. Since Mount Rainier is
west of and apart from the summit line, these species which are peculiar
to the eastern slope are not found within the limits of the park.




EFFECTS OF FIRE.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Whitened spectral monuments of a former forest
which was swept by a severe forest fire in 1885. Taken along the road to
Camp of the Clouds at an altitude of 5,500 feet.

Photograph by A.H. Barnes.]


Notwithstanding the shortness of the summer season at high altitudes,
the subalpine forests in some parts of the park have suffered severely
from fire (fig. 1). The bare white trunks of fire-killed amabilis and
alpine firs bear witness to numerous fires which occurred from time to
time before the regulations governing the park went into effect. The
little resin pockets in the bark of these trees blaze fiercely for a
short time and the heat separates the bark from the trunk. In this way
the tree is killed, although the naked trunk is left untouched by fire.
The destruction of the alpine forest in this way is often erroneously
attributed to disease or to the depredations of insects.

There has been little apparent change in the alpine burns within the
last 30 years. Reforestation at high altitudes is extremely slow. The
seed production is rather scanty and the ground conditions are not
favorable for its reproduction. It will take more than one century for
nature to replace the beautiful groves which have been destroyed by the
carelessness of the first visitors to the mountain.

At low elevations the forest recovers more rapidly from the effects of
fire. Between the subalpine areas and the river valleys there are
several large ancient burns which are partly reforested. The most
extensive of these tracts is the Muddy Fork burn. It is crossed by the
Stevens Canyon Trail from Reflection Lakes through the Ohanopecosh Hot
Springs. This burn includes an area of 20 square miles in the park and
extends north nearly to the glaciers and south for several miles beyond
the park boundary nearly to the main Cowlitz River. The open sunlit
spaces and wide outlooks afforded by reforested tracts of this character
present a strong contrast to the deep shades and dim vistas of the
primitive forest. On the whole they have a cheerful and pleasing
appearance, very different from the sad, desolate aspect of the alpine
burns which less kindly conditions of climate and exposure have kept
from reforestation.

The original forest was fire killed many years before the coming of the
white man. A few naked and weather beaten stubs are still standing. Only
the larger of the fallen trunks remain, and these are rotten except for
a few seasoned and weatherworn shells. The second growth is of all ages,
from seedlings to trees 12 to 14 inches in diameter. Vine maple, willow,
and mountain ash have sprung up along the streams and the hillsides are
covered with huckleberry bushes and a variety of grasses and flowering
plants.

Similar old burns are found on the ridge between Huckleberry Creek and
White River, in the northeastern part of the park, and on the ridge
between Tahoma Creek and Kautz Creek below Henrys Hunting Ground.

The old burns in the middle altitudes of the park occupy regions once
frequented by the Klickitat Indians. Every summer parties of hunters and
berry pickers from the sagebrush plains crossed the Cascades with their
horses. They followed the high divides and open summits of the secondary
ridges until they came around to the open parks about Mount Rainier
where they turned their horses out to graze and made their summer camp.
The woman picked huckleberries and the men hunted deer and goats. They
made great fires to dry their berries and kindled smudges to protect
their horses from flies. It was also their custom to systematically set
out fires as they returned. Burning made the country better for the
Indians. The fires kept down the brush and made it more accessible. Deer
could be more easily seen and tracked and the huckleberry patches spread
more widely over the hills.

No considerable part of the lower forests of the park has been burned.
The principal danger is from lightning. However, few of the trees struck
are ignited and these fires are usually extinguished by the rain. On
account of the coolness of the air and its greater humidity the fire
danger in the forests on the lower slopes of Mount Rainier seems much
less than it is in corresponding situations in the main range of the
Cascades.




AGE AND DIMENSIONS OF TREES.


Trees grow more rapidly at low altitudes than at higher and cooler
elevations. Under similar conditions some species increase in size
faster than others, but the rate of growth depends principally upon
environment. The average increase at the stump in valley land is about 1
inch in 6 years. A Douglas fir growing along the stage road between the
park boundary and Longmire's, at the age of 90 to 120 years may have a
breast diameter of 20 inches and yield 700 feet of saw timber. But many
of the trees of this size may be much older on account of having grown
in the shade or under other adverse conditions. The trees between 200
and 300 years of age are often 40 to 50 inches in diameter and may yield
an average of from 2,700 to 5,500 board feet. The largest Douglas firs
are sometimes over 400 years old and 60 to 70 inches in diameter. Such
trees when sound will produce over 8,000 feet of lumber.

