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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/32294-8.txt b/32294-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fcc542e --- /dev/null +++ b/32294-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9246 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 7, Slice 5, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 5 + "Cosway" to "Coucy" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: May 8, 2010 [EBook #32294] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. When letters are subscripted, they are + preceded by an underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were originally printed in + superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + COTTINGTON: "He signed the surrender of Oxford in July 1646, and + being excepted from the indemnity retired abroad." 'indemnity' + amended from 'idemnity'. + + COTTON: "Also, inside the young bolls which had been pierced a + similar proliferation or growth of the tissue was set up ..." + 'proliferation' amended from 'poliferation'. + + COTTON: "Cotton Buying Company, which, constituted originally of + twenty to thirty limited cotton-spinning companies ..." 'thirty' + amended from 'thrity'. + + COTTON: "Though there are local rivalries there is nothing in + competitive division to compare with the northern and southern + sections in America ..." 'competitive' amended from 'cempetitive'. + + COTTON: "a good many small manufacturers exist who have little + capital and are practically financed by their agents or customers." + 'financed' amended from 'financied'. + + COTTON MANUFACTURE: "It is calculated by Professor Hasbach that the + daily wages of spinners are about 5/10 to 6/10 at Oldham ..." + '6/10' amended from '6/'. + + COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY: "Open reeling forms lease, and seven of + these are united in one hank by a lease band which retains the + divisions." 'lease' amended from 'leas'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME VII, SLICE V + + Cosway to Coucy + + + + +Articles in This Slice: + + + COSWAY, RICHARD COTTER + COTA DE MAGUAQUE, RODRIGO COTTESWOLD HILLS + CÔTE-D'OR COTTET, CHARLES + COTES, ROGER COTTII REGNUM + CÔTES-DU-NORD COTTIN, MARIE + COTGRAVE, RANDLE COTTINGTON, FRANCIS COTTINGTON + CÖTHEN COTTON (Anglo-Indian administrators) + COTMAN, JOHN SELL COTTON, CHARLES + COTONEASTER COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH + COTOPAXI COTTON, JOHN + COTRONE COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE + COTTA (German publishers) COTTON + COTTA, BERNHARD VON COTTON MANUFACTURE + COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY + COTTABUS COTYS + COTTBUS COUCH, DARIUS NASH + COTTENHAM, CHARLES PEPYS COUCY, LE CHÂTELAIN DE + + + + +COSWAY, RICHARD (c. 1742-1821), English miniature painter, was baptized +in 1742; his father was master of Blundell's school, Tiverton, where +Cosway was educated, and his uncle mayor of that town. He it was who, in +conjunction with the boy's godfather, persuaded the father to allow +Richard to proceed to London before he was twelve years old, to take +lessons in drawing, and undertook to support him there. On his arrival, +the youthful artist won the first prize given by the newly founded +Society of Arts, of the money value of five guineas. He went to Thomas +Hudson for his earliest instruction, but remained with him only a few +months, and then attended William Shipley's drawing class, where he +remained until he began to work on his own account in 1760. He was one +of the earliest members of the Royal Academy, Associate in 1770 and +Royal Academician in 1771. His success in miniature painting is said to +have been started by his clever portrait of Mrs Fitzherbert, which gave +great satisfaction to the prince of Wales, and brought Cosway his +earliest great patron. He speedily became one of the most popular +artists of the day, and his residence at Schomberg House, Pall Mall, was +a well-known aristocratic rendezvous. In 1791 he removed to Stratford +Place, where he lived in a state of great magnificence till 1821, when +after selling most of the treasures he had accumulated he went to reside +in Edgware Road. He died on the 4th of July 1821, when driving in a +carriage with his friend Miss Udney. He was buried in Marylebone New +church. + +He married in 1781 Maria Hadfield, who survived him many years, and died +in Italy in January 1838, in a school for girls which she had founded, +and which she had attached to an important religious order devoted to +the cause of female education, known as the Dame Inglesi. She had been +created a baroness of the Empire on account of her devotion to female +education by the emperor Francis I. in 1834. Her college still exists, +and in it are preserved many of the things which had belonged to her and +her husband. + +Cosway had one child who died young. She is the subject of one of his +most celebrated engravings. He painted miniatures of very many members +of the royal family, and of the leading persons who formed the court of +the prince regent. Perhaps his most beautiful work is his miniature of +Madame du Barry, painted in 1791, when that lady was residing in Bruton +Street, Berkeley Square. This portrait, together with many other +splendid works by Cosway, came into the collection of Mr J. Pierpont +Morgan. There are many miniatures by this artist in the royal collection +at Windsor Castle, at Belvoir Castle and in other important collections. +His work is of great charm and of remarkable purity, and he is certainly +the most brilliant miniature painter of the 18th century. + + For a full account of the artist and his wife, see _Richard Cosway, + R.A._, by G. C. Williamson (1905). (G. C. W.) + + + + +COTA DE MAGUAQUE, RODRIGO (d. c. 1498), Spanish poet, who flourished +towards the end of the 15th century, was born at Toledo. Little is known +of him save that he was of Jewish origin. The _Coplas de Mingo Revulgo_, +the _Coplas del Provincial_, and the first act of the _Celestina_ have +been ascribed to him on insufficient grounds. He is undoubtedly the +author of the _Dialogo entre el amor y un viejo_, a striking dramatic +poem first printed in the _Cancionero general_ of 1511, and of a +burlesque epithalamium written in 1472 or later. He abjured Judaism +about the year 1497, and is believed to have died shortly afterwards. + + See "Épithalame burlesque," edited by R. Foulché-Delbosc, in the + _Revue hispanique_ (Paris, 1894), i. 69-72; A. Bonilla y San Martín, + _Anales de la literatura española_ (Madrid, 1904), pp. 164-167. + + + + +CÔTE-D'OR, a department of eastern France, formed of the northern region +of the old province of Burgundy, bounded N. by the department of Aube, +N.E. by Haute-Marne, E. by Haute-Saône and Jura, S. by Saône-et-Loire, +and W. by Nièvre and Yonne. Area, 3392 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 357,959. A +chain of hills named the Plateau de Langres runs from north-east to +south-west through the centre of the department, separating the basin of +the Seine from that of the Saône, and forming a connecting-link between +the Cévennes and the Vosges mountains. Extending southward from Dijon is +a portion of this range which, on account of the excellence of its +vineyards, bears the name of Côte-d'Or, whence that of the department. +The north-west portion of the department is occupied by the calcareous +and densely-wooded district of Châtillonais, the south-west by spurs of +the granitic chain of Morvan, while a wide plain traversed by the Saône +extends over the eastern region. The Châtillonais is watered by the +Seine, which there takes its rise, and by the Ource, both fed largely by +the _douix_ or abundant springs characteristic of Burgundy. The Armançon +and other affluents of the Yonne, and the Arroux, a tributary of the +Loire, water the south-west. + +The climate of Côte-d'Or is temperate and healthy; the rainfall is +abundant west of the central range, but moderate, and, in places, +scarce, in the eastern plain. Husbandry flourishes, the wealth of the +department lying chiefly in its vineyards, especially those of the +Côte-d'Or, which comprise the three main groups of Beaune, Nuits and +Dijon, the latter the least renowned of the three. The chief cereals are +wheat, oats and barley; potatoes, hops, beetroot, rape-seed, colza and a +small quantity of tobacco are also produced. Sheep and cattle-raising is +carried on chiefly in the western districts. The department has +anthracite mines and produces freestone, lime and cement. The +manufactures include iron, steel, nails, tools, machinery and other iron +goods, paper, earthenware, tiles and bricks, morocco leather goods, +biscuits and mustard, and there are flour-mills, distilleries, oil and +vinegar works and breweries. The imports of the department are +inconsiderable, coal alone being of any importance; there is an active +export trade in wine, brandy, cereals and live stock and in manufactured +goods. The Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway serves the department, its +main line passing through Dijon. The canal of Burgundy, connecting the +Saône with the Yonne, has a length of 94 m. in the department, while +that from the Marne to the Saône has a length of 24 m. + +Côte-d'Or is divided into the arrondissements of Dijon, Beaune, +Châtillon and Semur, with 36 cantons and 717 communes. It forms the +diocese of the bishop of Dijon, and part of the archiepiscopal province +of Lyons and of the 8th military region. Dijon is the seat of the +educational circumscription (_académie_) and court of appeal to which +the department is assigned. The more noteworthy places are Dijon, the +capital, Beaune, Châtillon, Semur, Auxonne, Flavigny and Cîteaux, all +separately treated. St Jean de Losne, at the extremity of the Burgundy +canal, is famous for its brave and successful resistance in 1636 to an +immense force of Imperialists. Châteauneuf has a château of the 15th +century, St Seine-l'Abbaye, a fine Gothic abbey church, and Saulieu, a +Romanesque abbey church of the 11th century. The château of Bussy +Rabutin (at Bussy-le-Grand), founded in the 12th century, has an +interesting collection of pictures made by Roger de Rabutin, comte de +Bussy, who also rebuilt the château. Montbard, the birthplace of the +naturalist Buffon, has a keep of the 14th century and other remains of a +castle of the dukes of Burgundy. The remarkable Renaissance chapel +(1536) of Pagny-le-Château, belonging to the château destroyed in 1768, +contains the tomb of Jean de Vienne (d. 1455) and that of Jean de Longwy +(d. 1460) and Jeanne de Vienne (d. 1472), with alabaster effigies. At +Fontenay, near Marmagne, a paper-works occupies the buildings of a +well-preserved Cistercian abbey of the 12th century. At Vertault there +are remains of a theatre and other buildings marking the site of the +Gallo-Roman town of Vertilium. + + + + +COTES, ROGER (1682-1716), English mathematician and philosopher, was +born on the 10th of July 1682 at Burbage, Leicestershire, of which place +his father, the Rev. Robert Cotes, was rector. He was educated at +Leicester school, and afterward at St Paul's school, London. Proceeding +to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1699, he obtained a fellowship in +1705, and in the following year was appointed Plumian professor of +astronomy and experimental philosophy in the university of Cambridge. He +took orders in 1713; and the same year, at the request of Dr Richard +Bentley, he published the second edition of Newton's Principia with an +original preface. He died on the 5th of June 1716, leaving unfinished a +series of elaborate researches on optics, and a large amount of +unpublished manuscript. He contributed two memoirs to the _Philosophical +Transactions_, one, "Logometria," which discusses the calculation of +logarithms and certain applications of the infinitesimal calculus, the +other, a "Description of the great fiery meteor seen on March 6th, +1716." After his death his papers were collected and published by his +cousin and successor in the Plumian chair, Dr Robert Smith, under the +title _Harmonia Mensurarum_ (1722). This work included the "Logometria," +the trigonometrical theorem known as "Cotes' Theorem on the Circle" (see +TRIGONOMETRY), his theorem on harmonic means, subsequently developed by +Colin Maclaurin, and a discussion of the curves known as "Cotes' +Spirals," which occur as the path of a particle described under the +influence of a central force varying inversely as the cube of the +distance. In 1738 Dr Robert Smith published Cotes' _Hydrostatical and +Pneumatical Lectures_, a work which was held in great estimation. The +exceptional genius of Cotes earned encomiums from both his +contemporaries and successors; Sir Isaac Newton said, "If Mr Cotes had +lived, we should have known something." + + + + +CÔTES-DU-NORD, a maritime department of the north-west of France, formed +in 1790 from the northern part of the province of Brittany, and bounded +N. by the English Channel, E. by the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, S. +by Morbihan, and W. by Finistère. Pop. (1906) 611,506. Area, 2786 sq. m. +In general conformation, Côtes-du-Nord is an undulating plateau +including in its more southerly portion three well-marked ranges of +hills. A granitic chain, the Monts du Méné, starting in the south-east +of the department runs in a north-westerly direction, forming the +watershed between the rivers running respectively to the Channel and the +Atlantic Ocean. Towards its western extremity this chain bifurcates to +form the Montagnes Noires in the south-west and the Montagne d'Arrée in +the west of the department. The rivers of the Channel slope are the +Rance, Arguenon, Gouessan, Gouet, Trieux, Tréguier and Léguer, while the +Blavet, Meu, Oust and Aulne belong to the southern slope. Off the coast, +which is steep, rocky and much indented, are the Sept-Iles, Bréhat and +other small islands. The principal bays are those of St Malo and St +Brieuc. + +The climate is mild and not subject to extremes; in the west it is +especially humid. Agriculture is more successful on the coast, where +seaweed can be used as a fertilizer, than in the interior. Cereals are +largely grown, wheat, oats and buck-wheat being the chief crops. +Potatoes, flax, mangels, apples, plums, cherries and honey are also +produced. Pasture and various kinds of forage are abundant, and there is +a large output of milk and butter. The horses of the department are in +repute. It produces slate, building-stone, lime and china-clay. +Flour-mills, saw-mills, sardine factories, tanneries, iron-works, +manufactories of polish, boat-building yards, and rope-works employ many +of the inhabitants, and cloth, agricultural implements and nails are +manufactured. The chief imports are coal, wood and salt. Exports include +agricultural products (eggs, butter, vegetables, &c.), horses, flax and +fish. The chief commercial ports are Le Légué and Paimpol; and Paimpol +also equips a large fleet for the Icelandic fisheries. The coast fishing +is important and large quantities of sardines are preserved. The +department is served by the Ouest-État railway; its chief waterway is +the canal from Nantes to Brest which traverses it for 73 m. + +Côtes-du-Nord is divided into the five arrondissements of St Brieuc, +Dinan, Guingamp, Lannion and Loudéac, which contain 48 cantons and 390 +communes. Bas Breton is spoken in the arrondissements of Guingamp and +Lannion, and in part of those of Loudéac and St Brieuc. The department +belongs to the ecclesiastical province, the académie (educational +division), and the appeal court of Rennes, and in the region of the X. +army corps. St Brieuc, Dinan, Guingamp, Lamballe, Paimpol and Tréguier, +the more noteworthy towns, are separately treated. Extensive remains of +an abbey of the Premonstratensian order, dating chiefly from the 13th +century, exist at Kerity; and Lehon has remains of a priory, which dates +from the same period. The department is rich in interesting churches, +among which those of Ploubezre (12th, 14th and 16th centuries), +Perros-Guirec (12th century), Plestin-les-Grèves (16th century) and +Lanleff (12th century) may be mentioned. The church of St Mathurin at +Moncontour, which is a celebrated place of pilgrimage, contains fine +stained glass of the 16th century, and the mural paintings of the chapel +of Kermaria-an-Isquit near Plouha, which belongs to the 13th and 14th +centuries, are celebrated. Near Lannion (pop. 5336), itself a +picturesque old town, is the ruined castle of Tonquédec, built in the +14th century and sometimes known as "the Pierrefonds of Brittany," owing +to its resemblance to the more famous castle. At Corseul are a temple +and other Roman remains. + + + + +COTGRAVE, RANDLE (?-1634), English lexicographer, came of a Cheshire +family, and was educated at Cambridge, entering St John's College in +1587. He became secretary to Lord Burghley, and in 1611 published his +French-English dictionary (2nd ed., 1632), a work of real historical +importance in lexicography, and still valuable in spite of such errors +as were due to contemporary want of exact scholarship. + + + + +CÖTHEN, or KÖTHEN, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Anhalt on the +Ziethe, at the junction of several railway lines, 42 m. N.W. of Leipzig +by rail. Pop. (1905) 22,978. It consists of an old and a new town with +four suburbs. The former palace of the dukes of Anhalt-Cöthen, in the +old town, has fine gardens and contains collections of pictures and +coins, the famous ornithological collection of Johann Friedrich Naumann +(1780-1857), and a library of some 20,000 volumes. Of the churches the +Lutheran Jakobskirche (called the cathedral), a Gothic building with +some fine old stained glass, is noteworthy. Besides the usual classical +and modern schools (Gymnasium and Realschule) Cöthen possesses a +technical institute, a school of gardening and a school of forestry. The +industries include iron-founding and the manufacture of agricultural and +other machinery, malt, beet-root sugar, leather, spirits, &c.; a +tolerably active trade is carried on in grain, wool, potatoes and +vegetables. Among others, there is a monument to Sebastian Bach, who was +music director here from 1717 to 1723. + +In the 10th century Cöthen was a Slav settlement, which was captured and +destroyed by the German king Henry I. in 927. By the 12th century it had +secured town rights and become a considerable centre of trade in +agricultural produce. In 1300 it was burned by the margrave of Meissen. +In 1547 the town was taken from its prince, Wolfgang (a cadet of the +house of Anhalt), who had joined the league of Schmalkalden, and given +by the emperor Charles V., with the rest of the prince's possessions, to +the Spanish general and painter, Felipe Ladron y Guevara (1510-1563), +from whom it was, however, soon repurchased. Hahnemann, the founder of +homoeopathy, lived and worked in Cöthen. From 1603 to 1847 Cöthen was +the capital of the principality, later duchy, of Anhalt-Cöthen. + + + + +COTMAN, JOHN SELL (1782-1842), English landscape-painter and etcher, son +of a well-to-do silk mercer, was born at Norwich on the 16th of May +1782. He showed a talent for art and was sent to London to study, where +he became the friend of Turner, T. Girtin and other artists. He first +exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1800. In 1807 he went back to Norwich +and joined the Norwich Society of Artists, of which in 1811 he became +president. In 1825 he was made an associate of the Society of Painters +in Water-colours; in 1834 he was appointed drawing-master at King's +College, London; and in 1836 he was elected a member of the Institute of +British Architects. He died in London on the 24th of July 1842. Cotman's +work was not considered of much importance in his own day, and his +pictures only procured small prices; but he now ranks as one of the +great figures of the Norwich school. He was a fine draughtsman, and a +remarkable painter both in oil and water-colour. One of his paintings is +in the National Gallery. His fine architectural etchings, published in a +series of volumes, the result of tours in Norfolk and Normandy, are +valuable records of his interest in archaeology. He married early in +life, and had five children, his sons, Miles Edmund (1810-1858) and +Joseph John (1814-1878), both becoming landscape-painters of merit; and +his younger brother Henry's son, Frederic George Cotman (b. 1850), the +water-colour artist, continued the family reputation. + + + + +COTONEASTER, a genus of the rose family (Rosaceae), containing about +twenty species of shrubs and small trees, natives of Europe, North +Africa and temperate Asia. C. _vulgaris_ is native on the limestone +cliffs of the Great Orme in North Wales. Several species are grown in +shrubberies and borders, or as wall plants, mainly for their clusters of +bright red or yellow berry-like fruits. Plants are easily raised by +seeds, cuttings or layers, and grow well in ordinary soil. + + + + +COTOPAXI, a mountain of the Andes, in Ecuador, South America, 35 m. +S.S.E. of Quito, remarkable as the loftiest active volcano in the world. +The earliest outbursts on record took place in 1532 and 1533; and since +then the eruptions have been both numerous and destructive. Among the +most important are those of 1744, 1746, 1766, 1768 and 1803. In 1744 the +thunderings of the volcano were heard at Honda on the Rio Magdalena, +about 500 m. distant; in 1768 the quantity of ashes ejected was so great +that it covered all the lesser vegetation as far as Riobamba; and in +1803 Humboldt reports that at the port of Guayaquil, 160 m. from the +crater, he heard the noise day and night like continued discharges of a +battery. There were considerable outbursts in 1851, 1855, 1856, 1864 and +1877. In 1802 Humboldt made a vain attempt to scale the cone, and +pronounced the enterprise impossible; and the failure of Jean Baptiste +Boussingault in 1831, and the double failure of M. Wagner in 1858, +seemed to confirm his opinion. In 1872, however, Dr Wilhelm Reiss +succeeded on the 27th and 28th of November in reaching the top; in the +May of the following year the same feat was accomplished by Dr A. +Stübel, and he was followed by T. Wolf in 1877, M. von Thielmann in 1878 +and Edward Whymper in 1880. + +Cotopaxi is frequently described as one of the most beautiful mountain +masses of the world, rivalling the celebrated Fujiyama of Japan in its +symmetry of outline, but overtopping it by more than 7000 ft. It is more +than 15,000 ft. higher than Vesuvius, over 7000 ft. higher than +Teneriffe, and nearly 2000 ft. higher than Popocatepetl. Its slope, +according to Orton, is 30°, according to Wagner 29°, the north-western +side being slightly steeper than the south-eastern. The apical angle is +122° 30'. The snowfall is heavier on the eastern side of the cone which +is permanently covered, while the western side is usually left bare, a +phenomenon occasioned by the action of the moist trade winds from the +Atlantic. Its height according to Whymper is 19,613 ft., and its crater +is 2300 ft. in diameter from N. to S., 1650 ft. from E. to W., and has +an approximate depth of 1200 ft. It is bordered by a rim of trachytic +rock, forming a black coronet above the greyish volcanic dust and sand +which covers its sides to a great depth. Whymper found snow and ice +under this sand. On the southern slope, at a height of 15,059 ft., is a +bare cone of porphyritic andesite called _El Picacho_, "the beak," or +_Cabeza del Inca_, "the Inca's head," with dark cliffs rising fully 1000 +ft., which according to tradition is the original summit of the volcano +blown off at the first-known eruption of 1532. The summit of Cotopaxi is +usually enveloped in clouds; and even in the clearest month of the year +it is rarely visible for more than eight or ten days. Its eruptions +produce enormous quantities of pumice, and deep layers of mud, volcanic +sand and pumice surround it on the plateau. Of the air currents about +and above Cotopaxi, Wagner says (_Naturw. Reisen im trop. Amerika_, p. +514): "On the Tacunga Plateau, at a height of 8000 Paris feet, the +prevailing direction of the wind is meridional, usually from the south +in the morning, and frequently from the north in the evening; but over +the summit of Cotopaxi, at a height of 18,000 ft., the north-west wind +always prevails throughout the day. The gradually-widening volcanic +cloud continually takes a south-eastern direction over the rim of the +crater; at a height, however, of about 21,000 ft. it suddenly turns to +the north-west, and maintains that direction till it reaches a height of +at least 28,000 ft. There are thus from the foot of the volcano to the +highest level attained by its smoke-cloud three quite distinct regular +currents of wind." + + + + +COTRONE (anc. _Croto, Crotona_), a seaport and episcopal see on the E. +coast of Calabria, Italy, in the province of Catanzaro, 37 m. E.N.E. of +Catanzaro Marina by rail, 143 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, +7917; commune, 9545. It has a castle erected by the emperor Charles V. +and a small harbour, which even in ancient times was not good, but +important as the only one between Taranto and Reggio. It exports a +considerable quantity of oranges, olives and liquorice. + + + + +COTTA, the name of a family of German publishers, intimately connected +with the history of German literature. The Cottas were of noble Italian +descent, and at the time of the Reformation the family was settled in +Eisenach in Thuringia. + +JOHANN GEORG COTTA (1) (1631-1692), the founder of the publishing house +of J. G. Cotta, married in 1659 the widow of the university bookseller, +Philipp Braun, in Tübingen, and took over the management of his +business, thus establishing the firm which was subsequently associated +with Cotta's name. On his death, in 1692, the undertaking passed to his +only son, Johann Georg (2); and on his death in 1712, to the latter's +eldest son, also named Johann Georg (3), while the second son, Johann +Friedrich (see below), became the distinguished theologian. + +Although the eldest son of Johann Georg (3), Christoph Friedrich Cotta +(1730-1807), established a printing-house to the court at Stuttgart, the +business languished, and it was reserved to his youngest son, JOHANN +FRIEDRICH, FREIHERR COTTA VON COTTENDORF (1764-1832), who was born at +Stuttgart on the 27th of April 1764, to restore the fortunes of the +firm. He attended the gymnasium of his native place, and was originally +intended to study theology. He, however, entered the university of +Tübingen as a student of mathematics and law, and after graduating spent +a considerable time in Paris, studying French and natural science, and +mixing with distinguished literary men. After practising as an advocate +in one of the higher courts, Cotta, in compliance with his father's +earnest desire, took over the publishing business at Tübingen. He began +in December 1787, and laboured incessantly to acquire familiarity with +all the details. The house connexions rapidly extended; and, in 1794, +the _Allgemeine Zeitung_, of which Schiller was to be editor, was +planned. Schiller was compelled to withdraw on account of his health; +but his friendship with Cotta deepened every year, and was a great +advantage to the poet and his family. Cotta awakened in Schiller so warm +an attachment that, as Heinrich Döring tells us in his life of Schiller +(1824), when a bookseller offered him a higher price than Cotta for the +copyright of _Wallenstein_, the poet firmly declined it, replying "Cotta +deals honestly with me, and I with him." In 1795 Schiller and Cotta +founded the _Horen_, a periodical very important to the student of +German literature. The poet intended, by means of this work, to infuse +higher ideas into the common lives of men, by giving them a nobler human +culture, and "to reunite the divided political world under the banner of +truth and beauty." The _Horen_ brought Goethe and Schiller into intimate +relations with each other and with Cotta; and Goethe, while regretting +that he had already promised _Wilhelm Meister_ to another publisher, +contributed the _Unterhaltung deutscher Ausgewanderten_, the _Roman +Elegies_ and a paper on Literary Sansculottism. Fichte sent essays from +the first, and the other brilliant German authors of the time were also +represented. In 1798 the _Allgemeine Zeitung_ appeared at Tübingen, +being edited first by Posselt and then by Huber. Soon the editorial +office of the newspaper was transferred to Stuttgart, in 1803 to Ulm, +and in 1810 to Augsburg; it is now in Munich. In 1799 Cotta entered on +his political career, being sent to Paris by the Württemberg estates as +their representative. Here he made friendships which proved very +advantageous for the _Allgemeine Zeitung_. In 1801 he paid another visit +to Paris, also in a political capacity, when he carefully studied +Napoleon's policy, and treasured up many hints which were useful to him +in his literary undertakings. He still, however, devoted most of his +attention to his own business, and, for many years, made all the entries +into the ledger with his own hand. He relieved the tedium of almost +ceaseless toil by pleasant intercourse with literary men. With Schiller, +Huber, and Gottlieb Konrad Pfeffel (1736-1809) he was on terms of the +warmest friendship; and he was also intimate with Herder, Schelling, +Fichte, Richter, Voss, Hebel, Tieck, Therese Huber, Matthisson, the +brothers Humboldt, Johann Müller, Spittler and others, whose works he +published in whole or in part. In the correspondence of Alexander von +Humboldt with Varnhagen von Ense we see the familiar relations in which +the former stood to the Cotta family. In 1795 he published the +_Politischen Annalen_ and the _Jahrbücher der Baukunde_, and in 1798 the +_Damenalmanach_, along with some works of less importance. In 1807 he +issued the _Morgenblatt_, to which Schorn's _Kunstblatt_ and Menzel's +_Literaturblatt_ were afterwards added. In 1810 he removed to Stuttgart; +and from that time till his death he was loaded with honours. State +affairs and an honourable commission from the German booksellers took +him to the Vienna congress; and in 1815 he was deputy-elect at the +Württemberg diet. In 1819 he became representative of the nobility; then +he succeeded to the offices of member of committee and (1824) +vice-president of the Württemberg second chamber. He was also appointed +Prussian _Geheimrat_, and knight of the order of the Württemberg crown; +King William I. of Württemberg having already revived the ancient +nobility in his family by granting him the patent of Freiherr (Baron) +Cotta von Cottendorf. Meanwhile such publications as the _Polytechnische +Journal_, the _Hesperus_, the _Württembergische Jahrbücher_, the +_Hertha_, the _Ausland_, and the _Inland_ issued from the press. In +1828-1829 appeared the famous correspondence between Schiller and +Goethe. Cotta was an unfailing friend of young struggling men of talent. +In addition to his high standing as a publisher, he was a man of great +practical energy, which flowed into various fields of activity. He was a +scientific agriculturist, and promoted many reforms in farming. He was +the first Württemberg landholder to abolish serfdom on his estates. In +politics he was throughout his life a moderate liberal. In 1824 he set +up a steam printing press in Augsburg, and, about the same time, founded +a literary institute at Munich. In 1825 he started steamboats, for the +first time, on Lake Constance, and introduced them in the following year +on the Rhine. In 1828 he was sent to Berlin, on an important commission, +by Bavaria and Württemberg, and was there rewarded with orders of +distinction at the hands of the three kings. He died on the 29th of +December 1832 leaving a son and a daughter as coheirs. + +His son, JOHANN GEORG (4), FREIHERR COTTA VON COTTENDORF (1796-1863), +succeeded to the management of the business on the death of his father, +and was materially assisted by his sister's husband, Freiherr Hermann +von Reischach. He greatly extended the connexions of the firm by the +purchase, in 1839, of the publishing business of G. J. Göschen in +Leipzig, and in 1845 of that of Vogel in Landshut; while, in 1845, +"Bible" branches were established at Stuttgart and Munich. He was +succeeded by his younger son, Karl, and by his nephew (the son of his +sister), Hermann Albert von Reischach. Under their joint partnership, +the before-mentioned firms in Leipzig and Landshut, and an artistic +establishment in Munich passed into other hands, leaving on the death of +Hermann Albert von Reischach, in 1876, Karl von Cotta the sole +representative of the firm, until his death in 1888. In 1889 the firm of +J. G. Cotta passed by purchase into the hands of Adolf and Paul Kröner, +who took others into partnership. In 1899 the business was converted +into a limited liability company. + + See Albert Schäffle, _Cotta_ (1895); _Verlags-Katalog der J. G. + Cotta'schen Buchhandlung, Nachfolger_ (1900); and Lord Goschen's _Life + and Times of G. J. Göschen_ (1903). + +JOHANN FRIEDRICH COTTA (1701-1779), the theologian, was born on the 12th +of March 1701, the son of Johann Georg Cotta (2). After studying +theology at Tübingen he began his public career as lecturer in Jena +University. He then travelled in Germany, France and Holland, and, after +residing several years in London, became professor at Tübingen in 1733. +In 1736 he removed to the chair of theology in the university of +Göttingen, which had been instituted as a seat of learning, two years +before, by George II. of England, in his capacity as elector of Hanover. +In 1739, however, he returned, as extraordinary professor of theology, +to his Alma Mater, and, after successively filling the chairs of +history, poetry and oratory, was appointed ordinary professor of +theology in 1741. Finally he died, as chancellor of Tübingen University, +on the 31st of December 1779. His learning was at once wide and +accurate; his theological views were orthodox, although he did not +believe in strict verbal inspiration. He was a voluminous writer. His +chief works are his edition of Johann Gerhard's _Loci Theologici_ +(1762-1777), and the _Kirchenhistorie des Neuen Testaments_ (1768-1773). + + + + +COTTA, BERNHARD VON (1808-1879), German geologist, was born in a +forester's lodge near Eisenach, on the 24th of October 1808. He was +educated at Freiberg and Heidelberg and from 1842 to 1874 he held the +professorship of geology in the Bergakademie of Freiberg. Botany at +first attracted him, and he was one of the earliest to use the +microscope in determining the structure of fossil plants. Later on he +gave his attention to practical geology, to the study of ore-deposits, +of rocks and metamorphism; and he was regarded as an excellent teacher. +His _Rocks classified and described: a Treatise on Lithology_ +(translated by P. H. Lawrence, 1866) was the first comprehensive work on +the subject issued in the English language, and it gave great impetus to +the study of rocks in Britain. He died at Freiberg on the 14th of +September 1879. + + PUBLICATIONS.--_Geognostische Wanderungen_ (1836-1838); _Grundriss der + Geognosie und Geologie_ (1846); _Geologische Briefe aus den Alpen_ + (1850); _Praktische Geologie_ (1852); _Geologische Bilder_ (1852, ed. + 4, 1861); _Die Gesteinslehre_ (1855, ed. 2, 1862). + + + + +COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS (c. 124-73 B.C.), Roman statesman and orator. In +92 he defended his uncle P. Rutilius Rufus, who had been unjustly +accused of extortion in Asia. He was on intimate terms with the tribune +M. Livius Drusus, who was murdered in 91, and in the same year was an +unsuccessful candidate for the tribunate. Shortly afterwards he was +prosecuted under the _lex Varia_, directed against all who had in any +way supported the Italians against Rome, and, in order to avoid +condemnation, went into voluntary exile. He did not return till 82, +during the dictatorship of Sulla. In 75 he was consul, and excited the +hostility of the optimates by carrying a law that abolished the Sullan +disqualification of the tribunes from holding higher magistracies; +another law _de judiciis privatis_, of which nothing is known, was +abrogated by his brother. In 74 Cotta obtained the province of Gaul, and +was granted a triumph for some victory of which we possess no details; +but on the very day before its celebration an old wound broke out, and +he died suddenly. According to Cicero, P. Sulpicius Rufus and Cotta were +the best speakers of the young men of their time. Physically incapable +of rising to passionate heights of oratory, Cotta's successes were +chiefly due to his searching investigation of facts; he kept strictly to +the essentials of the case and avoided all irrelevant digressions. His +style was pure and simple. He is introduced by Cicero as an interlocutor +in the _De oratore_ and _De natura deorum_ (iii.), as a supporter of the +principles of the New Academy. The fragments of Sallust contain the +substance of a speech delivered by Cotta in order to calm the popular +anger at a deficient corn-supply. + + See Cicero, _De oratore_, iii. 3, _Brutus_, 49, 55, 90, 92; Sallust, + _Hist. Frag._; Appian, _Bell. Civ._ i. 37. + +His brother, LUCIUS AURELIUS COTTA, when praetor in 70 B.C. brought in a +law for the reform of the jury lists, by which the judices were to be +eligible, not from the senators exclusively as limited by Sulla, but +from senators, equites and _tribuni aerarii_. One-third were to be +senators, and two-thirds men of equestrian census, one-half of whom must +have been _tribuni aerarii_, a body as to whose functions there is no +certain evidence, although in Cicero's time they were reckoned by +courtesy amongst the equites. In 66 Cotta and L. Manlius Torquatus +accused the consuls-elect for the following year of bribery in connexion +with the elections; they were condemned, and Cotta and Torquatus chosen +in their places. After the suppression of the Catilinarian conspiracy, +Cotta proposed a public thanksgiving for Cicero's services, and after +the latter had gone into exile, supported the view that there was no +need of a law for his recall, since the law of Clodius was legally +worthless. He subsequently attached himself to Caesar, and it was +currently reported that Cotta (who was then quindecimvir) intended to +propose that Caesar should receive the title of king, it being written +in the books of fate that the Parthians could only be defeated by a +king. Cotta's intention was not carried out in consequence of the murder +of Caesar, after which he retired from public life. + + See Cicero, Orelli's _Onomasticon_; Sallust, _Catiline_, 18; + Suetonius, _Caesar_, 79; Livy, _Epit._ 97; Vell. Pat. ii. 32; Dio + Cassius xxxvi. 44, xxxvii. 1. + + + + +COTTABUS (Gr. [Greek: kottabos]), a game of skill for a long time in +great vogue at ancient Greek drinking parties, especially in the 4th and +5th centuries B.C. It is frequently alluded to by the classical writers +of the period, and not seldom depicted on ancient vases. The object of +the player was to cast a portion of wine left in his drinking cup in +such a way that, without breaking bulk in its passage through the air, +it should reach a certain object set up as a mark, and there produce a +distinct noise by its impact. Both the wine thrown and the noise made +were called [Greek: latax]. The thrower, in the ordinary form of the +game, was expected to retain the recumbent position that was usual at +table, and, in flinging the cottabus, to make use of his right hand +only. To succeed in the aim no small amount of dexterity was required, +and unusual ability in the game was rated as high as corresponding +excellence in throwing the javelin. Not only was the cottabus the +ordinary accompaniment of the festal assembly, but at least in Sicily a +special building of a circular form was sometimes erected so that the +players might be easily arranged round the basin, and follow each other +in rapid succession. Like all games in which the element of chance found +a place, it was regarded as more or less ominous of the future success +of the players, especially in matters of love; and the excitement was +sometimes further augmented by some object of value being staked on the +event. + +Various modifications of the original principle of the game were +gradually introduced, but for practical purposes we may reckon two +varieties, (1) In the [Greek: Kottabos di oxybaphôn] shallow saucers +([Greek: oxybapha]) were floated in a basin or mixing-bowl filled with +water; the object was to sink the saucers by throwing the wine into +them, and the competitor who sank the greatest number was considered +victorious, and received the prize, which consisted of cakes or +sweetmeats. (2) [Greek: Kottabos kataktos][1] is not so easy to +understand, although there is little doubt as to the apparatus. This +consisted of a [Greek: rhabdos] or bronze rod; a [Greek: plastinx], a +small disk or basin, resembling a scale-pan; a larger disk ([Greek: +lekanis]); and (in most cases) a small bronze figure called [Greek: +manês]. The discovery (by Professor Helbig in 1886) of two sets of +actual apparatus near Perugia and various representations on vases help +to elucidate the somewhat obscure accounts of the method of playing the +game contained in the scholia and certain ancient authors who, it must +not be forgotten, wrote at a time when the game itself had become +obsolete, and cannot therefore be looked to for a trustworthy +description of it. + +The first specimen of the apparatus found at Perugia resembles a +candelabrum on a base, tapering towards the top, with a blunt end, on +which the small disk (found near the rod), which has a hole near the +edge and is slightly hollow in the middle, could be balanced. At about a +third of the height of the rod is a large disk with a hole in the centre +through which the rod runs; in a socket at the top is a small bronze +figure, with right arm and right leg uplifted. In the second specimen +there is no large disk, and the figure is holding up what is apparently +a rhyton or drinking-horn. + +According to Prof. Helbig in _Mittheilungen des deutschen +archäologischen Instituts_ (Römische Abtheilung i., 1886) three games +were played with this apparatus. In the first the smaller disk was +placed on the top of the rod, and the object of the player was to +dislodge it with a cast of the wine, so that it would fall with a +clatter on the larger disk below. In the second (as in the third) the +bronze figure was used; the smaller disk was placed above the figure, +upon which it fell when hit, and thence on to the larger disk below. In +the third, there was no smaller disk; the wine was thrown at the figure, +and fell on to the larger disk underneath. Another supposed variety, in +which two scales were balanced in such a manner that the weight of the +liquid cast into either scale caused it to dip down and touch the top of +an image placed under each, probably had no real existence, but is due +to a confusion of the [Greek: plastinx] with a scale-pan by reason of +its shape. The game appears to have been of Sicilian origin, but it +spread through Greece from Thessaly to Rhodes, and was especially +fashionable at Athens. Dionysius, Alcaeus, Anacreon, Pindar, +Bacchylides, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Antiphanes, +make frequent and familiar allusion to the [Greek: kottabos]; but in the +writers of the Roman and Alexandrian period such reference as occurs +shows that the fashion had died out. In Latin literature it is almost +entirely unknown. + + The most complete treatise on the subject is C. Sartori's _Das + Kottabos-Spiel der alten Griechen_ (1893), in which a full + bibliography of ancient and modern authorities is given. English + readers may be referred to an article by A. Higgins on "Recent + Discoveries of the Apparatus used in playing the Game of Kottabos" + (_Archaeologia_, li. 1888); see also "Kottabos" in Daremberg and + Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquités_, and L. Becq de Fouquières, + _Les Jeux des anciens_ (1873). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The epithet [Greek: kataktos] (let down) may refer to + the rod, which might be raised or lowered as required; to the lower + disk, which might be moved up and down the stem; to the moving up and + down of the scales, in the supposed variety of the game mentioned + below. + + + + +COTTBUS, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Spree, 72 +m. S.E. of Berlin by the main railway to Görlitz, and at the +intersection of the lines Halle-Sagan and Grossenhain-Frankfort-on-Oder. +Pop. (1905) 46,269. It has four Protestant churches, a Roman Catholic +church and a synagogue. The chief industry of the town is the +manufacture of cloth, which has flourished here for centuries and now +employs more than 6000 hands. Wool-spinning, cotton-spinning and the +manufacture of tobacco, machinery, beer, brandy, &c., are also carried +on. The town is also a considerable trading centre, and is the seat of a +chamber of commerce and of a branch of the Imperial Bank (_Reichsbank_). +In the Stadtwald, close to the town, is a women's hospital for diseases +of the lungs, a government institution in connexion with the state +system of insurance against incapacity and old age. At Branitz, a +neighbouring village, are the magnificent château and park of Prince +Pückler-Muskau. + +At one time Cottbus formed an independent lordship of the Empire, but in +1462 it passed by the treaty of Guben to Brandenburg. From 1807 to 1813 +it belonged to the kingdom of Saxony. + + + + +COTTENHAM, CHARLES CHRISTOPHER PEPYS, 1st EARL OF (1781-1851), lord +chancellor of England, was born in London on the 29th of April 1781. He +was the second son of Sir William W. Pepys, a master in chancery, who +was descended from John Pepys, of Cottenham, Cambridgeshire, a +great-uncle of Samuel Pepys, the diarist. Educated at Harrow and Trinity +College, Cambridge, Pepys was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in +1804. Practising at the chancery bar, his progress was extremely slow, +and it was not till twenty-two years after his call that he was made a +king's counsel. He sat in parliament, successively, for Higham Ferrars +and Malton, was appointed solicitor-general in 1834, and in the same +year became master of the rolls. On the formation of Lord Melbourne's +second administration in April 1835, the great seal was for a time in +commission, but eventually Pepys, who had been one of the commissioners, +was appointed lord chancellor (January 1836) with the title of Baron +Cottenham. He held office until the defeat of the ministry in 1841. In +1846 he again became lord chancellor in Lord John Russell's +administration. His health, however, had been gradually failing, and he +resigned in 1850. Shortly before his retirement he had been created +Viscount Crowhurst and earl of Cottenham. He died at Pietra Santa, in +the duchy of Lucca, on the 29th of April 1851. + +Both as a lawyer and as a judge, Lord Cottenham was remarkable for his +mastery of the principles of equity. An indifferent speaker, he +nevertheless adorned the bench by the soundness of his law and the +excellence of his judgments. As a politician he was somewhat of a +failure, while his only important contribution to the statute-book was +the Judgments Act 1838, which amended the law for the relief of +insolvent debtors. + +The title of earl of Cottenham descended in turn to two of the earl's +sons, Charles Edward (1824-1863), and William John (1825-1881), and then +to the latter's son, Kenelm Charles Edward (b. 1874). + + AUTHORITIES.--Campbell, _Lives of the Lord Chancellors_ (1869); E. + Foss, _The Judges of England_ (1848-1864); E. Manson, _Builders of our + Law_ (1904); J. B. Atlay, _The Victorian Chancellors_ (1906). + + + + +COTTER, COTTAR, or COTTIER, a word derived from the Latin _cota_, a cot +or cottage, and used to describe a man who occupies a cottage and +cultivates a small plot of land. This word is often employed to +translate the _cotarius_ of Domesday Book, a class whose exact status +has been the subject of some discussion, and is still a matter of doubt. +According to Domesday the _cotarii_ were comparatively few, numbering +less than seven thousand, and were scattered unevenly throughout +England, being principally in the southern counties; they were occupied +either in cultivating a small plot of land, or in working on the +holdings of the _villani_. Like the _villani_, among whom they were +frequently classed, their economic condition may be described as "free +in relation to every one except their lord." + + See F. W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_ (Cambridge, 1897); and + P. Vinogradoff, _Villainage in England_ (Oxford, 1892). + + + + +COTTESWOLD HILLS, or COTSWOLDS, a range of hills in the western midlands +of England. The greater part lies in Gloucestershire, but the system +covered by the name also extends into Worcestershire, Warwickshire, +Oxfordshire, Wiltshire and Somersetshire. It extends on a line from N.E. +to S.W., forming a part of the great Oolitic belt extending through the +English midlands. On the west the hills overlook the vales of Evesham, +Gloucester and Berkeley (valleys of the Worcestershire Avon and the +Severn), with a bold escarpment broken only by a few abrupt spurs, such +as Bredon hill, between Tewkesbury and Evesham. On the east they slope +more gently towards the basins of the upper Thames and the Bristol Avon. +The watershed lies close to the western line, except where the Stroud +valley, with the Frome, draining to the Severn, strikes deep into the +heart of the hills. The principal valleys are those of the Windrush, +Lech, Coln and Churn, feeders of the Thames, the Thames itself, and the +Bristol Avon. The last, wherein lie Bath and Bristol, forms the southern +boundary of the Cotteswolds; the northern is formed by the valleys of +the Evenlode (draining to the Thames) and the Stour (to the +Worcestershire Avon), with the low divide between them. The crest-line +from Bath at the south to Meon Hill at the north measures 57 m. The +breadth varies from 6 m. in the south to 28 towards the north, and the +area is some 300 sq. m. The features are those of a pleasant sequestered +pastoral region, rolling plateaus or wolds and bare uplands alternating +with deep narrow valleys, well wooded and traversed by shallow, rapid +streams. The average elevation is about 600 ft., but Cleeve Cloud above +Cheltenham in the Vale of Gloucester reaches 1134 ft., and Broadway +Hill, in the north, 1086 ft. These heights command splendid views over +the rich vales towards the distant hills of Herefordshire and the Forest +of Dean. The picturesque village of Broadway at the foot of the hill of +that name is much in favour with artists. + +In the soil of the hill country is so much lime that a liberal supply of +manure is required. With this good crops of barley and oats are +obtained, and even of wheat, if the soil is mixed with clay. But the +poorest land of the hill country affords excellent pasturage for sheep, +the staple commodity of the district; and the sainfoin, which grows +wild, yields abundantly under cultivation. The Cotteswolds have been +famous for the breed of sheep named from them since the early part of +the 15th century, a breed hardy and prolific, with lambs that quickly +put on fleece, and become hardened to the bracing cold of the hills, +where vegetation is a month later than in the vales. Improved by +judicious crossing with the Leicester sheep, the modern Cotteswold has +attained high perfection of weight, shape, fleece and quality. An +impulse was given to Cotteswold farming by the chartering in 1845 of the +Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester. + +A number of small market-towns or large villages lie on the outskirts of +the hills, but in the inner parts of the district villages are few. The +"capital of the Cotteswolds" is Cirencester, in the east. In the north +is Chipping Campden, its great Perpendicular church and the picturesque +houses of its wide street commemorating the wealth of its wool-merchants +between the 14th and 17th centuries. Near this town, in the parish of +Weston-sub-Edge, Robert Dover, an attorney, founded the once famous +Cotteswold games early in the 17th century. Horse-racing and coursing +were included with every sort of athletic exercise from quoits and +skittles to wrestling, cudgels and singlestick. The games were +suppressed by act of parliament in 1851. + + See _Proceedings of the Cotteswold Naturalists' Field Club, passim_; + W. H. Hutton, _By Thames and Cotswold_ (London, 1903). + + + + +COTTET, CHARLES (1863- ), French painter, was born at Puy. He studied +at the École des Beaux-Arts, and under Puvis de Chavannes and Roll. He +travelled and painted in Egypt, Italy, and on the Lake of Geneva, but he +made his name with his sombre and gloomy, firmly designed, severe and +impressive scenes of life on the Brittany coast. His signal success was +achieved by his painting of the triptych, "_Au pays de la mer_," now at +the Luxembourg museum. The Lille gallery has his "Burial in Brittany." + + + + +COTTII REGNUM, a district in the north of Liguria, including a +considerable part of the important road which led over the pass (6119 +ft.) of the Alpis Cottia (Mont Genèvre) into Gaul. Whether Hannibal +crossed the Alps by this route is disputed, but it was certainly in use +about 100 B.C. (see PUNIC WARS). In 58 B.C. Caesar met with some +resistance on crossing it, but seems afterwards to have entered into +friendly relations with Donnus, the king of the district; he must have +used it frequently, and refers to it as the shortest route. Donnus's son +Cottius erected the triumphal arch at his capital Segusio, the modern +Susa, in honour of Augustus. Under Nero, after the death of the last +Cottius, it became a province under the title of "Alpes Cottiae," being +governed by a _procurator Augusti_, though it still kept its old name +also. + + + + +COTTIN, MARIE [called SOPHIE] (1770-1807), French novelist, _née_ +Risteau (not Ristaud), was born in Paris in 1770. At seventeen she +married a Bordeaux banker, who died three years after, when she retired +to a house in the country at Champlan, where she spent the rest of her +life. In 1799 she published anonymously her _Claire d'Albe_. _Malvina_ +(1801) was also anonymous; but the success of _Amélie Mansfield_ (1803) +induced her to reveal her identity. In 1805 appeared _Mathilde_, an +extravagant crusading story, and in 1806 she produced her last tale, the +famous _Élisabeth, ou les exilés de Sibérie_, the subject of which was +treated later with an admirable simplicity by Xavier de Maistre. +Sainte-Beuve asserted that she committed suicide on account of an +unfortunate attachment. This story is, however, unauthenticated. She +died at Champlan (Seine et Oise) on the 25th of April 1807. + + A complete edition of her works, with a notice by A. Petitot, was + published, in five volumes, in 1817. + + + + +COTTINGTON, FRANCIS COTTINGTON, BARON (1578-1652), English lord +treasurer and ambassador, was the fourth son of Philip Cottington of +Godmonston in Somersetshire. According to Hoare, his mother was Jane, +daughter of Thomas Biflete, but according to Clarendon "a Stafford +nearly allied to Sir Edward Stafford," through whom he was recommended +to Sir Charles Cornwallis, ambassador to Spain, becoming a member of his +suite and acting as English agent on the latter's recall, from 1609 to +1611. In 1612 he was appointed English consul at Seville. Returning to +England, he was made a clerk of the council in September 1613. His +Spanish experience rendered him useful to the king, and his bias in +favour of Spain was always marked. He seems to have promoted the Spanish +policy from the first, and pressed on Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador, +the proposal for the Spanish in opposition to the French marriage for +Prince Charles. He was a Roman Catholic at least at heart, becoming a +member of that communion in 1623, returning to Protestantism, and again +declaring himself a Roman Catholic in 1636, and supporting the cause of +the Roman Catholics in England. In 1616 he went as ambassador to Spain, +making in 1618 James's proposal of mediation in the dispute with the +elector palatine. After his return he was appointed secretary to the +prince of Wales in October 1622, and was knighted and made a baronet in +1623. He strongly disapproved of the prince's expedition to Spain, as an +adventure likely to upset the whole policy of marriage and alliance, but +was overruled and chosen to accompany him. His opposition greatly +incensed Buckingham, and still more his perseverance in the Spanish +policy after the failure of the expedition, and on Charles's accession +Cottington was through his means dismissed from all his employments and +forbidden to appear at court. The duke's assassination, however, enabled +him to return. On the 12th of November 1628 he was made a privy +councillor, and in March 1629 appointed chancellor of the exchequer. In +the autumn he was again sent ambassador to Spain; he signed the treaty +of peace of the 5th of November 1630, and subsequently a secret +agreement arranging for the partition of Holland between Spain and +England in return for the restoration of the Palatinate. On the 10th of +July 1631 he was created Baron Cottington of Hanworth in Middlesex. + +In March 1635 he was appointed master of the court of wards, and his +exactions in this office were a principal cause of the unpopularity of +the government. He was also appointed a commissioner for the treasury, +together with Laud. Between Cottington and the latter there sprang up a +fierce rivalry. In these personal encounters Cottington had nearly +always the advantage, for he practised great reserve and possessed great +powers of self-command, an extraordinary talent for dissembling and a +fund of humour. Laud completely lacked these qualities, and though +really possessing much greater influence with Charles, he was often +embarrassed and sometimes exposed to ridicule by his opponent. The aim +of Cottington's ambition was the place of lord treasurer, but Laud +finally triumphed and secured it for his own nominee, Bishop Juxon, when +Cottington became "no more a leader but meddled with his particular +duties only."[1] He continued, however, to take a large share in public +business and served on the committees for foreign, Irish and Scottish +affairs. In the last, appointed in July 1638, he supported the war, and +in May 1640, after the dismissal of the Short Parliament, he declared it +his opinion that at such a crisis the king might levy money without the +Parliament. His attempts to get funds from the city were unsuccessful, +and he had recourse instead to a speculation in pepper. He had been +appointed constable of the Tower, and he now prepared the fortress for a +siege. In the trial of Strafford in 1641 Cottington denied on oath that +he had heard him use the incriminating words about "reducing this +kingdom." When the parliamentary opposition became too strong to be any +longer defied, Cottington, as one of those who had chiefly incurred +their hostility, hastened to retire from the administration, giving up +the court of wards in May 1641 and the chancellorship of the exchequer +in January 1642. He rejoined the king in 1643, took part in the +proceedings of the Oxford parliament, and was made lord treasurer on the +3rd of October 1643. He signed the surrender of Oxford in July 1646, and +being excepted from the indemnity retired abroad. He joined Prince +Charles at the Hague in 1648, and became one of his counsellors. In +1649, together with Hyde, Cottington went on a mission to Spain to +obtain help for the royal cause, having an interview with Mazarin at +Paris on the way. They met, however, with an extremely ill reception, +and Cottington found he had completely lost his popularity at the +Spanish court, one cause being his shortcomings and waverings in the +matter of religion. He now announced his intention of remaining in Spain +and of keeping faithful to Roman Catholicism, and took up his residence +at Valladolid, where he was maintained by the Jesuits. He died there on +the 19th of June 1652, his body being subsequently buried in Westminster +Abbey. He had amassed a large fortune and built two magnificent houses +at Hanworth and Founthill. Cottington was evidently a man of +considerable ability, but the foreign policy pursued by him was opposed +to the national interests and futile in itself. According to Clarendon's +verdict "he left behind him a greater esteem of his parts than love of +his person." He married in 1623 Anne, daughter of Sir William Meredith +and widow of Sir Robert Brett. All his children predeceased him, and his +title became extinct at his death. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_ and + authorities there quoted; Clarendon's _Hist. of the Rebellion, + passim_, and esp. xiii. 30 (his character), and xii., xiii. (account + of the Spanish mission in 1649); Clarendon's _State Papers and Life_; + Strafford's _Letters_; Gardiner's _Hist. of England and of the + Commonwealth_; Hoare's _Wiltshire_; Laud's _Works_, vols, iii.-vii.; + Winwood's _Memorials: A Refutation of a False and Impious Aspersion + cast on the late Lord Cottington_; Dart, _Westmonasterium_, i. 181 + (epitaph and monument). (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Strafford's _Letters_, ii. 52. + + + + +COTTON, the name of a well-known family of Anglo-Indian administrators, +of whom the following are the most notable. + +SIR ARTHUR THOMAS COTTON (1803-1899), English engineer, tenth son of +Henry Calveley Cotton, was born on the 15th of May 1803, and was +educated at Addiscombe. He entered the Madras engineers in 1819, served +in the first Burmese war (1824-26), and in 1828 began his life-work on +the irrigation works of southern India. He constructed works on the +Cauvery, Coleroon, Godavari and Kistna rivers, making anicuts (dams) on +the Coleroon (1836-1838) for the irrigation of the Tanjore, Trichinopoly +and South Arcot districts; and on the Godivari (1847-1852) for the +irrigation of the Godavari district. He also projected the anicut on the +Kistna (Krishna), which was carried out by other officers. Before the +beginning of his work Tanjore and the adjoining districts were +threatened with ruin from lack of water; on its completion they became +the richest part of Madras, and Tanjore returned the largest revenue of +any district in India. He was the founder of the school of Indian +hydraulic engineering, and carried out much of his work in the face of +opposition and discouragement from the Madras government; though, in the +minute of the 15th of May 1858, that government paid an ample tribute to +the genius of Cotton's "master mind." He was knighted in 1861. Sir +Arthur Cotton believed in the possibility of constructing a complete +system of irrigation and navigation canals throughout India, and devoted +the whole of a long life to the partial realization of this project. He +died on the 24th of July 1899. + + See Lady Hope, _General Sir Arthur Cotton_ (1900). + +SIR HENRY JOHN STEDMAN COTTON (1845- ), Anglo-Indian administrator, +son of J. J. Cotton of the Madras Civil Service, was born on the 13th of +September 1845, and was educated at Magdalen College school and King's +College, London. He entered the Bengal Civil Service in 1867, and held +various appointments of increasing importance until he became chief +secretary to the Bengal government (1891-1896), acting home secretary to +the government of India (1896), and chief commissioner of Assam +(1896-1902). He retired in 1902, and soon became known as the leading +English champion of the Indian nationalists. In 1906 he entered +parliament as Liberal member for East Nottingham. He was the author of +_New India_ (1885; revised 1904-1907). + +His brother, JAMES SUTHERLAND COTTON (1847- ), was born in India on +the 17th of July 1847, and was educated at Magdalen College school and +Trinity College, Oxford. For many years he was editor of the _Academy_; +he published various works on Indian subjects, and was the English +editor of the revised edition of the _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ +(1908). + + + + +COTTON, CHARLES (1630-1687), English poet, the translator of Montaigne, +was born at Beresford in Staffordshire on the 28th of April 1630. His +father, Charles Cotton, was a man of marked ability, and counted among +his friends Ben Jonson, John Selden, Sir Henry Wotton and Izaak Walton. +The son was apparently not sent to the university, but he had as tutor +Ralph Rawson, one of the fellows ejected from Brasenose College, Oxford, +in 1648. Cotton travelled in France and perhaps in Italy, and at the age +of twenty-eight he succeeded to an estate greatly encumbered by lawsuits +during his father's lifetime. The rest of his life was spent chiefly in +country pursuits, but from his _Voyage to Ireland in Burlesque_ (1670) +we know that he held a captain's commission and was ordered to that +country. His friendship with Izaak Walton began about 1655, and the fact +of this intimacy seems a sufficient answer to the charges sometimes +brought against Cotton's character, based chiefly on his coarse +burlesques of Virgil and Lucian. Walton's initials made into a cipher +with his own were placed over the door of his fishing cottage on the +Dove; and to the _Compleat Angler_ he added "Instructions how to angle +for a trout or grayling in a clear stream." He married in 1656 his +cousin Isabella, who was a sister of Colonel Hutchinson. It was for his +wife's sister, Miss Stanhope Hutchinson, that he undertook the +translation of Corneille's _Horace_ (1671). His wife died in 1670 and +five years later he married the dowager countess of Ardglass; she had a +jointure of £1500 a year, but it was secured from his extravagance, and +at his death in 1687 he was insolvent. He was buried in St James's +church, Piccadilly, on the 16th of February 1687. Cotton's reputation as +a burlesque writer may account for the neglect with which the rest of +his poems have been treated. Their excellence was not, however, +overlooked by good critics. Coleridge praises the purity and +unaffectedness of his style in _Biographia Literaria_, and Wordsworth +(_Preface_, 1815) gave a copious quotation from the "Ode to Winter." The +"Retirement" is printed by Walton in the second part of the _Compleat +Angler_. His masterpiece in translation, the _Essays of M. de Montaigne_ +(1685-1686, 1693, 1700, &c.), has often been reprinted, and still +maintains its reputation; his other works include _The Scarronides, or +Virgil Travestie_ (1664-1670), a gross burlesque of the first and fourth +books of the Aeneid, which ran through fifteen editions; _Burlesque upon +Burlesque, ... being some of Lucian's Dialogues newly put into English +fustian_ (1675); _The Moral Philosophy of the Stoicks_ (1667), from the +French of Guillaume du Vair; _The History of the Life of the Duke +d'Espernon_ (1670), from the French of G. Girard; the _Commentaries_ +(1674) of Blaise de Montluc; the _Planter's Manual_ (1675), a practical +book on arboriculture, in which he was an expert; _The Wonders of the +Peake_ (1681); the _Compleat Gamester_ and _The Fair one of Tunis_, both +dated 1674, are also assigned to Cotton. + + William Oldys contributed a life of Cotton to Hawkins's edition (1760) + of the _Compleat Angler_. His _Lyrical Poems_ were edited by J. R. + Tutin in 1903, from an unsatisfactory edition of 1689. His translation + of Montaigne was edited in 1892, and in a more elaborate form in 1902, + by W. C. Hazlitt, who omitted or relegated to the notes the passages + in which Cotton interpolates his own matter, and supplied his + omissions. + + + + +COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813-1866), English educationist and +divine, was born at Chester on the 29th of October 1813. He received his +education at Westminster school, and at Trinity College, Cambridge. Here +he joined the Low Church party, and was also the intimate friend of +several disciples of Thomas Arnold, among whom were C. J. Vaughan and W. +J. Conybeare. The influence of Arnold determined the character and +course of his life. He graduated B.A. in 1836, and became an +assistant-master at Rugby. Here he worked devotedly for fifteen years, +inspired with Arnold's spirit, and heartily entering into his plans and +methods. He became master of the fifth form about 1840 and was +singularly successful with the boys. In 1852 he accepted the appointment +of headmaster at Marlborough College, then in a state of almost hopeless +disorganization, and in his six years of rule raised it to a high +position. In 1858 Cotton was offered the see of Calcutta, which, after +much hesitation about quitting Marlborough, he accepted. For its +peculiar duties and responsibilities he was remarkably fitted by the +simplicity and strength of his character, by his large tolerance, and by +the experience which he had gained as teacher and ruler at Rugby and +Marlborough. The government of India had just been transferred from the +East India Company to the crown, and questions of education were eagerly +discussed. Cotton gave himself energetically to the work of establishing +schools for British and Eurasian children, classes which had been +hitherto much neglected. He did much also to improve the position of the +chaplains, and was unwearied in missionary visitation. His sudden death +was widely mourned. On the 6th of October 1866 he had consecrated a +cemetery at Kushtea on the Ganges, and was crossing a plank leading from +the bank to the steamer when he slipped and fell into the river. He was +carried away by the current and never seen again. + + A memoir of his life with selections from his journals and + correspondence, edited by his widow, was published in 1871. + + + + +COTTON, JOHN (1585-1652), English and American Puritan divine, sometimes +called "The Patriarch of New England," born in Derby, England, on the +4th of December 1585. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, +graduating B.A. in 1603 and M.A. in 1606, and became a fellow in +Emmanuel College, Cambridge, then a stronghold of Puritanism, where, +during the next six years, according to his friend and biographer, Rev. +Samuel Whiting, he was "head lecturer and dean, and Catechist," and "a +dilligent tutor to many pupils." In June 1612 he became vicar of the +parish church of St Botolphs in Boston, Lincolnshire, where he remained +for twenty-one years and was extremely popular. Becoming more and more a +Puritan in spirit, he ceased, about 1615, to observe certain ceremonies +prescribed by the legally authorized ritual, and in 1632 action was +begun against him in the High Commission Court. He thereupon escaped, +disguised, to London, lay in concealment there for several months, and, +having been deeply interested from its beginning in the colonization of +New England, he eluded the watch set for him at the various English +ports, and in July 1633 emigrated to the colony of Massachusetts Bay, +arriving at Boston early in September. On the 10th of October he was +chosen "teacher" of the First Church of Boston, of which John Wilson +(1588-1667) was pastor, and here he remained until his death on the 23rd +of December 1652. In the newer, as in the older Boston, his popularity +was almost unbounded, and his influence, both in ecclesiastical and in +civil affairs, was probably greater than that of any other minister in +theocratic New England. According to the contemporary historian, William +Hubbard, "Whatever he delivered in the pulpit was soon put into an order +of court, if of a civil, or set up as a practice in the church, if of an +ecclesiastical concernment." His influence, too, was generally +beneficent, though it was never used to further the cause of religious +freedom, or of democracy, his theory of government being given in an +oft-quoted passage: "Democracy, I do not conceyve that ever God did +ordeyne as a fitt government eyther for church or commonwealth.... As +for Monarchy and aristocracy they are both for them clearly approved, +and directed in Scripture yet so as (God) referreth the sovereigntie to +himselfe, and setteth up Theocracy in both, as the best form of +government." He naturally took an active part in most, if not all, of +the political and theological controversies of his time, the two +principal of which were those concerning Antinomianism and the expulsion +of Roger Williams. In the former his position was somewhat equivocal--he +first supported and then violently opposed Anne Hutchinson,--in the +latter he approved Williams's expulsion as "righteous in the eyes of +God," and subsequently in a pamphlet discussion with Williams, +particularly in his _Bloudy Tenent, Washed and made White in the Blood +of the Lamb_ (1647), vigorously opposed religious freedom. He was a man +of great learning and was a prolific writer. His writings include: _The +Keyes to the Kingdom of Heaven and the Power thereof_ (1644), _The Way +of the Churches of Christ in New England_ (1645), and _The Way of +Congregational Churches Cleared_ (1648), these works constituting an +invaluable exposition of New England Congregationalism; and _Milk for +Babes, Drawn out of the Breasts of Both Testaments, Chiefly for the +Spirituall Nourishment of Boston Babes in either England, but may be of +like Use for any Children_ (1646), widely used for many years, in New +England, for the religious instruction of children. + + See the quaint sketch by Cotton Mather, John Cotton's grandson, in + _Magnalia_ (London, 1702), and a sketch by Cotton's contemporary and + friend, Rev. Samuel Whiting, printed in Alexander Young's _Chronicles + of the First Planters of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay from 1623 to + 1636_ (Boston, 1846); also A. W. McClure's _The Life of John Cotton_ + (Boston, 1846), a chapter in Arthur B. Ellis's _History of the First + Church in Boston_ (Boston, 1881), and a chapter in Williston Walker's + _Ten New England Leaders_ (New York, 1901). (W. WR.) + + + + +COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE, Bart. (1571-1631), English antiquary, the +founder of the Cottonian library, born at Denton in Huntingdonshire on +the 22nd of January 1571, was a descendant, as he delighted to boast, of +Robert Bruce. He was educated at Westminster school under William Camden +the antiquary, and at Jesus College, Cambridge. His antiquarian tastes +were early displayed in the collection of ancient records, charters and +other manuscripts, which had been dispersed from the monastic libraries +in the reign of Henry VIII.; and throughout the whole of his life he was +an energetic collector of antiquities from all parts of England and the +continent. His house at Westminster had a garden going down to the river +and occupied part of the site of the present House of Lords. It was the +meeting-place in the last years of Elizabeth's reign of the antiquarian +society founded by Archbishop Parker. In 1600 Cotton visited the north +of England with Camden in search of Pictish and Roman monuments and +inscriptions. His reputation as an expert in heraldry led to his being +asked by Queen Elizabeth to discuss the question of precedence between +the English ambassador and the envoy of Spain, then in treaty at Calais. +He drew up an elaborate paper establishing the precedence of the English +ambassador. On the accession of James I. he was knighted, and in 1608 he +wrote a _Memorial on Abuses in the Navy_, that resulted in a navy +commission, of which he was made a member. He also presented to the king +an historical _Inquiry into the Crown Revenues_, in which he speaks +freely about the expenses of the royal household, and asserts that +tonnage and poundage are only to be levied in war time, and to "proceed +out of good will, not of duty." In this paper he supported the creation +of the order of baronets, each of whom was to pay the crown £1000; and +in 1611 he himself received the title. + +Cotton helped John Speed in the compilation of his _History of England_ +(1611), and was regarded by contemporaries as the compiler of Camden's +_History of Elizabeth_. It seems more likely that it was executed by +Camden, but that Cotton exercised a general supervision, especially with +regard to the story of Mary queen of Scots. The presentation of his +mother's history was naturally important to James I., and Cotton himself +took a keen interest in the matter. He had had the room in Fotheringay +where Mary was executed transferred to his family seat at Connington. +Meanwhile he was enlarging his collection of documents. In 1614 Arthur +Agarde (q.v.) left his papers to him, and Camden's manuscripts came to +him in 1623. In 1615 Cotton, as the intimate of the earl of Somerset, +whose innocence he always maintained, was placed in confinement on the +charge of being implicated in the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury; he +confessed that he had acted as intermediary between Sarmiento, the +Spanish ambassador, and Somerset, and had altered the dates of +Somerset's correspondence. He was released after about eight months' +imprisonment without formal trial, and obtained a pardon on payment of +£500. His friendship with Gondomar, Spanish ambassador in England from +1613 to 1621, brought further suspicion, probably undeserved, upon +Cotton, of unduly favouring the Catholic party. From Charles I. and +Buckingham Cotton received no favour; his attitude towards the court had +begun to change, and he became the intimate friend of Sir John Eliot, +Sir Simonds d'Ewes and John Selden. He had entered parliament in 1604 as +member for Huntingdon; in 1624 he sat for Old Sarum; in 1625 for +Thetford; and in 1628 for Castle Rising, Norfolk. In the debate on +supply in 1625 Cotton provided Eliot with full notes defending the +action of the opposition in parliament, and in 1628 the leaders of the +party met at Cotton's house to decide on their policy. In 1626 he gave +advice before the council against debasing the standard of the coinage; +and in January 1628 he was again before the council, urging the summons +of a parliament. His arguments on the latter occasion are contained in +his tract entitled _The Danger in which the Kingdom now standeth and the +Remedy_. In October of the next year he was arrested, together with the +earls of Bedford, Somerset, and Clare, for having circulated, with +ironical purpose, a tract known as the _Proposition to bridle +Parliament_, which had been addressed some fifteen years before by Sir +Robert Dudley to James I., advising him to govern by force; the +circulation of this by Parliamentarians was regarded as intended to +insinuate that Charles's government was arbitrary and unconstitutional. +Cotton denied knowledge of the matter, but the original was discovered +in his house, and the copies had been put in circulation by a young man +who lived after him and was said to be his natural son. Cotton was +himself released the next month; but the proceedings in the star chamber +continued, and, to his intense vexation, his library was sealed up by +the king. He died on the 6th of May 1631, and was buried in Connington +church, Huntingdonshire, where there is a monument to his memory. + + Many of Cotton's pamphlets were widely read in manuscript during his + lifetime, but only two of his works were printed, _The Reign of Henry + III_. (1627) and _The Danger in which the Kingdom now Standeth_ + (1628). His son, Sir Thomas (1594-1662), added considerably to the + Cottonian library; and Sir John, the fourth baronet, presented it to + the nation in 1700. In 1731 the collection, which had in the interval + been removed to the Strand, and thence to Ashburnham House, was + seriously damaged by fire. In 1753 it was transferred to the British + Museum. + + See the article LIBRARIES, and Edwards's _Lives of the Founders of the + British Museum_, vol. i. Several of Cotton's papers have been printed + under the title _Cottoni Posthuma_; others were published by Thomas + Hearne. + + + + +COTTON (Fr. _coton_; from Arab, _qutun_), the most important of the +vegetable fibres of the world, consisting of unicellular hairs which +occur attached to the seeds of various species of plants of the genus +_Gossypium_, belonging to the Mallow order (Malvaceae). Each fibre is +formed by the outgrowth of a single epidermal cell of the testa or outer +coat of the seed. + +_Botany and Cultivation._--The genus _Gossypium_ includes herbs and +shrubs, which have been cultivated from time immemorial, and are now +found widely distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical regions +of both hemispheres. South America, the West Indies, tropical Africa and +Southern Asia are the homes of the various members, but the plants have +been introduced with success into other lands, as is well indicated by +the fact that although no species of _Gossypium_ is native to the United +States of America, that country now produces over two-thirds of the +world's supply of cotton. Under normal conditions in warm climates many +of the species are perennials, but, in the United States for example, +climatic conditions necessitate the plants being renewed annually, and +even in the tropics it is often found advisable to treat them as annuals +to ensure the production of cotton of the best quality, to facilitate +cultural operations, and to keep insect and fungoid pests in check. + +Microscopic examination of a specimen of mature cotton shows that the +hairs are flattened and twisted, resembling somewhat in general +appearance an empty and twisted fire hose. This characteristic is of +great economic importance, the natural twist facilitating the operation +of spinning the fibres into thread or yarn. It also distinguishes the +true cotton from the silk cottons or flosses, the fibres of which have +no twist, and do not readily spin into thread, and for this reason, +amongst others, are very considerably less important as textile fibres. +The chief of these silk cottons is kapok, consisting of the hairs borne +on the interior of the pods (but not attached to the seeds) of +_Eriodendron anfractuosum_, the silk cotton tree, a member of the +Bombacaceae, an order very closely allied to the Malvaceae. + +_Classification._--Considerable difficulty is encountered in attempting +to draw up a botanical classification of the species of _Gossypium_. +Several are only known in cultivation, and we have but little knowledge +of the wild parent forms from which they have descended. During the +periods the cottons have been cultivated, selection, conscious or +unconscious, has been carried on, resulting in the raising, from the +same stock probably, in different places, of well-marked forms, which, +in the absence of the history of their origin, might be regarded as +different species. Then again, during at least the last four centuries, +cotton plants have been distributed from one country to another, only to +render still more difficult any attempt to establish definitely the +origin of the varieties now grown. Under these circumstances it is not +surprising to find that those who have paid attention to the botany of +the cottons differ greatly in the number of species they recognize. +Linnaeus described five or six species, de Candolle thirteen. Of the two +Italian botanists who in comparatively recent years have monographed the +group, Parlatore (_Le Specie dei cotoni_, 1866) recognizes seven +species, whilst Todaro (_Relazione sulla culta dei cotoni_, 1877-1878) +describes over fifty species: many of these, however, are of but little +economic importance, and, in spite of the difficulties mentioned above, +it is possible for practical purposes to divide the commercially +important plants into five species, placing these in two groups +according to the character of the hairs borne on the seeds. Sir G. +Watt's exhaustive work on _Wild and Cultivated Cotton Plants of the +World_ (1907) is the latest authority on the subject; and his views on +some debated points have been incorporated in the following account. + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 1.--Seed-hairs of the Cotton, _Gossypium herbaceum_. A, Part of +seed-coat with hairs; B_1, insertion and lower part; B_2, middle part; +and B_3, upper part of a hair.] + +A seed of "Sea Island cotton" is covered with long hairs only, which are +readily pulled off, leaving the comparatively small black seed quite +clean or with only a slight fuzz at the end, whereas a seed of "Upland" +or ordinary American cotton bears both long and short hairs; the former +are fairly easily detached (less easily, however, than in Sea Island +cotton), whilst the latter adhere very firmly, so that when the long +hairs are pulled off the seed remains completely covered with a short +fuzz. This is also the case with the ordinary Indian and African +cottons. There remains one other important group, the so-called "kidney" +cottons in which there are only long hairs, and the seed easily comes +away clean as with "Sea Island," but, instead of each seed being +separate, the whole group in each of the three compartments of the +capsule is firmly united together in a more or less kidney-shaped mass. +Starting with this as the basis of classification, we can construct the +following key, the remaining principal points of difference being +indicated in their proper places:-- + + i. Seeds covered with long hairs only, flowers yellow, turning to red. + + A. Seeds separate. + Country of origin, Tropical America--(1) _G. barbadense_, L. + B. Seeds of each loculus united. + Country of origin, S. America--(2) _G. brasiliense_, Macf. + + ii. Seeds covered with long and short hairs. + + A. Flowers yellow or white, turning to red. + a. Leaves 3 to 5 lobed, often large. Flowers white. + Country of origin, Mexico--(3) _G. hirsutum_, L. + b. Leaves 3 to 5, seldom 7 lobed. Small. Flowers yellow. + Country of origin, India--(4) _G. herbaceum_, L. + B. Flowers purple or red. Leaves 3 to 7 lobed. + Place of origin, Old World--(5) _G. arboreum_, L. + +1. _G. barbadense_, Linn. This plant, known only in cultivation, is +usually regarded as native to the West Indies. Watt regards it as +closely allied to _G. vitifolium_, and considers the modern stock a +hybrid, and probably not indigenous to the West Indies. He classifies +the modern high-class Sea Island cottons as _G. barbadense_, var. +_maritima_. Whatever may be its true botanical name it is the plant +known in commerce as "Sea Island" cotton, owing to its introduction and +successful cultivation in the Sea Islands and the coastal districts of +South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. It yields the most valuable of all +cottons, the hairs being long, fine and silky, and ranging in length +from 3/8 to 2½ in. By careful selection (the methods of which are +described below) in the United States, the quality of the product was +much improved, and on the recent revival of the cotton industry in the +West Indies American "Sea Island" seed was introduced back again to the +original home of the species. + +Egyptian cotton is usually regarded as being derived from the same +species. Watt considers many of the Egyptian cottons to be races or +hybrids of _G. peruvianum_, Cav. Egyptian cotton in length of staple is +intermediate between average Sea Island and average Upland. It has, +however, certain characteristics which cause it to be in demand even in +the United States, where during recent years Egyptian cotton has +comprised about 80% of all the "foreign" cottons imported. These special +qualities are its fineness, strength, elasticity and great natural +twist, which combined enable it to make very fine, strong yarns, suited +to the manufacture of the better qualities of hosiery, for mixing with +silk and wool, for making lace, &c. It also mercerizes very well. The +principal varieties of Egyptian cotton are: _Mitafifi_, the best-known +and most extensively grown, hardy and but little affected by climatic +variation. It is usually regarded as the standard Egyptian cotton; the +lint is yellowish brown, the seeds black and almost smooth, usually with +a little tuft of short green hairs at the ends. _Abassi_, a variety +comparatively recently obtained by selection. The lint is pure white, +very fine and silky, but not so strong as Mitafifi cotton. _Yannovitch_, +a variety known since about 1897, yields the finest and most silky lint +of the white Egyptian cottons. _Bamia_, yielding a brown lint, very +similar to Mitafifi, but slightly less valuable. _Ashmouni_, a variety +principally cultivated in Upper Egypt. The lint is brown and generally +resembles Mitafifi but is less valuable. + +Other varieties are _Zifiri_, _Hamouli_ and _Gallini_, all of minor +importance. + +2. _G. brasiliense_, Macf. (_G. peruvianum_, Engler), or kidney cotton. +Amongst the varieties of cotton which are derived from this species +appear to be Pernambuco, Maranham, Ceara, Aracaty and Maceio cottons. +The fibre is generally white, somewhat harsh and wiry, and especially +adapted for mixing with wool. The staple varies in length from 1 to +about 1½ in. + +3. _G. hirsutum_, Linn. Although _G. barbadense_ yields the most +valuable cotton, _G. hirsutum_ is the most important cotton-yielding +plant, being the source of American cotton, i.e. Upland, Georgia, New +Orleans and Texas varieties. The staple varies usually in length between +¾ and 1¼ in. According to Watt there are many hybrids in American +cottons between _G. hirsutum_ and _G. mexicanum_. + + +4. _G. herbaceum_, Linn. Levant cotton is derived from this species. The +majority of the races of cotton cultivated in India are often referred +to this species, which is closely allied to _G. hirsutum_ and has been +regarded as identical with it. Amongst the cottons of this source are +Hinganghat, Tinnevelly, Dharwar, Broach, Amraoti (Oomras or +Oomrawattee), Kumta, Westerns, Dholera, Verawal, Bengals, Sind and +Bhaunagar. Watt dissents from this view and classes these Indian cottons +as _G. obtusifolium_ and _G. Nanking_ with their varieties. The Indian +cottons are usually of short staple (about ¾ in.), but are probably +capable of improvement. + +5. _G. arboreum_, Linn. This species is often considered as indigenous +to India, but Dr Engler has pointed out that it is found wild in Upper +Guinea, Abyssinia, Senegal, etc. It is the "tree cotton" of India and +Africa, being typically a large shrub or small tree. The fibre is fine +and silky, of about an inch in length. In India it is known as Nurma or +Deo cotton, and is usually stated to be employed for making thread for +the turbans of the priests. Commercially it is of comparatively minor +importance. + +The following table, summarized from the _Handbook to the Imperial +Institute Cotton Exhibition_, 1905, giving the length of staple and +value on one date (January 16, 1905), will serve to indicate the +_comparative_ values of some of the principal commercial cottons. The +actual value, of course, fluctuates greatly. + + Length of Staple. Value + Inches. Per lb. + Sea Island Cotton-- s. d. + Carolina Sea Island 1.8 1 3 + Florida " " 1.8 1 0 + Georgia " " 1.7 11¼ + Barbados " " 2.0 1 3 + + Egyptian Cottons-- + Yannovitch 1.5 9¼ + Abassi 1.5 8¾ + Good Brown Egyptian (Mitafifi) 1.2 7½ + + American Cotton-- + Good middling Memphis 1.3 4-2/5 + Good middling Texas 1.0 4-1/5 + Good middling Upland 1.0 4 + + Indian Cottons-- + Fine Tinnevelly 0.8 4¼ + Fine Bhaunagar 1.0 3-7/8 + Fine Amraoti 1.0 3-7/8 + Fine Broach 0.9 3-13/16 + Fine Bengal 0.9 3-11/16 + Fine ginned Sind 0.8 3-11/16 + Good ginned Kumta 1.0 3½ + +The close relationship between the length of the staple and the market +price will be at once apparent. + +_Cultivation._--Cotton is very widely cultivated throughout the world, +being grown on a greater or less scale as a commercial crop in almost +every country included in the broad belt between latitudes 43° N. and +33° S., or approximately within the isothermal lines of 60° F. + +The cotton plant requires certain conditions for its successful +cultivation; but, given these, it is very little affected by seasonal +vicissitudes. Thus, for example, in the United States the worst season +rarely diminishes the crop by more than about a quarter or one-third; +such a thing as a "half-crop" is unknown. Various climatic factors may +cause temporary checks, but the growing and maturing period is +sufficiently long to allow the plants to overcome these disturbances. + +Cotton requires for its development from six to seven months of +favourable weather. It thrives in a warm atmosphere, even in a very hot +one, provided that it is moist and that the transpiration is not in +excess of the supply of water. An idea of the requirements of the plant +will perhaps be afforded by summarizing the conditions which have been +found to give the best results in the United States. + +During April (when the seed is usually sown) and May frequent light +showers, which keep the ground sufficiently moist to assist germination +and the growth of the young plants, are desired. Three to four inches of +rain per month is the average. The active growing period is from early +June to about the middle of August. During June and the first fortnight +in July plenty of sunshine is necessary, accompanied by sufficient rain +to promote healthy, but not excessive, growth; the normal rainfall in +the cotton belt for this period is about 4½ in. per month. During the +second portion of July and the first of August a slightly higher +rainfall is beneficial, and even heavy rains do little harm, provided +the subsequent months are dry and warm. The first flowers usually appear +in June, and the bolls ripen from early in August. Picking takes place +normally during September and October, and during these months dry +weather is essential. Flowering and fruiting go on continually, although +in diminishing degree, until the advent of frost, which kills the +flowers and young bolls and so puts an end to the production of cotton +for the season. + +In the tropics the essential requirements are very similar, but there +the dry season checks production in much the same way as do the frosts +in temperate climates. In either case an adequate but not excessive +rainfall, increasing from the time of sowing to the period of active +growth, and then decreasing as the bolls ripen, with a dry picking +season, combined with sunny days and warm nights, provide the ideal +conditions for successful cotton cultivation. In regions where climatic +conditions are favourable, cotton grows more or less successfully on +almost all kinds of soil; it can be grown on light sandy soils, loams, +heavy clays and sandy "bottom" lands with varying success. Sandy uplands +produce a short stalk which bears fairly well. Clay and "bottom" lands +produce a large, leafy plant, yielding less lint in proportion. The most +suitable soils are medium grades of loam. The soil should be able to +maintain very uniform conditions of moisture. Sudden variations in the +amount of water supplied are injurious: a sandy soil cannot retain +water; on the other hand a clay soil often maintains too great a supply, +and rank growth with excess of foliage ensues. The best soil for cotton +is thus a deep, well-drained loam, able to afford a uniform supply of +moisture during the growing period. Wind is another important factor, as +cotton does not do well in localities subject to very high winds; and in +exposed situations, otherwise favourable, wind belts have at times to be +provided. + +_Cultivation in the United States._--The United States being the most +important cotton-producing country, the methods of cultivation practised +there are first described, notes on methods adopted in other countries +being added only when these differ considerably from American practice. + +The culture of cotton must be a clean one. It is not necessarily deep +culture, and during the growing season the cultivation is preferably +very shallow. The result is a great destruction of the humus of the +soil, and great leaching and washing, especially in the light loams of +the hill country of the United States. The main object, therefore, of +the American cotton-planter is to prevent erosion. Wherever the planters +have failed to guard their fields by hillside ploughing and terracing, +these have been extensively denuded of soil, rendering them barren, and +devastating other fields lying at a lower level, which are covered by +the wash. The hillsides have gradually to be terraced with the plough, +upon almost an exact level. On the better farms this is done with a +spirit-level or compass from time to time and hillside ditches put in at +the proper places. In the moist bottom-lands along the rivers it is the +custom to throw the soil up in high beds with the plough, and then to +cultivate them deep. This is the more common method of drainage, but it +is expensive, as it has to be renewed every few years. More intelligent +planters drain their bottom-lands with underground or open drains. In +the case of small plantations the difficulties of adjusting a +right-of-way for outlet ditches have interfered seriously with this +plan. Many planters question the wisdom of deepbreaking and subsoiling. +There can be no question that a deep soil is better for the +cotton-plant; but the expense of obtaining it, the risk of injuring the +soil through leaching, and the danger of bringing poor soil to the +surface, have led many planters to oppose this plan. Sandy soils are +made thereby too dry and leachy, and it is a questionable proceeding to +turn the heavy clays upon the top. Planters are, as a result, divided in +opinion as to the wisdom of subsoiling. Nothing definite can be said +with regard to a rotation of crops upon the cotton plantation. Planters +appreciate generally the value of broad-leaved and narrow-leaved plants +and root crops, but there is an absence of exact knowledge, with the +result that their practices are very varied. It is believed that the +rotation must differ with every variety of soil, with the result that +each planter has his own method, and little can be said in general. A +more careful study of the physical as well as the chemical properties of +a soil must precede intelligent experimentation in rotation. This +knowledge is still lacking with regard to most of the cotton soils. The +only uniform practice is to let the fields "rest" when they have become +exhausted. Nature then restores them very rapidly. The exhaustion of the +soil under cotton culture is chiefly due to the loss of humus, and +nature soon puts this back in the excellent climate of the +cotton-growing belt. Fields considered utterly used up, and allowed to +"rest" for years, when cultivated again have produced better crops than +those which had been under a more or less thoughtful rotation. In spite +of the clean culture, good crops of cotton have been grown on some soils +in the south for more than forty successive years. The fibre takes +almost nothing from the land, and where the seeds are restored to the +soil in some form, even without other fertilizers, the exhaustion of the +soil is very slow. If the burning-up of humus and the leaching of the +soil could be prevented, there is no reason why a cotton soil should not +produce good crops continuously for an indefinite time. Bedding up land +previous to planting is almost universal. The bed forms a warm seed-bed +in the cool weather of early spring, and holds the manure which is +drilled in usually to better advantage. The plants are generally left 2 +or 3 in. above the middle of the row, which in four-foot rows gives a +slope of 1 in. to the foot, causing the plough to lean from the plants +in cultivating, and thus to cut fewer roots. The plants are usually cut +out with a hoe from 8 to 14 in. apart. It seems to make little +difference exactly what distance they are, so long as they are not wider +apart on average land than 1 ft. On rich bottom-land they should be more +distant. The seed is dropped from a planter, five or six seeds in a +single line, at regular intervals 10 to 12 in. apart. A narrow deep +furrow is usually run immediately in advance of the planter, to break up +the soil under the seed. The only time the hoe is used is to thin out +the cotton in the row; all the rest of the cultivation is by various +forms of ploughs and so-called cultivators. The question of deep and +shallow culture has been much discussed among planters without any +conclusion applicable to all soils being reached. All grass and weeds +must be kept down, and the crust must be broken after every rain, but +these seem to be the only principles upon which all agree. The most +effective tool against the weeds is a broad sharp "sweep," as it is +called, which takes everything it meets, while going shallower than most +ploughs. Harrows and cultivators are used where there are few weeds, and +the mulching process is the one desired. + +The date of cotton-planting varies from March 1 to June 1, according to +situation. Planting begins early in March in Southern Texas, and the +first blooms will appear there about May 15. Planting may be done as +late as April 15 in the Piedmont region of North Carolina, and continue +as late as the end of May. The first blooms will appear in this region +about July 15. Picking may begin on July 10 in Southern Texas, and +continue late into the winter, or until the rare frost kills the plants. +It may not begin until September 10 in Piedmont, North Carolina. It is a +peculiarity of the cotton-plant to lose a great many of its blooms and +bolls. When the weather is not favourable at the fruiting stage, the +otherwise hardy cotton plant displays its great weakness in this way. It +sheds its "forms" (as the buds are called), blooms, and even half-grown +bolls in great numbers. It has frequently been noted that even +well-fertilized plants upon good soil will mature only 15 or 20% of the +bolls produced. No means are known so far for preventing this great +waste. Experts are at an entire loss to form a correct idea of the +cause, or to apply any effective remedy. + +Cotton-picking is at once the most difficult and most expensive +operation in cotton production. It is paid for at the rate of from 45 to +50 cents per cwt. of seed cotton. The work is light, and is effectually +performed by women and even children, as well as men; but it is tedious +and requires care. The picking season will average 100 days. It is +difficult to get the hands to work until the cotton is fully opened, and +it is hard to induce them to pick over 100 lb. a day, though some +expert hands are found in every cotton plantation who can pick twice as +much. The loss resulting from careless work is very serious. The cotton +falls out easily or is dropped. The careless gathering of dead leaves +and twigs, and the soiling of the cotton by earth or by the natural +colouring matter from the bolls, injure the quality. It has been +commonly thought that the production of cotton in the south is limited +by the amount that can be picked, but this limit is evidently very +remote. The negro population of the towns and villages of the cotton +country is usually available for a considerable share in cotton-picking. +There is in the cotton states a rural population of over 7,000,000, more +or less occupied in cotton-growing, and capable, at the low average of +100 lb. a day, of picking daily nearly 500,000 bales. It is evident, +therefore, that if this number could work through the whole season of +100 days, they could pick three or four times as much cotton as the +largest crop ever made. Great efforts have been made to devise +cotton-picking machines, but, as yet, complete success has not been +attained. Lowne's machine is useful in specially wide-planted fields and +when the ground is sufficiently hard. + +_Cotton Ginning._--The crop having been picked, it has to be prepared +for purpose of manufacture. This comprises separating the fibre or lint +from the seeds, the operation being known as "ginning." When this has +been accomplished the weight of the crop is reduced to about one-third, +each 100 lb. of seed cotton as picked yielding after ginning some 33 +lb of lint and 66 lb. of cotton seed. The actual amounts differ with +different varieties, conditions of cultivation, methods of ginning, &c.; +a recent estimate in the United States gives 35% of lint for Upland +cotton and 25% for Sea Island cotton as more accurate. + +The separation of lint from seed is accomplished in various ways. The +most primitive is hand-picking, the fibre being laboriously pulled from +off each seed, as still practised in parts of Africa. In modern +commercial cotton production ginning machines are always used. Very +simple machines are used in some parts of Africa. The simplest cotton +gin in extensive use is the "churka," used from early times, and still +largely employed in India and China. It consists essentially of two +rollers either both of wood, or one of wood and one of iron, geared to +revolve in contact in opposite directions; the seed cotton is fed to the +rollers, the lint is drawn through, and the seed being unable to pass +between the rollers is rejected. With this primitive machine, worked by +hand, about 5 lb. of lint is the daily output. In the Macarthy roller +gin, the lint, drawn by a roller covered with leather (preferably walrus +hide), is drawn between a metal plate called the "doctor" (fixed +tangentially to the roller and very close to it) and a blade called the +"beater" or knife, which rapidly moves up and down immediately behind, +and parallel to, the fixed plate. The lint is held by the roughness of +the roller, and the blade of the knife or beater readily detaches the +seed from the lint; the seed falls through a grid, while the lint passes +over the roller to the other side of the machine. A hand Macarthy roller +gin worked by two men will clean about 4 to 6 lb. of lint per hour. A +similar, but larger machine, requiring about 1½ horse-power to run it, +will turn out 50 to 60 lb. of Egyptian or 60 to 80 lb. of Sea Island +cleaned cotton per hour. By simple modifications the Macarthy gin can be +used for all kinds of cotton. Various attempts have been made to +substitute a comb for the knife or beater, and one of the latest +productions is the "Universal fibre gin," in which a series of blunt +combs working horizontally replace the solid beater and so-called knife +of the Macarthy gin. + +Opposed to the various types of roller gins is the "saw gin," invented +by Eli Whitney, an American, in 1792. This machine, under various +modifications, is employed for ginning the greater portion of the cotton +grown in the Southern States of America. It consists essentially of a +series of circular notched disks, the so-called saws, revolving between +the interstices of an iron bed upon which the cotton is placed: the +teeth of the "saws". catch the lint and pull it off from the seeds, then +a revolving brush removes the detached lint from the saws, and creates +sufficient draught to carry the lint out of the machine to some +distance. Saw gins do considerable damage to the fibre, but for +short-stapled cotton they are largely used, owing to their great +capacity. The average yield of lint per "saw" in the United States, when +working under perfect conditions, is about 6 lb. per hour. Some of the +American ginners are very large indeed, a number (_Bulletin of the +Bureau of the Census on Cotton Production_) being reported as containing +on the average 1156 saws with an average production of 4120 bales of +cotton. Saw gins are not adapted to long-stapled cottons, such as Sea +Island and Egyptian, which are generally ginned by machines of the +Macarthy type. + +The machine which will gin the largest quantity in the shortest time is +naturally preferred, unless such injury is occasioned as materially to +diminish the market value of the cotton. This has sometimes been to the +extent of 1d. or 2d. per lb. and even more as regards Sea Island and +other long-stapled cottons. The production, therefore, of the most +perfect and efficient cotton-cleaning machinery is of importance alike +to the planter and manufacturer. + +_Baling._--The cotton leaves the ginning machine in a very loose +condition, and has to be compressed into bales for convenience of +transport. Large baling presses are worked by hydraulic power; the +operation needs no special description. Bales from different countries +vary greatly in size, weight and appearance. The American bale has been +described in a standard American book on cotton as "the clumsiest, +dirtiest, most expensive and most wasteful package, in which cotton or +any other commodity of like value is anywhere put up." Suggestions for +its improvement, which if carried out would (it is estimated) result in +a monetary saving of £1,000,000 annually, were made by the Lancashire +Private Cotton Investigation Commission which visited the Southern +States of America in 1906. + +The approximate weights of some of the principal bales on the English +market are as follows:-- + + United States 500 lb. + Indian 400 lb. + Egyptian 700 lb. + Peruvian 200 lb. + Brazilian 200 to 300 lb. + +With baling the work of the producer is concluded. + +_Cultivation in Egypt._--Climatic conditions in Egypt differ radically +from those in the United States, the rainfall being so small as to be +quite insufficient for the needs of the plant, very little rain indeed +falling in the Nile Delta during the whole growing season of the crop: +yet Egypt is in order the third cotton-producing country of the world, +elaborate irrigation works supplying the crop with the requisite water. +The area devoted to cotton in Egypt is about 1,800,000 acres, and +nine-tenths of it is in the Nile Delta. The delta soil is typically a +heavy, black, alluvial clay, very fertile, but difficult to work; +admixture of sand is beneficial, and the localities where this occurs +yield the best cotton. Formerly in Egypt the cotton was treated as a +perennial, but this practice has been generally abandoned, and fresh +plants are raised from seed each year, as in America; one great +advantage is that more than one crop can thus be obtained each year. The +following rotation is frequently adopted. It should be noted that in +Egypt the year is divided into three seasons--winter, summer and "Nili." +The two first explain themselves; Nili is the season in which the Nile +overflows its banks. + + +----------------+---------------+-----------+---------------+ + | | Winter. | Summer. | Nili. | + | +---------------+-----------+---------------+ + | First year |Clover | Cotton | .. | + | Second year |Beans or wheat | .. |Corn or fallow | + +----------------+---------------+-----------+---------------+ + +For cotton cultivation the land is ploughed, carefully levelled, and +then thrown up into ridges about 3 ft. apart. Channels formed at right +angles to the cultivation ridges provide for the access of water to the +crop. The seeds, previously soaked, are sown, usually in March, on the +sides of the ridges, and the land watered. After the seedlings appear, +thinning is completed in usually three successive hoeings, the plants +being watered after thinning, and subsequently at intervals of from +twelve to fifteen days, until about the end of August when picking +commences. The total amount of water given is approximately equivalent +to a rainfall of about 35 in. The crop is picked, ginned and baled in +the usual way, the Macarthy style action roller gins being almost +exclusively employed. + +_Cotton Seed._--The history of no agricultural product contains more of +interest and instruction for the student of economics than does that of +cotton seed in the United States. The revolution in its treatment is a +real romance of industry. Up till 1870 or thereabouts, cotton seed was +regarded as a positive nuisance upon the American plantation. It was +left to accumulate in vast heaps about ginhouses, to the annoyance of +the farmer and the injury of his premises. Cotton seed in those days was +the object of so much aversion that the planter burned it or threw it +into running streams, as was most convenient. If the seed were allowed +to lie about, it rotted, and hogs and other animals, eating it, often +died. It was very difficult to burn, and when dumped into rivers and +creeks was carried out by flood water to fill the edges of the flats +with a decaying and offensive mass of vegetable matter. Although used in +the early days to a limited extent as a food for milch cows and other +stock, and to a larger extent as a manure, no systematic efforts were +made anywhere in the South to manufacture the seed until the later +'fifties, when the first cotton seed mills were established. It is said +that there were only seven cotton oil mills in the South in 1860. The +cotton-growing industry was interrupted by the Civil War, and the +seed-milling business did not begin again until 1868. After that time +the number of mills rapidly increased. There were 25 in the South in +1870, 50 in 1880, 120 in 1890, and about 500 in 1901, about one-third +being in Texas. + +Experience shows that 1000 lb. of seed are produced for every 500 lb +of cotton brought to market. On the basis, therefore, of a cotton crop +of 10,000,000 bales of 500 lb. each, there are produced 5,000,000 tons +of cotton seed. If about 3,000,000 tons only are pressed, there remain +to be utilized on the farm 2,000,000 tons of cotton seed, which, if +manufactured, would produce a total of $100,000,000 from cotton seed. In +contrast with the farmers of the 'sixties, the southern planter of the +20th century appreciates the value of his cotton seed, and farmers, too +remote from the mills to get it pressed, now feed to their stock all the +cotton seed they conveniently can, and use the residue either in compost +or directly as manure. The average of a large number of analyses of +Upland cotton seed gives the following figures for its fertilizing +constituents:--Nitrogen, 3.07%; phosphoric acid, 1.02%; potash, 1.17%; +besides small amounts of lime, magnesia and other valuable but less +important ingredients. Sea Island cotton seed is rather more valuable +than Upland: the corresponding figures for the three principal +constituents being nitrogen 3.51, phosphoric acid 1.69, potash 1.59%. +Using average prices paid for nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash when +bought in large quantities and in good forms, these ingredients, in a +ton of cotton seed, amount to $9.00 worth of fertilizing material. +Compared with the commercial fertilizer which the farmer has to buy, +cotton seed possesses, therefore, a distinct value. + +The products of cotton seed have become important elements in the +national industry of the United States. The main product is the refined +oil, which is used for a great number of purposes, such as a substitute +for olive oil, mixed with beef products for preparation of compound +lard, which is estimated to consume one-third of cotton seed oil +produced in the States. The poorer grades are employed in the +manufacture of soap, candles and phonograph records. Miners' lamp oil +consists of the bleached oil mixed with kerosene. Cotton seed cake or +meal (the residue after the oil is extracted) is one of the most +valuable of feeding stuffs, as the following simple comparison between +it and oats and corn will show:-- + + + +-----------------+----------+--------------+-------+----------+ + | | Proteins |Carbohydrates | |Ash or Bone| + |Average Analyses.