The western red cedar has a shorter and more tapering trunk and its
volume in board feet is proportionally smaller. A tree 50 inches in
diameter and 175 feet high contains about 3,400 board feet.

The size of the trees decreases rapidly at higher elevations. In the
subalpine forest the annual growth is very small. At elevations of 6,000
feet the white-bark pine requires 200 years to attain a diameter of 10
or 12 inches. The annual rings are so close together that they can not
be distinguished without a magnifying glass.




DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIES.


DOUGLAS FIR (PSEUDOTSUGA TAXIFOLIA).

The Douglas fir (figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5) is the best known and the most
important timber tree of western North America. It is found from
British Columbia southward to northern Mexico. The finest forests occur
in Oregon and Washington at low elevations. The Douglas fir is common in
the park up to 3,500 feet, sometimes in nearly pure stands, but more
often mixed with other species. It grows in all situations. In the
higher mountains it prefers warm southern exposures and is seldom found
on wind-swept ridges. It seeds annually, but most profusely at intervals
three or four years apart. The red squirrels gather and store large
quantities of the cones in order to provide a supply of the seeds for
their winter rations. The growth of the young tree is very rapid. As the
tree becomes older the rate of growth varies with the situation and the
character of the soil so that the size does not closely determine the
age of the tree.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_).]

The Douglas fir is a long-lived tree, and specimens are occasionally
found 250 to 270 feet high and over 8 feet in diameter and between 400
and 500 years in age. It reaches its greatest height and most perfect
proportions in mature even-age stands growing on fairly moist
well-drained bench lands. Under these conditions it is a very tall and
beautiful tree. The trunk is straight, round, and free from branches for
two-thirds of its height and tapers gently to the crown. The dark-brown
deep-furrowed bark is 5 to 10 inches thick at the base of the tree.

The Douglas fir ranks first among the trees of the Pacific slope in
importance for the production of lumber. It is often sold under the name
of Oregon pine. Lumber dealers class the coarse-grained reddish wood
produced by the young growth in open forests as "red fir." The older
growth produced when the forest is more dense is a finer grained and
more valuable wood, sold under the name of "yellow fir."

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_).]

The Douglas fir is used for nearly all purposes where durability,
strength, and hardness are desirable. It is made into dimension timbers,
lumber, flooring, and is particularly adapted for masts and spars. The
lumber is shipped by rail to the Middle Western States. The foreign
cargo shipments are made to all parts of the world. The greatest amount
goes to Australia, the west and east coasts of South America, China, the
United Kingdom, and Europe, Japan, and the South Sea Islands. Coastwise
shipments are made to California, Alaska, and Panama. Large quantities
of the seed of this tree are sent to Europe, where the Douglas fir is
grown for timber and for ornament.


WESTERN RED CEDAR (THUJA PLICATA.)[1]

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_).]

The western red cedar (title page and fig. 5) ranges from south-eastern
Alaska to northern California. It is a common tree in the park. It
occurs in patches along the river bottoms where the flat scalelike
foliage is conspicuous among the needle-shaped leaves of the hemlock and
fir. The bark is fibrous in appearance and may be readily separated into
long strips. The trunks of the older trees are swelled and irregularly
fluted at the base. The leaves are fragrant and the wood has a pleasing
aromatic odor. Nearly all the large trees are hollow at the butt. The
roots spread laterally to a great distance, but extend only for a short
distance below the surface of the ground. The tree is easily overthrown
by the wind and usually grows in sheltered localities. On account of the
thinness of the bark it is easily killed by fire.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Two big Douglas firs and a western red cedar (on
the left) along the road up the Nisqually Valley, Mount Rainier National
Park.

Photograph by A.H. Denman.]

The red cedar flourishes on fertile and well-watered soils near sea
level, where it grows to an enormous size. In the park it is a smaller
tree, 150 to 170 feet high and rarely more than 4 or 5 feet through
above the swollen butt. It grows occasionally up to an altitude of 4,000
feet, but is a small and insignificant tree in the high mountains.

In the sapling stage the red cedar grows rapidly. The mature tree
increases very slowly in size. It exceeds all other trees in the
Cascades in longevity. Individuals more than 500 years old are not
uncommon and there is a well-authenticated instance where the annual
rings indicated a growth of more than 1,100 years.

While the red cedar forms no great proportion of the forest of the
Pacific Northwest, it is peculiarly valuable to the pioneer on account
of the durability of the wood and the ease with which it can be split
into boards, shakes, and planking. The early settlers used cedar split
by hand as a substitute for sawn lumber in flooring and finishing their
cabins and for the tables and shelves with which they were furnished.
The Indians hollowed the great trunks with fire and made them into
canoes, some of which were large and seaworthy enough to be used on the
Sound and in making voyages along the coast. They wove the fibrous roots
into baskets that carried water and plaited the bark into matting. The
wood of the red cedar is reddish brown in color. It is soft, light, and
very brittle, but very durable. It is extensively used for shingles, the
manufacture of which forms one of the important industries of the State.
The clear logs are sawed into lumber used for siding, interior and
exterior finish, moldings, tank stock, and similar purposes. Common logs
are utilized for shingles. In many localities the entire tree is cut
into 52-inch bolts, which are hauled to the mills or floated to them
down the streams.

The western red cedar makes excellent posts and rails for farm fences.
The young trees are used for telegraph and telephone poles.


WESTERN HEMLOCK (TSUGA HETEROPHYLLA).

Next to the Douglas fir the western hemlock is the most abundant tree in
the forests of Oregon and Washington. It occurs from Alaska southward to
northern California. About Mount Rainier it is found up to an altitude
of 5,000 feet. In the river valleys in moist situations it is a large
tree, sometimes reaching a height of 250 feet and a diameter of 5 feet.
On the high ridges it is stunted. It grows best on moist deep soils in
dense forests, but thrives under almost all conditions of soil and
exposure if provided with plenty of moisture.

Western hemlock (figs. 6 and 7) is usually associated with Douglas fir
and red cedar, but sometimes forms a forest of nearly pure growth. The
hemlock produces abundant seed each year, although it is more prolific
at irregular intervals. The seeds germinate readily on decayed moss and
rotten wood as well as upon the mineral soil. Seedlings frequently grow
on fallen logs and extend their vigorous roots around the side until
they reach the ground and become firmly anchored in it. Young hemlocks
thrive in the shade. On logged-off areas which have not been burned over
and which are partially shaded by uncut trees, the reproduction of
hemlock springs up, to the exclusion of the more valuable Douglas fir.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The lower slope forest, near Longmire Springs,
altitude 3,000 feet, here composed largely of western hemlock (_Tsuga
heterophylla_); the tree on the extreme left is a Douglas fir
(_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_).

Photograph by A.H. Barnes.]

The hemlock is long lived and grows slowly. The largest trees are from
200 to 500 years old and are usually hollow-hearted. The bark is thin
and the tree very easily killed by ground fire. The wood of the hemlock
is tough, light, and straight grained. It is not as durable as the
Douglas fir and decays rapidly when exposed to the weather. The clear
lumber is suitable for interior finish. The wood is also used for
flooring, joists, lath, and paper pulp. The common and rough lumber does
not find a ready market, except for the limited amount used in temporary
construction. The western hemlock is, however, superior to the eastern
hemlock, and its value will probably be recognized as its usefulness for
many purposes becomes better known.


WESTERN WHITE PINE (PINUS MONTICOLA).

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--A forest of Douglas fir, with an understory of
western hemlock, on the lower slopes of the hills, Mount Rainier
National Park.

Photograph by A.H. Denman.]

The western white pine (fig. 8) is found from southern Alaska to
northern California. In the park it occurs occasionally up to 4,000
feet. It usually grows on level benches and gentle slopes associated
with Douglas fir, western hemlock, and noble and amabilis fir. It
reaches its best development at elevations of from 3,000 to 3,500 feet,
where it attains a height of 150 feet and a diameter of 40 inches. The
shaft is straight, cylindrical, and clear of limbs. It bears a small,
narrow crown of drooping branches. In open areas, where it is exposed to
sunlight, its mode of growth is wholly different. The trunk is short,
rapidly tapering, and bears wide-spreading branches nearly to the
ground. At high elevations the western white pine is very short and
stunted.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Western white pine (_Pinus monticola_).