| or Flesh | or Fuel and | Fats. | Makers. | + | | Formers. |Fat Suppliers.| | | + +-----------------+----------+--------------+-------+----------+ + |Cotton seed meal | 43.26 | 22.31 | 13.45 | 7.02 | + |Corn | 10.5 | 70.0 | 5.5 | 1.02 | + |Oats | 17.0 | 65.0 | 8.0 | 1.2 | + +-----------------+----------+--------------+-------+----------+ + +Cotton seed meal, though poor in carbohydrates, the fat- and +energy-supplying ingredients, is exceedingly rich in protein, the nerve- +and muscle-feeding ingredients. But it still contains a large amount of +oil, which forms animal fat and heat, and thus makes up for part of its +deficiency in carbohydrates. The meal, in fact, is so rich in protein +that it is best utilized as a food for animals when mixed with some +coarse fodder, thus furnishing a more evenly-balanced ration. In +comparative valuations of feeding stuffs it has been found that cotton +seed meal exceeds corn meal by 62%, wheat by 67%, and raw cotton seed by +26%. Cotton seed meal, in the absence of sufficient stock to consume it, +is also used extensively as a fertilizer, and for this purpose it is +worth, determining the price on the same basis as used above for the +seed, from $19 to $20 per ton. But it has seldom reached this price, +except in some of the northern states, where it is used for feeding +purposes. A more rational proceeding would be to feed the meal to +animals and apply the resulting manure to the soil. When this is done, +from 80 to 90% of the fertilizing material of the meal is recovered in +the manure, only 10 to 20% being converted by the animal into meat and +milk. The profit derived from the 20% thus removed is a very large one. +These facts indicate that we have here an agricultural product the +market price of which is still far below its value as compared, on the +basis of its chemical composition, either with other feeding stuffs or +with other fertilizers. Though it is probably destined to be used even +more extensively as a fertilizer before the demand for it as a feeding +stuff becomes equal to the supply, practically all the cotton seed meal +of the south will ultimately be used for feeding. One explanation of +this condition of things is that there is still a large surplus of +cotton seed which cannot be manufactured by the mills. Another reason is +found in the absence of cattle in the south to eat it. + +With the consideration of cotton seed oil and meal we have not, however, +exhausted its possibilities. Cotton seed hulls constitute about half the +weight of the ginned seed. After the seed of Upland cotton has been +passed through a fine gin, which takes off the short lint or linters +left upon it by the farmer, it is passed through what is called a +sheller, consisting of a revolving cylinder, armed with numerous knives, +which cut the seed in two and force the kernels or meats from the +shells. The shells and kernels are then separated in a winnowing +machine. This removal of the shell makes a great difference in the +oilcake, as the decorticated cake is more nutritious than the +undecorticated. For a long time these shells or hulls, as they are +called, were burned at oil mills for fuel, 2½ tons being held equal to a +cord of wood, and 4-1/3 tons to a ton of coal. The hulls thus burned +produced an ash containing an average of 9% of phosphoric acid and 24% +of potash--a very valuable fertilizer in itself, and one eagerly sought +by growers of tobacco and vegetables. It was not long, however, before +the stock-feeder in the South found that cotton seed hulls were an +excellent substitute for hay. They are used on a very large scale in the +vicinity of oil mills in southern cities like Memphis, New Orleans, +Houston, and Little Rock, from 500 to 5000 cattle being often collected +in a single yard for this purpose. No other feed is required, the only +provision necessary being an adequate supply of water and an occasional +allowance of salt. Many thousands of cattle are fattened annually in +this way at remarkably low cost. + +Careful attention is now given to the employment of the seed in new +cotton countries, and oil expression is practised in the West Indies. +Hull is the principal seat of the industry in Great Britain, and +enormous quantities of Indian and Egyptian cotton seed are imported and +worked up. + +The following diagram, modified from one by Grimshaw, in accordance +with the results obtained by the better class of modern mills, gives an +interesting _résumé_ of the products obtained from a ton of cotton +seed:-- + + _Products from a Ton of Cotton Seed._ + + Cotton seed, 2000 pounds. + +------+------------------------+------ + | | | + | Linters, 23 pounds. | + | ------------------- | + | | + Meats, 1090 pounds. Hulls, 888 pounds. + --------+-----------+---- +---+------+----- + | | | | | + Cake, 800 pounds. | | | | + ---+---------------+ | | | + | | | | | + Meal. | Fibre. | | Bran. + -----------------------------+ -----+----+ | --+-- + (Feeding stuff. Fertilizer.)| | | | + -----------------------------+ | | | + | ----------+--------+------+------- + Crude oil, 290 pounds. (High-grade paper.)|(Cattle food.) + -----+-------+-------- -------------------+-------------- + | | | + Summer Yellow. |Soap stock. (Fuel.) | + +--------+------------ +--+-------- ---+-------+-------+ + |(Winter | Cotton seed | | | + |yellow | stearin.) Soaps. Ashes. | + +--------+----------- ------ --+--- -----+------- + | | (Cattle food) + | | with the meal. + | Salad oil. Fertilizer. | + +------------------- These together, + | Summer white. a very valuable + +-------+----------- manure. + | | + | Lard. | + +-------+ + | + | Cottolene (with beef stearin, cooking oil). + +-------------------------------------------- + | + | Miners' oil. + +------------- + | + | Soap. + +------ + +_Pests and Diseases of the Cotton Plant._ + +_Insect Pests._--It is common knowledge that when any plant is cultivated +on a large scale various diseases and pests frequently appear. In some +cases the pest was already present but of minor importance. As the supply +of its favourite food plant is increased, conditions of life for the pest +are improved, and it accordingly multiplies also, possibly becoming a +serious hindrance to successful cultivation. At other times the pest is +introduced, and under congenial conditions (and possibly in the absence +of some other organism which keeps it in check in its native country) +increases accordingly. Some idea of the enormous damage wrought by the +collective attacks of individually small and weak animals may be gathered +from the fact that a conservative estimate places the loss due to insect +attacks on cotton in the United States at the astounding figure of +$60,000,000 (£12,000,000) annually. Of this total no less than +$40,000,000 (£8,000,000) is credited to a small beetle, the cotton boll +weevil, and to two caterpillars. The best means of combating these +attacks depends on a knowledge of the life-histories and habits of the +pests. The following notes deal only with the practical side of the +question, and as the United States produce some seven-tenths of the +world's cotton crop attention is especially directed to the principal +cotton pests of that country. Those of other regions are only referred to +when sufficiently important to demand separate notice. + +The cotton boll weevil (_Anthonomus grandis_), a small grey weevil often +called the Mexican boll weevil, is the most serious pest of cotton in +the United States, where the damage done by it in 1907 was estimated at +about £5,000,000. It steadily increased in destructiveness during the +preceding eight years. Attention was drawn to it in 1862, when it caused +the abandonment of cotton cultivation about Monclova in Mexico. About +1893 it appeared in Texas, and then rapidly spread. It is easily +transported from place to place in seed-cotton, and for this reason the +Egyptian government in 1904 prohibited the importation of American +cotton seed. Not only is the pest carried from place to place, but it +also migrates, and in 1907 it crossed from Louisiana, where it first +appeared in 1905, to Mississippi. That the insect is likely to prove +adaptable is perhaps indicated by the fact that in 1906 it made a +northward advance of about 60 m. in a season with no obvious special +features favouring the pest. Its eastern progress was also rapid. "The +additional territory infested during 1904 aggregates about 15,000,000 +sq. m., representing approximately an area devoted to the culture of +cotton of 900,000 acres" (_Year-book, U.S. Dept. Agriculture_, 1904). In +1906 the additional area invaded amounted to 1,500,000 acres (_Ibid._, +1906). + +The adult weevils puncture the young flower-buds and deposit eggs; and +as the grubs from the eggs develop, the bud drops. They also lay eggs +later in the year in the young bolls. These do not drop, but as the +grubs develop the cotton is ruined and the bolls usually become +discoloured and crack, their contents being rendered useless. + +No certain remedy is known for the destruction on a commercial scale of +the boll weevil, but every effort has been made in the United States to +check the advance of the insect, to ascertain and encourage its natural +enemies, and to propagate races of cotton which resist its attacks. +Special interest attaches to the investigations made by Mr O. F. Cook, +of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, in Guatemala. The Indians in part of +Guatemala raise cotton, although the boll weevil is abundant. +Examination showed that although the weevil attacked the young buds +these did not drop off, but that a special growth of tissue inside the +bud frequently killed the grub. Also, inside the young bolls which had +been pierced a similar proliferation or growth of the tissue was set up, +which enveloped and killed the pest. Probably by unconscious selection +of surviving plants through long ages this type has been evolved in +Guatemala, and experiments have been made to develop weevil-resistant +races in the United States. Mr Cook also found that the boll weevil was +attacked, killed and eaten by an ant-like creature, the "kelep." +Attempts have been made to introduce this into the infested area in +Texas; but owing to the winter proving fatal to the "kelep" its +usefulness may be restricted to tropical and subtropical regions. + +The cotton boll worm (_Chloridea obsoleta_, also known as _Heliothis +armiger_) is a caterpillar. The parent moth lays eggs, from which the +young "worms" hatch out. They bore holes and penetrate into flower-buds +and young bolls, causing them to drop. Fortunately the "worms" prefer +maize to cotton, and the inter-planting at proper times of maize, to be +cut down and destroyed when well infested, is a method commonly employed +to keep down this pest. Paris green kills it in its young stages before +it has entered the buds or bolls. The boll worm is most destructive in +the south-western states, where the damage done is said to vary from 2 +to 60% of the crop. Taking a low average of 4%, the annual loss due to +the pest is estimated at about £2,500,000, and it occupies second place +amongst the serious cotton pests of the U.S.A. The boll worm is widely +spread through the tropical and temperate zones. It may occur in a +country without being a pest to cotton, e.g. in India it attacks various +plants but not cotton. It has not yet been reported as a cotton pest in +the West Indies. + +The Egyptian boll worm (_Earias insulana_) is the most important insect +pest in Egypt and occurs also in other parts of Africa. Indian boll +worms include the same species, and the closely related _Earias fabia_, +which also occurs in Egypt. + +The cotton worm (_Aletia argillacea_)--also called cotton caterpillar, +cotton army worm, cotton-leaf worm--is also one stage in the +life-history of a moth. It is a voracious creature, and unchecked will +often totally destroy a crop. In former years the annual damage done by +it in the United States was assessed at £4,000,000 to £6,000,000. +Dusting with Paris green is, however, an efficient remedy _if promptly +applied at the outset of the attack_. The annual damage was in 1906 +reduced to £1,000,000 to £2,000,000, and this on a larger area devoted +to cotton than in the case of the estimate given above. It is the most +serious pest of cotton in the West Indies. The Egyptian cotton worm is +_Prodenia littoralis_. + +The caterpillars ("cut worms") of various species of _Agrotis_ and other +moths occur in all parts of the world and attack young cotton. They can +be killed by spreading about cabbage leaves, &c., poisoned with Paris +green. + +Locusts, green-fly, leaf-bugs, blister mites, and various other pests +also damage cotton, in a similar way to that in which they injure other +crops. + +The "cotton stainers," various species of _Dysdercus_, are widely +distributed, occurring for example in America, the West Indies, Africa, +India, &c. The larvae suck the sap from the young bolls and seeds, +causing shrivelling and reduction in quantity of fibre. They are called +"stainers" because their excrement is yellow and stains the fibre; also +if crushed during the process of ginning they give the cotton a reddish +coloration. The Egyptian cotton seed bug or cotton stainer belongs to +another genus, being _Oxycarenus hyalinipennis_. Other species of this +genus occur on the west coast of Africa. They do considerable damage to +cotton seed. + +_Fungoid Diseases._--"Wilt disease," or "frenching," perhaps the most +important of the fungoid disease of cotton in the United States, is due +to _Neocosmospora vasinfecta_. Young plants a few inches high are +usually attacked; the leaves, beginning with the lower ones, turn +yellow, and afterwards become brown and drop. The plants remain very +dwarf and generally unhealthy, or die. The roots also are affected, and +instead of growing considerably in length, branch repeatedly and give +rise to little tufts of rootlets. There is no method known of curing +this disease, and all that can be done is to take every precaution to +eradicate it, by pulling up and burning diseased plants, isolating the +infected area by means of trenches, and avoiding growing cotton, or an +allied plant such as the ochro (_Hibiscus esculentus_), in the field. +Fortunately the careful work of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and +of planters such as Mr E. L. Rivers of James Island, South Carolina, has +resulted in the production of disease-resistant races. In one instance +Mr Rivers found one healthy plant in a badly affected field. The seed +was saved and gave rise to a row of plants all of which grew healthily +in an infected field, whereas 95% of ordinary Sea Island cotton plants +from seed from a non-infected field planted alongside as a control were +killed. The resistance was well maintained in succeeding generations, +and races so raised form a practical means of combating this serious +disease. + +In "Root rot," as the name implies, the roots are attacked, the fungus +being a species of _Ozonium_, which envelops the roots in a white +covering of mould or mycelium. The roots are prevented from fulfilling +their function of taking up water and salts from the soil; the leaves +accordingly droop, and the whole plant wilts and in bad attacks dies. It +has yearly proved a more serious danger in Texas and other parts of the +south-west of the United States, and the damage due to it in Texas +during 1905 was estimated at about £750,000. No remedy is known for the +disease, and cotton should not be planted on infected land for at least +three or four years. + +"Boll rot," or "Anthracnose," is a disease which may at times be +sufficiently serious to destroy from 10 to 50% of the crop. The fungus +which causes it (_Colletotrichum gossypii_) is closely related to one of +the fungi attacking sugar-cane in various parts of the world. Small +red-brown spots appear on the bolls, gradually enlarge, and develop into +irregular black and grey patches. The damage may be only slight, or the +entire boll may ripen prematurely and become dry and dead. + +Many other diseases occur, but the above are sufficient to indicate some +of the principal ones in the most important cotton countries of the +world. + + +_Improvement of Cotton by Seed Selection._ + +In the cotton belt of the United States it would be possible to put a +still greater acreage under this crop, but the tendency is rather +towards what is known as "diversified" or mixed farming than to making +cotton the sole important crop. Cotton, however, is in increasing +demand, and the problem for the American cotton planter is to obtain a +better yield of cotton from the same area,--by "better yield" meaning an +increase not only in quantity but also in quality of lint. This ideal is +before the cotton grower in all parts of the world, but practical steps +are not always taken to realize it. Some of the United States planters +are alert to take advantage of the application of science to industry, +and in many cases even to render active assistance, and very successful +results have been attained by the co-operation of the United States +Department of Agriculture and planters. With the improvement of cotton +the name of Mr Herbert J. Webber is prominently associated, and a full +discussion of methods and results will be found in his various papers in +the _Year-books_ of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The principle on +which the work is based is that plants have their individualities and +tend to transmit them to their progeny. Accordingly a selection of +particular plants to breed from, because they possess certain desirable +characteristics, is as rational as the selection of particular animals +for breeding purposes in order to maintain the character of a herd of +cattle or of a flock of sheep. + +Inspection of a field of cotton shows that different plants vary as +regards productiveness, length, and character of the lint, period of +ripening, power of resistance to various pests and of withstanding +drought. A simple method of increasing the yield is that practised with +success by some growers in the States. Pickers are trained to recognize +the best plants, "that is, those most productive, earliest in ripening, +and having the largest, best formed and most numerous bolls." These +pickers go carefully over the field, usually just before the second +picking, and gather ripe cotton from the best plants only; this selected +seed cotton is ginned separately, and the seed used for sowing the next +year's crop. + +A more elaborate method of selection is practised by some of the Sea +Island cotton planters in the Sea Islands, famous for the quality of +their cotton. A field is gone over carefully, and perhaps some 50 of the +best plants selected; a second examination in the field reduces these +perhaps to one half, and each plant is numbered. The cotton from each is +collected and kept separately, and at the end of the season carefully +examined and weighed, and a final selection is then made which reduces +the number to perhaps five; the cotton from each of these plants is +ginned separately and the seed preserved for sowing. The simplest +possible case in which only one plant is finally selected is illustrated +in the diagram. + + 1st. Year 2nd. Year 3rd. Year 4th. Year 5th. Year + +------+ +-------+ +-------+ + Select (1) --->| 500 | --->|5 Acres| --->|General| + Plant |Plants| | | | Crop | + +------+ +-------+ +-------+ + | + | + \/ +-------+ +-------+ +-------+ + Select Plant (1) ----->| 500 | --->|5 Acres| --->|General| + | Plants| | | | Crop | + +-------+ +-------+ +-------+ + | + | + \/ +-------+ +-------+ + Select Plant (1) ------>| 500 | --->|5 Acres| + | Plants| | | + +-------+ +-------+ + | + | + \/ +-------+ + Select Plant (1) ------>| 500 | + | Plants| + +-------+ + | + | + \/ + Select Plant (1) + + After Webber, _Year-book, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture_, 1902. + + Improvement of Cotton by Seed Selection. + +From the seeds of the selected plant of the 1st year about 500 plants +can be raised in the next year. One plant is selected again from these +500, and the general crop of seed is used to sow about five acres for +the 3rd year, from which seed is obtained for the general crop in the +4th year. One special plant is selected each year from the 500 raised +from the previous season's test plant, and in four years' time the +progeny of this plant constitutes the "general crop." The practice may +be modified according to the size of estate by selecting more than one +plant each year, but the principle remains unaltered. This method is in +actual use by growers of Sea Island cotton in America and in the islands +off the coast of S. Carolina; the greatest care is taken to enhance the +quality of the lint, which has been gradually improved in length, +fineness and silkiness. Mr Webber, in summing up, says, "When Sea Island +cotton was first introduced into the United States from the West Indies, +it was a perennial plant, unsuited to the duration of the season of the +latitude of the Sea Islands of S. Carolina; but, through the selection +of seed from early maturing individual plants, the cotton has been +rendered much earlier, until now it is thoroughly adapted to the +existing conditions. The fibre has increased in length from about 1¾ to +2½ in., and the plants have at the same time been increased in +productiveness. The custom of carefully selecting the seed has grown +with the industry and may be said to be inseparable from it. It is only +by such careful and continuous selection that the staple of these +high-bred strains can be kept up to its present superiority, and if for +any reason the selection is interrupted there is a general and rapid +decline in quality." + +When selection is being made for several characters at the same time, +and also in hybridization experiments, where it is important to have +full records of the characters of individual plants and their progeny, +"score cards," such as are used in judging stock, with a scale of +points, are used. + +The improvements desired in cotton vary to some degree in different +countries, according to the present character of the plants, climatic +conditions, the chief pests, special market requirements, and other +circumstances. Amongst the more important desiderata are:-- + +1. Increased Yield. + +2. Increase in Length of Lint.--Webber records the case of Stamm +Egyptian cotton imported into Columbia, in which by simple selection, as +outlined above, during two years plants were obtained uniformly earlier, +more productive, and yielding longer and better lint. + +3. Uniformity in Length of the Lint.--This is important especially in +the long-stapled cottons, unevenness leading to waste in manufacture, +and consequently to a lower price for the cotton. + +4. Strength of Fibre.--Long-stapled cottons have been produced in the +States by crossing Upland and Sea Island cotton. These hybrids produce a +lint which is long and silky, but often deficient in strength: selection +for strength amongst the hybrids, with due regard to length, may +overcome this. + +5. Season of Maturing.--Seed should be selected from early and late +opening bolls, according to requirements. Earliness is especially +important in countries where the season is short. + +6. Adaptation to Soil and Climate.--High-class cottons often do not +flourish if introduced into a new country. They are adapted to special +conditions which are lacking in their new surroundings, but a few will +probably do fairly well the first year, and the seeds from these +probably rather better the next, and so on, so that in a few years' time +a strain may be available which is equal or even superior to the +original one introduced. + +7. Resistance to Disease.--The method employed is to select, for seed +purposes, plants which are resistant to the particular disease. Thus +sometimes a field of cotton is attacked by some disease, perhaps "wilt," +and a comparatively few plants are but very slightly affected. These are +propagated, and there are instances as described above of very +successful and commercially important results having been attained. +Special interest attaches to experiments made in the United States to +endeavour to raise races of cotton resistant to the boll weevil. + +8. Resistance to Weather.--Strong winds and heavy rains do much damage +to cotton by blowing or beating the lint out of the bolls. In some +instances a slight difference in the shape, mode of opening, &c., of the +boll prevents this, and accordingly seed is selected from bolls which +suffer least under the particular adverse conditions. + +Attention has been paid in the West Indies to seed selection, by the +officers of the imperial Department of Agriculture, with the object of +retaining for West Indian Sea Island cotton its place as the most +valuable cotton on the British market. + +In India, where conditions are much more diversified and it is more +difficult to induce the native cultivator to adopt new methods, +attention has also been directed during recent years to the improvement +of the existing races. Efforts have been made in the same direction in +Egypt, West Africa, &c. + + +_The World's Commercial Cotton Crop._ + +It is impossible to give an exact return of the total amount of cotton +produced in the world, owing to the fact that in China, India and other +eastern countries, in Mexico, Brazil, parts of the Russian empire, +tropical Africa, &c., considerable--in some eases very large--quantities +of cotton are made up locally into wearing apparel, &c., and escape all +statistical record. It is estimated that the amount thus used in India +exclusive of the consumption of mills is equivalent to about 400,000 +bales. Neglecting, however, these quantities, which do not affect the +world's market, the annual supplies of cotton are approximately as +follows:-- + + +---------------------------+------------------+-----------+ + | | Approximate | | + | Country | Production. |Percentage.| + | | Bales of 500 lb. | | + |---------------------------+------------------+-----------+ + | United States of America | 11,000,000 | 68.75 | + | India | 3,000,000 | 18.75 | + | Egypt | 1,000,000 | 6.25 | + | All other countries | 1,000,000 | 6.25 | + | +------------------+-----------+ + | Total | 16,000,000 | 100.00 | + +---------------------------+------------------+-----------+ + +In 1905 the world's crop closely approximated to 16,000,000 bales, +whilst in 1904 it was nearly 19,000,000 bales and in 1906 nearly +20,000,000 bales. The United States produced very nearly seven-tenths of +the total "visible" cotton crops of the world. This, however, is quite a +modern development, comparatively speaking. "During the period from 1786 +to 1790 the West Indies furnished about 70% of the British supply, the +Mediterranean countries 20%, and Brazil 8%; whilst the quantity +contributed by the United States and India was less than 1% and Egypt +contributed none. In 1906 the United States contributed 65% of the +commercial cotton, British India 19%, Egypt 7%, and Russia 3%. Of the +countries which were prominent in the production of cotton in 1790, +Brazil and Asiatic Turkey alone remain" (_U.S.A. Bureau of the Census, +Bulletin No. 76_). The actual figures for the chief countries for +1904-1906, taken from the same source, are as follows:-- + + _The World's Commercial Cotton Crop._ (In 500 lb. Bales.) + + +-----------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | Country. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906. | + +-----------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | United States | 13,085,000 | 10,340,000 | 13,016,000 | + | British India | 2,843,000 | 2,519,000 | 3,708,000 | + | Egypt | 1,258,000 | 1,181,000 | 1,400,000 | + | Russia | 554,000 | 585,000 | 675,000 | + | China | 468,000 | 415,000 | 418,000 | + | Brazil | 210,000 | 258,000 | 275,000 | + | Mexico | 114,000 | 125,000 | 130,000 | + | Peru | 40,000 | 55,000 | 55,000 | + | Turkey | 100,000 | 107,000 | 107,000 | + | Persia | 45,000 | 47,000 | 47,000 | + | Japan | 16,000 | 15,000 | 11,000 | + | Other countries | 70,000 | 100,000 | 100,000 | + +-----------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | Total | 18,803,000 | 15,747,000 | 19,942,000 | + +-----------------+------------+------------+------------+ + +This title serves to indicate the principal countries contributing to +the world's supply of cotton. The following notes afford a summary of +the position of the industry in the more important countries. + +_United States of America._--The cultivation of cotton as a staple crop +in the United States dates from about 1770,[1] although efforts appear +to have been made in Virginia as far back as 1621. The supplies +continued to be small up to the end of the century. In 1792 the quantity +exported from the United States was only equivalent to 275 bales, but +by the year 1800 it had increased to nearly 36,000 bales. At the close +of the war in 1815 the revival of trade led to an increased demand, and +the progress of cotton cultivation in America became rapid and +continuous, until at length about 85% of the raw material used by +English manufacturers was derived from this one source. With a capacity +for the production of cotton almost boundless, the crop which was so +insignificant when the century began had in 1860 reached the enormous +extent of 4,824,000 bales. This great source of supply, when apparently +most abundant and secure, was shortly after suddenly cut off, and +thousands were for a time deprived of employment and the means of +subsistence. In this period of destitution the cotton-growing resources +of every part of the globe were tested to the utmost; and in the +exhibition of 1862 the representatives of every country from which +supplies might be expected met to concert measures for obtaining all +that was wanted without the aid of America. The colonies and +dependencies of Great Britain, including India, seemed well able to grow +all the cotton that could be required, whilst numerous other countries +were ready to afford their co-operation. A powerful stimulus was thus +given to the growth of cotton in all directions; a degree of activity +and enterprise never witnessed before was seen in India, Egypt, Turkey, +Greece, Italy, Africa, the West Indies, Queensland, New South Wales, +Peru, Brazil, and in short wherever cotton could be produced; and there +seemed no room to doubt that in a short time there would be abundant +supplies independently of America. But ten years afterwards, in the +exhibition of 1872, which was specially devoted to cotton, a few only of +the _thirty-five_ countries which had sent their samples in 1862 again +appeared, and these for the most part only to bear witness to +disappointment and failure. America had re-entered the field of +competition, and was rapidly gaining ground so as to be able to bid +defiance to the world. True, the supply from India had been more than +doubled, the adulteration once so rife had been checked, and the +improved quality and value of the cotton had been fully acknowledged, +but still the superiority of the produce of the United States was proved +beyond all dispute, and American cotton was again king. Slave labour +disappeared, and under new and more promising auspices a fresh career of +progress began. With rare combination of facilities and advantages, made +available with remarkable skill and enterprise, the production of cotton +in America seems likely for a long series of years to continue to +increase in magnitude and importance. The total area of the +cotton-producing region in the States is estimated at 448,000,000 acres, +of which in 1906 only about one acre in fifteen was devoted to cotton. +The potentialities of the region are thus enormous. + + +------------------+---------------------------+----------------------+------------+ + | States and | Upland Cotton. | Sea Island Cotton. | Total | + | Territories. +--------------+------------+-----------+----------+ Value. | + | | Quantity. | Value. | Quantity. | Value. | | + +------------------+--------------+------------+-----------+----------+------------+ + | | lb. | $ | lb. | $ | $ | + | Alabama | 603,651,989 | 60,425,564 | .. | .. | 60,425,564 | + | Arkansas | 450,991,361 | 45,144,235 | .. | .. | 45,144,235 | + | Florida | 17,876,133 | 1,789,401 | 9,031,896 | 2,587,638| 4,377,039 | + | Georgia | 750,762,910 | 75,151,367 | 9,950,634 | 2,850,857| 78,002,224 | + | Indian Territory | 196,648,765 | 19,684,542 | .. | .. | 19,684,542 | + | Kansas | 9,844 | 985 | .. | .. | 985 | + | Kentucky | 1,008,290 | 100,930 | .. | .. | 100,930 | + | Louisiana | 473,222,310 | 47,369,553 | .. | .. | 47,369,553 | + | Mississippi | 732,755,978 | 73,348,874 | .. | .. | 73,348,874 | + | Missouri | 26,040,093 | 2,606,613 | .. | .. | 2,606,613 | + | New Mexico | 74,340 | 7,442 | .. | .. | 7,442 | + | North Carolina | 276,215,506 | 27,649,172 | .. | .. | 27,649,172 | + | Oklahoma | 233,396,905 | 23,363,030 | .. | .. | 23,363,030 | + | South Carolina | 415,386,362 | 41,580,175 | 2,723,859 | 999,656| 42,579,831 | + | Tennessee | 146,569,434 | 14,671,600 | .. | .. | 14,671,600 | + | Texas |2,001,181,289 |200,318,247 | .. | .. |200,318,247 | + | Virginia | 6,609,963 | 661,657 | .. | .. | 661,657 | + +------------------+--------------+------------+-----------+----------+------------+ + | Total--United |6,332,401,472 |633,873,387 |21,706,389 | 6,438,151|640,311,538 | + | States | (=12,644,803 | .. | (=43,413 | .. | .. | + | | bales) | .. | bales) | .. | .. | + +------------------+--------------+------------+-----------+----------+------------+ + +Cotton is now the second crop of the United States, being surpassed in +value only by Indian corn (maize). The area devoted to this crop in 1879 +was 14,480,019 acres, and the total commercial crop was 5,755,359 +bales. In 1899 the acreage had increased to 24,275,101 and the crop to +9,507,786 bales. In 1906 the total area was 28,686,000 acres and the +crop 13,305,265 bales. + +The preceding table gives the quantity, value and character of the crop +for each of the cotton-growing states in 1906, as reported by the Bureau +of the Census. + +_Mexico._--Cotton is extensively grown in Mexico, and large quantities +are used for home consumption. The cultivation is of very old standing. +Cortes in 1519 is said to have received cotton garments as presents from +the natives of Yucatan, and to have found the Mexicans using cotton +extensively for clothing. From 1900 to 1905 the crop was about 100,000 +bales per annum; the whole is consumed in local mills, and cotton is +imported also from the United States. + +_Brazil._--The cotton-growing region in Brazil comprises a belt some 200 +m. in width, in the north-eastern portion of the country, and a strip +along the valley of the San Francisco, where a large amount of the +present crop is produced. The cotton is known in commerce under the name +of the place of export, e.g. Maceio, Pernambuco or Pernam, Ceãra, Rio +Grande, &c. The export fluctuates greatly. + + Bales of 500 lb. Approx. Value. + 1901 53,002 £500,000 + 1902 143,963 1,200,000 + 1903 126,896 1,300,000 + 1904 59,413 800,000 + 1905 107,887 1,000,000 + 1906 142,972 1,500,000 + +The total production in 1906 was estimated at about 275,000 bales, but +only a portion was available for export, there being an increasing +consumption in Brazil itself. + +_Peru._--Cotton is an important crop in Peru, where it has long been +cultivated. Most of the crop is grown in the irrigated coastal valleys. +With more water available, the output could be considerably increased, +e.g. in the Piura district. "Rough Peruvian," the produce of one of the +tree cottons, has a special use, as being rather harsh and wiry it is +well adapted for mixing with wool. Egyptian cotton is also grown. The +annual export is about 30,000 bales. + +_Cotton Production in the British West Indies_: 1905-1906.[2] + + +-------------------------+--------+----------+---------+----------+ + | | | Yield = | Average | Value of | + | Island. |Area in | Bales of | Price | Lint and | + | | Acres. | 500 lb. |in Pence | Seed. | + | | | | per lb. | | + +-------------------------+--------+----------+---------+----------+ + | Barbados. | 2,000 | 959 | 15.2 | £33,557 | + | St Vincent. | 790 | 330 | 18.0 | 13,557 | + | Grenada (mostly _Marie_ | 3,600 | 623 | 5.0 | 8,400 | + | _galante_ cotton). | | | | | + | St Kitts | 1,000 | 241 | 15.0 | 8,380 | + | Nevis | 1,700 | 240 | 13.0 | 8,364 | + | Anguilla | 1,000 | 161 | 15.0 | 5,280 | + | Antigua | 700 | 200 | 14.2 | 6,522 | + | Montserrat | 770 | 196 | 15.0 | 6,789 | + | Virgin Islands | 40 | 14 | .. | 400 | + | Jamaica | 1,500 | 123 | .. | 4,025 | + +-------------------------+--------+----------+---------+----------+ + | Total | 12,900 | 3087 | .. | £95,274 | + +-------------------------+--------+----------+---------+----------+ + +_British West Indies._--Cotton was cultivated as a minor crop in parts +of the West Indies as long ago as the 17th century, and at the opening +of the 18th century the islands supplied about 70% of all the cotton +used in Great Britain. Greater profits obtained from sugar caused the +industry to be abandoned, except in the small island of Carriacou. In +1900 the Imperial Department of Agriculture and private planters began +experiments with the object of reintroducing the cultivation, owing to +the decline in value of sugar. The department was actively assisted by +the British Cotton Growing Association, and the results have been very +successful, as was shown at an exhibition held in Manchester in 1908. A +supply of seed of a high grade of Sea Island cotton was obtained from +Colonel Rivers's estate in the Sea Islands, S. Carolina, and so +successful has the cultivation been that from some of the islands West +Indian Sea Island cotton obtains a higher price than the corresponding +grade of cotton from the Sea Islands themselves. + +In 1902 the total area under cotton cultivation in the British West +Indies was 500 acres. The industry made rapid progress. In 1903 it was +4000; in 1905-1906 it was 12,900; and for 1906-1907 it was 18,166 acres. +The table indicates the chief cotton-producing islands, the acreage in +each, yield, average value per pound and total value of the crop in +1905-1906. + +The whole of this crop was Sea Island cotton, with the exception of the +"Marie galante" grown in Carriacou. Marie galante is a harsh cotton of +the Peruvian or Brazilian type. The low yield per acre in this island, +and also the low value of the lint per lb. compared with the Sea Island +cotton, is clearly apparent. + +In 1906-1907 the acreage was substantially increased in many of the +islands, e.g. Barbados from 2000 to 5000; St Vincent 790 to 1533; St +Kitts and Anguilla 1000 to 1500 each; Antigua 700 to 1883. In Jamaica, +on the other hand, it was reduced from 1500 to 300 acres. + +_Spain._--Cotton was formerly grown in southern Spain on an extensive +scale, and as recently as during the American Civil War a crop of 8000 +to 10,000 bales was obtained. It is considered that with facilities for +irrigation Andalusia could produce 150,000 bales annually. The former +industry was abandoned as other crops became more remunerative. The +government is encouraging recent efforts to re-establish the +cultivation. + +_Malta._--Cotton has long been cultivated in Malta, but the acreage +diminished from 1750 acres in 1899 to 670 acres in 1906. A considerable +quantity of the produce is spun and woven locally; e.g. in 1904 the +export was equivalent to about 120 bales out of a total production of +330 bales, and in 1905 to 258 out of 333 bales (of 500 lb. each). + +_Cyprus_ has a soil and climate suited to cotton, which was formerly +grown here on a large scale. The rainfall is uncertain and low, however, +never exceeding 40 in., and on the supply of water by irrigation the +future of the industry mainly depends. The exports dwindled from 3600 +bales in 1865 to 946 in 1905; great fluctuations occur, the export in +1904, for example, being only 338 bales. The cotton grown is rather +short-stapled and goes mainly to Marseilles and Trieste. Some is used +locally in the manufacture of cloth. + +_Egypt._--The position of Egypt as the third cotton-producing country of +the world has already been pointed out, and the varieties grown and the +mode of cultivation described. The introduction of the exotic varieties +dates from the beginning of the 19th century. The industry was actively +promoted by a Frenchman named Jumel, in the service of Mehemet Ali, from +1820 onwards with great success. The area under cotton is about +1,800,000 acres. + + _Cotton Production in Egypt._ + + 1850 87,200 bales of 500 lb. + 1865 439,000 " " + 1890 798,000 " " + 1904 1,258,000 " " + 1905 1,250,000 " " + 1906 1,400,000 " " + +_The Egyptian Sudan._--Egyptian cotton was cultivated in the Sudan to +the extent of 21,788 acres in 1906 chiefly on non-irrigated land. The +exports, however, are small, almost all the crop being used locally. The +chief difficulties are the supply of water, labour and transport +facilities. Lord Cromer in his report on the Sudan for 1906 remarks +that: "There seems to be some reason for thinking that the future--or at +all events the immediate future--of Sudan agriculture lies more in the +direction of cultivating wheat and other cereals than in that of +cultivating cotton." + +_West Africa._--Cotton has long been grown in the various countries on +the west coast of Africa, ginned by hand or by very primitive means, +spun into yarn, and woven on simple looms into "country cloths"; these +are often only a few inches wide, so that any large cloths have to be +made by sewing the narrow strips together. These native cloths are +exceedingly durable, and many of them are ornamented by using dyed yarns +and in other ways. + +Southern Nigeria (Lagos) and northern Nigeria are the most important +cotton countries amongst the British possessions on the coast. From the +former there has been an export trade for many years which fluctuates +remarkably according to the demand. Northern Nigeria is the seat of a +very large native cotton industry, to supply the demand for cotton robes +for the Mahommedan races inhabiting the country. The province of Zaria +alone is estimated to produce annually 30,000 to 40,000 bales, all of +which is used locally. Northern Nigeria contributes to the cotton +exported from Lagos. The country offers a fairly promising field for +development, especially now that arrangements have been made for +providing the necessary means of transport by the construction of the +new railways. The profits obtained from ground-nuts (_Arachis hypogea_) +in Gambia, gold mining in the Gold Coast, and from products of the oil +palm (_Elaeis guineensis_) in the palm-oil belt serve to prevent much +attention being given to cotton in these districts. + + _Exports of Cotton from Lagos._ + + 1865 868 bales of 500 lb. + 1869 1785 " " + 1900 48 " " + 1901 15 " " + 1902 25 " " + 1903 582 " " + 1904 1725 " " + 1905 2578 " " + + + _Exports of Cotton from British West Africa_, 1904, 1905 and 1906. + + +----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | 1904. | 1905. | 1906. | + +----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | Bales | Bales | Bales | + | | (500 lb). | (500 lb). | (500 lb). | + | Gambia | 120 | 5 | 0 | + | Sierra Leone | 56 | 139 | 176 | + | Gold Coast | 115 | 50 | 186 | + | Southern Nigeria and Lagos | 2296 | 2771 | 5392 | + | Northern Nigeria | 574 | 250* | 712 | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Total | 3161 | 3215 | 6466 | + +----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + *Approximately. + +_Nyasaland (British Central Africa).--_The cultivation of cotton on a +commercial scale is quite new in Nyasaland, and although general +conditions of soil and climate appear favourable the question of +transport is serious and labour is not abundant. The exports were +equivalent to 2 bales of 500 lb. in 1902-1903, 114 bales in 1903-1904, +570 bales in 1904-1905, 1553 bales in 1905-1906 and 1052 bales in +1906-1907. In the lower river lands Egyptian cotton has been the most +successful, whilst Upland cotton is more suited to the highlands. + +_British East Africa and Uganda.--_In these adjoining protectorates wild +cottons occur, and suitable conditions exist in certain localities. +Experimental work has been carried on, and in 1904 Uganda exported about +43 bales of cotton, and British East Africa about 177 bales. In 1906 the +combined exports had risen to 362 bales, including a little from German +East Africa. In 1904-1905 there were some 300 acres under cotton in +British East Africa. Lack of direct transport facilities is a +difficulty. Some of the native cottons are of fair quality, but Egyptian +cotton appears likely to be best suited for growing for export. + +_India_ is probably the most ancient cotton-growing country. For five +centuries before the Christian era cotton was largely used in the +domestic manufactures of India; and the clothing of the inhabitants then +consisted, as now, chiefly of garments made from this vegetable product. +More than two thousand years before Europe or England had conceived the +idea of applying modern industry to the manufacture of cotton, India had +matured a system of hand-spinning, weaving and dyeing which during that +vast period received no recorded improvement. The people, though +remarkable for their intelligence whilst Europe was in a state of +barbarism, made no approximation to the mechanical operations of modern +times, nor was the cultivation of cotton either improved or considerably +extended. Possessing soil, climate and apparently all the requisite +elements from nature for the production of cotton to an almost boundless +extent, and of a useful and acceptable quality, India for a long series +of years did but little towards supplying the manufactures of other +countries with the raw material which they required. Between the years +1788 and 1850 numerous attempts were made by the East India Company to +improve the cultivation and to increase the supply of cotton in India, +and botanists and American planters were engaged for the purpose. One +great object of their experiments was to introduce and acclimatize +exotic cottons. Bourbon, New Orleans, Upland, Georgia, Sea Island, +Pernambuco, Egyptian, &c., were tried but with little permanent success. +The results of these and similar attempts led to the conclusion that +efforts to improve the indigenous cottons were most likely to be +rewarded with success. Still more recently, however, experiments have +been made to grow Egyptian cotton in Sind with the help of irrigation. +Abassi has given the best results, and the experiments have been so +successful that in 1904-1905 an out-turn of not less than 100,000 bales +"was prophesied in the course of a few years" (Report of Director, Land +Records and Agriculture). The average annual production in India +approximates to 3,000,000 bales. The area under cotton in all British +India is about 20,000,000 acres, the crop being grown in a very +primitive manner. The bulk of the cotton is of very short staple, about +three-quarters of an inch, and is not well suited to the requirements of +the English spinner, but very large mills specially fitted to deal with +short-stapled cottons have been erected in India and consume about +one-half the total crop, the remainder being exported to Germany and +other European countries, Japan and China. In 1906 the United Kingdom +took less than 5% of the cotton exported. + + _Cotton Production in British India._[3] + + 1859 1,316,800 bales of 500 lb. + 1904 3,172,800 " " + 1905 2,848,800 " " + 1906 4,038,400 " " + +About 50% of the cotton produced is consumed in Indian mills and the +remainder is exported. + +_China._--Cotton has not been cultivated in China from such early times +as in India, and although cotton cloths are mentioned in early writings +it was not until about A.D. 1300 that the plant was grown on any +considerable scale. There are no figures obtainable as to the +production, but it must be very large, considering that the crop +provides clothing for a large proportion of the population of China. +During recent years a considerable quantity of cotton has been exported, +but more than a compensating amount of raw cotton, yarns and textiles, +is imported. An estimate of the crop puts it at about 1,500,000 bales. + +_Korea_ is stated to have originally received its cotton plants from +China some 500 years ago. Conditions are well adapted to the cultivation +of the plant, and since the cessation of the Russo-Japanese War the +Japanese have undertaken the development of the industry. Figures are +difficult to obtain, but an official report from the Japanese Residency +General in 1907 estimated the crop at about 214,000 bales, all being +used locally. In the future Korea may become an important source of +supply for Japan, especially if, as appears likely, Korea proves suited +to the cultivation of American cotton. + +_Japan_ received cotton from India before China, and the plant is +extensively grown, especially in West and Middle Japan. The production +is not sufficient to meet the home demand; during the five years of +normal trade before the war with Russia Japan imported annually about +800,000 bales of cotton, chiefly from British India, China and the +United States, and during the same period exported each year some 2000 +bales, mainly to Korea. + +_Dutch East Indies._--In Java and other Dutch possessions in the East +cotton is cultivated. A considerable amount is used locally, and during +the six years ending in 1907 the surplus exported ranged from about +24,000 to 40,000 bales per annum. + +_Russia._--Some cotton is produced in European Russia in the southern +Caucasus, but Turkestan in central Asia is by far the more important +source of Russian-grown cotton. In this region cotton has been +cultivated from very early times to supply local demands, and to a minor +degree for export. Since about 1875 the Russians have fostered the +industry, introducing American Upland varieties, distributing seed free, +importing gins, providing instruction, and guaranteeing the purchase of +the crops. The Trans-Caspian railway has been an important factor; +almost all the cotton exported passes over this line, and the statistics +of this trade indicate the progress made. The shipments increased from +250,978 bales in 1896-1897 to 495,962 bales in 1901-1902--part, however, +being Persian cotton. The production of cotton in Russia in 1906 was +estimated at 675,000 bales of 500 lb. each. About one-third of the +cotton used in Russian mills is grown on Russian territory, the +remainder coming chiefly from the United States. + +_Asia Minor._--Smyrna is the principal centre of cotton cultivation in +this region. A native variety known as "Terli," and American cotton, are +grown. The general conditions are favourable. According to the Liverpool +_Cotton Gazette_, Asiatic Turkey produced in 1906 about 100,000 bales, +and Persia about 47,000 bales. Cotton was formerly cultivated profitably +in Palestine. + +_Australasia._--The quantity of cotton now produced in Australasia is +extremely small. Queensland, New South Wales and South Australia possess +suitable climatic conditions, and in the first-named state the cotton +has been grown on a commercial scale in past years, the crop in 1897 +being about 450 bales. Considerable interest attaches to the +"Caravonica" cotton raised in South Australia, which has been +experimented with in Australia, Ceylon and elsewhere. It is probably a +hybrid between Sea Island and rough Peruvian cotton, but lacks most of +the essential features of Sea Island. + +In _Fiji_ the cotton exported in the 'sixties and 'seventies was worth +£93,000 annually; but the cultivation has been practically abandoned. In +1899 about 60 bales, and in 1900 about 6 bales, were exported. During +1901-1903 there were no exports of cotton, and in 1904 only 70 bales +were sent out. + +Into the _Society Islands_ Sea Island cotton was introduced about +1860-1870. Up to the year 1885 there was an average yearly export +equivalent to about 2140 bales of 500 lb., after which date the export +practically ceased. The industry has, however, been revived, and in 1906 +over 100 bales, valued at £1052, were exported. (W. G. F.) + + +MARKETING AND SUPPLY + + Moving the harvest to the ports. + +In the days of slave-grown cotton, the American planters, being men of +wealth farming on a large scale, consigned the bulk of their produce as +a rule direct to the ports. Now, however, a large proportion of the crop +is sold to local store-keepers who transfer it to exporting firms in +neighbouring cities. The cultivators, whether owners of the plantations, +as is usual in some districts, or tenants, as is customary in others, +are financed as a rule by commission agents. The decline of "spot" sales +at the ports, partly but not entirely in consequence of the appearance +of the small cultivator, has proceeded steadily. Hammond[4] has +constructed a table from information supplied by the secretaries of the +cotton exchanges at New York, Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, New Orleans +and Galveston, showing the sales of "spot" cotton at those ports for the +twenty-two years between 1874-1875 and 1895-1896, and in all cases an +absolute decline is evident. The receipts of cotton in the season +1904-1905 at the leading interior towns and ports of the United States +are given below. + + _Receipts of Cotton at 28 Interior Towns._ + (In Thousand Statistical Bales of 500 lb. each.) + + Brenham, Tex. 17 | Memphis, Tenn. 984 + Dallas, Tex. 96 | Nashville, Tenn. 19 + Shreveport, La. 256 | Selma, Ala. 126 + Little Rock, Ark. 219 | Montgomery, Ala. 211 + Helena, Ark. 91 | Eufaula, Ala. 29 + Vicksburg, Miss. 100 | Columbus, Ga. 74 + Columbus, Miss. 57 | Macon, Ga. 87 + Natchez, Miss. 76 | Albany, Ga. 35 + Atlanta, Ga. 134 | Houston, Tex. 2,423 + Rome, Ga. 72 | Meridian, Miss. 133 + Augusta, Ga 446 | Cincinnati, Ohio 167 + Columbia, S.C. 68 | Yazoo City, Miss. 65 + Newberry, S.C. 17 | ---- + Charlotte, N.C. 21 | Total 6712 + Raleigh, N. C. 19 | ----- + St Louis, Mo. 672 | Crop. 13,565 + + _Receipts of Cotton at American Ports._ + (In Thousand Statistical Bales of 500 lb. each.) + + Galveston, Tex. 2,879 | Boston, Mass. 84 + New Orleans, La. 2,690 | Philadelphia, Pa. 14 + Mobile, Ala. 330 | Brunswick, Ga. 200 + Savannah, Ga. 1,877 | Pensacola, Fla. 187 + Charleston, S.C. 225 | Minor Ports 518 + Wilmington, N.C. 375 | ------ + Norfolk, Va. 820 | Total 10,295 + Baltimore, Md. 62 | ------ + New York 34 | Crop 13,565 + +Galveston and Savannah have risen considerably in relative importance of +late years. + + + Ginning and packing. + +Before the Civil War each planter would have his own gin-house. Now, +however, ginning is a distinct business, and one gin will serve on an +average about thirty farmers. Moveable gins were tried for a time in +some places; they were dragged by traction engines from farm to farm, +like threshing machines in parts of England, but the plan proved +uneconomical because, among other reasons, farmers were not prepared to +meet the cost of providing facilities for storing their cotton. In +addition to the small country ginneries, large modern ginneries have now +been set up in all the leading Southern market towns. The cotton is +pressed locally and afterwards "compressed" into a very small compass. +The bales are usually square, but cylindrical bales are becoming more +common, though their cost is greater. In the latter, the cotton is +arranged in the form of a rolled sheet or "lap." Owing to complaints of +the careless packing of American cotton, attention has been devoted of +late to the improvement of the square bale. + + + English ports of entry. + +London used to be the chief cotton port of England, but Liverpool had +assumed undisputed leadership before the 19th century began. Some +arrivals have been diverted to Manchester since the opening of the +Manchester ship canal; shipments through the canal from the 1st of +September to the 30th of August in each year for the decade 1894-1895 to +1904-1905 are appended--six to eight times as much is still unloaded at +Liverpool. + +A Manchester cotton-importing company was recently formed for increasing +deliveries direct to Manchester, and establishing a "spot" market there, +an end to which the Manchester Cotton Association had directed its +efforts for some time past. The latter association was established at +the end of 1894, with a membership of 265, in the interests of those +spinners who desired importations direct to Manchester. The objects of +the association are officially stated to be: (1) to frame suitable and +authoritative forms of contract, and to make rules and regulations for +the proper conduct of the trade; (2) to supervise and facilitate the +delivery of the importations of cotton at the Manchester docks to the +various consignees; (3) to provide and maintain trustworthy standards of +classification; (4) to procure and disseminate useful information on all +subjects pertaining to the trade; (5) to act in concert with chambers of +commerce and other bodies throughout the world for mutual protection; +(6) to establish a market for cotton at Manchester. Spinning members +preponderate, but almost all the Manchester cotton merchants and cotton +brokers have also joined the association. The importance of the original +spinners' representation on the association is shown by the fact that +they worked over 14,000,000 spindles: in December 1905 the spindles +represented by members had risen to nearly 20,000,000. Some 73,000 looms +are also represented. As most of the Lancashire cotton mills lie far +from Manchester, direct importations to that city do not usually +dispense with a "handling," and frequently save little or nothing in +freight rates, though in some cases the economy derived from direct +importation is considerable. One gain accruing to Lancashire from the +Canal, however, is that its competition has brought down railway +rates. + + + Cotton market methods. + +Fundamental alterations have been made in the structure of the leading +cotton markets, and in methods of buying and selling cotton, in the last +hundred years. We shall not attempt to trace the changes as they +appeared in every market of importance, but shall confine our attention +to one only, and that perhaps the most important of all, namely, the +market at Liverpool. This selection of one market for detailed +examination does not rob our sketch of generality, as might at first be +thought, since broadly the history of the development of one market is +the history of the development of all, and on the whole the economic +explanation of the evolution that has taken place may be universalized. + + _Cotton landed at the Port of Manchester since the Canal was opened._ + (In thousand Bales.) + The season is from the 1st of September to the 31st of August each year. + + +-------------------------+---------+----------------------------------+ + | |Jan. 1894| Season | + | | +------+------+------+------+------+ + | |to Aug. | 1894-| 1895-| 1896-| 1897-| 1898-| + | |31, 1894.| 1895.| 1896.| 1897.| 1898.| 1899.| + +-------------------------+---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + |American | 21 | 32 | 121 | 211 | 245 | 311 | + |Egyptian | 1.4 | 34 | 68 | 88 | 98 | 84 | + |East Indian | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + |West African | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | +---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Total | 22 | 66 | 189 | 299 | 344| 395 | + | +---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + |Total American Crop* | 7,549 | 9,901| 7,157| 8,757|11,199|11,274| + |Total Egyptian Crop (in | | | | | | | + | bales of 7½ cantars)** | 657 | 615| 703| 783| 872| 745| + +-------------------------+---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | | Season | + | +---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | | 1899- | 1900-| 1901-| 1902-| 1903-| 1904-| + | | 1900. | 1901.| 1902.| 1903.| 1904.| 1905.| + +-------------------------+---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + |American | 415 | 442 | 421 | 478 | 365 | 552 | + |Egyptian | 136 | 107 | 125 | 145 | 148 | 183 | + |East Indian | .. | .. | .. | 2.5| 6 | 1.3| + |West African | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .1| + | +---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Total | 551 | 549 | 546 | 626 | 519 | 736 | + | +---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + |Total American Crop* | 9,436 |10,383|10,680|11,011|13,565|10,727| + |Total Egyptian Crop (in | | | | | | | + | bales of 7½ cantars)** | 868 | 723| 849| 867| 846| 778| + --------------------------+---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + * Commercial crop. + ** A cantar is 99.05 lb. avoirdupois. + + + Evolution of broking. + +Originally cotton was imported by the Liverpool dealer as an agent for +American firms or at his own risk, and then sold by private treaty, +auction, or through brokers, to Manchester dealers, who retailed it to +the spinners. This statement is, of course, only roughly correct. Some +Manchester dealers imported themselves, and some spinners bought direct +from Liverpool importers, but the rule was the arrangement first +described. Early in the 19th century it became customary for Manchester +dealers and Liverpool importers to carry on business with one another +through representatives known as "buying" and "selling" brokers. About +this time the broker of cotton only began to specialize from the ranks +of the brokers who dealt in all kinds of colonial produce. Previously +there had not been enough business done in cotton to make it worth any +person's while to devote himself to the buying and selling on commission +of cotton only. The evolution of the distinct business of cotton broking +is readily comprehensible when we remind ourselves that the +requirements, as regards raw material, of all spinners are much alike +generally, and that no spinner could afford to pay an expert to devote +himself entirely to purchasing cotton for his mill. + +So far change had been gradual, but the success of the Manchester and +Liverpool railway undermined beyond repair the old system of doing +business. Spinners could easily run over to Liverpool and buy their +cotton from the large stocks displayed at that port. Before the railway +was opened some spinners had been in the habit of making their purchases +of raw material in Liverpool, but the great inconveniences of the +journey, combined with less easy terms for payment than were usual in +Manchester, prevented any great numbers from departing from the beaten +track. Cotton dealers up to this time had regularly financed the +spinners, who were frequently men of little capital, by allowing long +credit, and had even employed them to spin on commission. As men of +substance increased among the ranks of the spinners, the Manchester +cotton dealers found it impossible to retard a movement set on foot by +the prospects of such appreciable advantages. Ultimately many of the old +Manchester cotton dealers became brokers for their old customers. In +1875 there were said to be upwards of 100 cotton dealers in Manchester, +but from that time onward their members steadily declined. It is +interesting to observe that a later development of transport between +Manchester and Liverpool, namely, the Manchester Ship Canal, has drawn +back into Manchester a part of the cotton market which was attracted +from Manchester into Liverpool by the famous improvement in transport +opened to the public three-quarters of a century ago. + +The centralization of the cotton market in Liverpool fixed firmly the +system of buying through brokers, for the Liverpool importer, or his +broker, was in no sense a professional adviser to the spinners, +informally pledged to advance the latter's interests, as the old +Manchester dealers had been. The system was rendered comparatively +inexpensive by the drop in commissions from 1 to ½% which had followed +the adoption of selling by sample. This custom of buying and selling +through brokers continued unshaken until the laying of the Atlantic +cable tempted selling brokers occasionally, and even some buying +brokers, to buy direct from American factors by telegraph and thus +transform themselves into quasi-importers. The temptation was made the +more difficult to resist by the development of "future" dealings. When +the agents of the spinners, that is, the buying brokers, by becoming +principals in some transactions, had acquired interests diametrically +opposed to those of their customers, the consequent feeling of distrust +among spinners gave birth to the Cotton Buying Company, which, +constituted originally of twenty to thirty limited cotton-spinning +companies, represents to-day nearly 6,000,000 spindles distributed among +nearly one hundred firms. Its object was to squeeze out some middlemen +and economize for its members on brokerage. This company, it is said, +helped to attract the brokers back to the spinners, and an informal +understanding was arrived at that the buying broker should not figure +both as agent and principal in the same transaction. + + + Cotton-Clearing house, Cotton Bank and periodic settlement of + "differences." + +By 1876 "forward" operations had become so vast and complicated that a +cotton-clearing house had to be established to deal with the confusing +networks of debits and credits created by them. Its principle was +exactly that of the clearing houses used by the railways and the banks, +the cancellation of indebtedness and discharge simply of balances. The +final settlement of a "future" contract involved usually a crowd of +persons, and the passage of large sums of money backwards and forwards, +so that the amount of cash required for circulation on the exchange +became unreasonably excessive and an annoying waste of time was +entailed. The cotton-clearing house substituted book-keeping for the +bulk of these payments. The establishment of the Cotton Bank naturally +followed. Now debts are discharged in the first instance by vouchers. +Dealers pass their debit and credit vouchers into the Cotton Bank and +pay or receive the balances which they owe or are entitled to. In order +to protect dealers against the losses due to the insolvency of those +with whom they have had transactions, weekly settlements on the exchange +have been made compulsory; between brokers and their clients they are +also usual. At the settlement, every member of the exchange receives the +"differences" owing to him and pays those which he has incurred. Thus if +a person holds futures for 10,000 bales which stood at 5.20 on the last +settlement day and now stand at 5.30, and in the course of the previous +week has sold 5000 bales of "futures" at 5.10, he receives 10,000 × +(10/100)d. on his old holding, and has to pay 5000 × (20/100)d. on his +sales, and therefore on balance neither receives nor pays. Differences +may be very large sums. The unit of a "future" being 100 bales, an +alteration in the price of cotton of .01d. causes a difference on each +unit of £2. Periodic settlements are obviously periodic tests of the +solvency of dealers. If the test of the settlement were not frequently +applied, speculators who were unfortunate would be tempted to plunge +deeper until finally some became insolvent for large sums. As it is, the +speculator who has incurred losses beyond his means tends to be +discovered before his creditors are heavily involved. Settlement days +fall on Thursday, and the closing prices on the preceding Monday are +taken as the basis of the settlement. From all differences interest at +5% is deducted for the time between settlement day and the tenth day of +the second month on which the "future" elapses, since settlement terms +mean that money is paid in instalments before it is actually due. To the +admission of periodic settlements there was for a time vehement +opposition on the ground that the door would be opened to gambling on +"differences." Hence at first, in 1882, they were used only by a section +of the market constituted of members who had voluntarily agreed to do +business with one another upon these terms alone. By 1884, however, the +advantages of "settlement terms" became so evident that they were +adopted by the Cotton Association, at first for fortnightly periods, +with the saving clause originally that they should not be compulsory. + + + Origin of Liverpool Cotton Association. + +As soon as the clearing house was set up it became evident that +"futures" were an impossibility away from it. At the same time "futures" +were becoming an increasing necessity to importers, because through +"futures" alone could they hedge on their purchases of cotton, or buy +when the market seemed favourable, and they were not prepared to assume +heavy risks. Now from the clearing house importers were rigorously +excluded, and on invoking the aid of "futures," therefore, they were +penalized to the extent of double broker's commission, one commission +being charged on the sale of the "futures" and one on their purchase +back. The importers, therefore, found it necessary to establish a club +of their own, the Liverpool Cotton Exchange, which they as rigorously +guarded against brokers. The split in the market so caused was so +damaging to both parties that a satisfactory arrangement was eventually +agreed upon, and both institutions were absorbed in the Liverpool Cotton +Association. + + + Publication of information relating to demand and supply. + +A condition of specialist dealers working to the public service is that +they should not act in the dark. They must watch demand, be able to form +reasonable anticipations of its movements, and at the same time know +the existing stocks of cotton, the sales taking place from day to day, +and the best forecasts of the coming supplies. A man accustomed to +devote the whole of his time to the study of demand and supply in +relation to cotton, after some years of experience, will be qualified +ordinarily to form fairly accurate judgments of the prices to be +expected. His success depends upon his ability to interpret rightly the +facts and intangible signs with which he is brought in contact. The +information at the disposal of dealers has steadily enlarged in volume +and improved in trustworthiness, though some of it is not yet invariably +above suspicion, and the time elapsing between an event and the +knowledge of it becoming common property has been reduced to a fraction +of what it used to be, in consequence chiefly of the telegraph and +cables. All sales that take place on the Exchange must be returned. +Estimates are published of the area under cotton cultivation, and +conditions of the American crop are issued by the American agricultural +bureau at the beginning of the months of June, July, August, September +and October of each year. To represent the standard of perfect +healthiness and exemption from injury due to insects, or drought, or any +other causes, one hundred is taken. The estimates for 1901 to 1905 are +given, to illustrate their variations:-- + + +-------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+----------+ + | Year. | June 1st.| July 1st.| Aug. 1st.| Sept. 1st.| Oct. 1st.| + +-------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+----------+ + | 1901 | 81.5 | 81.1 | 77.2 | 71.4 | 61.4 | + | 1902 | 95.1 | 84.7 | 81.9 | 64.0 | 58.3 | + | 1903 | 74.1 | 77.1 | 79.7 | 81.2 | 65.1 | + | 1904 | 83 | 88 | 91.6 | 84.1 | 75.8 | + | 1905 | 77.2 | 77 | 74.9 | 72.1 | 71.2 | + +-------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+----------+ + +These estimates are the averages of separate estimates which are +published for the states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, +Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Tennessee. +The official figures are supplemented from time to time by numerous +private forecasts, for instance those in "Neild's circular." Ellison, in +his work on the cotton trade of Great Britain, traces in detail the +increase in the volume of information collected and made public. At the +close of the 18th century there was a tacit understanding among brokers +to supply one another with information. There were no printed circulars, +except the monthly prices current of all kinds of produce, but brokers +used to send particulars of business done to their customers in letters. +These letters were the origin of circulars. Messrs Ewart and Rutson +pioneered in 1805 by issuing a weekly account of the sales and imports +of cotton, and three years later three such circulars were on the +market, though Hope's alone was confined to cotton. For the first +associated circular of any importance, the market had to wait until +1832. The issue of this circular by subscribing firms, on the basis of +particulars collected by brokers appointed at a weekly meeting, gave +rise in 1841 to the Cotton Brokers' Association, to which the +development of the market by the systematizing of procedure is largely +due. The rest of the tale may be told in Mr Ellison's own words:-- + + "Down to 1864 the leading firms continued to issue weekly market + reports, but in that year the association commenced the publication of + an associated circular. This was followed in the same year by the + _Daily Table_ of sales and imports, which in 1874 was succeeded by the + present more complete _Daily Circular_. To these publications were at + various times added the annual report, issued in December, the + American crop report, issued in September, and the daily advices by + cable from America, issued every morning."[5] + + + Futures. + +We shall now enter upon a detailed analysis of "forward" operations. The +term "futures" is used broadly and narrowly: broadly it is a generic +term denoting "futures" in the narrow sense, and also "options" and +"straddles"; narrowly it implies merely contracts for future delivery at +a price fixed in the present. Again we must distinguish between the +"future" contracts for the delivery of a particular kind of cotton, +which may be entered into by spinners and their brokers, and are real +purchases in the sense that the spinners want delivery of the cotton +referred to, and the "futures," which always relate to the same grade +of cotton, and are drawn up according to certain forms and circulate on +the exchange as media for the shifting of risks connected with purchase +and sale. The latter are not "real" purchases in the sense given to that +term above, but fictitious because delivery of the cotton is not +desired. It will no doubt aid the understanding of the functions of the +latter if some explanation is offered of the needs met by the former, +which are sometimes known technically as "deferred deliveries." + + + The spinner's risks. + +When a spinner is required to quote prices of yarn for delivery in the +future he is fixed on the horns of a dilemma. If he does not at once buy +cotton, but quotes on the assumption that price will remain steady, he +may be involved in serious loss through his estimate being mistaken. If +he determines to buy cotton at once, others who risk more, and trust +their judgment of the future, may secure the contract. On first thoughts +it would seem desirable that all spinners should buy cotton outright to +cover their contracts, but on second thoughts the social disadvantage of +their doing so becomes apparent. Much buying might take place when +stocks were scanty, with the result that prices would be needlessly +forced up; and when stocks were plentiful demand might be weak and +prices, therefore, be unduly depressed. It is evident that the buying of +cotton on the principles suggested would be calculated to cause great +unsteadiness of prices, especially as cotton is not continuously +forthcoming, but is produced periodically in harvests. Demands for yarn +cannot be expected to come always at the most favourable time socially +for the distribution of the cotton. One way out of the difficulty is +that the spinner should exercise his judgment and buy his raw material +at what seems to him the most suitable times. But to this course there +are three objections. The first is that spinners would be performing the +two functions of industrial management and cotton buying (together with +others perhaps), and that in consequence the best industrial men would +not necessarily be able to maintain their position in the trade because +as buyers of cotton they might be unfortunate. The second is that +spinners being required to give attention to two distinct classes of +problems would be less likely as a body to become complete masters of +either. The third, which is not distinct in principle from the two +preceding, is that such limited speculation in cotton buying on the part +of spinners worried with other matters would not be likely to steady the +cotton market in any high degree. It may be assumed as desirable that +the demand for cotton should be so spread as to keep its price as steady +as possible--"steadiness" will be defined more exactly later--and that +to this end it is essential that specialists should devote themselves to +the task of spreading it. Such specialists have appeared in the cotton +brokers and dealers who make their living out of bearing the risks +connected with anticipating demand and supply in relation to cotton. +To-day a spinner who is asked to quote for deliveries of yarn for, say, +the next six months, may obtain from a broker quotations for deliveries +of the cotton that he needs, in quantities as he needs it, for the next +six months, and upon these quotations he may base his own for yarn. If a +spinner is pressed by a shipper to make quotations with refusal for two +or three days to give time for business to be settled by cable, it is +evidently not impossible for the spinner to shift the risk involved by +getting in turn from his broker refusal quotations for cotton. But +spinners do not try always to take the safest course. + + + Method of distributing risks. + +Now it is evident that brokers in turn require some means of passing on +the risks that they are bearing, or some portion of them from one to +another, or of sharing them with other market experts, as they find +themselves overburdened, and as their judgment of the situation changes. +The means have been provided in the "futures" which circulate on the +Cotton Exchange. The risks of anticipating are carried by those who +create or hold "futures" without a hedge. In order to facilitate +business, "futures" are all drawn in the same unit (100 bales), and are +all based on the same class of cotton, namely Upland cotton of middling +grade of "no staple" (i.e. with a fibre of about ¾ in.) and of the worst +growth. American cotton, we may remind the reader, is graded into a +number of classes, both on the Liverpool and New York Exchanges, and an +attempt is made in each market to keep the grades as fixed as possible. +But what, it may be inquired, is the value of "futures" relating to +"middling" cotton to a broker whose contracts with spinners are not in +"middling" cotton? The answer is that though the ratios between the +prices of the various grades alter, the prices of all of them move +generally together, and that the "futures" of the Exchange at least +provide a hedge against the latter movements. Other things being equal, +the broker would be better off if he could hedge with equal ease against +all his risks. But other things are not equal: the market would be more +confusing and quotations would be complicated if "futures" were in use +for all grades. + + + Characteristics of "futures." + +We may now examine the exchange "futures" in minuter detail. They are +quoted as a rule for about ten months ahead. Thus in January the futures +quoted will be January (technically termed "current," "present month" or +"near month," "futures"), January-February, February-March, March-April, +April-May, May-June, June-July, July-August, and perhaps two or three +more. Each group, it will be observed, except "current futures," +culminates in two defined months. The rule is that on the first of the +two months the seller of "futures" may, and before the last day of the +second month must, deliver cotton against them, or, what comes to the +same thing, buy back the "futures" on the basis of the price of "spot" +cotton of middling grade. Various grades of cotton are tenderable +against "futures": if this were not so "futures" would be in danger of +defeating their object, because the price of the grade upon which they +were founded would probably at times be thrown widely out of relation to +the general level of prices in the cotton market. The lowest grade +tenderable used to be "low middling," but since October 1901 "good +ordinary" has also been accepted. Arbitrators report on deliveries and +award allowances on those of grades above "middling" and deductions of +price from those below. A sample is taken from each bale and the "points +on or off" are fixed for each bale separately. If either party is +dissatisfied with the award, he may appeal to an appeals committee on +paying £3:3:0: which is refunded to him by the other party if the appeal +be upheld. The detailed arrangements described above are those of the +Liverpool market. The great bulk of "futures," however, are bought back +and not delivered against. + + + Quotations. + +Beneath are the official Liverpool quotations of "futures," as they +appeared on the morning of the 19th of April 1906:-- + +_American Deliveries, any port, basis of middling, good ordinary clause +(the fractions are given in 100ths of a penny)._ + + +------------+-----------+---------------------------+---------+ + | |Yesterday's| To-day's Early Sales. | Values | + | | Close. | | 12.15. | + +------------+-----------+---------------------------+---------+ + | April | 6.05 | | 6.03 | + | April-May | 6.05 | | 6.03 | + | May-June | 6.05 | 6.06, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3 | 6.03 | + | June-July | 6.05 | 6.05, 2,* 3 | 6.03 | + | July-August| 6.04 | 6.05, 4, 3, 2 | 6.03 | + | Aug.-Sept. | 5.98 | 5.99, 8, 6 | 5.97 | + | Sept.-Oct. | 5.34 | 5.85, 4 | 5.84 | + | Oct.-Nov. | 5.76 | 5.77, 6 | 5.76 | + | Nov.-Dec. | 5.75 | 5.75, 4* | 5.75 | + | Dec.-Jan. | 5.74 | 5.75* | 5.75 | + | Jan.-Feb. | 5.75 | 5.75* | 5.75 | + +============+===========+===========================+=========+ + | | Late Business. | Closing | + | | | Values. | + +------------+---------------------------------------+---------+ + | April | 6.03* | 5.98 | + | April-May | 6.03 | 5.98 | + | May-June | 6.03, 4, 3, 2, 1, 2, 0 | 5.99 | + | June-July | 6.04, 3, 2 | 5.99 | + | July-Aug. | 6.03, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0,* 1, 2,* 1, 0 | | + | | 5.99, 6.0,* 5.99, 6.0, 5.99, 8 | 5.98 | + | Aug.-Sept. | 5.98,* 6, 5, 4, 5 | 5.92 | + | Sept.-Oct. | 5.84, 2* | 5.78 | + | Oct.-Nov. | 5.76,* 5,* 4, 3, 4, 3,* 2, 1, 0 | 5.70 | + | Nov.-Dec. | 5.70* | 5.69 | + | Dec.-Jan. | 5.72, 1, 2* | 5.69 | + | Jan.-Feb. | | 5.69 | + +------------+---------------------------------------+---------+ + * Transactions of 100 bales only. + + + _Egyptian Deliveries, fully good fair (in 64ths of a penny)._ + + +----------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------+ + | |Yesterday's| Business | To-day's |Closing | + | | Close. | before Noon. | Business |Values. | + | | | | Afternoon. | | + +----------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------+ + | April | 10-11 | .. | .. | 10-1 | + | May | 10-12 |9-62, 3, 10-0 | 10-2* | 10-1 | + | | |9-63, 2, 10-0 | | | + | June | 10-11 | .. | .. | 10-0 | + | July | 10-9 |9-60, 1, 0* |9-63,* 10-0,* | 9-62 | + | | | | 9-63, 2 | | + | Aug. | 10-0 | .. | .. | 9-54 | + | Sept. | 9-58 | .. | .. | 9-48 | + | Oct. | 9-24 | .. | .. | 9-18 | + | Nov. | 8-58 |8-52,* 0, 49 | .. | 8-52 | + | Dec. | 8-50 |8-39* | .. | 8-42 | + | Jan. | 8-44 |8-36 | .. | 8-35 | + +----------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------+ + * Transactions of 100 bales only. + + +Egyptian futures, it will be observed, run out in single months. As the +cost of dealing in "futures" is only one shilling on each transaction +for a member of the Cotton Exchange (the outsider is charged in addition +a commission by his broker), it is not surprising that the transactions +taking place in "futures" number legion. + +The methods of dealing in cotton are very intricate, and it is necessary +here to interpolate an explanation of the relations between the prices +paid by spinners for cotton and the quoted "spot" prices. We begin by +giving the official quotations of "spot," and statement of business +done, published on the morning of the 19th of April 1906. + + _Quotations._ + + G.O. L.M. Mid. G.M. F.G.M. M.F. + American 5.87 6.05 6.21 6.41 6.49 6.71 + + Mid Fair. Fair. Gd. Fair. + + Pernam 5.95 6.35 6.61 + Ceara 6.02 6.40 6.62 + Paraiba 5.94 6.32 6.56 + Maceio 5.96n 6.34n 6.56n + + Fair. Gd. Fair. F.G.F. Good. Fine. + + Egyptian br'n 8-7/8 9-7/8 10-1/4 11 11-5/8 + " Upper -- 9-3/16 9-5/8 9-7/8n 10n + + Gd. Fr. F.G.F. Gd. G.F. Fine. S'fine. + + M. G. Broach. .. .. 5-7/16 5-19/32 5-3/4 .. + Bhownuggar 4-9/16n 4-11/16n 4-13/16n 4-15/16n 5-1/16n .. + No. 1 Comra 4-9/16n 4-11/16n 4-13/16n 4-15/16n 5-1/16n .. + Bengal 3-25/32 3-29/32 4-1/32 4-5/32 4-5/16 4¼ + Tinnevelly 5¼ 5-7/16 5-9/16 .. .. .. + + _Cotton Ships arrived._ + Boston: Canadian S. Hamburg: Iceland S. + + +-----------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ + | | Sales. | Speculation | Imports includ-| + | | | and Export. | ing Hull, &c. | + | +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ + | | |Previous| |Previous| | Week's | + | |To-day.| this |To-day.| this |To-day.| Total. | + | | | Week. | | Week. | | | + +-----------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ + |American | 6330 | 18,050 | 500 | 1500 |17,665 | 53,684 | + |Pernam, &c. | 150 | 200 | .. | .. | .. | .. | + |Paraiba, &c. | 460 | 130 | .. | .. | .. | 2 | + |Ceara and Arac'ty| .. | 30 | .. | .. | .. | .. | + |Egyptian | 500 | 1200 | .. | .. | 321 | 7,983 | + |Peruvian | 460 | 350 | .. | .. | 32 | 32 | + |W. I. and African| 50 | 20 | .. | .. | .. | .. | + |Surat | .. | .. | .. | .. | 3,664 | 3,829 | + |Madras | 50 | 20 | .. | .. | .. | .. | + |Bengal | .. | .. | .. | .. | 608 | 608 | + |Sundries | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + +-----------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ + | Total | 8000 | 20,000 | 500 | 1500 | 2,290 | 66,138 | + | | | 8,000 | | 500 | | | + | | +--------+ +--------+ | | + |Since Wednesday | | 28,000 | | 2000 | | | + +-----------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ + + + "Points on or off." + +Purchases for "speculation" remain in the market and therefore figure +again in the sales. These official prices are sometimes prices actually +paid, and sometimes prices settled by a committee according to their +notions of the prices that would have been realized at the close of the +market had business been done. The work of the committee is by no means +simple, as frequently very few transactions take place in the kinds of +cotton of which quotations are given. As regards "middling" American, +the committee fixes "spot" by allowing so many "points on or off" +present month futures. The variations of the gaps between "spot" and +"present month futures" are somewhat mysterious, a matter to which we +shall recur. "Spot" quotations, the reader will now understand, are +partly nominal, and must therefore be taken as affording a general idea +only of movements in the prices of cotton. While quoted "spot" remained +low, the prices paid by most spinners for the special kinds of cotton +that they needed might rise. When the spinner has informed the dealer +exactly what quality of cotton he needs, the dealer quotes so many +"points on or off" the "future" quotations prevailing in Liverpool at +the time of the purchase, which refer to Upland cotton of "middling +grade," of "no staple" and of the worst growth. Then, according as the +spinner wants immediate delivery or delivery in some future month, he +pays the price of current "futures," or of "futures" of the month in +which he requires delivery, plus or minus the "points on or off" +previously fixed. + +The considerations which determine the "points on or off" charged to the +spinner may be taken roughly as three:-- + +1. The grade, i.e. the colour, cleanliness, &c., of the cotton. These +are of importance to the spinner owing to the necessity of his cleaning +machinery being adapted to the condition of the cotton. The lower the +grade the more elaborate and expensive is the machinery required to +clean it, and consequently a spinner is willing to pay a certain amount +extra for high grade cotton in order to save expenditure on preparatory +machinery. + +2. The length of the staple. This determines to a large extent the +fineness of the yarn which can be spun. Only the very lowest counts can +be spun from cotton with "no staple," that is, with a fibre of about +three-quarters of an inch. The longer the staple above the minimum the +higher the counts that can be spun. + +3. The growth. The best American cotton (Sea Island and Florida cotton +are always considered quite apart) is grown in the Mississippi valley, +the next best in Texas, and the poorest on the Uplands (i.e. in Georgia +and Alabama). Considerations of growth determine to a great extent the +hardness or softness, and strength or weakness, of the fibre, and thus, +indirectly, whether the cotton is suitable for warp or weft. + +Some spinners cover their yarn contracts merely by buying "futures," but +the cover thus provided is frequently most inadequate owing to +variations in the "points on or off" for the particular cotton that they +want. For example, after the size of 1904-1905 crops became known, and +the Americans attempted to hold back cotton, the "points on" for many +qualities rose considerably owing to artificial scarcity, though the +price of cotton, as indicated by "spot," remained low. There is a +tendency for cautious spinners in England to run no risks and fix the +prices of their yarn in accordance with quotations for actual cotton of +specified qualities made by their brokers. + + + "Options" and "straddles." + +We now return to exchange "future" transactions regarded as a genus. In +addition to "futures" proper there are "options" and "straddles." +Options are single ("puts" or "calls") or double (that is, alternative +"puts" or "calls"). The "put" is a right to sell cotton within some +specified time in the future at a price fixed in the present, which need +not, of course, be exercised. The "call" is similar, but relates to +buying. It will be evident that the "put" is a hedge against prices +falling, and the "call" a hedge against their rising. The basis of +"options" is the same as that of ordinary "futures," i.e. middling +American cotton of "no staple," &c. Whether the purchaser of an option +gains or loses depends upon the price that he has paid in relation to +the gain, if any, that he makes out of his power. The price of options +of course varies: that of double options is always highest, but they are +little used. A "straddle" is a speculation on the difference between the +prices of nearer and more distant futures, which varies from time to +time, or on the difference between the prices of different kinds of +cotton. An example will make the nature of the straddle clear. Suppose a +dealer buys April-May "futures" at 4d. a lb. and sells the same quantity +of May-June "futures" at 4-10/64d. a lb. Then, whether prices rise or +fall as a whole, he gains if the difference between the two prices +becomes less than 10/64d., but if it becomes more, he loses. On the +other hand, had the dealer bought May-June at 4-10/64d. and sold +April-May at 4d. he would have gained in the event of the difference +increasing, and lost in the event of its decreasing. + + + Measures of steadiness in prices. + +A question which has met with a good deal of attention is whether the +speculation, which has been encouraged by the various arrangements made +for facilitating operations in "futures," has steadied or unsteadied +prices. Before we are prepared to answer this question we must be +furnished with a precise conception of what is meant by "steadiness" in +prices. It is sometimes assumed that this is measured perfectly by the +standard deviation,[6] which is obtained by taking the squares of the +differences between the average and the individual prices, summing them +and extracting the square root. But obviously the information given by +the standard deviation is limited: the frequency of movement cannot be +inferred from it; two series might have quite different average +oscillations and yet the same standard deviation; and the range of +movement, or spread of the variations from the average price (though +allowed for in the standard deviation more than in the average error), +is hidden. Now frequency of movement, average daily price variation, and +range of price movements are matters of fundamental importance to the +public. Hence for practical purposes we require several kinds of +measurement of price movements, and it is impossible to weigh exactly +the one against the other in respect of importance. Observe that an +increase of the frequency of movement, or even of the average daily +movement, is not necessarily objectionable, since changes are less +harassing when they take place by small increments than when they are +brought about by a few big variations. The difference between the +highest and lowest price, we may observe, is a very imperfect indication +of the range of movement (though, taken in conjunction with the standard +deviation, it is the best at our disposal), because either of the +extreme prices might be accidental and quite out of relation to all +others. An investigator must be on his guard against using quotations of +this kind. There is also a difficulty about the frequency of movement, +because as a rule many movements take place in one day the total over a +period sufficiently lengthy to yield general results is enormous, and +many are unrecorded. In one day, for instance, when the net drop was 33 +points and the range of variation 59 points (namely, 8.45 to 7.86), 150 +price fluctuations were recorded. However, the count of frequency of +movement from daily closing prices would probably afford a roughly +satisfactory comparative measurement in markets in which prices +sometimes remain the same for a day or two together. The points just +noted apply also to the average fluctuation and the standard deviation, +but it is probable in these cases that daily or even weekly quotations +would be sufficient to yield the information sought for with sufficient +exactness for purposes of comparison. + + + Effect of speculation on steadiness of prices. + +Now, supposing dealing to be confined to experts, what effects upon the +course of prices would one expect from the specialism of the cotton +market and improved facilities for dealing, on the assumption that +dealers were governed wholly in their actions by the course of prices +and never tried to manipulate them? The frequency of movement ought to +increase because the market would become more sensitive, but, other +things being equal, the range of movement ought to diminish, and +ultimately the average daily movement also, though at first the latter +might not fall appreciably if, indeed, it did not rise, owing to the +increased frequency of movement. These results would prove beneficial to +the community. May we infer deductively that they have been attained +because of the increase of speculative transactions? By no means, and +for two reasons. In the first place, the public speculates to a large +extent on the cotton exchange, and its speculation (taken as a whole) is +sheer gambling. But, it may be replied, the outsiders, being as a whole +completely ignorant of the forces at work, so that they cannot form +rational anticipations, cannot have any effect either way: by the law of +chance their influences would neutralize one another. This would be so +if people acted independently and without guidance, but actually they +are sometimes misled by published advice and movements in the market +intended to deceive them, and, even when they are not, they watch each +other's attitudes and tend to act as a crowd. The mass becomes unduly +sanguine or weakly surrenders to panic. Hence the law of error does not +apply, and speculation by the public may unsteady prices. Again, dealers +sometimes try to create corners and form powerful syndicates for that +purpose: the dealing syndicate of late years has become a force to be +reckoned with. Many large-scale operations are entered into, not because +prices are relatively high or low, but to make them high or low for +ulterior purposes; i.e. the market is deliberately "bulled or beared." +In consequence of this tampering with the market no certainty can be +felt about the effect even of expert dealing. + + + Movement of prices. + +What, then, we may profitably inquire next, has actually happened to +price movements generally as the market has developed? This question can +readily be answered as regards the past forty years or so, for which +material has been collected, but the reader must bear in mind that if +improvement can be traced it cannot logically be attributed +unhesitatingly to the perfecting of the machinery of speculation, +whereby a larger use has been made of "futures," since many other +economic changes have taken place concomitantly and they may have +wrought the major effect. The world may be steadying and steeling its +nerves. Now, turning to the actual effects, we discover somewhat +remarkable facts. Expressed both absolutely and as percentages of the +price averaged from the 1st of October to the 31st of July, the range of +movement, standard deviation, and mean weekly movement calculated +between the times mentioned above (October 1st to July 31st), after +diminishing significantly for some years after the later 'sixties, have +risen appreciably on the whole of late years. The figures in the table +below are from the _Journal of the Royal Statistical Society_, June +1906: quotations for August and September were omitted to avoid the +transition movements between the price levels of two crops. + +In this table measurements of price movements stated both absolutely and +as percentages of price levels are given, because authorities have +expressed doubts as to whether the former or the latter might be +expected to remain constant, other things being equal, when price rose. +On the one hand, it is argued that speculators are affected only by the +absolute variations in price, while on the other hand it is contended +that a movement of one "point," say, is less influential when the price +is about 8d. than when it is about 4d. In response to the first view it +might be argued that if speculators are influenced only by the +differences for which they become liable, a "point" movement would have +a somewhat slighter effect on their action, other things being equal, +when price was high, because, supplies being relatively short, each of +them would tend to be engaged in a smaller volume of transactions +measured in quantity of cotton, than when supplies were larger. But the +point need not be discussed further here, since both percentage and +absolute indices of unsteadiness have risen of late years. The +explanation of this change in the direction of indices of steadiness +cannot be proved to consist in any peculiarity in the supplies of recent +years. But the dealing syndicate has probably been of late more common +and more powerful--that is, the syndicate which exists to make profits +out of manipulating the market--and the public has probably been +speculating increasingly. It is plausible, then, to suppose that the +dealing syndicate primarily, and the speculations of the public +secondarily (secondarily, because in all likelihood the effect of its +operation would be much less in magnitude), may account for the change. + + Table calculated from Weekly Prices between the 1st of October and the + 31st of July in each Year. + + +--------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ + | | Expressed as Per- | + | | centage of Average | + | |(1 Oct. to 31 July) | + | | Weekly Prices. | + +---------+---------+---------+---------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | | | | |Range of|Stan- | Mean |Range |Stan- | Mean | + | Year. | Average | Lowest | Highest | Move- |dard |Weekly| of |dard |Weekly| + | | Price. | Price. | Price. | ment. |Devia-|Move- |Move- |Devia-|Move- | + | | | | | |tion. | ment.|ment. |tion. | ment.| + +---------+---------+---------+---------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | | d. | d. | d. | d. | d. | d. | d. | d. | d. | + |1867-1868| 9-5/8 | 7-3/8 |12-7/8 | 5½ | 1.74 | 0.31 | 57.1 | 18.1 | 3.22 | + |1868-1869|11½ |10½ |12-5/8 | 2-1/8 | 0.58 | 0.19 | 18.5 | 5.0 | 1.65 | + |1869-1870|11-1/8 | 7¾ |12-3/8 | 4-5/8 | 0.92 | 0.23 | 41.6 | 8.3 | 2.07 | + |1870-1871| 8-1/8 | 7-3/16 | 9-3/16 | 2 | 0.65 | 0.17 | 24.6 | 8.0 | 2.09 | + |1871-1872|10-7/8 | 9-3/8 |11½ | 2-1/8 | 0.75 | 0.15 | 19.5 | 6.9 | 1.38 | + |1872-1873| 9¾ | 8¾ |10-5/16 | 1-9/16 | 0.53 | 0.10 | 16.9 | 5.7 | 1.08 | + |1873-1874| 8-5/16 | 7¾ | 9-1/8 | 1-3/8 | 0.32 | 0.10 | 16.5 | 3.9 | 1.20 | + |1874-1875| 7-11/16 | 6-15/16 | 8 | 1-1/16 | 0.26 | 0.07 | 13.8 | 3.4 | 0.89 | + |1875-1876| 6½ | 5-7/8 | 7-1/8 | 1¼ | 0.37 | 0.08 | 19.2 | 5.7 | 1.23 | + |1876-1877| 6-5/16 | 5-7/8 | 7 | 1-1/8 | 0.33 | 0.11 | 17.8 | 5.2 | 1.74 | + |1877-1878| 6¾ | 5-7/8 | 6-9/16 | 1-11/16| 0.21 | 0.07 | 11.0 | 3.4 | 1.12 | + |1878-1879| 6 | 4-15/16 | 7-3/28 | 2¼ | 0.67 | 0.13 | 37.5 | 11.2 | 2.17 | + |1879-1880| 7 | 6-10/16 | 7-3/8 | 1¾ | 0.24 | 0.12 | 10.7 | 3.4 | 1.71 | + |1880-1881| 6-5/16 | 5¾ | 6-13/16 | 1-1/16 | 0.34 | 0.08 | 16.8 | 5.4 | 1.27 | + |1881-1882| 6-5/8 | 6-3/8 | 7-1/16 | 11/16 | 0.15 | 0.07 | 10.4 | 2.3 | 1.06 | + |1882-1883| 5-13/16 | 5-7/16 | 6-5/8 |1-3/16 | 0.31 | 0.07 | 20.4 | 5.3 | 1.20 | + |1883-1884| 6-1/16 | 5¾ | 6-7/16 | 11/16 | 0.20 | 0.08 | 11.3 | 3.3 | 1.32 | + |1884-1885| 5-13/16 | 5-7/16 | 6-1/8 | 11/16 | 0.19 | 0.07 | 11.8 | 3.3 | 1.20 | + |1885-1886| 5-1/8 | 4¾ | 5-8/16 | ¾ | 0.18 | 0.07 | 14.5 | 3.5 | 1.35 | + |1886-1887| 5-7/16 | 5-1/8 | 6 | 7/8 | 0.28 | 0.05 | 16.1 | 5.2 | 0.92 | + |1887-1888| 5½ | 5-3/16 | 5-11/16 | ½ | 0.14 | 0.05 | 9.1 | 2.5 | 0.91 | + |1888-1889| 5¾ | 5-5/16 | 6-3/16 | 7/8 | 0.23 | 0.06 | 15.0 | 4.0 | 1.04 | + |1889-1890| 6-1/8 | 5-9/16 | 6-11/16 | 1/8 | 0.34 | 0.08 | 18.4 | 5.5 | 1.31 | + |1890-1891| 5 | 4-3/8 | 5¾ | 1-3/8 | 0.36 | 0.06 | 27.5 | 7.2 | 1.20 | + |1891-1892| 4-1/8 | 3-6/16 | 4-15/16 | 1-3/8 | 0.36 | 0.07 | 33.3 | 8.7 | 1.70 | + |1892-1893| 4¾ | 4-1/8 | 5-15/16 | 1-3/16 | 0.37 | 0.09 | 25.0 | 7.8 | 1.89 | + |1893-1894| 4¼ | 3-29/32 | 4-11/16 | 25/32 | 0.22 | 0.04 | 18.4 | 5.2 | 0.94 | + |1894-1895| 3-3/8 | 2-31/32 | 3-7/8 | 9/32 | 0.30 | 0.06 | 26.9 | 8.9 | 1.79 | + |1895-1896| 4-3/8 | 3¾ | 4-27/32 | 3/32 | 0.28 | 0.07 | 25.0 | 6.4 | 1.60 | + |1896-1897| 4-3/16 | 3-25/32 | 4-11/16 | 29/32 | 0.22 | 0.07 | 21.6 | 5.2 | 1.67 | + |1897-1898| 3-13/32 | 3-3/16 | 3-13/16 | 5/8 | 0.18 | 0.05 | 18.5 | 5.3 | 1.47 | + |1898-1899| 3-9/32 | 3 | 3-15/32 | 15/32 | 0.15 | 0.04 | 14.3 | 4.6 | 1.22 | + |1899-1900| 4-15/16 | 3-29/32 | 6-1/16 | 25/32 | 0.63 | 0.12 | 43.6 | 12.8 | 2.48 | + |1900-1901| 5-1/8 | 4-5/16 | 6½ | 2-3/16 | 0.53 | 0.13 | 42.7 | 10.3 | 2.54 | + |1901-1902| 4¾ | 4-9/32 | 5-11/32 | 1-1/16 | 0.24 | 0.09 | 22.4 | 5.0 | 1.89 | + |1902-1903| 5.35 | 4.42 | 7.12 | 2.70 | 0.78 | 0.13 | 50.5 | 14.6 | 2.43 | + |1903-1904| 7.04 | 5.78 | 8.92 | 3.14 | 0.91 | 0.33 | 44.4 | 12.9 | 4.83 | + |1904-1905| 4.86 | 3.63 | 6.01 | 2.38 | 0.71 | 0.15 | 48.9 | 14.6 | 3.09 | + +---------+---------+---------+---------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+ + + + Price movements in different markets. + +"Futures" are not used in all markets--for instance, they are not to be +found at Bremen; and in those in which they are used they play parts of +different prominence--at Havre, for instance, the transactions in +"futures" are of incomparably less relative importance than they are at +Liverpool. But it is futile to seek the effect of much dealing in +"futures" in the differences between price movements in the various +markets, because (1) demand expresses itself in different ways--in +Germany, for example, spinners buy to hold large stocks--and (2) the +markets are in telegraphic communication, so that their price movements +are kept parallel. Mr Hooker has shown with reference to the wheat +market how close is the correlation between prices in different +places,[7] and the same has been observed of the cotton market, though +the correlations have not been worked out.[8] It is worthy of note that +Liverpool "futures" are largely used for hedging by continental cotton +dealers. + + +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+ + | | |Jan.-|Feb.-|Mar.-|Apr.-|May-|June-|July-|Aug.-|Sep.-|Oct.-|Nov.-|Dec.| + | |Spot.|Feb. |Mar. |Apr. |May. |Jun.|July |Aug. |Sep. |Oct. |Nov. |Dec. |Jan.| + +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+ + |Nov. 18th, 1895 | 4.34| 27 | 28 | 28½ | 29½ | 31 | 32 | 3 | .. | .. | .. | 27 | 27 | + |Jan. 18th, 1899 | 3.8 | 6½ | 6½ | 7½ | 8½ | 9½| 10½ | 1½ | 12 | 12½ | .. | .. | 6½| + |Sept. 14th, 1899| 3.36| 24½ | 25 | 25½ | 26 | 27 | .. | .. | 30 | 28 | 26½ | 25 | 24½| + +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+ + + + Differences between the prices of near and distant "futures." + +Conceivably some indication of the working of "futures" might be gleaned +from observation of the relations of near and distant "futures" to one +another and of both to "spot." The complete explanation of changes in +these relations is still a mystery.[9] Probably an infinitude of subtle +influences came into play, and among these there seems reason to include +the intentional and unintentional "bulling" or "bearing" of the market. +Some examples of the diverse relations to be found, even when all the +"futures" fall in the same crop year, may be quoted here--quotations +running into the new crop year are obviously affected by anticipations +of the new crop. + +As we pass from the "future" of the month in which the quotation is made +to the most distant "future" it will be observed that in the first and +second cases price rises continuously, in the second case even passing +"spot," whereas in the third case it falls first and then rises. +Instances might be given of its falling unintermittently. It seems a +plausible conjecture that if "futures" were "bulling" the market in the +first case, they were at least "bulling" it less in the second case +_ceteris paribus_, and probably "bearing" it in the last case. A closer +examination will reveal further that the magnitude of these gaps varies +a great deal; and if the "futures" do "bear" and "bull," as has been +supposed, they probably influence these magnitudes. It might be thought +that the "futures" of different months, being substitutes in proportion +to their temporal proximity to one another, should vary together +exactly; but it would seem to be a sufficient reply that as they are not +perfect substitutes they are in some slight degree independent +variables. The "spot" market might be judged generally as too high, in +view of crops and the probable normal demand of the year, but it might +not therefore drop immediately, owing partly to the pressure of demand +that must be satisfied instantaneously. "Current futures" would be +affected more than "spot" by this impression as to the relation of +"spot" to a conceived normal price for the year, and they might +therefore be expected to drop more than "spot" when this impression was +at all widely entertained. But the fall of "current futures" would be +checked by the demands that must be satisfied in the near future. +Probably the prices of the more distant "futures" are determined in a +higher degree by far-reaching imagination than the prices of nearer +futures. This explains what has been called above the unintentional +"bearing" of "spot" by "futures." And it is immediately evident that the +deliberate "bear" works by selling "futures," and that the effect of his +sales is propagated to "spot." These statements are equally true of +"bulling." The influence of expectations of the new crop on "futures" +running into the new crop is plain on inspection; but owing to the gap +between the two crop years it would be astonishing if "futures" against +which cotton from a new crop could be delivered were not appreciably +independent of "spot" at the time of their quotation. However, it is +noticeable that they are still so closely bound up with "futures" +culminating in the old crop year that the daily movements of the former +are closely correlated with those of the latter. Concluding cautiously, +we may admit the probability of the relations between near and distant +"futures" and "spot" (even in respect of "futures" running out in the +same crop year) indicating sometimes at least the intentional or +unintentional "bulling" or "bearing" or "spot" by "futures." But nothing +has yet been proved from these facts as to the effect "futures" are +having upon the steadiness of prices. In the case of any crop year, if +the relations which are suggested as indicating the "bulling" work of +"futures" usually corresponded with "spot" prices being below the normal +price of the crop year, or of what was left of the crop year, while the +relations which are suggested to indicate the "bearing" work of +"futures" on the whole corresponded with a relatively abnormal height of +"spot," it would be a legitimate inference that "futures" were tending +to smooth prices. However, it is made clear as the result of an +elaborate examination that the generality of these correspondences +cannot be affirmed.