Diameter 24 inches, height 50 feet.]

Although the western white pine is not a common tree in the park, it is
often noticed on account of its abundance of slender, pendant cones, 6
to 10 inches long. They mature every two years and shed their seed early
in September. The seed are provided with long wings and are often
carried by the wind for a great distance from the parent tree.

The wood is light, soft, free from pitch, and the most valuable of any
of the pines of the Cascades. It is used for interior finish, pattern
making, and other purposes. The supply of this tree is so limited that
it is not of great commercial importance in the Mount Rainier region.


AMABILIS FIR (ABIES AMABILIS).[2]

Amabilis fir (figs. 9 and 10) ranges from southern Alaska to Oregon. It
is abundant in the park at elevations from 2,500 to 5,000 feet on level
bench lands, and gentle slopes with a northern exposure. It is rarely
found in unmixed stands, but is usually associated with western hemlock,
Douglas fir, and noble fir. The largest trees are 150 to 180 feet high
and 3 to 5 feet in diameter. In dense forests the stem is free from
branches for 50 to 100 feet.

[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Amabilis fir (_Abies amabilis_).]

At altitudes over 4,000 feet, small amabilis firs often occur in
clusters and open groves. The trunk is covered with branches which grow
to the ground, turning downward and outward in long graceful curves,
admirably adapted to withstand the pressure of the frozen snow. The
foliage is a deep and brilliant green, forming a strong contrast to the
dark-purple cones. The seeds ripen each year early in October. Like the
seed of the other alpine species of trees that grow in the cold and
humid climate of the high Cascades, they soon lose their vitality when
stored in dry places. The amabilis fir is grown in Europe as an
ornamental tree. Under cultivation it loses much of the natural grace
and beauty which it acquired in adapting itself to the deep snows and
long winters of its native environment.

[Illustration: FIG. 10.--The forests of western hemlock, amabilis fir,
and other species, on the middle slopes of the mountains, along the
Crater Lake trail, Mount Rainier National Park.

Photograph by Geo. O. Ceasar.]

The bark is thin and the tree is easily killed by fire. The wood is
straw colored, compact, and straight grained. It is not strong and
splits easily. It is sold to some extent under the name of larch or
mixed with inferior grades of fir and hemlock. The lumber is of little
value commercially.


NOBLE FIR (ABIES NOBILIS).

The noble fir (figs. 11 and 12) is a common mountain tree in the western
parts of Washington and Oregon. Like amabilis fir, it is usually called
larch by lumbermen. About Mount Rainier it grows at elevations of from
3,500 to 5,000 feet in dense stands associated with amabilis fir,
western hemlock, and Douglas fir. The noble fir avoids steep side hills
and exposed situations. In moist soils on flats and gentle slopes it
often reaches a height of from 150 to 200 feet. The tall and upright
trunk supports a rounded crown of bluish green foliage, which is very
noticeable among the purer green leaves of its associates. The branches
are short, thick, and crowded with stiff, flattened leaves, which turn
upward and outward. The light-green bract-covered cones are sometimes 6
inches long and nearly 3 inches thick. They ripen early in September.
Seed is borne every year, although in some seasons it is much more
abundant than in others.

[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Noble fir (_Abies nobilis_).]

[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Noble fir (_Abies nobilis_), 6 feet in
diameter.]

The wood is strong, close grained, and elastic. It is used for lumber
and particularly for inside finishing. The noble fir is a slow-growing
and long-lived tree. Old trees in mixed forests are easily distinguished
from the associated species by the ashy-brown outer bark broken into
large irregular plates.


ALPINE FIR (ABIES LASIOCARPA).[3]

[Illustration: FIG. 13.--A cluster of Alpine firs (_Abies lasiocarpa_),
whose spire-shaped crowns are characteristic, at 5,500 feet altitude, in
Cowlitz Park, Mount Rainier National Park.

Photograph by A.H. Barnes.]