[10] The outcome of the whole matter is that the +investigator is still baffled in his attempt to discover what effect the +use of "futures" is having upon prices to-day. The sole piece of +evidence, from which probable conclusions may be drawn, is that three +separate measurements of price fluctuations over some forty years reveal +a growing unsteadiness of late, whether they be expressed absolutely or +as percentages of price. + + + Recent attempts to open up new cotton-fields. + +The uneasiness caused by the excessive dependence of Great Britain upon +the United States for cotton, coupled with the belief that shortages of +supply are more frequent than they ought to be, and the fear that +diminishing returns may operate in America, occasioned the formation in +England of the British Cotton Growing Association on the 12th of June +1902. The proportions of England's supplies drawn from different fields +is indicated in the table below. + +British dependence on American supplies is greater even than that of the +continent of Europe, for Russia possesses some internal supplies, and +more Indian cotton is used in continental countries than in England. + + _Average Quantities of Raw Cotton imported Annually into the United + Kingdom from the following Countries in the Periods 1896-1900 and + 1901-1904._ + + +----------------------------------------+-------------+-------------+ + | Country | 1896-1900. | 1901-1904. | + | | Million lb. | Million lb. | + +----------------------------------------+-------------+-------------+ + | United States | 1436 | 1424 | + | Brazil | 13.8 | 31.5 | + | Peru | 8.5 | 8.6 | + | Chile (including the Pacific coast of | .8 | 2.2 | + | Patagonia) | | | + | Venezuela and Republic of Colombia | .5 | .5 | + | British West Indies and British Guiana | .3 | .6 | + | Turkey (European and Asiatic) | .5 | 1.1 | + | Egypt | 295.7 | 314.4 | + | British possessions in the East Indies | 40.7 | 61.9 | + | Australasia | .035 | .041 | + | All other countries | 2.3 | 3.8 | + | +-------------+-------------+ + | Total | 1800 | 1849 | + | +-------------+-------------+ + | Re-exported | 223 | 260 | + +----------------------------------------+-------------+-------------+ + +The annual average shipments from Bombay to the European continent and +to Great Britain in 1900-1904 were as follows:-- + + To the continent 600 bales of 3½ cwt. + To Great Britain 50 " " " + +At the end of the 18th century the bulk of British cotton was obtained +from the West Indies. Approximately the supplies were as follows in +million lb.:-- + + British West Indies 6.6 + French and Spanish settlements 6 + Dutch settlements 1.7 + Portuguese " 2.5 + East Indies " .1 + Smyrna or Turkey 5.7 + +The British Cotton Growing Association works under the sanction of a +royal charter and has met with valuable official support. Financial +assistance and assurances as to sales and prices have been given +liberally by the association where they are needed; ginning and buying +centres have been established; experts have been engaged to distribute +seed and afford instruction; and some land has been acquired for working +under the direct management of the association. The governments of some +colonies have aided the efforts of the association. Professor Wyndham +Dunstan of the Imperial Institute, on a reference from the government, +made favourable reports as to the possibilities of extending cotton +cultivation. The results may be seen in the approximate estimates below +of cotton grown more or less directly under the auspices of the +association. + + _Bales of 400 lb._ + + +-------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+ + | | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906. | + +-------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+ + | Gambia | 50 | 100 | 300 | .. | + | Sierra Leone | 50 | 100 | 200 | 250 | + | Gold Coast | 50 | 150 | 200 | 250 | + | Lagos | 500 | 2,000 | 3,200 | 6,300 | + | Nigeria | 100 | 200 | 650 | 1,200 | + | | ----- | ----- | ----- | ----- | + | West Africa | 750 | 2,550 | 4,550 | 8,000 | + | West Indies | 1,000 | 2,000 | 4,000 | 6,000 | + | East Africa | 150 | 850 | 2,000 | 3,500 | + | Sind | .. | .. | 500 | 2,000 | + | Sundries | .. | 100 | 250 | 500 | + +-------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+ + | Total | 1,900 | 5,500 | 11,300 | 20,000 | + +-------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+ + | Approximate value |£29,000 |£75,000 | £150,000 | £270,000 | + +-------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+ + +In the West Indies results are most favourable, both as regards quantity +and quality of the crops. West Indian grown cotton has realized even +higher prices than American grown Sea Island. In West Africa also +prospects appear encouraging. In Sierra Leone little success has been +met with, but on the Gold Coast some cotton better than middling +American has been grown, and the association has concluded an agreement +with the government for an extension of its work. In Lagos crops +increased rapidly. The cotton is almost entirely grown by natives in +small patches round their villages, and generally it has sold for about +the same price as middling American, though some of it realized as much +as 25 to 30 "points on." The quality in greatest demand in England, it +should be observed, is worth about ¼d. to ½d. per lb. above middling +American. In Southern Nigeria the association has met with only slight +success; in Northern Nigeria, a working arrangement was entered into +with the Niger Company, and a small ginning establishment was set to +work in February 1906. In British Central Africa, the results on the +whole have not been satisfactory. Though planters who confined their +efforts to the lower lying grounds--of which there is a fairly large +tract--succeeded, all the cotton planted on the highlands proved more or +less a failure. In Uganda the association took no steps, but activity in +cotton-growing is not unknown, and some good cotton is being produced. +Arrangements were concluded with the British South Africa Company for +the formation of a small syndicate for working in Rhodesia. + +The general movement for the extension of cotton cultivation was +welcomed by the International Congress of representatives of master +cotton spinners and manufacturers' associations at the meeting at Zürich +in May 1904. It placed on record "its cordial appreciation of the +efforts of those governments and institutions which have already +supported cotton-growing in their respective colonies." England is +pre-eminent but not alone in the matter. Germany and France, and in a +less degree Belgium, Portugal and Italy, have taken some steps. Russia, +too, is developing her internal supplies. + +The advantages that might accrue from the wider distribution of +cotton-growing are mainly fourfold, (1) Greater elasticity of supply +might be caused. It is probably easier to extend the area under cotton +rapidly when crops are raised from many places in proximity to other +crops than when the mass of the cotton is obtained from a few highly +specialized districts. Possibly the advantages of specialism might be +retained and yet the elasticity of supply be enhanced. (2) Greater +stability of crops in proportion to area cultivated is hoped for. The +eggs are now too much in one basket, and local disease, or bad weather, +or some other misfortune, may diminish by serious percentages the +supplies anticipated. Were there numerous important centres, the bad +fortune of one would be more adequately offset by the good fortune of +another. (3) Desirable variations in the raw material might conceivably +eventuate from the introduction of cotton to spots in the globe where +its growth was previously unknown or little regarded. The results of the +enterprise of Mehemet Ali and Jumel in Egypt prove such an idea to be +not altogether fanciful, and warn us also against hastily arguing that +the plan is too artificial to succeed on a large scale. Without the +active intervention of a strong body of interested parties it is +sometimes unlikely that new industries will be undertaken even in places +well suited for them. (4) Lastly, the countries to which cotton-growing +is carried should gain in prosperity. + + + The Cotton Supply Association. + +The general difficulties in the way of the British Cotton Growing +Association are many and will be sufficiently evident. Lessons of value +may be learnt from the fate of similar work undertaken by the Cotton +Supply Association, which was instituted in April 1857. According to its +fifth report, it originated "in the prospective fears of a portion of +the trade that some dire calamity must inevitably, sooner or later, +overtake the cotton manufacture of Lancashire, whose vast superstructure +had so long rested upon the treacherous foundation of restricted slave +labour as the main source of supply for its raw material."[11] Its +methods were stated to be: "To afford information to every country +capable of producing cotton, both by the diffusion of printed directions +for its cultivation, and sending competent teachers of cotton planting +and cleaning, and by direct communication with Christian missionaries +whose aid and co-operation it solicits; to supply, gratuitously, in the +first instance, the best seeds to natives in every part of the world who +are willing to receive them; to give prizes for the extended cultivation +of cotton; and to lend gins and improved machines for cleaning and +preparing cotton." Though the association brought about an extension and +improvement of the Indian crop, in which result it was enormously +assisted by the high prices consequent upon the American Civil War, it +sank after a few years into obscurity, and soon passed out of existence +altogether, while the effects of its work dwindled finally into +insignificance. Much the same had been the ultimate outcome of the +spasmodic attempt of the British government to bring about the +introduction of cotton to new districts, after it had been pressed to +take some action a few years prior to the formation of the Cotton Supply +Association. A Mr Clegg, who afterwards interested himself keenly in the +activities of the Cotton Supply Association reported that in the course +of a tour in 1855 through the Eastern countries bordering on the +Mediterranean he had found none of the gins presented by the British +government at work or workable. + +BIBLIOGRAPHY.--On the question of cotton supplies, as treated in this +article, the reader may be referred to _Brook's Cotton, its Uses, &c._; +Dabney's _Cotton Plant_ (Department of Agriculture of the United +States); Foaden's _Cotton Culture in Egypt_; Dunstan's _Report on Cotton +Cultivation_ for the British government; Oppel's _Die Baumwolle_; +Leconte's _Le Coton_; publications of the British Cotton Growing +Association; _Report_ of the Lancashire Commission on the possibility of +extending cotton cultivation in the Southern States of North America; +Watt's _Lancashire and the Cotton Famine_; publications of the old +Cotton Supply Association (many will be found in the Manchester public +library in the volume marked "677 I. C. ii."), including their weekly +paper, _The Cotton Supply Reporter_; Hammond's _Cotton Culture and +Trade_. On methods of marketing to certain portions of the above must be +added: Ellison's _Cotton Trade of Great Britain_; Chapman's _Lancashire +Cotton Industry_ (ch. vii.); articles by Chapman and Knoop in the +_Economic Journal_ (December, 1904) and the _Journal of the Royal +Statistical Society_ (April, 1906); Emery's _Speculation on Stock and +Produce Exchanges of the United States_ (small portions of which relate +to cotton). Many statistics will be found in the works mentioned, and +these may be supplemented from the trade publications of different +countries. Many valuable figures of cotton imports, &c., in early years +will be found in Baines' _History of the Cotton Trade_. Recent +statistics bearing upon cotton are collected annually in the two +publications, Shepperson's _Cotton Facts_ and Jones's _Handbook for +Daily Cable Records of Cotton Crop Statistics_. For current information +the following may be added: Nield's, Ellison's and Tattersall's +circulars; _Cotton_ (the publication of the Manchester Cotton +Association); and daily reports and articles in the local press. Price +curves are published by Messrs Turner, Routledge & Co. (S. J. C.) + + +COTTON GOODS AND YARN + +The two great sections of the cotton industry are _yarn_ and _cloth_, +and in Great Britain the production of both of these is mainly in South +Lancashire, though the area extends to parts of Cheshire, Yorkshire and +Derbyshire, and there is a Scottish branch, besides certain isolated +ventures in other parts of the country. Though there are local rivalries +there is nothing in competitive division to compare with the northern +and southern sections in America, and the British industry is, for its +size, more homogeneous than most of the European industries. Both +operatives and employers are highly organized and both parties are able +to make articulate contribution to the solution of the various problems +connected with the trade. + +_Cotton Yarn._--The yarn trade is mainly in the hands of limited +companies, and a private firm is looked upon as something of a survival +from the past. The two great centres of production are Oldham, in which +American cotton is chiefly, though not exclusively, spun, and Bolton, +which spins the finer counts from Egyptian or Sea Island cotton. +Spinning mills are established, however, in most of the large Lancashire +towns as well as in some parts of Cheshire and in Yorkshire, where there +is a considerable industry in doubling yarns. The centre of trade is the +Manchester Royal Exchange, and though some companies or firms prefer to +do business by means of their own salaried salesmen, managers or +directors, most of the yarn is sold by agents. Frequently a single agent +has the consignment of the whole of a company's yarn, but many spinners, +especially those whose business connexion is not perfectly assured, +prefer to have more outlets than can be explored by an individual. At +times of bad trade even those who usually depend on their own resources +seek the aid of experienced agents, who sometimes find a grievance if +their services are rejected when trade improves and sales are made +easily. + +Yarn is sold upon various terms, but a regular custom in the home trade +is for the spinner to allow 4% discount, for payment in 14 days, of +which 2½ goes to the buyer, who is commonly a manufacturer, and 1½ to +the agent for sale and guaranteeing the account. In selling yarn for +export it is usual to allow the buyer only 1½% for payment in 14 days, +or in some cases the discount is at the rate of 5% per annum for 3 +months, which is equivalent to 1¼%. + +The great bulk of the yarn spun in Great Britain ranges between +comparatively narrow limits of count, and such staples as 32^s to 36^s +twist and 36^s to 46^s weft in American, 50^s to 60^s twist and 42^s to +62^s weft in Egyptian, make up a large part of the total. It is +nevertheless the experience of yarn salesmen that Lancashire produces an +increasingly large amount of specialities that indicate a continued +differentiation in trade. The tendency to spin finer counts has been to +some extent counteracted by the development of the flannelette trade, +for which heavy wefts are used, and there has been again a tendency +lately to use "condensor" or waste wefts, which has worked to the +disadvantage of the spinners of the regular coarse counts spun at Royton +and elsewhere. The demand for cloths which require careful handling and +regularity in weaving has helped to develop the supply of ring yarns +which will stand the strain of the loom better than mule twists. A great +amount of doubled and trebled yarn is now sold, though it does not +appear that recent expansions have added much to doubling spindles, and +considerable developments continue in the use of dyed and mercerized +yarns. + +Yarns are sold according to their "actual" counts, though when they are +woven into cloth they frequently attain nominal or brevet rank. There +has been a long-continued discussion, which between buyer and seller +sometimes degenerates into a dispute, on the subject of moisture in +yarns, and the difficulty is not confined to the Lancashire industry. +The amount permissible, according to the recommendation of the +Manchester Chamber of Commerce, is 8%, but while it may be assumed that +yarns at the time of their sale rarely contain less than this, they +frequently contain a good deal more. It is a matter of experience that +cotton yarns which when spun contain only a small percentage of moisture +will absorb up to about 8% when they are exposed to what may be rather +vaguely described as natural conditions. The exigencies of competition +prompted the discovery that if yarn were sold by weight fresh from the +spindle its comparative dryness made such early sale less profitable +than if it were allowed to "condition." Between loss and delay the +spinner found an obvious alternative in damping the yarn artificially. +As it was often clearly to the advantage of the buyer that he should +receive immediate delivery he did not object to water in moderation, but +art soon began to run a little ahead of nature. The essentially +dishonest practice of deluging yarn with water, which has sometimes even +degenerated into the use of weighting materials deleterious to weaving, +has been recognized as a great nuisance, but while various attempts have +been made to protect the buyer the question seems to have pretty well +settled itself on the principles which commonly rule the sales of +commodities between those who intend to do business continuously. The +spinner who persists in over-weighting his yarn finds it difficult to +obtain "repeat" orders. + +A remarkable point in the Lancashire yarn trade is the looseness of the +contracts between spinner and manufacturer. Doubtless some kind of sale +note or acknowledgment usually passes between them, but in the home +trade at least it is quite usual to leave the question of delivery an +open one. It would not be correct to say that this system or want of +system is satisfactory, but the trade manages to rub along very well +with it, although inconveniences and disagreements sometimes arise when +prices have advanced or declined considerably. Thus when prices have +advanced the manufacturer may find it difficult to obtain delivery of +the yarn that he had bought at low rates, for some spinners have a +curious, indefensible preference for delivering their higher-priced +orders; and, on the other hand, when prices have fallen the manufacturer +sometimes ceases to take delivery of the high-priced yarn and actually +purchases afresh for his needs. Yet positive repudiation is very rare +though compromises are not uncommon, and a good many illogical +arrangements are made that imply forbearance and amity. Litigation in +the yarn trade is very unusual, and Lancashire traders generally have +only vague notions of the bearing of law upon their transactions, and a +wholesome dread of the experience that would lead to better knowledge. + + The average yearly values of the exports of cotton, yarn and cloth + from Great Britain for the decades 1881-1890 and 1891-1900 + respectively, are given by Professor Chapman in his _Cotton Industry + and Trade_, in million pounds:-- + + 1881-1890. 1891-1900. + Cloth £60.4 £57.3 + Yarn 12.3 9.3 + ----- ----- + Total £72.7 £66.6 + + During the earlier decade the prices of cotton were comparatively + high. + + The whole of the cloth exports represent, of course, a corresponding + home trade in yarns. The following table, taken from the _Manchester + Guardian_, gives in thousands of lb. the amounts of cotton yarns + exported from Great Britain during 1903, 1904 and 1905 respectively, + according to the Board of Trade returns, together with the average + value per lb. for each of the countries:-- + + +-----------------------------+--------------+---------------+--------------+ + | | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | + | +-------+------+-------+-------+-------+------+ + | | |Price | | Price | | Price| + | | lb.* | per | lb.* | per | lb.* | per | + | | | lb. | | lb. | | lb. | + +-----------------------------+-------+------+-------+-------+-------+------+ + | | | d. | | d. | | d. | + | Russia | 814| 30.22| 713| 30.71| 557| 30.66| + | Sweden | 1,526| 11.00| 1,486| 12.55| 1,512| 11.12| + | Norway | 1,656| 9.54| 1,511| 11.05| 1,606| 9.73| + | Denmark | 2,429| 8.91| 2,368| 10.18| 2,860| 9.51| + | Germany | 27,239| 16.05| 40,295| .27| 39,513| 16.38| + | Netherlands | 29,591| 9.10| 29,384| 10.48| 37,341| 8.93| + | Belgium | 3,970| 15.89| 5,864| 16.50| 7,205| 16.12| + | France | 3,974| 17.59| 3,084| 20.01| 3,518| 22.64| + | Italy | 204| 21.78| 174| 24.70| 204| 22.21| + | Austria-Hungary | 2,662| 11.60| 3,329| 14.36| 3,066| 13.36| + | Rumania | 4,608| 8.55| 5,072| 10.13| 7,856| 9.73| + | Turkey | 12,966| 8.93| 14,253| 10.05| 17,389| 9.37| + | Egypt | 4,590| 8.66| 4,381| 9.83| 4,382| 8.59| + | China (including Hong-Kong) | 4,660| 9.45| 2,457| 10.24| 8,441| 8.70| + | Japan | 1,406| 12.98| 681| 11.46| 4,071| 13.99| + | British India-- | | | | | | | + | Bombay | 6,286| 10.80| 8,145| 11.88| 13,112| 10.86| + | Madras | 6,683| 11.07| 8,288| 12.48| 10,930| 11.91| + | Bengal | 6,777| 11.04| 6,596| 12.82| 11,068| 11.20| + | Burma | 5,611| 12.17| 3,388| 12.39| 4,211| 12.31| + | Straits Settlements | 1,945| 10.81| 1,137| 11.57| 2,149| 10.71| + | Ceylon | 33| 11.92| 44| 16.51| 42| 13.55| + | Other countries | 21,129| 12.39| 21,252| 13.28| 23,970| 12.43| + | +-------+------+-------+-------+-------+------+ + | Total and average |150,758| 11.79|163,901| 13.11|205,001| 12.08| + +-----------------------------+-------+------+-------+-------+-------+------+ + * 000 omitted. + + It should be understood, however, that in some cases the Board of + Trade figures represent only an approximation to the ultimate + distribution, as the exports are sometimes assigned to the + intermediate country, and in particular it is understood that a + considerable part of the yarn sent to the Netherlands is destined for + Germany or Austria. The large business done in yarns with the + continent of Europe is in some respects an extension of the British + home trade, though certain countries have their own specialities. A + considerable business is done with European countries in doubled yarns + and in fine counts of Egyptian, including "gassed" yarns, which are + also sent intermittently to Japan. "Extra hard" yarns are sent to + Rumania and other Near Eastern markets, and Russia, as the average + price indicates, buys sparingly of very fine yarns. The trade with the + Far East, which, though not very large for any one market, is + important in the aggregate, is a good deal specialized, and since the + development of Indian and Japanese cotton mills some of the trade in + the coarser counts has been lost. The various Indian markets take + largely of 40^s mule twist and in various proportions of 30^s mule, + water twists, two-folds grey and bleached, fine Egyptian counts and + dyed yarns. China also takes 40^s mule, water twists and two-folds. + The general export of yarn varies according to influences such as + tariff charges, spinning and manufacturing development in the + importing countries and the price of cotton. A particular effect of + high-priced piece-goods is seen in various Eastern countries that are + still partly dependent on an indigenous hand-loom industry. The big + price of imported cloths throws the native consumer to some extent + upon the local goods, and so stimulates the imports of yarn. It + appears that as the native industries decline the weaving section + persists longer than the spinning section. + +_Cotton Goods._--Cotton goods are of an infinite variety, and the titles +that experience or fancy have evoked are even more numerous than the +kinds. Descriptions of the following fabrics, which are not of course +invariably made of cotton, will be found in separate articles: BAIZE, +BANDANA, BOMBAZINE, BROCADE, CALICO, CAMBRIC, CANVAS, CHINTZ, CORDUROY, +CRAPE, CRETONNE, DENIM, DIMITY, DRILL, DUCK, FLANNELETTE, FUSTIAN, +GAUZE, GINGHAM, LONGCLOTH, MOLESKIN, MULL, MUSLIN, NANKEEN, PRINT, REP, +TICKING, TWILL, VELVETEEN. The following are notes on other varieties. + +_Grey cloth_ is a comprehensive term that includes unbleached cotton +cloth generally. It may be a nice question whether "yellow" would not +have been the more nearly correct description. A very large proportion +of the Lancashire export trade is in grey goods and a smaller yet +considerable proportion of the home trade. + +_Shirting_, which has long since ceased to refer exclusively to shirt +cloths, includes a large proportion of Lancashire manufacture. Grey and +white shirtings are exported to all the principal Eastern markets and +also to Near Eastern, European, South American, &c. markets. Certain +staple kinds, such as 39 in. 37½ yd. 8¼ lb. 16 x 15 (threads to the ¼ +in.), largely exported to China and India, are made in various +localities and by many manufacturers. The length quoted is to some +extent a conventional term, as the pieces in many cases actually measure +considerably more. The export shirting trade is done mainly on "repeat" +orders for well-known "chops" or marks. These trade marks are sometimes +the property of the manufacturer, but more commonly of the exporter. +Generally the China markets use rather better qualities than the Indian +markets. The principal China market for shirtings and other staple goods +is Shanghai, which holds a large stock and distributes to minor markets. +A considerable trade is also done through Hong-Kong and other Far +Eastern ports. The principal Indian markets are Calcutta, Bombay, +Karachi and Madras. + +_Shirt-cloth_ is the term more commonly applied to what is actually used +in the manufacture of shirts, and it may be used for either plain or +fancy goods. + +_Sheeting_ has two meanings in the cotton trade: (1) the ordinary bed +sheeting, usually a stout cloth of anything from 45 in. to 120 in. wide +(the extremes being used on the one hand for children's cots or ship +bunks and on the other for old-fashioned four-posters), which may be +either plain or twilled, bleached, unbleached or half-bleached; (2) a +grey calico, heavier than a shirting, sent largely to China and other +markets, usually 36 in. by 40 yd. and weighing about 12 lb. American +sheetings compete with Lancashire goods in the China market. The _Cabot_ +is a kind of heavy sheeting, and for the Levant markets the name as a +trade mark is said to be the exclusive property of an American firm, +although the general class is known by the name and supplied by other +firms. + +_Mexican_ is a plain, heavy grey calico, sometimes heavily sized. The +origin of the word is doubtful, and it seems to be an arbitrary term. +Mexicans are exported to various markets and also used in the home +trade. For export the dimensions are commonly 32 or 36 in. by 24 yd., +and a usual count is 18 x 18. In the Mexican the yarns were originally +of nearly the same weight and number of threads to the ¼ in., an +arrangement which gave the cloth an even appearance, thus differing from +the "pin-head" or medium makes. Now, however, Mexicans are often made +with lighter wefts, though the name is usually applied to the better +class of cloths of the particular character. _Punjum_ is a Mexican, +generally 36 yd. in length, sent mainly to the South African market. + +_T Cloth_ is a plain grey calico, similar in kind to the Mexican and +exported to the same markets. There is no absolute distinction between +the two cloths, but the T cloth is generally lower in quality than the +Mexican. The name seems to have been originally an arbitrary +identification or trade mark. + +_Domestic_, a name originally used in the sense of "home-made," is +applied especially to home-made cotton goods in the United States. In +Great Britain it is employed rather loosely, but commonly to describe +the kind of cloth which if exported would be called a Mexican. It may be +either bleached or unbleached. + +_Medium_ is a plain calico, grey or bleached, of medium weight, used +principally in the home and colonial trade. The word is sometimes +particularly applied to cloths with a comparatively heavy weft, the +distinction being made between the even "Mexican make" and the +"pin-head" or "medium-make." + +_Raising-cloths_ are of various kinds and may be merely mediums with a +heavy weft, or "condensor" weft made from waste yarns. The essence of +the raising-cloth is a weft that will provide plenty of nap and yet have +sufficient fibre to maintain the strength of the web. + +_Wigan_ is a name derived from the town Wigan and seems to have been +originally applied to a stiff canvas-like cloth used for lining skirts. +Now it is commonly applied to medium or heavy makes of calico. + +_Double-warp_, as its name implies, is a cloth with a twofold warp. It +is usually a strong serviceable material and may be either twilled or +plain. Sheetings for home trade are often double-warp, and double-warp +twills and Wigans were and are used for the old-fashioned type of men's +night-shirts. + +_Croydon_, which seems to be an arbitrary trade name, is a heavy, +bleached, plain calico, usually stiff and glossy in finish. It used to +be sold largely in the Irish trade as well as in the English home trade, +but it has been supplanted a good deal by softer finishes. + +_Printing-cloth_ is a term with a general significance, but it is also +particularly applied to a class of plain cloths in which a very large +trade is done both for home trade and export. The chief place in +Lancashire for the manufacture of printing-cloths is Burnley, and in the +United States, Fall River. The Burnley cloths range in width from 29 in. +to 40 in., and are usually about 120 yd. in length. The warp is commonly +from 36^s to 44^s, the weft from 36^s to 54^s, and the threads from 13 × +13 to 20 × 20 to the ¼ in. Cheshire printers, which are made at Hyde, +Stockport, Glossop and elsewhere, are commonly 34 in. to 36 in. wide, +the warp is from 32^s to 36^s, the weft 32^s to 40^s, and the counts 16 +× 16 to 19 × 22. + +_Jacconet_ is understood to be the corruption of an Indian name, and the +first jacconets were probably of Indian origin. They now make one of the +principal staple trades of Lancashire with India. The jacconet is a +plain cloth, lighter than a shirting and heavier than a mull. When +bleached it is usually put into a firm and glossy finish. A _nainsook_ +is a jacconet bleached and finished soft. It also goes largely to India. + +_Dhootie_ is a name taken from a Hindu word of similar sound and +referred originally to the loin-cloth worn by Hindus. It is a light, +narrow cloth made with a coloured border which is often so elaborate as +to require a dobby loom for its manufacture. The finer kinds, made from +Egyptian yarns, are called mull-dhooties. The dhootie is one of the +principal staples for India and is exported both white and grey. + +_Scarf_ is a kind of dhootie made usually with a taped or corded border. + +_Madapolam_ or _Madapollam_ is a name derived from a suburb of Narsapur +in the Madras presidency where the cloth was first made. It is now +exported grey or white to India and other countries. In weight it is +lighter than a shirting, and it is usually ornamented with a distinctive +coloured heading. + +_Baft_, probably of Persian derivation, and originally a fine cloth, is +now a coarse and cheap cloth exported especially to Africa. + + +_Sarong_, the Malay word for a garment wrapped round the lower part of +the body and used by both men and women, is now applied to plain or +printed cloths exported to the Indian or Eastern Archipelago for this +purpose. + +_Jean_, said to be derived from Genoa where a kind of fustian with this +title was made, is a kind of twilled cloth. The cloth is woven "one end +up and two ends down," and as there are more picks of weft per inch than +ends of warp the diagonal lines pass from selvage to selvage at an angle +of less than 45 degrees. The weft surface is the face or wearing surface +of the cloth. Jeans are exported to China and other markets, and are +also used in the home trade. _Jeanette_ is the converse of jean, being a +twill of "two ends up to one down"; the diagonal passes from selvage to +selvage at a greater angle than 45 degrees and the warp makes the +wearing surface. + +_Oxford_ is a plain-woven cloth usually with a coloured pattern, and is +used for shirts and dresses. The name is comparatively modern, and is, +no doubt, arbitrarily selected. + +_Harvard_ is a twilled cloth similar to the Oxford. + +_Regatta_ is a stout, coloured shirt cloth similar in make to a +jeanette. It was originally made in blue and white stripes and was used +largely and is still used for men's shirts. + +Fancy cotton goods are of great variety, and many of them have trade +names that are used temporarily or occasionally. Apart from the large +class of brocaded cloths made in Jacquard looms there are innumerable +simpler kinds, including stripes and checks of various descriptions, +such as Swiss, Cord, Satin, Doriah stripes, &c. _Mercerized cloths_ are +of many kinds, as the mercerizing process can be applied to almost +anything. _Lace_ and _lace curtains_ are made largely at Nottingham. +Various light goods are made in Scotland, such as _book muslin_, a fine +light muslin with an elastic finish, so called from being folded in +book-form. + +Among the fancy cloths made in cotton may be mentioned: _matting_, which +includes various kinds with some similarity in appearance to a matting +texture; _matelassé_, which is in some degree an imitation of French +dress goods of that name; _piqué_, also of French origin, woven in +stripes in relief, which cross the width of the piece, and usually +finished stiff; _Bedford cord_, a cheaper variety of piqué in which the +stripes run the length of the piece; _oatmeal cloth_, which has an +irregular surface suggesting the grain of oatmeal, commonly dyed cream +colour; _crimp cloth_, in which a puckered effect is obtained by uneven +shrinkage; _grenadine_, said to be derived from Granada, a light dress +material originally made of silk or silk and wool; _brilliant_, a dress +material, usually with a small raised pattern; _leno_, possibly a +corrupt form of the French _linon_ or lawn, a kind of fancy gauze used +for veils curtains, &c.; _lappet_, a light material with a figure or +pattern produced on the surface of the cloth by needles placed in a +sliding frame; _lustre_, a light dress material with a lustrous face +sometimes made with a cotton warp and woolen weft; _zephyr_, a light, +coloured dress material usually in small patterns; _bobbin-net_, a +machine-made fabric, originally an imitation of lace made with bobbins +on a pillow. + +Some fancy cloths have descriptive names such as _herringbone stripe_, +and there are many arbitrary trade names, such as _Yosemite stripe_, +which may prevail and become the designation of a regular class or die +after a few seasons. + +Cotton linings include _silesia_, originally a linen cloth made in +Silesia and now usually a twilled cotton cloth which is dyed various +colours; _Italian cloth_, a kind of jean or sateen produced originally +in Italy. Various cotton cloths are imitations of other textures and +have modified names which indicate their superficial character, +frequently produced by finishing processes. Among these are _sateen_, +which, dyed or printed, is largely used for dresses, linings, +upholstery, &c.; _linenette_, dyed and finished to imitate coloured +linen in the north of Ireland and elsewhere; _hollandette_, usually +unbleached or half-bleached and finished to imitate linen holland; and +_interlining_, a coarse, plain white calico used as padding for linen +collars. + + +------------------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ + | | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | + | +---------+-----+---------+-----+---------+-----+ + | Country. | |Price|Thousands|Price|Thousands|Price| + | |Thousands| per |Thousands| per |Thousands| per | + | |of Yards.|Yard.|of Yards.|Yard.|of Yards.|Yard.| + +------------------------------+---------+-----+---------+-----+---------+-----+ + | Germany | 60,650| 3.77| 60,129| 4.02| 65,842| 3.98| + | Netherlands | 47,570| 3.57| 46,187| 3.68| 56,639| 3.47| + | Belgium | 52,199| 4.34| 56,237| 4.42| 67,509| 4.41| + | France | 17,552| 4.61| 17,759| 4.39| 14,875| 4.65| + | Portugal, Azores and Madeira | 32,824| 2.70| 29,440| 2.92| 29,867| 3.03| + | Italy | 6,363| 5.07| 7,904| 5.19| 8,746| 5.31| + | Austria-Hungary | 2,405| 3.44| 2,102| 3.40| 1,905| 3.60| + | Greece | 40,973| 2.64| 32,658| 3.11| 28,190| 3.20| + | Turkey | 305,611| 2.45| 379,557| 2.53| 376,209| 2.53| + | Egypt | 229,704| 2.41| 283,521| 2.57| 272,737| 2.53| + | Algeria | 709| 2.74| 438| 2.71| 455| 2.63| + | Morocco | 52,368| 2.28| 51,262| 2.44| 44,407| 2.44| + | Foreign West Africa | 64,589| 2.92| 55,131| 3.12| 69,163| 3.08| + | Persia | 34,859| 2.46| 33,119| 2.67| 38,647| 2.59| + | Dutch East Indies | 156,905| 2.45| 185,196| 2.72| 226,586| 2.57| + | Philippine Islands | 25,558| 2.59| 25,969| 2.86| 42,876| 2.66| + | China, including Hong-Kong | 477,691| 2.83| 548,974| 3.34| 799,732| 3.06| + | Japan | 67,315| 3.08| 42,373| 3.34| 128,725| 2.99| + | United States of America | 72,360| 6.80| 52,391| 7.18| 65,563| 7.40| + | Foreign West Indies | 86,349| 2.08| 98,797| 2.21| 80,679| 2.24| + | Mexico | 19,327| 3.10| 21,679| 3.42| 21,028| 3.31| + | Central America | 40,879| 1.97| 53,018| 2.21| 49,523| 2.29| + | Colombia and Panama | 44,299| 2.25| 44,648| 2.54| 31,798| 2.41| + | Venezuela | 52,330| 1.87| 52,934| 2.07| 32,717| 2.11| + | Peru | 28,962| 2.66| 32,430| 2.85| 39,035| 2.78| + | Chile | 84,118| 2.50| 80,836| 2.57| 96,996| 2.62| + | Brazil | 152,402| 2.64| 134,841| 2.89| 131,504| 2.50| + | Uruguay | 44,062| 2.79| 35,670| 2.85| 56,770| 2.95| + | Argentine Republic | 151,003| 2.91| 186,022| 3.04| 159,115| 3.24| + | Gibraltar | 11,961| 2.39| 10,578| 2.47| 3,960| 2.73| + | Malta | 4,065| 3.11| 3,659| 3.45| 4,006| 3.31| + | British W. Africa | 69,795| 3.27| 69,308| 3.43| 74,392| 3.40| + | " S. " | 61,778| 3.61| 29,670| 4.03| 50,592| 3.69| + | British India-- | | | | | | | + | Bombay | 678,684| 2.07| 818,261| 2.23| 908,619| 2.24| + | Madras | 132,825| 2.48| 141,675| 2.63| 131,145| 2.62| + | Bengal |1,122,004| 1.97|1,215,607| 2.18|1,280,314| 2.18| + | Burma | 64,654| 2.84| 79,765| 3.10| 72,528| 3.13| + | Straits Settlements* | 112,006| 2.61| 100,230| 2.84| 121,690| 2.71| + | Ceylon | 17,395| 2.75| 19,336| 2.95| 24,991| 2.94| + | Australia | 106,000| 3.83| 128,247| 4.01| 136,481| 3.85| + | New Zealand | 38,499| 3.58| 33,538| 3.81| 32,315| 3.63| + | Canada | 47,439| 4.15| 49,903| 4.25| 45,189| 4.47| + | British West India Islands, | | | | | | | + | Bahamas and British Guiana | 49,614| 2.49| 43,487| 2.61| 47,173| 2.21| + | Other countries | 188,662| 2.84| 197,339| 3.14| 226,971| 3.03| + +------------------------------+---------+-----+---------+-----+---------+-----+ + | Total |5,157,316| 2.57|5,591,822| 2.75|6,198,200| 2.74| + +------------------------------+---------+-----+---------+-----+---------+-----+ + * Including Federated Malay States. + +Various cotton imitations share the name of the original, such as lawn, +batiste, serge, huckaback, galloon, and a large number of names are of +obvious derivation and use, such as umbrella cloth, apron cloth, sail +cloth, book-binding cloth, shroud cloth, butter cloth, mosquito +netting, handkerchief, blanket, towelling, bagging. + +Among the miscellaneous cloths made or made partly of cotton may be +mentioned: _waste cloths_, made from waste yarns and usually coarse in +texture; _khaki cloth_, made largely for military clothing in cotton as +well as in woollen; _cottonade_, a name given to various coarse low +cloths in the United States and elsewhere; _lasting_, which seems to be +an abbreviation of "lasting cloth," a stiff, durable texture used in +making shoes, &c.; _bolting cloth_, used in bolting or sifting; +_brattice cloth_, a stout, tarred cloth made of cotton or wool and used +for bratticing or lining the sides of shafts in mines; _sponge cloths_, +used for cleaning machinery; _shoddy_ and _mungo_, which though mainly +woollen have frequently a cotton admixture; and _splits_, either plain +or fancy, usually of low quality, which include any cloth woven two or +three in the breadth of the loom and "split" into the necessary width. +Cotton is used too for many miscellaneous purposes, including the +manufacture of lamp wicks and even of billiard balls. + +_British Cotton Cloth Exports._--The main lines of the Lancashire export +trade in cotton goods are indicated in the Board of Trade returns. The +table on p. 278 compiled from them is taken from the _Manchester +Guardian_. It gives in thousands of yards the quantities of cotton goods +exported from Great Britain during 1903, 1904 and 1905 respectively, +together with average value per yard for each of the countries. + +The following table gives, approximately, in thousands of yards the +quantities exported of the four main divisions of cotton cloths:-- + + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | Thousands | Thousands | Thousands | + | | of Yards. | of Yards. | of Yards. | + |---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Grey or unbleached | 1,880,321 | 2,033,895 | 2,336,018 | + | Bleached | 1,326,255 | 1,528,165 | 1,710,742 | + | Printed | 1,027,925 | 1,036,901 | 1,053,900 | + | Dyed and coloured | 922,735 | 993,009 | 1,097,540 | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + +In the case of cloth, too, the Board of Trade returns must not be taken +as an absolute record of imports to the particular countries, as the +ultimate recipient is not always determined. The development of the +Eastern trade has been one of the most remarkable features of the cotton +trade in the 19th century. Professor Chapman writes in his _Cotton +Industry and Trade_: "In 1820 Europe received about half the cotton +fabrics which were sent abroad, while the United States received nearly +one-tenth and eastern Asia little more than one-twentieth. By 1880 +Europe was taking less than one-twelfth, the United States less than +one-fiftieth, and eastern Asia more than a half." + +Naturally a trade tends to find out the most direct means of +distribution, and Manchester merchants are now generally in direct +connexion with native dealers in India. Bombay was the pioneer in the +custom, followed now by Calcutta and Karachi, by which deliveries of +goods from British merchants remained under the control of the banks +until the native dealers took them up. Manchester business with India, +China, &c., is done under various conditions, however, and a good many +firms have branches abroad. The regular "indent" by which most of the +Manchester Eastern business is conducted now implies a definite offer +for shipment from the dealer abroad, either direct or through the +exporter's agents, and commonly includes freight and insurance. The term +"commission agent" is now discredited, and buying done by Manchester +houses on simple commission terms is unusual though not unknown. This +has been so since the famous law case of _Williamson_ v. _Barbour_ in +1877, when it was established that whatever might be the custom of the +trade a commission agent was not entitled to make a profit over his +commission on the various processes, such as handling and packing, which +are a necessary part of the exporter's work. A good deal of business is +done, however, for South America and other markets in which the goods +are bought for delivery in the Manchester warehouse, all charges for +packing, &c., and carriage being extra. + +Transactions with distant markets are now done almost entirely by cable, +and a remarkable development of the telegraphic code has enabled +merchants to pack a good deal into a brief message. A cable sent to +India in the evening may bring a reply next morning, and in these days +of rapid cotton fluctuations mail advices are confined mainly to general +discussion, hypothetical inquiry, advice, admonition and complaint. Some +Manchester export business is done through London, Glasgow, and +continental towns, of which Hamburg is the principal. Glasgow buys +largely of yarns and cloth, some considerable part of which is dyed or +printed, for India and elsewhere, and has an indigenous manufacture and +trade in fine goods such as book-muslins and lappets, a somewhat +delicate department of manufacture which necessitates a slower running +of machinery than is usual in Lancashire. + +Besides the indent business there is, of course, purely merchant +business by Manchester exporters, who buy on their own initiative at +what they consider to be opportune times or on recommendations from +their houses or correspondents abroad. In the Indian trade, especially +in the Calcutta trade, a large proportion of the total amount is done by +a few houses who buy in this way, and there is some difference of +opinion as to whether the method, which had fallen out of fashion, may +not further develop. It is more speculative than the indent business, +but the dealing with large quantities which it involves gives the +opportunity to buy very cheaply. A good many firms venture occasionally +to buy in anticipation of their customers' needs, especially when they +expect a rising market. During the great trade "boom" of 1905 there was +a good deal of buying by exporters in advance of their indents because +manufacturers continued to contract engagements which threatened to +exclude dilatory buyers. On the whole, however, what may be called the +speculative centre of gravity of Great Britain's export business in +cotton goods is not in Manchester but abroad. + +The terms on which business is conducted are various even in a single +market, and it is sometimes a reproach that British firms are +old-fashioned in their reluctance to give credit. The so-called +enterprising methods of some German traders are, however, condemned by +many experienced English traders, and it is said that in China, for +instance, the seeming successes of the newcomers are delusive. The +Tientsin developments of German business on credit terms are said to +have proved unsatisfactory, and heavy losses were suffered in Hong-Kong +some years ago by merchants who endeavoured to initiate a bolder system +of trading. The very common complaint of British consuls that British +firms neglect to send out travellers may have some foundation, but a +commercial house naturally follows the line of least resistance to the +development of its trade, and cannot be expected to work remote and +barren ground when better opportunities are near at hand. On the whole +it appears that the British cotton trade continues to increase to a +satisfactory degree in fancy and special goods, which require for their +production a comparatively high degree of technical skill, and are more +lucrative than some of the simpler products in which competitors have +been most formidable. Various finishing processes, and particularly the +mercerizing of yarn and cloth, have increased the possibilities in +cotton materials, and while staples still form the bulk of our foreign +trade, it seems that as the stress of competition in these grows acute, +more and more of our energy may be transferred to the production of +goods which appeal to a growing taste or fancy. + +_British Home Trade._--The home trade in cotton cloths is a great and +important section, but it is not comparable in volume to the export +trade. It involves more numerous and more elaborate processes, and the +qualities for home use are generally finer and more costly than those +for export. Of course by far the larger part of the yarn spun in +Lancashire is woven in Lancashire, but of the cotton cloth woven in +Lancashire it is roughly estimated that about 20% is used in Great +Britain. Not only is the average of quality better, but the variety of +kinds and designs is greater in the home trade than in the export trade. +A good home trade connexion is considered an extremely valuable asset, +and as the trade is highly differentiated the profits are usually good. +Some manufacturers devote themselves exclusively to the home trade, and +some exclusively to foreign trade, but there is a large class with what +may be called a margin of alternation, which serves to redress the +balance as business in one or other of the sections is good or bad. + +Certain kinds of light goods made for India and other Eastern markets +are not used in the home trade, and the typical Eastern staples are not +generally used in their particular "sizings," but with these exceptions +and various specialities almost every kind of cotton cloth is used to +some extent in Great Britain. Grey calicoes for home use, except the +lowest kinds, are comparatively pure, and of late years the heavy +fillings which used to be common in bleached goods have become +discredited. The housewife long persisted in deceiving herself by +purchasing filled calicoes, and the movement in favour of purer goods +owes a good deal, strangely enough, to the increase in the making-up +trade and the consequent inconveniences to workers of sewing machines, +whose needles were constantly broken by hard filled calicoes. + +This development of the making-up trade has become an important element +in the home trade, and it has greatly reduced the retail sale of +piece-goods. The purchase of ready-made shirts, underclothing, &c., +corresponds to a change in the habits of the people. The factories which +have been erected in the north of Ireland, on the outskirts of London +and elsewhere turn out millions of garments that would, under the old +conditions, have been made at home. It is not necessary here to balance +the advantages and disadvantages of the two systems, and it must not be +supposed that made-up cotton garments are necessarily cheap and +inefficient. + +The chief distributing centre of cotton made-up goods is London, though +a considerable trade is done through wholesale houses in Manchester and +elsewhere. Large warehouses in the city of London carry on the trade and +frequently supply Lancashire with her own goods. Of course the partial +loss of the piece-goods trade by the shops is not a loss in aggregate +trade, as they are the ultimate distributors of the made-up garments, +which are probably at least as profitable to retail as calico or +flannelette sold in lengths. + +The normal course of home trade piece-goods is from manufacturer to +bleacher, dyer, printer or finisher, either on account of a merchant to +whom the goods are sold or on the manufacturer's own account. By far the +majority of Lancashire manufacturers sell their goods as they come from +the loom, or, as it is called, in the "grey state," but an increasing +number now cultivate the trade in finished goods. Usually the +manufacturer sells either directly or through an agent to a merchant who +sells again to the shopkeeper, but the last twenty or thirty years have +seen a considerable development of more direct dealing. Some +manufacturers now go to the shopkeeper, and this has made it difficult +for the merchant with a limited capital and therefore a limited +assortment to survive. The great general houses such as Rylands's, +Philips's and Watt's in Manchester, and Cook's and Pawson's in London, +some of which are manufacturers to a minor degree, continue to flourish +because under one roof they can supply all that the draper requires, and +so enable him to economize in the time spent in buying and to save +himself the trouble of attending to many accounts. Some general +merchants, indeed, supply what are practically "tied houses," which give +all their trade in return for pecuniary assistance or special terms. + +The tendency to eliminate the middleman has not only brought a good many +manufacturers into direct relation with the shopkeeper, but in some +exceptional cases the manufacturer, adopting some system of broadcast +advertisement and postal delivery, has dealt with the consumer. +Naturally, the merchant resents any developments which exclude him, and +some mild forms of boycott have occasionally been instituted. In the +United States there has been an arduous struggle over this question, and +combinations of merchants have sometimes compelled favourable terms. In +England, though the merchant has maintained a great part of the trade +with shopkeepers, the developing trade with makers of shirts, +underclothing, &c., is mainly done by the manufacturers directly, and +perhaps the simplification of relations by direct dealing in the cotton +trade has now reached a point of fairly stable compromise. The tendency +to direct trading is naturally controlled by the exigencies of capital. +Those manufacturers who act as merchants aim to retain the merchant +profit and must employ a merchant capital in stocks. There has been a +tendency, indeed, to make the manufacturer the stock-keeper, and some +merchants do little more than pass on the goods a stage after taking +toll. The great improvement in trade during 1905 and 1906 checked this +tendency, and probably the manufacturing extensions owed something to +the capital set free by the reductions of stocks. + +It must be noted, however, that while most of the spinning concerns are +worked by limited companies or individuals with a considerable capital, +a good many small manufacturers exist who have little capital and are +practically financed by their agents or customers. This is so in both +the export and home trades. + +The home trade merchant or merchant-manufacturer works largely through +agents and travellers, and though railway facilities continue to +improve, some shopkeepers rarely visit their markets. The difficulty +that is naturally experienced by a traveller in finding sufficient +support on a sparsely populated "ground" has brought into vogue the +traveller on commission who represents several firms. The traveller with +salary and allowances for expenses survives, but the quickening induced +by an interest in the amount of sales has caused many firms to adopt the +principle of commission, which may, however, be an addition to a minimum +salary. Of course, such travellers are not peculiar to the cotton trade, +but cotton goods in various forms are an important factor in the home +trade. + +The profits of manufacturers, merchants and shopkeepers are commonly +very much less on the lower classes of cotton goods than on the higher +ones. Thus while there may be a difference of 1d. per yd. between the +qualities on a manufacturer's list, the difference in cost may not be +more than a farthing; and, again, while the shopkeeper sometimes pays +2½d. or even 2-5/8d. per yd. for a calico to retail at 2¾d., his next +selling price may be 3¾d. for one which costs him only 2¾d. or 3d. per +yd. It appears, therefore, that if the poorer classes of the community +have the discretion to avoid the lowest qualities they may obtain very +good value in serviceable goods. In the matter of profits, however, +there is a good deal of irregularity. + +_The Manchester Royal Exchange._--There are not many cotton mills or +weaving sheds in Manchester, which is, however, the great distributive +centre, and its Exchange is the meeting-place of most classes of buyers +and sellers in the cotton trade and various trades allied to it. As +buyers of finished goods for London and the country do not attend it, +certain departments of the home trade are hardly represented, but +practically all the spinners and manufacturers and all the export +merchants of any importance are subscribers. Transactions between +spinners and manufacturers are largely effected on Tuesdays and Fridays, +the old "market days," when the manufacturing towns are well +represented, but a large amount of business is transacted every day. +Besides the persons immediately concerned in the cotton trade and +connected with allied trades, a large number of members find it +convenient to use this great meeting-place as a means of approach to a +body of responsible persons. Thus not only bleachers, carriers, chemical +manufacturers, mill furnishers and accountants find their way there, but +also tanners, timber merchants, stockbrokers and even wine merchants. +Since the Ship Canal made Manchester into a cotton port there has been a +steady development of the raw cotton trade in Manchester, and many +cotton brokers and merchants have Manchester offices or pay regular +visits from Liverpool. + +The various expansions and developments have made it difficult to +maintain the ratio between accommodation and requirements, and although +overcrowding is troublesome only during some three or four hours a week, +at "high 'Change" on market days, various complaints and suggestions +provoked in 1906 an appeal from the chairman of directors to the +Manchester corporation. This took the form of a suggestion that the +Exchange should be worked as a municipal institution on a new site, and +though such a development met with opposition it was apparent that +Manchester must presently have a new or an enlarged Exchange. The +present building is, however, the largest of the kind in the world, and +the history of the various exchanges coincides with the expansion of the +Lancashire industry. + +According to semi-official records "the first building in the nature of +an Exchange" was erected in 1729 by Sir Oswald Mosley, and though +designed for "chapmen to meet and transact their business" it appears +that, as to-day, encroachments were made by other traders until cotton +manufacturers and merchants preferred to do their business in the +street. In 1792 the building was demolished, and for a period of some +eighteen years there was nothing of the kind. In 1809 the new Exchange +was opened, and terms of membership were fixed at two guineas for those +within 5 m. of the building and one guinea for those outside this +radius. In the following year plans for enlargement were submitted to +the shareholders, and various extensions followed, particularly in 1830 +and 1847. The present building was opened partly in 1871 and partly in +1874. The area of the great room is 4405 sq. yds. The subscription was +raised on the 1st of January 1906 from three guineas to four guineas for +new members, but the number of members continues to increase and early +in 1906 amounted to 8786. + +Of course in this great mart a large variety of types is to be found and +the members fall into some kind of rough grouping. Export buyers, +attended by salesmen, are commonly more or less stationary and +prominent; Burnley manufacturers abound in one locality and spinners of +Egyptian yarns in another. The importance of the Exchange as a +bargaining centre is fairly maintained, though buyers are assiduously +cultivated in their own offices, and the telephone has done a good deal +to abbreviate negotiation. As to the amount of business transacted on +the Exchange there is no record. The market reporters make some attempt +to materialize the current gossip, and doubtless catch well enough the +great movements in the ebb and flow of demand, but the sum of countless +obscure transactions cannot be estimated. Some few years ago an attempt +was made to mark more clearly the course of business in Manchester, and +a scheme was prepared for the recording of daily transactions. This +could only have been a somewhat rough affair, but its originator +maintained reasonably that it would be of interest if some indication of +the daily movements could be obtained. For some time a memorandum of the +total of daily sales reported was posted on 'Change, but the +indifference of traders, together with the distrust that makes any +innovation difficult, caused the scheme to be abandoned. + +It would be difficult in any attempt to estimate the volume of British +home trade to distinguish what may be called the effective movements of +goods. There is a considerable amount of re-selling both in yarn and +cloth, and, though the bulk of cotton goods finds the way through +regular and normal channels to the consumer, these channels are not +always direct. A good many transactions on the Manchester Exchange are +intermediate, without fulfilling any useful function, and could be +accomplished by the principals if they were brought together. Agents, of +whom there are many, sometimes occupy a precarious position, but they +are protected in some degree by law as well as by the custom of the +trade and the point of honour. Points of honour in the Manchester +business may seem to be arbitrarily selected, but they are an important +part of the scheme. An immense amount of business is done without any +apparent check against repudiation. It is, of course, the verbal bargain +that binds, and large transactions are commonly completed without +witnesses, though before the contract or memorandum of sale passes the +fluctuations of the market may have made the bargain, to one side or the +other, a very bad one. (A. N. M.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] It is related that in the year 1784 William Rathbone, an American + merchant resident in Liverpool, received from one of his + correspondents in the southern states a consignment of eight bags of + cotton, which on its arrival in Liverpool was seized by the + custom-house officers, on the allegation that it could not have been + grown in the United States, and that it was liable to seizure under + the Shipping Acts, as not being imported in a vessel belonging to the + country of its growth. When afterwards released, it lay for many + months unsold, in consequence of the spinners doubting whether it + could be profitably worked up. + + [2] Taken with some modifications from the _Agricultural News_ (1907), + vi. p. 38. + + [3] Cotton Production 1906, _U.S.A. Bureau of the Census_, Bulletin + No. 76. + + [4] _Cotton Culture and the Cotton Trade_, p. 298. + + [5] _The Cotton Trade of Great Britain_, by Thomas Ellison, p. 186. + + [6] See article on "Dealings in Futures in the Cotton Market," in the + _Journal of the Royal Statistical Society_, vol. lxix, p. 325. + + [7] Journal of the Statistical Society, 1906. + + [8] See paper in the Journal of the Statistical Society for June 1906. + + [9] Attempts to explain them were made in an article in the _Economic + Journal_ in December 1904, and in the paper already referred to read + to the Royal Statistical Society. + + [10] See the paper already mentioned in the _Journal of the Royal + Statistical Society_ for June 1906, where the several points noticed + briefly above are fully discussed. + + [11] The Association published a weekly paper known as The Cotton + Supply Reporter. + + + + +COTTON MANUFACTURE. The antiquity of the cotton industry has hitherto +proved unfathomable, as can readily be understood from the difficulty of +proving a universal negative, especially from such scanty material as we +possess of remote ages. That in the 5th century B.C. cotton fabrics were +unknown or quite uncommon in Europe may be inferred from Herodotus' +mention of the cotton clothing of the Indians. Ultimately the cotton +industry was imported into Europe, and by the middle of the 13th century +we find it flourishing in Spain. In the New World it would seem to have +originated spontaneously, since on the discovery of America the wearing +apparel in use included cotton fabrics. After the collapse of Spanish +prosperity before the Moors in the 14th century the Netherlands assumed +a leadership in this branch of the textile industries as they did also +in other branches. It has been surmised that the cotton manufacture was +carried from the Netherlands to England by refugees during the Spanish +persecution of the second half of the 16th century; but no absolute +proof of this statement has been forthcoming, and although workers in +cotton may have been among the Flemish weavers who fled to England about +that time, and some of whom are said to have settled in and about +Manchester, it is quite conceivable that cotton fabrics were made on an +insignificant scale in England years before, and there is some evidence +to show that the industry was not noticeable till many years later. If +England did derive her cotton manufacture from the Netherlands she was +unwillingly compelled to repay the loan with interest more than two +hundred years later when the machine industry was conveyed to the +continent through the ingenuity of Liévin Bauwens, despite the +precautions taken to preserve it for the British Isles. About the same +time English colonists transported it to the United States. Since, as +transformed in England, the cotton industry, particularly spinning, has +spread throughout the civilized and semi-civilized world, though its +most important seat still remains the land of its greatest development. + + + Early history in England. + +As early as the 13th century cotton-wool was used in England for +candle-wicks.[1] The importation of the cotton from the Levant in the +16th century is mentioned by Hakluyt,[2] and according to Macpherson it +was brought over from Antwerp in 1560. Reference to the manufacture of +cottons in England long before the second half of the 16th century are +numerous, but the "cottons" spoken of were not cottons proper as Defoe +would seem to have mistakenly imagined. Thus, for example, there is a +passage by William Camden (writing in 1590) quoted below, in which +Manchester cottons are specifically described as woollens, and there is +a notice in the act of 33 Henry VIII. (c. xv.) of the Manchester linen +and woollen industries, and of cottons--which are clearly woollens since +their "dressyng and frisyng" is noted, and the latter process, which +consists in raising and curling the nap, was not applicable to cotton +textiles. John Leland, after his visit to Manchester about 1538, used +these words--"Bolton-upon-Moore market standeth most by cottons; divers +villages in the Moores about Bolton do make cottons." Leland, it is +true, might conceivably be referring to manufactures from the vegetable +fibre, but it is exceedingly unlikely, since the term "cottons" would +seem to have been current with a perfectly definite meaning. The goods +were probably an English imitation in wool of continental cotton +fustians--which would explain the name. Again we may quote from the act +of 5 and 6 Edward VI., "all the cottons called _Manchester_, Lancashire +and Cheshire _cottons_, full wrought to the sale, shall be in length +twenty-two yards and contain in breadth three-quarters of a yard in the +water and shall weigh thirty pounds in the piece at least"; and from the +act 8 Elizabeth c. xi., "every of the said cottons being sufficiently +milled or thicked, clean scoured, well-wrought and full-dried, shall +weigh 21 lb. at the least."[3] These are evidently the weights of woollen +goods: further, it may be observed that milling is not applicable to +cotton goods. The earliest reference to a cotton manufacture in England +which may reasonably be regarded as pointing to the fabrication of +textiles from cotton proper, is in the will of James Billston (a not +un-English name), who is described as a "cotton manufacturer," proved at +Chester in 1578.[4] It may plausibly be contended that James Billston +was a worker in the vegetable fibre, since otherwise "manufacturer of +cottons" would have been a more natural designation. But the proof of +the will of one cotton manufacturer establishes very little. + +The next earliest known reference to the cotton industry proper occurs +in a petition to the earl of Salisbury, made presumably in 1610, asking +for the continuance of a grant for reforming frauds committed in the +manufacture of "bambazine cotton such as groweth in the land of Persia +being no kind of wool."[5] But a far more valuable piece of evidence, +discovered by W. H. Price, is a petition of "Merchants and citizens of +London that use buying and selling of fustians made in England, as of +the makers of the same fustians."[6] Its probable date is 1621, and it +contains the following important passages:-- + + "About twenty years past, divers people in this kingdom, but chiefly + in the county of Lancaster, have found out the trade of making of + other fustians, made of a kind of bombast or down, being a fruit of + the earth growing upon little shrubs or bushes, brought into this + kingdom by the Turkey merchants, from Smyrna, Cyprus, Acra and Sydon, + but commonly called cotton wool; and also of linen yarn most part + brought out of Scotland, and othersome made in England, and no part of + the same fustians of any wool at all, for which said bombast and yarn + imported, his majesty has a great yearly sum of money for the custom + and subsidy thereof. + + "There is at the least 40 thousand pieces of fustian of this kind + yearly made in England, the subsidy to his majesty of the materials + for making of every piece coming to between 8d. and 10d. the piece; + and thousands of poor people set on working of these fustians. + + "The right honourable duke of Lennox in 11 of Jacobus 1613 procured a + patent from his majesty, of alnager of new draperies for 60 years, + upon pretence that wool was converted into other sorts of commodities + to the loss of customs and subsidies for wool transported beyond seas; + and therein is inserted into his patent, searching and sealing; and + subsidy for 80 several stuffs; and among the rest these fustians or + other stuffs of this kind of cotton wool, and subsidy and a fee for + the same, and forfeiture of 20s. for putting any to sale unsealed, the + moiety of the same forfeiture to the said duke, and power thereby + given to the duke or his deputies, to enter any man's house to search + for any such stuffs, and seize them till the forfeiture be paid; and + if any resist such search, to forfeit £10 and power thereby given to + the lord treasurer or chancellor of the exchequer, to make new + ordinances or grant commissions for the aid of the duke and his + officers in execution of their office." + +Here the date of the appearance of the cotton industry on an appreciable +scale--it is questionable whether any importance should be attached to +the expression "found out"--is given by those who would be speaking of +facts within the memory of themselves or their friends as "about twenty +years past" from 1621, and the annual output of the industry in 1621 is +mentioned. Moreover, it is established by this document that for a time +at least the cotton manufacture was "regulated" like the other textile +trades. The date assigned by the petitioners for the first attraction of +attention by the English cotton industry may be supported on negative +grounds. + +Baines assures us that William Camden, who wrote in 1590, devoted not a +sentence to the cotton industry, though Manchester figures among his +descriptions: "This town," he says, "excels the towns immediately around +it in handsomeness, populousness, woollen manufacture, market place, +church and college; but did much more excel them in the last age, as +well by the glory of its woollen cloths (_laneorum pannorum honore_), +which they call Manchester cottons, as by the privilege of sanctuary, +which the authority of parliament under Henry VIII. transferred to +Chester."[7] It is significant too that in the Elizabethan poor law of +1601 (43 Elizabeth), neither cotton-wool nor yarn is included among the +fabrics to be provided by the overseers to set the poor to work upon; +though, of course, it might be argued that so short-stapled a fibre +needed for its working, when machinery was rough, a skill in the +operative which would be above that of the average person unable to find +employment. However, a proposal was made in 1626 to employ the poor in +the spinning of cotton and weaving wool.[8] + +Prior to Mr Price's discovery of the petition mentioned above, the +earliest known notice of the existence in England of a cotton industry +of any magnitude was the oft-quoted passage from Lewes Roberts's +_Treasure of Traffic_ (1641), which runs: "The town of Manchester, in +Lancashire, must be also herein remembered, and worthily for their +encouragement commended, who buy the yarne of the Irish in great +quantity, and weaving it, return the same again into Ireland to sell: +Neither doth their industry rest here, for they buy cotton-wool in +London that comes first from Cyprus and Smyrna, and at home work the +same, and perfect it into fustians, vermillions, dimities and other such +stuffs, and then return it to London, where the same is vented and sold, +and not seldom sent into foreign parts."[9] + +Despite Lewes Roberts's flattering reference, the trade of Manchester +about that time consisted chiefly in woollen frizes, fustians, +sackcloths, mingled stuffs, caps, inkles, tapes, points, &c., according +to "A Description of the Towns of Manchester and Salford," 1650,[10] and +woollens for a long time held the first place. But before another +century had run its course cottons proper had pushed into the first +rank, though the woollen industry continued to be of unquestionable +importance. In 1727 Daniel Defoe could write, "the grand manufacture +which has so much raised this town is that of cotton in all its +varieties,"[11] and he did not mean the woollen "cottons," as he made +plain by other references to the industry in the same connexion; but it +was not until some fifty years later that the ousting of the woollen +industry from what is now peculiarly the cotton district became +unmistakable.[12] As a rule the woollen weavers were driven farther and +farther east--Bury lay just outside the cotton area when Defoe +wrote--and finally many of them settled in the West Riding. Edwin +Butterworth even tells of woollen weavers who migrated from Oldham to +the distant town of Bradford in Wiltshire because of the decline of +their trade before the victorious cotton industry. Much the same fate +was being shared by the linen industry in Lancashire, which was forced +out of the county westwards and northwards. The explanation of the three +centralizations, namely of the woollen industry, the cotton industry and +the linen industry, is not far to seek. The popularity of the fabrics +produced by the rising cotton industry enabled it to pay high wages, +which, indeed, were essential to bring about its expansion. This a +priori diagnosis is supported by contemporary analysis: thus "the rapid +progress of that business (cotton spinning) and the higher wages which +it afford, have so far distressed the makers of worsted goods in that +county (Lancashire), that they have found themselves obliged to offer +their few remaining spinners larger premiums than the state of their +trade would allow."[13] The best operatives of Lancashire were attracted +sooner or later to assist the triumphs of art over the vegetable wool. +At the same time the scattered woollen and linen workers of Lancashire +were suffering from the competition of rivals enjoying elsewhere the +economies of some centralization, and the demand for woollen and linen +warps in the cotton industry ceased after the introduction of +Arkwright's water-twist. When the factory became common the economies of +centralization (which arise from the wide range of specialism laid open +to a large local industry) increased; moreover they were reinforced by +the diminution of social friction and the intensification of business +sensitiveness which marked the development of the 19th century. Once +begun, the centralizing movement proceeded naturally with accelerating +speed. The contrast beneath is an instructive statistical comment:-- + + _Distribution of Cotton Operatives in 1838 and 1898-1899 (from Returns + of Factory Inspectors)._ + + +--------------------------+--------------+---------------+ + | | 1838. | 1898-1899. | + +--------------------------+--------------+---------------+ + | Cheshire | 36,400 | 34,300 | + | Cumberland | 2,000 | 700 | + | Derbyshire | 10,500 | 10,500 | + | Lancashire | 152,200 | 398,100 | + | Nottinghamshire | 1,500 | 1,600 | + | Staffordshire | 2,000 | 2,300 | + | Yorkshire | 12,400 | 35,200 | + | +--------------+---------------+ + | England and Wales[14] | 219,100 | 496,200 | + | Scotland | 35,600 | 29,000 | + | Ireland | 4,600 | 800 | + | +--------------+---------------+ + | United Kingdom | 259,300 | 526,000 | + +--------------------------+--------------+---------------+ + +The distribution of the industry has varied greatly in the two periods. +If it had remained constant Lancashire would only have contained 300,000 +operatives in 1899, instead of the actual 400,000. Scotland, on the +other hand, only contained 30,000 instead of 70,000, and in Ireland the +numbers were one-tenth of what they should have been. The percentage of +operatives in Lancashire in 1838 was 58.5, but this increased to 75.7 in +1898. + + + Lancashire advantages. + +Why, we may naturally inquire, did not the cotton industry localize in +the West Riding or Cheshire and the woollen industry maintain its +position in Lancashire? Accident no doubt partly explains why the cotton +industry is carried on where it is in the various parts of the globe, +but apart from accident, as regards Lancashire, it is sufficient answer +to point to the peculiarly suitable congeries of conditions to be found +there. There is firstly the climate, which for the purpose of cotton +spinning is unsurpassed elsewhere, and which became of the first order +of importance when fine spinning was developed. In the Lancashire +atmosphere in certain districts just about the right humidity is +contained on a great number of days for spinning to be done with the +least degree of difficulty. Some dampness is essential to make the +fibres cling, but excessive moisture is a disadvantage. Over the county +of Lancashire the prevailing west wind carries comparatively continuous +currents of humidified air. These currents vary in temperature according +to their elevation. Hot and cold layers mix when they reach the hills, +and the mixture of the two is nearer to the saturation point than either +of its components. The degree of moisture is measured by the ratio of +the actual amount of moisture to the moisture of the saturation point +for that particular temperature. Owing to the sudden elevation the air +is rarefied, its temperature being thereby lowered, and in consequence +condensation tends to be produced. In several places in England and +abroad, where there is a scarcity of moisture, artificial humidifiers +have been tried, but no cheap and satisfactory one has hitherto been +discovered. To the advantages of the Lancashire climate for cotton +spinning must be added--especially as regards the early days of the +cotton industry--its disadvantages for other callings. The +unpleasantness of the weather renders an indoor occupation desirable, +and the scanty sunshine, combined with the unfruitful nature of much of +the soil, prevents the absorption of the population in agricultural +pursuits. In later years the port of Liverpool and the presence of coal +supplemented the attractions which were holding the cotton industry in +Lancashire. All the raw material must come from abroad, and an enormous +proportion of English cotton products figures as exports. The proximity +of Liverpool has aided materially in making the cotton industry a great +exporting industry. + + + Early system of manufacture and organisation. + +Before the localization of the separate parts of the industry can be +treated the differentiation of the industry must be described. We pass +then, at this stage, to consider the manufacture in its earliest form +and the lines of its development. First, and somewhat incidentally, we +notice the early connexion between the conduct of the cotton +manufacture, when it was a domestic industry in its primitive form, and +the performance of agricultural operations. A few short extracts will +place before us all the evidence that it is here needful to adduce. +First Radcliffe, an eye-witness, writing of the period about 1770, says +"the land in our township (Mellor) was occupied by between fifty and +sixty farmers ... and out of these fifty or sixty farmers there were +only six or seven who raised their rents directly from the produce of +their farms, all the rest got their rent partly in some branch of trade, +such as spinning and weaving woollen, linen or cotton. The cottagers +were employed entirely in this matter, except for a few weeks in the +harvest."[15] Next we may cite Edwin Butterworth who, though not an +eyewitness (he was not born till 1812), proved himself by his researches +to be a careful and trustworthy investigator. In the parish of Oldham, +he recorded, there were "a number of master (cotton-linen fustian)[16] +manufacturers, as well as many weavers who worked for manufacturers, and +at the same time were holders of land or farmers.... The number of +fustian farmers who were cottagers working for manufacturers, without +holding land, were few; but there were a considerable number of weavers +who worked on their own account, and held at the same time small pieces +of land."[17] Other passages might be quoted, but these two will +suffice. Weaving was not exactly a by-employment of farm labourers, but +many weavers made agriculture a by-employment to some extent, (a) by +working small parcels of land, which varied from the size of allotments +to farms of a very few acres, and (b) by lending aid in gathering in the +harvest when their other work enabled them to do so. The association of +manufacturing and weaving survived beyond the first quarter of the 19th +century. Of the weavers in many districts and "more especially in +Lancashire" we read in the report of the committee on emigration, "it +appears that persons of this description for many years past, have been +occupiers of small farms of a few acres, which they have held at high +rents, and combining the business of the hand-loom weaver with that of a +working farmer have assisted to raise the rent of their land from the +profits of their loom."[18] One of the first lines of specialism to +appear was the severing of the connexion described above, and the +concentration of the weavers in hamlets and towns. Finer fabrics and +more complicated fabrics were introduced, and the weaver soon learnt +that such rough work as farming unfitted his hands for the delicate +tasks required of them. Again, really to prosper a weaver found it +necessary to perfect himself by close application. The days of the rough +fabrics that anybody could make with moderate success were closing in. +As a consequence the dispersion of the weavers becomes less and less. +They no longer wanted allotments or farms; and their looms having become +more complicated, the mechanic proved himself a convenient neighbour. +Finding spinners too was an easier task in the hamlet or town than in +the remote country parts. But there is no reason to suppose that +agriculture and the processes of the domestic cotton manufacturer had +ever been universally twin callings. There never was a time, probably, +when weavers who did nothing but weave were not a significant +proportion, if not the major part, of the class of weavers. All again +were not independent and all were not employees. Some were simply +journeymen in small domestic workshops; others were engaged by fustian +masters or Manchester merchants and paid by the piece for what they made +out of material supplied them; others again bought their warps and +cotton and sold to the merchants their fabrics, which were their own +property. The last class was swept away soon after the industry became +large, when by the organization of men of capital consumers and +producers were more and more kept in touch. In early days most weavers +owned their looms, the great part of which they had frequently +constructed themselves: later, however, a large number hired looms, and +it was as usual in certain quarters for lodgings to be let with a loom +as it is to-day for them to be provided with a piano. When it became +customary for weavers to undertake a variety of work, the masters +usually provided reeds (which had to vary in fineness with the fineness +of the warp), healds, and other changeable parts, and sometimes they +employed the gaiters to fit the new work in the looms. + +Until the success of the water-frame, cotton could not be spun +economically of sufficient strength and fineness for warps, and the +warps were therefore invariably made of either linen or wool. Some were +manufactured locally, others were imported from Germany, Ireland and +Scotland. The weaver prepared them for his loom by the system of +peg-warping,[19] but after the introduction of the warping-mill he +received them as a rule all ready for insertion into the loom from the +Manchester merchant or local fustian master. + + "It did not pay the individual weaver to keep a warping-mill for + occasional use only, and frequently the contracted space of his + workroom precluded even the possibility of his doing so. The invention + of the warping-mill necessitated specialism in warping, and it was + essential that warping should be done to order, since at that time, + the state of the industrial world being what it was, no person could + ordinarily have been found to adventure capital in producing warps + ready made in anticipation of demand for the great variety of fabrics + which was even then produced. Moreover, had the weaver himself placed + the orders for his warps, any occasional delay in the execution of his + commissions might have stopped his work entirely until the warps were + ready; for warps cannot be delivered partially, like weft, in + quantities sufficient for each day's work. To ensure continuous + working in the industry, therefore, it was almost inevitable that the + merchant should himself prepare the warps for such fabrics as he + required, or possibly have them prepared. To the system of the + merchant delegating the preparation of warps there was less objection + than to the system of the weaver doing so, since the merchant, dealing + in large quantities, was more likely to get pressing orders completed + to time. Further, the merchant knew first what kind of warps would be + needed. The first solution, however, that of the merchant undertaking + the warping himself, was the surer, and there was no doubt as to its + being the one destined for selection in a period when a tendency to + centralize organization, responsibility and all that could be easily + centralized, was steadily gaining in strength."[20] + +Guest says the system by which the weaver was supplied with warps and +other material was substituted for the purchase of warps and cotton-wool +by the weaver about 1740. No doubt the change was very gradual, +especially as Aikin mentions the use of warping-mills in the 17th +century. The weaver as a rule received his weft material in the form of +cotton-wool and was required to arrange himself for its cleaning and +spinning. According to Aikin,[21] dealers tried the experiment of giving +out weft instead of cotton-wool, but "the custom grew into disuse as +there was no detecting the knavery of the spinners till a piece came in +woven." As it was impossible to unwrap the yarn and test it throughout +its length, defects were hidden until it came to be used, and the +complaints of weavers were not conclusive as to the inferiority of the +yarn, since their own bad workmanship might have had something to do +with its having proved unsatisfactory. It was therefore found best to +saddle the weaver with full responsibility for both the spinning and +weaving. Women and children cleaned, carded and spun the cotton-wool in +their homes. The cotton had to be more thoroughly cleaned after its +arrival in this country. The ordinary process of cleaning was known as +"willowing," because the cotton was beaten with willow switches after it +had been laid out on a tight hammock of cords. The cotton used for fine +spinning was also carefully washed; and even when it was not washed it +was soaked with water and partially dried so that the fibres might be +made to cling together.[22] Most of the weaving was done by men, and +until the invention of the fly-shuttle they cast the shuttle from hand +to hand in the manner of their remotest ancestors. For the making of the +broader fabrics two weavers were required when the width was greater +than the easy stretch of a man's arms. Sometimes cloths were woven wide +and then split into two or more: hence the term "splits." This became a +common practice when the hand-loom workers were groaning under the +pressure of competition from the power-loom. + + + The invention of machinery. + +We now reach the era of the great inventions. In order to ensure +clearness it will be desirable to consider separately the branches of +spinning and weaving: to pass from the one to the other, and follow the +chronological order, might cause confusion. First emphasis must be laid +upon the point that it was not mechanical change alone which constituted +the industrial revolution. No doubt small hand-looms factories would have +become the rule, and more and more control over production would have +devolved upon the factory master, and the work to be done would have been +increasingly assigned by merchants, had the steam-engine remained but the +dream of Watt, and semi-automatic machinery not been invented. The spirit +of the times was centralizing management before any mechanical changes of +a revolutionizing character had been devised. Loom-shops, in which +several journeymen were employed, were not uncommon: thus "in the latter +part of the last (18th) and the beginning of the present (19th) century," +says Butterworth, describing the state of affairs in Oldham and the +neighbourhood, "a large number of weavers ... possessed spacious +loom-shops, where they not only employed many journeymen weavers, but a +considerable proportion of apprentice children." It is true that both the +fly-shuttle and drop-box had been invented by that time, but the loom was +still worked by human power. Specialism, however, was on the increase, +the capitalist was assuming more control, and the operative was being +transformed more and more into the mere executive agent. Further, as +creative of enterprise, an atmosphere of freedom and a general economic +restlessness, consequent upon the reaction against mercantilism, were +noticeable. Great changes, no doubt, would soon have swept over +Lancashire had a new source of power and big factories not been rendered +essential by inventions in spinning. + + + Spinning and preparatory machinery. + +The chief inventors were Lewis Paul and John Wyatt, James Hargreaves and +Samuel Crompton. The two first originated the principle of spinning by +rollers. Their patent was taken out in 1738, but no good came of it +immediately, though many trials were made and moderately large sums of +money were lost. Ultimately Richard Arkwright brought forward the same +plan improved:[23] his first patent was dated 1769. Over the real +authorship of the fundamental idea there has been much controversy, and +it has not been absolutely proved that the second inventor, whether +Thomas Highs, Arkwright or John Kay (a clockmaker of Warrington who +assisted Arkwright to construct his machine and is said by some to have +told him of an invention by Highs), did not hit upon the device afresh +in ignorance of the work already done. Even as between Paul and Wyatt it +is not easy to award due measure of praise. Probably the invention, as a +working machine, resulted from real collaboration, each having an +appreciable share in it. Robert Cole, in his paper to the British +Association in 1858 (reprinted as an appendix to the 1st ed. of French's +_Life of Crompton_), championed the claims of Paul, but Mantoux, in his +_La Révolution industrielle au XVIII^e siècle_, after studying the +Wyatt MSS., inclines to attribute to Wyatt a far more important +position, though he dissents from the view of Baines, who ascribes +little or nothing to Paul. + +Arkwright's prospects of financial success were much greater than those +of his predecessors, because, first, there was more need in his time of +mechanical aids, and secondly, he was highly talented as a business man. +In 1775 he followed up his patent of 1769 with another relating to +machinery for carding, drawing and roving. The latter patent was widely +infringed, and Arkwright was compelled to institute nine actions in 1781 +to defend his rights. An association of Lancashire spinners was formed +to defend them, and by the one that came to trial the patent was set +aside on the ground of obscurity in the specifications. Arkwright again +attempted to recover his patent rights in 1785, after the first patent +had been in abeyance for two years. Before making this further trial of +the courts he had thought of proceeding by petition to parliament, and +had actually drawn up his "case," which he was ultimately dissuaded from +presenting. In it he prayed not only that the decision of 1781 should be +set aside, but that both patents should be continued to him for the +unexpired period of the second patent, i.e. until 1789. In his "case" +(i.e. the petition mentioned above) Arkwright stated that he had sold to +numbers of adventurers residing in the different counties of Derby, +Leicester, Nottingham, Worcester, Stafford, York, Hertford and +Lancaster, many of his patent machines, and continued: "Upon a moderate +computation, the money expended in consequence of such grants (before +1782) amounted to at least £60,000. Mr Arkwright and his partners also +expended in large buildings in Derbyshire and elsewhere upwards of +£30,000, and Mr Arkwright also erected a very large and extensive +building in Manchester at the expense of upwards of £4000. Thus a +business had been formed which already (he calculated) employed upwards +of five thousand persons, and a capital on the whole of not less than +£200,000."[24] It is impossible to discover exactly the rights of the +matter. Certainly Arkwright had been intentionally obscure in his +specifications, as he admitted, and for his defence, namely that it was +to preserve the secret for his countrymen, there was only his word. He +may have hoped to keep the secret for himself; and as to the originality +of both inventions there were grave doubts. But Arkwright has received +little sympathy, because his claims were regarded as grasping in view of +the large fortune which he had already won. He began work with his first +partners at Nottingham (when power was derived from horses) and started +at Cromford in 1771 (where the force of water was used). Soon he was +involved in numerous undertakings, and he remained active till his death +in 1792. He had met throughout with a good deal of opposition, which +possibly to a man of his temperament was stimulating. Even in the matter +of getting protective legislation reframed to give scope to the +application of the water-frame, a powerful section of Lancashire +employers worked against him. This protective legislation must here be +shortly reviewed. + +In 1700 an act had been passed (11 & 12 William III. c. 10) prohibiting +the importation of the printed calicoes of India, Persia and China. In +1721 the act 7 George I. c. 7 prohibited the use of any "printed, +painted, stained or dyed calico," excepting only calicoes dyed all blue +and muslins, neckcloths and fustians. This act was modified by the act 9 +George II. c. 4 (allowing British calicoes with linen warps). Thus the +matter stood as regards prints when Arkwright had demonstrated that +stout cotton warps could be spun in England, and at the same time the +officers of excise insisted upon exacting a tax of 6d. from the plain +all-cottons instead of the 3d. paid by the cotton-linens, on the ground +that the former were calicoes. Arkwright's plea, however, was admitted, +and by the act 14 George II. c. 72 the still operative part of the act +of 1721 was set aside, and the manufacture, use, and wear of cottons +printed and stained, &c., was permitted subject to the payment of a duty +of 3d. per sq. yd. (the same as the excise on cotton-linens) provided +they were stamped "British manufactory." The duty was varied from time +to time until its repeal in 1832. + +Some more powerful force than that of man or horse was soon needed to +work the heavy water-frames. Hence Arkwright placed his second mill on a +water-course, fitting it with a water-wheel, and until the steam-engine +became economical most of the new twist mills were built on +water-courses. On rare occasions the old fire-engines seem to have been +tried. + + The following passage quoted from a note in Barnes's _History_ + illustrates the pressing need of the early mills: "On the river + Irwell, from the first mill near Bacup, to Prestolee, near Bolton, + there is about 900 ft. of fall available from mills, 800 of which is + occupied. On this river and its branches it is computed that there are + no less than three hundred mills. A project is in course of execution + to increase the water-power of the district, already so great and so + much concentrated, and to equalize the force of the stream by forming + eighteen reservoirs on the hills, to be filled in times of flood, and + to yield their supplies in the drought of summer. These reservoirs, + according to the plan, would cover 270 acres of ground, and contain + 241,300,000 cub. ft. of water, which would give a power equal to 6600 + horses. The cost is estimated at £59,000. One reservoir has been + completed, another is in course of formation, and it is probable that + the whole design will be carried into effect."[25] + +As early as 1788 there were 143 water-mills in the cotton industry of +the United Kingdom, which were distributed as follows among the counties +which had more than one.[26] + + Lancashire 41 Flintshire 3 + Derbyshire 22 Berkshire 2 + Nottinghamshire 17 Lanarkshire 4 + Yorkshire 11 Renfrewshire 4 + Cheshire 8 Perthshire 3 + Staffordshire 7 Midlothian 2 + Westmorland 5 Isle of Man 1 + +The need of water to drive Arkwright's machinery, and its value for +working other machinery, caused a strong decentralizing tendency to show +itself in the cotton industry at this time, but more particularly in the +twist-spinning branch. Ultimately the steam-engine (first used in the +cotton industry in 1785) drew all branches of the industry into the +towns, where the advantages of their juxtaposition--i.e. the external +economies of centralization--could be enjoyed. Out of the crowding of +the mills in one locality sprang the business specialism which has +continued up to the present day. Here it will not be out of place to +notice the appearance of the new power, electricity, in the cotton +industry, the extension of which may involve striking economic changes. +The first electric-driven spinning-mill in Lancashire, that of the +"Acme" Spinning Company at Pendlebury, the work of which is confined to +the ring-frame, was opened in 1905. Power is obtained from the stations +of the Lancashire Power Company at Outwood near Radcliffe, some 5 m. +distant. + +The chief principle of the water-frame was the drawing out of the yarn to +the required degree of tenuity by sets of gripping rollers revolving at +different speeds. This principle is still applied universally. Twist was +given by a "flyer" revolving round the bobbin upon which the yarn was +being wound; the spinning so effected was known as throstle-spinning. The +plan is still common in the subsidiary processes of the cotton industry, +but for spinning itself the ring-frame, which appears to have been +invented simultaneously in England and the United States (the first +American patent is dated 1828), is rapidly supplanting the +throstle-frame,[27] though the "ooziness" of mule yarn has not yet been +successfully imitated by ring-frame yarn. The great invention relating to +weft-spinning was the jenny, introduced by James Hargreaves probably +about 1764, and first tried in a factory four years later.[28] Hargreaves +unfortunately was unable to maintain his patent, because he had sold +jennies before applying for protection. Crompton's mule, which combined +the principles of the rollers and the jenny, was perfected about 1779. +Both jennies and mules were known as "wheels," because they were worked +in part by the turning of a wheel. As they could be set in motion without +using much power, being light when of moderate size, for a long time +they were worked entirely by hand or partially with the aid of horses or +water. The first jenny- and mule-factories were small for this reason, +and also because skill in the operative was a matter of fundamental +importance,[29] as it was not in twist-spinning on the water-frame. The +size of the typical weft-spinning mill suddenly increased after the scope +for the application of power was enlarged by the use of the self-actor +mule, invented in 1825 by Richard Roberts, of the firm of Sharp, Roberts +& Co., machinists, of Manchester. In 1830 Roberts improved his invention +and brought out the complete self-actor. Self-actors had been put forward +by others besides Roberts--for instance by William Strutt, F.R.S. (son of +Arkwright's partner), before 1790; William Kelly, formerly of Lanark +mills, in 1792; William Eaton of Wiln in Derbyshire; Peter Ewart of +Manchester; de Jongh of Warrington; Buchanan, of Catrine works, Scotland; +Knowles of Manchester; and Dr Brewster of America[30]--but none had +succeeded. And Roberts's machines did not immediately win popularity. For +a long time the winding done by them was defective, and they suffered +from other imperfections. Broadly speaking, until the American Civil War +the number of hand-mules in use remained high. It was for the fine +"counts" in particular that many employers preferred them.[31] About the +end of the 'sixties, however, and in the early 'seventies, great +improvements were effected in machinery, partly under the stimulus of a +desire to elevate its fitness for dealing with short-staple cotton, and +it became evident that hand-mules were doomed. Here we may suitably refer +to the scutching machine for opening and cleaning cotton, invented by Mr +Snodgrass of Glasgow in 1797, and introduced by Kennedy[32] to Manchester +in 1808 or 1809; the cylinder carder invented by Lewis Paul and improved +by Arkwright; and the lap-machine first constructed by Arkwright's son. + + + Weaving machinery. + +We now transfer our attention to that accumulation of improvements in +manufacturing (as weaving is technically termed) which, taken in +conjunction with the inventions already described, presaged the large +factory system which covers Lancashire to-day. Gradually, for many +years, the loom had been gathering complexities, though no fundamental +alteration was introduced into its structure until 1738, when John Kay +of Bury excited the wrath of his fellow-weavers by designing and +employing the device of the fly-shuttle. For some unfathomable +reason--for the opposition of the weavers hardly explains it, though +they expressed their views forcibly and acted upon them violently--this +invention was not much applied in the cotton industry until about a +quarter of a century after its appearance. The plan was merely to +substitute for human hands hammers at the ends of a lengthened lathe +along which the shuttle ran, the hammers being set in motion by the +jerking of a stick (the picking peg) to which they were attached by +strings. The output of a weaver was enormously increased in consequence. +In 1760 John Kay's son Robert added the drop-box, by the use of which +many different kinds of weft could be worked into the same fabric +without difficulty. It was in fact a partitioned lift, any partition of +which could be brought to a level with the lathe and made for the time +continuous with it. The drop-box usefully supplemented the "draw-boy," +or "draught-boy," which provided for the raising of warps in groups, and +thereby enabled figured goods to be produced. The "draw-boy" had been +well known in the industry for a long time; in 1687 a Joseph Mason +patented an invention for avoiding the expense of an assistant to work +it,[33] but there is no evidence to show that his invention was of +practical value. Looms with "draw-boys" affixed, which could sometimes +be worked by the weavers themselves, later became common under the name +of harness-looms, which have since been supplanted by Jacquard looms, +wherein the pattern is picked out mechanically. + +The principle of the fly-shuttle was a first step towards the complete +mechanizing of the action required for working a loom. The second step +was the power-loom, the initial effort to design which was created by +the tardiness of weaving as contrasted with the rapidity of spinning by +power. After the general adoption of the jenny, supplies of yarn outran +the productive powers of the agencies that existed for converting them +into fabrics, and as a consequence, it would seem, some yarn was +directed into exports which might have been utilized for the manufacture +of cloth for export had the loom been more productive. The agitation for +the export tax on yarn at the end of the 18th, and in the first years of +the 19th century, is therefore comprehensible, but there was no +foundation for some of the allegations by which it was supported. For a +large proportion of the exported yarn, fabrics could not have been +substituted, since the former was required to feed the hand-looms in +continental homes and domestic workshops, against much of the product of +which there was no chance of competing. The hand-loom was securely +linked to the home of the peasant, and though he would buy yarn to feed +his loom he would not buy cloth and break it up.[34] + +Cartwright's loom was not the first design adapted for weaving by power. +A highly rudimentary and perfectly futile self-actor weaving machine, +which would have been adapted for power-working had it been capable of +working at all, had been invented by a M. de Gennes: a description of +it, extracted from the _Journal de sçavans_, appeared in the +_Philosophical Transactions_ for July and August 1678, and again in the +_Gentleman's Magazine_ in 1751 (vol. xxi. pp. 391-392). It consisted of +mechanical hands, as it were, that shot in and out of the warp and +exchanged the shuttle.[35] Another idea, which however proved fruitful, +was that of grinding the shuttle through the warps by the agency of +cog-wheels working at each end upon teeth affixed to the upper side of +the shuttle. Though shuttles could not in this fashion be set in rapid +movement, the machine turned out to be economical for the production of +ribbons and tapes, because many pieces could be woven by it at once. +These contrivances were known as swivel-looms, and in 1724 Stukeley in +his _Itinerarium curiosum_ wrote that the people of Manchester have +"looms that work twenty-four laces at a time, which was stolen from the +Dutch." Ogden says also that they were set up in imitation of Dutch +machines by Dutch mechanics invited over for the purpose. Another +interesting passage relating to the swivel-looms will be found in the +rules of the Manchester small-ware weavers dated 1756, where the +complaint is made that the masters have acquired by the employment of +"engine or Dutch looms such large and opulent fortunes as hath enabled +them to vie with some of the best gentlemen of the country," and it is +alleged that these machines, which wove twelve or fourteen pieces at +once, "were in use in Manchester thirty years ago."[36] One +power-factory at least was devoted to them as early as 1760, namely that +of a Mr Gartside at Manchester, where water-power was applied, but the +enterprise failed.[37] Cartwright's invention was probably perfected in +its first form about 1787, but many corrections, improvements and +additions had to be effected before it became an unqualified success. +Cartwright's original idea was elaborated by numerous followers, and +supplementary ideas were needed to make the system complete. Of the +latter the most important were those due to William Radcliffe, and an +ingenious mechanic who worked with him, Thomas Johnson, which were +patented in 1803 and 1804. They related to the dressing of the warp +before it was placed in the loom, and for the mechanical taking up of +the cloth and drawing forward of the warp, so that the loom had not to +be stopped for the cloth to be moved on and the warp brought within play +of the shuttle to be sized. Looms fitted with the latter of these +devices were known as "dandy" looms. The looms that followed need not be +described here, nor need we concern ourselves with the degree in which +some were imitations of others. It is of interest to note, however, in +view of recent developments, that one of Cartwright's patents included a +warp-stop motion, though it was never tried practically so far as the +writer is aware. Looms with warp-stop motions are now common in the +United States, as are also automatic looms, but both are still the +exception in Lancashire for reasons that will be sketched later. + +Power-looms won their way only very gradually. Cartwright and others +lost fortunes in trying to make them pay, but the former was compensated +by a grant of £10,000 from government. In 1813 there were 2400 only in +the whole of the United Kingdom; in 1820 there were 14,000, beside some +240,000 hand-looms; in 1829, 55,500; in 1833, 100,000; and in 1870, +440,700.[38] To-day there are about 700,000 in the cotton industry. The +beginning, and the final consequences, of the competitive pressure of +the power-looms may be read in the reports of official inquiries and in +Rowbotham's diary.[39] It was upon the fine work that the hand-loom +weavers retained their last hold. In 1829 John Kennedy wrote in his +paper to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society on "The Rise +and Progress of the Cotton Trade," "It is found ... that one person +cannot attend upon more than two power-looms, and it is still +problematical [even in 1829, observe] whether the saving of labour +counterbalances the expense of power and machinery and the disadvantage +of being obliged to keep an establishment of power-looms constantly at +work." It was not easy to obtain a sufficiency of good hands for the +power-looms, because the operatives, who had acquired their habits under +the domestic system, hated factory life. This, in conjunction with the +ease with which the art of coarse weaving could be acquired and the +cheapness of rough looms, helps to explain the wretched straits into +which the hand-loom weavers were driven. + +[Sidenote: Growth.] + +Improvements in machinery, which ultimately affected every process from +cleaning the cotton to finishing the fabric, and the application of +water and steam-power, so lowered the cost of production as to render +Lancashire the cotton factory of the world. Figures are quoted in the +table to show the rate of growth in different periods of England's +imports and exports as regards the raw material and products of this +industry. It is important to remember when reading the last 6 columns +that the value of money was the same in 1831-1835, 1851-1855 and +1876-1880: the sums of Sauerbeck's index numbers for these periods were +454, 451 and 444 respectively. In the last two periods there were +considerable depressions in prices. If prices had remained constant, in +the periods 1891-1895 and 1896-1900 the figures of exports would have +been £90 millions and £91 millions respectively. The growth in trade has +been partly occasioned by the enormous increase in the volume of cotton +goods consumed all over the world, which in turn has been due to (1) the +growth of population, (2) the increase in productive efficiency and +well-being, and (3) the substitution of cotton fabrics for woollen and +linen fabrics. The rate of growth between the periods 1771-1781 and +1781-1791 (which is not shown in the above table) was particularly +remarkable, and reached as high a figure (when measured by importations +of weight of cotton) as 320%. + + +---------+-------------+-------------+-----------------------------+---------------------------+ + | | | | Exports of Cotton Yarns |Imports of Cotton Yarns and| + | | | |and Manufactures, Million £. | Manufactures, Million £ | + | | Imports of | Raw Cotton | | | + | Year. | Raw Cotton, |re-exported, +------+-------------+--------+------+-------------+------+ + | | Million lb. | Million lb. | | | | |Manufactures.| | + | | | |Yarns.|Manufactures.| Total. |Yarns.| (excluding |Total.| + | | | | | | | | Lace.) | | + +---------+-------------+-------------+------+-------------+--------+------+-------------+------+ + |1700-1705| 1.17 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + |1771-1775| 4.76 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + |1785-1789| .. | .. | .. | .. | 1.07* | .. | .. | .. | + |1791-1795| 26.00 | .. | .. | .. | 2.09* | .. | .. | .. | + |1816-1820| 139.00 | 10.00 | 2.5 | 13.8 | 16.30 | .. | .. | .. | + |1831-1835| 313.00 | 23.00 | 4.8 | 14.2 | 19.00 | .. | .. | .. | + |1851-1855| 872.00 | 124.00 | 6.8 | 24.9 | 31.70 | .. | .. | .. | + |1876-1880| 1456.00 | 180.00 | 12.4 | 56.1 | 68.30 | .. | 2.29 | 2.29 | + |1891-1895| 1746.00 | 217.00 | 9.7 | 56.6 | 66.30 | .42 | 2.78 | 3.20 | + |1896-1900| 1798.00 | 223.00 | 8.9 | 58.2 | 67.10 | .26 | 4.27 | 4.53 | + |1901-1905| 1920.00 | 265.00 | 8.4 | 70.7 | 79.10 | .22 | 5.10 | 5.32 | + +---------+-------------+-------------+------+-------------+--------+------+-------------+------+ + * Official values. + + + Differentiation and Integration. + +Nothing is more interesting in the cotton industry than the processes of +differentiation and integration that have taken place from time to time. +Weaving and spinning had been to a large extent united in the industry +in its earliest form, in that both were frequently conducted beneath the +same roof. With mechanical improvements in spinning, that branch of the +industry became a separate business, and a substantial section of it was +brought under the factory régime. Weaving continued to be performed in +cottages or in hand-loom sheds where no spinning at all was attempted. +Cartwright's invention carried weaving back to spinning, because both +operations then needed power, and the trouble of marketing yarn was +largely spared by the reunion. Mr W. R. Grey stated in 1833 to the +committee of the House of Commons on manufactures, commerce and +shipping, that he knew of no single person then building a spinning mill +who was not attaching to it a power-loom factory. Some years later the +weaving-shed split away from spinning, partly no doubt because of the +economies of industrial specialism, partly because of commercial +developments, to be described later, which rendered dissociation less +hazardous than it had been, and partly because, in consequence of these +developments, much manufacturing (as weaving is termed) was constituted +a business strikingly dissimilar from spinning. The manufacturer runs +more risks in laying by stocks than the spinner, because of the greater +variety of his product and the more frequent changes that it undergoes. +The former, therefore, must devote more time than the latter to keeping +his order book and the productive power of his shed in close +correspondence. The minute care of this kind that must be exercised in +some classes of businesses explains why the small manufacturer still +holds his own while the small spinner has been crushed out. It also +explains to some extent the prevalence of joint-stock companies in +spinning, and their comparative rarity in manufacturing. Here we should +notice, perhaps, that the only combination of importance in the cotton +industry proper (apart from calico-printing, bleaching, &c., and the +manufacture of sewing-cotton) is the Fine Cotton Spinners and Doublers +Association, founded in 1898, which is practically coextensive with fine +spinning and doubling. + + + Localization of branches of the industry. + +The specialism of the two main branches of the industry has been +followed by the specialism of sub-branches and by the localization of +specialized parts. Of the localization of certain sections of the cotton +industry the late Mr Elijah Helm, who spoke with the authority of great +local knowledge, has written as follows:-- + + "Spinning is largely concentrated in south Lancashire and in the + adjoining borderland of north Cheshire. But even within this area + there is further allocation. The finer and the very finest yarns are + spun in the neighbourhood of Bolton, and in or near Manchester, much + of this being used for the manufacture of sewing-thread; whilst other + descriptions, employed almost entirely for weaving, are produced in + Oldham and other towns. The weaving branches of the industry are + chiefly conducted in the northern half of Lancashire--most of it in + very large boroughs, as Blackburn, Burnley and Preston. Here, again, + there is a differentiation. Preston and Chorley produce the finer and + lighter fabrics; Blackburn, Darwen and Accrington, shirtings, dhooties + and other goods extensively shipped to India; whilst Nelson and Colne + make cloths woven from dyed yarn, and Bolton is distinguished for fine + quiltings and fancy cotton dress goods. These demarcations are not + absolutely observed, but they are sufficiently clear to give to each + town in the area covered by the cotton industry a distinctive place in + its general organization."[40] + +The present local distribution of the cotton industry, as far as it is +displayed statistically, is revealed in the table beneath, based upon +the figures of spindles and looms given by Worrall and those of +operatives in the census returns of 1901. + + _Distribution of Cotton Operatives in Lancashire and the Vicinity + according to the Census Returns of 1901, together with the Number + of Spindles and Looms according to Worrall._ + + +------------------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+ + | | No. of | No. | No. of | + | | Operatives. | Spindles (in | Looms. | + | | | Thousands). | | + +------------------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+ + | Blackburn | 41,400 | 1,325 | 75,300 | + | Bolton | 29,800 | 5,035 | 20,100 | + | Oldham | 29,500 | 11,603 | 18,500 | + | Burnley | 27,900 | 687 | 79,300 | + | Manchester and Salford | 27,200 | 2,666 | 24,200* | + | Preston | 25,000 | 2,036 | 57,900 | + | Rochdale | 14,800 | 2,168 | 25,100 | + | Darwen | 12,500 | 336 | 28,700 | + | Nelson | 12,400 | 23 | 39,000 | + | Glossop** | | 968 | 15,400 | + | Bury | 10,700 | 818 | 22,200 | + | Stockport | 9,700 | 1,803 | 8,700 | + | Ashton-under-Lyne | 8,600 | 1,839 | 11,500 | + | Accrington | 8,300 | 417 | 36,400 | + | Colne | 7,300 | 140*** | 20,500 | + | Heywood | 7,300 | 869 | 6,400 | + | Stalybridge | 7,100 | 1,106 | 7,100 | + | Todmorden | 6,900 | 261 | 15,800 | + | Rawtenstall | 6,600 | 356 | 8,800 | + | Hyde | 6,500 | 553 | 7,900 | + | Chadderton | 6,400 | .. | .. | + | Haslingden | 6,100 | 148 | 12,000 | + | Bacup | 5,900 | 315 | 9,300 | + | Chorley | 5,900 | 547 | 17,900 | + | Farnworth, near Bolton | 5,700 | 738 | 10,600 | + | Leigh | 5,000 | 1,667 | 5,900 | + | Great Harwood | 4,900 | 72 | 12,400 | + | Middleton | 4,900 | 511 | 2,500 | + | Radcliffe | 4,800 | 157 | 8,900 | + +------------------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+ + * Manchester only. + ** The number of operatives in places in Derbyshire is not separately + specified. + *** Includes Foulridge with Colne. + +Local markets have steadily lost in importance, partly owing to railway +development, and it is now almost entirely in Manchester, on the +Exchange, that dealing in yarns and fabrics takes place, and +arrangements are made for export. The old Manchester Exchange, built in +1729, was taken down in 1792. A new Exchange, reared on a contiguous +site, was opened in 1809, the first stone having been laid in 1806. The +present building was erected in 1869. The great bulk of the exports of +cotton goods proceeds from Liverpool, though London used to be the +leading port, and Liverpool is still the chief English market for raw +cotton, though now from one-sixth to one-eighth of English cotton +supplies come up the Manchester Ship Canal. + + + Modern organization. + +To understand the present organization of the cotton industry the reader +must begin by mentally separating the commercial from the industrial +functions. By the industrial functions are meant the arrangements of +factors in production--choosing the most suitable machinery and hands, +combining them in the most economical system, adapting the material used +to this system, and keeping its working at the highest attainable level. +The commercial functions consist in business which is not industrial. +Analysis will show that there are, broadly speaking, two classes of +commercial functions, namely (1) arranging for purchases and sales, and +(2) the bearing of risks. The character of the former is apparent; it +consists, as regards yarn, in discovering for each manufacturer which +spinner makes the yarn which is best adapted to his requirements at the +lowest cost, and in finding the most suitable customers for spinners. +Risk-bearing is a commercial function of another kind. Every business +that involves anticipation involves commercial risks. Thus the spinner +who sells "forward" yarn, trusting that the price of cotton will not +rise, is taking commercial risks, and so is the spinner who produces for +stock, trusting that the class of yarn that he is making will continue +in demand. These two instances will suffice to indicate what is meant by +the carrying of commercial risks. To make the rest of our argument clear +it will be well to write down formulae. Let A and B represent +respectively the industrial operations of spinning and manufacturing. +Let a and [alpha] represent respectively the commercial operations +implied by the separate existence of A, that is, the buying of cotton +and the selling of yarn; and let b and [Greek: beta] stand for the +commercial operations associated with manufacturing, that is, the buying +of yarn on the one hand, and the finding of customers and arranging for +their purchases on the other hand. Then, A and B being distinct +businesses, it is obvious that a range of schemes is possible of which +the extremes may be roughly represented as follows:-- + + 1. (aA[alpha]), (bB[beta]) + 2. (a), (A), ([alpha]b), (B), ([beta]), + +where the brackets signify independent businesses. In case 1 each +spinning business would be engaged with three problems, namely, (i.) +buying material at the most favourable time, (ii.) producing at the +lowest cost, and (iii.) finding buyers and selling at the highest price, +including the arranging for the performance of the most remunerative +work. But in case 2 the spinner would confine his attention to purely +industrial matters, while the problem of finding cotton and arranging +for the bearing of the risks as to future prices would rest with other +persons, and the business of bringing spinner and manufacturer together +and taking such risks as may be involved in ordering or disposing of +yarn would be the function of yet others. In case 2 the commercial +functions may be said to have differentiated completely from the main +body of the industry. We need hardly give illustrations of the +intermediate arrangements that formally lie between cases 1 and 2. A may +retain commercial risks but find customers through intermediaries; in +such an event there would be only partial differentiation of the +commercial functions. The reader must be reminded also that for the sake +of simplicity in the formulae we have overlooked different classes of A +and of B, omitted bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing, and drawn +no distinction between the various classes of commercial work covered by +one letter, for instance, selling in the home market and selling abroad. + +It may help the reader to appreciate the organic growth of the cotton +industry if we now run over the main lines of its evolution. Originally +the industrial units were held together in one homogeneous commercial +setting. The Manchester merchants bought cotton and warps, put them out +to the weavers, and arranged for the finishing of the cloth and then for +its sale, so far as they had not been acting on orders already received. +There were variations of this system--for instance, in early years +weavers sometimes bought their own yarns and cotton and sold their +cloth--but just before the industrial revolution the arrangement +sketched above was the most usual. Adverting to our formula, the +Manchester merchants, we observe, performed functions a (in conjunction +with importers), b (as regarded warps), and [beta]. Weft the weaver had +to get spun by his family or outsiders. So, broadly speaking, there was +one single commercial setting. After the appearance of the factory, the +commercial work as between the water-twist mills, the mule-spinning +businesses and the manufacturers, so far as the businesses were +distinct, appears to have been done by the several producing firms +concerned. It was not at once that ([alpha]b) began to differentiate, +[beta] was already a separate business in the hands of Manchester +merchants and the foreign houses who had established themselves in +Manchester to direct the export trade. At the present time an advanced +stage of commercial specialism has been reached. From the risks +connected with the buying of cotton the spinner may if he please escape +entirely.[41] Selling work is now done usually through intermediaries, +but there is no one uniform rule as to the carrying of the commercial +risks involved. This appears to be now to some extent a matter of +arrangement between the persons concerned, but ultimately no doubt the +risks will have to be borne by those most qualified by experience to +bear them, namely, the commercial specialists. In no other trade in +England, and in no other cotton industry abroad, has commercial +specialism been carried so far as in the cotton trade of Lancashire. It +is partly in consequence of the difference in this respect between the +cotton industry in Lancashire and abroad that the separation of spinning +from weaving is far more common in England than elsewhere. Elsewhere +producers are deterred from specializing processes further in distinct +businesses by the fear of the worries of buying and selling as between +them. + +The explanation of differences in respect of the degree of commercial +specialism in different places and industries can be formulated only +very generally. Time is required for the differentiation and +localization to take place. The English cotton trade had not advanced +very far in the "'thirties," if we are to judge from the evidence given +to commissions and parliamentary committees. The general conditions +under which commercial specialism evolves may be taken to be a +moderately limited range of products which do not present many +varieties, and the qualities of which can be judged generally on +inspection. In such circumstances private markets need not be built up, +as they must be, for instance, for a new brand of soap which claims some +subtle superiority to all others. Soaps under present conditions must be +marketed by their producers. Broadly stated, if there be little +competition as to substitutes, though there may be much as to price in +relation to quality, commercial functions may specialize. On the whole +this is the case in the cotton industry; in so far as it is not and +firms produce specialities, they undertake much of the marketing work +themselves. + +The advantages of commercial specialism are numerous. Firstly it allows +of differentiation of industrial processes, and this, of necessity, is +accompanied by increasing returns. When weaving dissociates from +spinning, both the number of looms in each business and the number of +spindles in each business tend to increase; more division of labour is +therefore secured, and lower costs of production are reached, and there +is a further gain because producers concentrate their attention upon a +smaller range of work. Again when producers are freed entirely, or to +some extent, from commercial worries, they can attain a higher level of +efficiency at the industrial task of mill organization, and a more +perfect accommodation of capacity to function will be brought about. If +the business unit is (aA[alpha]), a particular person may retain his +place in the market by reason of his excellence at the work a or +[alpha], though as works organizer (i.e. at the performances of function +A) he may be incompetent. The heads of businesses will succeed according +to their average capacities at the three tasks a, A and [alpha], and +there is no guarantee, therefore, that any one of these tasks will be +performed with the highest attainable efficiency in our present somewhat +immobile economic system. But if the three functions are separated there +is more certainty of a person's success in the performance of each +determining his continued discharge of it. The problems that arise when +specialized markets become very highly developed are dealt with in the +article COTTON: MARKETING AND SUPPLY. + + + Operatives in various processes. + + The distribution of cotton operatives among the chief centres has + already been shown, but their distribution between processes has yet + to be considered, and the proportions of different ages and sexes from + time to time, together with the total. With such statistical material + as is available relating to supplies of labour we may set forth also + the official returns made of the quantity of machinery at work from + time to time. It hardly need be pointed out that the ratio of + machinery to operatives roughly measures the efficiency of labour, + other things being equal. + + + _Machinery in the United Kingdom (in Thousands)._ + + +--------+-----------+-----------+--------+ + | Years. | Spinning | Doubling | Power- | + | | Spindles. | Spindles. | Looms. | + +--------+-----------+-----------+--------+ + | 1874 | 37,516 | 4366 | 463 | + | 1878 | 39,528 | 4679 | 515 | + | 1885 | 40,120 | 4228 | 561 | + | 1890 | 40,512 | 3993 | 616 | + | 1903 | 43,905 | 3952 | 684 | + +--------+-----------+-----------+--------+ + + + _Operatives employed in the Cotton Industry (in Thousands). (From the + Census Returns.*)_ (The figures in italics relate to Married and + Widowed Women.) + + +----------------------------------------+--------------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ + | | 1901. | 1891. | 1881. | + | +-------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | | England | | England | | England | + | | Lancashire | and Wales |Lancashire.| and Wales |Lancashire.| and Wales | + +----------------------------------------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | | M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. | + |Cotton, card and blowing-room processes | 11.4 | 28.7 | 13.8 | 34.0| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | | 10.1 | |12.2 | | | | | | | | | | + |Cotton spinning processes | 49.5 | 19.6 | 64.1 | 28.6| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | | 4.3 | | 6.0 | | | | | | | | | | + |Cotton weaving, warping, &c. | 57.6 |113.5 | 66.1 |130.8| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | | 13.0 | | 15.8 | | | | | | | | | | + |Cotton winding, warping, &c. | 14.8 | 38.6 | 18.3 | 48.9| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | | 38.1 | | 44.4 | | | | | | | | | | + | +------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----------+ + | Total |133.3 | 265.9|162.3 |320.7|178.2|281.8|213.2|332.8|150.7|249.8|185.4|302.4| + | +------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + |Cotton workers in other processes or | 29.0 | 6.7 | 34.5 | 9.4 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | undefined | 1.8 | | | 2.3 | | | | | | | | | + |Tape, manufacturer dealer | .. | .. | .. | .. | .47| .25| .9 | 1.5| .4 | .24| .7 | 1.2 | + |Thread, manufacturer dealer | .. | .. | .. | .. | .2 | .9 | .6 | 2.1| .1 | .9 | .5 | 1.7 | + |Fustian, manufacturer dealer | .6 | 1.2 | 2.1 | 2.6 | 1.1 | 2.9 | 3.2 | 5.0| 1.7 | 3.5 | 3.0 | 5.2 | + | | .55| | | 1.0 | | | | | | | | | + |Cotton, calico, warehouseman, dealer | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 2.5 | .3 | 3.2 | .38| + +----------------------------------------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + * Census classifications have been altered twice in the period covered by this table. + + In Scotland there are less than 15,000 cotton operatives distributed + as follows:-- + + In Thousands. + + Card and blowing-room processes .4 + Spinning-room processes 2.1 + Winding, warping, &c. 2.7 + Weaving, warping, &c. 6.8 + Workers in other processes or undefined 2.8 + ---- + Total 14.8 + + + _Operatives employed in Cotton Factories in the United Kingdom and + Percentages of each Class. (From Returns of Factory Inspectors.)_ + + +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | | 1835.| 1838.| 1847.| 1850.| 1856.| 1862.| 1867.| + +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | Male and Female under | | | | | | | | + | 13, or half-timers. | 13.2 | 45.7 | 5.8 | 4.6 | 6.5 | 8.8 | 10.4 | + | Male, 13 to 18 | 12.5 | 16.6 | 11.8 | 11.2 | 10.3 | 9.1 | 8.6 | + | Male, over 18 | 26.4 | 24.9 | 27.1 | 28.7 | 27.4 | 26.4 | 26.0 | + | Female, over 13 | 47.9 | 53.8 | 55.3 | 55.5 | 55.8 | 55.7 | 55.0 | + +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | Total number of | | | | | | | | + | Cotton Operatives |218,000|259,500|316,400|331,000|379,300|451,600|401,100| + +=======================+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+ + | | 1870.| 1874.| 1878.| 1885.| 1890.| 1895.| 1901.| + +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | Male and Female under | | | | | | | | + | 13, or half-timers. | 9.6 | 14.0 | 12.8 | 9.9 | 9.1 | 5.8 | 4.1 | + | Male, 13 to 18 | 8.5 | 8.0 | 7.2 | 7.9 | 8.2 | 7.9 | 7.0 | + | Male, over 18 | 26.0 | 24.1 | 25.3 | 26.4 | 26.9 | 27.6 | 27.8 | + | Female, over 13 | 55.9 | 53.9 | 54.7 | 55.8 | 55.8 | 58.7 | 61.1 | + +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | Total number of | | | | | | | | + | Cotton Operatives |450,100|479,600|483,000|504,100|528,800|538,900|513,000| + +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + + + _Number of Operatives (in Thousands) engaged in Spinning, + Manufacturing and Subsidiary Processes (excluding Lace-making, but + including the Fustian Manufacture). (From Census Returns.)_ + + +------+------------------------+------------------------+------------------------+ + | | Males. | Females. | Males and Females. | + +------+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+ + | |Under| |Over | All |Under| |Over | All |Under| |Over | All | + | | 15.|15-20.| 20. |Ages.| 15. |15-20.| 20. |Ages.| 15.|15-20.| 20. |Ages.| + +------+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+ + | 1881 | 29 | 39 | 121 | 189 | 40 | 81 | 189 | 310 | 69 | 120 | 310 | 500 | + | 1891 | 36 | 45 | 137 | 218 | 50 | 94 | 197 | 341 | 86 | 139 | 334 | 560 | + | 1901 | 24 | 36 | 139 | 199 | 36 | 92 | 207 | 335 | 60 | 128 | 346 | 535 | + +------+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+ + + + The fact that the branches of work covered by the figures are not + identical explains discrepancies between this and the previous table. + + + _Number of Operatives engaged in the Cotton Industry (Processes + being distinguished and Ages and Sex). (From Special Returns made by + Factory Inspectors.)_ + + +------------+-------------------------+--------------------------+----------+ + | | Males in Thousands. | Females in Thousands. | | + | +-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+--------+ Total in | + | | Half- | Under |18 and | Half- | Under | 18 and |Thousands.| + | |timers.| 18. | over. |timers.| 18. | over. | | + +------------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+--------+----------+ + | | | |Spinning and Preparatory Processes| | + |1896 | 5.58 | 22.24 | 71.44 | 4.40 | 30.12 | 78.96 | 212 | + |1898-1899* | 5.42 | 21.57 | 71.37 | 3.86 | 30.44 | 77.64 | 210 | + |1901 | 4.98 | 21.10 | 68.98 | 3.10 | 30.98 | 81.68 | 211 | + | | | |Weaving and Preparatory Processes | | + |1896 | 7.54 | 18.79 | 75.81 | 11.87 | 49.19 | 151.34 | 315 | + |1898-1899* | 6.21 | 17.29 | 72.74 | 10.38 | 48.38 | 150.99 | 306 | + |1901 | 4.72 | 14.86 | 73.81 | 8.0 | 45.66 | 155.03 | 302 | + +------------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+--------+----------+ + * Average for 1898 and 1899. + + The figures in this table are not quite complete except for 1901; the + relations between the changes shown for each class should nevertheless + be accurately represented. + + + _Index Numbers of Money, Wages and Prices._ + + +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ + | |1840.|1855.|1860.|1866.|1870.|1874.|1877.|1880.|1883.|1886.|1891.| 1902.| + +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ + |Cotton operatives. | 50 | 54 | 64 | 74 | 74 | 90 | 90 | 85 | 90 | 93 | 100 |105 | + |Average wages for | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | eight trades | 61 | 61 | 73 | 81 | 83 | 97 | 94 | 89 | 92 | 90 | 100 |108.7*| + |Sauerbeck's | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | index number | 103 | 73 | 99 | 102 | 96 | 102 | 94 | 88 | 82 | 69 | 72 | 69 | + |Average price of | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | wheat per quarter| 66/4| 40/3| 53/3|49/11|46/11| 55/9| 56/9| 44/4| 41/7| 31/-| 37/-|28/1 | + +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ + * Average for a slightly different group. + + + _Weekly Wages in the Manchester and District Cotton Trade._ + + +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | |1834.|1836.|1839.|1841.|1849.|1850.|1859.|1860.|1870.|1877.|1882.|1883.|1886.| + +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | |s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.| + |Spinners' average |23 4 |23 11|22 1 |22 0 |21 7 |20 5 |24 1 |23 2 |27 8 |34 4 |31 6 |32 4 |35 7 | + |Big piecers' average|11 0 | 9 3 | 8 6 | 8 8 | 8 6 |13 0 |10 0 |10 0 |11 0 |12 4 |16 0 |16 0 |13 7 | + |Weavers' average |11 0 |10 2 | 9 6 | 9 6 |10 6 |10 3 |11 2 |10 8 |12 2 |15 1 |15 6 |15 0 |13 3 | + +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + + The most noticeable features of these tables are the decrease in the + proportion of children employed and the steady increase in the number + of operatives as a whole until recent years. The contraction of the + body of operatives of late years seems to have occurred primarily + among children and young persons (where the first check would + naturally be looked for), and secondarily among adult males. If + allowance be made for the smaller value of children as compared with + adults, and the census results be taken, it is not evident that there + has been any diminution in the amount of labour-power; and if the + factory inspectors' returns be accepted, the falling off in the number + of operatives cannot be proved to have taken place in either of the + chief branches of the industry at so rapid a rate as to have + occasioned the enforced dismissal of any hands. An industry which was + not recruited at all would have dwindled at a greater rate. At least + it may be inferred from these figures, when taken in conjunction with + the large increase in spindles and looms, that the output per head has + considerably advanced in spite of the rise in the average quality of + both yarns and fabrics produced. This rise in the value per unit of + the output accounts to some extent for the fact that wages have not + been adversely affected of late. + + + Wages and piece-rate lists. + + Mr A. L. Bowley has calculated index numbers of wages for the leading + trades, including the manufacture of cotton. Those for the cotton + industry are given below, together with averages for cotton and wool + workers, the building trades, mining, workers in iron, sailors, + compositors and agriculturists (England), the numbers in each class + being allowed for in the average. Side by side with these figures, + Sauerbeck's index numbers of general wholesale prices are given, + together with the average prices of wheat per quarter. + + It must be remembered that the figures given above for cotton workers + and average wages for eight trades do not measure the differences + between each, but only the differences between the movements of each. + Actual average money wages in the cotton industry have probably been + approximately those stated in the second table beneath, but as these + figures are culled from various sources they must not be taken to + indicate fluctuations.[42] + + The wage of fine spinners exceeds the average wage of spinners by + percentages varying from about 25 to 35. In the above figures the + earnings of three classes of spinners are averaged. + + The highest wages are earned by mule-spinners (who are all males); + their assistants, known as piecers, are badly paid. Persons can easily + be found, however, to work as piecers, because they hope ultimately to + become "minders," i.e. mule-spinners in charge of mules. The division + of the total wage paid on a pair of mules between the minder and the + piecers is largely the result of the policy of the spinners' trade + union. Almost without exception in Lancashire one minder takes charge + of a pair of mules with two or three assistants according to the + amount of work to be done. Among the weavers there is no rule as to + the number of assistants to full weavers (who are both male and + female), or as to the number of looms managed by a weaver, but the + proportion of assistants is much less than in the spinning branches, + perhaps because of the inferior strength of the weavers' unions. For + the calculation of wages piece-rate lists are universally employed as + regards the payment of full weavers and spinners; some piecers get a + definite share of the total wage thus assigned to a pair of mules, + while others are paid a fixed weekly amount. Many ring-spinners are + now paid also by piece-rate lists, and all other operatives are almost + universally so paid, except, as a rule, the hands in the blowing-room + and on the carding-machines. Spinning and weaving lists are most + complicated; allowances are made in them for most incidents beyond the + operatives' control, by which the amount of the wage might be + affected. Still, however, they could not cover all circumstances, and + much is left to the manner of their application and private + arrangement. They should be regarded as giving the basis, rather than + as actually settling, the wage in all cases. The history of lists + stretches back to the first quarter of the 19th century as regards + spinners, and to about the middle of the century generally as regards + weavers, though a weaving list agreed to by eleven masters was drawn + up as early as 1834. There are still many different district lists in + use, but the favourite spinning lists are those of Oldham and Bolton, + and the weaving list most generally employed is that known as the + "Uniform List," which is a compromise between the lists of Blackburn, + Preston and Burnley. Under the "Particulars Clause," first included in + a Factory Act in 1891 and given extended application in 1895, the + particulars required for the calculation of wages must be rendered by + the employer. As in spinning there used to be doubts about the + quantity of work done, the "indicator," which measures the length of + yarn spun, is coming into general use under pressure from the + operatives. We ought to observe here that the Oldham Spinning list + differs from all others in that its basis is an agreed normal + time-wage for different kinds of work on which piece-rates are + reckoned. But in effect understandings as to the level of normal + time-wages are the real basis everywhere. If the average wages in a + particular mill are lower than elsewhere for reasons not connected + with the quality of labour (e.g. because of antiquated machinery or + the low quality of the cotton used), the men demand "allowances" to + raise their wages to the normal level. Advances and reductions are + made on the lists, and under the Brooklands Agreement, entered into by + masters and men in the cotton spinning industry in 1893, advances and + reductions in future must not exceed 5% or succeed one another by a + shorter period than twelve months. The changes as a rule now are 5% or + 2½%. In all branches of the cotton industry it is usual for a + conference to take place between the interested parties before a + strike breaks out, on the demand of one or other for an advance or + reduction. + + + Trade Unions. + + Organization among the workers in the cotton industry is remarkably + thorough. Almost all spinners are members of trade unions, and though + the weavers are not so strongly united, the bulk of them are + organized. The piecers are admitted as members of piecers' + associations, connected with the spinners' associations and controlled + by them. Attempts to form independent piecers' unions have failed. + Weavers' assistants are included in the weavers' unions, which may be + joined in different classes, the benefits connected with which vary + with the amounts paid. One subscription only, however, is imposed by + each branch spinners' association, but in all branches it is not the + same, though every branch pays the same per member to the + amalgamation. All the trade unions of the chief workers in the cotton + industry are federated in the four societies: (1) the Amalgamated + Association of Operative Cotton Spinners (created in 1853 and reformed + in 1870), (2) the Northern Counties Amalgamated Association of Weavers + (founded 1884), (3) the Amalgamated Association of Card and + Blowing-room Operatives (established 1886), and (4) the Amalgamated + Association of Power-loom Overlookers (founded 1884). These were not, + however, the first attempts at federation, and the term "federation" + must not be taken in any strict sense. The distribution of power + between the central authority and the local Societies varies, but in + some cases, for instance among the spinners, the local societies + approximate as closely to the status of mere branches, as to that of + independent units federated for limited objects. We ought also to + mention the societies of warp-dressers and warpers, tape-sizers and + cloth-workers and warehousemen. There is no one federation of all + cotton-workers, but the United Textile Factory Workers has been + periodically called into being to press the matter of factory + legislation, and international textile congresses are occasionally + held by the operatives of different countries. + + As to employers, four extensive associations include almost all the + organization among them, two concerned chiefly with spinning and two + with weaving. The former two are the Federation of Master Cotton + Spinners' Associations with local associations and including + 21,000,000 spindles, and the Bolton Master Cotton Spinners' + Association with 7,000,000 spindles; the latter two are the North and + North-East Lancashire Spinners' and Manufacturers' Association, + covering about 3,000,000 spindles in addition to a large section of + the looms of Lancashire, and the United Cotton Manufacturers' + Association.[43] + + + Factory Acts. + + Factory legislation began in the cotton industry, and in no industry + is it now more developed. The first acts were those of 1802 and 1819, + both of which applied only to cotton-mills, and the former of which + related only to parish apprentices. The first really important measure + was that of 1833, which curtailed the abuse of child-labour, enforced + some education and provided for factory inspectors, of whom there were + at first only four. The next act of importance, that of 1844, was + chiefly remarkable for its inclusion of all women among young persons. + The proportion of women, young persons and children engaged in the + cotton industry is so high, that most regulations affecting them, e.g. + those relating to the hours of labour, must practically be extended to + all cotton operatives. This act killed night work for "young persons," + and children were not allowed to work at night. The year 1847 saw the + introduction of what was known as the Ten Hours Act--after the 1st of + May 1848 the hours of young persons (women included) and children were + not to exceed ten a day and fifty-eight a week. A further limitation + of hours to 56½ a week was secured in 1874, and this was cut down by + another hour (the concession of the 12 o'clock Saturday) in 1901. + "Young persons" now includes all who are not half-timers and have not + attained the age of eighteen, and all women. The rules as regards the + employment of children, which have steadily improved, are at present + as follows. No child under twelve may be employed. On attaining the + age of thirteen the child may become a full-timer if he has obtained + the prescribed educational certificate (i.e. fifth standard attainment + or three hundred attendances each year for five consecutive years). + Failing this he must wait till he is fourteen before he can be + employed full time. Half-timers may be employed either (a) on + alternate days, which must not be the same days in two successive + weeks, or (b) in morning and afternoon sets. In the case of + arrangement (a), the child when at work may be employed during the + same period as a young person or woman, which in Lancashire is almost + universally from 6 to 6 with two hours for meals.[44] In the case of + arrangement (b), which is the system generally adopted in Lancashire, + a half-timer in the morning set works from 6 to 12.30, with half an + hour for breakfast, and in the afternoon from 1.30 to 6 except on + Saturdays, when the hours are from 6 till 11.30 for a manufacturing + operative, or till 12 for other work, for instance, cleaning. The + child must not work two consecutive weeks in the same set (that is, in + mornings or afternoons), nor on two successive Saturdays, nor on + Saturday at all if during any other day of the same week the period of + employment has exceeded 5½ hours (i.e. a child in the morning set does + not work on the Saturday). Other important features of factory + legislation relate to the fencing of dangerous machinery and its + cleaning when in motion (the regulations being strictest in the case + of children and most lax in the case of male adults), and conditions + of health, including the amount of steaming allowed, which was first + regulated by the Cotton Cloth Factories Act of 1889. + + +The Cotton Industry outside England. + +A brief survey will now be made of the cotton industry in parts of the +globe other than the British Isles, and as a prelude the following broad +estimates of the numbers of spindles and looms in the chief national +seats of the cotton industry may be put forward.[45] The table is +further supplemented by other figures[46] for the number of spindles at +different times in the United Kingdom, the United States and the +continent; and finally we may add the figures of cotton consumed. + +The different average fineness of counts spun in different places must +be borne in mind when the consumption of each district at the same time +is being considered, but the relations between the amounts consumed in +the contrasted districts in the two periods would not be affected much +by this difference. + + +-----------------+--------------+----------+-------------+ + | | Estimated | Million | Thousand | + | | Population | Spinning | Power-Looms | + | | in 1902. | Spindles | about 1906. | + | | In Millions. | in 1909. | | + +-----------------+--------------+----------+-------------+ + | United Kingdom. | 42 | 53.5 | 700 | + | United States | 79 | 27.8 | 550 | + | Germany | 58 | 9.8 | 215 | + | France | 39 | 6.8 | 110 | + | Russia | 139 | 7.8 | 150 | + | India | 294(1901) | 5.8 | 45 | + | Austria | 26.7 | 4.2 | 80 | + | Spain | 18.6(1900) | 1.9 | 69 | + | Italy | 33 | 4.0 | 100 | + | Switzerland | 3.4 | 1.5 | 30 | + | Japan | 46 | 1.7 | .. | + | Belgium | .. | 1.2 | .. | + +-----------------+--------------+----------+-------------+ + + + _Cotton Spindles (including Doubling Spindles) in Millions._ + + +--------+---------+---------+--------+----------+--------+ + | | United | | United | Other | | + | | Kingdom.| Europe. | States.|Countries.| Total. | + +--------+---------+---------+--------+----------+--------+ + | 1870 | 37.7 | 13 | 7.1 | .. | 57.8 | + | 1880 | 44.5 | 21 | 10.6 | 2 | 78.1 | + | 1890 | 44.5 | 26 | 14.2 | 4 | 88.7 | + | 1900 | 46.2 | 32 | 19 | 7 | 104.2 | + | 1903 | 47.9 | 33 | 22.2 | 7.5 | 110.6 | + +--------+---------+---------+--------+----------+--------+ + + + _Average Annual Consumption of Cotton in the Period 1831-1835._ + + Millions of lb. + United Kingdom 295 + Continent of Europe 143 + United States 79 + + + _Average Annual Consumption of Cotton in the Period 1900-1905._ + + Millions of lb. + United Kingdom 1634 + Continent of Europe 2486 + United States 1995 + +Roughly the consumption of cotton per spindle in the three areas to-day +is, in lb., 35 for the United Kingdom, 70 for the continent, and 95 for +the United States. + +Before the cotton industry in other countries is described it will be +necessary to explain how it could have developed there on a large scale +at all. Of course this growth is to be accounted for very largely by the +natural protection of cost of transport aided by tariffs. But it would +be a mistake for Englishmen to imagine that all foreign cotton mills are +the product of a forcing culture, and that if the favourable conditions +created by import duties were removed they would totally disappear. No +doubt some of the growth is artificial, but much is natural and would +have taken place under universal free trade conditions. Much of it, +indeed, would have appeared in these circumstances even were cost of +production a negligible quantity, difficult though it may be at first to +reconcile this statement with certain ordinary conceptions of the +operations of the law of increasing returns. Lancashire secured an +immense lead at the beginning of the 19th century, and if the cost of +production may be represented as varying inversely as the magnitude of +the industry, every addition to her success increased her advantages. +How could the small industry, with a high cost of production because it +was small, compete with Lancashire? The answer is to be found in the +peculiar conditions governing international trade and a closer analysis +of "increasing returns." "Increasing returns" in any place are a +function of two variables, (1) the magnitude of the world market under +conditions of world commerce, and (2) the magnitude of the industry in +the spot in question. The economies connected with the first variable, +which in such an industry as the cotton industry are enormous, and +govern ultimately the limits of business specialism, are shared by every +national section of the industry whether it be great or small. If Haiti +started a cotton factory she might import all her specialized +machinery--the specialism involved in producing which is dependent upon +the exportation of some of it--and restrict narrowly the work undertaken +by her one factory. The cotton goods outside this range she would still +import, and if her specialized product were in excess of local demand +she could export some of it, if she were favourably placed in respect of +cost of carriage, for cost of production in Haiti would not be +impossibly high, since machinery and the general system of production +would be quite up to date though labour might be highly inefficient. Of +course, the country with a large industry enjoys high local economies, +and it might be thought that these alone would be a menace to the +stability of the small industry, because if the industry in the favoured +locality increased these would increase also and the small industry +would be undersold. The answer to this difficulty is that foreign trade +depends upon ratios between ratios, that is, upon the ratios between the +costs of production of all the products of each country in relation to +similar ratios for other countries. Relatively, therefore, diminishing +returns operate in every country. In every country there must come a +time, the utility of commodities being taken into account, when a unit +of labour and capital provides less utility when applied to the creation +of cotton goods, say, than when applied to producing something else for +home consumption or for export in exchange for commodities wanted at +home. It becomes apparent, therefore, that cotton industries of widely +varying sizes dispersed throughout the world can settle into relations +of perfectly stable equilibrium, as that term is understood by the +economist. Slow changes, of course, in their relative volumes might be +looked for with changes in a mutable world, but very sudden collapses +would be impossible unless the general course of human affairs were +revolutionized. + +_The United States._--The machine-cotton industry was carried to North +America almost as soon as it evolved in England. Models of Arkwright's +machines were smuggled across the Atlantic in 1786--Arkwright's first +mill had not been started in England until 1769--and these with a jenny +and stock-card were publicly exhibited. From these models a great mass +of machinery was soon constructed. The first mill was erected in 1788 +(that of the Beverly Association), the second appeared in 1790, the +third five years later, and in 1798 Samuel Slater started with some of +his wife's relatives the first mill in which the principle of the +water-frame was carried throughout. It is said that it was not until +1814 that power-loom manufacturing was commenced, but in England success +with the power-loom was long delayed. As early as 1831, however, there +were in the United States--mainly in the New England states--800 +factories, a million and a quarter spindles, 33,500 looms and 62,200 +operatives. At this time the annual consumption of cotton was about +77,000,000 lb. as compared with some 300,000,000 lb. in England at the +same date, and 2,000,000,000 approximately in the United States at the +present time.[47] Writing in 1840, James Montgomery said that, in +respect of cost of production, the American industry was 19% behind that +of England apart from the cost of raw material, which was then a good +deal less to the Americans. In 1878, when there was much interest in the +question of British efficiency in the cotton industry because the +passage of the Factory Act of 1874 had cut down the working hours, the +_Economist_ contrasted the result of twenty-five years' growth in +England and America:-- + + "In 1853 the average English production per weaver of 8¼ lb. shirting + was 825 yds. per week of sixty hours. In 1878 the working hours had + fallen to fifty-seven, and the production had risen to 975 yds. An + increased production of 23% is thus due to improvement in the + processes of manufacture. In 1865 there were 24,151 persons employed + in Massachusetts in the production of cotton goods, and they produced + 175,000,000 yds. In 1875 the operatives numbered 60,176, and their + product was 874,000,000 yds. The operatives had increased 150% and + their products had increased 500%. The increase of production due to + improved methods was thus in England 23%, and in Massachusetts 100%. I + do not, of course, suppose that the American manufacturer is in + advance of his English rival to the extent of this difference, for I + presume that he started upon the career of improvement from a lower + platform. But a progress so greatly more rapid than ours will be + admitted to cast much light on the change which has occurred in our + relative positions." + +The contrast no doubt was not perfect, as indeed it could not be in +view of the varieties of product and their changes, but it proves at any +rate that Americans were making vast strides in industrial efficiency +even before the period when American methods and American enterprise +were monopolizing in a wonderful degree the attention of the business +world.[48] About a dozen years later the low real cost of production of +simple fabrics in the United States was universally admitted, and also +that American manufacturers were making more use of machinery than their +European rivals. In a typical weaving shed in Massachusetts, for +instance, of which particulars were published, twenty women "tended" as +many as eight looms apiece, forty-three managed seven, two hundred and +thirty-two managed six, and only eleven had five only.[49] Since then, +moreover, advance has been rapid, and the sudden development of the +South has astonished the business community of other centres of the +cotton industry. + +Before the lines of development in America are specifically dealt with, +and particularly the industrial phenomena in the South, a few words must +be said of the general extension of the industry. The consumption of +cotton in the United States in million lb. was about 75 in 1830, 390 in +1860, 1100 in 1890 and nearly 2000 on an average of the five crop years +from 1900-1901 to 1904-1905: active spindles advanced from 1,250,000 in +1830 to 10,653,000 in 1880 and about 21,250,000 in 1905. Looms which +numbered 33,500 in 1830 had reached 226,000 in 1880 and nearly 550,000 +in 1905. At the same time population, it must be remembered, was growing +at a phenomenal rate: from 31.4 millions in 1860 it had passed to 38.6, +50.2, 62.6 and 76.3 at the succeeding decennial censuses, the decennial +rates of increase being in order 22.5, 30, 25 and 20.5 as compared with +8.5, 10.5, 8 and 9 as shown by the corresponding censuses in the United +Kingdom. Protection was of course contributory to the growth of the +American cotton industry. It may be remarked incidentally that the New +World, including the West Indies and the Chinese empire, take the bulk +of American exports, which for so large an industry are inconsiderable. +The imports have always been well in excess of the exports. The +encouragement of home industries by tariffs was definitely aimed at +after the war with England during the Napoleonic struggles, and although +a sensible reduction of duties was experienced after 1845 the reaction +to protection that followed the Civil War was never significantly +departed from except by the single act of 1883. In 1790 the duties on +cotton goods were 7½% _ad valorem_, and they rose gradually until they +reached 25% in 1816. Slight reductions some seventeen years later were +followed in the early 'forties by a tariff of 30%. Diminutions were +succeeded by oscillations, though at no point was a low level touched. +Severe charges were imposed in 1890, and after some relaxation in 1894 +the policy of restrictiveness was restored in 1897. According to the +calculations made by the English Board of Trade in 1903[50] no fabrics +were admitted at a charge equivalent to less than 68% _ad valorem_, and +no yarns were admitted at a charge lower than 45% _ad valorem_. Cotton +thread is subjected to a rate equivalent to 375%[51] + +The character of the growth of the cotton industry in the United States, +as revealed by recent census returns, is peculiarly interesting:-- + + +------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------+ + | | Thousands | Percentage Increase | + | +--------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | | 1880. | 1890. | 1900. | 1905. |1880-1890|1890-1900|1900-1905| + +------------------------+--------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | Active Spindles | 10,653| 14,188| 19,008| 23,156| 33.8 | 34 | 21.8 | + | Looms | 226| 325| 451| 541| 43.90 | 38.7 | 20 | + | lb. cotton consumed | 750,344|1,117,946|1,814,003|1,875,075| 48.99 | 62.3 | 3.3 | + | Wages | $42,041| $66,025| $85,126| $94,378| 57 | 28.9 | 10.9 | + | Capital |$208,280| $354,021| $460,843| $605,100| 70 | 30.2 | 31.3 | + | Employees not officers | | | | | | | | + | and clerks | 174.7| 218.9| 297.9| 310.5| 25.3 | 36.1 | 4.2 | + +------------------------+--------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + +Cotton small wares are included in the totals for 1880 and 1890, but +excluded from those for 1900 and 1905. We must observe further that +"capital" is a vague term. Recent events in the United States afford a +valuable empirical indication of the effect that improved machinery +actually has upon wages. The new automatic looms caused a saving of +labour per unit of product which recalled the complete subversion at the +industrial revolution of the proportions in which the several factors in +production were organized. Displacement of labour and falling wages +might not unreasonably have been looked for temporarily, but wages stuck +at their old level or rose. The rise was caused by numerous converging +forces which brought their united weight to bear. First, prices so fell +as the result of the new machinery that the increased volume of +commodities which the market could absorb more than counterbalanced, it +would seem, the labour-saving of the new machinery, the cotton industry +being taken as a whole. It must be remembered that to increase the +output from the subsidiary processes where labour had not been saved +more hands had to be drafted in. Thus, a contraction of the body of +weavers was accompanied by an expansion of the body of cotton +operatives. Again weavers' wages were naturally raised in a special +degree because automatic machinery called for quick, trustworthy and +intelligent hands, endowed with versatility, especially in the days when +the machinery was still in the semi-experimental stage. The American +employer tries to save in labour but not to save in wages, if a +generalization may be ventured. The good workman gets high pay, but he +is kept at tasks requiring his powers and is not suffered to waste his +time doing the work of unskilled and boy labour. There is, certainly, in +the American labour problem no serious grievance on the question of +wages. If there is any abuse it consists in excessively fierce work. Mr. +T. M. Young, who visited the American cotton districts in 1904 with an +informal commission of Lancashire spinners and manufacturers, did not +think that the cause of the high wages--allowance being made for the +purchasing power of money, they are above those of England, though +cotton operatives in England are well paid relatively--was the +superiority of the American cotton worker; neither did the +representatives of the English cotton operatives who accompanied the +Moseley Commission. As often as not "the cotton operative in the United +States is a French Canadian, a German, an Italian, a Hungarian, an +Albanian, a Portuguese, a Russian, a Greek, or an Armenian." It is the +extensive "exploitation" of machinery seemingly, together with the speed +of work, which keep wages high, combined with the horizontal and +vertical mobility of American labour, which prevents it from +accumulating in pools, and causes streams of the best hands to be +flowing continuously to other callings and places, and no insignificant +proportion to climb the social ladder. The remainder naturally profit, +for a local or trade congestion of labour is avoided, and the voluminous +recruiting of enterprise by the intensified competition among employers +keeps the demand for labour high. + +One noticeable point in the table quoted above is that until recently +cotton consumed increased much faster than the number of spindles. This +might be explained in a variety of ways. Average counts remaining +constant, the average speed of the spindle might have risen; or the +latter remaining constant, counts might have been getting finer. Speeds +have certainly gone up a good deal of late on some counts. And it is +quite likely, too, that concentration on the manufacture of coarse goods +for export, with stout warps to keep down the breakages and raise the +output per loom, may be reckoned as one cause. + +Despite the recent sensational growth in the South, the New England +States still remain the most prominent seat of the American cotton +industry. They contained in 1905 about 14 million spindles as compared +with 7.7 millions in the South and West, and their relative possession +of looms approaches, though it does not quite reach, the same +proportion. The leading States in the South in order of importance are +South Carolina, North Carolina, Georgia and Alabama, and in the North, +first Massachusetts with an enormous lead, then, in order, Rhode Island, +New Hampshire, Connecticut, Maine, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey. +The bulk of the cotton industry in the North is contained within a small +area. A circle around Providence, Rhode Island, of 30 m. radius +includes, according to the twelfth census, nearly 7¼ million +spindles,--there were only 58,500 spindles in this area in 1809. Of the +chief towns Fall River stood first in 1900 in value output, and was +followed in order by Philadelphia, New Bedford, Lowell, Manchester and +Pawtucket. The climate of Fall River is very similar to that of English +spinning districts. Its population in 1900 was 105,000, and of these +only 14,600 were of American parentage. Of the remainder, 16,700 were +English, 17,800 Irish, 29,600 French Canadians and about 5000 +Portuguese. Among the rest of foreign parentage, Armenians, Russians and +Italians are numerous. But Massachusetts is famous for the number of +immigrants it attracts. It is almost incredible, but nevertheless a fact +according to a recent statistical report, that in 1903 as many as 91% of +the cotton operatives of the State were of foreign descent--chiefly +French Canadian and Irish. In 1902 there were nearly 90 mills at Fall +River with 3,000,000 spindles and 16,000 looms. The spindles amount to +about one-third of all in Massachusetts, but Fall River's share of the +looms of the State is not large. The spindles exceed in number those +possessed by any State except of course the one in which it is placed. +In comparison with a great spinning town in England, nevertheless, Fall +River does not appeal strongly to the English imagination. It has little +over a quarter of the spindles of Oldham, or three-fifths of those of +Bolton,--among English towns it would stand third, i.e. between Bolton +and Manchester and Salford, which, in spite of the movement of spinning +to the hills, still holds in England a leading place. The whole of +Massachusetts, it is of interest to observe, has fewer spindles than +Oldham, and only about half those of Oldham and Bolton together. +Originally it was the river which attracted the mills to Fall River, and +as the water-power available was almost inexhaustible, it was possible +for the mills to congregate together and for a town to grow up. In +England, when much of the industry was dependent for power upon water, +decentralization was entailed, for the thin streams of Lancashire could +not support more than two or three mills at most in proximity. Hence in +England, after Watt's steam-engine had succeeded, the economies of +centralization led eventually to the desertion of the mills on the +water-courses. But at Fall River the perfecting of the application of +steam-power merely involved its use to supplement the water-power on the +old site. The presence of water-power explains half the success of New +England. In the six States 35% of all the power used is derived from +water, and in the cotton-manufacturing of these States water provides +32.6% of the power. For industrial purposes generally the river most +exploited is the Merrimac, upon which stand the leading cotton towns of +Lowell, Lawrence and Manchester. Hitherto little has been done in the +way of using water to generate electric power.[52] + +The two most striking features of the American industry to-day are the +introduction of the automatic looms, already briefly referred to, and +the development of the South. The Northrop Loom Company has spent a +fortune in pushing its loom on to the market. It has not hesitated to +share risks, and it has run one "advertisement" mill at least, namely +that at Burlington, Vermont, with 55,000 spindles and nearly 1300 looms. +In this mill the labour-saving is shown by the following figures, the +looms being of two sizes, 32 in. and 44 in. Of the former, 3 weavers run +18 each, 39 tend 16 each, only a few odd weavers tend less than 16, and +learners even are at work on 8 to 11 each; on the latter, of 29 weavers +17 mind 16 looms each and 12 mind 12 (on stripped fabrics).[53] Of +course a high level of efficiency would be expected in this show mill. +That American employers have readily been converted to a belief in the +economy of the new machinery we are not astonished to learn in view of +the American temperament, the intensity of competition among business +leaders, and the prevailing spirit of adventure. Thousands of workable +old looms have been scrapped, and probably at the present time there are +100,000 automatic looms running in the United States. No other country +can point to a rate of substitution which approaches that in the United +States. The causes, apart from the temperamental and social to which +reference has already been made, are probably (1) that there is +disagreement as to the present economy of automatic looms on many +fabrics,[54] (2) that Americans aim at frequency of renewal of plant, +and avoid making their machinery so durable as to prove ultimately, +perhaps, a handicapping inheritance, and (3) that a greater bulk of +American work is appropriate for the new looms than of English or +continental work. But automatic machinery is being used increasingly in +Lancashire.[55] And the operatives ultimately benefit. It is the +half-developed machine, to which labour must actually be linked as an +essential part, which is responsible for monotonous work and creates the +dislike of mechanical aids. + +Now we turn to the recent development of the Southern States. Never has +an industry grown faster than that of the two Carolinas, Georgia and +Alabama. Some of the earliest experiments with the machine industry were +conducted in South Carolina, but from that time till the end of the 19th +century nobody imagined the possibility of a great Southern expansion. +In 1880 the South contained less than half a million spindles--i.e. +about as many as Hyde, Middleton or Chorley, and one-twenty-third of the +numbers in Oldham. Twenty years later they had increased twelvefold and +the Southern States, in respect of the number of spindles, had taken +precedence of Bolton. To-day probably about eight and a half millions +might be counted. In addition there are some two hundred thousand looms, +or nearly as many as in the three leading cotton-weaving towns of +England--Burnley, Blackburn and Preston. The rapid oncoming of the South +may also be traced by its consumption of cotton--which as an index, +however, is not perfect. This on an annual average was, in thousand +bales, 164, 269, 453, 717 and 1233 in each of the periods 1876-1880, +1881-1885, 1886-1889, 1891-1895 and 1895-1900 successively. The +consumption since then, as compared with that of the Northern States, +Great Britain and the European continent, has been as follows. It must +be remembered that the consumption per spindle varies greatly from place +to place. + + _Consumption of Cotton in Thousand Bales of about 500 lb. each._ + + +-----------+----------+----------+---------+----------+---------+ + | | Southern | Northern | Total | Great | | + | | States. | States. | United | Britain. | Europe. | + | | | | States. | | | + +-----------+----------+----------+---------+----------+---------+ + | 1900-1901 | 1583 | 1963 | 3546 | 3269 | 4576 | + | 1901-1902 | 2017 | 2066 | 4083 | 3253 | 4836 | + | 1902-1903 | 1958 | 1866 | 3824 | 3185 | 5148 | + | 1903-1904 | 1889 | 2046 | 3935 | 3017 | 5148 | + | 1904-1905 | 2270 | 2292 | 4562 | 3620 | 5148 | + +-----------+----------+----------+---------+----------+---------+ + +The densest distribution of mills in the South is along the line of the +Southern railroad, in the district known as the Piedmont. Of this group +Charlotte in North Carolina is the natural centre: roughly, half the +spindles and half the looms in the Southern States would be included +within a circle around Charlotte of a radius of about 100 m. Of the +remainder a large proportion is scattered over a wide area. + +Much interest has been excited by this newly created Lancashire of a new +type, and much speculation as to the causes that account for it has been +elicited. An informal commission of Lancashire spinners and +manufacturers crossed the Atlantic to make inquiries in 1902 and +investigations have been undertaken by other persons[56], and much has +been written on the subject. A general explanation can now be framed +without much difficulty, as in all probability most of the relevant +facts have been brought to light. First and foremost the general +development of the cotton industry in the United States must be +emphasized. The industry was unquestionably foredoomed to expansion at +this time, and the only question was where the expansion should take +place. It was plain that the growth might be so great as to present the +appearance of a new industry created with new labour rather than an +extension of an old industry. It was not altogether surprising, +therefore, that the exploitation of a new field of labour was thought +of. The labour market of the North was comparatively exhausted; in less +developed parts of the country larger supplies of intrinsically good +labour might be looked for at lower wages. Skill was not a matter of +much moment, because in the North it would have been necessary to +incorporate much labour without previous experience in the industry, the +work was intended to be of the rough kind upon which manual skill is +least important, and it was intended to repose reliance for economy upon +machinery in the main. The choice of new fields meant at the outset the +sacrifice of some of the economies of localization, but so large an +expansion was looked for that projectors did not despair of creating +fresh industrial localization of sufficient magnitude to produce such +economies as are derived from it, which, it must be observed, are +inconsiderable in America, and have declined relatively with falling +cost of transport and the adoption, as regards machinery, of the +principle of interchangeable parts. And at any rate a new local industry +would have a slight advantage in supplying markets in proximity to it. + +These were the main general considerations, and the scale was turned in +favour of the new locality (a) by the advantage of nearer supplies of +cotton, and (b) by the known presence of much half-occupied white labour +in the vicinity of otherwise suitable sites close to the cotton-fields. +It must be borne in mind that the whole calculation had not to be reared +merely upon an intangible theoretical basis. Cotton mills already +existed in the South, and comparisons of costs of production, as things +were then, afforded some groundwork for judgment. + +As regards the first of the two special advantages mentioned above, the +saving in the cost of carriage of the raw material is not commonly held +to be high. Transport to the cotton ports is so well organized and +sea-carriage is so cheap that Lancashire's distance from the source of +her raw material is not a very appreciable handicap. A good deal of the +cotton that must be used in some of the Southern mills cannot be +supplied locally because it is not grown in the neighbourhood, and the +requirements of these mills are met by transport arrangements which at +present cost a sum not altogether out of relation to similar costs in +the New England States and Lancashire. The percentages of freight +charges on raw material in 1900 were $2.18 in Georgia, $1.59 in North +Carolina, $1.17 in South Carolina, and the amazingly low figure of $1.20 +in Massachusetts, but of course some part of the explanation is the +somewhat higher quality of cotton on an average that is worked up in +Massachusetts. For some years, however, the saving in labour has been a +most important economy. Large supplies of half-occupied white labour +existed in the Southern States among the families of small farmers who +flocked South after the Civil War, and in the districts of the decayed +hand industry in the mountains of Kentucky and North Carolina. For small +money wages much of this labour could be attracted to the mills. Negroes +do not work in the mills; the reason is said to be partly their own +disinclination and partly that they are not very efficient at factory +work. As outside labourers, however, they have afforded important aid at +a very trifling cost, but the expense of outside labour to a mill is +never an item of much weight. The halcyon days to employers, when keen +workers could be had for low wages, are now said to be past. The demand +for labour was considerable, and as time went on additional supplies +could be enticed only with the offer of better pay. In 1904 it was +reported that some mills were unable to get fully to work for want of +hands even at the improved rates. Again the Southern operatives have +been visited by emissaries from the operatives of the New England +States, which explains partly the present aspect of the wages question. +Mr Pidgin, in his official report to the Massachusetts Bureau of Labour +Statistics, questions whether a saving in wages can be expected to +continue, and points out that though wages have been low the average +efficiency of the operatives has not been high. Some, indeed, were sent +to gain experience in Northern mills in the hopes that on their return +they would spread the tradition of working at high pressure. Mr Pidgin +is at some pains to measure labour efficiency in the South and North as +far as it is possible to do so, but no simple sets of figures will prove +very much. The value of the product per operative in 1900 was $1200 in +Massachusetts, $1010 in Georgia, $937 in North Carolina and $984 in +South Carolina, but the value of the product per operative depends as +much upon the fixed capital charge per operative as upon the latter's +efficiency. And the amount of machinery used per head is higher in the +South than in the North. The percentage of operatives to machinery in +Massachusetts being expressed as 100, that of Georgia was 53, that of +North Carolina 43 and that of South Carolina 55 in 1900. These figures +must be borne in mind when the average numbers employed in a mill in +different States are being considered: in 1900 the averages were 565 for +Massachusetts, 273 for Georgia, 171 for North Carolina and 378 for South +Carolina. Measured by quantity of machinery the sizes of mills would +stand in quite different relations. Hours of work in the South are bound +to fall and the abuse of child labour, which had unquestionably crept +in, may be expected to discontinue entirely. The factory conditions of +children are better now than they were, but in some places they are +still very bad. In Georgia no children under twelve are employed, but +infants without fathers may begin work at ten years of age, and +according to Mr Pidgin's report, "it certainly seemed as though the +intention was honoured more in the breach than in the observance, or +that there must be many widows in the neighbourhood of the cotton +mills." In North and South Carolina the employment of children under +twelve is illegal, but in these States also conditions are recognized +under which it is possible to employ them earlier. According to figures +relating to 1900 the dependence on child labour in the Southern States +is very striking. The proportions engaged at different ages in the three +chief cotton-manufacturing Southern States and Massachusetts are as +follows: + + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | Men, | Women, | Children | + | | 16 Years | 16 Years | under 16. | + | | and over. | and over. | | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Massachusetts | 48.98 | 44.59 | 6.43 | + | Georgia | 39.98 | 35.52 | 24.50 | + | North Carolina | 42.22 | 34.23 | 23.55 | + | South Carolina | 44.43 | 28.72 | 26.85 | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + +It might be said that children are more useful when the work is rough, +but this argument can hardly be regarded as accounting altogether for +the great discrepancy as between Massachusetts and the South. The work +is much rougher in the South: in 1900 the counts spun respectively in +Massachusetts, Georgia, North Carolina and South Carolina were 25.10, +14.37, 18.83, and 19.04, and on the showing of the American census of +1900 spinning was getting finer over the last decade of the 19th +century. + +As contributory to the influences already recorded as accounting for +Southern success it has been hinted that in the North employers have +been less ready to welcome the new machinery, though in comparison with +European rivals they would seem at first to have acted rashly. However +this may be, the South enjoyed the important advantage that its industry +began just after a great technical advance had been made. When Northern +mill-owners were anxiously deliberating about the destruction of good +machinery merely because it was antiquated in design, the fortunate +Southern mill-proprietor was getting to work with appliances up to date +in every particular. It will be easier to balance comparative advantages +as between North and South when undertakers in the newer district are +confronted by problems concerning replacements and alterations. The +rapidity of Southern growth need not astonish those who have watched the +operations by which new mills are frequently set up in Lancashire and +remember that the American business man is more daring than his British +cousin. Company promotion in the great financial centres, payment for +machinery and other plant in shares, or partially in shares, a general +diffusion of risks and pledging of credit, would explain even more rapid +growth of industries of even greater magnitude. + + + Character of the American Industry. + +Broad generalizations are difficult to frame, hard to establish and +liable to be misleading; some generalizations relating to the features +of the American cotton industry taken as a whole the author is tempted +to venture nevertheless. The characteristics of labour have already been +incidentally commented upon. We have also noticed that the bulk of the +work done is of a rough and simple character. In spite of American +nationalism and the prevalence of protective sentiments it is said that +there is still a prejudice in the United States against home-made fine +cotton goods.[57] "The product of the American system is a cloth which +is, on the whole, distinctly inferior in appearance, 'feel' and finish +to that produced by the Lancashire system. To equal a Lancashire cloth +in these respects an American cloth must not only be made of better +cotton, but must contain more of it--perhaps 5% more. To this rule of +inferiority there are, it is needless to say, exceptions, notably some +of the American drills made for the China market. But the American home +market, which absorbs nearly the whole of the product of American looms, +is less exacting in these matters than the markets in which Lancashire +cloths are sold."[58] It follows that the average counts spun in the +United States are lower than in England, though they have been rising +somewhat. Another feature of American spinning as compared with English +is the high proportion of ring-frames to mules. In New England between +1890 and 1900 mule-spindles advanced by 100,000 and ring-spindles by +nearly 2,000,000: in the South mule-spindles increased only from 108,500 +to 180,500, while to the ring-frames 2,700,000 were added. To the +general rule Rhode Island is the sole exception; here mule-spindles have +increased and ring-spindles decreased; but in Rhode Island much of the +fine spinning--for instance that for hosiery--is congregated.[59] One +explanation of the preponderance of ring-spinning is to be found in the +character of American fabrics. Again most of the operatives are not of a +kind likely to acquire great excellence at mule-spinning. To the +Americans we largely owe the ring-frame, because their encouragement +helped it through the difficult period when its defects were serious, +though it appears to have been discovered independently in both +countries. + +American organization display intense specialism, but of a type +different from that in England, where businesses are specialized by +processes; in America they are specialized by products but hardly at all +by processes. Independent spinning, independent manufacturing, +independent bleaching, dyeing and finishing are the significant features +of English industry to the bird's-eye view; in the United States the +typical firm will spin, make up its own yarn, and perhaps complete its +fabrics for the market; but the mills, it must be remembered, are +intensely specialized as to the range of their product, so that the +statement that American mills are less specialized than English mills +must be received with caution. For some reasons we should expect to +find the American method applied even in England for fabrics of the +highest qualities, because in their case the adaptation of the yarn to +the fabric, and finishing to the fabric, are of great importance, and +actually where the American plan is followed in England the explanation +is frequently the speciality of the product which is associated with the +particular firm producing it. When a firm manufactures a speciality of +this kind it cannot always trust bought yarn, or the finishing applied +to fabrics in the ton. But for other reasons specialized processes might +be looked for where qualities were highest, as by specialism alone can +the greatest excellence be attained. The final selection of method +depends upon the relative importance for high qualities in the finished +product of the connectedness of processes and the perfection of parts; +and to these considerations must be added cost of transport between the +works devoted to distinct processes, and the development of the +commercial functions by which specialized process businesses are kept +functioning as a whole. Probably it is the high development of British +industry on the commercial side which chiefly explains the arrangements +found in England. Attention should also be directed to the huge +magnitude of American businesses. This is partly a consequence of +American ambition in business, and partly a consequence of the +undeveloped commercial ligaments by which producing businesses are +brought into union. American producers in both North and South are too +widely scattered for one town, like Manchester in the English cotton +district, to be visited frequently by them for the purpose of making +purchases and effecting sales. Even if the Americans did possess a +convenient commercial centre, the high cost of transport between works +distributed over a very wide area would prevent much specialism of +businesses by processes from appearing. Writing capital letters for +industrial processes and small letters and Greek letters for commercial +functions, the possible arrangements in the cotton industry may be +represented broadly as follows, brackets indicating the scope of +businesses:[60] + + I. (a, A, B, C, d). + II. (a)(A, B, C)(d). + III. (aA[alpha])(bB[beta])(cC[gamma]). + IV. (a)(A)([alpha], b)(B)([beta], c)(C)([gamma]). + +The American industry approximates to the first type, while the English +approximates rather to the last. Differences in respect of specialism by +range of product are not shown in the formulae. + + _Other Parts of America._--Little need be said of the cotton industry + in other parts of the New World. In Canada in 1909 there were, + approximately, 855,000 Spindles, and in Mexico in 1906, where the + first factory was established in 1834, 450,000 Spindles. In Brazil + also there is an appreciable number of spindles, distributed (in 1895) + among 134 factories, which are located chiefly in Rio de Janeiro and + Minas Geraes, and are run for the most part by turbines and + water-wheels. + + _Germany._--In Germany the cotton industry is by no means so intensely + localized as in England, but three large districts may be + distinguished:-- + + 1. The north-west district, which consists of the Rhine Province and + Westphalia and contained 1¾ million spindles in 1901. + + 2. The country north of the mountain ranges of northern Bohemia + comprises the middle district, which contained 2½ million spindles in + 1901. In Saxony the industry has been carried on for four centuries. + + 3. Alsace, Baden, Württemberg and Bavarian Swabia make up the + south-west district, to which some 3½ million spindles were assigned. + It is in close proximity to the cotton districts of east France, + Switzerland and Vorarlberg. + + According to Oppel (1902) the German spinning industry is chiefly + localized in-- + + Prussia with 2020 thousand spindles + Saxony " 1870 " " + Alsace " 1600 " " + Bavaria " 1390 " " + + The spindles of Württemberg, which stands next, do not much exceed + half a million. Only sixteen places in Germany (shown in tabular form + on p. 169) contained as many as 100,000 spindles in 1901. + + +------------------+-------------+---------------+-------------+ + | | Spindles in | | Spindles in | + | | Thousands. | | Thousands. | + +------------------+-------------+---------------+-------------+ + | Mülhausen | 471 | Chemnitz | 195 | + | Augsburg | 373 | Gebweiler | 187 | + | Gronau | 274 | Leipzig | 182 | + | Werdau | 249 | Crimmitzschau | 168 | + | Rheydt | 248 | Logelbach | 141 | + | München-Gladbach | 216 | Bocholt | 128 | + | Rheine | 198 | Bamberg | 125 | + | Hof | 196 | Bayreuth | 100 | + +------------------+-------------+---------------+-------------+ + + The history of the hand industry in Germany runs back some centuries. + At the time when it flourished in the Netherlands we may be sure that + it was prosecuted to some extent farther north and east. The start + with the machine industry was not long delayed after its economies + had been learnt in England. It was fostered by protection against the + cheap products of Lancashire, and in the course of time stimulated by + every step taken towards the economic unity of the German States which + broke down local barriers and therefore enlarged the German market. + Duties upon cotton goods, however, were not immoderately high until + the measure of 1879, the policy of which was carried to a further + stage in 1885. Slight reactions were brought about in 1888 and 1891, + largely by the complaints, not only of the consumers of finished + goods, but also of manufacturers whose costs of production were kept + up by the high prices of home-spun yarns and the tax on imported + substitutes. According to the investigations made by the Board of + Trade, the general ad valorem impact of German duties on British goods + stood somewhat as follows in 1902:-- + + _Statement showing the Average Incidence_ (ad valorem) _of the Import + Duties levied by Germany on British Cotton Goods._ + + +-------------------------+-----------------+--------------+--------------+ + | |Average Value of | | Approximate | + | |Exports from the | Rate of Duty | Equivalent | + | |United Kingdom to| estimated | Rate of Duty | + | | all Countries | Equivalent. | _ad valorem_.| + | | in 1902. | | | + +-------------------------+-----------------+--------------+--------------+ + |Cotton manufactures-- | | | Per Cent. | + | Piece goods, unbleached| 2.01d. per yd. |0.87d. per yd.| 43 | + | " " bleached | 2.46d. " |1.09d. " | 44 | + | " " printed | 2.68d. " |1.31d. " | 49 | + | " " dyed, &c. | 3.46d. " |1.31d. " | 38 | + |Cotton thread for sewing | 26.89d. per lb. |3.81d. per lb.| 15 | + |Cotton yarn-- | | | | + | Grey | 10.49d. " |0.98d. " | 9 | + | Bleached or dyed | 11.23d. " |1.63d. " | 15 | + +-------------------------+-----------------+--------------+--------------+ + + The duties are not prohibitive--they are much less than those of the + United States at the same time--but they are heavy on the classes of + goods which come into competition with home-made goods. The general + principle of the tariff is to treat easiest commodities which are made + with least success at home, or are in the highest degree raw material + for a home manufacture. Therefore yarns are not taxed very heavily, + and of these the finest counts escape with slight discouragement. + + In the cotton industry, as well as in numerous other industries of + Germany, almost feverish activity was shown after the Franco-German + War. Previously great advance had been made, but it was not until the + last quarter of the 19th century that Germany forced herself into the + first rank. As measured by the annual consumption of cotton the German + industry increased as follows:-- + + _Metric Tons of Cotton per Annum._ + + (In Thousands.) + 1836-1840 9 + 1856-1860 46 + 1876-1880 124 + 1886-1890 201 + 1899-1903 324 + + It must be remembered that the spindles and looms of Alsace and + Lorraine were reckoned as German after the war: they amounted in 1895 + to one and a half million spindles and nearly forty thousand looms. + + In the 'seventies there was no dispute as to England's substantial + lead in respect of efficiency. Alexander Redgrave, the chief factory + inspector, made inquiries on the continent both in 1873, when + Lancashire was anxious as to the comparative cost of production abroad + because of the short-time bill then before parliament, and previously, + and reported most unfavourably upon the state of the industry in + Germany. Hours were long, the skill of the hands was inferior, speeds + were low and time was wasted. In several important respects his views + were corroborated by M. Taine in his _Notes on England_, and by the + evidence adduced before the German commission upon the cotton and + linen industries in 1878. A marked contrast is noticeable between the + sketches drawn of this period and the careful picture presented by + Professor Schulze-Gaevernitz of the early "'nineties," but even in the + latter the advantage of England is represented as substantial in every + essential respect. The gap which existed has narrowed, but it is + still unmistakable. To give one example, according to Dr Huber's + figures there were in Saxony at the end of the 19th century 106 + spindles to an operative and about as many weavers as looms, whereas + in England there were about twice as many spindles to an operative and + twice as many looms as persons engaged in weaving sheds.[61] As + regards manufacturing, the character of the product may partly explain + the difference, but it will not entirely. The reader need hardly be + warned that the comparison drawn is exceedingly rough. German cotton + operatives taken all round are certainly less efficient than English + labour of the same kind. The reason is partly that the proportion of + the German workpeople who have been for long specialized to the + industry, and look forward to continuing in it all their lives, is not + high. Complaint is constantly made of the number of vacancies created + in the mills each year by operatives leaving, and of the impossibility + of filling them with experienced hands. Many of the vacancies are + caused by the return of workpeople to the country parts. Sometimes the + mills are in the country, or within easy reach of it, and labour is + obtained from the unoccupied members of peasants' families. In these + cases the factories do not always succeed in attracting the most + capable people, and work in the factory is not infrequently looked + upon as a makeshift to supplement a family's earnings. Among + Lancashire operatives far more pride of occupation may be met with. In + many of the industrial parts of Germany English conditions are + evolving, but they are not generally the rule. An American consul may + be taken to report to his own country without prejudice as to the + rival merits of German and English conditions: one such wrote in + 1901:--"The task of educating labour up to a high degree of efficiency + is difficult, and many generations are necessary to achieve that + result. The English cotton spinners have attained such a degree of + skill and intelligence that, for the most part, no supervision is + necessary. In Germany the presence of a technical overseer is + indispensable. Another advantage which England enjoys is the cheap + price of machinery. Germany imports the major part of her machinery + from England, and German wholesale dealers in these machines have not + been able, by placing large orders, to overcome the difference caused + by freight and tariff." Wages reflect the efficiencies of countries, + not of course perfectly, but in some degree. They are much higher in + Lancashire than in Germany, as is made evident by an article from the + pen of Professor Hasbach in _Schmollers Jahrbuch_ (vol. ii., 1903). + The author tries to show that Germany is not so far behind England + industrially as is generally believed, and the contrast drawn by him, + greatly to the advantage of Lancashire, is not likely to exaggerate + the superiority of English conditions. It is calculated by Professor + Hasbach that the daily wages of spinners are about 5/10 to 6/10 at + Oldham, 6/6 at Bolton and 5/6 in Stalybridge and neighbouring places. + With these he compares the 3.70 to 3.80 marks paid in the Rhine + Province and Leipzig, and the 3 to 3.15 marks paid in the Vogtland, + Bavaria and Alsace, and mentions an exceptionally high wage of 4-2/3 + marks, which was earned by an operative who worked a new and long + doubling mule. The wage paid to the big piecer in England, Dr Hasbach + goes on to show, is not much greater than that received by a good + assistant in Germany. This comparison as it stands will probably give + some readers an idea that English advantages are greater than they + actually are, because it may be overlooked that the great difference + between wages in the case of English and German spinners is not + repeated among the piecers. Taking a spinner and his first assistant + as the unit, we should have a joint average daily wage of about 8/6 in + England and 6/6 in Germany. In the case of weavers, comparison of wages + is more difficult to draw, but the advantage of England would seem to + be but little less. However, in instituting a comparison between two + countries, as regards the relative efficiency of labour in some + industries, we should do well to remind ourselves that efficiency is a + somewhat transitory thing, dependent upon education and experience as + much as upon aptitude. In respect of the capacity of labour for the + task required in the cotton industry, we could not (writing in 1907) + make the statement that England leads significantly with the assurance + with which we can assert her superiority in respect of present + attainments. The cotton industry has not been prosecuted on a large + scale in Germany so long as in England, and the Germans have not, + therefore, had the same opportunity for developing their latent + powers. But the thoughtfulness and carefulness of the German workman + are beyond dispute, and these qualities will procure for him a leading + place where work is not mechanical. Already in the cotton industry it + is said that the operatives are displaying quite striking powers of + undertaking a wide range of work and changing easily from one pattern + to another. Hence German firms feel little hesitation in taking small + orders on special designs; they do not experience any great difficulty + in getting their factors accommodated to produce the required + articles. + + Apart from the efficiency of labour, reasons exist for the lower real + cost of production in England in the organization of the industry. The + German industry is not only less localized, but, as we might perhaps + infer from that circumstance, less specialized. A German factory will + turn out scores of patterns where an English firm will confine itself + to a few specialities. Time is wasted in accommodating machinery to + changes and in accustoming the hands to new work. The German producer + suffers from the undeveloped state of the market. In England + specialized markets with specialized dealers have greatly assisted + producers both in their buying and selling. A German manufacturer may + have to find his customers as the English manufacturer need not; at + least, so Professor Schulze-Gaevernitz has assured us, and conditions + have not been wholly transformed since he made his careful analysis. + He wrote:--"But especially disadvantageous is the decentralization in + respect to the sale. Here also the German manufacturer stands under + the same disadvantages with which the English had to struggle in the + 'thirties. The German manufacturer still seeks his customers through + travellers and agents, and in many instances through retail sellers, + whose financial standing is often questionable, whose necessity for + credit is always certain. Hence the complaints about the bad + conditions of payment in Germany which crop up continually in the + _enquête_. The manufacturers had to wait three, four or six months, + and even twelve months and longer for payment. In reality there + existed 'termless terms,' a 'complete anarchy in the method of + payment.' ... The manufacturer cannot be at the same time commission + agent, banker, merchant and retail dealer; he needs sound customers + capable of paying. He fares best if the sale is concentrated in one + market, and 'change' prices simplify the struggle between buyer and + seller. The search for customers, foreign as well as home, and the + bearing of all possible risks of disposal, are in any case difficult + enough to necessitate the whole strength of a man. The wholesale + merchant alone is in a position to pay the manufacturer in cash or on + sure, short terms. But especially where export is in question is the + dispersal of sales an extreme impediment. The manufacturer cannot + follow the fashions in Australia and South America; the foreign buyer + cannot travel from mill to mill." + + It is the want of commercial development in Germany which accounts for + the more frequent combination of weaving and spinning there than in + England. But in Germany to-day economic enterprise is flourishing, and + commercial development may confidently be looked for together with + advance in other directions. It is not many years since the typical + German cotton factory was comparatively primitive; now mills can be + exhibited which might have been erected recently in Oldham. Between + the early 'eighties and the 'nineties the expansion of the German + industry was enormous--the imports of cotton-wool rose by nearly + 70%--yet the number of spinning-mills was actually reduced from 6750 + to 2450, while the number of weaving-sheds fell from 56,200 to 32,750. + At the same time the factories devoted to mixed goods declined from + 25,200 to less than 16,350. From these figures we may gather how + rapidly the average size of mills and weaving-sheds enlarged in the + period. One cause, no doubt, was that improved economies in the new + businesses forced antiquated factories to shut down and make way for + still newer erections. There were recently about twice as many persons + engaged in weaving as in spinning, but the largest numbers of + all--slightly in excess of those in weaving-sheds--were the persons + occupied in the manufacture of cotton-lace, trimmings, &c. As we might + imagine, Germany's exports of cotton goods are not high. Including + yarns they amounted to £13.7 million per annum in 1899-1903. In order + of value their largest exports are (1) coloured goods, (2) hosiery, + (3) lace and embroidery, (4) yarns, and (5) trimmings, &c. + + _France._--Into the industrial conditions of the two leading rivals of + England we have entered in some detail; the state of affairs in the + rest of the world must be dealt with more briefly. Of France more + ought to be said than we can find place for, though in respect of the + magnitude of her cotton industry, as measured by the quantity of + spindles, she stands now not fourth, but fifth, Russia taking + precedence. But the work of the French is incomparably superior to + anything that is turned out from Russia. France suffered a severe blow + when the industry of Alsace and Lorraine was lost to Germany, but the + inexhaustible originality of French _design_ will always secure for + her goods a place in the first rank. As regards _artistic_ results + France leads, but the real cost of her spinning and weaving cannot + approach in lowness that of Lancashire. After costly strikes the + French workmen have succeeded in shortening their hours to ten and a + half a day; and here it may be remarked that the International + Association of Textile Operatives tends to equate continental + industrial conditions to those of England. The French industry has + been fostered by tariffs. When the Board of Trade calculation was + made, French tariffs were found to bear upon British cotton goods with + about the same severity as those of Germany, except that the former + treated more hardly yarns and cotton thread for sewing. French + protectionism has kept down her exports; such as they are the majority + proceed now to her colonies. Normandy, the north and east, in order, + are the chief seats of the industry. In Normandy the leading city is + Rouen, and Darnétal, Maromme, Sotteville, Havre, Yvetot, Dieppe, + Évreux, Gisors, Falaise and Flers are important places. The north + contains the important towns of Lille, Tourcoing, Roubaix, St + Quentin, Amiens and Hellemmes. The Vosges is the chief district of the + east, and the leading towns are Epinal, St Dié, Remiremont, Senones, + Val d'Ajol, Cornimont and La Bresse. The following towns which are not + included in any of the districts mentioned above are also + noteworthy:--Troyes, Nantes, Cholet, Laval, Tarare, Roanne, Thizy and + Villefranche upon the Saône. Cotton arrives at Havre and Marseilles; + at the latter chiefly the product of Egypt and the East. Havre used to + be the most important cotton port in continental Europe, but to-day + more spindles are fed from Bremen than from Havre. France's + consumption of cotton annually in the period 1899-1903 was 215,000 + metric tons. + + _Russia._--Power-spinning was carried into Russia by Ludwig Knoop, who + had learnt the trade in Manchester, and to his efforts its early + success was due. The growth, largely the result of very heavy + protectionism--according to the Board of Trade report, from 50 to more + than 100% more severe than that of Germany,--has been rapid, as the + following table bears witness:-- + + _Average yearly Importation of Cotton wool and Yarn into Russia._ + + +-----------+----------------+----------------+ + | | Raw Cotton in | Cotton Yarn in | + | | thousand tons. | thousand tons. | + +-----------+----------------+----------------+ + | 1824-1826 | .9 | 5.4 | + | 1836-1838 | 4.6 | 10.1 | + | 1842-1844 | 8.4 | 9.5 | + | 1848-1850 | 21.4 | 4.5 | + | 1889-1891 | 117.4 | 3.4 | + | 1899-1903 | 180.0 | 2.9 | + +-----------+----------------+----------------+ + + + _Table showing approximately the Growth of Spindles and Looms in + Russia._ + + +---------+---------------+----------------+ + | | Spindles. | Looms. | + +---------+---------------+----------------+ + | 1857 | 1,000,000 | | + | 1877 | | 55,000 | + | 1887 | 4,000,000 | 85,000 | + | 1900 | 6,000,000 | 146,000 | + | 1909 | 7,800,000 | | + +---------+---------------+----------------+ + + + The chief districts were the following in 1900:-- + + +---------------+------------+-----------------+-----------------+ + | Government. | Factories. | Spindles | Looms | + | | | (in thousands). | (in thousands). | + +---------------+------------+-----------------+-----------------+ + | Moscow | 56 | 1295 | 33 | + | Vladimir | 67 | 1224 | 42 | + | Piotrkov | 25 | 745 | 20 | + | St Petersburg | 24 | 1074 | 11 | + | Jaroslaw | 4 | 347 | 2 | + | Kostroma | 25 | 274 | 20 | + | Tver | 6 | 348 | 9 | + | Esthonia | 1 | 440 | 2 | + | Ryazan | 4 | 146 | 3 | + | Elsewhere | 15 | 198 | 4 | + | +------------+-----------------+-----------------+ + | Total | 227 | 6091 | 146 | + +---------------+------------+-----------------+-----------------+ + + Fine spinning has been attempted only recently. Generally speaking + 70's used to be the upper limit, but now counts up to 140's are tried, + though the bulk of the output is coarse yarn. The inefficiency of the + labour was made abundantly plain by Dr Schulze-Gaevernitz in his + economic study of Russia, and conditions have not greatly altered for + the better since. Roughly, 170,000 operatives worked 6,000,000 + spindles in 1900, which means 35 spindles per head as compared with + more than 100 in Saxony and more than 200 in England. In weaving the + ratio of operatives to machinery worked out at about one loom to each + weaver, which is comparatively much less unfavourable to Russia. The + proportion in Saxony is about the same, but in England the average + approaches two looms to a weaver. The speed of machinery cannot be + compared, and we must remember that the above contrasts are rough + only, and made without regard to differences of product. Russia is + encouraging the growth of cotton at home. It is of very inferior + quality, but 100,000 tons from the provinces of central Asia and + Trans-Caucasia were used in 1900: her imports in the same year were + about 170,000 tons. + + _Switzerland._--Swiss spindles advanced until the early "'seventies," + but a decline followed. Details are:-- + + 1830 400,000 + 1850 950,000 + 1876 1,854,000 + 1883 1,809,000 + 1898 1,704,000 + 1909 (estimated) 1,500,000 + + The falling off is occasioned mainly by (a) the developing + industrialism of the rest of Europe, notably Germany, and (b) the + diminishing importance of the natural advantage of water-power with + the improvement of steam-engines. Swiss yarns have been kept out of + continental markets in the interests of home spinning. Now fancy + cotton goods, laces and trimmings are the leading specialities of the + Swiss textile workers. About half the Swiss spindles are in the canton + of Zürich, between a quarter and a third in Glarus, about the same in + St Gall and 9% in Aargau. Figures show that the average size of the + Swiss mill is small. The average spindles to a mill were 22,000, and + very few mills held more than 50,000 spindles. Some 9000 of the + power-looms are in Zürich, some 4500 in Glarus and 4000 in St Gall. + Wald in the south-east of the canton of Zürich is an important centre + of the muslin manufacture. + + _Austria._--Austria contains about 4,200,000 spindles and more yarn is + consumed than it produces, as on balance there is an excess of imports + of yarn. Bohemia, lower Austria, Tirol and Vorarlberg account for the + mass of Austrian spinning. The following details relating to these + districts recently are of interest:-- + + +-----------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+ + | | | | Average | + | | Mills. | Spindles. | spindles | + | | | | to a mill.| + +-----------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+ + | Bohemia | 82 | 1,870,000 | 22,800 | + | Lower Austria | 23 | 460,000 | 20,000 | + | Tirol and Vorarlberg | 20 | 435,000 | 21,700 | + +-----------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+ + + Reichenberg and the surrounding district is the chief manufacturing + place: here are more than 80,000 looms, nearly a half of which are + hand-looms. + + _Italy._--Recent industrial growth in Italy is remarkable: statistics + of spindles since 1870 are as follows, but the percentage of error is + probably high:-- + + 1870 500,000 + 1888 900,000 + 1898 2,100,000 + 1909 4,000,000 + + The distribution of spindles is roughly as follows:-- + + Lombardy 1,850,000 + Piedmont 1,000,000 + Venetia 550,000 + Campania 250,000 + Liguria 250,000 + Tuscany 100,000 + + The distribution of spindles and power-looms in the chief + manufacturing towns in Italy is shown in the following table:-- + + +-------------+--------------++-------------+--------------+ + | | Spindles. || | Spindles. | + | Turin | 470,000 || Genoa | 210,000 | + | Bergamo | 450,000 || Salerno | 150,000 | + | Como | 250,000 || Brescia | 310,000 | + | Milan | 660,000 || Naples | 100,000 | + | Novara | 410,000 || Udine | 240,000 | + +-------------+--------------++-------------+--------------+ + | | Power-Looms. || | Power-Looms. | + | Milan | 40,000 || Pisa | 2,500 | + | Turin | 22,000 || Como | 6,000 | + | Novara | 13,000 || Bergamo | 13,000 | + | Genoa | 6,000 || Udine | 3,500 | + +-------------+--------------++-------------+--------------+ + + The district between Milan and Lago Maggiore contains numerous + villages devoted to the cotton industry. Many of the factories in the + province of Bergamo are situated in the Valle Seriana, which is + endowed with abundant water-power. In this district coarse and medium + yarns and grey cloth are the chief products. In the province of Milan + there are several small towns, notably Gallarate, Busto Arsizio and + Monza, in which the manufacture of coloured and fancy goods is + extensively carried on. The finest spinning in Italy is done in Turin. + The coarsest spinning is done in Venetia. + + _The Netherlands._--In 1805 the cotton industry was reintroduced into + the Netherlands from England in its factory form. Seventeen mules + bearing 16,000 spindles are said to have been smuggled across the + channel, while forty Englishmen were enticed over to work them, in + spite of English legal prohibitions. Liévin Bauwens was the prime + mover of the achievement. Expansion rapidly followed, and in 1892 + Belgian spindles numbered nearly a million. Since then a decline has + set in. Ghent, with about 600,000 spindles, is the only really + important place: no other place has as many as 50,000. Holland + possesses about 417,000 spindles: the leading district is Twente and + the leading town Enschede; Twente contains also about 20,000 + power-looms. Rotterdam is the chief cotton port; Amsterdam, always a + far-away second, has lost place still further of late. + + _Spain and Portugal._--The greatness of Spain in the cotton industry + lies buried in the remote past, but of late she has awakened somewhat, + with the result that her spindles now number about 1,853,000. + Catalonia is the chief province where the industry is carried on, and + Barcelona surpasses all other centres. Portugal possesses nearly half + a million spindles (the bulk in Lisbon and Oporto), many of which have + appeared since 1894. + + _The Rest of Europe_.--Of Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Greece and + Macedonia no special mention need be made, nor of other parts where + the cotton industry may just exist. It may be mentioned here that + among the scattered rural populations of many parts of the continent, + even in such advanced countries as France and Germany, hand-looms are + still to be found in large numbers. + + _India_.--The hand-cotton-industry has been carried on in India since + the earliest times, and for many years English fabrics were protected + against the all-cottons of India. Soon after the introduction of + spinning by rollers, English all-cottons began to rival the Indian in + quality as well as in cost. A large export trade to India has grown + up, but Indian hand-loom weavers still ply their craft. In 1851 + power-spinning was started, and by 1876 there were in India 1,000,000 + spindles. Since then they have nearly reached six millions and + importations of yarn have been significantly affected. The growth of + Indian power-spinning, which is almost entirely of the ring variety, + was attributed by some to the depreciation of the rupee after 1873, + but the fall in the value of the rupee was stopped in 1893 and the + competition continued. The real explanation, no doubt, is that at the + cost of Indian labour it is found cheaper to import machinery and coal + than to export or cease to grow cotton and import yarn. This was the + conclusion of the majority report of the committee of the Manchester + Chamber of Commerce, which made an inquiry into Bombay and Lancashire + spinning in 1888. Besides, as regards Indian exports to China, the + remission in 1875 of the 3% export duty on yarns must be borne in + mind. The efficiency of labour in India is only a small fraction of + that of Lancashire operatives. Recently complaint has been made that + Indian mills are being run inhumanely long hours with the same set of + labour, and that child-labour is being abused, both legally and + illegally--legally as regards children over fourteen who are classed + as adults. The working of heavy hours began with the electric lighting + of the mills; previously all shut down at sunset largely because of + the cost of illumination. The outcry which has been raised is, + perhaps, sufficient guarantee that the worst evils will be remedied. + Indian spinning, it must be remembered, is still very coarse as a + rule, though some fine work is attempted and the average of counts + spun is rising. Though there are about a ninth as many spindles in + India as in the United Kingdom, there are only about one-fifteenth as + many power-looms, 46,400 in all, to which figure they rose between + 1891 and 1904 from 24,700. The reason for the paucity of power-looms + is probably two-fold, (1) the low cost of production of Lancashire + weavers, and (2) the habit of hand-loom weaving which is fixed in the + Indian people. A rapid increase of power-looms is, however, + observable. The hand-loom industry is gigantic, particularly in the + Madras Presidency and the Central Provinces; in the latter district + alone there were estimated to be 150,000 hand-looms in 1883. The + following details relating to the Indian cotton industry are supplied + officially:-- + + _Cotton Mills in India, including Mills in Native States and French + India_. + + +-----------------------------------+------------+------------+ + | Mills. | 1897-1898. | 1903-1904. | + +-----------------------------------+------------+------------+ + |Mills (number) | 164 | 204 | + |Capital (thousand £s) | 648 | 1,067 | + |Looms (number) | 36,946 | 46,421 | + |Spindles (thousands) | 4,219 | 5,213 | + |Persons employed (daily average) | 148,753 | 186,271 | + |Yarn produced:-- | | | + | Counts (1 to 20 thousand lb.) | 400,384 | 474,509 | + | Counts (above " " ") | 62,212 | 104,250 | + | +------------+------------+ + | Total lb. | 462,596 | 578,759 | + | +------------+------------+ + |Yarn produced:-- | | | + | Bombay (thousand lb.) | 324,649 | 414,932 | + | Bengal " " | 44,807 | 46,487 | + | Madras " " | 32,516 | 28,714 | + | United Provinces (including | | | + | Ajmere-Merwara)(thousand lb.) | 26,747 | 29,930 | + | Central Provinces (thousand lb.) | 18,334 | 24,549 | + | Punjab " " " | 6,607 | 11,578 | + | Elsewhere " " " | 8,936 | 22,569 | + | +------------+------------+ + | Total lb. | 462,596 | 578,759 | + | +------------+------------+ + |Woven Goods:-- | | | + | Grey (thousand lb.) | 83,136 | 111,494 | + | Others " " | 8,152 | 26,550 | + | +------------+------------+ + | Total lb. | 91,288 | 138,044 | + +-----------------------------------+------------+------------+ + + _China_.--In China spinning has not met with the same success as + India, and power-manufacturing has not yet obtained a sure footing. + The ingrained conservatism of the Chinese temperament is no doubt a + leading cause. Of the spindles in China--about 600,000 in all--from a + half to three-fifths are in Shanghai. The following details relating + to the inception of the power-industry are quoted from a Diplomatic + and Consular Report of 1905:-- + + "The initial experiment on modern lines was made in 1891, when a + semi-official Chinese syndicate started at Shanghai--the Chinese + Cotton Cloth Mill and the Chinese Cotton Spinning Company. Its + originators claimed for themselves a quasi-monopoly, and prohibited + outsiders who were not prepared to pay a fixed royalty for the + privilege from engaging in similar undertakings. Although certain + Chinese accepted this onerous condition, foreigners resented it as an + undue interference with their treaty rights, and it was only when + Japan, in 1895, after her war with China, inserted in the treaty of + Shimonoseki an article providing for the freedom of Japanese subjects + to engage in all kinds of manufacturing industries in the open ports + of China, and permitting them to import machinery for such purposes, + that outsiders were afforded an opportunity of exploiting the rich + field for commercial development thereby thrown open. Accordingly, so + soon as the Japanese treaty came into force no time was lost in + turning this particular clause to account, and the erection of no less + than 11 mills--Chinese and foreign--was taken in hand. At that time + the pioneer mill, which was burnt to the ground in October 1893, but + subsequently rebuilt, and other Chinese-owned mills were together + working some 120,000 spindles and 850 looms." + + By 1905 the mills increased to 17, the spindles to 620,000 and the + looms to 2250, but there is little inclination to expansion. Yarns for + the hand-looms are obtained primarily from India and secondarily from + Japan. The following are the recent figures relating to imported + yarns:-- + + _In million_ lb + + +--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | + +--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. | + | British | 9.1 | 7.8 | 4.1 | 7.0 | 4.3 | 2.2 | + | Indian | 186.7 | 254.2 | 131.5 | 228.9 | 251.6 | 250.8 | + | Japanese | 64.7 | 104.0 | 62.9 | 66.4 | 69.7 | 110.9 | + | Hong-Kong | | | | .7 | .8 | 1.2 | + | Tongkinese | | | | | | .01| + | +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | Total | 260.5 | 366.0 | 198.5 | 303.0 | 326.4 | 365.1 | + +--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + + _Japan._--If in China the factory cotton industry reveals no prospects + as yet of a great future, the same cannot be said of Japan. + + The chief centres of spinning with their outputs in value of yarn for + a year at the beginning of the 20th century are stated beneath: + + +------------+------------++------------+------------+ + | | Thousands. || | Thousands. | + +------------+------------++------------+------------+ + | | £ s. || | £ s. | + | Osaka | 1226.5 || Nara | 111.5 | + | Hyogo | 495.5 || Hiroshima | 91.3 | + | Okayama | 374.4 || Kyoto | 82.2 | + | Miye | 238.1 || Wakayama | 79.2 | + | Tokyo | 227.9 || Ehime | 70.5 | + | Aichi | 224.3 || Kajawa | 36.4 | + | Fukuoka | 168.1 || | | + +------------+------------++------------+------------+ + + + The following table gives other valuable information:-- + + +---------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------+---------+-------+------------+------------+ + | | | Average | Quantity | | Average | Average | | | Average | Average | + | | Gross | Number | of Raw | Total | Number | Number | Annual | Daily | Daily | Daily | + | Year | Amount | of | and | Production| of Male |of Female | Working |Working| Wage | Wage of | + | |of Capital| Spindles | Ginned | of Cotton |Operatives|Operatives| Days. | Hours.| of Male | Female | + | | invested.|used daily.| Cotton | Yarn. | daily | daily | | |Operatives. |Operatives. | + | | | | demanded. | | employed.| employed.| | | | | + +---------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------+---------+-------+------------+------------+ + | |Thousand £| Thousands.|Million lb.|Million lb.| | | | | | | + |1892-1894| 1123 | 420 | 112.9 | 97.9 | 6,916 | 21,695 | 290 | 22 |4d. to 4¼d. | 2d. to 2¼d.| + |1900-1902| 3569 | 1209 | 335.3 | 288.0 | 13,373 | 50,271 | 312 | 19 | 7½d. | 4½d. to 5d.| + | 1903 | 3441 | 1290 | 375.5 | 322.7 | 13,160 | 57,166 | 308 | 20 |7½d. to 8d. | 4½d. to 5d.| + | 1904 | 3470 | 1306 | 332.1 | 285.9 | 10,967 | 52,115 | 309 | 20 | 8d. | 5d.