The alpine fir (fig. 13) ranges from Alaska to New Mexico. It is a
common tree in the park at elevations above 4,500 feet. It is a tree of
the high mountains and with the white bark pine and the mountain
hemlock, is found up to the limit of arborescent life. It demands
moisture and is generally restricted to regions of deep snowfall.

The alpine fir occurs in unmixed stands, but is often associated with
the mountain hemlock. At the lower levels of its range it is a
fair-sized tree 50 or 60 feet high. The crown of deep-green foliage is
broad at the base and tapers to the top, where it terminates in a
slender, pointed tip. At its upper limit it becomes a stunted shrub,
with wide extended branches resting on the ground.

The alpine fir bears upright clusters of deep-purple cones. It seeds
sparingly each year. The seasons of heavy seed production occur at
intervals of three or four years. The wood is soft and splits easily. It
is of no commercial value. The tree is easily killed by fire, which
blisters the thin bark and frequently springs into the drooping lower
branches.


GRAND FIR (ABIES GRANDIS.)[4]

The grand fir (fig. 14), like several other species, is generally given
the name of white fir on account of its smooth, light-colored bark. It
is a common tree in the river bottoms from British Columbia south to
northern California. In the Mount Rainier National Park it occurs up to
4,000 feet. The grand fir is a moisture-loving tree and is usually found
firmly rooted in deep alluvial bottom lands along the banks of streams.
With the Douglas fir, hemlock, and red cedar it forms the dense forest
characteristic of the lower mountain valleys.

In favorable conditions the grand fir grows to a height of from 100 to
200 feet and is a noble and stately tree. The trunk tapers rapidly and
bears a rounded pyramidal crown. In dense forests the trunk is clear for
half its height, but where the trees stand in the open it carries its
branches nearly to the ground. The leaves are a bright and shining
green. The large light-green cones mature early in the fall. The wood is
soft and very heavy before it is seasoned. It rots in a very short time
when laid on the ground. When dry it is white, coarse-grained, light,
and odorous. It is used for interior finish and for crates and packing
boxes, but is of little value commercially.


ENGELMANN SPRUCE (PICEA ENGELMANNI).

The Engelmann spruce (fig. 15) is a mountain tree ranging from British
Columbia to Arizona and New Mexico. It is common along the summit and on
the east side of the Cascade Range and occurs on the northeastern and
eastern slopes of Mount Rainier at elevations of from 3,500 to 6,000
feet.

This tree requires a moist soil and prefers cool northern exposures. Up
to 5,000 feet it commonly grows in sheltered basins at the head of
canyons and in stream valleys. At its upper limits it is common on flats
and depressions and about lakes on level summits. It avoids steep
mountain sides and exposed situations.

[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Grand fir (_Abies grandis_).]

The Engelmann spruce is easily distinguished from its associates by its
stiff, bluish-green pointed leaves, which prick the hand when they are
grasped. In the mountain parks it is a handsome tree 50 to 60 feet high.
When it stands apart from other trees the lower branches are thick and
long and extend to the ground. The crown is very broad at the base, but
narrow and spirelike at the top. The Engelmann spruce reaches its best
development at low elevations, where it often grows in dense, pure
stands. Under these conditions it reaches a height of 100 feet. The bole
is straight and free from limbs and the top is short and compact.

[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Engelmann spruce (_Picea engelmanni_).]

The young cones are massed in upright green and purple clusters at the
tips of the upper branches. They are notable for the purity and
brilliance of their coloring. As they mature they become pendant and
fade to a light brown. The seed is produced in abundance nearly every
year, although small and seedling trees are not usually numerous.

The wood is soft, white, compact, and even grained. It is free from
pitch and odor. It is valuable for boxing, cooperage, and certain kinds
of finish. It is also an excellent material for the tops of violins and
other stringed instruments. The Engelmann spruce is, however, of little
importance as a timber tree on account of its scarcity and the scattered
stands in which it grows. It is a long-lived tree unless attacked by
fire, to which it is very vulnerable.

[Illustration: FIG. 16.--A group of yellow cypresses (_Chamaecyparis
nootkatensis_) on the high slopes of Mount Rainier National Park,
altitude about 6,000 feet.

Photograph by A.H. Barnes.]


YELLOW CYPRESS (CHAMAECYPARIS NOOTKATENSIS).