| + +---------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------+---------+-------+------------+------------+ + + With amazing adaptability the Japanese have assumed the methods of + Western civilization as a whole. But hand-weaving more than holds its + own, and power-weaving has as yet met with little success. The custom + already mentioned as a cause of the continued triumph of the hand-loom + in India and China is strong also in Japan, and the economy of the + factory system is greater relatively in spinning than in + manufacturing. In Japan it is ring-spinning which prevails: 95% of the + spindles are on ring-frames. Ring-spinning entails less skill on the + part of the operative, and ring-yarn is quite satisfactory for the + sort of fabrics used most largely in the Far East. The counts produced + are low as a rule. Generally mills run day and night with double + shifts, and the system seems to pay, though night-work is found to be + less economical than day-work there as elsewhere. More operatives are + placed on a given quantity of machinery in Japan than in + Lancashire--possibly more "labour" as well as more operatives, because + labour as well as operatives may be cheaper. On the same work the + output per spindle per hour is less in Japan than in England, even + when day-shifts only are taken into account. Japanese work has been + severely criticized, but the recency of the introduction of the cotton + industry must not be forgotten. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature relating to the cotton industry is + enormous. The most complete bibliographies will be found in Chapman's + _Lancashire Cotton Industry_ (where short descriptions of the several + works included, which relate only to the United Kingdom, are given); + Hammond's _Cotton Culture and Trade_; and Oppel's _Die Baumwolle_. The + list of books set forth here must be select only. + + The development of the English industry can be traced through the + following:--Aikin, _A Description of the Country from Thirty to Forty + Miles round Manchester_ (1795); Andrew, _Fifty Years' Cotton Trade_ + (1887); Baines, _History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain_ + (1835); Banks, _A Short Sketch of the Cotton Trade of Preston for the + last Sixty-Seven Years_ (1888); Butterworth, _Historical Sketches of + Oldham_ (1847 or 1848); Butterworth, _An Historical Account of the + Towns of Ashton-under-Lyne, Stalybridge and Dukinfield_ (1842); + Chapman, _The Lancashire Cotton Industry_ (1904); Cleland, + _Description of the City of Glasgow_ (1840); _A Complete History of + the Cotton Trade, &c._, by a person concerned in trade (1823); + Ellison, _The Cotton Trade of Great Britain including a History of the + Liverpool Cotton Market and of the Liverpool Cotton Brokers' + Association_ (1886); Léon Faucher, _Études sur Angleterre_ (1845); + French, _The Life and Times of Samuel Crompton_ (1859); Guest, _A + Compendious History of the Cotton-manufacture, with a Disproval of the + Claim of Sir Richard Arkwright to the Invention of its Ingenious + Machinery_ (1823); Guest, _The British Cotton Manufacture and a Reply + to the Article on Spinning Machinery, contained in a recent Number of + the Edinburgh Review_ (1828); Helm, _Chapters in the History of the + Manchester Chamber of Commerce_ (1902); Kennedy, _Miscellaneous Papers + on Subjects connected with the Manufactures of Lancashire_ (1849); + Ogden, _A Description of Manchester ... with a Succinct History of its + former original Manufactories, and their Gradual Advancement to the + Present State of Perfection at which they are arrived, by a Native of + the Town_ (1783); Radcliffe, _Origin of the New System of Manufacture, + commonly called "Power-Loom Weaving" and the Purposes for which this + System was invented and brought into use, fully explained in a + Narrative concerning William Radcliffe's Struggles through Life to + remove the Cause which has brought this Country to its Present Crisis_ + (1828); Rees' _Cyclopaedia_, articles on Cotton (1808), Spinning + (1816) and Weaving (1818); Ure, _The Cotton Manufacture of Great + Britain, investigated and illustrated, with an Introductory View of + its Comparative State in Foreign Countries_ (2 vols.); Ure, _The + Philosophy of Manufacture; or An Exposition of the Scientific, Moral + and Commercial Economy of the Factory System of Great Britain_ (1835); + Watts, _Facts of the Cotton Famine_ (1866); Wheeler, _Manchester: its + Political, Social and Commercial History, Ancient and Modern_ (1836). + + In addition there are many short papers in the Manchester public + library. Much valuable information may be obtained from parliamentary + papers; a list of relevant ones is printed as an appendix to Chapman's + _Lancashire Cotton Industry_, but it is too lengthy to repeat here. + The most important are the reports relating to the hand-loom weavers, + those on the employment of children in factories (of which a list will + be found in Hutching and Harrison's _History of the Factory + Legislation_), and the state of trade and the annual reports of the + factory inspectors. On labour questions there is a list of authorities + in Chapman's _Lancashire Cotton Industry_ and also of parliamentary + papers containing useful material. Printed copies of the "Wages Lists" + are issued by the trade unions. The Factory Acts are dealt with in + Hutchins and Harrison's _History_, mentioned above, as well as the + literature relating to them; while the handbooks by Redgrave and by + Abraham and Davies are specially useful. + + On the industry abroad the following are the fullest + authorities:--Besso, _The Cotton Industry in Switzerland, Vorarlberg + and Italy_ (1910) (a report made as a Gartside Scholar of the + University of Manchester); Chapman's _Cotton Industry and Trade_ + (1905); Hammond, _The Cotton Industry_; Hasbach's article, "Zur + Characteristik der englischen Industrie," in _Schmollers Jahrbuch_, + vol. ii. (1903); Leconte, _Le Coton_; Lochmüller, _Zur Entwicklung der + Baumwollindustrie in Deutschland_ (1906); Montgomery, _The Cotton + Manufacture of the United States of America contrasted and compared + with that of Great Britain_ (1840); Oppel, _Die Baumwolle_ (1902); + Schulze-Gaevernitz, _Der Grossbetrieb: ein wirtschaftlicher und + socialer Fortschritt: eine Studie auf dem Gebiete der + Baumwollindustrie_ (1892; translated as _The Cotton Trade in England + and on the Continent_); T. M. Young, _American Cotton Industry_ + (1902); Uttley, _Cotton Spinning and Manufacturing in the United + States of North America_ (1905; a report of a tour as Gartside scholar + of the university of Manchester); and the Gartside reports on the + cotton industries of France and Germany by Forrester and Dehn + respectively. Information will also be found in Diplomatic and + Consular Reports, and fragments may be gathered from other books such + as G. Drage's _Russian Affairs_, Dyer's _Dai Nippon_, and Huber's + _Deutschland als Industriestaat_. Japan has published since 1901 a + very full financial and economical annual, and the British government + issues annually a good statistical abstract for India. The American + census contains much detailed information, and there are, in addition + to the statistics issued by the Federal government, those of + Massachusetts, the Bureau of Statistics of which has also reported the + results of an investigation into the industry in the Southern states. + Among official matter the semi-official Bombay and Lancashire cotton + spinning inquiry of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce may be + included. The census of production of the United Kingdom must be + mentioned, and the reports of the International Congresses of Cotton + Spinners and Manufacturers. As to labour, see the reports of the + International Textile Congresses. + + The periodical literature is of good quality and much of it is filed + in the Patent Office library. We may notice particularly the _Cotton + Factory Times_; _Textile Journal_; _Textile Manufacturer_; _Textile + Mercury_; _Textile Recorder_; _Textile World Record_ (American); _Der + Leipzige Monatsschrift für Textilindustrie_; and the French _Textile + Journal_. Shepperson's _Cotton Facts_ is an annual which relates + chiefly, though not entirely, to raw cotton, as does also _Cotton_, + the periodical of the Manchester Cotton Association. For technical + works we may refer here to the well-known treatises of Brooks, Guest, + Marsden, Nasmith and Walmsley, and to Johannsen's ponderous + two-volumed _Handbuch der Baumwollspinnerei, Rohweissweberei und + Fabrikanlagen_. (S. J. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See the extract from the books of Bolton Abbey, given by Baines + (p. 96) and dated 1298. + + [2] Vol. ii. p. 206; Baines, pp. 96-97. + + [3] Baines, pp. 93 and 94. + + [4] Lancashire and Cheshire Record Society, vol. ii. + + [5] _State Papers, Domestic_, lix. 5. See W. H. Price, _Quar. Jour. + Econ._, vol. xx. + + [6] London Guildhall Library, vol. Beta, _Petitions and Parliamentary + Matters_ (1620-1621), No. 16 (old No. 25). + + [7] The act referred to is 33 Henry VIII. c. xv., already mentioned. + + [8] Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce_ (1903), + vol. ii. p. 623. + + [9] Original edition, pp. 32, 33. + + [10] Aikin's _Description of the Country from Thirty to Forty Miles + round Manchester_, p. 154. + + [11] _Tour_, vol. iii. p. 219. + + [12] For instance Radcliffe p. 61. Ogden (author of _A Description of + Manchester_, &c., published in 1783), if Aikin's "accurate and + well-informed enquirer" by Ogden, says that the period of rapid + extension of the cotton industry began about 1770. See also + Butterworth's _History of Oldham_ and the passage quoted below in the + text. + + [13] Account of Society for Promotion of Industry in Lindsey (1789), + Brit. Mus. 103, L. 56. Quoted from Cunningham's _English Industry and + Commerce_, vol. ii. p. 452, n. ed., 1892. + + [14] In 1838 the only other county with more than 1000 was Gloucester + with 1500. 217,000 of the 219,100 operatives in England and Wales + were employed in the counties enumerated. Of the 2000 operatives + whose location is not given, about 1000 worked in Flintshire. + + [15] W. Radcliffe's _Origin of the New System of Manufacturing_, p. 59. + + [16] The term "fustian" had originally been used to designate certain + woollen or worsted goods made at Norwich and in Scotland. A reference + to Norwich fustians of as early a date as the 14th century is quoted + by Baines. + + [17] E. Butterworth's _History of Oldham_, p. 101. + + [18] _Parliamentary Reports, &c._ (1826-1827), v. p. 5. See for even + later examples Gardner's evidence to the committee on hand-loom + weavers in 1835. + + [19] This is illustrated in one of the plates to Guest's _History of + the Cotton Manufacture_. + + [20] Chapman's _Lancashire Cotton Industry_, pp. 15 and 16. + + [21] Page 167. + + [22] Mrs Crompton, wife of Samuel Crompton, we are told, used to + employ her son George shortly after he could walk, as a "dolly-peg" + to tread the cotton in the soapy water in which it was placed for + washing. See French's _Life of Crompton_, pp. 58-59 (3rd ed.). + Rowbotham in his diary gives two accounts of fires which were caused + by carelessness in drying cotton. + + [23] On the difference between the two machines see Baines's + _History_, p. 138 et seq. + + [24] Baines p. 183. + + [25] Baines's _History of the Cotton Manufacture_, p. 86 n. + + [26] These figures are quoted from a pamphlet published in 1788 + entitled "An Important Crisis in the Calico and Muslin Manufactory in + Great Britain explained." Many of the estimates given in this + pamphlet are worthless, but there seems no reason why the figures + quoted here should not be at least approximately correct. + + [27] See article on COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. + + [28] Hargreaves' claim to this invention has been disputed, but no + satisfactory evidence has been brought forward to disprove his claim. + Hargreaves was a carpenter and weaver of Stand-hill near Blackburn, + and died in 1778. + + [29] See Chapman's _Lancashire Cotton Industry_, pp. 59 et seq. + + [30] See Baines p. 207. + + [31] "Counts" are determined by the number of hanks to the lb. A hank + is 840 yds. The origin of the hank of 840 yds. is probably that + spinners used a winding-reel of 1½ yds. in circumference, so that 80 + threads (one "lea" or "rap" according to old phraseology) would + contain 120 yds., and seven leas (i.e. a hank) would contain 840 yds. + A hank of seven leas was the common measure in the woollen industry, + in which the reels were 1 yd. or 2 yds. in circumference. For details + see an article on the subject in the _Textile World Record_, vol. + xxxi. No. 1. + + [32] The author of the memoir of Crompton (see bibliography). + + [33] Specification 257. + + [34] For further analysis of the arguments current see Chapman's + _Lancashire Cotton Industry_, pp. 66 et seq. + + [35] Also in the 17th century a John Barkstead was granted a patent + for a method of manufacturing cotton goods, but the method is not + described. 1691, Specification 276. + + [36] In the parliamentary reports (1840), xxiv. p. 611, the invention + of the swivel-loom is claimed for a "Van Anson." It is a plausible + supposition that by "Van Anson" is meant Vaucanson, as he appears to + have improved the swivel-loom. But he could not have been the + original inventor, since in 1724 (that is, when Vaucanson was at the + most fifteen years of age) they were being employed in Manchester. + + [37] Aikin, pp. 175-176, and Guest, p. 44. An explanation of the + mechanism of the swivel-loom will be found in the _Encyclopédie + méthodique, manufactures, arts et métiers_, pt. i. vol. ii. pp. 202, + 208, and _Recueil de planches_, vol. vi. (1786), pp. 72-78. + + [38] Figures for the years above up to 1838 will be found in + parliamentary reports (1840), xxiv. p. 611. + + [39] This is the manuscript diary of a weaver of Oldham roughly + covering the period 1787 to 1830. It is now in the Oldham public + library. Mr S. Andrew edited extracts from it in a series of articles + in the _Standard_ (an Oldham paper), under the title _Annals of + Oldham_, beginning January 1, 1887. + + [40] Printed in _British Industries_. Edited by W. J. Ashley. + + [41] This is explained in the article COTTON: _Marketing and Supply_. + + [42] See chapter on cotton in Bowley's _Wages in the United Kingdom_ + and table there given. + + [43] A detailed analysis of the whole labour question in the cotton + industry will be found in Chapman's _Lancashire Cotton Industry_. + + [44] There are other permissible arrangements, namely from 7 to 7 and + from 8 to 8, but they are not used in the textile trades of + Lancashire. + + [45] The figures for looms are based upon a number of returns and + estimates. Those for spindles are taken from the highly authoritative + estimates of the International Federation of Master Cotton Spinners. + + [46] _Journal of Board of Trade_, April 28th, 1904. + + [47] The early history of the industry in the United States is + summarized in one of the official bulletins of the state of + Massachusetts, dated 1798. See W. R. Bagnall, _Textile Industries of + the U. S._ (1893). + + [48] See also the official report of J. P. Harris-Gastrell in 1873. + + [49] Quoted by Schulze-Gaevernitz. + + [50] _Memorandum_ on British and foreign trade and industrial + conditions. + + [51] The method of calculating these percentages is discussed in the + blue-book mentioned. + + [52] Upon the above see Uttley's report. + + [53] The figures are those quoted by Mr T. M. Young and relate to the + year 1902. + + [54] See e.g. some passages upon this point in Uttley's report. + + [55] For an account of the numerous types of automatic looms see the + article on WEAVING: § Machinery. + + [56] Of which special mention may be made of Uttley's report as a + Gartside scholar of the university of Manchester, already referred + to, and Pidgin's report for the Massachusetts Bureau of Labour + Statistics. + + [57] _Textile Recorder_, August 15th, 1905. + + [58] Young's _American Cotton Industry_, p. 13. + + [59] Uttley's report, p. 4. + + [60] Similar formulae have been used above, where a fuller + explanation is given. + + [61] Deutschland als Industriestaat. + + + + +COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. The earliest inventors of spinning machinery +(see SPINNING) directed their energies chiefly to the improvement of the +final stage of the operation, but no sooner were these machines put to +practical use than it became apparent that success depended upon +mechanically conducting the operations preliminary to spinning. Later +inventors were, therefore, called upon not only to improve the +inventions of their predecessors, but to devise machinery for preparing +the fibres to be spun. Arkwright quickly perceived the importance of +this aspect of the problem, and he devoted even more energy to it than +to the invention with which his name is more intimately associated. But, +given a complete series of machines for preparing and spinning, the +cotton industry (see COTTON MANUFACTURE) must have remained +unprogressive without the co-operation of cotton growers, for by the +then existing methods of separating cotton lint from seed it would have +been impossible to provide an adequate supply of raw material. By +inventing the saw gin, Eli Whitney, an American, in the year 1792, did +for cotton planters what Paul, Arkwright, Crompton, Cartwright, Watt and +others did for textile manufacturers, for he provided them with the +means for increasing their output almost indefinitely. + + +PLATE I. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--BLOWING ROOM.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--CARDING ROOM.] + +(_From Photographs taken in a Manchester Fine Cotton-spinning Mill, by +R. Banks._) + + +Plate II. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--JACK-FRAME ROOM.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--SPINNING-ROOM.] + +(_From Photographs taken in a Manchester Fine Cotton-spinning Mill, by +R. Banks._) + + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + _Cotton-ginning_ is the process by which cotton seeds are separated + from the adhering fibres. The most primitive machine employed in India + and China for this purpose is the churka, which consists of two wooden + rollers fixed in a frame and revolving in contact. Seed cotton is fed + into these rollers and the fibres pass forward but the seeds remain + behind. It is a device which does not injure the fibres, but no + improvement has been found by which the churka can be converted into a + sufficiently productive machine for modern requirements. In a modified + form Whitney's saw gin is still used to clean a large portion of the + annual crop of short and medium stapled cottons. It consists of from + 60 to 70 saws (A, fig. 1), which are mounted upon a shaft and revolve + between the interstices of an iron grid (B); against this grid the + seed cotton is held whilst the fibres are drawn through, the seeds + being left behind. The operation is as follows:--seed cotton is fed + into the hopper (C), and conveyed by a lattice (D) to a spiked roller + (E), which regulates the supply to the hopper (F). Whilst in (F) the + cotton is engaged by the teeth of the saws (A), and drawn through the + grid (B), but the bars are too close to permit the seeds to pass. A + brush (G) strips the cotton lint from the saws, after which it is + drawn through a flue (H) to the surface of a perforated roller (I) by + pneumatic action; it then passes between (I) and (J) out of the + machine. The Macarthy gin is the only other type in extensive use; it + is employed to clean both long and short stapled cottons. In this gin + the fibres are drawn by a leather-covered roller (A, fig. 2) over the + edge of a stationary blade (B) called a doctor, which is fixed + tangential to the roller. Two cranks (E) move two other blades (C, D) + up and down immediately behind, and parallel to, the fixed blade (B). + The cotton is thrown into the hopper (F) and the fibres are drawn by + the roller (A) until the seeds are against the edge of the doctor (B), + when the beaters (C, D) strike them off, but permit the fibres to go + forward with the roller. Attempts continue to be made so to improve + both machines, that production may be increased, and labour charges, + and the risks of injuring the fibres, reduced. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + _Baling._--As cotton leaves the gin, it is in some cases rolled, under + compression, into cylindrical bales; but it is usually packed into + rectangular bales, that vary in weight from 160 lb. to 750 lb., by + steam or hydraulic presses. After pressing, the cotton is covered with + coarse jute bagging, and the whole secured by iron bands. In this form + it arrives at the spinning mills. + + In the mill treatment of cotton it soon became an established practice + to divide the work into the following operations, namely (1) Mixing + the fibres into a homogeneous mass; (2) removing impurities; (3) + combing out entanglements in, and ranging the fibres in parallel + lines; (4) simultaneous combination and attenuation of groups of + parallel fibres; (5) completing the combination and attenuation, and + twisting the fibres into a thread; (6) compounding, finishing and + making-up of threads. These remain the essential conditions of + cotton-spinning. The principal machines used to carry out the + foregoing stages are: The bale breaker, opener and scutcher; the card + and comber; the drawing, slubbing, intermediate and roving frames; + ring and mule spinning; winding, doubling; clearing and gassing the + reel, and bundling press, together with several auxiliary machines. + All the operations included in this list are not necessarily employed + in the production of all kinds of yarn; low counts require fewer, and + high counts more processes. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + A _bale breaker_ is used to disentangle fibres which have been, by + hydraulic or steam presses, converted into hard masses that resist + manual efforts to disentangle them. It may consist of three pairs of + spiked and one pair of fluted rollers. If so, the matted cotton is fed + into the first pair, seized by the second pair, which have a higher + surface velocity, and pulled, while the third pair reduce the whole to + a more or less fluffy mass, and the fluted rollers deliver it upon a + travelling lattice by which it is conveyed to, and deposited upon, the + floor of the mixing room. Instead of rollers, a _hopper breaker_ may + be used. In this machine the cotton is carried by a horizontal lattice + into contact with a sloping spiked one, whose spikes tear away small + tufts and deposit them upon a second lattice for removal to the mixing + room. A stack of pulled cotton is formed by superposing thin layers + from different bales, and when completed the cotton is drawn from top + to bottom of the stack. By this means a thorough mixing of fibres is + effected. + + _The Opener._--Mixed cotton may be thrown upon a lattice and conveyed + to a spiked roller to be pulled, beaten, discharged into a trunk, and + drawn by pneumatic force to the opener. Or it may be spread (fig. 3) + upon a lattice (I), and carried between feed-rollers (E) to be + subjected to the action of a beater (A) whose teeth first seize tufts + of cotton and then fling them upon a grid (B), to be subsequently + seized by other teeth and again flung off until dirt and other + impurities pass between the grating. The beater may be cylindrical (as + at A) or in the form of a truncated cone: in either event, from four + to twelve rows of teeth project from its surface. It is from 18 in. to + upwards of 36 in. in diameter, approximately 40 in. wide, and the + largest cylindrical beaters make from 300 to 700 revolutions; whilst + conical beaters make about 1000, and small ones make from 1000 to 1500 + revolutions per minute. The opened cotton is carried, in the direction + indicated by the arrows, upon a strong blast of air which is generated + by a fan (H), and this deposits it in patches upon the surfaces of two + perforated zinc or wire cylinders (C), but dust and foreign particles + pass through the interstices. As these cylinders revolve towards each + other the cotton passes between them in the form of a sheet to a pair + of feed-rollers (D), which may again deliver it to a beater with two + or three blades; if so, from this beater the cotton is next borne on + an air current to, and between, a second pair of perforated cylinders. + In either event, the final cages (C, C) deliver the cotton to + feed-rollers (D) and they pass it to calender-rollers (F), by which it + is compressed into a sheet, and finally coiled into a lap (G). Various + kinds of openers have been patented, all of which differ in some + important respects; for example, a hopper feed may be substituted for + the trunk or the lattice feed, in which event the cotton from the + mixing room is conveyed mechanically upon lattices, and deposited in a + hopper affixed to an opener. In this hopper a sloping spiked lattice + elevates the cotton to an evening roller, whose office is to sweep + back the surplus supply from the spikes, but allow the requisite + quantity to pass forward to the beater. A regular supply of cotton to + an opener is of great importance, and in order to insure it a table is + often formed by substituting for the lower roller (E) a series of + levers (A, fig. 4) all mounted upon a fulcrum (B), and having their + free arms weighted by wedge-shaped pendents (C), that are separated by + bowls (D). A fluted feed-roller (E) is fixed above this table and the + cotton is led over the lever but beneath the roller. If the cotton is + unequally distributed, thick places will press down the levers and + thin ones will permit them to rise (as at A', E'). The rise of one + pendent may be cancelled by the fall of another, but any balance of + their movements is transmitted to a belt fork which governs a belt + running upon a pair of inverted cones, and by this means the belt is + traversed to and fro to drive the feed-roller (E) at a superior speed + when the supply of cotton is insufficient, and at an inferior speed + when the supply is excessive. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + _The Scutcher._--In many respects a scutcher resembles an opener; its + function is to continue the cleaning and form laps of uniform weight + and density for the carding engine. Occasionally the scutcher is the + first cleaning machine, in which event cotton, in a loose fleece, is + spread evenly upon a lattice. But in order to carry the combination of + fibres one stage further, three or four opener laps are generally + placed upon the feeder, so that, as the laps unroll, three or four + sheets of cotton will be superposed, and in this form are passed by + the lattice (F, fig. 4) and the feed-roller (E) to either one or two + beaters, which are furnished with two or three blades. The beater (G) + flings the cotton against the bars of a grid (H) to loosen, and cause + the dirt to pass between the bars, after which the cotton is carried + forward upon an air current, in the same manner as in an opener, and + formed into a lap. In case two scutchers are required, the laps from + the first are fed into the second, where they are similarly treated; + in both machines the lever and pendent mechanism furnishes the means + by which uniformity is attained. A beater may consist of a straight, + smooth blade (as at G), or of a blade provided with stout teeth; in + the latter event the operation resembles combing rather than beating. + Two-bladed beaters revolve from 1200 to 1500 times per minute; those + with three blades from 900 to 1000 times per minute. + + _Carding Engine._--The functions of a card (see CARDING) are: to place + the fibres parallel; to remove remaining impurities and immature + fibres; and to form mature fibres into a porous band, called a sliver. + A carding engine consists of three cylinders which are covered with + cards; the first, or taker-in (see fig. 5), is the smallest; the + second and largest is the main cylinder; and the third is the doffer. + If the main cylinder is surmounted with a series of small ones (as at + A), the engine is called a roller and clearer card. If a series of + fixed strips of card are placed above the main cylinder, the engine is + known as a stationary flat card. But if the strips move forward (as at + B), it is a revolving flat card. In a roller and clearer card the + small cylinders (E) are also covered with cards, but their teeth are + bent to oppose those on the main cylinder, and they revolve with a + different velocity. The taker-in is covered with saw teeth cut in a + strip of steel which is fixed in the surface of that cylinder; it + receives the cotton (I) from a feed-roller (C) that turns above a + smooth iron table (D) called the feed plate, and strikes out the + heaviest particles of remaining dirt. In passing through the fringe of + lap, the teeth comb the attached fibres but deliver the loose ones to + the main cylinder. The latter carries them into contact with the teeth + on the rollers (E), by whose lower surface velocity combing is again + effected. Short fibres become fixed amongst the teeth of (A) and (E), + but those lying crosswise are transferred from (A) to (E) and from (E) + to the clearer, which again presents them to the cylinder. + + When long fibres are turned to point in the direction of rotation they + advance upon the cylinder A to the doffer teeth, where the scattered + fibres on the surface of A are collected into a light fleece. In this + condition they are stripped by a vibrating comb (F), drawn together by + a funnel, formed into a sliver, and deposited in a can (G). This + machine is now chiefly used to card waste and low-class cotton. If + such a card is made with two main cylinders, a connecting cylinder + called a tummer collects the fibres from the first and passes them on + to a second main cylinder, where they are again treated as already + described. In a stationary flat card the teeth in the flats are bent + to oppose those on the main cylinder, and by this means the fibres are + combed and straightened. In a revolving flat card the flats (H) are + formed into an endless chain, and they travel slowly in the same + direction as the cylinder. In other respects both flat cards are + similar to a roller and clearer card. Formerly double carding, namely, + two passages of the fibres through separate cards, or one passage + through a double card, was general, but single carding is now employed + for most purposes. + + _Combing._--For counts from 60s upward, and for exceptionally good + yarn of lower counts, from 14 to 20 cans from the carding engine are + taken to a _sliver lap machine_ where the slivers are drawn alongside + each other, passed between three pairs of drawing rollers and two + pairs of calender rollers, and formed into laps that vary in width + from 7½ in. to 12 in. This machine is provided with mechanical devices + for stopping it on the failure of a sliver, and on the completion of a + predetermined length of lap. When the sliver lap machine furnishes + laps for the comber, the slivers are previously put through one head + of drawing, namely, between four lines of drawing rollers, to + straighten out the fibres. The more general practice is to pass sliver + laps to a _ribbon lap machine_, at the back of which six laps are + placed, end facing end, in one long line and simultaneously unrolled + to feed each web between four pairs of drawing rollers. From the + rollers the cotton passes in separate films over curved plates to a + smooth table where one is superposed upon another, and in the combined + state it is led between two pairs of calender rollers and formed into + a lap from 7½ to 10½ in. wide. In the cotton industry the _Heilmann + comber_, or some modification of that machine, is used to straighten + thoroughly the fibres of carded cotton, to cast out all below a + certain length, and leave only those that are perfectly clean and + approximate to uniformity in length. For fine yarns of medium quality + only part of the slivers required to form a thread are combed. But for + fine yarns of good quality all slivers are once combed, and those for + superfine yarns are twice, or "double combed." This machine is made + with six or eight heads, each of which is supplied with a ribbon lap. + One end of every lap is fed by a pair of rollers between the open jaws + of a nipper which immediately closes upon the sheet of cotton, but a + fringe is left protruding into the path of a cylinder, on whose + periphery either one set of 17, or two sets of 13, graduated needle + combs, and one, or two, fluted segments are secured. The first comb to + reach the cotton may have as few as 16, and the last 90 teeth per + inch. After the combs have passed successively through the overhanging + fringe of fibres, the nipper opens and a fresh length of about 3/16 + to 4/10 of an inch is fed in. Meanwhile, a fluted segment on the + cylinder has moved up to support the fringe; a top comb, which was + inoperative when the cylinder combs were acting, has descended into + the fringe, and three rollers first return a portion of the material + already combed so that it may overlap that last treated. The rollers + then reverse the direction of their rotation; one of them and the + segment engage the fringe, and draw the tail ends of all free fibres + through the teeth of the top comb. The product of all the heads is + next united, condensed, formed into a continuous sliver, and deposited + in a can. One cycle of movements, therefore, only combs from 8/16 to + 4/10 of an inch of each fibre; the top comb deals with the tail + ends, and the major portion of the work is done by the cylinder combs. + The foregoing operations are repeated at the rate of from 85 to 90 + times per minute, during which from 15% to upwards of 25% of carded + material is removed; but this is capable of being spun into coarse + yarns. A comber invented by John W. Nasmith is a modification of the + foregoing. In his machine the cylinder combs act upon the forward ends + of the fibres whilst under the control of the nipper, after which two + pairs of rollers return a sufficient portion of the previously combed + film to overlap, and to enable the front rollers to engage the fringe. + The rollers then draw a part of the fringe through the teeth of the + top comb, which, as a sequence, treats all but the forward ends of the + fibres. Since one passage through the cylinder and top combs completes + the operation for one set of fibres, this machine gives a higher + production; it also gives a wider range of adaptability, and a lower + percentage of waste than the Heilmann machine. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.] + + _The Drawing Frame._--For fine counts the slivers from the comber, and + for low or medium counts those from the card, are passed to the + drawing frame, because in both conditions the material is irregularly + distributed throughout the several slivers, and it is the function of + the drawing frame to eliminate all such irregularities by drawing + several slivers down to the dimensions of one, for here the processes + of combination and attenuation are carried further than in any other + machine. A drawing frame consists of three or four heads, each of four + pairs of drawing rollers (A, B, fig. 6). The lower rollers (B) are + fluted longitudinally and the upper ones (A) are covered with leather, + and weighted as at (H) to give the two a proper hold of the cotton. + Each head contains several deliveries. Six or eight slivers (C) are + put up to each delivery and drawn down into one by causing succeeding + lines of rollers (A, B) to move at an accelerated speed; the front one + revolving about six or eight times faster than the back one. On + leaving the front roller the sliver is conducted to a trumpet-shaped + tube (D), thence between a pair of calender rollers (E), and, finally, + through a diagonal passage in a plate (F); the latter coils the sliver + into a rotating can (G). Back and front devices are provided to arrest + motion in this machine when a sliver fails. At the back, each sliver + passes over and depresses a separate spoon-shaped lever (I), thereby + lifting the hooked lower end of (I) high enough to allow an arm (J) to + vibrate. On the failure of a sliver the hook of (I) engages with (J) + and dislocates the driving gear. In front, the trumpet-shaped tube (D) + is mounted on a lever (K), and so long as a sliver presses down the + mouth of (D), the machine continues in motion, but when a sliver + fails, the lever (K) causes the driving gear to stop the machine. Six + or eight cans containing once drawn slivers are put up to the second + head and similarly drawn, and finally, a similar number of twice drawn + slivers are fed into the third head and again drawn, giving in all 6 × + 6 × 6 = 216 doublings; or 8 × 8 × 8 = 512 doublings. Occasionally four + heads of drawings are used and eight slivers drawn into one, which + gives 8 × 8 × 8 × 8 = 4096 doublings; hence, irregularities in an + original sliver have been minimized by successive combination and + attenuation. + + _Flyer Frames._--Cotton in cans, from the final head of drawing, is + transferred to the _slubbing frame_, by which it is attenuated, + slightly twisted, and wound upon spools. Each sliver is drawn out by + means of three pairs of rollers, and as it emerges from the front + pair, a flyer (A, fig. 7), which revolves uniformly upon a spindle + (B), carries the sliver (C) round with it to twist the fibres axially. + This flyer coils the twisted material upon a wooden tube (D) in + close-wound spirals and in successive layers. The tube is loosely + mounted upon, but driven independently of, the spindle, in order that + as the tube increases in diameter the number of revolutions it makes + may be reduced to suit the constant delivery of the roving. This is + effected by a differential motion which usually consists of a large + wheel, within which two other wheels are made to work; the interior + wheels have a regular motion, but the large wheel is driven from a + pair of cone drums at a decreasing speed. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + + _The intermediate frame_ comes between the slubbing and roving frames + and is of similar construction to the slubber, but has a larger number + of spindles and smaller tubes. Instead of having cans put at the back, + the slubbing tubes are mounted vertically in a creel, passed in pairs + through the rollers, and drawn down to a smaller diameter than a + single slubbing. In this machine, therefore, the fourfold processes of + combination, attenuation, twisting and winding are effected + consecutively and continuously. + + _The roving frame_ is similar in principle to the slubber and + intermediate machines, but it contains a greater number of spindles, + and the tubes are smaller than either. It receives the rovings from + the intermediate frame, draws two into one, twists them and winds them + upon tubes. This machine is usually the last employed to prepare + cotton for spinning, but for spinning fine yarns from the best + Egyptian and Sea Islands cottons, a second roving, or _Jack frame_ may + be required, in which event pairs of rovings from the first machine + are similarly treated in the second in order to render the final + product sufficiently fine for spinning yarns of the requisite counts. + + _Spinning_ (see SPINNING).--Improvements upon the Saxony wheel caused + continuous spinning to become a mechanical art at an earlier date than + intermittent spinning. Arkwright's water-twist frame was gradually + changed to the _throstle_, which was a duplex machine furnished with + one set of drawing rollers, and one set of spindles and flyers at each + side of the frame-work. All the bosses of one line of rollers were + connected so that one driving gear would serve for the whole length, + and all the spindles were driven by bands from a central cylinder. The + roving spools were placed vertically in a creel between the two sets + of rollers, and the rovings reduced to the requisite fineness by the + latter; after which each was passed through a coiled eye at the lower + end of a flyer leg, and attached to a double-flanged spool which was + loosely mounted upon a spindle. At each revolution of a flyer a twist + was put into the attenuated roving, and the flyer wrapped as much + thread upon a spool as the rollers delivered. The spools rested upon a + piece of woollen cloth stretched over a rail, and this rail rose and + fell through a space equal to the length of the spool barrel. On + account of a thread having to pull a spool round, it was not possible + to spin finer counts than 60^s, and since each flyer was mounted upon + the top of an unsupported spindle, vibration increased with speed. In + order to avoid such vibration Mr Danforth, in or about 1829, placed an + inverted cup upon the top of a stationary spindle, and upon the + spindle a freely fitting sleeve and wharve; the former to receive a + spool, the latter to rotate both. By a traverse motion all the spools + were simultaneously raised or depressed, so as to have their barrels, + when at the highest point, entirely within the cup, and when at the + lowest entirely below it. A thread passed from the drawing rollers, + outside the cup, to a spool. As a spool rotated its thread was + uniformly twisted, the lower edge of the cup built the yarn equally on + every part of the spool barrel, and the requisite drag resulted from + friction set up by the thread rubbing against the surface of the cup. + The throstle has almost disappeared from the cotton industry, and + Danforth's cap frame entirely so, but the latter is still used to spin + worsted. + + _Ring spinning_ is practically the only system of continuous spinning + used in the cotton industry; it was first patented in the United + States of America by J. Thorpe, in 1828, and in that country was + extensively used long before it became established in England. Its + chief feature consists in the substitution for the flyer, or the cap, + of a smooth annular ring (A, fig. 8) formed with a flange at the upper + edge, over which a light C-shaped piece of wire (B), called a + traveller, is sprung. The rings are secured in a rail (C) that rises + quickly and falls slowly, but at each succeeding ascent and descent it + attains a higher point than that previously reached. A spindle (D) is + supported by, and turns in a bolster secured to a fixed rail (E). If + the bolster only provides a bearing for the centre of the spindle, and + so leaves the foot free to find its own position of steadiness, it is + known as a self-balancing or gravity spindle. A recess in the bolster + is filled with oil to automatically lubricate the bearing. A spindle + is placed in the centre of each ring; it has a sleeve fitted upon it + which carries a wharve (F) that covers the upper part of the bolster, + and a band from a pair of drums is drawn round the wharve to drive the + spindle. So perfect is the construction of these spindles that they + can be run without appreciable vibration at speeds far beyond the + ability of operatives to attend them; although a speed of 11,000 + revolutions per minute is a practicable one. After passing the drawing + rollers (G), the roving (H) is twisted, hooked into the traveller (B), + and made fast to a spool (I) placed upon the spindle. As spinning + proceeds the traveller is pulled round the ring by the thread; it thus + puts a drag upon, and holds the thread at the winding point. In all + continuous spinning the number of twists inserted into a given length + of thread is governed by the surface speed of the front roller, + relatively to the revolutions of the flyer, or to the speed of the + winding surface. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.] + + _Intermittent Spinning_.--The essential difference between continuous + and intermittent spinning is that the former draws and twists + consecutively, whilst the latter draws and twists simultaneously. In + the _mule_, a creel (A, fig. 9), fixed at the back of the machine, is + designed to hold the rovings (B) in three or four tiers, from whence + they pass between three lines of drawing rollers (C) and two faller + wires (D). They are next led to spindles (E) mounted in a carriage (F) + whose wheels run upon rails (G) called slips. As the rollers (C) feed + the partially attenuated rovings the carriage recedes from the rollers + a little faster than the rovings are delivered, thus completing the + attenuation. Meanwhile, the spindles are revolved rapidly by bands + passing from a tinned cylinder (H) and the threads are twisted. This + twist goes first to the thin places where least resistance is offered + to it, leaving thick places almost untwisted; the pull of the + carriage, therefore, causes the fibres to slip most readily where + there are fewest twists, and gives to a thread an approximation to + uniformity in diameter. For fine yarns the rollers cease to rotate + slightly before the carriage has attained the end of its outward run, + or stretch, and at such times all attenuation is due to the pull of + the spindles upon the threads. On the termination of a stretch the + carriage stops, the twisting is completed, the spindles reverse the + direction of their rotation to back off, or remove the yarn which is + coiled round the spindles above the winding point, and whilst one + faller wire (D), operating on all the threads at once, descends to the + winding position of each spindle, the other rises to take up the yarn + delivered by the spindles. This completed, the carriage returns to the + roller beam, and in doing so the spindles revolve in their normal + direction to wind the stretch of 48 to 66 in. of yarn spun in the + outward journey. All the foregoing movements are regulated to succeed + each other in their proper order, the termination of one operation + being the initiation of the next. + + Crompton's original machine was controlled manually throughout, but + later he devised means for moving the carriage out mechanically, for + stopping the rollers at the proper time, and for locking the carriage + whilst the spindles added the final twist to the threads. After which + all parts became stationary and the manual operations commenced. These + consisted in backing off, operating the faller wire, rotating the + spindles and pushing the carriage home. In the year 1785 the first + steam-engine was employed for cotton spinning, and in 1792 William + Kelly placed the headstock of a mule, in which the chief mechanism is + situated, in the middle of the carriage, instead of at one end. By + this device one machine was doubled in length, and shortly afterwards + two mules, each of 300 to 400 spindles, were allotted to one spinner + and his assistants. Kelly also attempted to control all parts of the + machine mechanically, but in this he failed, as did Eaton, Smith and + many others, although each contributed something towards the solution + of the problems involved in automatic spinning. Eventually the hand + mule became a machine in which most of the work was done + automatically; the spinner being chiefly required to regulate the + velocity of the backing off, and the inward run of the carriage, and + to actuate the fallers. As a result of these alterations the machine + was made almost double the length of Kelly's. In this state many mules + continued to be used until the last decade of the 19th century, and a + few are still in use. Between the years 1824 and 1830 Richard Roberts + invented mechanism that rendered all parts of the mule self-acting, + the chief parts of which are shown at (I, J), and they regulate the + rotation of the spindles during the inward run of the carriage. At + first his machine was only used to spin coarse and low-medium counts, + but it is now employed to spin all counts of yarn. Although numerous + changes have since been made in the self-acting mule, the machine + still bears indelible marks of the genius of Roberts. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + For many purposes the threads as spun by the ring frame or the mule + are ready for the manufacturer; but where extra strength or smoothness + is required, as in threads for sewing, crocheting, hosiery, lace and + carpets; also where multicoloured effects are needed, as in + Grandrelle, or some special form of irregularity, as in corkscrewed, + and knopped yarns, two or more single threads are compounded and + twisted together. This operation is known as doubling. In order to + prepare threads for doubling it may be necessary to wind side by side + upon a flanged bobbin, or upon a straight or a tapering spool, from + two to six threads before twisting them into one. + + _Winding machines_ for this purpose are of various kinds. There are + those in which the threads are laid evenly between the flanges of a + bobbin, and those that coil the threads upon a straight or a tapering + tube to form "cheeses." In the latter the tubes may be laid upon + diagonally split drums and rotated by frictional contact. By placing + each group of threads to be wound in the slit of a rotating drum, it + is drawn quickly to and fro and coiled upon a spool. If solid instead + of split drums be used, the guides for all the threads on one side of + a machine are attached to a bar, which is traversed by a cam placed at + one end of the frame. Or independent mechanism may be provided + throughout for treating each group of threads to be wound. The bobbins + or tubes may be filled from cops, ring spools or hanks, but a stop + motion is required for each thread, which will come into operation + immediately a fracture occurs. + + _Doublers_.--In action doublers are continuous and intermittent. The + former resemble throstle and ring spinning machines, but since they do + not attenuate the material, only one line of rollers is provided. The + folded material is placed in a creel and led through the rollers to + the spindles to be twisted in a wet or dry condition. If wet, the + moisture flattens down most of the protruding ends of the fibres and + produces a comparatively smooth thread; if dry, the doubled yarn + retains some of its furry character. There are two types of continuous + doublers, which are known respectively as English and Scotch. By the + English system of dry doubling the yarn from the creel may be treated, + on its way to the spindle, in various ways to obtain the desired + tension. It may be led under a rod, over a guide, round and between + the rollers, and round a glass peg. For wet doubling, a trough + containing water is placed behind the rollers, and the yarn passes + beneath a glass rod in the water, thence over a guide, beneath, + between and over the rollers to the spindles. By the Scotch system the + trough is placed below the rollers, and the bottom roller is partly + immersed in water. It is claimed that this system wets the fibres more + thoroughly than the English one. For the purpose of twisting the + strands together the spindles may be provided either with flyers, as + in throstle spinning, or with rings and travellers, as in ring + spinning. The twist is generally in the opposite direction to that in + the single threads. When more than three strands are required in a + compound thread it is customary to pass the material more than once + through the doubler, as, for example, in a sixfold thread, two strands + may be first twisted together in the same or in the opposite direction + to the spinning twist; after which the once-doubled thread is + "cleared," folded, and three strands of twofold yarn are twisted in + the opposite direction to that employed in the first operation. In + some machines folding and twisting proceed simultaneously, and some + are furnished with an automatic stop motion. But when twisting two + threads together to oppose the spinning twist, the failure of one + causes the other to untwist and break, therefore, under such + circumstances a stop motion is unnecessary. + + Intermittent doublers are known as twinners, and these are of two + kinds, namely, English and French. In the former the spindles are + fitted in a stationary rail, but the creel, containing the cops or + ring spools, is mounted upon a carriage and moves in and out, as in + Hargreaves' spinning jenny (see SPINNING). French twinners have a + stationary creel, and the spindles move in and out with the carriage, + as in the spinning mule. The material to be folded is often subjected + to the action of steam in order to render it less resilient, after + which it is mounted upon skewers in the creel, and two or three + threads are passed to each spindle to be twisted together and formed + into a cop. Between the creel and the spindles all the strands are + kept equally tense by drawing them over flannel-covered boards and + under porcelain weights. For wet doubling, the strands pass through a + trough containing water, and the flannel surfaces are also wet. + + _Clearing_.--After the first, or the final, doubling it is often + necessary to remove lumps, imperfect knots and loose fibres from a + thread. This is accomplished by passing each through a slit, or + clearer, whose width is adjusted to the diameter of the thread to be + treated. By this means anything which gives a thread abnormal bulk + will be prevented from passing the slit. Once through the slit, a + thread is coiled upon a friction-driven, double or single-headed + bobbin. If the former, the coils are evenly laid; if the latter, they + are disposed into a bottle shape. Or, again, cheeses may be wound. + + _Gassing_.--In cases where a thread with a smooth surface is required + the extending ends of fibres must be burned off. Thus: each thread + from a creel is drawn over a tension rod to two freely mounted + pulleys, having parallel grooves cut in their surfaces and axes in the + same horizontal plane. After bending a thread forward and backward in + the grooves of both pulleys, it passes through a Bunsen flame and is + coiled upon a tube, which is held against the face of a rotating drum, + while a vibrating guide distributes the thread across the tube. The + gas-burner is situated midway between the grooved pulleys, and so + mounted beneath the thread that it will automatically swivel sideways + and thus move the flame away from a stationary thread. Winding begins + slightly before the flame moves beneath a thread, and the rapid motion + of the latter permits the flame to burn off undesirable matters + without injuring the thread. + + _Reeling_.--Doubled or gassed yarn may be wound upon warpers' bobbins + and made into warps for the loom, or it may be reeled into hanks for + the preparing and finishing processes. But a reel hanks yarns for + bleaching, dyeing, printing, polishing and bundling, and is adapted + for cops, ring spools, doubling bobbins or cheeses. From cops, ring + spools and cheeses the yarn is usually drawn over one end, but flanged + bobbins are mounted upon spindles and the yarn is drawn from the side. + A reel has a circumference of 54 in., and after making 80 or 560 + revolutions it automatically stops; the first gives a lea of 120 yds. + and the last a hank of 840 yds. For grant reeling, however, a hank may + be from 5000 to 10,000 yds. long. Reeling is of two kinds, namely, + open and crossed. Open reeling forms lease, and seven of these are + united in one hank by a lease band which retains the divisions. In + cross reeling a thread is traversed over a portion of the reel surface + by a reciprocating guide to form a hank without divisions. On the + completion of a set of hanks the reel is made to collapse and thus + facilitate the removal of the yarn. + + _Bundling Press_.--Hanks are made into short or long bundles, each + weighing 5 or 10 lb. In short bundles it is usual to form groups of + ten hanks, and these are twisted together, folded and compressed into + bundles; but in long bundles the hanks are compressed without being + folded. A press consists of a strong table upon which a box, with open + ends, is formed. The bottom of this box is grooved transversely and + made to rise and fall by wheel gearing or by eccentrics. The sides and + top are made of vertical and horizontal bars, set to coincide with the + grooves in the bottom. To one set of vertical bars a similar number of + horizontal top pieces are hinged, and to the other set levers are + jointed, which hold the horizontal bars in position. When the hinged + bars are turned up, strings are drawn through the grooves, and the + bottom is covered with stout paper. The hanks are then laid in the + box, another paper is placed above them, and the hinged bars are drawn + down and locked. The bottom then rises a predetermined distance, and + automatically stops. While in this position the strings are tied, the + bottom of the press next descends, and the bundle is removed. + (T. W. F.) + + + + +COTYS, a name common to several kings of Thrace. The most important of +them, a cruel and drunken tyrant, who began to reign in 382 B.C., was +involved with the Athenians in a dispute for the possession of the +Thracian Chersonese. In this he was assisted by the Athenian Iphicrates, +to whom he had given his daughter in marriage. On the revolt of +Ariobarzanes from Persia, Cotys opposed him and his ally, the Athenians. +In 358 he was murdered by the sons of a man whom he had wronged. + + See Cornelius Nepos, _Iphicrates_, _Timotheus_; Xenophon, _Agesilaus_; + Demosthenes, _Contra Aristocratem_; Theopompus in Müller, _Fragmenta + Historicorum Graecorum_, i. + + + + +COUCH, DARIUS NASH (1822-1897), American soldier, was born at South +East, Putnam county, N.Y., on the 23rd of July 1822, and graduated from +West Point in 1846, serving in the Mexican war and in the war against +the Seminole Indians. He left the army in 1855, but soon after the +outbreak of the civil war he was made a brigadier-general U.S.V. He +served as a divisional commander in the battles of the Army of the +Potomac in 1862, and at Fredericksburg (December 1862) and +Chancellorsville (May 1863) he commanded the II. corps. He had been made +a major-general U.S.V. in July 1862. During the Gettysburg campaign he +was employed in organizing the Pennsylvanian militia, and he +subsequently served in the West, taking part in the battle of Nashville, +and in the final operations in the Carolinas. He left the army after the +war. General Couch died on the 12th of February 1897 at Norwalk, +Connecticut. + + + + +COUCY, LE CHÂTELAIN DE, French _trouvère_ of the 12th century. He is +probably the Guy de Couci who was castellan of the castle of that name +from 1186 to 1203. Some twenty-six songs are attributed to him, and +about fifteen or sixteen are undoubtedly authentic. They are modelled +very closely on Provençal originals, but are saved from the category of +mere imitations by a grace and simplicity peculiar to the author. The +legend of the love of the Châtelain de Coucy and the Lady of Fayel, in +which there figures a jealous husband who makes his wife eat the heart +of her lover, has no historical basis, and dates from a late 13th +century romance by Jakemon Sakesep. It is worth noting that the story, +which seems to be Breton in origin, has been also told of a Provençal +troubadour, Guilhem de Cabestaing, and of the minnesinger Reinmar von +Brennenberg. Pierre de Belloy, who wrote some account of the family of +Couci, made the story the subject of his tragedy _Gabrielle de Vergy_. + + The songs of the Châtelain de Coucy were edited by Fritz Fath + (Heidelberg, 1883). For the romance see Gaston Paris, in the _Hist. + litt. de la France_ (vol. 28, pp. 352-360). An exquisite song, + "Chanterai por mon courage," expressing a woman's regrets for her + lover at the Crusade, is attributed in one MS., probably erroneously, + to the Lady of Fayel (_Hist. litt._ xxiii. 556). An English metrical + romance of "The Knight of Curtesy," and the "Fair Lady of Faguell," + was printed by William Copland, and reprinted in Ritson's _Eng. + Metrical Romances_ (ed. E. Goldsmid, vol. iii., 1885). + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 7, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 32294-8.txt or 32294-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/2/2/9/32294/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 5 + "Cosway" to "Coucy" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: May 8, 2010 [EBook #32294] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME VII SLICE V<br /><br /> +Cosway to Coucy</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 180%;">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 100%; font-size: 90%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">COSWAY, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">COTTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">COTA DE MAGUAQUE, RODRIGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">COTTESWOLD HILLS </a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">CÔTE-D'OR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">COTTET, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">COTES, ROGER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">COTTII REGNUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">CÔTES-DU-NORD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">COTTIN, MARIE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">COTGRAVE, RANDLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">COTTINGTON, FRANCIS COTTINGTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">CÖTHEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">COTTON</a> (Anglo-Indian administrators)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">COTMAN, JOHN SELL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">COTTON, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">COTONEASTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">COTOPAXI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">COTTON, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">COTRONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">COTTA</a> (German publishers)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">COTTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">COTTA, BERNHARD VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">COTTON MANUFACTURE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">COTTABUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">COTYS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">COTTBUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">COUCH, DARIUS NASH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">COTTENHAM, CHARLES PEPYS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">COUCY, LE CHÂTELAIN DE</a></td></tr> + +</table> + +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>248</span></p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COSWAY, RICHARD<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (c. 1742-1821), English miniature +painter, was baptized in 1742; his father was master of Blundell’s +school, Tiverton, where Cosway was educated, and his uncle +mayor of that town. He it was who, in conjunction with the +boy’s godfather, persuaded the father to allow Richard to proceed +to London before he was twelve years old, to take lessons in +drawing, and undertook to support him there. On his arrival, +the youthful artist won the first prize given by the newly founded +Society of Arts, of the money value of five guineas. He went to +Thomas Hudson for his earliest instruction, but remained with +him only a few months, and then attended William Shipley’s +drawing class, where he remained until he began to work on his +own account in 1760. He was one of the earliest members of the +Royal Academy, Associate in 1770 and Royal Academician in +1771. His success in miniature painting is said to have been +started by his clever portrait of Mrs Fitzherbert, which gave +great satisfaction to the prince of Wales, and brought Cosway +his earliest great patron. He speedily became one of the most +popular artists of the day, and his residence at Schomberg House, +Pall Mall, was a well-known aristocratic rendezvous. In 1791 he +removed to Stratford Place, where he lived in a state of great +magnificence till 1821, when after selling most of the treasures he +had accumulated he went to reside in Edgware Road. He died on +the 4th of July 1821, when driving in a carriage with his friend +Miss Udney. He was buried in Marylebone New church.</p> + +<p>He married in 1781 Maria Hadfield, who survived him many +years, and died in Italy in January 1838, in a school for girls +which she had founded, and which she had attached to an +important religious order devoted to the cause of female education, +known as the Dame Inglesi. She had been created a +baroness of the Empire on account of her devotion to female +education by the emperor Francis I. in 1834. Her college still +exists, and in it are preserved many of the things which had +belonged to her and her husband.</p> + +<p>Cosway had one child who died young. She is the subject of +one of his most celebrated engravings. He painted miniatures of +very many members of the royal family, and of the leading +persons who formed the court of the prince regent. Perhaps his +most beautiful work is his miniature of Madame du Barry, +painted in 1791, when that lady was residing in Bruton Street, +Berkeley Square. This portrait, together with many other +splendid works by Cosway, came into the collection of Mr J. +Pierpont Morgan. There are many miniatures by this artist in +the royal collection at Windsor Castle, at Belvoir Castle and in +other important collections. His work is of great charm and +of remarkable purity, and he is certainly the most brilliant +miniature painter of the 18th century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a full account of the artist and his wife, see <i>Richard Cosway, +R.A.</i>, by G. C. Williamson (1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. C. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTA DE MAGUAQUE, RODRIGO<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (d. c. 1498), Spanish poet, +who flourished towards the end of the 15th century, was born at +Toledo. Little is known of him save that he was of Jewish origin. +The <i>Coplas de Mingo Revulgo</i>, the <i>Coplas del Provincial</i>, and the +first act of the <i>Celestina</i> have been ascribed to him on insufficient +grounds. He is undoubtedly the author of the <i>Dialogo entre el +amor y un viejo</i>, a striking dramatic poem first printed in the +<i>Cancionero general</i> of 1511, and of a burlesque epithalamium +written in 1472 or later. He abjured Judaism about the year +1497, and is believed to have died shortly afterwards.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See “Épithalame burlesque,” edited by R. Foulché-Delbosc, in +the <i>Revue hispanique</i> (Paris, 1894), i. 69-72; A. Bonilla y San +Martín, <i>Anales de la literatura española</i> (Madrid, 1904), pp. 164-167.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CÔTE-D’OR<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span>, a department of eastern France, formed of the +northern region of the old province of Burgundy, bounded N. by +the department of Aube, N.E. by Haute-Marne, E. by Haute-Saône +and Jura, S. by Saône-et-Loire, and W. by Nièvre and +Yonne. Area, 3392 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 357,959. A chain of hills +named the Plateau de Langres runs from north-east to south-west +through the centre of the department, separating the basin +of the Seine from that of the Saône, and forming a connecting-link +between the Cévennes and the Vosges mountains. Extending +southward from Dijon is a portion of this range which, on +account of the excellence of its vineyards, bears the name of +Côte-d’Or, whence that of the department. The north-west +portion of the department is occupied by the calcareous and +densely-wooded district of Châtillonais, the south-west by spurs +of the granitic chain of Morvan, while a wide plain traversed by +the Saône extends over the eastern region. The Châtillonais is +watered by the Seine, which there takes its rise, and by the Ource, +both fed largely by the <i>douix</i> or abundant springs characteristic +of Burgundy. The Armançon and other affluents of the Yonne, +and the Arroux, a tributary of the Loire, water the south-west.</p> + +<p>The climate of Côte-d’Or is temperate and healthy; the rainfall +is abundant west of the central range, but moderate, and, in +places, scarce, in the eastern plain. Husbandry flourishes, the +wealth of the department lying chiefly in its vineyards, especially +those of the Côte-d’Or, which comprise the three main groups of +Beaune, Nuits and Dijon, the latter the least renowned of the +three. The chief cereals are wheat, oats and barley; potatoes, +hops, beetroot, rape-seed, colza and a small quantity of tobacco +are also produced. Sheep and cattle-raising is carried on chiefly +in the western districts. The department has anthracite mines +and produces freestone, lime and cement. The manufactures +include iron, steel, nails, tools, machinery and other iron goods, +paper, earthenware, tiles and bricks, morocco leather goods, +biscuits and mustard, and there are flour-mills, distilleries, oil +and vinegar works and breweries. The imports of the department +are inconsiderable, coal alone being of any importance; there is +an active export trade in wine, brandy, cereals and live stock and +in manufactured goods. The Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway +serves the department, its main line passing through Dijon. +The canal of Burgundy, connecting the Saône with the Yonne, +has a length of 94 m. in the department, while that from the +Marne to the Saône has a length of 24 m.</p> + +<p>Côte-d’Or is divided into the arrondissements of Dijon, Beaune, +Châtillon and Semur, with 36 cantons and 717 communes. It +forms the diocese of the bishop of Dijon, and part of the archiepiscopal +province of Lyons and of the 8th military region. +Dijon is the seat of the educational circumscription (<i>académie</i>) +and court of appeal to which the department is assigned. The +more noteworthy places are Dijon, the capital, Beaune, Châtillon, +Semur, Auxonne, Flavigny and Cîteaux, all separately treated. +St Jean de Losne, at the extremity of the Burgundy canal, is +famous for its brave and successful resistance in 1636 to an +immense force of Imperialists. Châteauneuf has a château of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249</span> +15th century, St Seine-l’Abbaye, a fine Gothic abbey church, and +Saulieu, a Romanesque abbey church of the 11th century. The +château of Bussy Rabutin (at Bussy-le-Grand), founded in the +12th century, has an interesting collection of pictures made by +Roger de Rabutin, comte de Bussy, who also rebuilt the château. +Montbard, the birthplace of the naturalist Buffon, has a keep of +the 14th century and other remains of a castle of the dukes of +Burgundy. The remarkable Renaissance chapel (1536) of Pagny-le-Château, +belonging to the château destroyed in 1768, contains +the tomb of Jean de Vienne (d. 1455) and that of Jean de +Longwy (d. 1460) and Jeanne de Vienne (d. 1472), with alabaster +effigies. At Fontenay, near Marmagne, a paper-works occupies +the buildings of a well-preserved Cistercian abbey of the 12th +century. At Vertault there are remains of a theatre and other +buildings marking the site of the Gallo-Roman town of Vertilium.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTES, ROGER<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1682-1716), English mathematician and +philosopher, was born on the 10th of July 1682 at Burbage, +Leicestershire, of which place his father, the Rev. Robert Cotes, +was rector. He was educated at Leicester school, and afterward +at St Paul’s school, London. Proceeding to Trinity College, +Cambridge, in 1699, he obtained a fellowship in 1705, and in the +following year was appointed Plumian professor of astronomy +and experimental philosophy in the university of Cambridge. +He took orders in 1713; and the same year, at the request of Dr +Richard Bentley, he published the second edition of Newton’s +Principia with an original preface. He died on the 5th of June +1716, leaving unfinished a series of elaborate researches on optics, +and a large amount of unpublished manuscript. He contributed +two memoirs to the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, one, “Logometria,” +which discusses the calculation of logarithms and +certain applications of the infinitesimal calculus, the other, a +“Description of the great fiery meteor seen on March 6th, 1716.” +After his death his papers were collected and published by his +cousin and successor in the Plumian chair, Dr Robert Smith, +under the title <i>Harmonia Mensurarum</i> (1722). This work +included the “Logometria,” the trigonometrical theorem known +as “Cotes’ Theorem on the Circle” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trigonometry</a></span>), his +theorem on harmonic means, subsequently developed by Colin +Maclaurin, and a discussion of the curves known as “Cotes’ +Spirals,” which occur as the path of a particle described under the +influence of a central force varying inversely as the cube of the +distance. In 1738 Dr Robert Smith published Cotes’ <i>Hydrostatical +and Pneumatical Lectures</i>, a work which was held in great +estimation. The exceptional genius of Cotes earned encomiums +from both his contemporaries and successors; Sir Isaac Newton +said, “If Mr Cotes had lived, we should have known something.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CÔTES-DU-NORD<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span>, a maritime department of the north-west +of France, formed in 1790 from the northern part of the province +of Brittany, and bounded N. by the English Channel, E. by +the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, S. by Morbihan, and W. by +Finistère. Pop. (1906) 611,506. Area, 2786 sq. m. In general +conformation, Côtes-du-Nord is an undulating plateau including +in its more southerly portion three well-marked ranges of hills. +A granitic chain, the Monts du Méné, starting in the south-east +of the department runs in a north-westerly direction, forming the +watershed between the rivers running respectively to the Channel +and the Atlantic Ocean. Towards its western extremity this +chain bifurcates to form the Montagnes Noires in the south-west +and the Montagne d’Arrée in the west of the department. The +rivers of the Channel slope are the Rance, Arguenon, Gouessan, +Gouet, Trieux, Tréguier and Léguer, while the Blavet, Meu, +Oust and Aulne belong to the southern slope. Off the coast, +which is steep, rocky and much indented, are the Sept-Iles, +Bréhat and other small islands. The principal bays are those of +St Malo and St Brieuc.</p> + +<p>The climate is mild and not subject to extremes; in the west it +is especially humid. Agriculture is more successful on the coast, +where seaweed can be used as a fertilizer, than in the interior. +Cereals are largely grown, wheat, oats and buck-wheat being the +chief crops. Potatoes, flax, mangels, apples, plums, cherries and +honey are also produced. Pasture and various kinds of forage +are abundant, and there is a large output of milk and butter. +The horses of the department are in repute. It produces slate, +building-stone, lime and china-clay. Flour-mills, saw-mills, +sardine factories, tanneries, iron-works, manufactories of polish, +boat-building yards, and rope-works employ many of the +inhabitants, and cloth, agricultural implements and nails are +manufactured. The chief imports are coal, wood and salt. +Exports include agricultural products (eggs, butter, vegetables, +&c.), horses, flax and fish. The chief commercial ports are Le +Légué and Paimpol; and Paimpol also equips a large fleet for +the Icelandic fisheries. The coast fishing is important and large +quantities of sardines are preserved. The department is served +by the Ouest-État railway; its chief waterway is the canal +from Nantes to Brest which traverses it for 73 m.</p> + +<p>Côtes-du-Nord is divided into the five arrondissements of St +Brieuc, Dinan, Guingamp, Lannion and Loudéac, which contain +48 cantons and 390 communes. Bas Breton is spoken in the +arrondissements of Guingamp and Lannion, and in part of those +of Loudéac and St Brieuc. The department belongs to the +ecclesiastical province, the académie (educational division), and +the appeal court of Rennes, and in the region of the X. army corps. +St Brieuc, Dinan, Guingamp, Lamballe, Paimpol and Tréguier, +the more noteworthy towns, are separately treated. Extensive +remains of an abbey of the Premonstratensian order, dating +chiefly from the 13th century, exist at Kerity; and Lehon has +remains of a priory, which dates from the same period. The +department is rich in interesting churches, among which those of +Ploubezre (12th, 14th and 16th centuries), Perros-Guirec (12th +century), Plestin-les-Grèves (16th century) and Lanleff (12th +century) may be mentioned. The church of St Mathurin at +Moncontour, which is a celebrated place of pilgrimage, contains +fine stained glass of the 16th century, and the mural paintings of +the chapel of Kermaria-an-Isquit near Plouha, which belongs to +the 13th and 14th centuries, are celebrated. Near Lannion (pop. +5336), itself a picturesque old town, is the ruined castle of +Tonquédec, built in the 14th century and sometimes known as +“the Pierrefonds of Brittany,” owing to its resemblance to the +more famous castle. At Corseul are a temple and other Roman +remains.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTGRAVE, RANDLE<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (?-1634), English lexicographer, came +of a Cheshire family, and was educated at Cambridge, entering +St John’s College in 1587. He became secretary to Lord Burghley, +and in 1611 published his French-English dictionary (2nd ed., +1632), a work of real historical importance in lexicography, and +still valuable in spite of such errors as were due to contemporary +want of exact scholarship.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CÖTHEN,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Köthen</span>, a town of Germany, in the duchy of +Anhalt on the Ziethe, at the junction of several railway lines, +42 m. N.W. of Leipzig by rail. Pop. (1905) 22,978. It consists +of an old and a new town with four suburbs. The former palace +of the dukes of Anhalt-Cöthen, in the old town, has fine gardens +and contains collections of pictures and coins, the famous +ornithological collection of Johann Friedrich Naumann (1780-1857), +and a library of some 20,000 volumes. Of the churches the +Lutheran Jakobskirche (called the cathedral), a Gothic building +with some fine old stained glass, is noteworthy. Besides the usual +classical and modern schools (Gymnasium and Realschule) +Cöthen possesses a technical institute, a school of gardening and +a school of forestry. The industries include iron-founding and +the manufacture of agricultural and other machinery, malt, +beet-root sugar, leather, spirits, &c.; a tolerably active trade is +carried on in grain, wool, potatoes and vegetables. Among +others, there is a monument to Sebastian Bach, who was music +director here from 1717 to 1723.</p> + +<p>In the 10th century Cöthen was a Slav settlement, which was +captured and destroyed by the German king Henry I. in 927. +By the 12th century it had secured town rights and become a +considerable centre of trade in agricultural produce. In 1300 it +was burned by the margrave of Meissen. In 1547 the town was +taken from its prince, Wolfgang (a cadet of the house of Anhalt), +who had joined the league of Schmalkalden, and given by the +emperor Charles V., with the rest of the prince’s possessions, +to the Spanish general and painter, Felipe Ladron y Guevara +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>250</span> +(1510-1563), from whom it was, however, soon repurchased. +Hahnemann, the founder of homoeopathy, lived and worked +in Cöthen. From 1603 to 1847 Cöthen was the capital of the +principality, later duchy, of Anhalt-Cöthen.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTMAN, JOHN SELL<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1782-1842), English landscape-painter +and etcher, son of a well-to-do silk mercer, was born at +Norwich on the 16th of May 1782. He showed a talent for art +and was sent to London to study, where he became the friend of +Turner, T. Girtin and other artists. He first exhibited at the +Royal Academy in 1800. In 1807 he went back to Norwich and +joined the Norwich Society of Artists, of which in 1811 he became +president. In 1825 he was made an associate of the Society of +Painters in Water-colours; in 1834 he was appointed drawing-master +at King’s College, London; and in 1836 he was elected +a member of the Institute of British Architects. He died in +London on the 24th of July 1842. Cotman’s work was not considered +of much importance in his own day, and his pictures +only procured small prices; but he now ranks as one of the great +figures of the Norwich school. He was a fine draughtsman, and +a remarkable painter both in oil and water-colour. One of his +paintings is in the National Gallery. His fine architectural +etchings, published in a series of volumes, the result of tours in +Norfolk and Normandy, are valuable records of his interest in +archaeology. He married early in life, and had five children, his +sons, Miles Edmund (1810-1858) and Joseph John (1814-1878), +both becoming landscape-painters of merit; and his younger +brother Henry’s son, Frederic George Cotman (b. 1850), the +water-colour artist, continued the family reputation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTONEASTER,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> a genus of the rose family (Rosaceae), +containing about twenty species of shrubs and small trees, +natives of Europe, North Africa and temperate Asia. C. <i>vulgaris</i> +is native on the limestone cliffs of the Great Orme in North Wales. +Several species are grown in shrubberies and borders, or as wall +plants, mainly for their clusters of bright red or yellow berry-like +fruits. Plants are easily raised by seeds, cuttings or layers, and +grow well in ordinary soil.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTOPAXI,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a mountain of the Andes, in Ecuador, South +America, 35 m. S.S.E. of Quito, remarkable as the loftiest active +volcano in the world. The earliest outbursts on record took +place in 1532 and 1533; and since then the eruptions have been +both numerous and destructive. Among the most important are +those of 1744, 1746, 1766, 1768 and 1803. In 1744 the thunderings +of the volcano were heard at Honda on the Rio Magdalena, +about 500 m. distant; in 1768 the quantity of ashes ejected was +so great that it covered all the lesser vegetation as far as +Riobamba; and in 1803 Humboldt reports that at the port of +Guayaquil, 160 m. from the crater, he heard the noise day and +night like continued discharges of a battery. There were considerable +outbursts in 1851, 1855, 1856, 1864 and 1877. In 1802 +Humboldt made a vain attempt to scale the cone, and pronounced +the enterprise impossible; and the failure of Jean Baptiste +Boussingault in 1831, and the double failure of M. Wagner in +1858, seemed to confirm his opinion. In 1872, however, Dr +Wilhelm Reiss succeeded on the 27th and 28th of November in +reaching the top; in the May of the following year the same +feat was accomplished by Dr A. Stübel, and he was followed +by T. Wolf in 1877, M. von Thielmann in 1878 and Edward +Whymper in 1880.</p> + +<p>Cotopaxi is frequently described as one of the most beautiful +mountain masses of the world, rivalling the celebrated Fujiyama +of Japan in its symmetry of outline, but overtopping it +by more than 7000 ft. It is more than 15,000 ft. higher than +Vesuvius, over 7000 ft. higher than Teneriffe, and nearly 2000 ft. +higher than Popocatepetl. Its slope, according to Orton, is +30°, according to Wagner 29°, the north-western side being +slightly steeper than the south-eastern. The apical angle is 122° +30′. The snowfall is heavier on the eastern side of the cone +which is permanently covered, while the western side is usually +left bare, a phenomenon occasioned by the action of the moist +trade winds from the Atlantic. Its height according to Whymper +is 19,613 ft., and its crater is 2300 ft. in diameter from N. to S., +1650 ft. from E. to W., and has an approximate depth of 1200 ft. +It is bordered by a rim of trachytic rock, forming a black coronet +above the greyish volcanic dust and sand which covers its sides to +a great depth. Whymper found snow and ice under this sand. +On the southern slope, at a height of 15,059 ft., is a bare cone of +porphyritic andesite called <i>El Picacho</i>, “the beak,” or <i>Cabeza +del Inca</i>, “the Inca’s head,” with dark cliffs rising fully 1000 ft., +which according to tradition is the original summit of the +volcano blown off at the first-known eruption of 1532. The +summit of Cotopaxi is usually enveloped in clouds; and even +in the clearest month of the year it is rarely visible for more than +eight or ten days. Its eruptions produce enormous quantities of +pumice, and deep layers of mud, volcanic sand and pumice +surround it on the plateau. Of the air currents about and above +Cotopaxi, Wagner says (<i>Naturw. Reisen im trop. Amerika</i>, p. 514): +“On the Tacunga Plateau, at a height of 8000 Paris feet, the +prevailing direction of the wind is meridional, usually from the +south in the morning, and frequently from the north in the +evening; but over the summit of Cotopaxi, at a height of 18,000 +ft., the north-west wind always prevails throughout the day. +The gradually-widening volcanic cloud continually takes a south-eastern +direction over the rim of the crater; at a height, however, +of about 21,000 ft. it suddenly turns to the north-west, and +maintains that direction till it reaches a height of at least 28,000 +ft. There are thus from the foot of the volcano to the highest +level attained by its smoke-cloud three quite distinct regular +currents of wind.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTRONE<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (anc. <i>Croto, Crotona</i>), a seaport and episcopal see on +the E. coast of Calabria, Italy, in the province of Catanzaro, 37 +m. E.N.E. of Catanzaro Marina by rail, 143 ft. above sea-level. +Pop. (1901) town, 7917; commune, 9545. It has a castle erected +by the emperor Charles V. and a small harbour, which even in +ancient times was not good, but important as the only one +between Taranto and Reggio. It exports a considerable quantity +of oranges, olives and liquorice.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTA,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> the name of a family of German publishers, intimately +connected with the history of German literature. The Cottas +were of noble Italian descent, and at the time of the Reformation +the family was settled in Eisenach in Thuringia.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Johann Georg Cotta</span> (1) (1631-1692), the founder of the +publishing house of J. G. Cotta, married in 1659 the widow of the +university bookseller, Philipp Braun, in Tübingen, and took over +the management of his business, thus establishing the firm which +was subsequently associated with Cotta’s name. On his death, +in 1692, the undertaking passed to his only son, Johann Georg +(2); and on his death in 1712, to the latter’s eldest son, also +named Johann Georg (3), while the second son, Johann Friedrich +(see below), became the distinguished theologian.</p> + +<p>Although the eldest son of Johann Georg (3), Christoph +Friedrich Cotta (1730-1807), established a printing-house to the +court at Stuttgart, the business languished, and it was reserved +to his youngest son, <span class="sc">Johann Friedrich, Freiherr Cotta Von +Cottendorf</span> (1764-1832), who was born at Stuttgart on the +27th of April 1764, to restore the fortunes of the firm. He +attended the gymnasium of his native place, and was originally +intended to study theology. He, however, entered the university +of Tübingen as a student of mathematics and law, and after +graduating spent a considerable time in Paris, studying French +and natural science, and mixing with distinguished literary men. +After practising as an advocate in one of the higher courts, Cotta, +in compliance with his father’s earnest desire, took over the +publishing business at Tübingen. He began in December 1787, +and laboured incessantly to acquire familiarity with all the +details. The house connexions rapidly extended; and, in 1794, +the <i>Allgemeine Zeitung</i>, of which Schiller was to be editor, was +planned. Schiller was compelled to withdraw on account of his +health; but his friendship with Cotta deepened every year, and +was a great advantage to the poet and his family. Cotta +awakened in Schiller so warm an attachment that, as Heinrich +Döring tells us in his life of Schiller (1824), when a bookseller +offered him a higher price than Cotta for the copyright of <i>Wallenstein</i>, +the poet firmly declined it, replying “Cotta deals honestly +with me, and I with him.” In 1795 Schiller and Cotta founded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>251</span> +the <i>Horen</i>, a periodical very important to the student of German +literature. The poet intended, by means of this work, to infuse +higher ideas into the common lives of men, by giving them a +nobler human culture, and “to reunite the divided political world +under the banner of truth and beauty.” The <i>Horen</i> brought +Goethe and Schiller into intimate relations with each other and +with Cotta; and Goethe, while regretting that he had already +promised <i>Wilhelm Meister</i> to another publisher, contributed the +<i>Unterhaltung deutscher Ausgewanderten</i>, the <i>Roman Elegies</i> and +a paper on Literary Sansculottism. Fichte sent essays from the +first, and the other brilliant German authors of the time were +also represented. In 1798 the <i>Allgemeine Zeitung</i> appeared at +Tübingen, being edited first by Posselt and then by Huber. Soon +the editorial office of the newspaper was transferred to Stuttgart, +in 1803 to Ulm, and in 1810 to Augsburg; it is now in Munich. In +1799 Cotta entered on his political career, being sent to Paris by +the Württemberg estates as their representative. Here he made +friendships which proved very advantageous for the <i>Allgemeine +Zeitung</i>. In 1801 he paid another visit to Paris, also in a political +capacity, when he carefully studied Napoleon’s policy, and +treasured up many hints which were useful to him in his literary +undertakings. He still, however, devoted most of his attention +to his own business, and, for many years, made all the entries into +the ledger with his own hand. He relieved the tedium of almost +ceaseless toil by pleasant intercourse with literary men. With +Schiller, Huber, and Gottlieb Konrad Pfeffel (1736-1809) he was +on terms of the warmest friendship; and he was also intimate +with Herder, Schelling, Fichte, Richter, Voss, Hebel, Tieck, +Therese Huber, Matthisson, the brothers Humboldt, Johann +Müller, Spittler and others, whose works he published in whole +or in part. In the correspondence of Alexander von Humboldt +with Varnhagen von Ense we see the familiar relations in which +the former stood to the Cotta family. In 1795 he published the +<i>Politischen Annalen</i> and the <i>Jahrbücher der Baukunde</i>, and in +1798 the <i>Damenalmanach</i>, along with some works of less importance. +In 1807 he issued the <i>Morgenblatt</i>, to which Schorn’s +<i>Kunstblatt</i> and Menzel’s <i>Literaturblatt</i> were afterwards added. +In 1810 he removed to Stuttgart; and from that time till his +death he was loaded with honours. State affairs and an honourable +commission from the German booksellers took him to the +Vienna congress; and in 1815 he was deputy-elect at the +Württemberg diet. In 1819 he became representative of the +nobility; then he succeeded to the offices of member of committee +and (1824) vice-president of the Württemberg second chamber. +He was also appointed Prussian <i>Geheimrat</i>, and knight of the +order of the Württemberg crown; King William I. of Württemberg +having already revived the ancient nobility in his family by +granting him the patent of Freiherr (Baron) Cotta von Cottendorf. +Meanwhile such publications as the <i>Polytechnische Journal</i>, the +<i>Hesperus</i>, the <i>Württembergische Jahrbücher</i>, the <i>Hertha</i>, the +<i>Ausland</i>, and the <i>Inland</i> issued from the press. In 1828-1829 +appeared the famous correspondence between Schiller and +Goethe. Cotta was an unfailing friend of young struggling men +of talent. In addition to his high standing as a publisher, he was +a man of great practical energy, which flowed into various fields +of activity. He was a scientific agriculturist, and promoted +many reforms in farming. He was the first Württemberg landholder +to abolish serfdom on his estates. In politics he was +throughout his life a moderate liberal. In 1824 he set up a steam +printing press in Augsburg, and, about the same time, founded a +literary institute at Munich. In 1825 he started steamboats, for +the first time, on Lake Constance, and introduced them in the +following year on the Rhine. In 1828 he was sent to Berlin, on an +important commission, by Bavaria and Württemberg, and was +there rewarded with orders of distinction at the hands of the +three kings. He died on the 29th of December 1832 leaving a son +and a daughter as coheirs.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Johann Georg</span> (4), <span class="sc">Freiherr Cotta Von Cottendorf</span> +(1796-1863), succeeded to the management of the business +on the death of his father, and was materially assisted by his +sister’s husband, Freiherr Hermann von Reischach. He greatly +extended the connexions of the firm by the purchase, in 1839, of +the publishing business of G. J. Göschen in Leipzig, and in 1845 of +that of Vogel in Landshut; while, in 1845, “Bible” branches +were established at Stuttgart and Munich. He was succeeded by +his younger son, Karl, and by his nephew (the son of his sister), +Hermann Albert von Reischach. Under their joint partnership, +the before-mentioned firms in Leipzig and Landshut, and an +artistic establishment in Munich passed into other hands, leaving +on the death of Hermann Albert von Reischach, in 1876, Karl +von Cotta the sole representative of the firm, until his death in +1888. In 1889 the firm of J. G. Cotta passed by purchase into +the hands of Adolf and Paul Kröner, who took others into +partnership. In 1899 the business was converted into a limited +liability company.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Albert Schäffle, <i>Cotta</i> (1895); <i>Verlags-Katalog der J. G. +Cotta’schen Buchhandlung, Nachfolger</i> (1900); and Lord Goschen’s +<i>Life and Times of G. J. Göschen</i> (1903).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Johann Friedrich Cotta</span> (1701-1779), the theologian, was +born on the 12th of March 1701, the son of Johann Georg Cotta +(2). After studying theology at Tübingen he began his public +career as lecturer in Jena University. He then travelled in +Germany, France and Holland, and, after residing several years +in London, became professor at Tübingen in 1733. In 1736 he +removed to the chair of theology in the university of Göttingen, +which had been instituted as a seat of learning, two years before, +by George II. of England, in his capacity as elector of Hanover. +In 1739, however, he returned, as extraordinary professor of +theology, to his Alma Mater, and, after successively filling the +chairs of history, poetry and oratory, was appointed ordinary +professor of theology in 1741. Finally he died, as chancellor of +Tübingen University, on the 31st of December 1779. His +learning was at once wide and accurate; his theological views +were orthodox, although he did not believe in strict verbal +inspiration. He was a voluminous writer. His chief works are +his edition of Johann Gerhard’s <i>Loci Theologici</i> (1762-1777), and +the <i>Kirchenhistorie des Neuen Testaments</i> (1768-1773).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTA, BERNHARD VON<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1808-1879), German geologist, was +born in a forester’s lodge near Eisenach, on the 24th of October +1808. He was educated at Freiberg and Heidelberg and from 1842 +to 1874 he held the professorship of geology in the Bergakademie +of Freiberg. Botany at first attracted him, and he was one of the +earliest to use the microscope in determining the structure of +fossil plants. Later on he gave his attention to practical geology, +to the study of ore-deposits, of rocks and metamorphism; and he +was regarded as an excellent teacher. His <i>Rocks classified and +described: a Treatise on Lithology</i> (translated by P. H. Lawrence, +1866) was the first comprehensive work on the subject issued in +the English language, and it gave great impetus to the study of +rocks in Britain. He died at Freiberg on the 14th of September +1879.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Publications.</span>—<i>Geognostische Wanderungen</i> (1836-1838); <i>Grundriss +der Geognosie und Geologie</i> (1846); <i>Geologische Briefe aus den +Alpen</i> (1850); <i>Praktische Geologie</i> (1852); <i>Geologische Bilder</i> (1852, +ed. 4, 1861); <i>Die Gesteinslehre</i> (1855, ed. 2, 1862).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (c. 124-73 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Roman statesman +and orator. In 92 he defended his uncle P. Rutilius Rufus, +who had been unjustly accused of extortion in Asia. He was on +intimate terms with the tribune M. Livius Drusus, who was +murdered in 91, and in the same year was an unsuccessful +candidate for the tribunate. Shortly afterwards he was prosecuted +under the <i>lex Varia</i>, directed against all who had in any +way supported the Italians against Rome, and, in order to avoid +condemnation, went into voluntary exile. He did not return till +82, during the dictatorship of Sulla. In 75 he was consul, and +excited the hostility of the optimates by carrying a law that +abolished the Sullan disqualification of the tribunes from holding +higher magistracies; another law <i>de judiciis privatis</i>, of which +nothing is known, was abrogated by his brother. In 74 Cotta +obtained the province of Gaul, and was granted a triumph for +some victory of which we possess no details; but on the very day +before its celebration an old wound broke out, and he died +suddenly. According to Cicero, P. Sulpicius Rufus and Cotta +were the best speakers of the young men of their time. Physically +incapable of rising to passionate heights of oratory, Cotta’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>252</span> +successes were chiefly due to his searching investigation of facts; +he kept strictly to the essentials of the case and avoided all +irrelevant digressions. His style was pure and simple. He is +introduced by Cicero as an interlocutor in the <i>De oratore</i> and <i>De +natura deorum</i> (iii.), as a supporter of the principles of the New +Academy. The fragments of Sallust contain the substance of a +speech delivered by Cotta in order to calm the popular anger at a +deficient corn-supply.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Cicero, <i>De oratore</i>, iii. 3, <i>Brutus</i>, 49, 55, 90, 92; Sallust, <i>Hist. +Frag.</i>; Appian, <i>Bell. Civ.</i> i. 37.</p> +</div> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Lucius Aurelius Cotta</span>, when praetor in 70 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +brought in a law for the reform of the jury lists, by which the +judices were to be eligible, not from the senators exclusively as +limited by Sulla, but from senators, equites and <i>tribuni aerarii</i>. +One-third were to be senators, and two-thirds men of equestrian +census, one-half of whom must have been <i>tribuni aerarii</i>, a body +as to whose functions there is no certain evidence, although in +Cicero’s time they were reckoned by courtesy amongst the +equites. In 66 Cotta and L. Manlius Torquatus accused the +consuls-elect for the following year of bribery in connexion with +the elections; they were condemned, and Cotta and Torquatus +chosen in their places. After the suppression of the Catilinarian +conspiracy, Cotta proposed a public thanksgiving for Cicero’s +services, and after the latter had gone into exile, supported the +view that there was no need of a law for his recall, since the +law of Clodius was legally worthless. He subsequently attached +himself to Caesar, and it was currently reported that Cotta (who +was then quindecimvir) intended to propose that Caesar should +receive the title of king, it being written in the books of fate that +the Parthians could only be defeated by a king. Cotta’s intention +was not carried out in consequence of the murder of Caesar, after +which he retired from public life.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Cicero, Orelli’s <i>Onomasticon</i>; Sallust, <i>Catiline</i>, 18; Suetonius, +<i>Caesar</i>, 79; Livy, <i>Epit.</i> 97; Vell. Pat. ii. 32; Dio Cassius xxxvi. +44, xxxvii. 1.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTABUS<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kottabos">κότταβος</span>), a game of skill for a long time in +great vogue at ancient Greek drinking parties, especially in the +4th and 5th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It is frequently alluded to by the +classical writers of the period, and not seldom depicted on ancient +vases. The object of the player was to cast a portion of wine left +in his drinking cup in such a way that, without breaking bulk in +its passage through the air, it should reach a certain object set up +as a mark, and there produce a distinct noise by its impact. +Both the wine thrown and the noise made were called <span class="grk" title="latax">λάταξ</span>. +The thrower, in the ordinary form of the game, was expected to +retain the recumbent position that was usual at table, and, in +flinging the cottabus, to make use of his right hand only. To +succeed in the aim no small amount of dexterity was required, +and unusual ability in the game was rated as high as corresponding +excellence in throwing the javelin. Not only was the cottabus +the ordinary accompaniment of the festal assembly, but at least +in Sicily a special building of a circular form was sometimes erected +so that the players might be easily arranged round the basin, and +follow each other in rapid succession. Like all games in which +the element of chance found a place, it was regarded as more or +less ominous of the future success of the players, especially in +matters of love; and the excitement was sometimes further +augmented by some object of value being staked on the event.</p> + +<p>Various modifications of the original principle of the game were +gradually introduced, but for practical purposes we may reckon +two varieties, (1) In the <span class="grk" title="Kottabos di oxybaphôn">Κότταβος δἰ ὀξυβάφων</span> shallow saucers +(<span class="grk" title="oxybapha">ὀξύβαφα</span>) were floated in a basin or mixing-bowl filled with water; +the object was to sink the saucers by throwing the wine into them, +and the competitor who sank the greatest number was considered +victorious, and received the prize, which consisted of cakes or +sweetmeats. (2) <span class="grk" title="Kottabos kataktos">Κότταβος κατακτός</span><a name="FnAnchor_1" id="FnAnchor_1" href="#Footnote_1"><span class="sp">1</span></a> is not so easy to understand, +although there is little doubt as to the apparatus. This +consisted of a <span class="grk" title="rhabdos">ῥάβδος</span> or bronze rod; a <span class="grk" title="plastinx">πλάστιγξ</span>, a small disk or +basin, resembling a scale-pan; a larger disk (<span class="grk" title="lekanis">λεκανίς</span>); and (in +most cases) a small bronze figure called <span class="grk" title="manês">μάνης</span>. The discovery +(by Professor Helbig in 1886) of two sets of actual apparatus near +Perugia and various representations on vases help to elucidate +the somewhat obscure accounts of the method of playing the game +contained in the scholia and certain ancient authors who, it must +not be forgotten, wrote at a time when the game itself had become +obsolete, and cannot therefore be looked to for a trustworthy +description of it.</p> + +<p>The first specimen of the apparatus found at Perugia resembles +a candelabrum on a base, tapering towards the top, with a blunt +end, on which the small disk (found near the rod), which has a +hole near the edge and is slightly hollow in the middle, could be +balanced. At about a third of the height of the rod is a large +disk with a hole in the centre through which the rod runs; in a +socket at the top is a small bronze figure, with right arm and +right leg uplifted. In the second specimen there is no large +disk, and the figure is holding up what is apparently a rhyton or +drinking-horn.</p> + +<p>According to Prof. Helbig in <i>Mittheilungen des deutschen +archäologischen Instituts</i> (Römische Abtheilung i., 1886) three +games were played with this apparatus. In the first the smaller +disk was placed on the top of the rod, and the object of the +player was to dislodge it with a cast of the wine, so that it would +fall with a clatter on the larger disk below. In the second (as in +the third) the bronze figure was used; the smaller disk was placed +above the figure, upon which it fell when hit, and thence on to the +larger disk below. In the third, there was no smaller disk; the +wine was thrown at the figure, and fell on to the larger disk +underneath. Another supposed variety, in which two scales +were balanced in such a manner that the weight of the liquid cast +into either scale caused it to dip down and touch the top of an +image placed under each, probably had no real existence, but is +due to a confusion of the <span class="grk" title="plastinx">πλάστιγξ</span> with a scale-pan by reason of +its shape. The game appears to have been of Sicilian origin, but +it spread through Greece from Thessaly to Rhodes, and was +especially fashionable at Athens. Dionysius, Alcaeus, Anacreon, +Pindar, Bacchylides, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, +Antiphanes, make frequent and familiar allusion to the +<span class="grk" title="kottabos">κότταβος</span>; but in the writers of the Roman and Alexandrian +period such reference as occurs shows that the fashion had died +out. In Latin literature it is almost entirely unknown.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The most complete treatise on the subject is C. Sartori’s <i>Das +Kottabos-Spiel der alten Griechen</i> (1893), in which a full bibliography +of ancient and modern authorities is given. English readers may be +referred to an article by A. Higgins on “Recent Discoveries of the +Apparatus used in playing the Game of Kottabos” (<i>Archaeologia</i>, li. +1888); see also “Kottabos” in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire +des antiquités</i>, and L. Becq de Fouquières, <i>Les Jeux des anciens</i> (1873).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1" href="#FnAnchor_1"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The epithet <span class="grk" title="kataktos">κατακτὀς</span> (let down) may refer to the rod, which +might be raised or lowered as required; to the lower disk, which +might be moved up and down the stem; to the moving up and down +of the scales, in the supposed variety of the game mentioned below.]</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTBUS,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on +the Spree, 72 m. S.E. of Berlin by the main railway to Görlitz, and +at the intersection of the lines Halle-Sagan and Grossenhain-Frankfort-on-Oder. +Pop. (1905) 46,269. It has four Protestant +churches, a Roman Catholic church and a synagogue. The chief +industry of the town is the manufacture of cloth, which has +flourished here for centuries and now employs more than 6000 +hands. Wool-spinning, cotton-spinning and the manufacture of +tobacco, machinery, beer, brandy, &c., are also carried on. The +town is also a considerable trading centre, and is the seat of a +chamber of commerce and of a branch of the Imperial Bank +(<i>Reichsbank</i>). In the Stadtwald, close to the town, is a women’s +hospital for diseases of the lungs, a government institution in +connexion with the state system of insurance against incapacity +and old age. At Branitz, a neighbouring village, are the magnificent +château and park of Prince Pückler-Muskau.</p> + +<p>At one time Cottbus formed an independent lordship of the +Empire, but in 1462 it passed by the treaty of Guben to Brandenburg. +From 1807 to 1813 it belonged to the kingdom of Saxony.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTENHAM, CHARLES CHRISTOPHER PEPYS,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> 1st <span class="sc">Earl +of</span> (1781-1851), lord chancellor of England, was born in London +on the 29th of April 1781. He was the second son of Sir William +W. Pepys, a master in chancery, who was descended from John +Pepys, of Cottenham, Cambridgeshire, a great-uncle of Samuel +Pepys, the diarist. Educated at Harrow and Trinity College, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>253</span> +Cambridge, Pepys was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1804. +Practising at the chancery bar, his progress was extremely slow, +and it was not till twenty-two years after his call that he was +made a king’s counsel. He sat in parliament, successively, for +Higham Ferrars and Malton, was appointed solicitor-general in +1834, and in the same year became master of the rolls. On the +formation of Lord Melbourne’s second administration in April +1835, the great seal was for a time in commission, but eventually +Pepys, who had been one of the commissioners, was appointed +lord chancellor (January 1836) with the title of Baron Cottenham. +He held office until the defeat of the ministry in 1841. In 1846 +he again became lord chancellor in Lord John Russell’s administration. +His health, however, had been gradually failing, and +he resigned in 1850. Shortly before his retirement he had been +created Viscount Crowhurst and earl of Cottenham. He died at +Pietra Santa, in the duchy of Lucca, on the 29th of April 1851.</p> + +<p>Both as a lawyer and as a judge, Lord Cottenham was remarkable +for his mastery of the principles of equity. An indifferent +speaker, he nevertheless adorned the bench by the soundness of +his law and the excellence of his judgments. As a politician he +was somewhat of a failure, while his only important contribution +to the statute-book was the Judgments Act 1838, which amended +the law for the relief of insolvent debtors.</p> + +<p>The title of earl of Cottenham descended in turn to two of the +earl’s sons, Charles Edward (1824-1863), and William John +(1825-1881), and then to the latter’s son, Kenelm Charles +Edward (b. 1874).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Campbell, <i>Lives of the Lord Chancellors</i> (1869); +E. Foss, <i>The Judges of England</i> (1848-1864); E. Manson, <i>Builders +of our Law</i> (1904); J. B. Atlay, <i>The Victorian Chancellors</i> (1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTER,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> <span class="sc">Cottar</span>, or <span class="sc">Cottier</span>, a word derived from the Latin +<i>cota</i>, a cot or cottage, and used to describe a man who occupies a +cottage and cultivates a small plot of land. This word is often +employed to translate the <i>cotarius</i> of Domesday Book, a class +whose exact status has been the subject of some discussion, and +is still a matter of doubt. According to Domesday the <i>cotarii</i> +were comparatively few, numbering less than seven thousand, and +were scattered unevenly throughout England, being principally +in the southern counties; they were occupied either in cultivating +a small plot of land, or in working on the holdings of the <i>villani</i>. +Like the <i>villani</i>, among whom they were frequently classed, +their economic condition may be described as “free in relation to +every one except their lord.