Yellow cypress (fig. 16) ranges from the seacoast of southern Alaska
south to the mountains of Washington and Oregon. It occurs in the park
up to the elevation of 7,000 feet. It is common on northern exposures,
along streams, and in basins at the head of canyons. It also grows on
crests and ridges, where the frequent showers and fogs supply the
moisture which it demands. In sheltered localities it grows to a height
of 75 or 80 feet, but it is commonly a small tree with, a bent and
twisted stem, which, with its pendulous branches, presents a somewhat
scrubby appearance. The foliage is green, sometimes with a bluish tinge.
It resembles that of the common western red cedar, but the leaves are
sharper, more pointed, and rougher to handle. The small, rounded,
inconspicuous cones are produced somewhat sparingly. The bark of the
young tree is red. On the mature tree it becomes gray and fibrous. The
wood is yellow, close grained, and aromatic. Unlike that of the western
red cedar, the trunk is usually sound to the center. The wood is used
for boat building and cabinetwork. It is very durable.

The yellow cypress grows very slowly, particularly at high elevations.
The number of annual rings on trees 15 to 20 inches in diameter indicate
that they are over 200 years old.


LODGEPOLE PINE (PINUS CONTORTA).

Lodgepole pine (fig. 17) is widely distributed from Alaska to Lower
California and eastward through the Rockies to Dakota and Colorado. It
occurs sparingly in the park up to 5,000 feet above sea level. It adapts
itself easily to the different conditions of soil, moisture, and
exposure.

[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Lodgepole pine (_Pinus contorta_), 60 inches in
diameter.]

This tree varies greatly in the different regions where it is found.
About Mount Rainier it does not often exceed 20 to 40 feet in height
and is often a much smaller tree. It produces cones at the age of 5 to 7
years. The foliage is a yellowish green. At high elevations the leaves
have a peculiar whorled appearance which gives it a different aspect
from that of the other pines. The short, heavily limbed trunk bears no
resemblance to the tall and slender shaft of the lodgepole pine of the
Rocky Mountains. The root system is shallow and the tree is easily fire
killed. The wood of the variety which grows in the park is of no
commercial value.

[Illustration: FIG. 18.--The feathery foliage of mountain hemlock
(_Tsuga mertensiana_), Grand Park, Mount Rainier National Park.

Photograph by A.H. Denman.]


MOUNTAIN HEMLOCK (TSUGA MERTENSIANA).

The mountain hemlock (figs. 18, 19, and 20) is found on the Pacific
coast from the Sierras of California to the northern part of Alaska
where it grows at sea level. On Mount Rainier it occurs at altitudes of
from 3,500 to 7,500 feet. It forms dense forests under 4,500 feet, where
it is often a fair-sized tree 50 to 90 feet high. With the ascent of the
mountain it diminishes in height and the branches become gnarled and
twisted. Near timber line the trunk is dwarfed and bent at the base and
the crown becomes a flattened mass of branches lying close to the ground
(fig. 20).

[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Two solitary mountain hemlocks (_Tsuga
mertensiana_), Spray Park, Mount Rainier National Park.

Photograph by Geo. O. Ceasar.]

The mountain hemlock is abundant on high, rocky ridges, but the best
stands are on cool, moist soil at the heads of ravines, on flats, and on
gentle slopes with a northern exposure.

This tree seeds every year. In good seed years the upper branches are
laden with a profusion of beautiful, deep-purple cones, often in such
abundance as to bend down the branchlets with their weight. The
reproduction is slow. In the high mountains the trees are buried in snow
from October to late in June, and the growing season is very short.


WHITE-BARK PINE (PINUS ALBICAULIS).

[Illustration: FIG. 20.--A gnarled, wind-swept mountain hemlock (_Tsuga
mertensiana_), near the upper limits of tree growth, Spray Park, Mount
Rainier National Park.

Photograph by A.H. Denman.]

The white-bark pine (fig. 21) grows close to timber line in the
mountains of the Pacific coast from British Columbia to southern
California. In the Canadian Rockies it extends north to the fifty-third
parallel. It is the most alpine of all the pines. Its lower limit on
Mount Rainier is about 5,000 feet above sea level. In sheltered places
where the soil is deep the trees are sometimes 30 to 40 feet high and 20
inches in diameter. The trunks are free from limbs for 8 or 10 feet. The
outer bark, from which the tree derives its name, consists of thin,
light-gray scales.