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. W. Maitland, <i>Domesday Book and Beyond</i> (Cambridge, +1897); and P. Vinogradoff, <i>Villainage in England</i> (Oxford, 1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTESWOLD HILLS,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Cotswolds</span>, a range of hills in the +western midlands of England. The greater part lies in Gloucestershire, +but the system covered by the name also extends +into Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Oxfordshire, Wiltshire and +Somersetshire. It extends on a line from N.E. to S.W., forming +a part of the great Oolitic belt extending through the English +midlands. On the west the hills overlook the vales of Evesham, +Gloucester and Berkeley (valleys of the Worcestershire Avon and +the Severn), with a bold escarpment broken only by a few abrupt +spurs, such as Bredon hill, between Tewkesbury and Evesham. +On the east they slope more gently towards the basins of the +upper Thames and the Bristol Avon. The watershed lies close to +the western line, except where the Stroud valley, with the Frome, +draining to the Severn, strikes deep into the heart of the hills. +The principal valleys are those of the Windrush, Lech, Coln and +Churn, feeders of the Thames, the Thames itself, and the Bristol +Avon. The last, wherein lie Bath and Bristol, forms the southern +boundary of the Cotteswolds; the northern is formed by the +valleys of the Evenlode (draining to the Thames) and the Stour +(to the Worcestershire Avon), with the low divide between them. +The crest-line from Bath at the south to Meon Hill at the north +measures 57 m. The breadth varies from 6 m. in the south to +28 towards the north, and the area is some 300 sq. m. The +features are those of a pleasant sequestered pastoral region, +rolling plateaus or wolds and bare uplands alternating with deep +narrow valleys, well wooded and traversed by shallow, rapid +streams. The average elevation is about 600 ft., but Cleeve +Cloud above Cheltenham in the Vale of Gloucester reaches +1134 ft., and Broadway Hill, in the north, 1086 ft. These heights +command splendid views over the rich vales towards the +distant hills of Herefordshire and the Forest of Dean. The +picturesque village of Broadway at the foot of the hill of that +name is much in favour with artists.</p> + +<p>In the soil of the hill country is so much lime that a liberal +supply of manure is required. With this good crops of barley +and oats are obtained, and even of wheat, if the soil is mixed with +clay. But the poorest land of the hill country affords excellent +pasturage for sheep, the staple commodity of the district; and +the sainfoin, which grows wild, yields abundantly under cultivation. +The Cotteswolds have been famous for the breed of sheep +named from them since the early part of the 15th century, a +breed hardy and prolific, with lambs that quickly put on fleece, +and become hardened to the bracing cold of the hills, where +vegetation is a month later than in the vales. Improved by +judicious crossing with the Leicester sheep, the modern Cotteswold +has attained high perfection of weight, shape, fleece and +quality. An impulse was given to Cotteswold farming by the +chartering in 1845 of the Royal Agricultural College at +Cirencester.</p> + +<p>A number of small market-towns or large villages lie on the +outskirts of the hills, but in the inner parts of the district villages +are few. The “capital of the Cotteswolds” is Cirencester, in the +east. In the north is Chipping Campden, its great Perpendicular +church and the picturesque houses of its wide street commemorating +the wealth of its wool-merchants between the 14th and 17th +centuries. Near this town, in the parish of Weston-sub-Edge, +Robert Dover, an attorney, founded the once famous Cotteswold +games early in the 17th century. Horse-racing and coursing +were included with every sort of athletic exercise from quoits and +skittles to wrestling, cudgels and singlestick. The games were +suppressed by act of parliament in 1851.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Proceedings of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club, passim</i>; +W. H. Hutton, <i>By Thames and Cotswold</i> (London, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTET, CHARLES<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1863-  ), French painter, was born at +Puy. He studied at the École des Beaux-Arts, and under Puvis +de Chavannes and Roll. He travelled and painted in Egypt, +Italy, and on the Lake of Geneva, but he made his name with his +sombre and gloomy, firmly designed, severe and impressive +scenes of life on the Brittany coast. His signal success was +achieved by his painting of the triptych, “<i>Au pays de la mer</i>,” +now at the Luxembourg museum. The Lille gallery has his +“Burial in Brittany.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTII REGNUM,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a district in the north of Liguria, including +a considerable part of the important road which led over the pass +(6119 ft.) of the Alpis Cottia (Mont Genèvre) into Gaul. Whether +Hannibal crossed the Alps by this route is disputed, but it was +certainly in use about 100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Punic Wars</a></span>). In 58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Caesar met with some resistance on crossing it, but seems afterwards +to have entered into friendly relations with Donnus, the +king of the district; he must have used it frequently, and refers +to it as the shortest route. Donnus’s son Cottius erected the +triumphal arch at his capital Segusio, the modern Susa, in +honour of Augustus. Under Nero, after the death of the last +Cottius, it became a province under the title of “Alpes Cottiae,” +being governed by a <i>procurator Augusti</i>, though it still kept its old +name also.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTIN, MARIE<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> [called <span class="sc">Sophie</span>] (1770-1807), French novelist, +<i>née</i> Risteau (not Ristaud), was born in Paris in 1770. At +seventeen she married a Bordeaux banker, who died three years +after, when she retired to a house in the country at Champlan, +where she spent the rest of her life. In 1799 she published +anonymously her <i>Claire d’Albe</i>. <i>Malvina</i> (1801) was also anonymous; +but the success of <i>Amélie Mansfield</i> (1803) induced +her to reveal her identity. In 1805 appeared <i>Mathilde</i>, an +extravagant crusading story, and in 1806 she produced her last +tale, the famous <i>Élisabeth, ou les exilés de Sibérie</i>, the subject of +which was treated later with an admirable simplicity by Xavier +de Maistre. Sainte-Beuve asserted that she committed suicide on +account of an unfortunate attachment. This story is, however, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>254</span> +unauthenticated. She died at Champlan (Seine et Oise) on the +25th of April 1807.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete edition of her works, with a notice by A. Petitot, was +published, in five volumes, in 1817.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTINGTON, FRANCIS COTTINGTON,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1578-1652), +English lord treasurer and ambassador, was the fourth son of +Philip Cottington of Godmonston in Somersetshire. According +to Hoare, his mother was Jane, daughter of Thomas Biflete, but +according to Clarendon “a Stafford nearly allied to Sir Edward +Stafford,” through whom he was recommended to Sir Charles +Cornwallis, ambassador to Spain, becoming a member of his suite +and acting as English agent on the latter’s recall, from 1609 to +1611. In 1612 he was appointed English consul at Seville. +Returning to England, he was made a clerk of the council in +September 1613. His Spanish experience rendered him useful to +the king, and his bias in favour of Spain was always marked. +He seems to have promoted the Spanish policy from the first, +and pressed on Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador, the proposal +for the Spanish in opposition to the French marriage for Prince +Charles. He was a Roman Catholic at least at heart, becoming a +member of that communion in 1623, returning to Protestantism, +and again declaring himself a Roman Catholic in 1636, and +supporting the cause of the Roman Catholics in England. In +1616 he went as ambassador to Spain, making in 1618 James’s +proposal of mediation in the dispute with the elector palatine. +After his return he was appointed secretary to the prince of +Wales in October 1622, and was knighted and made a baronet in +1623. He strongly disapproved of the prince’s expedition to +Spain, as an adventure likely to upset the whole policy of +marriage and alliance, but was overruled and chosen to accompany +him. His opposition greatly incensed Buckingham, and +still more his perseverance in the Spanish policy after the failure +of the expedition, and on Charles’s accession Cottington was +through his means dismissed from all his employments and +forbidden to appear at court. The duke’s assassination, however, +enabled him to return. On the 12th of November 1628 he was +made a privy councillor, and in March 1629 appointed chancellor +of the exchequer. In the autumn he was again sent ambassador +to Spain; he signed the treaty of peace of the 5th of November +1630, and subsequently a secret agreement arranging for the +partition of Holland between Spain and England in return for the +restoration of the Palatinate. On the 10th of July 1631 he was +created Baron Cottington of Hanworth in Middlesex.</p> + +<p>In March 1635 he was appointed master of the court of wards, +and his exactions in this office were a principal cause of the +unpopularity of the government. He was also appointed a +commissioner for the treasury, together with Laud. Between +Cottington and the latter there sprang up a fierce rivalry. In these +personal encounters Cottington had nearly always the advantage, +for he practised great reserve and possessed great powers of self-command, +an extraordinary talent for dissembling and a fund of +humour. Laud completely lacked these qualities, and though +really possessing much greater influence with Charles, he was +often embarrassed and sometimes exposed to ridicule by his +opponent. The aim of Cottington’s ambition was the place of +lord treasurer, but Laud finally triumphed and secured it for his +own nominee, Bishop Juxon, when Cottington became “no more a +leader but meddled with his particular duties only.”<a name="FnAnchor_1a" id="FnAnchor_1a" href="#Footnote_1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> He continued, +however, to take a large share in public business and +served on the committees for foreign, Irish and Scottish affairs. +In the last, appointed in July 1638, he supported the war, and in +May 1640, after the dismissal of the Short Parliament, he declared +it his opinion that at such a crisis the king might levy money +without the Parliament. His attempts to get funds from the city +were unsuccessful, and he had recourse instead to a speculation in +pepper. He had been appointed constable of the Tower, and he +now prepared the fortress for a siege. In the trial of Strafford in +1641 Cottington denied on oath that he had heard him use the +incriminating words about “reducing this kingdom.” When the +parliamentary opposition became too strong to be any longer +defied, Cottington, as one of those who had chiefly incurred their +hostility, hastened to retire from the administration, giving up +the court of wards in May 1641 and the chancellorship of the +exchequer in January 1642. He rejoined the king in 1643, took +part in the proceedings of the Oxford parliament, and was made +lord treasurer on the 3rd of October 1643. He signed the +surrender of Oxford in July 1646, and being excepted from +the <span class="correction" title="amended from idemnity">indemnity</span> retired abroad. He joined Prince Charles at the +Hague in 1648, and became one of his counsellors. In 1649, +together with Hyde, Cottington went on a mission to Spain to +obtain help for the royal cause, having an interview with Mazarin +at Paris on the way. They met, however, with an extremely +ill reception, and Cottington found he had completely lost his +popularity at the Spanish court, one cause being his shortcomings +and waverings in the matter of religion. He now announced his +intention of remaining in Spain and of keeping faithful to Roman +Catholicism, and took up his residence at Valladolid, where he was +maintained by the Jesuits. He died there on the 19th of June +1652, his body being subsequently buried in Westminster Abbey. +He had amassed a large fortune and built two magnificent houses +at Hanworth and Founthill. Cottington was evidently a man of +considerable ability, but the foreign policy pursued by him was +opposed to the national interests and futile in itself. According +to Clarendon’s verdict “he left behind him a greater esteem of +his parts than love of his person.” He married in 1623 Anne, +daughter of Sir William Meredith and widow of Sir Robert Brett. +All his children predeceased him, and his title became extinct +at his death.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Article in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biography</i> and +authorities there quoted; Clarendon’s <i>Hist. of the Rebellion, passim</i>, +and esp. xiii. 30 (his character), and xii., xiii. (account of the Spanish +mission in 1649); Clarendon’s <i>State Papers and Life</i>; Strafford’s +<i>Letters</i>; Gardiner’s <i>Hist. of England and of the Commonwealth</i>; +Hoare’s <i>Wiltshire</i>; Laud’s <i>Works</i>, vols, iii.-vii.; Winwood’s +<i>Memorials: A Refutation of a False and Impious Aspersion cast +on the late Lord Cottington</i>; Dart, <i>Westmonasterium</i>, i. 181 (epitaph +and monument).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1a" id="Footnote_1a" href="#FnAnchor_1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Strafford’s <i>Letters</i>, ii. 52.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTON,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> the name of a well-known family of Anglo-Indian +administrators, of whom the following are the most notable.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Sir Arthur Thomas Cotton</span> (1803-1899), English engineer, +tenth son of Henry Calveley Cotton, was born on the 15th of May +1803, and was educated at Addiscombe. He entered the Madras +engineers in 1819, served in the first Burmese war (1824-26), and +in 1828 began his life-work on the irrigation works of southern +India. He constructed works on the Cauvery, Coleroon, Godavari +and Kistna rivers, making anicuts (dams) on the Coleroon +(1836-1838) for the irrigation of the Tanjore, Trichinopoly and +South Arcot districts; and on the Godivari (1847-1852) for the +irrigation of the Godavari district. He also projected the anicut +on the Kistna (Krishna), which was carried out by other officers. +Before the beginning of his work Tanjore and the adjoining +districts were threatened with ruin from lack of water; on its +completion they became the richest part of Madras, and Tanjore +returned the largest revenue of any district in India. He was +the founder of the school of Indian hydraulic engineering, and +carried out much of his work in the face of opposition and +discouragement from the Madras government; though, in the +minute of the 15th of May 1858, that government paid an ample +tribute to the genius of Cotton’s “master mind.” He was +knighted in 1861. Sir Arthur Cotton believed in the possibility +of constructing a complete system of irrigation and navigation +canals throughout India, and devoted the whole of a long life to +the partial realization of this project. He died on the 24th of +July 1899.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lady Hope, <i>General Sir Arthur Cotton</i> (1900).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Sir Henry John Stedman Cotton</span> (1845-  ), Anglo-Indian +administrator, son of J. J. Cotton of the Madras Civil +Service, was born on the 13th of September 1845, and was +educated at Magdalen College school and King’s College, London. +He entered the Bengal Civil Service in 1867, and held various +appointments of increasing importance until he became chief +secretary to the Bengal government (1891-1896), acting home +secretary to the government of India (1896), and chief commissioner +of Assam (1896-1902). He retired in 1902, and soon +became known as the leading English champion of the Indian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255"></a>255</span> +nationalists. In 1906 he entered parliament as Liberal member +for East Nottingham. He was the author of <i>New India</i> (1885; +revised 1904-1907).</p> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">James Sutherland Cotton</span> (1847-  ), was +born in India on the 17th of July 1847, and was educated at +Magdalen College school and Trinity College, Oxford. For +many years he was editor of the <i>Academy</i>; he published various +works on Indian subjects, and was the English editor of the +revised edition of the <i>Imperial Gazetteer of India</i> (1908).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTON, CHARLES<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1630-1687), English poet, the translator +of Montaigne, was born at Beresford in Staffordshire on the 28th +of April 1630. His father, Charles Cotton, was a man of marked +ability, and counted among his friends Ben Jonson, John Selden, +Sir Henry Wotton and Izaak Walton. The son was apparently +not sent to the university, but he had as tutor Ralph Rawson, one +of the fellows ejected from Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1648. +Cotton travelled in France and perhaps in Italy, and at the age of +twenty-eight he succeeded to an estate greatly encumbered by +lawsuits during his father’s lifetime. The rest of his life was +spent chiefly in country pursuits, but from his <i>Voyage to Ireland +in Burlesque</i> (1670) we know that he held a captain’s commission +and was ordered to that country. His friendship with Izaak +Walton began about 1655, and the fact of this intimacy seems a +sufficient answer to the charges sometimes brought against +Cotton’s character, based chiefly on his coarse burlesques of +Virgil and Lucian. Walton’s initials made into a cipher with his +own were placed over the door of his fishing cottage on the Dove; +and to the <i>Compleat Angler</i> he added “Instructions how to angle +for a trout or grayling in a clear stream.” He married in 1656 +his cousin Isabella, who was a sister of Colonel Hutchinson. It +was for his wife’s sister, Miss Stanhope Hutchinson, that he +undertook the translation of Corneille’s <i>Horace</i> (1671). His wife +died in 1670 and five years later he married the dowager countess +of Ardglass; she had a jointure of £1500 a year, but it was +secured from his extravagance, and at his death in 1687 he was +insolvent. He was buried in St James’s church, Piccadilly, on +the 16th of February 1687. Cotton’s reputation as a burlesque +writer may account for the neglect with which the rest of his +poems have been treated. Their excellence was not, however, +overlooked by good critics. Coleridge praises the purity and +unaffectedness of his style in <i>Biographia Literaria</i>, and Wordsworth +(<i>Preface</i>, 1815) gave a copious quotation from the “Ode to +Winter.” The “Retirement” is printed by Walton in the second +part of the <i>Compleat Angler</i>. His masterpiece in translation, the +<i>Essays of M. de Montaigne</i> (1685-1686, 1693, 1700, &c.), has +often been reprinted, and still maintains its reputation; his other +works include <i>The Scarronides, or Virgil Travestie</i> (1664-1670), a +gross burlesque of the first and fourth books of the Aeneid, +which ran through fifteen editions; <i>Burlesque upon Burlesque, +... being some of Lucian’s Dialogues newly put into English +fustian</i> (1675); <i>The Moral Philosophy of the Stoicks</i> (1667), from the +French of Guillaume du Vair; <i>The History of the Life of the Duke +d’Espernon</i> (1670), from the French of G. Girard; the <i>Commentaries</i> +(1674) of Blaise de Montluc; the <i>Planter’s Manual</i> +(1675), a practical book on arboriculture, in which he was an +expert; <i>The Wonders of the Peake</i> (1681); the <i>Compleat Gamester</i> +and <i>The Fair one of Tunis</i>, both dated 1674, are also assigned to +Cotton.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>William Oldys contributed a life of Cotton to Hawkins’s edition +(1760) of the <i>Compleat Angler</i>. His <i>Lyrical Poems</i> were edited by +J. R. Tutin in 1903, from an unsatisfactory edition of 1689. His +translation of Montaigne was edited in 1892, and in a more elaborate +form in 1902, by W. C. Hazlitt, who omitted or relegated to the notes +the passages in which Cotton interpolates his own matter, and +supplied his omissions.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1813-1866), English +educationist and divine, was born at Chester on the 29th of +October 1813. He received his education at Westminster school, +and at Trinity College, Cambridge. Here he joined the Low +Church party, and was also the intimate friend of several disciples +of Thomas Arnold, among whom were C. J. Vaughan +and W. J. Conybeare. The influence of Arnold determined the +character and course of his life. He graduated B.A. in 1836, and +became an assistant-master at Rugby. Here he worked devotedly +for fifteen years, inspired with Arnold’s spirit, and heartily entering +into his plans and methods. He became master of the fifth +form about 1840 and was singularly successful with the boys. +In 1852 he accepted the appointment of headmaster at Marlborough +College, then in a state of almost hopeless disorganization, +and in his six years of rule raised it to a high position. In +1858 Cotton was offered the see of Calcutta, which, after much +hesitation about quitting Marlborough, he accepted. For its +peculiar duties and responsibilities he was remarkably fitted by +the simplicity and strength of his character, by his large tolerance, +and by the experience which he had gained as teacher and ruler +at Rugby and Marlborough. The government of India had just +been transferred from the East India Company to the crown, +and questions of education were eagerly discussed. Cotton gave +himself energetically to the work of establishing schools for +British and Eurasian children, classes which had been hitherto +much neglected. He did much also to improve the position of +the chaplains, and was unwearied in missionary visitation. His +sudden death was widely mourned. On the 6th of October 1866 +he had consecrated a cemetery at Kushtea on the Ganges, and +was crossing a plank leading from the bank to the steamer when +he slipped and fell into the river. He was carried away by the +current and never seen again.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A memoir of his life with selections from his journals and correspondence, +edited by his widow, was published in 1871.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTON, JOHN<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1585-1652), English and American Puritan +divine, sometimes called “The Patriarch of New England,” born +in Derby, England, on the 4th of December 1585. He was +educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in 1603 +and M.A. in 1606, and became a fellow in Emmanuel College, +Cambridge, then a stronghold of Puritanism, where, during the +next six years, according to his friend and biographer, Rev. +Samuel Whiting, he was “head lecturer and dean, and Catechist,” +and “a dilligent tutor to many pupils.” In June 1612 he became +vicar of the parish church of St Botolphs in Boston, Lincolnshire, +where he remained for twenty-one years and was extremely +popular. Becoming more and more a Puritan in spirit, he ceased, +about 1615, to observe certain ceremonies prescribed by the +legally authorized ritual, and in 1632 action was begun against +him in the High Commission Court. He thereupon escaped, +disguised, to London, lay in concealment there for several +months, and, having been deeply interested from its beginning in +the colonization of New England, he eluded the watch set for him +at the various English ports, and in July 1633 emigrated to +the colony of Massachusetts Bay, arriving at Boston early in +September. On the 10th of October he was chosen “teacher” of +the First Church of Boston, of which John Wilson (1588-1667) +was pastor, and here he remained until his death on the 23rd +of December 1652. In the newer, as in the older Boston, his +popularity was almost unbounded, and his influence, both in +ecclesiastical and in civil affairs, was probably greater than that +of any other minister in theocratic New England. According to +the contemporary historian, William Hubbard, “Whatever he +delivered in the pulpit was soon put into an order of court, if of a +civil, or set up as a practice in the church, if of an ecclesiastical +concernment.” His influence, too, was generally beneficent, +though it was never used to further the cause of religious freedom, +or of democracy, his theory of government being given in an oft-quoted +passage: “Democracy, I do not conceyve that ever God +did ordeyne as a fitt government eyther for church or commonwealth.... +As for Monarchy and aristocracy they are both for +them clearly approved, and directed in Scripture yet so as (God) +referreth the sovereigntie to himselfe, and setteth up Theocracy +in both, as the best form of government.” He naturally took an +active part in most, if not all, of the political and theological +controversies of his time, the two principal of which were those +concerning Antinomianism and the expulsion of Roger Williams. +In the former his position was somewhat equivocal—he first +supported and then violently opposed Anne Hutchinson,—in the +latter he approved Williams’s expulsion as “righteous in the eyes +of God,” and subsequently in a pamphlet discussion with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>256</span> +Williams, particularly in his <i>Bloudy Tenent, Washed and made +White in the Blood of the Lamb</i> (1647), vigorously opposed +religious freedom. He was a man of great learning and was a +prolific writer. His writings include: <i>The Keyes to the Kingdom +of Heaven and the Power thereof</i> (1644), <i>The Way of the Churches of +Christ in New England</i> (1645), and <i>The Way of Congregational +Churches Cleared</i> (1648), these works constituting an invaluable +exposition of New England Congregationalism; and <i>Milk for +Babes, Drawn out of the Breasts of Both Testaments, Chiefly for +the Spirituall Nourishment of Boston Babes in either England, +but may be of like Use for any Children</i> (1646), widely used for +many years, in New England, for the religious instruction of +children.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the quaint sketch by Cotton Mather, John Cotton’s grandson, +in <i>Magnalia</i> (London, 1702), and a sketch by Cotton’s contemporary +and friend, Rev. Samuel Whiting, printed in Alexander Young’s +<i>Chronicles of the First Planters of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay +from 1623 to 1636</i> (Boston, 1846); also A. W. McClure’s <i>The Life of +John Cotton</i> (Boston, 1846), a chapter in Arthur B. Ellis’s <i>History +of the First Church in Boston</i> (Boston, 1881), and a chapter in Williston +Walker’s <i>Ten New England Leaders</i> (New York, 1901). (<span class="sc">W. Wr.</span>)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> Bart. (1571-1631), English +antiquary, the founder of the Cottonian library, born at Denton +in Huntingdonshire on the 22nd of January 1571, was a +descendant, as he delighted to boast, of Robert Bruce. He was +educated at Westminster school under William Camden the +antiquary, and at Jesus College, Cambridge. His antiquarian +tastes were early displayed in the collection of ancient records, +charters and other manuscripts, which had been dispersed from +the monastic libraries in the reign of Henry VIII.; and throughout +the whole of his life he was an energetic collector of antiquities +from all parts of England and the continent. His house at +Westminster had a garden going down to the river and occupied +part of the site of the present House of Lords. It was the +meeting-place in the last years of Elizabeth’s reign of the antiquarian +society founded by Archbishop Parker. In 1600 Cotton +visited the north of England with Camden in search of Pictish +and Roman monuments and inscriptions. His reputation as an +expert in heraldry led to his being asked by Queen Elizabeth +to discuss the question of precedence between the English +ambassador and the envoy of Spain, then in treaty at Calais. +He drew up an elaborate paper establishing the precedence of +the English ambassador. On the accession of James I. he was +knighted, and in 1608 he wrote a <i>Memorial on Abuses in the +Navy</i>, that resulted in a navy commission, of which he was made a +member. He also presented to the king an historical <i>Inquiry +into the Crown Revenues</i>, in which he speaks freely about the +expenses of the royal household, and asserts that tonnage and +poundage are only to be levied in war time, and to “proceed out +of good will, not of duty.” In this paper he supported the +creation of the order of baronets, each of whom was to pay the +crown £1000; and in 1611 he himself received the title.</p> + +<p>Cotton helped John Speed in the compilation of his <i>History of +England</i> (1611), and was regarded by contemporaries as the +compiler of Camden’s <i>History of Elizabeth</i>. It seems more likely +that it was executed by Camden, but that Cotton exercised a +general supervision, especially with regard to the story of Mary +queen of Scots. The presentation of his mother’s history was +naturally important to James I., and Cotton himself took a keen +interest in the matter. He had had the room in Fotheringay +where Mary was executed transferred to his family seat at +Connington. Meanwhile he was enlarging his collection of +documents. In 1614 Arthur Agarde (<i>q.v.</i>) left his papers to him, +and Camden’s manuscripts came to him in 1623. In 1615 Cotton, +as the intimate of the earl of Somerset, whose innocence he +always maintained, was placed in confinement on the charge of +being implicated in the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury; he +confessed that he had acted as intermediary between Sarmiento, +the Spanish ambassador, and Somerset, and had altered the +dates of Somerset’s correspondence. He was released after +about eight months’ imprisonment without formal trial, and +obtained a pardon on payment of £500. His friendship with +Gondomar, Spanish ambassador in England from 1613 to 1621, +brought further suspicion, probably undeserved, upon Cotton, +of unduly favouring the Catholic party. From Charles I. and +Buckingham Cotton received no favour; his attitude towards +the court had begun to change, and he became the intimate +friend of Sir John Eliot, Sir Simonds d’Ewes and John Selden. +He had entered parliament in 1604 as member for Huntingdon; +in 1624 he sat for Old Sarum; in 1625 for Thetford; and in 1628 +for Castle Rising, Norfolk. In the debate on supply in 1625 +Cotton provided Eliot with full notes defending the action of the +opposition in parliament, and in 1628 the leaders of the party +met at Cotton’s house to decide on their policy. In 1626 he gave +advice before the council against debasing the standard of the +coinage; and in January 1628 he was again before the council, +urging the summons of a parliament. His arguments on the +latter occasion are contained in his tract entitled <i>The Danger in +which the Kingdom now standeth and the Remedy</i>. In October of +the next year he was arrested, together with the earls of +Bedford, Somerset, and Clare, for having circulated, with +ironical purpose, a tract known as the <i>Proposition to bridle +Parliament</i>, which had been addressed some fifteen years before +by Sir Robert Dudley to James I., advising him to govern by +force; the circulation of this by Parliamentarians was regarded +as intended to insinuate that Charles’s government was arbitrary +and unconstitutional. Cotton denied knowledge of the matter, +but the original was discovered in his house, and the copies had +been put in circulation by a young man who lived after him and +was said to be his natural son. Cotton was himself released the +next month; but the proceedings in the star chamber continued, +and, to his intense vexation, his library was sealed up by the +king. He died on the 6th of May 1631, and was buried in +Connington church, Huntingdonshire, where there is a monument +to his memory.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Many of Cotton’s pamphlets were widely read in manuscript +during his lifetime, but only two of his works were printed, <i>The +Reign of Henry III</i>. (1627) and <i>The Danger in which the Kingdom +now Standeth</i> (1628). His son, Sir Thomas (1594-1662), added +considerably to the Cottonian library; and Sir John, the fourth +baronet, presented it to the nation in 1700. In 1731 the collection, +which had in the interval been removed to the Strand, and thence to +Ashburnham House, was seriously damaged by fire. In 1753 it was +transferred to the British Museum.</p> + +<p>See the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Libraries</a></span>, and Edwards’s <i>Lives of the Founders +of the British Museum</i>, vol. i. Several of Cotton’s papers have +been printed under the title <i>Cottoni Posthuma</i>; others were published +by Thomas Hearne.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTON<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (Fr. <i>coton</i>; from Arab, <i>qutun</i>), the most important of +the vegetable fibres of the world, consisting of unicellular hairs +which occur attached to the seeds of various species of plants of +the genus <i>Gossypium</i>, belonging to the Mallow order (Malvaceae). +Each fibre is formed by the outgrowth of a single epidermal cell +of the testa or outer coat of the seed.</p> + +<p><i>Botany and Cultivation.</i>—The genus <i>Gossypium</i> includes herbs +and shrubs, which have been cultivated from time immemorial, +and are now found widely distributed throughout the tropical +and subtropical regions of both hemispheres. South America, +the West Indies, tropical Africa and Southern Asia are the +homes of the various members, but the plants have been introduced +with success into other lands, as is well indicated by the +fact that although no species of <i>Gossypium</i> is native to the +United States of America, that country now produces over two-thirds +of the world’s supply of cotton. Under normal conditions +in warm climates many of the species are perennials, but, in the +United States for example, climatic conditions necessitate the +plants being renewed annually, and even in the tropics it is often +found advisable to treat them as annuals to ensure the production +of cotton of the best quality, to facilitate cultural operations, and +to keep insect and fungoid pests in check.</p> + +<p>Microscopic examination of a specimen of mature cotton shows +that the hairs are flattened and twisted, resembling somewhat +in general appearance an empty and twisted fire hose. This +characteristic is of great economic importance, the natural twist +facilitating the operation of spinning the fibres into thread or +yarn. It also distinguishes the true cotton from the silk cottons +or flosses, the fibres of which have no twist, and do not readily +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>257</span> +spin into thread, and for this reason, amongst others, are very +considerably less important as textile fibres. The chief of these +silk cottons is kapok, consisting of the hairs borne on the interior +of the pods (but not attached to the seeds) of <i>Eriodendron +anfractuosum</i>, the silk cotton tree, a member of the Bombacaceae, +an order very closely allied to the Malvaceae.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:331px; height:538px" src="images/img257.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">From Strasburger’s <i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i>, by +permission of Gustav Fischer.</span><br /><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Seed-hairs of the Cotton, <i>Gossypium +herbaceum</i>. A, Part of seed-coat +with hairs; B<span class="su">1</span>, insertion and lower part; +B<span class="su">2</span>, middle part; and B<span class="su">3</span>, upper part of a +hair.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Classification.</i>—Considerable difficulty is encountered in +attempting to draw up a botanical classification of the species of +<i>Gossypium</i>. Several are only known in cultivation, and we have +but little knowledge of the wild parent forms from which they +have descended. During the periods the cottons have been +cultivated, selection, conscious or unconscious, has been carried +on, resulting in the raising, from the same stock probably, in +different places, of well-marked forms, which, in the absence of the +history of their origin, might be regarded as different species. +Then again, during at least the last four centuries, cotton plants +have been distributed from one country to another, only to render +still more difficult any +attempt to establish definitely +the origin of the +varieties now grown. +Under these circumstances +it is not surprising +to find that +those who have paid +attention to the botany +of the cottons differ +greatly in the number +of species they recognize. +Linnaeus described +five or six +species, de Candolle +thirteen. Of the two +Italian botanists who +in comparatively recent +years have monographed +the group, +Parlatore (<i>Le Specie dei +cotoni</i>, 1866) recognizes +seven species, whilst +Todaro (<i>Relazione sulla +culta dei cotoni</i>, 1877-1878) +describes over +fifty species: many of +these, however, are of +but little economic importance, +and, in spite +of the difficulties mentioned +above, it is +possible for practical +purposes to divide the +commercially important plants into five species, placing these +in two groups according to the character of the hairs borne on +the seeds. Sir G. Watt’s exhaustive work on <i>Wild and Cultivated +Cotton Plants of the World</i> (1907) is the latest authority on the +subject; and his views on some debated points have been incorporated +in the following account.</p> + +<p>A seed of “Sea Island cotton” is covered with long hairs only, +which are readily pulled off, leaving the comparatively small +black seed quite clean or with only a slight fuzz at the end, +whereas a seed of “Upland” or ordinary American cotton bears +both long and short hairs; the former are fairly easily detached +(less easily, however, than in Sea Island cotton), whilst the latter +adhere very firmly, so that when the long hairs are pulled off the +seed remains completely covered with a short fuzz. This is also +the case with the ordinary Indian and African cottons. There +remains one other important group, the so-called “kidney” +cottons in which there are only long hairs, and the seed easily +comes away clean as with “Sea Island,” but, instead of each +seed being separate, the whole group in each of the three compartments +of the capsule is firmly united together in a more or less +kidney-shaped mass. Starting with this as the basis of classification, +we can construct the following key, the remaining principal +points of difference being indicated in their proper places:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> + +<p>i. Seeds covered with long hairs only, flowers yellow, turning to red.</p> + <p class="i2">A. Seeds separate.</p> + <p style="margin-left: 3em">Country of origin, Tropical America—(1) <i>G. barbadense</i>, L.</p> + <p class="i2">B. Seeds of each loculus united.</p> + <p style="margin-left: 3em">Country of origin, S. America—(2) <i>G. brasiliense</i>, Macf.</p> + +<p>ii. Seeds covered with long and short hairs.</p> + + <p class="i2">A. Flowers yellow or white, turning to red.</p> + <p style="margin-left: 6em">a. Leaves 3 to 5 lobed, often large.</p> + <p style="margin-left: 7em">Flowers white.</p> + <p style="margin-left: 7em">Country of origin, Mexico—(3) <i>G. hirsutum</i>, L.</p> + <p style="margin-left: 6em">b. Leaves 3 to 5, seldom 7 lobed. Small.</p> + <p style="margin-left: 7em">Flowers yellow.</p> + <p style="margin-left: 7em">Country of origin, India—(4) <i>G. herbaceum</i>, L.</p> + <p class="i2">B. Flowers purple or red. Leaves 3 to 7 lobed.</p> + <p style="margin-left: 3em">Place of origin, Old World—(5) <i>G. arboreum</i>, L.</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>1. <i>G. barbadense</i>, Linn. This plant, known only in cultivation, +is usually regarded as native to the West Indies. Watt regards it +as closely allied to <i>G. vitifolium</i>, and considers the modern stock a +hybrid, and probably not indigenous to the West Indies. He +classifies the modern high-class Sea Island cottons as <i>G. barbadense</i>, +var. <i>maritima</i>. Whatever may be its true botanical name it +is the plant known in commerce as “Sea Island” cotton, owing to +its introduction and successful cultivation in the Sea Islands and +the coastal districts of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. +It yields the most valuable of all cottons, the hairs being long, +fine and silky, and ranging in length from <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> to 2½ in. By careful +selection (the methods of which are described below) in the +United States, the quality of the product was much improved, +and on the recent revival of the cotton industry in the West Indies +American “Sea Island” seed was introduced back again to the +original home of the species.</p> + +<p>Egyptian cotton is usually regarded as being derived from the +same species. Watt considers many of the Egyptian cottons to +be races or hybrids of <i>G. peruvianum</i>, Cav. Egyptian cotton in +length of staple is intermediate between average Sea Island and +average Upland. It has, however, certain characteristics which +cause it to be in demand even in the United States, where during +recent years Egyptian cotton has comprised about 80% of all the +“foreign” cottons imported. These special qualities are its +fineness, strength, elasticity and great natural twist, which +combined enable it to make very fine, strong yarns, suited to the +manufacture of the better qualities of hosiery, for mixing with +silk and wool, for making lace, &c. It also mercerizes very well. +The principal varieties of Egyptian cotton are: <i>Mitafifi</i>, the best-known +and most extensively grown, hardy and but little affected +by climatic variation. It is usually regarded as the standard +Egyptian cotton; the lint is yellowish brown, the seeds black and +almost smooth, usually with a little tuft of short green hairs at +the ends. <i>Abassi</i>, a variety comparatively recently obtained by +selection. The lint is pure white, very fine and silky, but not so +strong as Mitafifi cotton. <i>Yannovitch</i>, a variety known since +about 1897, yields the finest and most silky lint of the white +Egyptian cottons. <i>Bamia</i>, yielding a brown lint, very similar +to Mitafifi, but slightly less valuable. <i>Ashmouni</i>, a variety +principally cultivated in Upper Egypt. The lint is brown and +generally resembles Mitafifi but is less valuable.</p> + +<p>Other varieties are <i>Zifiri</i>, <i>Hamouli</i> and <i>Gallini</i>, all of minor +importance.</p> + +<p>2. <i>G. brasiliense</i>, Macf. (<i>G. peruvianum</i>, Engler), or kidney +cotton. Amongst the varieties of cotton which are derived from +this species appear to be Pernambuco, Maranham, Ceara, +Aracaty and Maceio cottons. The fibre is generally white, +somewhat harsh and wiry, and especially adapted for mixing +with wool. The staple varies in length from 1 to about 1½ in.</p> + +<p>3. <i>G. hirsutum</i>, Linn. Although <i>G. barbadense</i> yields the most +valuable cotton, <i>G. hirsutum</i> is the most important cotton-yielding +plant, being the source of American cotton, <i>i.e.</i> Upland, +Georgia, New Orleans and Texas varieties. The staple varies +usually in length between ¾ and 1¼ in. According to Watt there +are many hybrids in American cottons between <i>G. hirsutum</i> and +<i>G. mexicanum</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>258</span></p> + +<p>4. <i>G. herbaceum</i>, Linn. Levant cotton is derived from this +species. The majority of the races of cotton cultivated in India +are often referred to this species, which is closely allied to +<i>G. hirsutum</i> and has been regarded as identical with it. Amongst +the cottons of this source are Hinganghat, Tinnevelly, Dharwar, +Broach, Amraoti (Oomras or Oomrawattee), Kumta, Westerns, +Dholera, Verawal, Bengals, Sind and Bhaunagar. Watt dissents +from this view and classes these Indian cottons as <i>G. obtusifolium</i> +and <i>G. Nanking</i> with their varieties. The Indian cottons are +usually of short staple (about ¾ in.), but are probably capable of +improvement.</p> + +<p>5. <i>G. arboreum</i>, Linn. This species is often considered as +indigenous to India, but Dr Engler has pointed out that it is +found wild in Upper Guinea, Abyssinia, Senegal, etc. It is the +“tree cotton” of India and Africa, being typically a large shrub +or small tree. The fibre is fine and silky, of about an inch in +length. In India it is known as Nurma or Deo cotton, and +is usually stated to be employed for making thread for the +turbans of the priests. Commercially it is of comparatively minor +importance.</p> + +<p>The following table, summarized from the <i>Handbook to the +Imperial Institute Cotton Exhibition</i>, 1905, giving the length of +staple and value on one date (January 16, 1905), will serve to +indicate the <i>comparative</i> values of some of the principal commercial +cottons. The actual value, of course, fluctuates greatly.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tccm">Length of Staple.<br />Inches.</td> <td class="tccm">Value<br />Per ℔.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Sea Island Cotton—</td> <td> </td> <td class="tcr">s. d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Carolina Sea Island</td> <td class="tcc">1.8</td> <td class="tcr">1 3 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Florida Sea Island</td> <td class="tcc">1.8</td> <td class="tcr">1 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Georgia Sea Island</td> <td class="tcc">1.7</td> <td class="tcr">11¼</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Barbados Sea Island</td> <td class="tcc">2.0</td> <td class="tcr">1 3 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Egyptian Cottons—</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Yannovitch</td> <td class="tcc">1.5</td> <td class="tcr">9¼</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Abassi</td> <td class="tcc">1.5</td> <td class="tcr">8¾</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Good Brown Egyptian (Mitafifi)</td> <td class="tcc">1.2</td> <td class="tcr">7½</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">American Cotton—</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Good middling Memphis</td> <td class="tcc">1.3</td> <td class="tcr">4<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Good middling Texas</td> <td class="tcc">1.0</td> <td class="tcr">4<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Good middling Upland</td> <td class="tcc">1.0</td> <td class="tcr">4 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Indian Cottons—</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Fine Tinnevelly</td> <td class="tcc">0.8</td> <td class="tcr">4¼</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Fine Bhaunagar</td> <td class="tcc">1.0</td> <td class="tcr">3<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Fine Amraoti</td> <td class="tcc">1.0</td> <td class="tcr">3<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Fine Broach</td> <td class="tcc">0.9</td> <td class="tcr">3<span class="spp">13</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Fine Bengal</td> <td class="tcc">0.9</td> <td class="tcr">3<span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Fine ginned Sind</td> <td class="tcc">0.8</td> <td class="tcr">3<span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Good ginned Kumta</td> <td class="tcc">1.0</td> <td class="tcr">3½</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The close relationship between the length of the staple and the +market price will be at once apparent.</p> + +<p><i>Cultivation.</i>—Cotton is very widely cultivated throughout the +world, being grown on a greater or less scale as a commercial +crop in almost every country included in the broad belt between +latitudes 43° N. and 33° S., or approximately within the +isothermal lines of 60° F.</p> + +<p>The cotton plant requires certain conditions for its successful +cultivation; but, given these, it is very little affected by seasonal +vicissitudes. Thus, for example, in the United States the worst +season rarely diminishes the crop by more than about a quarter or +one-third; such a thing as a “half-crop” is unknown. Various +climatic factors may cause temporary checks, but the growing +and maturing period is sufficiently long to allow the plants to +overcome these disturbances.</p> + +<p>Cotton requires for its development from six to seven months of +favourable weather. It thrives in a warm atmosphere, even in a +very hot one, provided that it is moist and that the transpiration +is not in excess of the supply of water. An idea of the requirements +of the plant will perhaps be afforded by summarizing the +conditions which have been found to give the best results in the +United States.</p> + +<p>During April (when the seed is usually sown) and May +frequent light showers, which keep the ground sufficiently moist +to assist germination and the growth of the young plants, are +desired. Three to four inches of rain per month is the average. +The active growing period is from early June to about the middle +of August. During June and the first fortnight in July plenty of +sunshine is necessary, accompanied by sufficient rain to promote +healthy, but not excessive, growth; the normal rainfall in the +cotton belt for this period is about 4½ in. per month. During the +second portion of July and the first of August a slightly higher +rainfall is beneficial, and even heavy rains do little harm, provided +the subsequent months are dry and warm. The first +flowers usually appear in June, and the bolls ripen from early in +August. Picking takes place normally during September and +October, and during these months dry weather is essential. +Flowering and fruiting go on continually, although in diminishing +degree, until the advent of frost, which kills the flowers and +young bolls and so puts an end to the production of cotton for +the season.</p> + +<p>In the tropics the essential requirements are very similar, but +there the dry season checks production in much the same way as +do the frosts in temperate climates. In either case an adequate +but not excessive rainfall, increasing from the time of sowing to +the period of active growth, and then decreasing as the bolls +ripen, with a dry picking season, combined with sunny days and +warm nights, provide the ideal conditions for successful cotton +cultivation. In regions where climatic conditions are favourable, +cotton grows more or less successfully on almost all kinds of soil; +it can be grown on light sandy soils, loams, heavy clays and +sandy “bottom” lands with varying success. Sandy uplands +produce a short stalk which bears fairly well. Clay and “bottom” +lands produce a large, leafy plant, yielding less lint in proportion. +The most suitable soils are medium grades of loam. The soil +should be able to maintain very uniform conditions of moisture. +Sudden variations in the amount of water supplied are injurious: +a sandy soil cannot retain water; on the other hand a clay soil +often maintains too great a supply, and rank growth with excess +of foliage ensues. The best soil for cotton is thus a deep, well-drained +loam, able to afford a uniform supply of moisture during +the growing period. Wind is another important factor, as +cotton does not do well in localities subject to very high winds; +and in exposed situations, otherwise favourable, wind belts +have at times to be provided.</p> + +<p><i>Cultivation in the United States.</i>—The United States being the +most important cotton-producing country, the methods of +cultivation practised there are first described, notes on methods +adopted in other countries being added only when these differ +considerably from American practice.</p> + +<p>The culture of cotton must be a clean one. It is not necessarily +deep culture, and during the growing season the cultivation is +preferably very shallow. The result is a great destruction of the +humus of the soil, and great leaching and washing, especially in +the light loams of the hill country of the United States. The main +object, therefore, of the American cotton-planter is to prevent +erosion. Wherever the planters have failed to guard their fields +by hillside ploughing and terracing, these have been extensively +denuded of soil, rendering them barren, and devastating other +fields lying at a lower level, which are covered by the wash. The +hillsides have gradually to be terraced with the plough, upon +almost an exact level. On the better farms this is done with a +spirit-level or compass from time to time and hillside ditches put +in at the proper places. In the moist bottom-lands along the +rivers it is the custom to throw the soil up in high beds with the +plough, and then to cultivate them deep. This is the more +common method of drainage, but it is expensive, as it has to be +renewed every few years. More intelligent planters drain their +bottom-lands with underground or open drains. In the case of +small plantations the difficulties of adjusting a right-of-way for +outlet ditches have interfered seriously with this plan. Many +planters question the wisdom of deepbreaking and subsoiling. +There can be no question that a deep soil is better for the cotton-plant; +but the expense of obtaining it, the risk of injuring the +soil through leaching, and the danger of bringing poor soil to the +surface, have led many planters to oppose this plan. Sandy soils +are made thereby too dry and leachy, and it is a questionable +proceeding to turn the heavy clays upon the top. Planters are, +as a result, divided in opinion as to the wisdom of subsoiling. +Nothing definite can be said with regard to a rotation of crops +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>259</span> +upon the cotton plantation. Planters appreciate generally the +value of broad-leaved and narrow-leaved plants and root crops, +but there is an absence of exact knowledge, with the result that +their practices are very varied. It is believed that the rotation +must differ with every variety of soil, with the result that each +planter has his own method, and little can be said in general. A +more careful study of the physical as well as the chemical +properties of a soil must precede intelligent experimentation in +rotation. This knowledge is still lacking with regard to most of +the cotton soils. The only uniform practice is to let the fields +“rest” when they have become exhausted. Nature then restores +them very rapidly. The exhaustion of the soil under cotton +culture is chiefly due to the loss of humus, and nature soon puts +this back in the excellent climate of the cotton-growing belt. +Fields considered utterly used up, and allowed to “rest” for +years, when cultivated again have produced better crops than +those which had been under a more or less thoughtful rotation. +In spite of the clean culture, good crops of cotton have been grown +on some soils in the south for more than forty successive years. +The fibre takes almost nothing from the land, and where the +seeds are restored to the soil in some form, even without other +fertilizers, the exhaustion of the soil is very slow. If the burning-up +of humus and the leaching of the soil could be prevented, there +is no reason why a cotton soil should not produce good crops +continuously for an indefinite time. Bedding up land previous +to planting is almost universal. The bed forms a warm seed-bed +in the cool weather of early spring, and holds the manure which is +drilled in usually to better advantage. The plants are generally +left 2 or 3 in. above the middle of the row, which in four-foot rows +gives a slope of 1 in. to the foot, causing the plough to lean from +the plants in cultivating, and thus to cut fewer roots. The plants +are usually cut out with a hoe from 8 to 14 in. apart. It seems to +make little difference exactly what distance they are, so long as +they are not wider apart on average land than 1 ft. On rich +bottom-land they should be more distant. The seed is dropped +from a planter, five or six seeds in a single line, at regular intervals +10 to 12 in. apart. A narrow deep furrow is usually run immediately +in advance of the planter, to break up the soil under the +seed. The only time the hoe is used is to thin out the cotton in +the row; all the rest of the cultivation is by various forms of +ploughs and so-called cultivators. The question of deep and +shallow culture has been much discussed among planters without +any conclusion applicable to all soils being reached. All grass +and weeds must be kept down, and the crust must be broken +after every rain, but these seem to be the only principles upon +which all agree. The most effective tool against the weeds is a +broad sharp “sweep,” as it is called, which takes everything it +meets, while going shallower than most ploughs. Harrows and +cultivators are used where there are few weeds, and the mulching +process is the one desired.</p> + +<p>The date of cotton-planting varies from March 1 to June 1, +according to situation. Planting begins early in March in +Southern Texas, and the first blooms will appear there about May +15. Planting may be done as late as April 15 in the Piedmont +region of North Carolina, and continue as late as the end of May. +The first blooms will appear in this region about July 15. Picking +may begin on July 10 in Southern Texas, and continue late into +the winter, or until the rare frost kills the plants. It may not +begin until September 10 in Piedmont, North Carolina. It is a +peculiarity of the cotton-plant to lose a great many of its blooms +and bolls. When the weather is not favourable at the fruiting +stage, the otherwise hardy cotton plant displays its great weakness +in this way. It sheds its “forms” (as the buds are called), +blooms, and even half-grown bolls in great numbers. It has +frequently been noted that even well-fertilized plants upon good +soil will mature only 15 or 20% of the bolls produced. No +means are known so far for preventing this great waste. Experts +are at an entire loss to form a correct idea of the cause, or to +apply any effective remedy.</p> + +<p>Cotton-picking is at once the most difficult and most expensive +operation in cotton production. It is paid for at the rate of from +45 to 50 cents per cwt. of seed cotton. The work is light, and +is effectually performed by women and even children, as well as +men; but it is tedious and requires care. The picking season +will average 100 days. It is difficult to get the hands to work +until the cotton is fully opened, and it is hard to induce them to +pick over 100 ℔ a day, though some expert hands are found in +every cotton plantation who can pick twice as much. The loss +resulting from careless work is very serious. The cotton falls out +easily or is dropped. The careless gathering of dead leaves and +twigs, and the soiling of the cotton by earth or by the natural +colouring matter from the bolls, injure the quality. It has been +commonly thought that the production of cotton in the south is +limited by the amount that can be picked, but this limit is +evidently very remote. The negro population of the towns and +villages of the cotton country is usually available for a considerable +share in cotton-picking. There is in the cotton states a rural +population of over 7,000,000, more or less occupied in cotton-growing, +and capable, at the low average of 100 ℔ a day, of +picking daily nearly 500,000 bales. It is evident, therefore, that if +this number could work through the whole season of 100 days, +they could pick three or four times as much cotton as the largest +crop ever made. Great efforts have been made to devise cotton-picking +machines, but, as yet, complete success has not been +attained. Lowne’s machine is useful in specially wide-planted +fields and when the ground is sufficiently hard.</p> + +<p><i>Cotton Ginning.</i>—The crop having been picked, it has to be +prepared for purpose of manufacture. This comprises separating +the fibre or lint from the seeds, the operation being known as +“ginning.” When this has been accomplished the weight of the +crop is reduced to about one-third, each 100 ℔ of seed cotton as +picked yielding after ginning some 33 ℔ of lint and 66 ℔ of cotton +seed. The actual amounts differ with different varieties, conditions +of cultivation, methods of ginning, &c.; a recent estimate +in the United States gives 35% of lint for Upland cotton and +25% for Sea Island cotton as more accurate.</p> + +<p>The separation of lint from seed is accomplished in various +ways. The most primitive is hand-picking, the fibre being +laboriously pulled from off each seed, as still practised in parts +of Africa. In modern commercial cotton production ginning +machines are always used. Very simple machines are used in +some parts of Africa. The simplest cotton gin in extensive use +is the “churka,” used from early times, and still largely employed +in India and China. It consists essentially of two rollers either +both of wood, or one of wood and one of iron, geared to revolve +in contact in opposite directions; the seed cotton is fed to the +rollers, the lint is drawn through, and the seed being unable to +pass between the rollers is rejected. With this primitive machine, +worked by hand, about 5 ℔ of lint is the daily output. In the +Macarthy roller gin, the lint, drawn by a roller covered with +leather (preferably walrus hide), is drawn between a metal plate +called the “doctor” (fixed tangentially to the roller and very +close to it) and a blade called the “beater” or knife, which +rapidly moves up and down immediately behind, and parallel to, +the fixed plate. The lint is held by the roughness of the roller, +and the blade of the knife or beater readily detaches the seed +from the lint; the seed falls through a grid, while the lint passes +over the roller to the other side of the machine. A hand +Macarthy roller gin worked by two men will clean about 4 to 6 ℔ +of lint per hour. A similar, but larger machine, requiring about +1½ horse-power to run it, will turn out 50 to 60 ℔ of Egyptian or +60 to 80 ℔ of Sea Island cleaned cotton per hour. By simple +modifications the Macarthy gin can be used for all kinds of +cotton. Various attempts have been made to substitute a comb +for the knife or beater, and one of the latest productions is the +“Universal fibre gin,” in which a series of blunt combs working +horizontally replace the solid beater and so-called knife of the +Macarthy gin.</p> + +<p>Opposed to the various types of roller gins is the “saw gin,” +invented by Eli Whitney, an American, in 1792. This machine, +under various modifications, is employed for ginning the greater +portion of the cotton grown in the Southern States of America. +It consists essentially of a series of circular notched disks, the +so-called saws, revolving between the interstices of an iron bed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>260</span> +upon which the cotton is placed: the teeth of the “saws”. +catch the lint and pull it off from the seeds, then a revolving +brush removes the detached lint from the saws, and creates +sufficient draught to carry the lint out of the machine to some +distance. Saw gins do considerable damage to the fibre, but for +short-stapled cotton they are largely used, owing to their great +capacity. The average yield of lint per “saw” in the United +States, when working under perfect conditions, is about 6 ℔ per +hour. Some of the American ginners are very large indeed, a +number (<i>Bulletin of the Bureau of the Census on Cotton Production</i>) +being reported as containing on the average 1156 saws +with an average production of 4120 bales of cotton. Saw gins +are not adapted to long-stapled cottons, such as Sea Island +and Egyptian, which are generally ginned by machines of the +Macarthy type.</p> + +<p>The machine which will gin the largest quantity in the shortest +time is naturally preferred, unless such injury is occasioned as +materially to diminish the market value of the cotton. This has +sometimes been to the extent of 1d. or 2d. per ℔ and even more as +regards Sea Island and other long-stapled cottons. The production, +therefore, of the most perfect and efficient cotton-cleaning +machinery is of importance alike to the planter and manufacturer.</p> + +<p><i>Baling.</i>—The cotton leaves the ginning machine in a very loose +condition, and has to be compressed into bales for convenience +of transport. Large baling presses are worked by hydraulic +power; the operation needs no special description. Bales from +different countries vary greatly in size, weight and appearance. +The American bale has been described in a standard American +book on cotton as “the clumsiest, dirtiest, most expensive and +most wasteful package, in which cotton or any other commodity +of like value is anywhere put up.” Suggestions for its improvement, +which if carried out would (it is estimated) result in a +monetary saving of £1,000,000 annually, were made by the +Lancashire Private Cotton Investigation Commission which +visited the Southern States of America in 1906.</p> + +<p>The approximate weights of some of the principal bales on the +English market are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">United States</td> <td class="tcl">500 ℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Indian</td> <td class="tcl">400 ℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Egyptian</td> <td class="tcl">700 ℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Peruvian</td> <td class="tcl">200 ℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Brazilian</td> <td class="tcl">200 to 300 ℔</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">With baling the work of the producer is concluded.</p> + +<p><i>Cultivation in Egypt.</i>—Climatic conditions in Egypt differ +radically from those in the United States, the rainfall being so +small as to be quite insufficient for the needs of the plant, very +little rain indeed falling in the Nile Delta during the whole growing +season of the crop: yet Egypt is in order the third cotton-producing +country of the world, elaborate irrigation works +supplying the crop with the requisite water. The area devoted +to cotton in Egypt is about 1,800,000 acres, and nine-tenths of it +is in the Nile Delta. The delta soil is typically a heavy, black, +alluvial clay, very fertile, but difficult to work; admixture of +sand is beneficial, and the localities where this occurs yield the +best cotton. Formerly in Egypt the cotton was treated as a +perennial, but this practice has been generally abandoned, and +fresh plants are raised from seed each year, as in America; one +great advantage is that more than one crop can thus be obtained +each year. The following rotation is frequently adopted. It +should be noted that in Egypt the year is divided into three +seasons—winter, summer and “Nili.” The two first explain +themselves; Nili is the season in which the Nile overflows its +banks.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tb lb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Summer.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Nili.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">First year</td> <td class="tcl rb">Clover</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cotton</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Second year</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Beans or wheat</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">Corn or fallow</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">For cotton cultivation the land is ploughed, carefully levelled, +and then thrown up into ridges about 3 ft. apart. Channels +formed at right angles to the cultivation ridges provide for the +access of water to the crop. The seeds, previously soaked, are +sown, usually in March, on the sides of the ridges, and the land +watered. After the seedlings appear, thinning is completed in +usually three successive hoeings, the plants being watered after +thinning, and subsequently at intervals of from twelve to fifteen +days, until about the end of August when picking commences. +The total amount of water given is approximately equivalent to a +rainfall of about 35 in. The crop is picked, ginned and baled in +the usual way, the Macarthy style action roller gins being almost +exclusively employed.</p> + +<p><i>Cotton Seed.</i>—The history of no agricultural product contains +more of interest and instruction for the student of economics than +does that of cotton seed in the United States. The revolution in +its treatment is a real romance of industry. Up till 1870 or +thereabouts, cotton seed was regarded as a positive nuisance upon +the American plantation. It was left to accumulate in vast heaps +about ginhouses, to the annoyance of the farmer and the injury +of his premises. Cotton seed in those days was the object of so +much aversion that the planter burned it or threw it into running +streams, as was most convenient. If the seed were allowed to lie +about, it rotted, and hogs and other animals, eating it, often died. +It was very difficult to burn, and when dumped into rivers and +creeks was carried out by flood water to fill the edges of the flats +with a decaying and offensive mass of vegetable matter. Although +used in the early days to a limited extent as a food for milch cows +and other stock, and to a larger extent as a manure, no systematic +efforts were made anywhere in the South to manufacture the +seed until the later ’fifties, when the first cotton seed mills were +established. It is said that there were only seven cotton oil +mills in the South in 1860. The cotton-growing industry was +interrupted by the Civil War, and the seed-milling business did +not begin again until 1868. After that time the number of mills +rapidly increased. There were 25 in the South in 1870, 50 in +1880, 120 in 1890, and about 500 in 1901, about one-third being +in Texas.</p> + +<p>Experience shows that 1000 ℔ of seed are produced for +every 500 ℔ of cotton brought to market. On the basis, +therefore, of a cotton crop of 10,000,000 bales of 500 ℔ +each, there are produced 5,000,000 tons of cotton seed. If +about 3,000,000 tons only are pressed, there remain to be +utilized on the farm 2,000,000 tons of cotton seed, which, if +manufactured, would produce a total of $100,000,000 from cotton +seed. In contrast with the farmers of the ’sixties, the southern +planter of the 20th century appreciates the value of his cotton +seed, and farmers, too remote from the mills to get it pressed, +now feed to their stock all the cotton seed they conveniently can, +and use the residue either in compost or directly as manure. +The average of a large number of analyses of Upland cotton seed +gives the following figures for its fertilizing constituents:—Nitrogen, +3.07%; phosphoric acid, 1.02%; potash, 1.17%; +besides small amounts of lime, magnesia and other valuable but +less important ingredients. Sea Island cotton seed is rather more +valuable than Upland: the corresponding figures for the three +principal constituents being nitrogen 3.51, phosphoric acid 1.69, +potash 1.59%. Using average prices paid for nitrogen, phosphoric +acid and potash when bought in large quantities and in good +forms, these ingredients, in a ton of cotton seed, amount to +$9.00 worth of fertilizing material. Compared with the commercial +fertilizer which the farmer has to buy, cotton seed +possesses, therefore, a distinct value.</p> + +<p>The products of cotton seed have become important elements +in the national industry of the United States. The main product +is the refined oil, which is used for a great number of purposes, +such as a substitute for olive oil, mixed with beef products for +preparation of compound lard, which is estimated to consume +one-third of cotton seed oil produced in the States. The poorer +grades are employed in the manufacture of soap, candles and +phonograph records. Miners’ lamp oil consists of the bleached +oil mixed with kerosene. Cotton seed cake or meal (the residue +after the oil is extracted) is one of the most valuable of feeding +stuffs, as the following simple comparison between it and oats and +corn will show:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>261</span></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Average Analyses.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Proteins<br />or Flesh<br />Formers.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Carbohydrates<br />or Fuel and<br />Fat Suppliers.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Fats.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Ash or Bone<br />Makers.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cotton seed meal</td> <td class="tccm rb">43.26</td> <td class="tccm rb">22.31</td> <td class="tccm rb">13.45</td> <td class="tccm rb">7.02</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Corn</td> <td class="tccm rb">10.5 </td> <td class="tccm rb">70.0 </td> <td class="tccm rb"> 5.5 </td> <td class="tccm rb">1.02</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Oats</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">17.0 </td> <td class="tccm rb bb">65.0 </td> <td class="tccm rb bb"> 8.0 </td> <td class="tccm rb bb">1.2 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Cotton seed meal, though poor in carbohydrates, the fat- and +energy-supplying ingredients, is exceedingly rich in protein, the +nerve- and muscle-feeding ingredients. But it still contains a +large amount of oil, which forms animal fat and heat, and thus +makes up for part of its deficiency in carbohydrates. The meal, +in fact, is so rich in protein that it is best utilized as a food for +animals when mixed with some coarse fodder, thus furnishing a +more evenly-balanced ration. In comparative valuations of +feeding stuffs it has been found that cotton seed meal exceeds +corn meal by 62%, wheat by 67%, and raw cotton seed by 26%. +Cotton seed meal, in the absence of sufficient stock to consume it, +is also used extensively as a fertilizer, and for this purpose it is +worth, determining the price on the same basis as used above for +the seed, from $19 to $20 per ton. But it has seldom reached +this price, except in some of the northern states, where it is used +for feeding purposes. A more rational proceeding would be to +feed the meal to animals and apply the resulting manure to the +soil. When this is done, from 80 to 90% of the fertilizing +material of the meal is recovered in the manure, only 10 to 20% +being converted by the animal into meat and milk. The profit +derived from the 20% thus removed is a very large one. These +facts indicate that we have here an agricultural product the +market price of which is still far below its value as compared, on +the basis of its chemical composition, either with other feeding +stuffs or with other fertilizers. Though it is probably destined to +be used even more extensively as a fertilizer before the demand +for it as a feeding stuff becomes equal to the supply, practically +all the cotton seed meal of the south will ultimately be used for +feeding. One explanation of this condition of things is that +there is still a large surplus of cotton seed which cannot be +manufactured by the mills. Another reason is found in the +absence of cattle in the south to eat it.</p> + +<p>With the consideration of cotton seed oil and meal we have +not, however, exhausted its possibilities. Cotton seed hulls +constitute about half the weight of the ginned seed. After the +seed of Upland cotton has been passed through a fine gin, which +takes off the short lint or linters left upon it by the farmer, it is +passed through what is called a sheller, consisting of a revolving +cylinder, armed with numerous knives, which cut the seed in two +and force the kernels or meats from the shells. The shells and +kernels are then separated in a winnowing machine. This +removal of the shell makes a great difference in the oilcake, as +the decorticated cake is more nutritious than the undecorticated. +For a long time these shells or hulls, as they are called, +were burned at oil mills for fuel, 2½ tons being held equal +to a cord of wood, and 4<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> tons to a ton of coal. The hulls +thus burned produced an ash containing an average of 9% of +phosphoric acid and 24% of potash—a very valuable fertilizer +in itself, and one eagerly sought by growers of tobacco and +vegetables. It was not long, however, before the stock-feeder in +the South found that cotton seed hulls were an excellent substitute +for hay. They are used on a very large scale in the vicinity of +oil mills in southern cities like Memphis, New Orleans, Houston, +and Little Rock, from 500 to 5000 cattle being often collected in +a single yard for this purpose. No other feed is required, the +only provision necessary being an adequate supply of water and +an occasional allowance of salt. Many thousands of cattle are +fattened annually in this way at remarkably low cost.</p> + +<p>Careful attention is now given to the employment of the seed +in new cotton countries, and oil expression is practised in the +West Indies. Hull is the principal seat of the industry in Great +Britain, and enormous quantities of Indian and Egyptian cotton +seed are imported and worked up.</p> + +<p>The following diagram, modified from one by Grimshaw, in +accordance with the results obtained by the better class of +modern mills, gives an interesting <i>résumé</i> of the products obtained +from a ton of cotton seed:—</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Products from a Ton of Cotton Seed.</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter1"> +<img style="border:0; width:494px; height:402px" + src="images/img261.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="center1"><i>Pests and Diseases of the Cotton Plant.</i></p> + +<p><i>Insect Pests.</i>—It is common knowledge that when any plant is +cultivated on a large scale various diseases and pests frequently +appear. In some cases the pest was already present but of minor +importance. As the supply of its favourite food plant is increased, +conditions of life for the pest are improved, and it accordingly +multiplies also, possibly becoming a serious hindrance to successful +cultivation. At other times the pest is introduced, and under +congenial conditions (and possibly in the absence of some other +organism which keeps it in check in its native country) increases +accordingly. Some idea of the enormous damage wrought by the +collective attacks of individually small and weak animals may be +gathered from the fact that a conservative estimate places the +loss due to insect attacks on cotton in the United States at the +astounding figure of $60,000,000 (£12,000,000) annually. Of this +total no less than $40,000,000 (£8,000,000) is credited to a small +beetle, the cotton boll weevil, and to two caterpillars. The best +means of combating these attacks depends on a knowledge of the +life-histories and habits of the pests. The following notes deal +only with the practical side of the question, and as the United +States produce some seven-tenths of the world’s cotton crop +attention is especially directed to the principal cotton pests of +that country. Those of other regions are only referred to when +sufficiently important to demand separate notice.</p> + +<p>The cotton boll weevil (<i>Anthonomus grandis</i>), a small grey +weevil often called the Mexican boll weevil, is the most serious +pest of cotton in the United States, where the damage done by it +in 1907 was estimated at about £5,000,000. It steadily increased +in destructiveness during the preceding eight years. Attention was +drawn to it in 1862, when it caused the abandonment of cotton +cultivation about Monclova in Mexico. About 1893 it appeared +in Texas, and then rapidly spread. It is easily transported from +place to place in seed-cotton, and for this reason the Egyptian +government in 1904 prohibited the importation of American +cotton seed. Not only is the pest carried from place to place, +but it also migrates, and in 1907 it crossed from Louisiana, +where it first appeared in 1905, to Mississippi. That the insect +is likely to prove adaptable is perhaps indicated by the fact that +in 1906 it made a northward advance of about 60 m. in a season +with no obvious special features favouring the pest. Its eastern +progress was also rapid. “The additional territory infested +during 1904 aggregates about 15,000,000 sq. m., representing +approximately an area devoted to the culture of cotton of +900,000 acres” (<i>Year-book, U.S. Dept. Agriculture</i>, 1904). In +1906 the additional area invaded amounted to 1,500,000 acres +(<i>Ibid.</i>, 1906).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>262</span></p> + +<p>The adult weevils puncture the young flower-buds and deposit +eggs; and as the grubs from the eggs develop, the bud drops. +They also lay eggs later in the year in the young bolls. These do +not drop, but as the grubs develop the cotton is ruined and the +bolls usually become discoloured and crack, their contents +being rendered useless.</p> + +<p>No certain remedy is known for the destruction on a commercial +scale of the boll weevil, but every effort has been made in +the United States to check the advance of the insect, to ascertain +and encourage its natural enemies, and to propagate races of +cotton which resist its attacks. Special interest attaches to the +investigations made by Mr O. F. Cook, of the U.S. Dept. of +Agriculture, in Guatemala. The Indians in part of Guatemala +raise cotton, although the boll weevil is abundant. Examination +showed that although the weevil attacked the young buds these +did not drop off, but that a special growth of tissue inside the bud +frequently killed the grub. Also, inside the young bolls which +had been pierced a similar <span class="correction" title="amended from poliferation">proliferation</span> or growth of the tissue +was set up, which enveloped and killed the pest. Probably by +unconscious selection of surviving plants through long ages this +type has been evolved in Guatemala, and experiments have been +made to develop weevil-resistant races in the United States. +Mr Cook also found that the boll weevil was attacked, killed and +eaten by an ant-like creature, the “kelep.” Attempts have been +made to introduce this into the infested area in Texas; but owing +to the winter proving fatal to the “kelep” its usefulness may be +restricted to tropical and subtropical regions.</p> + +<p>The cotton boll worm (<i>Chloridea obsoleta</i>, also known as <i>Heliothis +armiger</i>) is a caterpillar. The parent moth lays eggs, from which +the young “worms” hatch out. They bore holes and penetrate into +flower-buds and young bolls, causing them to drop. Fortunately +the “worms” prefer maize to cotton, and the inter-planting at +proper times of maize, to be cut down and destroyed when well +infested, is a method commonly employed to keep down this pest. +Paris green kills it in its young stages before it has entered the buds +or bolls. The boll worm is most destructive in the south-western +states, where the damage done is said to vary from 2 to 60% +of the crop. Taking a low average of 4%, the annual loss due to +the pest is estimated at about £2,500,000, and it occupies second +place amongst the serious cotton pests of the U.S.A. The boll +worm is widely spread through the tropical and temperate +zones. It may occur in a country without being a pest to cotton, +<i>e.g.</i> in India it attacks various plants but not cotton. It has not +yet been reported as a cotton pest in the West Indies.</p> + +<p>The Egyptian boll worm (<i>Earias insulana</i>) is the most +important insect pest in Egypt and occurs also in other parts of +Africa. Indian boll worms include the same species, and the +closely related <i>Earias fabia</i>, which also occurs in Egypt.</p> + +<p>The cotton worm (<i>Aletia argillacea</i>)—also called cotton +caterpillar, cotton army worm, cotton-leaf worm—is also one +stage in the life-history of a moth. It is a voracious creature, and +unchecked will often totally destroy a crop. In former years the +annual damage done by it in the United States was assessed at +£4,000,000 to £6,000,000. Dusting with Paris green is, however, +an efficient remedy <i>if promptly applied at the outset of the attack</i>. +The annual damage was in 1906 reduced to £1,000,000 to +£2,000,000, and this on a larger area devoted to cotton than in +the case of the estimate given above. It is the most serious pest +of cotton in the West Indies. The Egyptian cotton worm is +<i>Prodenia littoralis</i>.</p> + +<p>The caterpillars (“cut worms”) of various species of <i>Agrotis</i> +and other moths occur in all parts of the world and attack young +cotton. They can be killed by spreading about cabbage leaves, +&c., poisoned with Paris green.</p> + +<p>Locusts, green-fly, leaf-bugs, blister mites, and various other +pests also damage cotton, in a similar way to that in which they +injure other crops.</p> + +<p>The “cotton stainers,” various species of <i>Dysdercus</i>, are widely +distributed, occurring for example in America, the West Indies, +Africa, India, &c. The larvae suck the sap from the young bolls +and seeds, causing shrivelling and reduction in quantity of fibre. +They are called “stainers” because their excrement is yellow +and stains the fibre; also if crushed during the process of +ginning they give the cotton a reddish coloration. The Egyptian +cotton seed bug or cotton stainer belongs to another genus, being +<i>Oxycarenus hyalinipennis</i>. Other species of this genus occur on +the west coast of Africa. They do considerable damage to cotton +seed.</p> + +<p><i>Fungoid Diseases.</i>—“Wilt disease,” or “frenching,” perhaps +the most important of the fungoid disease of cotton in the United +States, is due to <i>Neocosmospora vasinfecta</i>. Young plants a few +inches high are usually attacked; the leaves, beginning with the +lower ones, turn yellow, and afterwards become brown and drop. +The plants remain very dwarf and generally unhealthy, or die. +The roots also are affected, and instead of growing considerably in +length, branch repeatedly and give rise to little tufts of rootlets. +There is no method known of curing this disease, and all that can +be done is to take every precaution to eradicate it, by pulling up +and burning diseased plants, isolating the infected area by means +of trenches, and avoiding growing cotton, or an allied plant such +as the ochro (<i>Hibiscus esculentus</i>), in the field. Fortunately the +careful work of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and of planters +such as Mr E. L. Rivers of James Island, South Carolina, has +resulted in the production of disease-resistant races. In one +instance Mr Rivers found one healthy plant in a badly affected +field. The seed was saved and gave rise to a row of plants all of +which grew healthily in an infected field, whereas 95% of +ordinary Sea Island cotton plants from seed from a non-infected +field planted alongside as a control were killed. The resistance +was well maintained in succeeding generations, and races so +raised form a practical means of combating this serious disease.</p> + +<p>In “Root rot,” as the name implies, the roots are attacked, the +fungus being a species of <i>Ozonium</i>, which envelops the roots in a +white covering of mould or mycelium. The roots are prevented +from fulfilling their function of taking up water and salts from the +soil; the leaves accordingly droop, and the whole plant wilts and +in bad attacks dies. It has yearly proved a more serious danger +in Texas and other parts of the south-west of the United States, +and the damage due to it in Texas during 1905 was estimated at +about £750,000. No remedy is known for the disease, and +cotton should not be planted on infected land for at least three or +four years.</p> + +<p>“Boll rot,” or “Anthracnose,” is a disease which may at times +be sufficiently serious to destroy from 10 to 50% of the crop. +The fungus which causes it (<i>Colletotrichum gossypii</i>) is closely +related to one of the fungi attacking sugar-cane in various parts +of the world. Small red-brown spots appear on the bolls, +gradually enlarge, and develop into irregular black and grey +patches. The damage may be only slight, or the entire boll may +ripen prematurely and become dry and dead.</p> + +<p>Many other diseases occur, but the above are sufficient to +indicate some of the principal ones in the most important cotton +countries of the world.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Improvement of Cotton by Seed Selection.</i></p> + +<p>In the cotton belt of the United States it would be possible to +put a still greater acreage under this crop, but the tendency is +rather towards what is known as “diversified” or mixed farming +than to making cotton the sole important crop. Cotton, however, +is in increasing demand, and the problem for the American +cotton planter is to obtain a better yield of cotton from the same +area,—by “better yield” meaning an increase not only in +quantity but also in quality of lint. This ideal is before the +cotton grower in all parts of the world, but practical steps are not +always taken to realize it. Some of the United States planters are +alert to take advantage of the application of science to industry, +and in many cases even to render active assistance, and very +successful results have been attained by the co-operation of the +United States Department of Agriculture and planters. With +the improvement of cotton the name of Mr Herbert J. Webber +is prominently associated, and a full discussion of methods and +results will be found in his various papers in the <i>Year-books</i> of +the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The principle on which +the work is based is that plants have their individualities +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>263</span> +and tend to transmit them to their progeny. Accordingly a +selection of particular plants to breed from, because they possess +certain desirable characteristics, is as rational as the selection of +particular animals for breeding purposes in order to maintain the +character of a herd of cattle or of a flock of sheep.</p> + +<p>Inspection of a field of cotton shows that different plants vary +as regards productiveness, length, and character of the lint, +period of ripening, power of resistance to various pests and of +withstanding drought. A simple method of increasing the yield +is that practised with success by some growers in the States. +Pickers are trained to recognize the best plants, “that is, those +most productive, earliest in ripening, and having the largest, +best formed and most numerous bolls.” These pickers go +carefully over the field, usually just before the second picking, +and gather ripe cotton from the best plants only; this selected +seed cotton is ginned separately, and the seed used for sowing the +next year’s crop.</p> + +<p>A more elaborate method of selection is practised by some of the +Sea Island cotton planters in the Sea Islands, famous for the quality +of their cotton. A field is gone over carefully, and perhaps some +50 of the best plants selected; a second examination in the field +reduces these perhaps to one half, and each plant is numbered. +The cotton from each is collected and kept separately, and at the +end of the season carefully examined and weighed, and a final +selection is then made which reduces the number to perhaps five; +the cotton from each of these plants is ginned separately and the +seed preserved for sowing. The simplest possible case in which +only one plant is finally selected is illustrated in the diagram.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:493px; height:331px" src="images/img263.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Webber, <i>Year-book, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture</i>, 1902.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Improvement of Cotton by Seed Selection.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">From the seeds of the selected plant of the 1st year about 500 +plants can be raised in the next year. One plant is selected +again from these 500, and the general crop of seed is used to sow +about five acres for the 3rd year, from which seed is obtained for +the general crop in the 4th year. One special plant is selected +each year from the 500 raised from the previous season’s test +plant, and in four years’ time the progeny of this plant constitutes +the “general crop.” The practice may be modified +according to the size of estate by selecting more than one +plant each year, but the principle remains unaltered. This +method is in actual use by growers of Sea Island cotton in +America and in the islands off the coast of S. Carolina; the +greatest care is taken to enhance the quality of the lint, which +has been gradually improved in length, fineness and silkiness. +Mr Webber, in summing up, says, “When Sea Island cotton was +first introduced into the United States from the West Indies, it +was a perennial plant, unsuited to the duration of the season of +the latitude of the Sea Islands of S. Carolina; but, through the +selection of seed from early maturing individual plants, the +cotton has been rendered much earlier, until now it is thoroughly +adapted to the existing conditions. The fibre has increased in +length from about 1¾ to 2½ in., and the plants have at the same +time been increased in productiveness. The custom of carefully +selecting the seed has grown with the industry and may be said +to be inseparable from it. It is only by such careful and continuous +selection that the staple of these high-bred strains can be +kept up to its present superiority, and if for any reason the +selection is interrupted there is a general and rapid decline in +quality.”</p> + +<p>When selection is being made for several characters at the +same time, and also in hybridization experiments, where it is +important to have full records of the characters of individual +plants and their progeny, “score cards,” such as are used in +judging stock, with a scale of points, are used.</p> + +<p>The improvements desired in cotton vary to some degree in +different countries, according to the present character of the +plants, climatic conditions, the chief pests, special market +requirements, and other circumstances. Amongst the more +important desiderata are:—</p> + +<p>1. Increased Yield.</p> + +<p>2. Increase in Length of Lint.—Webber records the case of +Stamm Egyptian cotton imported into Columbia, in which by +simple selection, as outlined above, during two years plants were +obtained uniformly earlier, more productive, and yielding longer +and better lint.</p> + +<p>3. Uniformity in Length of the Lint.—This is important especially +in the long-stapled cottons, unevenness leading to waste in +manufacture, and consequently to a lower price for the cotton.</p> + +<p>4. Strength of Fibre.—Long-stapled cottons have been produced +in the States by crossing Upland and Sea Island cotton. +These hybrids produce a lint which is long and silky, but often +deficient in strength: selection for strength amongst the hybrids, +with due regard to length, may overcome this.</p> + +<p>5. Season of Maturing.—Seed should be selected from early +and late opening bolls, according to requirements. Earliness is +especially important in countries where the season is short.</p> + +<p>6. Adaptation to Soil and Climate.—High-class cottons often +do not flourish if introduced into a new country. They are +adapted to special conditions which are lacking in their new +surroundings, but a few will probably do fairly well the first year, +and the seeds from these probably rather better the next, and so +on, so that in a few years’ time a strain may be available which is +equal or even superior to the original one introduced.</p> + +<p>7. Resistance to Disease.—The method employed is to select, +for seed purposes, plants which are resistant to the particular +disease. Thus sometimes a field of cotton is attacked by some +disease, perhaps “wilt,” and a comparatively few plants are but +very slightly affected. These are propagated, and there are +instances as described above of very successful and commercially +important results having been attained. Special interest attaches +to experiments made in the United States to endeavour to raise +races of cotton resistant to the boll weevil.</p> + +<p>8. Resistance to Weather.—Strong winds and heavy rains do +much damage to cotton by blowing or beating the lint out of the +bolls. In some instances a slight difference in the shape, mode of +opening, &c., of the boll prevents this, and accordingly seed is +selected from bolls which suffer least under the particular +adverse conditions.</p> + +<p>Attention has been paid in the West Indies to seed selection, by +the officers of the imperial Department of Agriculture, with the +object of retaining for West Indian Sea Island cotton its place as +the most valuable cotton on the British market.</p> + +<p>In India, where conditions are much more diversified and it +is more difficult to induce the native cultivator to adopt new +methods, attention has also been directed during recent years +to the improvement of the existing races. Efforts have been +made in the same direction in Egypt, West Africa, &c.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>The World’s Commercial Cotton Crop.</i></p> + +<p>It is impossible to give an exact return of the total amount of +cotton produced in the world, owing to the fact that in China, +India and other eastern countries, in Mexico, Brazil, parts of the +Russian empire, tropical Africa, &c., considerable—in some eases +very large—quantities of cotton are made up locally into wearing +apparel, &c., and escape all statistical record. It is estimated +that the amount thus used in India exclusive of the consumption +of mills is equivalent to about 400,000 bales. Neglecting, however, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>264</span> +these quantities, which do not affect the world’s market, the +annual supplies of cotton are approximately as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Country.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Approximate<br />Production.<br />Bales of 500 ℔.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Percentage.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States of America</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">68.75</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">India</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.75</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Egypt</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">All other countries</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.25</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb"> Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">16,000,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">In 1905 the world’s crop closely approximated to 16,000,000 +bales, whilst in 1904 it was nearly 19,000,000 bales and in 1906 +nearly 20,000,000 bales. The United States produced very nearly +seven-tenths of the total “visible” cotton crops of the world. +This, however, is quite a modern development, comparatively +speaking. “During the period from 1786 to 1790 the West +Indies furnished about 70% of the British supply, the Mediterranean +countries 20%, and Brazil 8%; whilst the quantity +contributed by the United States and India was less than 1% and +Egypt contributed none. In 1906 the United States contributed +65% of the commercial cotton, British India 19%, Egypt 7%, +and Russia 3%. Of the countries which were prominent in the +production of cotton in 1790, Brazil and Asiatic Turkey alone +remain” (<i>U.S.A. Bureau of the Census, Bulletin No. 76</i>). The +actual figures for the chief countries for 1904-1906, taken from +the same source, are as follows:—</p> + +<p class="center1"><i>The World’s Commercial Cotton Crop.</i> (In 500 ℔ Bales.)</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Country.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1905.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1906.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,085,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,340,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,016,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British India</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,843,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,519,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,708,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Egypt</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,258,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,181,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,400,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia</td> <td class="tcr rb">554,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">585,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">675,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">China</td> <td class="tcr rb">468,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">415,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">418,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brazil</td> <td class="tcr rb">210,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">258,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">275,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mexico</td> <td class="tcr rb">114,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">125,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">130,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Peru</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">55,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">55,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Turkey</td> <td class="tcr rb">100,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">107,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">107,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Persia</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Japan</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Other countries</td> <td class="tcr rb">70,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">100,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">100,000</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">18,803,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">15,747,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">19,942,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>This title serves to indicate the principal countries contributing +to the world’s supply of cotton. The following notes afford a +summary of the position of the industry in the more important +countries.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">States and Territories.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Upland Cotton.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Sea Island Cotton.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Total Value.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Quantity.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Value.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Quantity.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Value.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">$</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">$</td> <td class="tcc rb">$</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alabama</td> <td class="tcr rb">603,651,989</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,425,564</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,425,564</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Arkansas</td> <td class="tcr rb">450,991,361</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,144,235</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,144,235</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Florida</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,876,133</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,789,401</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,031,896</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,587,638</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,377,039</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Georgia</td> <td class="tcr rb">750,762,910</td> <td class="tcr rb">75,151,367</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,950,634</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,850,857</td> <td class="tcr rb">78,002,224</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Indian Territory</td> <td class="tcr rb">196,648,765</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,684,542</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,684,542</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kansas</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,844</td> <td class="tcr rb">985</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">985</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kentucky</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,008,290</td> <td class="tcr rb">100,930</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">100,930</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Louisiana</td> <td class="tcr rb">473,222,310</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,369,553</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,369,553</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mississippi</td> <td class="tcr rb">732,755,978</td> <td class="tcr rb">73,348,874</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">73,348,874</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Missouri</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,040,093</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,606,613</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,606,613</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">New Mexico</td> <td class="tcr rb">74,340</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,442</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,442</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North Carolina</td> <td class="tcr rb">276,215,506</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,649,172</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,649,172</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oklahoma</td> <td class="tcr rb">233,396,905</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,363,030</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,363,030</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">South Carolina</td> <td class="tcr rb">415,386,362</td> <td class="tcr rb">41,580,175</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,723,859</td> <td class="tcr rb">999,656</td> <td class="tcr rb">42,579,831</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tennessee</td> <td class="tcr rb">146,569,434</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,671,600</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,671,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Texas</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,001,181,289</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,318,247</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,318,247</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Virginia</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6,609,963</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">661,657</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">661,657</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Total—United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,332,401,472</td> <td class="tcc rb">633,873,387</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,706,389</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,438,151</td> <td class="tcr rb">640,311,538</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">( = 12,644,803</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">( = 43,413</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb">bales)</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">bales)</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>United States of America.</i>—The cultivation of cotton as a staple +crop in the United States dates from about 1770,<a name="FnAnchor_1b" id="FnAnchor_1b" href="#Footnote_1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> although +efforts appear to have been made +in Virginia as far back as 1621. +The supplies continued to be small +up to the end of the century. +In 1792 the quantity exported +from the United States was only +equivalent to 275 bales, but by the year 1800 it had increased to +nearly 36,000 bales. At the close of the war in 1815 the revival +of trade led to an increased demand, and the progress of +cotton cultivation in America became rapid and continuous, +until at length about 85% of the raw material used by English +manufacturers was derived from this one source. With a +capacity for the production of cotton almost boundless, the crop +which was so insignificant when the century began had in 1860 +reached the enormous extent of 4,824,000 bales. This great +source of supply, when apparently most abundant and secure, +was shortly after suddenly cut off, and thousands were for a time +deprived of employment and the means of subsistence. In this +period of destitution the cotton-growing resources of every part +of the globe were tested to the utmost; and in the exhibition of +1862 the representatives of every country from which supplies +might be expected met to concert measures for obtaining all that +was wanted without the aid of America. The colonies and +dependencies of Great Britain, including India, seemed well able +to grow all the cotton that could be required, whilst numerous +other countries were ready to afford their co-operation. A +powerful stimulus was thus given to the growth of cotton in all +directions; a degree of activity and enterprise never witnessed +before was seen in India, Egypt, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Africa, +the West Indies, Queensland, New South Wales, Peru, Brazil, and +in short wherever cotton could be produced; and there seemed +no room to doubt that in a short time there would be abundant +supplies independently of America. But ten years afterwards, +in the exhibition of 1872, which was specially devoted to cotton, +a few only of the <i>thirty-five</i> countries which had sent their samples +in 1862 again appeared, and these for the most part only to bear +witness to disappointment and failure. America had re-entered +the field of competition, and was rapidly gaining ground so as to +be able to bid defiance to the world. True, the supply from India +had been more than doubled, the adulteration once so rife had +been checked, and the improved quality and value of the cotton +had been fully acknowledged, but still the superiority of the +produce of the United States was proved beyond all dispute, and +American cotton was again king. Slave labour disappeared, and +under new and more promising auspices a fresh career of progress +began. With rare combination of facilities and advantages, made +available with remarkable skill and enterprise, the production of +cotton in America seems likely for a long series of years to +continue to increase in magnitude and importance. The total +area of the cotton-producing region in the States is estimated at +448,000,000 acres, of which in 1906 only about one acre in fifteen +was devoted to cotton. The potentialities of the region are +thus enormous.</p> + +<p>Cotton is now the second crop of the United States, being +surpassed in value only by Indian corn (maize). The area +devoted to this crop in 1879 was 14,480,019 acres, and the total +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>265</span> +commercial crop was 5,755,359 bales. In 1899 the acreage had +increased to 24,275,101 and the crop to 9,507,786 bales. In 1906 +the total area was 28,686,000 acres and the crop 13,305,265 bales.</p> + +<p>The preceding table gives the quantity, value and character of +the crop for each of the cotton-growing states in 1906, as reported +by the Bureau of the Census.</p> + +<p><i>Mexico.</i>—Cotton is extensively grown in Mexico, and large +quantities are used for home consumption. The cultivation is of +very old standing. Cortes in 1519 is said to have received cotton +garments as presents from the natives of Yucatan, and to +have found the Mexicans using cotton extensively for clothing. +From 1900 to 1905 the crop was about 100,000 bales per annum; +the whole is consumed in local mills, and cotton is imported also +from the United States.</p> + +<p><i>Brazil.</i>—The cotton-growing region in Brazil comprises a belt +some 200 m. in width, in the north-eastern portion of the country, +and a strip along the valley of the San Francisco, where a large +amount of the present crop is produced. The cotton is known in +commerce under the name of the place of export, <i>e.g.</i> Maceio, +Pernambuco or Pernam, Ceãra, Rio Grande, &c. The export +fluctuates greatly.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc">Bales of 500 ℔.</td> <td class="tcc">Approx. Value.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1901</td> <td class="tcr">53,002</td> <td class="tcr">£500,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1902</td> <td class="tcr">143,963</td> <td class="tcr">1,200,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1903</td> <td class="tcr">126,896</td> <td class="tcr">1,300,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1904</td> <td class="tcr">59,413</td> <td class="tcr">800,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1905</td> <td class="tcr">107,887</td> <td class="tcr">1,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1906</td> <td class="tcr">142,972</td> <td class="tcr">1,500,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The total production in 1906 was estimated at about 275,000 +bales, but only a portion was available for export, there being an +increasing consumption in Brazil itself.</p> + +<p><i>Peru.</i>—Cotton is an important crop in Peru, where it has +long been cultivated. Most of the crop is grown in the irrigated +coastal valleys. With more water available, the output could +be considerably increased, <i>e.g.</i> in the Piura district. “Rough +Peruvian,” the produce of one of the tree cottons, has a special +use, as being rather harsh and wiry it is well adapted for mixing +with wool. Egyptian cotton is also grown. The annual export +is about 30,000 bales.</p> + +<p class="center pt1"><i>Cotton Production in the British West Indies</i>: 1905-1906.<a name="FnAnchor_2b" id="FnAnchor_2b" href="#Footnote_2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Island.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area in<br />Acres.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Yield =<br />Bales of<br />500 ℔.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average<br />Price<br />in Pence<br />per ℔.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Value of<br />Lint and<br />Seed.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Barbados.</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">959</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">£33,557</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">St Vincent.</td> <td class="tcr rb">790</td> <td class="tcr rb">330</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,557</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Grenada (mostly <i>Marie</i> <i>galante</i> cotton).</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,600</td> <td class="tcr rb">623</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 5.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,400</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">St Kitts</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">241</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,380</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nevis</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,700</td> <td class="tcr rb">240</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,364</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Anguilla</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">161</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,280</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Antigua</td> <td class="tcr rb">700</td> <td class="tcr rb">200</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,522</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Montserrat</td> <td class="tcr rb">770</td> <td class="tcr rb">196</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,789</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Virgin Islands</td> <td class="tcr rb">40</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">400</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Jamaica</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,025</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">12,900</td> <td class="tcr allb">3087</td> <td class="tcc allb">..</td> <td class="tcr allb">£95,274</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>British West Indies.</i>—Cotton was cultivated as a minor crop +in parts of the West Indies as long ago as the 17th century, and at +the opening of the 18th century the islands supplied about 70% +of all the cotton used in Great Britain. Greater profits obtained +from sugar caused the industry to be abandoned, except in the +small island of Carriacou. In 1900 the Imperial Department of +Agriculture and private planters began experiments with the +object of reintroducing the cultivation, owing to the decline in +value of sugar. The department was actively assisted by the +British Cotton Growing Association, and the results have been +very successful, as was shown at an exhibition held in Manchester +in 1908. A supply of seed of a high grade of Sea Island cotton +was obtained from Colonel Rivers’s estate in the Sea Islands, S. +Carolina, and so successful has the cultivation been that from +some of the islands West Indian Sea Island cotton obtains a +higher price than the corresponding grade of cotton from the Sea +Islands themselves.</p> + +<p>In 1902 the total area under cotton cultivation in the British +West Indies was 500 acres. The industry made rapid progress. +In 1903 it was 4000; in 1905-1906 it was 12,900; and for 1906-1907 +it was 18,166 acres. The table indicates the chief cotton-producing +islands, the acreage in each, yield, average value per +pound and total value of the crop in 1905-1906.</p> + +<p>The whole of this crop was Sea Island cotton, with the exception +of the “Marie galante” grown in Carriacou. Marie galante +is a harsh cotton of the Peruvian or Brazilian type. The low +yield per acre in this island, and also the low value of the lint +per ℔ compared with the Sea Island cotton, is clearly apparent.</p> + +<p>In 1906-1907 the acreage was substantially increased in many +of the islands, <i>e.g.</i> Barbados from 2000 to 5000; St Vincent 790 +to 1533; St Kitts and Anguilla 1000 to 1500 each; Antigua 700 +to 1883. In Jamaica, on the other hand, it was reduced from +1500 to 300 acres.</p> + +<p><i>Spain.</i>—Cotton was formerly grown in southern Spain on an +extensive scale, and as recently as during the American Civil +War a crop of 8000 to 10,000 bales was obtained. It is considered +that with facilities for irrigation Andalusia could produce +150,000 bales annually. The former industry was abandoned as +other crops became more remunerative. The government is +encouraging recent efforts to re-establish the cultivation.</p> + +<p><i>Malta.</i>—Cotton has long been cultivated in Malta, but the +acreage diminished from 1750 acres in 1899 to 670 acres in 1906. +A considerable quantity of the produce is spun and woven locally; +<i>e.g.</i> in 1904 the export was equivalent to about 120 bales out of a +total production of 330 bales, and in 1905 to 258 out of 333 bales +(of 500 ℔ each).</p> + +<p><i>Cyprus</i> has a soil and climate suited to cotton, which was +formerly grown here on a large scale. The rainfall is uncertain +and low, however, never exceeding 40 in., and on the supply of +water by irrigation the future of the industry mainly depends. +The exports dwindled from 3600 bales in 1865 to 946 in 1905; +great fluctuations occur, the export in 1904, for example, being +only 338 bales. The cotton grown is rather short-stapled and +goes mainly to Marseilles and Trieste. Some is used locally in the +manufacture of cloth.</p> + +<p><i>Egypt.</i>—The position of Egypt as the third cotton-producing +country of the world has already been pointed out, and the +varieties grown and the mode of cultivation described. The +introduction of the exotic varieties dates from the beginning +of the 19th century. The industry was actively promoted by a +Frenchman named Jumel, in the service of Mehemet Ali, from +1820 onwards with great success. The area under cotton is +about 1,800,000 acres.</p> + +<p class="center pt1"><i>Cotton Production in Egypt.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl">1850</td> <td class="tcl">  87,200 bales of 500 ℔.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1865</td> <td class="tcl"> 439,000 ”  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1890</td> <td class="tcl"> 798,000 ”  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1904</td> <td class="tcl">1,258,000 ”  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1905</td> <td class="tcl">1,250,000 ”  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1906</td> <td class="tcl">1,400,000 ”  ”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>The Egyptian Sudan.</i>—Egyptian cotton was cultivated in the +Sudan to the extent of 21,788 acres in 1906 chiefly on non-irrigated +land. The exports, however, are small, almost all the +crop being used locally. The chief difficulties are the supply of +water, labour and transport facilities. Lord Cromer in his report +on the Sudan for 1906 remarks that: “There seems to be some +reason for thinking that the future—or at all events the immediate +future—of Sudan agriculture lies more in the direction of cultivating +wheat and other cereals than in that of cultivating cotton.”</p> + +<p><i>West Africa.</i>—Cotton has long been grown in the various +countries on the west coast of Africa, ginned by hand or by very +primitive means, spun into yarn, and woven on simple looms into +“country cloths”; these are often only a few inches wide, so +that any large cloths have to be made by sewing the narrow +strips together. These native cloths are exceedingly durable, and +many of them are ornamented by using dyed yarns and in other +ways.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>266</span></p> + +<p>Southern Nigeria (Lagos) and northern Nigeria are the most +important cotton countries amongst the British possessions on +the coast. From the former there has been an export trade for +many years which fluctuates remarkably according to the demand. +Northern Nigeria is the seat of a very large native cotton industry, +to supply the demand for cotton robes for the Mahommedan +races inhabiting the country. The province of Zaria alone is +estimated to produce annually 30,000 to 40,000 bales, all of +which is used locally. Northern Nigeria contributes to the +cotton exported from Lagos. The country offers a fairly promising +field for development, especially now that arrangements +have been made for providing the necessary means of transport by +the construction of the new railways. The profits obtained from +ground-nuts (<i>Arachis hypogea</i>) in Gambia, gold mining in the +Gold Coast, and from products of the oil palm (<i>Elaeis guineensis</i>) +in the palm-oil belt serve to prevent much attention being given +to cotton in these districts.</p> + +<p class="center pt1"><i>Exports of Cotton from Lagos.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">1865</td> <td class="tcl"> 868 bales of 500 ℔.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1869</td> <td class="tcl">1785 ”  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1900</td> <td class="tcl"> 48 ”  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1901</td> <td class="tcl"> 15 ”  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1902</td> <td class="tcl"> 25 ”  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1903</td> <td class="tcl"> 582 ”  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1904</td> <td class="tcl">1725 ”  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1905</td> <td class="tcl">2578 ”  ”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pt1"><i>Exports of Cotton from British West Africa</i>, 1904, 1905 and 1906.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1905.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1906.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Bales</td> <td class="tcc rb">Bales</td> <td class="tcc rb">Bales</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">(500 ℔).</td> <td class="tcc rb">(500 ℔).</td> <td class="tcc rb">(500 ℔).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gambia</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sierra Leone</td> <td class="tcr rb">56</td> <td class="tcr rb">139</td> <td class="tcr rb">176</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gold Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcr rb">186</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Southern Nigeria and Lagos</td> <td class="tcr rb">2296</td> <td class="tcr rb">2771</td> <td class="tcr rb">5392</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Northern Nigeria</td> <td class="tcr rb">574</td> <td class="tcr rb">250*</td> <td class="tcr rb">712</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">3161</td> <td class="tcr allb">3215</td> <td class="tcr allb">6466</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="4">*Approximately.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Nyasaland (British Central Africa).—</i>The cultivation of cotton +on a commercial scale is quite new in Nyasaland, and although +general conditions of soil and climate appear favourable the +question of transport is serious and labour is not abundant. +The exports were equivalent to 2 bales of 500 ℔ in 1902-1903, +114 bales in 1903-1904, 570 bales in 1904-1905, 1553 bales in +1905-1906 and 1052 bales in 1906-1907. In the lower river lands +Egyptian cotton has been the most successful, whilst Upland +cotton is more suited to the highlands.</p> + +<p><i>British East Africa and Uganda.—</i>In these adjoining protectorates +wild cottons occur, and suitable conditions exist in +certain localities. Experimental work has been carried on, and in +1904 Uganda exported about 43 bales of cotton, and British +East Africa about 177 bales. In 1906 the combined exports had +risen to 362 bales, including a little from German East Africa. +In 1904-1905 there were some 300 acres under cotton in British +East Africa. Lack of direct transport facilities is a difficulty. +Some of the native cottons are of fair quality, but Egyptian +cotton appears likely to be best suited for growing for export.</p> + +<p><i>India</i> is probably the most ancient cotton-growing country. +For five centuries before the Christian era cotton was largely used +in the domestic manufactures of India; and the clothing of the +inhabitants then consisted, as now, chiefly of garments made from +this vegetable product. More than two thousand years before +Europe or England had conceived the idea of applying modern +industry to the manufacture of cotton, India had matured a +system of hand-spinning, weaving and dyeing which during that +vast period received no recorded improvement. The people, +though remarkable for their intelligence whilst Europe was in a +state of barbarism, made no approximation to the mechanical +operations of modern times, nor was the cultivation of cotton +either improved or considerably extended. Possessing soil, +climate and apparently all the requisite elements from nature for +the production of cotton to an almost boundless extent, and of a +useful and acceptable quality, India for a long series of years did +but little towards supplying the manufactures of other countries +with the raw material which they required. Between the years +1788 and 1850 numerous attempts were made by the East India +Company to improve the cultivation and to increase the supply of +cotton in India, and botanists and American planters were +engaged for the purpose. One great object of their experiments +was to introduce and acclimatize exotic cottons. Bourbon, New +Orleans, Upland, Georgia, Sea Island, Pernambuco, Egyptian, +&c., were tried but with little permanent success. The results of +these and similar attempts led to the conclusion that efforts to +improve the indigenous cottons were most likely to be rewarded +with success. Still more recently, however, experiments have +been made to grow Egyptian cotton in Sind with the help of +irrigation. Abassi has given the best results, and the experiments +have been so successful that in 1904-1905 an out-turn of not less +than 100,000 bales “was prophesied in the course of a few years” +(Report of Director, Land Records and Agriculture). The +average annual production in India approximates to 3,000,000 +bales. The area under cotton in all British India is about +20,000,000 acres, the crop being grown in a very primitive +manner. The bulk of the cotton is of very short staple, about +three-quarters of an inch, and is not well suited to the requirements +of the English spinner, but very large mills specially fitted +to deal with short-stapled cottons have been erected in India and +consume about one-half the total crop, the remainder being +exported to Germany and other European countries, Japan and +China. In 1906 the United Kingdom took less than 5% of the +cotton exported.</p> + +<p class="center pt1"><i>Cotton Production in British India.</i><a name="FnAnchor_3b" id="FnAnchor_3b" href="#Footnote_3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">1859</td> <td class="tcl">1,316,800 bales of 500 ℔.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1904</td> <td class="tcl">3,172,800 ”  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1905</td> <td class="tcl">2,848,800 ”  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1906</td> <td class="tcl">4,038,400 ”  ”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>About 50% of the cotton produced is consumed in Indian +mills and the remainder is exported.</p> + +<p><i>China.</i>—Cotton has not been cultivated in China from such +early times as in India, and although cotton cloths are mentioned +in early writings it was not until about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1300 that the plant +was grown on any considerable scale. There are no figures +obtainable as to the production, but it must be very large, +considering that the crop provides clothing for a large proportion +of the population of China. During recent years a considerable +quantity of cotton has been exported, but more than a compensating +amount of raw cotton, yarns and textiles, is imported. +An estimate of the crop puts it at about 1,500,000 bales.</p> + +<p><i>Korea</i> is stated to have originally received its cotton plants +from China some 500 years ago. Conditions are well adapted to +the cultivation of the plant, and since the cessation of the Russo-Japanese +War the Japanese have undertaken the development +of the industry. Figures are difficult to obtain, but an official +report from the Japanese Residency General in 1907 estimated +the crop at about 214,000 bales, all being used locally. In the +future Korea may become an important source of supply for +Japan, especially if, as appears likely, Korea proves suited to the +cultivation of American cotton.</p> + +<p><i>Japan</i> received cotton from India before China, and the plant +is extensively grown, especially in West and Middle Japan. +The production is not sufficient to meet the home demand; +during the five years of normal trade before the war with Russia +Japan imported annually about 800,000 bales of cotton, chiefly +from British India, China and the United States, and during the +same period exported each year some 2000 bales, mainly to +Korea.</p> + +<p><i>Dutch East Indies.</i>—In Java and other Dutch possessions in the +East cotton is cultivated. A considerable amount is used locally, +and during the six years ending in 1907 the surplus exported +ranged from about 24,000 to 40,000 bales per annum.</p> + +<p><i>Russia.</i>—Some cotton is produced in European Russia in the +southern Caucasus, but Turkestan in central Asia is by far the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>267</span> +more important source of Russian-grown cotton. In this region +cotton has been cultivated from very early times to supply local +demands, and to a minor degree for export. Since about 1875 the +Russians have fostered the industry, introducing American +Upland varieties, distributing seed free, importing gins, providing +instruction, and guaranteeing the purchase of the crops. The +Trans-Caspian railway has been an important factor; almost all +the cotton exported passes over this line, and the statistics of this +trade indicate the progress made. The shipments increased from +250,978 bales in 1896-1897 to 495,962 bales in 1901-1902—part, +however, being Persian cotton. The production of cotton in +Russia in 1906 was estimated at 675,000 bales of 500 ℔ each. +About one-third of the cotton used in Russian mills is grown +on Russian territory, the remainder coming chiefly from the +United States.</p> + +<p><i>Asia Minor.</i>—Smyrna is the principal centre of cotton +cultivation in this region. A native variety known as “Terli,” +and American cotton, are grown. The general conditions are +favourable. According to the Liverpool <i>Cotton Gazette</i>, Asiatic +Turkey produced in 1906 about 100,000 bales, and Persia about +47,000 bales. Cotton was formerly cultivated profitably in +Palestine.</p> + +<p><i>Australasia.</i>—The quantity of cotton now produced in Australasia +is extremely small. Queensland, New South Wales and +South Australia possess suitable climatic conditions, and in the +first-named state the cotton has been grown on a commercial +scale in past years, the crop in 1897 being about 450 bales. +Considerable interest attaches to the “Caravonica” cotton +raised in South Australia, which has been experimented with +in Australia, Ceylon and elsewhere. It is probably a hybrid +between Sea Island and rough Peruvian cotton, but lacks most of +the essential features of Sea Island.</p> + +<p>In <i>Fiji</i> the cotton exported in the ’sixties and ’seventies was +worth £93,000 annually; but the cultivation has been practically +abandoned. In 1899 about 60 bales, and in 1900 about 6 bales, +were exported. During 1901-1903 there were no exports of +cotton, and in 1904 only 70 bales were sent out.</p> + +<p>Into the <i>Society Islands</i> Sea Island cotton was introduced +about 1860-1870. Up to the year 1885 there was an average +yearly export equivalent to about 2140 bales of 500 ℔, after +which date the export practically ceased. The industry has, +however, been revived, and in 1906 over 100 bales, valued at +£1052, were exported.</p> +<div class="author">(W. G. F.)</div> + +<p class="center pt2"><span class="sc">Marketing and Supply</span></p> + +<p>In the days of slave-grown cotton, the American planters, +being men of wealth farming on a large scale, consigned the bulk +of their produce as a rule direct to the ports. Now, +however, a large proportion of the crop is sold to local +<span class="sidenote">Moving the harvest to the ports.</span> +store-keepers who transfer it to exporting firms in +neighbouring cities. The cultivators, whether owners +of the plantations, as is usual in some districts, or tenants, as is +customary in others, are financed as a rule by commission agents. +The decline of “spot” sales at the ports, partly but not entirely +in consequence of the appearance of the small cultivator, has +proceeded steadily. Hammond<a name="FnAnchor_4b" id="FnAnchor_4b" href="#Footnote_4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> has constructed a table from +information supplied by the secretaries of the cotton exchanges +at New York, Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, New Orleans and +Galveston, showing the sales of “spot” cotton at those ports for +the twenty-two years between 1874-1875 and 1895-1896, and in +all cases an absolute decline is evident. The receipts of cotton in +the season 1904-1905 at the leading interior towns and ports of +the United States are given below.</p> + +<p class="center pt1"><i>Receipts of Cotton at 28 Interior Towns.</i><br /> +(In Thousand Statistical Bales of 500 ℔ each.)</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Brenham, Tex.</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcl">Memphis, Tenn.</td> <td class="tcr">984</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Dallas, Tex.</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcl">Nashville, Tenn.</td> <td class="tcr">19</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Shreveport, La.</td> <td class="tcr rb">256</td> <td class="tcl">Selma, Ala.</td> <td class="tcr">126</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Little Rock, Ark.</td> <td class="tcr rb">219</td> <td class="tcl">Montgomery, Ala.</td> <td class="tcr">211</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Helena, Ark.</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcl">Eufaula, Ala.</td> <td class="tcr">29</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Vicksburg, Miss.</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcl">Columbus, Ga.</td> <td class="tcr">74</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Columbus, Miss.</td> <td class="tcr rb">57</td> <td class="tcl">Macon, Ga.</td> <td class="tcr">87</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Natchez, Miss.</td> <td class="tcr rb">76</td> <td class="tcl">Albany, Ga.</td> <td class="tcr">35</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Atlanta, Ga.</td> <td class="tcr rb">134</td> <td class="tcl">Houston, Tex.</td> <td class="tcr">2,423</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Rome, Ga.</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcl">Meridian, Miss.</td> <td class="tcr">133</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Augusta, Ga.</td> <td class="tcr rb">446</td> <td class="tcl">Cincinnati, Ohio</td> <td class="tcr">167</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Columbia, S.C.</td> <td class="tcr rb">68</td> <td class="tcl">Yazoo City, Miss.</td> <td class="tcr">65</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Newberry, S.C.</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">——</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Charlotte, N.C.</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">6712</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Raleigh, N. C.</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">—-—-</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">St Louis, Mo.</td> <td class="tcr rb">672</td> <td class="tcc">Crop.</td> <td class="tcr">13,565</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="4"><i>Receipts of Cotton at American Ports.</i><br /> +(In Thousand Statistical Bales of 500 ℔ each.)<br /> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Galveston, Tex.</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,879</td> <td class="tcl">Boston, Mass.</td> <td class="tcr">84</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">New Orleans, La.</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,690</td> <td class="tcl">Philadelphia, Pa.</td> <td class="tcr">14</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Mobile, Ala.</td> <td class="tcr rb">330</td> <td class="tcl">Brunswick, Ga.</td> <td class="tcr">200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Savannah, Ga.</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,877</td> <td class="tcl">Pensacola, Fla.</td> <td class="tcr">187</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Charleston, S.C.</td> <td class="tcr rb">225</td> <td class="tcl">Minor Ports</td> <td class="tcr">518</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Wilmington, N.C.</td> <td class="tcr rb">375</td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Norfolk, Va.</td> <td class="tcr rb">820</td> <td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">10,295</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Baltimore, Md.</td> <td class="tcr rb">62</td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">New York</td> <td class="tcr rb">34</td> <td class="tcc">Crop</td> <td class="tcr">13,565</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Galveston and Savannah have risen considerably in relative +importance of late years.</p> + +<p>Before the Civil War each planter would have his own gin-house. +Now, however, ginning is a distinct business, and one gin +will serve on an average about thirty farmers. Moveable +gins were tried for a time in some places; they were +<span class="sidenote">Ginning and packing.</span> +dragged by traction engines from farm to farm, like +threshing machines in parts of England, but the plan +proved uneconomical because, among other reasons, farmers were +not prepared to meet the cost of providing facilities for storing +their cotton. In addition to the small country ginneries, large +modern ginneries have now been set up in all the leading Southern +market towns. The cotton is pressed locally and afterwards +“compressed” into a very small compass. The bales are +usually square, but cylindrical bales are becoming more common, +though their cost is greater. In the latter, the cotton is arranged +in the form of a rolled sheet or “lap.” Owing to complaints of +the careless packing of American cotton, attention has been +devoted of late to the improvement of the square bale.</p> + +<p>London used to be the chief cotton port of England, but +Liverpool had assumed undisputed leadership before the 19th +century began. Some arrivals have been diverted to +Manchester since the opening of the Manchester ship +<span class="sidenote">English ports of entry.</span> +canal; shipments through the canal from the 1st of +September to the 30th of August in each year for the +decade 1894-1895 to 1904-1905 are appended—six to eight times +as much is still unloaded at Liverpool.</p> + +<p>A Manchester cotton-importing company was recently formed +for increasing deliveries direct to Manchester, and establishing +a “spot” market there, an end to which the Manchester Cotton +Association had directed its efforts for some time past. The +latter association was established at the end of 1894, with a +membership of 265, in the interests of those spinners who desired +importations direct to Manchester. The objects of the association +are officially stated to be: (1) to frame suitable and authoritative +forms of contract, and to make rules and regulations for the +proper conduct of the trade; (2) to supervise and facilitate the +delivery of the importations of cotton at the Manchester docks to +the various consignees; (3) to provide and maintain trustworthy +standards of classification; (4) to procure and disseminate useful +information on all subjects pertaining to the trade; (5) to act in +concert with chambers of commerce and other bodies throughout +the world for mutual protection; (6) to establish a market for +cotton at Manchester. Spinning members preponderate, but +almost all the Manchester cotton merchants and cotton brokers +have also joined the association. The importance of the original +spinners’ representation on the association is shown by the fact +that they worked over 14,000,000 spindles: in December 1905 +the spindles represented by members had risen to nearly +20,000,000. Some 73,000 looms are also represented. As most +of the Lancashire cotton mills lie far from Manchester, direct +importations to that city do not usually dispense with a “handling,” +and frequently save little or nothing in freight rates, +though in some cases the economy derived from direct importation +is considerable. One gain accruing to Lancashire from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268"></a>268</span> +Canal, however, is that its competition has brought down +railway rates.</p> + +<p>Fundamental alterations have been made in the structure of +the leading cotton markets, and in methods of buying and selling +cotton, in the last hundred years. We shall not attempt +to trace the changes as they appeared in every market +<span class="sidenote">Cotton market methods.</span> +of importance, but shall confine our attention to one +only, and that perhaps the most important of all, +namely, the market at Liverpool. This selection of one market +for detailed examination does not rob our sketch of generality, +as might at first be thought, since broadly the history of the +development of one market is the history of the development of +all, and on the whole the economic explanation of the evolution +that has taken place may be universalized.</p> + +<p class="center pt1"><i>Cotton landed at the Port of Manchester since the Canal was opened.</i><br /> + (In thousand Bales.)<br /> + The season is from the 1st of September to the 31st of August each year.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Jan. 1894<br />to Aug.<br />31, 1894.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Season<br />1894-1895.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Season<br />1895-1896.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Season<br />1896-1897.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Season<br />1897-1898.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Season<br />1898-1899.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">American</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">32</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td> <td class="tcr rb">211</td> <td class="tcr rb">245</td> <td class="tcr rb">311</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Egyptian</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">34</td> <td class="tcr rb">68</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">East Indian</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">West African</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">22</td> <td class="tcr allb">66</td> <td class="tcr allb">189</td> <td class="tcr allb">299</td> <td class="tcr allb">344</td> <td class="tcr allb">395</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Total American Crop*</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,549</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,901</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,157</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,757</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,199</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,274</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Total Egyptian Crop (in</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> bales of 7½ cantars)**</td> <td class="tcr rb">657</td> <td class="tcr rb">615</td> <td class="tcr rb">703</td> <td class="tcr rb">783</td> <td class="tcr rb">872</td> <td class="tcr rb">745</td></tr> + + +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Season<br />1899-1900.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Season<br />1900-1901.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Season<br />1901-1902.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Season<br />1902-1903.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Season<br />1903-1904.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Season<br />1904-1905.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">American</td> <td class="tcr rb">415</td> <td class="tcr rb">442</td> <td class="tcr rb">421</td> <td class="tcr rb">478 </td> <td class="tcr rb">365</td> <td class="tcr rb">552 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Egyptian</td> <td class="tcr rb">136</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">125</td> <td class="tcr rb">145 </td> <td class="tcr rb">148</td> <td class="tcr rb">183 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">East Indian</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">West African</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">.1</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">551</td> <td class="tcr allb">549</td> <td class="tcr allb">546</td> <td class="tcr allb">626</td> <td class="tcr allb">519</td> <td class="tcr allb">736</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Total American Crop*</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,436</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,383</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,680</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,011</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,565</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,727</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Total Egyptian Crop (in</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> bales of 7½ cantars)**</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">868</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">723</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">849</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">867</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">846</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">778</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="7">* Commercial crop.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="7">** A cantar is 99.05 ℔ avoirdupois.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Originally cotton was imported by the Liverpool dealer as an +agent for American firms or at his own risk, and then sold +by private treaty, auction, or through brokers, to +Manchester dealers, who retailed it to the spinners. +<span class="sidenote">Evolution of broking.</span> +This statement is, of course, only roughly correct. +Some Manchester dealers imported themselves, and +some spinners bought direct from Liverpool importers, but the +rule was the arrangement first described. Early in the 19th +century it became customary for Manchester dealers and Liverpool +importers to carry on business with one another through +representatives known as “buying” and “selling” brokers. +About this time the broker of cotton only began to specialize +from the ranks of the brokers who dealt in all kinds of colonial +produce. Previously there had not been enough business done +in cotton to make it worth any person’s while to devote himself +to the buying and selling on commission of cotton only. The +evolution of the distinct business of cotton broking is readily +comprehensible when we remind ourselves that the requirements, +as regards raw material, of all spinners are much alike generally, +and that no spinner could afford to pay an expert to devote +himself entirely to purchasing cotton for his mill.</p> + +<p>So far change had been gradual, but the success of the +Manchester and Liverpool railway undermined beyond repair the +old system of doing business. Spinners could easily run over to +Liverpool and buy their cotton from the large stocks displayed +at that port. Before the railway was opened some spinners had +been in the habit of making their purchases of raw material in +Liverpool, but the great inconveniences of the journey, combined +with less easy terms for payment than were usual in Manchester, +prevented any great numbers from departing from the beaten +track. Cotton dealers up to this time had regularly financed the +spinners, who were frequently men of little capital, by allowing +long credit, and had even employed them to spin on commission. +As men of substance increased among the ranks of the spinners, +the Manchester cotton dealers found it impossible to retard a +movement set on foot by the prospects of such appreciable +advantages. Ultimately many of the old Manchester cotton +dealers became brokers for their old customers. In 1875 there +were said to be upwards of 100 cotton dealers in Manchester, but +from that time onward their members steadily declined. It is +interesting to observe that a later development of transport +between Manchester and Liverpool, namely, the Manchester +Ship Canal, has drawn back into Manchester a part of the cotton +market which was attracted from Manchester into Liverpool by +the famous improvement in transport opened to the public +three-quarters of a century ago.</p> + +<p>The centralization of the cotton market in Liverpool fixed +firmly the system of buying through brokers, for the Liverpool +importer, or his broker, was in no sense a professional adviser to +the spinners, informally pledged to advance the latter’s interests, +as the old Manchester dealers had been. The system was +rendered comparatively inexpensive by the drop in commissions +from 1 to ½ % which had followed the adoption of selling by +sample. This custom of buying and selling through brokers +continued unshaken until the laying of the Atlantic cable tempted +selling brokers occasionally, and even some buying brokers, to +buy direct from American factors by telegraph and thus transform +themselves into quasi-importers. The temptation was made the +more difficult to resist by the development of “future” dealings. +When the agents of the spinners, that is, the buying brokers, by +becoming principals in some transactions, had acquired interests +diametrically opposed to those of their customers, the consequent +feeling of distrust among spinners gave birth to the Cotton +Buying Company, which, constituted originally of twenty to +<span class="correction" title="amended from thrity">thirty</span> limited cotton-spinning companies, represents to-day +nearly 6,000,000 spindles distributed among nearly one hundred +firms. Its object was to squeeze out some middlemen and +economize for its members on brokerage. This company, it is +said, helped to attract the brokers back to the spinners, and an +informal understanding was arrived at that the buying broker +should not figure both as agent and principal in the same +transaction.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>269</span></p> + +<p>By 1876 “forward” operations had become so vast and +complicated that a cotton-clearing house had to be established +to deal with the confusing networks of debits and +credits created by them. Its principle was exactly +<span class="sidenote">Cotton-Clearing house, Cotton Bank and periodic settlement of “differences.”</span> +that of the clearing houses used by the railways and the +banks, the cancellation of indebtedness and discharge +simply of balances. The final settlement of a “future” +contract involved usually a crowd of persons, and the +passage of large sums of money backwards and forwards, +so that the amount of cash required for circulation +on the exchange became unreasonably excessive +and an annoying waste of time was entailed. The cotton-clearing +house substituted book-keeping for the bulk of these +payments. The establishment of the Cotton Bank naturally +followed. Now debts are discharged in the first instance by +vouchers. Dealers pass their debit and credit vouchers into the +Cotton Bank and pay or receive the balances which they owe or +are entitled to. In order to protect dealers against the losses due +to the insolvency of those with whom they have had transactions, +weekly settlements on the exchange have been made compulsory; +between brokers and their clients they are also usual. At the +settlement, every member of the exchange receives the “differences” +owing to him and pays those which he has incurred. +Thus if a person holds futures for 10,000 bales which stood at +5.20 on the last settlement day and now stand at 5.30, and in the +course of the previous week has sold 5000 bales of “futures” at +5.10, he receives 10,000 × <span class="spp">10</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span>d. on his old holding, and has to pay +5000 × <span class="spp">20</span>⁄<span class="suu">200</span>d. on his sales, and therefore on balance neither +receives nor pays. Differences may be very large sums. The +unit of a “future” being 100 bales, an alteration in the price of +cotton of .01d. causes a difference on each unit of £2. Periodic +settlements are obviously periodic tests of the solvency of +dealers. If the test of the settlement were not frequently applied, +speculators who were unfortunate would be tempted to plunge +deeper until finally some became insolvent for large sums. As it +is, the speculator who has incurred losses beyond his means tends +to be discovered before his creditors are heavily involved. +Settlement days fall on Thursday, and the closing prices on the +preceding Monday are taken as the basis of the settlement. +From all differences interest at 5% is deducted for the time +between settlement day and the tenth day of the second month on +which the “future” elapses, since settlement terms mean that +money is paid in instalments before it is actually due. To the +admission of periodic settlements there was for a time vehement +opposition on the ground that the door would be opened to +gambling on “differences.” Hence at first, in 1882, they were +used only by a section of the market constituted of members who +had voluntarily agreed to do business with one another upon +these terms alone. By 1884, however, the advantages of “settlement +terms” became so evident that they were adopted by the +Cotton Association, at first for fortnightly periods, with the +saving clause originally that they should not be compulsory.</p> + +<p>As soon as the clearing house was set up it became evident that +“futures” were an impossibility away from it. At the same time +“futures” were becoming an increasing necessity to +importers, because through “futures” alone could they +<span class="sidenote">Origin of Liverpool Cotton Association.</span> +hedge on their purchases of cotton, or buy when the +market seemed favourable, and they were not prepared +to assume heavy risks. Now from the clearing house +importers were rigorously excluded, and on invoking the aid of +“futures,” therefore, they were penalized to the extent of double +broker’s commission, one commission being charged on the sale +of the “futures” and one on their purchase back. The importers, +therefore, found it necessary to establish a club of their own, the +Liverpool Cotton Exchange, which they as rigorously guarded +against brokers. The split in the market so caused was so +damaging to both parties that a satisfactory arrangement was +eventually agreed upon, and both institutions were absorbed in +the Liverpool Cotton Association.</p> + +<p>A condition of specialist dealers working to the public service +is that they should not act in the dark. They must watch +demand, be able to form reasonable anticipations of its movements, +and at the same time know the existing stocks of cotton, +<span class="sidenote">Publication of information relating to demand and supply.</span> +the sales taking place from day to day, and the best forecasts of +the coming supplies. A man accustomed to devote the +whole of his time to the study of demand and supply +in relation to cotton, after some years of experience, +will be qualified ordinarily to form fairly accurate judgments +of the prices to be expected. His success depends +upon his ability to interpret rightly the facts and intangible +signs with which he is brought in contact. The +information at the disposal of dealers has steadily enlarged in +volume and improved in trustworthiness, though some of it is +not yet invariably above suspicion, and the time elapsing between +an event and the knowledge of it becoming common property +has been reduced to a fraction of what it used to be, in consequence +chiefly of the telegraph and cables. All sales that take place on +the Exchange must be returned. Estimates are published of the +area under cotton cultivation, and conditions of the American +crop are issued by the American agricultural bureau at the +beginning of the months of June, July, August, September and +October of each year. To represent the standard of perfect +healthiness and exemption from injury due to insects, or drought, +or any other causes, one hundred is taken. The estimates for +1901 to 1905 are given, to illustrate their variations:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">June 1st.</td> <td class="tccm allb">July 1st.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Aug. 1st.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Sept. 1st.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Oct. 1st.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcl rb">81.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">81.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">77.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">71.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">61.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcl rb">95.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">84.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">81.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">64.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">58.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcl rb">74.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">77.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">79.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">81.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">65.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcl rb">83</td> <td class="tcl rb">88</td> <td class="tcc rb">91.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">84.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">75.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">77.2</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">77</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">74.9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">72.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">71.2</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>These estimates are the averages of separate estimates which +are published for the states of North Carolina, South Carolina, +Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, +Arkansas, Tennessee. The official figures are supplemented +from time to time by numerous private forecasts, for instance +those in “Neild’s circular.” Ellison, in his work on the cotton +trade of Great Britain, traces in detail the increase in the volume +of information collected and made public. At the close of the +18th century there was a tacit understanding among brokers to +supply one another with information. There were no printed +circulars, except the monthly prices current of all kinds of +produce, but brokers used to send particulars of business done +to their customers in letters. These letters were the origin of +circulars. Messrs Ewart and Rutson pioneered in 1805 by +issuing a weekly account of the sales and imports of cotton, and +three years later three such circulars were on the market, though +Hope’s alone was confined to cotton. For the first associated +circular of any importance, the market had to wait until 1832. +The issue of this circular by subscribing firms, on the basis of +particulars collected by brokers appointed at a weekly meeting, +gave rise in 1841 to the Cotton Brokers’ Association, to which the +development of the market by the systematizing of procedure is +largely due. The rest of the tale may be told in Mr Ellison’s own +words:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Down to 1864 the leading firms continued to issue weekly market +reports, but in that year the association commenced the publication +of an associated circular. This was followed in the same year by +the <i>Daily Table</i> of sales and imports, which in 1874 was succeeded +by the present more complete <i>Daily Circular</i>. To these publications +were at various times added the annual report, issued in December, +the American crop report, issued in September, and the daily advices +by cable from America, issued every morning.”<a name="FnAnchor_5b" id="FnAnchor_5b" href="#Footnote_5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p>We shall now enter upon a detailed analysis of “forward” +operations. The term “futures” is used broadly and narrowly: +broadly it is a generic term denoting “futures” in the +narrow sense, and also “options” and “straddles”; +<span class="sidenote">Futures.</span> +narrowly it implies merely contracts for future delivery at a price +fixed in the present. Again we must distinguish between the +“future” contracts for the delivery of a particular kind of cotton, +which may be entered into by spinners and their brokers, and +are real purchases in the sense that the spinners want delivery +of the cotton referred to, and the “futures,” which always relate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>270</span> +to the same grade of cotton, and are drawn up according to certain +forms and circulate on the exchange as media for the shifting +of risks connected with purchase and sale. The latter are not +“real” purchases in the sense given to that term above, but +fictitious because delivery of the cotton is not desired. It will no +doubt aid the understanding of the functions of the latter if some +explanation is offered of the needs met by the former, which are +sometimes known technically as “deferred deliveries.”</p> + +<p>When a spinner is required to quote prices of yarn for delivery +in the future he is fixed on the horns of a dilemma. If he does not +at once buy cotton, but quotes on the assumption that +price will remain steady, he may be involved in serious +<span class="sidenote">The spinner’s risks.</span> +loss through his estimate being mistaken. If he determines +to buy cotton at once, others who risk more, +and trust their judgment of the future, may secure the contract. +On first thoughts it would seem desirable that all spinners should +buy cotton outright to cover their contracts, but on second +thoughts the social disadvantage of their doing so becomes +apparent. Much buying might take place when stocks were +scanty, with the result that prices would be needlessly forced +up; and when stocks were plentiful demand might be weak and +prices, therefore, be unduly depressed. It is evident that the +buying of cotton on the principles suggested would be calculated +to cause great unsteadiness of prices, especially as cotton is +not continuously forthcoming, but is produced periodically in +harvests. Demands for yarn cannot be expected to come always +at the most favourable time socially for the distribution of the +cotton. One way out of the difficulty is that the spinner should +exercise his judgment and buy his raw material at what seems to +him the most suitable times. But to this course there are three +objections. The first is that spinners would be performing the two +functions of industrial management and cotton buying (together +with others perhaps), and that in consequence the best industrial +men would not necessarily be able to maintain their position in +the trade because as buyers of cotton they might be unfortunate. +The second is that spinners being required to give attention to +two distinct classes of problems would be less likely as a body +to become complete masters of either. The third, which is not +distinct in principle from the two preceding, is that such limited +speculation in cotton buying on the part of spinners worried with +other matters would not be likely to steady the cotton market in +any high degree. It may be assumed as desirable that the demand +for cotton should be so spread as to keep its price as steady as +possible—“steadiness” will be defined more exactly later—and +that to this end it is essential that specialists should devote +themselves to the task of spreading it. Such specialists have +appeared in the cotton brokers and dealers who make their living +out of bearing the risks connected with anticipating demand and +supply in relation to cotton. To-day a spinner who is asked to +quote for deliveries of yarn for, say, the next six months, may +obtain from a broker quotations for deliveries of the cotton that +he needs, in quantities as he needs it, for the next six months, and +upon these quotations he may base his own for yarn. If a spinner +is pressed by a shipper to make quotations with refusal for two or +three days to give time for business to be settled by cable, it is +evidently not impossible for the spinner to shift the risk involved +by getting in turn from his broker refusal quotations for cotton. +But spinners do not try always to take the safest course.</p> + +<p>Now it is evident that brokers in turn require some means of +passing on the risks that they are bearing, or some portion of them +from one to another, or of sharing them with other +market experts, as they find themselves overburdened, +<span class="sidenote">Method of distributing risks.</span> +and as their judgment of the situation changes. The +means have been provided in the “futures” which +circulate on the Cotton Exchange. The risks of anticipating are +carried by those who create or hold “futures” without a hedge. +In order to facilitate business, “futures” are all drawn in the +same unit (100 bales), and are all based on the same class of +cotton, namely Upland cotton of middling grade of “no +staple” (<i>i.e.</i> with a fibre of about ¾ in.) and of the worst growth. +American cotton, we may remind the reader, is graded into a +number of classes, both on the Liverpool and New York Exchanges, +and an attempt is made in each market to keep the +grades as fixed as possible. But what, it may be inquired, is the +value of “futures” relating to “middling” cotton to a broker +whose contracts with spinners are not in “middling” cotton? +The answer is that though the ratios between the prices of the +various grades alter, the prices of all of them move generally +together, and that the “futures” of the Exchange at least +provide a hedge against the latter movements. Other things +being equal, the broker would be better off if he could hedge +with equal ease against all his risks. But other things are not +equal: the market would be more confusing and quotations +would be complicated if “futures” were in use for all grades.</p> + +<p>We may now examine the exchange “futures” in minuter +detail. They are quoted as a rule for about ten months ahead. +Thus in January the futures quoted will be January +(technically termed “current,” “present month” or +<span class="sidenote">Characteristics of “futures.”</span> +“near month,” “futures”), January-February, +February-March, March-April, April-May, May-June, +June-July, July-August, and perhaps two or three more. +Each group, it will be observed, except “current futures,” +culminates in two defined months. The rule is that on the first +of the two months the seller of “futures” may, and before the +last day of the second month must, deliver cotton against them, +or, what comes to the same thing, buy back the “futures” on the +basis of the price of “spot” cotton of middling grade. Various +grades of cotton are tenderable against “futures”: if this were +not so “futures” would be in danger of defeating their object, +because the price of the grade upon which they were founded +would probably at times be thrown widely out of relation to the +general level of prices in the cotton market. The lowest grade +tenderable used to be “low middling,” but since October 1901 +“good ordinary” has also been accepted. Arbitrators report on +deliveries and award allowances on those of grades above +“middling” and deductions of price from those below. A +sample is taken from each bale and the “points on or off” +are fixed for each bale separately. If either party is dissatisfied +with the award, he may appeal to an appeals committee on +paying £3:3:0: which is refunded to him by the other party +if the appeal be upheld. The detailed arrangements described +above are those of the Liverpool market. The great bulk of +“futures,” however, are bought back and not delivered against.</p> + +<p>Beneath are the official Liverpool quotations of +<span class="sidenote">Quotations.</span> +“futures,” as they appeared on the morning of the +19th of April 1906:—</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>American Deliveries, any port, basis of middling, good ordinary +clause (the fractions are given in 100ths of a penny).</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Yesterday’s<br />Close.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">To-day’s Early Sales.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Values<br />12.15.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">April</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.05</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">6.03</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">April-May</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.05</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">6.03</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">May-June</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.05</td> <td class="tcl rb">6.06, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.03</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">June-July</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.05</td> <td class="tcl rb">6.05, 2,* 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.03</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">July-August</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.04</td> <td class="tcl rb">6.05, 4, 3, 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.03</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Aug.-Sept.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.98</td> <td class="tcl rb">5.99, 8, 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.97</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sept.-Oct.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.34</td> <td class="tcl rb">5.85, 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.84</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oct.-Nov.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.76</td> <td class="tcl rb">5.77, 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.76</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nov.-Dec.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.75</td> <td class="tcl rb">5.75, 4*</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.75</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dec.-Jan.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.74</td> <td class="tcl rb">5.75*</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.75</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb2">Jan.-Feb.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb2">5.75</td> <td class="tcl rb bb2">5.75*</td> <td class="tcc rb bb2">5.75</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Late Business.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Closing<br />Values.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">April</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">6.03*</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.98</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">April-May</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">6.03</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.98</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">May-June</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">6.03, 4, 3, 2, 1, 2, 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.99</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">June-July</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">6.04, 3, 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.99</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">July-Aug.</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">6.03, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0,* 1, 2,* 1, 0</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2"> 5.99, 6.0,* 5.99, 6.0, 5.99, 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.98</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Aug.-Sept.</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">5.98,* 6, 5, 4, 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.92</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sept.-Oct.</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">5.84, 2*</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.78</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oct.-Nov.</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">5.76,* 5,* 4, 3, 4, 3,* 2, 1, 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nov.-Dec.</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">5.70*</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.69</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dec.-Jan.</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">5.72, 1, 2*</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.69</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Jan.-Feb.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.69</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="4">* Transactions of 100 bales only.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>271</span></p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Egyptian Deliveries, fully good fair (in 64ths of a penny).</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Yesterday’s<br />Close.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Business<br />before Noon.</td> <td class="tccm allb">To-day’s<br />Business<br />Afternoon.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Closing<br />Values.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">April</td> <td class="tcr rb">10-11</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">10-1 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">May</td> <td class="tcr rb">10-12</td> <td class="tcl rb">9-62, 3, 10-0</td> <td class="tcc rb">10-2*</td> <td class="tcr rb">10-1 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">9-63, 2, 10-0</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">June</td> <td class="tcr rb">10-11</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">10-0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">July</td> <td class="tcr rb">10-9 </td> <td class="tcl rb">9-60, 1, 0*</td> <td class="tcc rb">9-63,* 10-0,*</td> <td class="tcr rb">9-62</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">9-63, 2</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">10-0 </td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">9-54</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sept.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9-58</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">9-48</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oct.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9-24</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">9-18</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">8-58</td> <td class="tcl rb">8-52,* 0, 49</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">8-52</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dec.</td> <td class="tcr rb">8-50</td> <td class="tcl rb">8-39*</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">8-42</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Jan.</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8-44</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">8-36</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8-35</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="5">* Transactions of 100 bales only.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Egyptian futures, it will be observed, run out in single months. +As the cost of dealing in “futures” is only one shilling on each +transaction for a member of the Cotton Exchange (the outsider is +charged in addition a commission by his broker), it is not surprising +that the transactions taking place in “futures” number +legion.</p> + +<p>The methods of dealing in cotton are very intricate, and it is +necessary here to interpolate an explanation of the relations +between the prices paid by spinners for cotton and the quoted +“spot” prices. We begin by giving the official quotations of +“spot,” and statement of business done, published on the +morning of the 19th of April 1906.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="7"><i>Quotations.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">G.O.</td> <td class="tcc">L.M.</td> <td class="tcc">Mid.</td> <td class="tcc">G.M.</td> <td class="tcc">F.G.M.</td> <td class="tcc">M.F.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">American</td> <td class="tcc">5.87</td> <td class="tcc">6.05</td> <td class="tcc">6.21</td> <td class="tcc">6.41</td> <td class="tcc">6.49</td> <td class="tcc">6.71</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="pt1"> </div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">Mid Fair.</td> <td class="tcl">Fair.</td> <td class="tcl">Gd. Fair.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Pernam</td> <td class="tcl">5.95</td> <td class="tcl">6.35</td> <td class="tcl">6.61</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ceara</td> <td class="tcl">6.02</td> <td class="tcl">6.40</td> <td class="tcl">6.62</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Paraiba</td> <td class="tcl"> 5.94</td> <td class="tcl">6.32</td> <td class="tcl">6.56</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Maceio</td> <td class="tcl">5.96n</td> <td class="tcl">6.34n</td> <td class="tcl">6.56n</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="pt1"> </div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">Fair.</td> <td class="tcl">Gd. Fair.</td> <td class="tcl">F.G.F.</td> <td class="tcl">Good.</td> <td class="tcl">Fine.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Egyptian br’n</td> <td class="tcl">8<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl">9<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl">10<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span></td> <td class="tcl">11</td> <td class="tcl">11<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Egyptian Upper</td> <td class="tcl">9<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl"> 9<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl"> 9<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>n</td> <td class="tcl">10n</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="pt1"> </div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">Gd. Fr.</td> <td class="tcl">F.G.F.</td> <td class="tcl">Gd.</td> <td class="tcl">G.F.</td> <td class="tcl">Fine.</td> <td class="tcl">S’fine.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">M. G. Broach.</td> <td class="tcl"> · ·</td> <td class="tcl"> · ·</td> <td class="tcl">5<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl">5<span class="spp">19</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcl">5<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span></td> <td class="tcl"> · ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bhownuggar</td> <td class="tcl">4<span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span>n</td> <td class="tcl">4<span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span>n</td> <td class="tcl">4<span class="spp">13</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span>n</td> <td class="tcl">4<span class="spp">15</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span>n</td> <td class="tcl">5<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span>n</td> <td class="tcl"> · ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">No. 1 Comra</td> <td class="tcl">4<span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span>n</td> <td class="tcl">4<span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span>n</td> <td class="tcl">4<span class="spp">13</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span>n</td> <td class="tcl">4<span class="spp">15</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span>n</td> <td class="tcl">5<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span>n</td> <td class="tcl"> · ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bengal</td> <td class="tcl">3<span class="spp">25</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcl">3<span class="spp">29</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcl">4<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcl">4<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcl">4<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl">4¼</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Tinnevelly</td> <td class="tcl">5¼</td> <td class="tcl">5<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl">5<span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl"> · ·</td> <td class="tcl"> · ·</td> <td class="tcl"> · ·</td></tr> +</table> + + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Cotton Ships arrived.</i><br /> + Boston: Canadian S. Hamburg: Iceland S.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Sales.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Speculation<br />and Export.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Imports including<br />Hull, &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">To-day.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Previous<br />this<br />Week.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">To-day.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Previous<br />this<br />Week.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">To-day.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Week’s<br />Total.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">American</td> <td class="tcr rb">6330</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,050</td> <td class="tcr rb">500</td> <td class="tcr rb">1500</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,665</td> <td class="tcr rb">53,684</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pernam, &c.</td> <td class="tcr rb">150</td> <td class="tcr rb">200</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Paraiba, &c.</td> <td class="tcr rb">460</td> <td class="tcr rb">130</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ceara and Arac’ty</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Egyptian</td> <td class="tcr rb">500</td> <td class="tcr rb">1200</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">321</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,983</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Peruvian</td> <td class="tcr rb">460</td> <td class="tcr rb">350</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">32</td> <td class="tcr rb">32</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">W. I. and African</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Surat</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,664</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,829</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Madras</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bengal</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">608</td> <td class="tcr rb">608</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sundries</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Total</td> <td class="tcr rb">8000</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">500</td> <td class="tcr rb">1500</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,290</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,138</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8,000</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb">500</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Since Wednesday</td> <td class="tcr rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb">28,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2000</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Purchases for “speculation” remain in the market and +therefore figure again in the sales. These official prices are +sometimes prices actually paid, and sometimes prices settled by +a committee according to their notions of the prices that would +<span class="sidenote">“Points on or off.”</span> +have been realized at the close of the market had business been +done. The work of the committee is by no means +simple, as frequently very few transactions take place +in the kinds of cotton of which quotations are given. As +regards “middling” American, the committee fixes “spot” by +allowing so many “points on or off” present month futures. The +variations of the gaps between “spot” and “present month +futures” are somewhat mysterious, a matter to which we shall +recur. “Spot” quotations, the reader will now understand, are +partly nominal, and must therefore be taken as affording a +general idea only of movements in the prices of cotton. While +quoted “spot” remained low, the prices paid by most spinners +for the special kinds of cotton that they needed might rise. +When the spinner has informed the dealer exactly what quality of +cotton he needs, the dealer quotes so many “points on or off” +the “future” quotations prevailing in Liverpool at the time of +the purchase, which refer to Upland cotton of “middling grade,” +of “no staple” and of the worst growth. Then, according as the +spinner wants immediate delivery or delivery in some future +month, he pays the price of current “futures,” or of “futures” +of the month in which he requires delivery, plus or minus the +“points on or off” previously fixed.</p> + +<p>The considerations which determine the “points on or off” +charged to the spinner may be taken roughly as three:—</p> + +<p>1. The grade, <i>i.e.</i> the colour, cleanliness, &c., of the cotton. +These are of importance to the spinner owing to the necessity of +his cleaning machinery being adapted to the condition of the +cotton. The lower the grade the more elaborate and expensive is +the machinery required to clean it, and consequently a spinner is +willing to pay a certain amount extra for high grade cotton in +order to save expenditure on preparatory machinery.</p> + +<p>2. The length of the staple. This determines to a large extent +the fineness of the yarn which can be spun. Only the very +lowest counts can be spun from cotton with “no staple,” that is, +with a fibre of about three-quarters of an inch. The longer the +staple above the minimum the higher the counts that can +be spun.</p> + +<p>3. The growth. The best American cotton (Sea Island and +Florida cotton are always considered quite apart) is grown in the +Mississippi valley, the next best in Texas, and the poorest on the +Uplands (<i>i.e.</i> in Georgia and Alabama). Considerations of +growth determine to a great extent the hardness or softness, and +strength or weakness, of the fibre, and thus, indirectly, whether +the cotton is suitable for warp or weft.</p> + +<p>Some spinners cover their yarn contracts merely by buying +“futures,” but the cover thus provided is +frequently most inadequate owing to variations +in the “points on or off” for the particular +cotton that they want. For example, after the +size of 1904-1905 crops became known, and the +Americans attempted to hold back cotton, the +“points on” for many qualities rose considerably +owing to artificial scarcity, though the price +of cotton, as indicated by “spot,” remained +low. There is a tendency for cautious spinners +in England to run no risks and fix the prices +of their yarn in accordance with quotations for +actual cotton of specified qualities made by +their brokers.</p> + +<p>We now return to exchange “future” transactions +regarded as a genus. In addition to +“futures” proper there are “options” +and “straddles.” Options are single +(“puts” or “calls”) or double (that +<span class="sidenote">“Options” and “straddles.”</span> +is, alternative “puts” or “calls”). +The “put” is a right to sell cotton within some +specified time in the future at a price fixed in the +present, which need not, of course, be exercised. The “call” is +similar, but relates to buying. It will be evident that the “put” +is a hedge against prices falling, and the “call” a hedge against +their rising. The basis of “options” is the same as that of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>272</span> +ordinary “futures,” <i>i.e.</i> middling American cotton of “no staple,” +&c. Whether the purchaser of an option gains or loses depends +upon the price that he has paid in relation to the gain, if any, that +he makes out of his power. The price of options of course +varies: that of double options is always highest, but they are +little used. A “straddle” is a speculation on the difference +between the prices of nearer and more distant futures, which +varies from time to time, or on the difference between the prices +of different kinds of cotton. An example will make the nature of +the straddle clear. Suppose a dealer buys April-May “futures” +at 4d. a ℔ and sells the same quantity of May-June +“futures” at 4<span class="spp">10</span>⁄<span class="suu">64</span>d. a ℔. Then, whether prices rise or fall +as a whole, he gains if the difference between the two prices becomes +less than <span class="spp">10</span>⁄<span class="suu">64</span>d., but if it becomes more, he loses. On +the other hand, had the dealer bought May-June at 4<span class="spp">10</span>⁄<span class="suu">64</span>d. +and sold April-May at 4d. he would have gained in the event of +the difference increasing, and lost in the event of its decreasing.</p> + +<p>A question which has met with a good deal of attention is +whether the speculation, which has been encouraged by the +various arrangements made for facilitating operations +in “futures,” has steadied or unsteadied prices. +<span class="sidenote">Measures of steadiness in prices.</span> +Before we are prepared to answer this question we must +be furnished with a precise conception of what is meant +by “steadiness” in prices. It is sometimes assumed that this is +measured perfectly by the standard deviation,<a name="FnAnchor_6b" id="FnAnchor_6b" href="#Footnote_6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a> which is obtained +by taking the squares of the differences between the average and +the individual prices, summing them and extracting the square +root. But obviously the information given by the standard deviation +is limited: the frequency of movement cannot be inferred +from it; two series might have quite different average oscillations +and yet the same standard deviation; and the range of movement, +or spread of the variations from the average price (though allowed +for in the standard deviation more than in the average error), is +hidden. Now frequency of movement, average daily price +variation, and range of price movements are matters of fundamental +importance to the public. Hence for practical purposes +we require several kinds of measurement of price movements, and +it is impossible to weigh exactly the one against the other in +respect of importance. Observe that an increase of the frequency +of movement, or even of the average daily movement, is not +necessarily objectionable, since changes are less harassing when +they take place by small increments than when they are brought +about by a few big variations. The difference between the +highest and lowest price, we may observe, is a very imperfect +indication of the range of movement (though, taken in conjunction +with the standard deviation, it is the best at our disposal), +because either of the extreme prices might be accidental and +quite out of relation to all others. An investigator must be on +his guard against using quotations of this kind. There is also a +difficulty about the frequency of movement, because as a rule +many movements take place in one day the total over a period +sufficiently lengthy to yield general results is enormous, and many +are unrecorded. In one day, for instance, when the net drop was +33 points and the range of variation 59 points (namely, 8.45 to +7.86), 150 price fluctuations were recorded. However, the count +of frequency of movement from daily closing prices would probably +afford a roughly satisfactory comparative measurement in +markets in which prices sometimes remain the same for a day or +two together. The points just noted apply also to the average +fluctuation and the standard deviation, but it is probable in these +cases that daily or even weekly quotations would be sufficient to +yield the information sought for with sufficient exactness for +purposes of comparison.</p> + +<p>Now, supposing dealing to be confined to experts, what +effects upon the course of prices would one expect from the +specialism of the cotton market and improved facilities +for dealing, on the assumption that dealers were +<span class="sidenote">Effect of speculation on steadiness of prices.</span> +governed wholly in their actions by the course of prices +and never tried to manipulate them? The frequency +of movement ought to increase because the market +would become more sensitive, but, other things being equal, the +range of movement ought to diminish, and ultimately the average +daily movement also, though at first the latter might not fall +appreciably if, indeed, it did not rise, owing to the increased +frequency of movement. These results would prove beneficial to +the community. May we infer deductively that they have been +attained because of the increase of speculative transactions? +By no means, and for two reasons. In the first place, the public +speculates to a large extent on the cotton exchange, and its +speculation (taken as a whole) is sheer gambling. But, it may be +replied, the outsiders, being as a whole completely ignorant of the +forces at work, so that they cannot form rational anticipations, +cannot have any effect either way: by the law of chance their +influences would neutralize one another. This would be so if +people acted independently and without guidance, but actually +they are sometimes misled by published advice and movements in +the market intended to deceive them, and, even when they are not, +they watch each other’s attitudes and tend to act as a crowd. +The mass becomes unduly sanguine or weakly surrenders to +panic. Hence the law of error does not apply, and speculation by +the public may unsteady prices. Again, dealers sometimes try to +create corners and form powerful syndicates for that purpose: the +dealing syndicate of late years has become a force to be reckoned +with. Many large-scale operations are entered into, not because +prices are relatively high or low, but to make them high or low for +ulterior purposes; <i>i.e.</i> the market is deliberately “bulled or +beared.” In consequence of this tampering with the market no +certainty can be felt about the effect even of expert dealing.</p> + +<p>What, then, we may profitably inquire next, has actually +happened to price movements generally as the market has +developed? This question can readily be answered as +regards the past forty years or so, for which material +<span class="sidenote">Movement of prices.</span> +has been collected, but the reader must bear in mind +that if improvement can be traced it cannot logically be attributed +unhesitatingly to the perfecting of the machinery of speculation, +whereby a larger use has been made of “futures,” since many +other economic changes have taken place concomitantly and they +may have wrought the major effect. The world may be steadying +and steeling its nerves. Now, turning to the actual effects, we +discover somewhat remarkable facts. Expressed both absolutely +and as percentages of the price averaged from the 1st of October +to the 31st of July, the range of movement, standard deviation, +and mean weekly movement calculated between the times +mentioned above (October 1st to July 31st), after diminishing +significantly for some years after the later ’sixties, have risen +appreciably on the whole of late years. The figures in the table +below are from the <i>Journal of the Royal Statistical Society</i>, June +1906: quotations for August and September were omitted to +avoid the transition movements between the price levels of +two crops.</p> + +<p>In this table measurements of price movements stated both +absolutely and as percentages of price levels are given, because +authorities have expressed doubts as to whether the former or the +latter might be expected to remain constant, other things being +equal, when price rose. On the one hand, it is argued that +speculators are affected only by the absolute variations in price, +while on the other hand it is contended that a movement of one +“point,” say, is less influential when the price is about 8d. than +when it is about 4d. In response to the first view it might be +argued that if speculators are influenced only by the differences +for which they become liable, a “point” movement would have a +somewhat slighter effect on their action, other things being equal, +when price was high, because, supplies being relatively short, +each of them would tend to be engaged in a smaller volume of +transactions measured in quantity of cotton, than when supplies +were larger. But the point need not be discussed further here, +since both percentage and absolute indices of unsteadiness have +risen of late years. The explanation of this change in the +direction of indices of steadiness cannot be proved to consist in +any peculiarity in the supplies of recent years. But the dealing +syndicate has probably been of late more common and more +powerful—that is, the syndicate which exists to make profits out +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a>273</span> +of manipulating the market—and the public has probably been +speculating increasingly. It is plausible, then, to suppose that +the dealing syndicate primarily, and the speculations of the +public secondarily (secondarily, because in all likelihood the +effect of its operation would be much less in magnitude), may +account for the change.</p> + +<p class="center pt2">Table calculated from Weekly Prices between the 1st of October and the 31st of July in each Year.</p> + + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="7"> </td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Expressed as Percentage of<br />Average (1 Oct. to 31 July)<br />Weekly Prices.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average<br />Price.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Lowest<br />Price.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Highest<br />Price.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Range of<br />Movement.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Standard<br />Deviation.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Mean<br />Weekly<br />Movement.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Range of<br />Movement.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Standard<br />Deviation.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Mean<br />Weekly<br />Movement.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1867-1868</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 9<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">7<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">12<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">5½</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.74</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.31</td> <td class="tcc rb">57.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.22</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1868-1869</td> <td class="tcl rb">11½</td> <td class="tcl rb">10½</td> <td class="tcl rb">12<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">2<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.19</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.65</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1869-1870</td> <td class="tcl rb">11<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">7¾</td> <td class="tcl rb">12<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">4<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.92</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">41.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.07</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1870-1871</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 8<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">7<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 9<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.17</td> <td class="tcc rb">24.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.09</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1871-1872</td> <td class="tcl rb">10<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">9<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">11½</td> <td class="tcl rb">2<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.75</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.15</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.38</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1872-1873</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 9¾</td> <td class="tcl rb">8¾</td> <td class="tcl rb">10<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">1<span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.53</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.10</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.08</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1873-1874</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 8<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">7¾</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 9<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">1<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.32</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.10</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1874-1875</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 7<span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">6<span class="spp">15</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 8</td> <td class="tcl rb">1<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.89</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1875-1876</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6½</td> <td class="tcl rb">5<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 7<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">1¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.37</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.08</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.23</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1876-1877</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">5<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 7</td> <td class="tcl rb">1<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.11</td> <td class="tcc rb">17.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.74</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1877-1878</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6¾</td> <td class="tcl rb">5<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6<span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">1<span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.21</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1878-1879</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6</td> <td class="tcl rb">4<span class="spp">15</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 7<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">28</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">2¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.67</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.13</td> <td class="tcc rb">37.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.17</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1879-1880</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 7</td> <td class="tcl rb">6<span class="spp">10</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 7<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">1¾</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.24</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.12</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.71</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1880-1881</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">5¾</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6<span class="spp">13</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">1<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.34</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.08</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.27</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1881-1882</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">6<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 7<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> <span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.15</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.06</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1882-1883</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 5<span class="spp">13</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">5<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">1<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.31</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1883-1884</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">5¾</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> <span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.20</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.08</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.32</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1884-1885</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 5<span class="spp">13</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">5<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> <span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.19</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1885-1886</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 5<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">4¾</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 5<span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> ¾</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.18</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.35</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1886-1887</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 5<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">5<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6</td> <td class="tcl rb"> <span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.05</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.92</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1887-1888</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 5½</td> <td class="tcl rb">5<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 5<span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> ½</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.14</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.05</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 9.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.91</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1888-1889</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 5¾</td> <td class="tcl rb">5<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> <span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.06</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.04</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1889-1890</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">5<span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6<span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.34</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.08</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.31</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1890-1891</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 5</td> <td class="tcl rb">4<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 5¾</td> <td class="tcl rb">1<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.36</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.06</td> <td class="tcc rb">27.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1891-1892</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 4<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">3<span class="spp">6</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 4<span class="spp">15</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">1<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.36</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1892-1893</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 4¾</td> <td class="tcl rb">4<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 5<span class="spp">15</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">1<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.37</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.09</td> <td class="tcc rb">25.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.89</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1893-1894</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 4¼</td> <td class="tcl rb">3<span class="spp">29</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 4<span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> <span class="spp">25</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.22</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.04</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.94</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1894-1895</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 3<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">2<span class="spp">31</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 3<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> <span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.06</td> <td class="tcc rb">26.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.79</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1895-1896</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 4<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">3¾</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 4<span class="spp">27</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">25.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1896-1897</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 4<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">3<span class="spp">25</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 4<span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> <span class="spp">29</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.22</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">21.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.67</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1897-1898</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 3<span class="spp">13</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">3<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 3<span class="spp">13</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.18</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.05</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.47</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1898-1899</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 3<span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 3<span class="spp">15</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> <span class="spp">15</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.15</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.04</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.22</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1899-1900</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 4<span class="spp">15</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">3<span class="spp">29</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> <span class="spp">25</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.63</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.12</td> <td class="tcc rb">43.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.48</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1900-1901</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 5<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">4<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">6½</td> <td class="tcl rb">2<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.53</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.13</td> <td class="tcc rb">42.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.54</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1901-1902</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 4¾</td> <td class="tcl rb">4<span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcl rb"> 5<span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span></td> <td class="tcl rb">1<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.24</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.09</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.89</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1902-1903</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 5.35</td> <td class="tcl rb">4.42</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 7.12</td> <td class="tcl rb">2.70</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.78</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.13</td> <td class="tcc rb">50.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.43</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1903-1904</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 7.04</td> <td class="tcl rb">5.78</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 8.92</td> <td class="tcl rb">3.14</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.91</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">44.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.83</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1904-1905</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> 4.86</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">3.63</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> 6.01</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">2.38</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.71</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.15</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">48.9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.09</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>“Futures” are not used in all markets—for instance, they are +not to be found at Bremen; and in those in which they are used +they play parts of different prominence—at Havre, +for instance, the transactions in “futures” are of +<span class="sidenote">Price movements in different markets.</span> +incomparably less relative importance than they are at +Liverpool. But it is futile to seek the effect of much +dealing in “futures” in the differences between price +movements in the various markets, because (1) demand expresses +itself in different ways—in Germany, for example, spinners buy to +hold large stocks—and (2) the markets are in telegraphic communication, +so that their price movements are kept parallel. +Mr Hooker has shown with reference to the wheat market how +close is the correlation between prices in different places,<a name="FnAnchor_7b" id="FnAnchor_7b" href="#Footnote_7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a> and +the same has been observed of the cotton market, though the +correlations have not been worked out.<a name="FnAnchor_8b" id="FnAnchor_8b" href="#Footnote_8b"><span class="sp">8</span></a> It is worthy of note +that Liverpool “futures” are largely used for hedging by +continental cotton dealers.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Spot</td> <td class="tccm allb">Jan.-<br />Feb.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Feb.-<br />Mar.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Mar.-<br />Apr.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Apr.-<br />May.</td> <td class="tccm allb">May-<br />Jun.</td> <td class="tccm allb">June-<br />July</td> <td class="tccm allb">July-<br />Aug.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Aug.-<br />Sep.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Sep.-<br />Oct.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Oct.-<br />Nov.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Nov.-<br />Dec.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Dec.-<br />Jan.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nov. 18th, 1895</td> <td class="tcl rb">4.34</td> <td class="tcl rb">27</td> <td class="tcl rb">28</td> <td class="tcl rb">28½</td> <td class="tcl rb">29½</td> <td class="tcl rb">31</td> <td class="tcl rb">32</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcl rb">27</td> <td class="tcl rb">27</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Jan. 18th, 1899</td> <td class="tcl rb">3.8</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6½</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6½</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 7½</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 8½</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 9½</td> <td class="tcl rb">10½</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 1½</td> <td class="tcl rb">12</td> <td class="tcl rb">12½</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 6½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Sept. 14th, 1899</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">3.36</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">24½</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">25</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">25½</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">26</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">27</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">30</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">28</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">26½</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">25</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">24½</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Conceivably some indication of the working of “futures” +might be gleaned from observation of the relations of near and +distant “futures” to one another and of both to +“spot.” The complete explanation of changes in +<span class="sidenote">Differences between the prices of near and distant “futures.”</span> +these relations is still a mystery.<a name="FnAnchor_9b" id="FnAnchor_9b" href="#Footnote_9b"><span class="sp">9</span></a> Probably an +infinitude of subtle influences came into play, and +among these there seems reason to include the intentional +and unintentional “bulling” or “bearing” +of the market. Some examples of the diverse relations to be +found, even when all the “futures” fall in the same crop year, +may be quoted here—quotations running into the new crop year +are obviously affected by anticipations of the new crop.</p> + +<p>As we pass from the “future” of the month in which the +quotation is made to the most distant “future” it will be observed +that in the first and second cases price rises continuously, in the +second case even passing “spot,” whereas in the third case it falls +first and then rises. Instances might be given of its falling unintermittently. +It seems a plausible conjecture that if “futures” +were “bulling” the market in the first case, they were at least +“bulling” it less in the second case <i>ceteris paribus</i>, and probably +“bearing” it in the last case. A closer examination will reveal +further that the magnitude of these gaps varies a great deal; and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a>274</span> +if the “futures” do “bear” and “bull,” as has been supposed, +they probably influence these magnitudes. It might be thought +that the “futures” of different months, being substitutes in +proportion to their temporal proximity to one another, should +vary together exactly; but it would seem to be a sufficient reply +that as they are not perfect substitutes they are in some slight +degree independent variables. The “spot” market might be +judged generally as too high, in view of crops and the probable +normal demand of the year, but it might not therefore drop +immediately, owing partly to the pressure of demand that must +be satisfied instantaneously. “Current futures” would be +affected more than “spot” by this impression as to the relation +of “spot” to a conceived normal price for the year, and they +might therefore be expected to drop more than “spot” when +this impression was at all widely entertained. But the fall of +“current futures” would be checked by the demands that must +be satisfied in the near future. Probably the prices of the more +distant “futures” are determined in a higher degree by far-reaching +imagination than the prices of nearer futures. This +explains what has been called above the unintentional “bearing” +of “spot” by “futures.” And it is immediately evident that +the deliberate “bear” works by selling “futures,” and that the +effect of his sales is propagated to “spot.” These statements are +equally true of “bulling.” The influence of expectations of the +new crop on “futures” running into the new crop is plain on +inspection; but owing to the gap between the two crop years it +would be astonishing if “futures” against which cotton from a +new crop could be delivered were not appreciably independent of +“spot” at the time of their quotation. However, it is noticeable +that they are still so closely bound up with “futures” culminating +in the old crop year that the daily movements of the former +are closely correlated with those of the latter. Concluding +cautiously, we may admit the probability of the relations between +near and distant “futures” and “spot” (even in respect of +“futures” running out in the same crop year) indicating sometimes +at least the intentional or unintentional “bulling” or +“bearing” or “spot” by “futures.” But nothing has yet been +proved from these facts as to the effect “futures” are having +upon the steadiness of prices. In the case of any crop year, if +the relations which are suggested as indicating the “bulling” +work of “futures” usually corresponded with “spot” prices +being below the normal price of the crop year, or of what was +left of the crop year, while the relations which are suggested to +indicate the “bearing” work of “futures” on the whole corresponded +with a relatively abnormal height of “spot,” it would be +a legitimate inference that “futures” were tending to smooth +prices. However, it is made clear as the result of an elaborate +examination that the generality of these correspondences cannot +be affirmed.