As the white-bark pine advances up the mountain its habit changes
rapidly. The stem shortens and becomes gnarled and twisted. The tough,
flexible branches reach the ground and spread over it to a great
distance from the tree. On rocky summits and the bleak crests of
wind-swept ridges the twisted trunk and branches are quite prostrate and
the crown is a dense flattened mass of foliage.

The roots of the tree are deep, long, and tenacious. They spread wide
and deep and cling so firmly to the rocks that the tree is rarely
overthrown by the violent winds that sweep over the mountain.

[Illustration: FIG. 21.--A white-bark pine (_Pinus albicaulis_) in its
characteristic mountain habitat, Mount Rainier National Park.

Photograph by A.H. Denman.]

The thick, purple cones require two years to mature. They ripen early in
September and produce chocolate-brown seeds a little larger than a grain
of corn. They are much relished by the Klickitat Indians, who go to
considerable pains to secure them. The wood is close grained and
resinous. It makes excellent fuel for the camp fires of sheep herders
and mountain travelers.


WESTERN YEW (TAXUS BREVIFOLIA).[5]

The western yew is found from southern Alaska to northern California. It
occurs in the park up to 4,000 feet, growing in rich, gravelly soil on
moist flats and benches and in deep ravines. It is a small branching
tree, rarely over 20 feet high. The bark is purple or reddish brown. The
branches extend almost to the ground. It bears a small, bright,
amber-red berry.

The dark-brown or red heartwood is very tough, hard and heavy. It takes
a fine polish and is used for fancy cabinetwork. The Indians use it for
spear handles, bows, and fishhooks.

[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Broadleaf maple (_Acer macrophyllum_).]


DECIDUOUS TREES.

The silva of the Western Cascades is rich in evergreens remarkable for
their size and beauty. The deciduous trees are few and insignificant.
The forests of the park are almost wholly coniferous. Vine maple and
willow are found as undergrowth. On the margins of rivers there are
occasional groves of alders and cottonwoods. The lighter hues of the
branching trunks and the changing tints of the foliage in these patches
of broad-leaved woodland present a pleasing diversity to the evergreen
forest.

Broadleaf maple (_Acer macrophyllum_) (fig. 22), the largest of the
Pacific coast maples, ranges from Alaska to southern California. Near
sea level it often attains a height of 50 or 60 feet. In the park it is
a short-stemmed, branching tree, occasionally found on the borders of
streams. It grows at elevations under 3,000 feet.

[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Vine maple (_Acer circinatum_).]

Vine maple (_Acer circinatum_) (fig. 23) is abundant from British
Columbia to northern California. On rich river bottoms it is sometimes
15 to 20 feet high and 6 inches in diameter. In the park it is usually a
bush or low shrub with a bent and curiously crooked stem, growing along
streams and as undergrowth in the forest. It is very common up to 3,000
feet. In autumn the leaves are a bright scarlet. The wood is tough and
elastic and makes a hot and lasting fire.

[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Red alder (_Alnus oregona_).]

[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Black cottonwood (_Populus trichocarpa_).]

Red alder (_Alnus oregona_) (fig. 24) occurs from Alaska to southern
California. It is common about Mount Rainier, in river bottoms, on the
banks of large streams, and in swampy places. It usually grows to a
height of 30 or 40 feet. The bark varies from nearly white to light
gray. It is the most abundant of all the deciduous trees in the park.

Black cottonwood (_Populus trichocarpa_) (fig. 25) is common from Alaska
to southern California. It is occasionally found in the park up to 4,000
feet. It grows along streams and on sandy river bottoms often associated
with the alder. The leaves are almost always in motion, very gentle
winds being sufficient to make them twinkle and turn.

The wood is soft, but tough and compact. It is used for staves,
woodenware, wood pulp, trunks, barrels, and for drawer bottoms.


FOOTNOTES

[1] This species is known as arbor vitae in Glacier Park.

[2] This species is known as silver fir in Crater Lake Park.

[3] This species is known as balsam in Glacier and Yellowstone Parks.

[4] This species is known as silver fir in Yellowstone and Glacier
Parks.

[5] This species is known as Oregon yew in Crater Lake National Park and
as yew in Yellowstone and Glacier Parks.




INDEX TO SPECIES DESCRIBED.

[Roman numerals indicate pages containing descriptions; italic numerals
indicate pages containing illustrations.]


 _Abies amabilis_ 15-16, _15_, _16_
   _grandis_     20, _21_
   _lasiocarpa_     19-20, _19_
   _nobilis_   17-19, _17_, _18_

 _Acer circinatum_    30, _30_
   _macrophyllum_ 29, _29_

 Alder, red (_Alnus oregona_) 30, _31_

 _Alnus oregona_ 30, _31_

 Alpine fir (_Abies lasiocarpa_) 19-20, _19_

 Amabilis fir (_Abies amabilis_) 15-16, _15_, _16_

 Arbor vitae. _See_ Western red cedar.


 Balsam. _See_ Alpine fir.

 Black cottonwood (_Populus trichocarpa_) 30-32, _31_

 Broadleaf maple (_Acer macrophyllum_) 29, _29_


 Cedar, western red (_Thuja plicata_) 9-11, _10_

 _Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_ 23-24, _23_

 Cottonwood, black (_Populus trichocarpa_) 30-32, _31_

 Cypress, yellow (_Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) 23-24, _23_


 Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_) 6-8, _7_, _8_, _9_, _10_,
   _12_, _13_


 Engelmann spruce (_Picea engelmanni_) 20-23, _22_


 Fir, alpine (_Abies lasiocarpa_)    19-20, _19_
   amabilis (_Abies amabilis_) 15-16, _15_, _16_
   Douglas (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_) 6-8, _7_, _8_, _9_, _10_,
    _12_, _13_
   grand (_Abies grandis_) 20, _21_
   noble (_Abies nobilis_) 17-19, _17_, _18_
   silver. _See_ Fir, amabilis; Fir, grand.


 Grand fir (_Abies grandis_) 20, _21_


 Hemlock, mountain (_Tsuga mertensiana_) 25-27, _25_, _26_, _27_
   western (_Tsuga heterophylla_) 11-13, _12_, _13_, _16_


 Larch. _See_ Noble fir; Amabilis fir.

 Lodgepole pine (_Pinus contorta_) 24-25, _24_


 Maple, broadleaf (_Acer macrophyllum_) 29, _29_
   vine (_Acer circinatum_) 30, _30_

 Mountain hemlock (_Tsuga mertensiana_) 25-27, _25_, _26_, _27_


 Noble fir (_Abies nobilis_) 17-19, _17_, _18_


 Oregon yew. _See_ Western yew.


 _Picea engelmanni_ 20-23, _22_

 Pine, lodgepole (_Pinus contorta_) 24-25, _24_
   western white (_Pinus monticola_) 13-15, _14_
   white-bark (_Pinus albicaulis_) 27-28, _28_

 _Pinus albicaulis_ 27-28, _28_
   _contorta_ 24-25, _24_
   _monticola_ 13-15, _14_

 _Populus trichocarpa_ 30-32, _31_

 _Pseudotsuga taxifolia_ 6-8, _7_, _8_, _9_, _10_, _12_, _13_


 Red alder (_Alnus oregona_) 30, _31_
   cedar, western (_Thuja plicata_) 9-11, _10_


 Silver fir. _See_ Amabilis fir; Grand fir.

 Spruce, Engelmann (_Picea engelmanni_)   20-23, _22_


 _Taxus brevifolia_ 28-29

 _Thuja plicata_ 9-11, _10_

 _Tsuga heterophylla_ 11-13, _12_, _13_, _16_
   _mertensiana_ 25-27, _25_, _26_, _27_


 Vine maple (_Acer circinatum_) 30, _30_


 Western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_) 11-13, _12_, _13_, _16_
   red cedar (_Thuja plicata_) 9-11, _10_
   white pine (_Pinus monticola_) 13-15, _14_
   yew (_Taxus brevifolia_) 28-29

 White-bark pine (_Pinus albicaulis_) 27-28, _28_

 White pine, western (_Pinus monticola_) 13-15, _14_


 Yellow cypress (_Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) 23-24, _23_

 Yew, Oregon. _See_ Yew, western.
   western (_Taxus brevifolia_) 28-29





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