<a name="FnAnchor_10b" id="FnAnchor_10b" href="#Footnote_10b"><span class="sp">10</span></a> The outcome of the whole matter is that the +investigator is still baffled in his attempt to discover what effect +the use of “futures” is having upon prices to-day. The sole +piece of evidence, from which probable conclusions may be +drawn, is that three separate measurements of price fluctuations +over some forty years reveal a growing unsteadiness +of late, whether they be expressed absolutely or as percentages +of price.</p> + +<p>The uneasiness caused by the excessive dependence of Great +Britain upon the United States for cotton, coupled with the +belief that shortages of supply are more frequent than +they ought to be, and the fear that diminishing returns +<span class="sidenote">Recent attempts to open up new cotton-fields.</span> +may operate in America, occasioned the formation in +England of the British Cotton Growing Association on +the 12th of June 1902. The proportions of England’s +supplies drawn from different fields is indicated in the +table below.</p> + +<p>British dependence on American supplies is greater even than +that of the continent of Europe, for Russia possesses some +internal supplies, and more Indian cotton is used in continental +countries than in England.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Average Quantities of Raw Cotton imported Annually into the United +Kingdom from the following Countries in the Periods 1896-1900 +and 1901-1904.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Country.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1896-1900.<br />Million ℔.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1901-1904.<br />Million ℔.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">1436  </td> <td class="tcr rb">1424  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brazil</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.8 </td> <td class="tcr rb">31.5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Peru</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.5 </td> <td class="tcr rb">8.6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chile (including the Pacific coast of Patagonia)</td> <td class="tcr rb">.8 </td> <td class="tcr rb">2.2 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Venezuela and Republic of Colombia</td> <td class="tcr rb">.5 </td> <td class="tcr rb">.5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British West Indies and British Guiana</td> <td class="tcr rb">.3 </td> <td class="tcr rb">.6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Turkey (European and Asiatic)</td> <td class="tcr rb">.5 </td> <td class="tcr rb">1.1 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Egypt</td> <td class="tcr rb">295.7 </td> <td class="tcr rb">314.4 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British possessions in the East Indies</td> <td class="tcr rb">40.7 </td> <td class="tcr rb">61.9 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Australasia</td> <td class="tcr rb">.035</td> <td class="tcr rb">.041</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">All other countries</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.3 </td> <td class="tcr rb">3.8 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Total   </td> <td class="tcr allb">1800  </td> <td class="tcr allb">1849  </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">Re-exported   </td> <td class="tcr rb bb">223  </td> <td class="tcr rb bb">260  </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The annual average shipments from Bombay to the European +continent and to Great Britain in 1900-1904 were as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">To the continent</td> <td class="tcr">600 bales of 3½ cwt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">To Great Britain</td> <td class="tcr">50 bales of 3½ cwt.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>At the end of the 18th century the bulk of British cotton was +obtained from the West Indies. Approximately the supplies +were as follows in million ℔:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">British West Indies</td> <td class="tcr">6.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">French and Spanish settlements</td> <td class="tcr">6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Dutch settlements</td> <td class="tcr">1.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Portuguese  ”</td> <td class="tcr">2.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">East Indies  ”</td> <td class="tcr">.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Smyrna or Turkey</td> <td class="tcr">5.7</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The British Cotton Growing Association works under the +sanction of a royal charter and has met with valuable official +support. Financial assistance and assurances as to sales and +prices have been given liberally by the association where they +are needed; ginning and buying centres have been established; +experts have been engaged to distribute seed and afford instruction; +and some land has been acquired for working under the +direct management of the association. The governments of +some colonies have aided the efforts of the association. Professor +Wyndham Dunstan of the Imperial Institute, on a reference from +the government, made favourable reports as to the possibilities +of extending cotton cultivation. The results may be seen in the +approximate estimates below of cotton grown more or less +directly under the auspices of the association.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Bales of 400 ℔.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">1903.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1905.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1906.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gambia</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">300</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sierra Leone</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">200</td> <td class="tcr rb">250</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gold Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcr rb">150</td> <td class="tcr rb">200</td> <td class="tcr rb">250</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lagos</td> <td class="tcr rb">500</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,200</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nigeria</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">200</td> <td class="tcr rb">650</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">——</td> <td class="tcc rb">——</td> <td class="tcc rb">——</td> <td class="tcc rb">——</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">West Africa</td> <td class="tcr rb">750</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,550</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,550</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">West Indies</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">East Africa</td> <td class="tcr rb">150</td> <td class="tcr rb">850</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sind</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">500</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sundries</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">250</td> <td class="tcr rb">500</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">1,900</td> <td class="tcr allb">5,500</td> <td class="tcr allb">11,300</td> <td class="tcr allb">20,000</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl allb">Approximate value</td> <td class="tcr allb">£29,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">£75,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">£150,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">£270,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In the West Indies results are most favourable, both as +regards quantity and quality of the crops. West Indian grown +cotton has realized even higher prices than American grown Sea +Island. In West Africa also prospects appear encouraging. +In Sierra Leone little success has been met with, but on the Gold +Coast some cotton better than middling American has been +grown, and the association has concluded an agreement with the +government for an extension of its work. In Lagos crops +increased rapidly. The cotton is almost entirely grown by +natives in small patches round their villages, and generally it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span> +has sold for about the same price as middling American, though +some of it realized as much as 25 to 30 “points on.” The +quality in greatest demand in England, it should be observed, is +worth about ¼d. to ½d. per ℔. above middling American. In +Southern Nigeria the association has met with only slight +success; in Northern Nigeria, a working arrangement was entered +into with the Niger Company, and a small ginning establishment +was set to work in February 1906. In British Central Africa, the +results on the whole have not been satisfactory. Though +planters who confined their efforts to the lower lying grounds—of +which there is a fairly large tract—succeeded, all the cotton +planted on the highlands proved more or less a failure. In +Uganda the association took no steps, but activity in cotton-growing +is not unknown, and some good cotton is being produced. +Arrangements were concluded with the British South Africa +Company for the formation of a small syndicate for working in +Rhodesia.</p> + +<p>The general movement for the extension of cotton cultivation +was welcomed by the International Congress of representatives +of master cotton spinners and manufacturers’ associations at +the meeting at Zurich in May 1904. It placed on record “its +cordial appreciation of the efforts of those governments and +institutions which have already supported cotton-growing in +their respective colonies.” England is pre-eminent but not +alone in the matter. Germany and France, and in a less degree +Belgium, Portugal and Italy, have taken some steps. Russia, +too, is developing her internal supplies.</p> + +<p>The advantages that might accrue from the wider distribution +of cotton-growing are mainly fourfold, (1) Greater elasticity of +supply might be caused. It is probably easier to extend the area +under cotton rapidly when crops are raised from many places in +proximity to other crops than when the mass of the cotton is +obtained from a few highly specialized districts. Possibly the +advantages of specialism might be retained and yet the elasticity +of supply be enhanced. (2) Greater stability of crops in proportion +to area cultivated is hoped for. The eggs are now too +much in one basket, and local disease, or bad weather, or some +other misfortune, may diminish by serious percentages the +supplies anticipated. Were there numerous important centres, +the bad fortune of one would be more adequately offset by the +good fortune of another. (3) Desirable variations in the raw +material might conceivably eventuate from the introduction of +cotton to spots in the globe where its growth was previously +unknown or little regarded. The results of the enterprise of +Mehemet Ali and Jumel in Egypt prove such an idea to be not +altogether fanciful, and warn us also against hastily arguing that +the plan is too artificial to succeed on a large scale. Without the +active intervention of a strong body of interested parties it is +sometimes unlikely that new industries will be undertaken even +in places well suited for them. (4) Lastly, the countries to which +cotton-growing is carried should gain in prosperity.</p> + +<p>The general difficulties in the way of the British Cotton +Growing Association are many and will be sufficiently evident. +Lessons of value may be learnt from the fate of similar +work undertaken by the Cotton Supply Association, +<span class="sidenote">The Cotton Supply Association.</span> +which was instituted in April 1857. According to its +fifth report, it originated “in the prospective fears of a +portion of the trade that some dire calamity must inevitably, +sooner or later, overtake the cotton manufacture of Lancashire, +whose vast superstructure had so long rested upon the treacherous +foundation of restricted slave labour as the main source of supply +for its raw material.”<a name="FnAnchor_11b" id="FnAnchor_11b" href="#Footnote_11b"><span class="sp">11</span></a> Its methods were stated to be: “To +afford information to every country capable of producing +cotton, both by the diffusion of printed directions for its +cultivation, and sending competent teachers of cotton planting +and cleaning, and by direct communication with Christian +missionaries whose aid and co-operation it solicits; to +supply, gratuitously, in the first instance, the best seeds to +natives in every part of the world who are willing to receive +them; to give prizes for the extended cultivation of cotton; and +to lend gins and improved machines for cleaning and preparing +cotton.” Though the association brought about an extension and +improvement of the Indian crop, in which result it was enormously +assisted by the high prices consequent upon the American Civil +War, it sank after a few years into obscurity, and soon passed out +of existence altogether, while the effects of its work dwindled +finally into insignificance. Much the same had been the ultimate +outcome of the spasmodic attempt of the British government to +bring about the introduction of cotton to new districts, after it had +been pressed to take some action a few years prior to the formation +of the Cotton Supply Association. A Mr Clegg, who afterwards +interested himself keenly in the activities of the Cotton +Supply Association reported that in the course of a tour in 1855 +through the Eastern countries bordering on the Mediterranean +he had found none of the gins presented by the British government +at work or workable.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—On the question of cotton supplies, as treated +in this article, the reader may be referred to <i>Brook’s Cotton, its Uses, +&c.</i>; Dabney’s <i>Cotton Plant</i> (Department of Agriculture of the United +States); Foaden’s <i>Cotton Culture in Egypt</i>; Dunstan’s <i>Report on +Cotton Cultivation</i> for the British government; Oppel’s <i>Die Baumwolle</i>; +Leconte’s <i>Le Coton</i>; publications of the British Cotton +Growing Association; <i>Report</i> of the Lancashire Commission on the +possibility of extending cotton cultivation in the Southern States of +North America; Watt’s <i>Lancashire and the Cotton Famine</i>; publications +of the old Cotton Supply Association (many will be found in +the Manchester public library in the volume marked “677 I. C. ii.”), +including their weekly paper, <i>The Cotton Supply Reporter</i>; Hammond’s +<i>Cotton Culture and Trade</i>. On methods of marketing to +certain portions of the above must be added: Ellison’s <i>Cotton Trade +of Great Britain</i>; Chapman’s <i>Lancashire Cotton Industry</i> (ch. vii.); +articles by Chapman and Knoop in the <i>Economic Journal</i> (December, +1904) and the <i>Journal of the Royal Statistical Society</i> (April, 1906); +Emery’s <i>Speculation on Stock and Produce Exchanges of the United +States</i> (small portions of which relate to cotton). Many statistics +will be found in the works mentioned, and these may be supplemented +from the trade publications of different countries. Many valuable +figures of cotton imports, &c., in early years will be found in Baines’ +<i>History of the Cotton Trade</i>. Recent statistics bearing upon cotton +are collected annually in the two publications, Shepperson’s <i>Cotton +Facts</i> and Jones’s <i>Handbook for Daily Cable Records of Cotton Crop +Statistics</i>. For current information the following may be added: +Nield’s, Ellison’s and Tattersall’s circulars; <i>Cotton</i> (the publication +of the Manchester Cotton Association); and daily reports and articles +in the local press. Price curves are published by Messrs Turner, +Routledge & Co.</p></div> +<div class="author">(S. J. C.)</div> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">Cotton Goods and Yarn</p> + +<p>The two great sections of the cotton industry are <i>yarn</i> and +<i>cloth</i>, and in Great Britain the production of both of these is +mainly in South Lancashire, though the area extends to parts of +Cheshire, Yorkshire and Derbyshire, and there is a Scottish +branch, besides certain isolated ventures in other parts of the +country. Though there are local rivalries there is nothing in +<span class="correction" title="amended from cempetitive">competitive</span> division to compare with the northern and southern +sections in America, and the British industry is, for its size, more +homogeneous than most of the European industries. Both +operatives and employers are highly organized and both parties +are able to make articulate contribution to the solution of the +various problems connected with the trade.</p> + +<p><i>Cotton Yarn.</i>—The yarn trade is mainly in the hands of +limited companies, and a private firm is looked upon as something +of a survival from the past. The two great centres of production +are Oldham, in which American cotton is chiefly, though not +exclusively, spun, and Bolton, which spins the finer counts from +Egyptian or Sea Island cotton. Spinning mills are established, +however, in most of the large Lancashire towns as well as in some +parts of Cheshire and in Yorkshire, where there is a considerable +industry in doubling yarns. The centre of trade is the Manchester +Royal Exchange, and though some companies or firms prefer to +do business by means of their own salaried salesmen, managers or +directors, most of the yarn is sold by agents. Frequently a single +agent has the consignment of the whole of a company’s yarn, but +many spinners, especially those whose business connexion is not +perfectly assured, prefer to have more outlets than can be +explored by an individual. At times of bad trade even those +who usually depend on their own resources seek the aid of +experienced agents, who sometimes find a grievance if their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>276</span> +services are rejected when trade improves and sales are made +easily.</p> + +<p>Yarn is sold upon various terms, but a regular custom in the +home trade is for the spinner to allow 4% discount, for payment +in 14 days, of which 2½ goes to the buyer, who is commonly a +manufacturer, and 1½ to the agent for sale and guaranteeing the +account. In selling yarn for export it is usual to allow the buyer +only 1½% for payment in 14 days, or in some cases the discount +is at the rate of 5% per annum for 3 months, which is equivalent +to 1¼%.</p> + +<p>The great bulk of the yarn spun in Great Britain ranges between +comparatively narrow limits of count, and such staples as 32<span class="sp">s</span> to +36<span class="sp">s</span> twist and 36<span class="sp">s</span> to 46<span class="sp">s</span> weft in American, 50<span class="sp">s</span> to 60<span class="sp">s</span> twist and 42<span class="sp">s</span> +to 62<span class="sp">s</span> weft in Egyptian, make up a large part of the total. It is +nevertheless the experience of yarn salesmen that Lancashire +produces an increasingly large amount of specialities that indicate +a continued differentiation in trade. The tendency to spin finer +counts has been to some extent counteracted by the development +of the flannelette trade, for which heavy wefts are used, and there +has been again a tendency lately to use “condensor” or waste +wefts, which has worked to the disadvantage of the spinners of +the regular coarse counts spun at Royton and elsewhere. The +demand for cloths which require careful handling and regularity +in weaving has helped to develop the supply of ring yarns which +will stand the strain of the loom better than mule twists. A +great amount of doubled and trebled yarn is now sold, though it +does not appear that recent expansions have added much to +doubling spindles, and considerable developments continue in the +use of dyed and mercerized yarns.</p> + +<p>Yarns are sold according to their “actual” counts, though +when they are woven into cloth they frequently attain nominal +or brevet rank. There has been a long-continued +discussion, which between buyer +and seller sometimes degenerates into a dispute, +on the subject of moisture in yarns, and +the difficulty is not confined to the Lancashire +industry. The amount permissible, according +to the recommendation of the Manchester +Chamber of Commerce, is 8%, but while it +may be assumed that yarns at the time of +their sale rarely contain less than this, they +frequently contain a good deal more. It is +a matter of experience that cotton yarns which +when spun contain only a small percentage +of moisture will absorb up to about 8% +when they are exposed to what may be rather +vaguely described as natural conditions. The +exigencies of competition prompted the discovery +that if yarn were sold by weight fresh +from the spindle its comparative dryness made +such early sale less profitable than if it were +allowed to “condition.” Between loss and +delay the spinner found an obvious alternative +in damping the yarn artificially. As +it was often clearly to the advantage of the +buyer that he should receive immediate +delivery he did not object to water in moderation, +but art soon began to run a little ahead of +nature. The essentially dishonest practice of deluging yarn with +water, which has sometimes even degenerated into the use of +weighting materials deleterious to weaving, has been recognized +as a great nuisance, but while various attempts have been made to +protect the buyer the question seems to have pretty well settled +itself on the principles which commonly rule the sales of commodities +between those who intend to do business continuously. +The spinner who persists in over-weighting his yarn finds it +difficult to obtain “repeat” orders.</p> + +<p>A remarkable point in the Lancashire yarn trade is the looseness +of the contracts between spinner and manufacturer. Doubtless +some kind of sale note or acknowledgment usually passes +between them, but in the home trade at least it is quite usual to +leave the question of delivery an open one. It would not be +correct to say that this system or want of system is satisfactory, +but the trade manages to rub along very well with it, although +inconveniences and disagreements sometimes arise when prices +have advanced or declined considerably. Thus when prices have +advanced the manufacturer may find it difficult to obtain delivery +of the yarn that he had bought at low rates, for some spinners +have a curious, indefensible preference for delivering their higher-priced +orders; and, on the other hand, when prices have fallen +the manufacturer sometimes ceases to take delivery of the high-priced +yarn and actually purchases afresh for his needs. Yet +positive repudiation is very rare though compromises are not +uncommon, and a good many illogical arrangements are made +that imply forbearance and amity. Litigation in the yarn trade +is very unusual, and Lancashire traders generally have only +vague notions of the bearing of law upon their transactions, and +a wholesome dread of the experience that would lead to better +knowledge.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The average yearly values of the exports of cotton, yarn and +cloth from Great Britain for the decades 1881-1890 and 1891-1900 +respectively, are given by Professor Chapman in his <i>Cotton Industry +and Trade</i>, in million pounds:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">1881-1890.</td> <td class="tcr">1891-1900.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cloth</td> <td class="tcr">£60.4 </td> <td class="tcr">£57.3 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Yarn</td> <td class="tcr">12.3 </td> <td class="tcr">9.3 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">—— </td> <td class="tcr">—— </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">£72.7 </td> <td class="tcr">£66.6 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">During the earlier decade the prices of cotton were comparatively high.</p> + +<p>The whole of the cloth exports represent, of course, a corresponding +home trade in yarns. The following table, taken from the <i>Manchester +Guardian</i>, gives in thousands of ℔ the amounts of cotton yarns +exported from Great Britain during 1903, 1904 and 1905 respectively, +according to the Board of Trade returns, together with the average +value per lb for each of the countries:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1903.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1905.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">℔.*</td> <td class="tccm allb">Price<br />per ℔.</td> <td class="tccm allb">℔.*</td> <td class="tccm allb">Price<br />per ℔.</td> <td class="tccm allb">℔.*</td> <td class="tccm allb">Price<br />per ℔.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia</td> <td class="tcr rb">814</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.22</td> <td class="tcr rb">713</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.71</td> <td class="tcr rb">557</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.66</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sweden</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,526</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,486</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.55</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,512</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Norway</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,656</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.54</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,511</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.05</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,606</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.73</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Denmark</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,429</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.91</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,368</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.18</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,860</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.51</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,239</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.05</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,295</td> <td class="tcr rb">.27</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,513</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.38</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Netherlands</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,591</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.10</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,384</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.48</td> <td class="tcr rb">37,341</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.93</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,970</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.89</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,864</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.50</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,205</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,974</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.59</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,084</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.01</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,518</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.64</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italy</td> <td class="tcr rb">204</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.78</td> <td class="tcr rb">174</td> <td class="tcr rb">24.70</td> <td class="tcr rb">204</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Austria-Hungary</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,662</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.60</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,329</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.36</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,066</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.36</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rumania</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,608</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.55</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,072</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.13</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,856</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.73</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Turkey</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,966</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.93</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,253</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.05</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,389</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.37</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Egypt</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,590</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.66</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,381</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.83</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,382</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.59</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">China (including Hong-Kong)</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,660</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.45</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,457</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.24</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,441</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Japan</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,406</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.98</td> <td class="tcr rb">681</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.46</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,071</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.99</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British India—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Bombay</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,286</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.80</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,145</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.88</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,112</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.86</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Madras</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,683</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.07</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,288</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.48</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,930</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.91</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Bengal</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,777</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.04</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,596</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.82</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,068</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Burma</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,611</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.17</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,388</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.39</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,211</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.31</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Straits Settlements</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,945</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.81</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,137</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.57</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,149</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.71</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ceylon</td> <td class="tcr rb">33</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.92</td> <td class="tcr rb">44</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.51</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.55</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Other countries</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,129</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.39</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,252</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.28</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,970</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.43</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total and average</td> <td class="tcr allb">150,758</td> <td class="tcr allb">11.79</td> <td class="tcr allb">163,901</td> <td class="tcr allb">13.11</td> <td class="tcr allb">205,001</td> <td class="tcr allb">12.08</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f80 tcl" colspan="7">* 000 omitted.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>It should be understood, however, that in some cases the Board +of Trade figures represent only an approximation to the ultimate +distribution, as the exports are sometimes assigned to the intermediate +country, and in particular it is understood that a considerable +part of the yarn sent to the Netherlands is destined for Germany or +Austria. The large business done in yarns with the continent of +Europe is in some respects an extension of the British home trade, +though certain countries have their own specialities. A considerable +business is done with European countries in doubled yarns and in +fine counts of Egyptian, including “gassed” yarns, which are also +sent intermittently to Japan. “Extra hard” yarns are sent to +Rumania and other Near Eastern markets, and Russia, as the average +price indicates, buys sparingly of very fine yarns. The trade with +the Far East, which, though not very large for any one market, is +important in the aggregate, is a good deal specialized, and since the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>277</span> +development of Indian and Japanese cotton mills some of the trade +in the coarser counts has been lost. The various Indian markets +take largely of 40<span class="sp">s</span> mule twist and in various proportions of 30<span class="sp">s</span> mule, +water twists, two-folds grey and bleached, fine Egyptian counts +and dyed yarns. China also takes 40<span class="sp">s</span> mule, water twists and two-folds. +The general export of yarn varies according to influences +such as tariff charges, spinning and manufacturing development +in the importing countries and the price of cotton. A particular +effect of high-priced piece-goods is seen in various Eastern countries +that are still partly dependent on an indigenous hand-loom industry. +The big price of imported cloths throws the native consumer to +some extent upon the local goods, and so stimulates the imports of +yarn. It appears that as the native industries decline the weaving +section persists longer than the spinning section.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Cotton Goods.</i>—Cotton goods are of an infinite variety, and the +titles that experience or fancy have evoked are even more +numerous than the kinds. Descriptions of the following fabrics, +which are not of course invariably made of cotton, will be found +in separate articles: <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baize</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bandana</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bombazine</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brocade</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calico</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cambric</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canvas</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chintz</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Corduroy</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crape</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cretonne</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denim</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dimity</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drill</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Duck</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flannelette</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fustian</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gauze</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gingham</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Longcloth</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Moleskin</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mull</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Muslin</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nankeen</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Print</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rep</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ticking</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Twill</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Velveteen</a></span>. +The following are notes on other varieties.</p> + +<p><i>Grey cloth</i> is a comprehensive term that includes unbleached +cotton cloth generally. It may be a nice question whether +“yellow” would not have been the more nearly correct description. +A very large proportion of the Lancashire export trade is +in grey goods and a smaller yet considerable proportion of the +home trade.</p> + +<p><i>Shirting</i>, which has long since ceased to refer exclusively to +shirt cloths, includes a large proportion of Lancashire manufacture. +Grey and white shirtings are exported to all the +principal Eastern markets and also to Near Eastern, European, +South American, &c. markets. Certain staple kinds, such as +39 in. 37½ yd. 8¼ ℔. 16 × 15 (threads to the ¼ in.), largely exported +to China and India, are made in various localities and by many +manufacturers. The length quoted is to some extent a conventional +term, as the pieces in many cases actually measure +considerably more. The export shirting trade is done mainly on +“repeat” orders for well-known “chops” or marks. These +trade marks are sometimes the property of the manufacturer, +but more commonly of the exporter. Generally the China markets +use rather better qualities than the Indian markets. The +principal China market for shirtings and other staple goods is +Shanghai, which holds a large stock and distributes to minor +markets. A considerable trade is also done through Hong-Kong +and other Far Eastern ports. The principal Indian markets are +Calcutta, Bombay, Karachi and Madras.</p> + +<p><i>Shirt-cloth</i> is the term more commonly applied to what is +actually used in the manufacture of shirts, and it may be used +for either plain or fancy goods.</p> + +<p><i>Sheeting</i> has two meanings in the cotton trade: (1) the +ordinary bed sheeting, usually a stout cloth of anything from +45 in. to 120 in. wide (the extremes being used on the one hand for +children’s cots or ship bunks and on the other for old-fashioned +four-posters), which may be either plain or twilled, bleached, +unbleached or half-bleached; (2) a grey calico, heavier than a +shirting, sent largely to China and other markets, usually 36 in. +by 40 yd. and weighing about 12 ℔. American sheetings compete +with Lancashire goods in the China market. The <i>Cabot</i> is +a kind of heavy sheeting, and for the Levant markets the name +as a trade mark is said to be the exclusive property of an American +firm, although the general class is known by the name and +supplied by other firms.</p> + +<p><i>Mexican</i> is a plain, heavy grey calico, sometimes heavily sized. +The origin of the word is doubtful, and it seems to be an arbitrary +term. Mexicans are exported to various markets and also used +in the home trade. For export the dimensions are commonly +32 or 36 in. by 24 yd., and a usual count is 18 × 18. In the +Mexican the yarns were originally of nearly the same weight +and number of threads to the ¼ in., an arrangement which +gave the cloth an even appearance, thus differing from the +“pin-head” or medium makes. Now, however, Mexicans are +often made with lighter wefts, though the name is usually applied +to the better class of cloths of the particular character. <i>Punjum</i> +is a Mexican, generally 36 yd. in length, sent mainly to the South +African market.</p> + +<p><i>T Cloth</i> is a plain grey calico, similar in kind to the Mexican +and exported to the same markets. There is no absolute distinction +between the two cloths, but the T cloth is generally lower in +quality than the Mexican. The name seems to have been +originally an arbitrary identification or trade mark.</p> + +<p><i>Domestic</i>, a name originally used in the sense of “home-made,” +is applied especially to home-made cotton goods in the United +States. In Great Britain it is employed rather loosely, but +commonly to describe the kind of cloth which if exported would +be called a Mexican. It may be either bleached or unbleached.</p> + +<p><i>Medium</i> is a plain calico, grey or bleached, of medium weight, +used principally in the home and colonial trade. The word is +sometimes particularly applied to cloths with a comparatively +heavy weft, the distinction being made between the even +“Mexican make” and the “pin-head” or “medium-make.”</p> + +<p><i>Raising-cloths</i> are of various kinds and may be merely mediums +with a heavy weft, or “condensor” weft made from waste yarns. +The essence of the raising-cloth is a weft that will provide plenty +of nap and yet have sufficient fibre to maintain the strength of +the web.</p> + +<p><i>Wigan</i> is a name derived from the town Wigan and seems to +have been originally applied to a stiff canvas-like cloth used for +lining skirts. Now it is commonly applied to medium or heavy +makes of calico.</p> + +<p><i>Double-warp</i>, as its name implies, is a cloth with a twofold +warp. It is usually a strong serviceable material and may be +either twilled or plain. Sheetings for home trade are often +double-warp, and double-warp twills and Wigans were and are +used for the old-fashioned type of men’s night-shirts.</p> + +<p><i>Croydon</i>, which seems to be an arbitrary trade name, is a heavy, +bleached, plain calico, usually stiff and glossy in finish. It used +to be sold largely in the Irish trade as well as in the English home +trade, but it has been supplanted a good deal by softer finishes.</p> + +<p><i>Printing-cloth</i> is a term with a general significance, but it is also +particularly applied to a class of plain cloths in which a very +large trade is done both for home trade and export. The chief +place in Lancashire for the manufacture of printing-cloths is +Burnley, and in the United States, Fall River. The Burnley +cloths range in width from 29 in. to 40 in., and are usually about +120 yd. in length. The warp is commonly from 36<span class="sp">s</span> to 44<span class="sp">s</span>, the +weft from 36<span class="sp">s</span> to 54<span class="sp">s</span>, and the threads from 13 × 13 to 20 × 20 +to the ¼ in. Cheshire printers, which are made at Hyde, +Stockport, Glossop and elsewhere, are commonly 34 in. to 36 in. +wide, the warp is from 32<span class="sp">s</span> to 36<span class="sp">s</span>, the weft 32<span class="sp">s</span> to 40<span class="sp">s</span>, and the +counts 16 × 16 to 19 × 22.</p> + +<p><i>Jacconet</i> is understood to be the corruption of an Indian name, +and the first jacconets were probably of Indian origin. They now +make one of the principal staple trades of Lancashire with India. +The jacconet is a plain cloth, lighter than a shirting and heavier +than a mull. When bleached it is usually put into a firm and +glossy finish. A <i>nainsook</i> is a jacconet bleached and finished soft. +It also goes largely to India.</p> + +<p><i>Dhootie</i> is a name taken from a Hindu word of similar sound and +referred originally to the loin-cloth worn by Hindus. It is a light, +narrow cloth made with a coloured border which is often so +elaborate as to require a dobby loom for its manufacture. The +finer kinds, made from Egyptian yarns, are called mull-dhooties. +The dhootie is one of the principal staples for India and is exported +both white and grey.</p> + +<p><i>Scarf</i> is a kind of dhootie made usually with a taped or corded +border.</p> + +<p><i>Madapolam</i> or <i>Madapollam</i> is a name derived from a suburb of +Narsapur in the Madras presidency where the cloth was first made. +It is now exported grey or white to India and other countries. +In weight it is lighter than a shirting, and it is usually ornamented +with a distinctive coloured heading.</p> + +<p><i>Baft</i>, probably of Persian derivation, and originally a fine cloth, +is now a coarse and cheap cloth exported especially to Africa.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span></p> + +<p><i>Sarong</i>, the Malay word for a garment wrapped round the lower +part of the body and used by both men and women, is now +applied to plain or printed cloths exported to the Indian or +Eastern Archipelago for this purpose.</p> + +<p><i>Jean</i>, said to be derived from Genoa where a kind of fustian +with this title was made, is a kind of twilled cloth. The cloth is +woven “one end up and two ends down,” and as there are more +picks of weft per inch than ends of warp the diagonal lines pass +from selvage to selvage at an angle of less than 45 degrees. The +weft surface is the face or wearing surface of the cloth. Jeans are +exported to China and other markets, and are also used in the +home trade. <i>Jeanette</i> is the converse of jean, being a twill of +“two ends up to one down”; the diagonal passes from selvage to +selvage at a greater angle than 45 degrees and the warp makes the +wearing surface.</p> + +<p><i>Oxford</i> is a plain-woven cloth usually with a coloured pattern, +and is used for shirts and dresses. The name is comparatively +modern, and is, no doubt, arbitrarily selected.</p> + +<p><i>Harvard</i> is a twilled cloth similar to the Oxford.</p> + +<p><i>Regatta</i> is a stout, coloured shirt cloth similar in make to a +jeanette. It was originally made in blue and white stripes and +was used largely and is still used for men’s shirts.</p> + +<p>Fancy cotton goods are of great variety, and many of them +have trade names that are +used temporarily or occasionally. +Apart from the large +class of brocaded cloths made +in Jacquard looms there are +innumerable simpler kinds, +including stripes and checks +of various descriptions, such +as Swiss, Cord, Satin, Doriah +stripes, &c. <i>Mercerized cloths</i> +are of many kinds, as the +mercerizing process can be +applied to almost anything. +<i>Lace</i> and <i>lace curtains</i> are +made largely at Nottingham. +Various light goods are made in +Scotland, such as <i>book muslin</i>, +a fine light muslin with an +elastic finish, so called from +being folded in book-form.</p> + +<p>Among the fancy cloths +made in cotton may be mentioned: +<i>matting</i>, which includes +various kinds with +some similarity in appearance +to a matting texture; <i>matelassé</i>, +which is in some degree +an imitation of French dress +goods of that name; <i>piqué</i>, +also of French origin, woven +in stripes in relief, which cross +the width of the piece, and +usually finished stiff; <i>Bedford +cord</i>, a cheaper variety of +piqué in which the stripes run +the length of the piece; <i>oatmeal +cloth</i>, which has an irregular +surface suggesting the grain +of oatmeal, commonly dyed +cream colour; <i>crimp cloth</i>, in +which a puckered effect is +obtained by uneven shrinkage; +<i>grenadine</i>, said to be derived +from Granada, a light dress +material originally made of +silk or silk and wool; <i>brilliant</i>, a dress material, usually with a +small raised pattern; <i>leno</i>, possibly a corrupt form of the +French <i>linon</i> or lawn, a kind of fancy gauze used for veils +curtains, &c.; <i>lappet</i>, a light material with a figure or pattern +produced on the surface of the cloth by needles placed in a +sliding frame; <i>lustre</i>, a light dress material with a lustrous face +sometimes made with a cotton warp and woolen weft; <i>zephyr</i>, a +light, coloured dress material usually in small patterns; <i>bobbin-net</i>, +a machine-made fabric, originally an imitation of lace made +with bobbins on a pillow.</p> + +<p>Some fancy cloths have descriptive names such as <i>herringbone +stripe</i>, and there are many arbitrary trade names, such as <i>Yosemite +stripe</i>, which may prevail and become the designation of a regular +class or die after a few seasons.</p> + +<p>Cotton linings include <i>silesia</i>, originally a linen cloth made in +Silesia and now usually a twilled cotton cloth which is dyed +various colours; <i>Italian cloth</i>, a kind of jean or sateen produced +originally in Italy. Various cotton cloths are imitations of other +textures and have modified names which indicate their superficial +character, frequently produced by finishing processes. Among +these are <i>sateen</i>, which, dyed or printed, is largely used for +dresses, linings, upholstery, &c.; <i>linenette</i>, dyed and finished to +imitate coloured linen in the north of Ireland and elsewhere; +<i>hollandette</i>, usually unbleached or half-bleached and finished to +imitate linen holland; and <i>interlining</i>, a coarse, plain white +calico used as padding for linen collars.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Country.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1903.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1905.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of Yards.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Price<br />per Yard.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of Yards.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Price<br />per Yard.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of Yards.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Price<br />per Yard.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,650</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.77</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,129</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.02</td> <td class="tcr rb">65,842</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.98</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Netherlands</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,570</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.57</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,187</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.68</td> <td class="tcr rb">56,639</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.47</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,199</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.34</td> <td class="tcr rb">56,237</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.42</td> <td class="tcr rb">67,509</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.41</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,552</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.61</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,759</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.39</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,875</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.65</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Portugal, Azores and Madeira</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,824</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.70</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,440</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.92</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,867</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.03</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italy</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,363</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.07</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,904</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.19</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,746</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.31</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Austria-Hungary</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,405</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.44</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,102</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.40</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,905</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Greece</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,973</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.64</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,658</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.11</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,190</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Turkey</td> <td class="tcr rb">305,611</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.45</td> <td class="tcr rb">379,557</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.53</td> <td class="tcr rb">376,209</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.53</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Egypt</td> <td class="tcr rb">229,704</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.41</td> <td class="tcr rb">283,521</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.57</td> <td class="tcr rb">272,737</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.53</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Algeria</td> <td class="tcr rb">709</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.74</td> <td class="tcr rb">438</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.71</td> <td class="tcr rb">455</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.63</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Morocco</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,368</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.28</td> <td class="tcr rb">51,262</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.44</td> <td class="tcr rb">44,407</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.44</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Foreign West Africa</td> <td class="tcr rb">64,589</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.92</td> <td class="tcr rb">55,131</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.12</td> <td class="tcr rb">69,163</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.08</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Persia</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,859</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.46</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,119</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.67</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,647</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.59</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dutch East Indies</td> <td class="tcr rb">156,905</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.45</td> <td class="tcr rb">185,196</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.72</td> <td class="tcr rb">226,586</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.57</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Philippine Islands</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,558</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.59</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,969</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">42,876</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.66</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">China, including Hong-Kong</td> <td class="tcr rb">477,691</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.83</td> <td class="tcr rb">548,974</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.34</td> <td class="tcr rb">799,732</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.06</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Japan</td> <td class="tcr rb">67,315</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.08</td> <td class="tcr rb">42,373</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.34</td> <td class="tcr rb">128,725</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.99</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States of America</td> <td class="tcr rb">72,360</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.80</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,391</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.18</td> <td class="tcr rb">65,563</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Foreign West Indies</td> <td class="tcr rb">86,349</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.08</td> <td class="tcr rb">98,797</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.21</td> <td class="tcr rb">80,679</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.24</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mexico</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,327</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.10</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,679</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.42</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,028</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.31</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Central America</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,879</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.97</td> <td class="tcr rb">53,018</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.21</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,523</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.29</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Colombia and Panama</td> <td class="tcr rb">44,299</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.25</td> <td class="tcr rb">44,648</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.54</td> <td class="tcr rb">31,798</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.41</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Venezuela</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,330</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.87</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,934</td> <td class="tcc">2.07</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,717</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Peru</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,962</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.66</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,430</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.85</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,035</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.78</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chile</td> <td class="tcr rb">84,118</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.50</td> <td class="tcr rb">80,836</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.57</td> <td class="tcr rb">96,996</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.62</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brazil</td> <td class="tcr rb">152,402</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.64</td> <td class="tcr rb">134,841</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.89</td> <td class="tcr rb">131,504</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Uruguay</td> <td class="tcr rb">44,062</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.79</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,670</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.85</td> <td class="tcr rb">56,770</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.95</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Argentine Republic</td> <td class="tcr rb">151,003</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.91</td> <td class="tcr rb">186,022</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.04</td> <td class="tcr rb">159,115</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.24</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gibraltar</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,961</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.39</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,578</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.47</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,960</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.73</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Malta</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,065</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.11</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,659</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.45</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,006</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.31</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British W. Africa</td> <td class="tcr rb">69,795</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.27</td> <td class="tcr rb">69,308</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.43</td> <td class="tcr rb">74,392</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British S. Africa</td> <td class="tcr rb">61,778</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.61</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,670</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.03</td> <td class="tcr rb">50,592</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.69</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British India—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Bombay</td> <td class="tcr rb">678,684</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.07</td> <td class="tcr rb">818,261</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.23</td> <td class="tcr rb">908,619</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.24</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Madras</td> <td class="tcr rb">132,825</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.48</td> <td class="tcr rb">141,675</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.63</td> <td class="tcr rb">131,145</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.62</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Bengal</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,122,004</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.97</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,215,607</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.18</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,280,314</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.18</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Burma</td> <td class="tcr rb">64,654</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.84</td> <td class="tcr rb">79,765</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.10</td> <td class="tcr rb">72,528</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Straits Settlements*</td> <td class="tcr rb">112,006</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.61</td> <td class="tcr rb">100,230</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.84</td> <td class="tcr rb">121,690</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.71</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ceylon</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,395</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.75</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,336</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.95</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,991</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.94</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Australia</td> <td class="tcr rb">106,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.83</td> <td class="tcr rb">128,247</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.01</td> <td class="tcr rb">136,481</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.85</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">New Zealand</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,499</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.58</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,538</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.81</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,315</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.63</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Canada</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,439</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.15</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,903</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.25</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,189</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.47</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British West India Islands,</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Bahamas and British Guiana</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,614</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.49</td> <td class="tcr rb">43,487</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.61</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,173</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Other countries</td> <td class="tcr rb">188,662</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.84</td> <td class="tcr rb">197,339</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.14</td> <td class="tcr rb">226,971</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.03</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">5,157,316</td> <td class="tcc allb">2.57</td> <td class="tcr allb">5,591,822</td> <td class="tcc allb">2.75</td> <td class="tcr allb">6,198,200</td> <td class="tcc allb">2.74</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="7">* Including Federated Malay States.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Various cotton imitations share the name of the original, such +as lawn, batiste, serge, huckaback, galloon, and a large number +of names are of obvious derivation and use, such as umbrella +cloth, apron cloth, sail cloth, book-binding cloth, shroud cloth, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span> +butter cloth, mosquito netting, handkerchief, blanket, towelling, +bagging.</p> + +<p>Among the miscellaneous cloths made or made partly of cotton +may be mentioned: <i>waste cloths</i>, made from waste yarns and +usually coarse in texture; <i>khaki cloth</i>, made largely for military +clothing in cotton as well as in woollen; <i>cottonade</i>, a name given to +various coarse low cloths in the United States and elsewhere; +<i>lasting</i>, which seems to be an abbreviation of “lasting cloth,” a +stiff, durable texture used in making shoes, &c.; <i>bolting cloth</i>, +used in bolting or sifting; <i>brattice cloth</i>, a stout, tarred cloth made +of cotton or wool and used for bratticing or lining the sides of +shafts in mines; <i>sponge cloths</i>, used for cleaning machinery; +<i>shoddy</i> and <i>mungo</i>, which though mainly woollen have frequently +a cotton admixture; and <i>splits</i>, either plain or fancy, usually of +low quality, which include any cloth woven two or three in the +breadth of the loom and “split” into the necessary width. +Cotton is used too for many miscellaneous purposes, including +the manufacture of lamp wicks and even of billiard balls.</p> + +<p><i>British Cotton Cloth Exports.</i>—The main lines of the Lancashire +export trade in cotton goods are indicated in the Board of Trade +returns. The table on p. 278 compiled from them is taken from +the <i>Manchester Guardian</i>. It gives in thousands of yards the +quantities of cotton goods exported from Great Britain during +1903, 1904 and 1905 respectively, together with average value per +yard for each of the countries.</p> + +<p>The following table gives, approximately, in thousands of yards +the quantities exported of the four main divisions of cotton +cloths:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2"></td> + <td class="tccm allb">1903.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1905.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of Yards.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of Yards.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of Yards.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Grey or unbleached</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,880,321</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,033,895</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,336,018</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bleached</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,326,255</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,528,165</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,710,742</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Printed</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,027,925</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,036,901</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,053,900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Dyed and coloured</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">922,735</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">993,009</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,097,540</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In the case of cloth, too, the Board of Trade returns must not be +taken as an absolute record of imports to the particular countries, +as the ultimate recipient is not always determined. The development +of the Eastern trade has been one of the most remarkable +features of the cotton trade in the 19th century. Professor +Chapman writes in his <i>Cotton Industry and Trade</i>: “In 1820 +Europe received about half the cotton fabrics which were sent +abroad, while the United States received nearly one-tenth and +eastern Asia little more than one-twentieth. By 1880 Europe +was taking less than one-twelfth, the United States less than +one-fiftieth, and eastern Asia more than a half.”</p> + +<p>Naturally a trade tends to find out the most direct means of +distribution, and Manchester merchants are now generally in +direct connexion with native dealers in India. Bombay was the +pioneer in the custom, followed now by Calcutta and Karachi, by +which deliveries of goods from British merchants remained under +the control of the banks until the native dealers took them up. +Manchester business with India, China, &c., is done under +various conditions, however, and a good many firms have +branches abroad. The regular “indent” by which most of the +Manchester Eastern business is conducted now implies a definite +offer for shipment from the dealer abroad, either direct or through +the exporter’s agents, and commonly includes freight and insurance. +The term “commission agent” is now discredited, and +buying done by Manchester houses on simple commission terms +is unusual though not unknown. This has been so since the +famous law case of <i>Williamson</i> v. <i>Barbour</i> in 1877, when it was +established that whatever might be the custom of the trade a +commission agent was not entitled to make a profit over his +commission on the various processes, such as handling and +packing, which are a necessary part of the exporter’s work. A +good deal of business is done, however, for South America and +other markets in which the goods are bought for delivery in the +Manchester warehouse, all charges for packing, &c., and carriage +being extra.</p> + +<p>Transactions with distant markets are now done almost entirely +by cable, and a remarkable development of the telegraphic +code has enabled merchants to pack a good deal into a brief +message. A cable sent to India in the evening may bring a reply +next morning, and in these days of rapid cotton fluctuations mail +advices are confined mainly to general discussion, hypothetical +inquiry, advice, admonition and complaint. Some Manchester +export business is done through London, Glasgow, and continental +towns, of which Hamburg is the principal. Glasgow buys largely +of yarns and cloth, some considerable part of which is dyed or +printed, for India and elsewhere, and has an indigenous manufacture +and trade in fine goods such as book-muslins and lappets, +a somewhat delicate department of manufacture which necessitates +a slower running of machinery than is usual in Lancashire.</p> + +<p>Besides the indent business there is, of course, purely merchant +business by Manchester exporters, who buy on their own initiative +at what they consider to be opportune times or on recommendations +from their houses or correspondents abroad. In the +Indian trade, especially in the Calcutta trade, a large proportion +of the total amount is done by a few houses who buy in this way, +and there is some difference of opinion as to whether the method, +which had fallen out of fashion, may not further develop. It is +more speculative than the indent business, but the dealing with +large quantities which it involves gives the opportunity to buy +very cheaply. A good many firms venture occasionally to buy in +anticipation of their customers’ needs, especially when they expect +a rising market. During the great trade “boom” of 1905 there +was a good deal of buying by exporters in advance of their +indents because manufacturers continued to contract engagements +which threatened to exclude dilatory buyers. On the whole, +however, what may be called the speculative centre of gravity +of Great Britain’s export business in cotton goods is not in +Manchester but abroad.</p> + +<p>The terms on which business is conducted are various even in a +single market, and it is sometimes a reproach that British firms +are old-fashioned in their reluctance to give credit. The so-called +enterprising methods of some German traders are, however, +condemned by many experienced English traders, and it is said +that in China, for instance, the seeming successes of the newcomers +are delusive. The Tientsin developments of German +business on credit terms are said to have proved unsatisfactory, +and heavy losses were suffered in Hong-Kong some years ago by +merchants who endeavoured to initiate a bolder system of trading. +The very common complaint of British consuls that British +firms neglect to send out travellers may have some foundation, +but a commercial house naturally follows the line of least resistance +to the development of its trade, and cannot be expected to +work remote and barren ground when better opportunities are +near at hand. On the whole it appears that the British cotton +trade continues to increase to a satisfactory degree in fancy and +special goods, which require for their production a comparatively +high degree of technical skill, and are more lucrative than some +of the simpler products in which competitors have been most +formidable. Various finishing processes, and particularly the +mercerizing of yarn and cloth, have increased the possibilities in +cotton materials, and while staples still form the bulk of our +foreign trade, it seems that as the stress of competition in these +grows acute, more and more of our energy may be transferred to +the production of goods which appeal to a growing taste or fancy.</p> + +<p><i>British Home Trade.</i>—The home trade in cotton cloths is a +great and important section, but it is not comparable in volume to +the export trade. It involves more numerous and more elaborate +processes, and the qualities for home use are generally finer and +more costly than those for export. Of course by far the larger +part of the yarn spun in Lancashire is woven in Lancashire, but of +the cotton cloth woven in Lancashire it is roughly estimated that +about 20% is used in Great Britain. Not only is the average of +quality better, but the variety of kinds and designs is greater in +the home trade than in the export trade. A good home trade +connexion is considered an extremely valuable asset, and as the +trade is highly differentiated the profits are usually good. Some +manufacturers devote themselves exclusively to the home trade, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>280</span> +and some exclusively to foreign trade, but there is a large class +with what may be called a margin of alternation, which serves to +redress the balance as business in one or other of the sections is +good or bad.</p> + +<p>Certain kinds of light goods made for India and other Eastern +markets are not used in the home trade, and the typical Eastern +staples are not generally used in their particular “sizings,” but +with these exceptions and various specialities almost every kind +of cotton cloth is used to some extent in Great Britain. Grey +calicoes for home use, except the lowest kinds, are comparatively +pure, and of late years the heavy fillings which used to be common +in bleached goods have become discredited. The housewife long +persisted in deceiving herself by purchasing filled calicoes, and the +movement in favour of purer goods owes a good deal, strangely +enough, to the increase in the making-up trade and the consequent +inconveniences to workers of sewing machines, whose needles +were constantly broken by hard filled calicoes.</p> + +<p>This development of the making-up trade has become an +important element in the home trade, and it has greatly reduced +the retail sale of piece-goods. The purchase of ready-made shirts, +underclothing, &c., corresponds to a change in the habits of the +people. The factories which have been erected in the north of +Ireland, on the outskirts of London and elsewhere turn out +millions of garments that would, under the old conditions, have +been made at home. It is not necessary here to balance the +advantages and disadvantages of the two systems, and it must not +be supposed that made-up cotton garments are necessarily cheap +and inefficient.</p> + +<p>The chief distributing centre of cotton made-up goods is +London, though a considerable trade is done through wholesale +houses in Manchester and elsewhere. Large warehouses in the +city of London carry on the trade and frequently supply Lancashire +with her own goods. Of course the partial loss of the +piece-goods trade by the shops is not a loss in aggregate trade, as +they are the ultimate distributors of the made-up garments, +which are probably at least as profitable to retail as calico or +flannelette sold in lengths.</p> + +<p>The normal course of home trade piece-goods is from manufacturer +to bleacher, dyer, printer or finisher, either on account of +a merchant to whom the goods are sold or on the manufacturer’s +own account. By far the majority of Lancashire manufacturers +sell their goods as they come from the loom, or, as it is called, in +the “grey state,” but an increasing number now cultivate the +trade in finished goods. Usually the manufacturer sells either +directly or through an agent to a merchant who sells again to the +shopkeeper, but the last twenty or thirty years have seen a +considerable development of more direct dealing. Some manufacturers +now go to the shopkeeper, and this has made it difficult +for the merchant with a limited capital and therefore a limited +assortment to survive. The great general houses such as +Rylands’s, Philips’s and Watt’s in Manchester, and Cook’s and +Pawson’s in London, some of which are manufacturers to a minor +degree, continue to flourish because under one roof they can +supply all that the draper requires, and so enable him to economize +in the time spent in buying and to save himself the trouble +of attending to many accounts. Some general merchants, +indeed, supply what are practically “tied houses,” which give all +their trade in return for pecuniary assistance or special terms.</p> + +<p>The tendency to eliminate the middleman has not only +brought a good many manufacturers into direct relation with the +shopkeeper, but in some exceptional cases the manufacturer, +adopting some system of broadcast advertisement and postal +delivery, has dealt with the consumer. Naturally, the merchant +resents any developments which exclude him, and some mild forms +of boycott have occasionally been instituted. In the United +States there has been an arduous struggle over this question, and +combinations of merchants have sometimes compelled favourable +terms. In England, though the merchant has maintained a great +part of the trade with shopkeepers, the developing trade with +makers of shirts, underclothing, &c., is mainly done by the +manufacturers directly, and perhaps the simplification of +relations by direct dealing in the cotton trade has now reached +a point of fairly stable compromise. The tendency to direct +trading is naturally controlled by the exigencies of capital. Those +manufacturers who act as merchants aim to retain the merchant +profit and must employ a merchant capital in stocks. There has +been a tendency, indeed, to make the manufacturer the stock-keeper, +and some merchants do little more than pass on the +goods a stage after taking toll. The great improvement in trade +during 1905 and 1906 checked this tendency, and probably the +manufacturing extensions owed something to the capital set free +by the reductions of stocks.</p> + +<p>It must be noted, however, that while most of the spinning +concerns are worked by limited companies or individuals with a +considerable capital, a good many small manufacturers exist who +have little capital and are practically <span class="correction" title="amended from financied">financed</span> by their agents or +customers. This is so in both the export and home trades.</p> + +<p>The home trade merchant or merchant-manufacturer works +largely through agents and travellers, and though railway +facilities continue to improve, some shopkeepers rarely visit their +markets. The difficulty that is naturally experienced by a +traveller in finding sufficient support on a sparsely populated +“ground” has brought into vogue the traveller on commission +who represents several firms. The traveller with salary and +allowances for expenses survives, but the quickening induced by +an interest in the amount of sales has caused many firms to adopt +the principle of commission, which may, however, be an addition +to a minimum salary. Of course, such travellers are not peculiar +to the cotton trade, but cotton goods in various forms are an +important factor in the home trade.</p> + +<p>The profits of manufacturers, merchants and shopkeepers are +commonly very much less on the lower classes of cotton goods +than on the higher ones. Thus while there may be a difference of +1d. per yd. between the qualities on a manufacturer’s list, the +difference in cost may not be more than a farthing; and, again, +while the shopkeeper sometimes pays 2½d. or even 2<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>d. per yd. +for a calico to retail at 2¾d., his next selling price may be 3¾d. for +one which costs him only 2¾d. or 3d. per yd. It appears, therefore, +that if the poorer classes of the community have the +discretion to avoid the lowest qualities they may obtain very good +value in serviceable goods. In the matter of profits, however, +there is a good deal of irregularity.</p> + +<p><i>The Manchester Royal Exchange.</i>—There are not many cotton +mills or weaving sheds in Manchester, which is, however, the +great distributive centre, and its Exchange is the meeting-place of +most classes of buyers and sellers in the cotton trade and various +trades allied to it. As buyers of finished goods for London and the +country do not attend it, certain departments of the home trade +are hardly represented, but practically all the spinners and +manufacturers and all the export merchants of any importance +are subscribers. Transactions between spinners and manufacturers +are largely effected on Tuesdays and Fridays, the old +“market days,” when the manufacturing towns are well represented, +but a large amount of business is transacted every day. +Besides the persons immediately concerned in the cotton trade and +connected with allied trades, a large number of members find it +convenient to use this great meeting-place as a means of approach +to a body of responsible persons. Thus not only bleachers, +carriers, chemical manufacturers, mill furnishers and accountants +find their way there, but also tanners, timber merchants, +stockbrokers and even wine merchants. Since the Ship Canal +made Manchester into a cotton port there has been a steady +development of the raw cotton trade in Manchester, and many +cotton brokers and merchants have Manchester offices or pay +regular visits from Liverpool.</p> + +<p>The various expansions and developments have made it +difficult to maintain the ratio between accommodation and +requirements, and although overcrowding is troublesome only +during some three or four hours a week, at “high ’Change” on +market days, various complaints and suggestions provoked in +1906 an appeal from the chairman of directors to the Manchester +corporation. This took the form of a suggestion that the +Exchange should be worked as a municipal institution on a new +site, and though such a development met with opposition it was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>281</span> +apparent that Manchester must presently have a new or an +enlarged Exchange. The present building is, however, the +largest of the kind in the world, and the history of the various +exchanges coincides with the expansion of the Lancashire +industry.</p> + +<p>According to semi-official records “the first building in the +nature of an Exchange” was erected in 1729 by Sir Oswald +Mosley, and though designed for “chapmen to meet and transact +their business” it appears that, as to-day, encroachments were +made by other traders until cotton manufacturers and merchants +preferred to do their business in the street. In 1792 the building +was demolished, and for a period of some eighteen years there was +nothing of the kind. In 1809 the new Exchange was opened, and +terms of membership were fixed at two guineas for those within +5 m. of the building and one guinea for those outside this radius. +In the following year plans for enlargement were submitted to the +shareholders, and various extensions followed, particularly in +1830 and 1847. The present building was opened partly in 1871 +and partly in 1874. The area of the great room is 4405 sq. yds. +The subscription was raised on the 1st of January 1906 from +three guineas to four guineas for new members, but the number of +members continues to increase and early in 1906 amounted +to 8786.</p> + +<p>Of course in this great mart a large variety of types is to be +found and the members fall into some kind of rough grouping. +Export buyers, attended by salesmen, are commonly more or less +stationary and prominent; Burnley manufacturers abound in one +locality and spinners of Egyptian yarns in another. The importance +of the Exchange as a bargaining centre is fairly maintained, +though buyers are assiduously cultivated in their own offices, and +the telephone has done a good deal to abbreviate negotiation. +As to the amount of business transacted on the Exchange there +is no record. The market reporters make some attempt to +materialize the current gossip, and doubtless catch well enough +the great movements in the ebb and flow of demand, but the sum +of countless obscure transactions cannot be estimated. Some +few years ago an attempt was made to mark more clearly the +course of business in Manchester, and a scheme was prepared for +the recording of daily transactions. This could only have been a +somewhat rough affair, but its originator maintained reasonably +that it would be of interest if some indication of the daily movements +could be obtained. For some time a memorandum of the +total of daily sales reported was posted on ’Change, but the +indifference of traders, together with the distrust that makes any +innovation difficult, caused the scheme to be abandoned.</p> + +<p>It would be difficult in any attempt to estimate the volume of +British home trade to distinguish what may be called the +effective movements of goods. There is a considerable amount +of re-selling both in yarn and cloth, and, though the bulk of +cotton goods finds the way through regular and normal channels +to the consumer, these channels are not always direct. A good +many transactions on the Manchester Exchange are intermediate, +without fulfilling any useful function, and could be accomplished +by the principals if they were brought together. Agents, of whom +there are many, sometimes occupy a precarious position, but they +are protected in some degree by law as well as by the custom of +the trade and the point of honour. Points of honour in the +Manchester business may seem to be arbitrarily selected, but they +are an important part of the scheme. An immense amount of +business is done without any apparent check against repudiation. +It is, of course, the verbal bargain that binds, and large transactions +are commonly completed without witnesses, though before +the contract or memorandum of sale passes the fluctuations of the +market may have made the bargain, to one side or the other, a +very bad one.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1b" id="Footnote_1b" href="#FnAnchor_1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It is related that in the year +1784 William Rathbone, an American +merchant resident in Liverpool, +received from one of his +correspondents in the southern +states a consignment of eight bags +of cotton, which on its arrival in +Liverpool was seized by the custom-house +officers, on the allegation that +it could not have been grown in +the United States, and that it was +liable to seizure under the Shipping +Acts, as not being imported in a +vessel belonging to the country of +its growth. When afterwards released, +it lay for many months +unsold, in consequence of the spinners +doubting whether it could be +profitably worked up.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2b" id="Footnote_2b" href="#FnAnchor_2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Taken with some modifications from the <i>Agricultural News</i> +(1907), vi. p. 38.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3b" id="Footnote_3b" href="#FnAnchor_3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Cotton Production 1906, <i>U.S.A. Bureau of the Census</i>, Bulletin +No. 76.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4b" id="Footnote_4b" href="#FnAnchor_4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Cotton Culture and the Cotton Trade</i>, p. 298.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5b" id="Footnote_5b" href="#FnAnchor_5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>The Cotton Trade of Great Britain</i>, by Thomas Ellison, p. 186.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6b" id="Footnote_6b" href="#FnAnchor_6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See article on “Dealings in Futures in the Cotton Market,” in +the <i>Journal of the Royal Statistical Society</i>, vol. lxix, p. 325.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7b" id="Footnote_7b" href="#FnAnchor_7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Journal of the Statistical Society, 1906.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8b" id="Footnote_8b" href="#FnAnchor_8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See paper in the Journal of the Statistical Society for June 1906.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9b" id="Footnote_9b" href="#FnAnchor_9b"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Attempts to explain them were made in an article in the <i>Economic +Journal</i> in December 1904, and in the paper already referred to +read to the Royal Statistical Society.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10b" id="Footnote_10b" href="#FnAnchor_10b"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See the paper already mentioned in the <i>Journal of the Royal +Statistical Society</i> for June 1906, where the several points noticed +briefly above are fully discussed.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11b" id="Footnote_11b" href="#FnAnchor_11b"><span class="fn">11</span></a> The Association published a weekly paper known as The Cotton +Supply Reporter.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTON MANUFACTURE.<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> The antiquity of the cotton +industry has hitherto proved unfathomable, as can readily be +understood from the difficulty of proving a universal negative, +especially from such scanty material as we possess of remote ages. +That in the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> cotton fabrics were unknown or +quite uncommon in Europe may be inferred from Herodotus’ +mention of the cotton clothing of the Indians. Ultimately the +cotton industry was imported into Europe, and by the middle of +the 13th century we find it flourishing in Spain. In the New +World it would seem to have originated spontaneously, since on +the discovery of America the wearing apparel in use included +cotton fabrics. After the collapse of Spanish prosperity before +the Moors in the 14th century the Netherlands assumed a +leadership in this branch of the textile industries as they did also +in other branches. It has been surmised that the cotton manufacture +was carried from the Netherlands to England by refugees +during the Spanish persecution of the second half of the 16th +century; but no absolute proof of this statement has been +forthcoming, and although workers in cotton may have been +among the Flemish weavers who fled to England about that time, +and some of whom are said to have settled in and about +Manchester, it is quite conceivable that cotton fabrics were made +on an insignificant scale in England years before, and there is +some evidence to show that the industry was not noticeable till +many years later. If England did derive her cotton manufacture +from the Netherlands she was unwillingly compelled to repay +the loan with interest more than two hundred years later when +the machine industry was conveyed to the continent through the +ingenuity of Liévin Bauwens, despite the precautions taken to +preserve it for the British Isles. About the same time English +colonists transported it to the United States. Since, as transformed +in England, the cotton industry, particularly spinning, has +spread throughout the civilized and semi-civilized world, though +its most important seat still remains the land of its greatest +development.</p> + +<p>As early as the 13th century cotton-wool was used in England +for candle-wicks.<a name="FnAnchor_1c" id="FnAnchor_1c" href="#Footnote_1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The importation of the cotton from the +Levant in the 16th century is mentioned by Hakluyt,<a name="FnAnchor_2c" id="FnAnchor_2c" href="#Footnote_2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +and according to Macpherson it was brought over +<span class="sidenote">Early history in England.</span> +from Antwerp in 1560. Reference to the manufacture +of cottons in England long before the second half of the +16th century are numerous, but the “cottons” spoken of were +not cottons proper as Defoe would seem to have mistakenly +imagined. Thus, for example, there is a passage by William +Camden (writing in 1590) quoted below, in which Manchester +cottons are specifically described as woollens, and there is a notice +in the act of 33 Henry VIII. (c. xv.) of the Manchester linen and +woollen industries, and of cottons—which are clearly woollens +since their “dressyng and frisyng” is noted, and the latter +process, which consists in raising and curling the nap, was +not applicable to cotton textiles. John Leland, after his +visit to Manchester about 1538, used these words—“Bolton-upon-Moore +market standeth most by cottons; divers villages in +the Moores about Bolton do make cottons.” Leland, it is true, +might conceivably be referring to manufactures from the vegetable +fibre, but it is exceedingly unlikely, since the term “cottons” +would seem to have been current with a perfectly definite +meaning. The goods were probably an English imitation in wool +of continental cotton fustians—which would explain the name. +Again we may quote from the act of 5 and 6 Edward VI., “all +the cottons called <i>Manchester</i>, Lancashire and Cheshire <i>cottons</i>, +full wrought to the sale, shall be in length twenty-two yards and +contain in breadth three-quarters of a yard in the water and shall +weigh thirty pounds in the piece at least”; and from the act +8 Elizabeth c. xi., “every of the said cottons being sufficiently +milled or thicked, clean scoured, well-wrought and full-dried, +shall weigh 21 ℔ at the least.”<a name="FnAnchor_3c" id="FnAnchor_3c" href="#Footnote_3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> These are evidently the weights +of woollen goods: further, it may be observed that milling is not +applicable to cotton goods. The earliest reference to a cotton +manufacture in England which may reasonably be regarded as +pointing to the fabrication of textiles from cotton proper, is in the +will of James Billston (a not un-English name), who is described +as a “cotton manufacturer,” proved at Chester in 1578.<a name="FnAnchor_4c" id="FnAnchor_4c" href="#Footnote_4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a> It may +plausibly be contended that James Billston was a worker in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>282</span> +vegetable fibre, since otherwise “manufacturer of cottons” +would have been a more natural designation. But the proof of +the will of one cotton manufacturer establishes very little.</p> + +<p>The next earliest known reference to the cotton industry +proper occurs in a petition to the earl of Salisbury, made presumably +in 1610, asking for the continuance of a grant for reforming +frauds committed in the manufacture of “bambazine cotton such +as groweth in the land of Persia being no kind of wool.”<a name="FnAnchor_5c" id="FnAnchor_5c" href="#Footnote_5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a> But +a far more valuable piece of evidence, discovered by W. H. Price, +is a petition of “Merchants and citizens of London that use +buying and selling of fustians made in England, as of the makers +of the same fustians.”<a name="FnAnchor_6c" id="FnAnchor_6c" href="#Footnote_6c"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Its probable date is 1621, and it contains +the following important passages:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“About twenty years past, divers people in this kingdom, but +chiefly in the county of Lancaster, have found out the trade of +making of other fustians, made of a kind of bombast or down, +being a fruit of the earth growing upon little shrubs or bushes, +brought into this kingdom by the Turkey merchants, from Smyrna, +Cyprus, Acra and Sydon, but commonly called cotton wool; and +also of linen yarn most part brought out of Scotland, and othersome +made in England, and no part of the same fustians of any wool at all, +for which said bombast and yarn imported, his majesty has a great +yearly sum of money for the custom and subsidy thereof.</p> + +<p>“There is at the least 40 thousand pieces of fustian of this kind +yearly made in England, the subsidy to his majesty of the materials +for making of every piece coming to between 8d. and 10d. the piece; +and thousands of poor people set on working of these fustians.</p> + +<p>“The right honourable duke of Lennox in 11 of Jacobus 1613 +procured a patent from his majesty, of alnager of new draperies for +60 years, upon pretence that wool was converted into other sorts of +commodities to the loss of customs and subsidies for wool transported +beyond seas; and therein is inserted into his patent, searching and +sealing; and subsidy for 80 several stuffs; and among the rest +these fustians or other stuffs of this kind of cotton wool, and subsidy +and a fee for the same, and forfeiture of 20s. for putting any to sale +unsealed, the moiety of the same forfeiture to the said duke, and +power thereby given to the duke or his deputies, to enter any man’s +house to search for any such stuffs, and seize them till the forfeiture +be paid; and if any resist such search, to forfeit £10 and power +thereby given to the lord treasurer or chancellor of the exchequer, +to make new ordinances or grant commissions for the aid of the +duke and his officers in execution of their office.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Here the date of the appearance of the cotton industry on an +appreciable scale—it is questionable whether any importance +should be attached to the expression “found out”—is given by +those who would be speaking of facts within the memory of +themselves or their friends as “about twenty years past” from +1621, and the annual output of the industry in 1621 is mentioned. +Moreover, it is established by this document that for a time at +least the cotton manufacture was “regulated” like the other +textile trades. The date assigned by the petitioners for the first +attraction of attention by the English cotton industry may be +supported on negative grounds.</p> + +<p>Baines assures us that William Camden, who wrote in 1590, +devoted not a sentence to the cotton industry, though Manchester +figures among his descriptions: “This town,” he says, “excels +the towns immediately around it in handsomeness, populousness, +woollen manufacture, market place, church and college; but did +much more excel them in the last age, as well by the glory of its +woollen cloths (<i>laneorum pannorum honore</i>), which they call +Manchester cottons, as by the privilege of sanctuary, which the +authority of parliament under Henry VIII. transferred to +Chester.”<a name="FnAnchor_7c" id="FnAnchor_7c" href="#Footnote_7c"><span class="sp">7</span></a> It is significant too that in the Elizabethan poor law +of 1601 (43 Elizabeth), neither cotton-wool nor yarn is included +among the fabrics to be provided by the overseers to set the +poor to work upon; though, of course, it might be argued that +so short-stapled a fibre needed for its working, when machinery +was rough, a skill in the operative which would be above that of +the average person unable to find employment. However, a +proposal was made in 1626 to employ the poor in the spinning +of cotton and weaving wool.<a name="FnAnchor_8c" id="FnAnchor_8c" href="#Footnote_8c"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p> + +<p>Prior to Mr Price’s discovery of the petition mentioned above, +the earliest known notice of the existence in England of a cotton +industry of any magnitude was the oft-quoted passage from +Lewes Roberts’s <i>Treasure of Traffic</i> (1641), which runs: “The +town of Manchester, in Lancashire, must be also herein remembered, +and worthily for their encouragement commended, +who buy the yarne of the Irish in great quantity, and weaving +it, return the same again into Ireland to sell: Neither doth +their industry rest here, for they buy cotton-wool in London +that comes first from Cyprus and Smyrna, and at home work +the same, and perfect it into fustians, vermillions, dimities and +other such stuffs, and then return it to London, where the same +is vented and sold, and not seldom sent into foreign parts.”<a name="FnAnchor_9c" id="FnAnchor_9c" href="#Footnote_9c"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p> + +<p>Despite Lewes Roberts’s flattering reference, the trade of +Manchester about that time consisted chiefly in woollen frizes, +fustians, sackcloths, mingled stuffs, caps, inkles, tapes, points, +&c., according to “A Description of the Towns of Manchester and +Salford,” 1650,<a name="FnAnchor_10c" id="FnAnchor_10c" href="#Footnote_10c"><span class="sp">10</span></a> and woollens for a long time held the first place. +But before another century had run its course cottons proper had +pushed into the first rank, though the woollen industry continued +to be of unquestionable importance. In 1727 Daniel Defoe could +write, “the grand manufacture which has so much raised this +town is that of cotton in all its varieties,”<a name="FnAnchor_11c" id="FnAnchor_11c" href="#Footnote_11c"><span class="sp">11</span></a> and he did not mean +the woollen “cottons,” as he made plain by other references to +the industry in the same connexion; but it was not until some +fifty years later that the ousting of the woollen industry from +what is now peculiarly the cotton district became unmistakable.<a name="FnAnchor_12c" id="FnAnchor_12c" href="#Footnote_12c"><span class="sp">12</span></a> +As a rule the woollen weavers were driven farther and farther east—Bury +lay just outside the cotton area when Defoe wrote—and +finally many of them settled in the West Riding. Edwin Butterworth +even tells of woollen weavers who migrated from Oldham +to the distant town of Bradford in Wiltshire because of the +decline of their trade before the victorious cotton industry. Much +the same fate was being shared by the linen industry in Lancashire, +which was forced out of the county westwards and northwards. +The explanation of the three centralizations, namely of +the woollen industry, the cotton industry and the linen industry, +is not far to seek. The popularity of the fabrics produced by +the rising cotton industry enabled it to pay high wages, which, +indeed, were essential to bring about its expansion. This a priori +diagnosis is supported by contemporary analysis: thus “the +rapid progress of that business (cotton spinning) and the higher +wages which it afford, have so far distressed the makers of +worsted goods in that county (Lancashire), that they have +found themselves obliged to offer their few remaining spinners +larger premiums than the state of their trade would allow.”<a name="FnAnchor_13c" id="FnAnchor_13c" href="#Footnote_13c"><span class="sp">13</span></a> +The best operatives of Lancashire were attracted sooner or +later to assist the triumphs of art over the vegetable wool. +At the same time the scattered woollen and linen workers +of Lancashire were suffering from the competition of rivals +enjoying elsewhere the economies of some centralization, and +the demand for woollen and linen warps in the cotton industry +ceased after the introduction of Arkwright’s water-twist. When +the factory became common the economies of centralization (which +arise from the wide range of specialism laid open to a large local +industry) increased; moreover they were reinforced by the +diminution of social friction and the intensification of business +sensitiveness which marked the development of the 19th century. +Once begun, the centralizing movement proceeded naturally with +accelerating speed. The contrast beneath is an instructive +statistical comment:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span></p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Distribution of Cotton Operatives in 1838 and 1898-1899 (from Returns +of Factory Inspectors).</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">1838.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1898-1899.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cheshire</td> <td class="tcr rb">36,400</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cumberland</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">700</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Derbyshire</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lancashire</td> <td class="tcr rb">152,200</td> <td class="tcr rb">398,100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nottinghamshire</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Staffordshire</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Yorkshire</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12,400</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">35,200</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> England and Wales<a name="FnAnchor_14c" id="FnAnchor_14c" href="#Footnote_14c"><span class="sp">14</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">219,100</td> <td class="tcr rb">496,200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Scotland</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,600</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Ireland</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,600</td> <td class="tcr rb">800</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> United Kingdom</td> <td class="tcr allb">259,300</td> <td class="tcr allb">526,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The distribution of the industry has varied greatly in the two +periods. If it had remained constant Lancashire would only +have contained 300,000 operatives in 1899, instead of the actual +400,000. Scotland, on the other hand, only contained 30,000 +instead of 70,000, and in Ireland the numbers were one-tenth of +what they should have been. The percentage of operatives in +Lancashire in 1838 was 58.5, but this increased to 75.7 in 1898.</p> + +<p>Why, we may naturally inquire, did not the cotton industry +localize in the West Riding or Cheshire and the woollen industry +maintain its position in Lancashire? Accident no +doubt partly explains why the cotton industry is +<span class="sidenote">Lancashire advantages.</span> +carried on where it is in the various parts of the globe, +but apart from accident, as regards Lancashire, it is +sufficient answer to point to the peculiarly suitable congeries of +conditions to be found there. There is firstly the climate, which +for the purpose of cotton spinning is unsurpassed elsewhere, and +which became of the first order of importance when fine spinning +was developed. In the Lancashire atmosphere in certain districts +just about the right humidity is contained on a great number of +days for spinning to be done with the least degree of difficulty. +Some dampness is essential to make the fibres cling, but excessive +moisture is a disadvantage. Over the county of Lancashire the +prevailing west wind carries comparatively continuous currents +of humidified air. These currents vary in temperature according +to their elevation. Hot and cold layers mix when they reach +the hills, and the mixture of the two is nearer to the saturation +point than either of its components. The degree of moisture is +measured by the ratio of the actual amount of moisture to the +moisture of the saturation point for that particular temperature. +Owing to the sudden elevation the air is rarefied, its temperature +being thereby lowered, and in consequence condensation tends to +be produced. In several places in England and abroad, where +there is a scarcity of moisture, artificial humidifiers have been +tried, but no cheap and satisfactory one has hitherto been +discovered. To the advantages of the Lancashire climate for +cotton spinning must be added—especially as regards the early +days of the cotton industry—its disadvantages for other callings. +The unpleasantness of the weather renders an indoor occupation +desirable, and the scanty sunshine, combined with the unfruitful +nature of much of the soil, prevents the absorption of the population +in agricultural pursuits. In later years the port of Liverpool +and the presence of coal supplemented the attractions which were +holding the cotton industry in Lancashire. All the raw material +must come from abroad, and an enormous proportion of English +cotton products figures as exports. The proximity of Liverpool +has aided materially in making the cotton industry a great +exporting industry.</p> + +<p>Before the localization of the separate parts of the industry can +be treated the differentiation of the industry must be described. +We pass then, at this stage, to consider the manufacture in its +earliest form and the lines of its development. First, and somewhat +incidentally, we notice the early connexion between the +conduct of the cotton manufacture, when it was a domestic +industry in its primitive form, and the performance of agricultural +operations. A few short extracts will place before +<span class="sidenote">Early system of manufacture and organisation.</span> +us all the evidence that it is here needful to adduce. +First Radcliffe, an eye-witness, writing of the period +about 1770, says “the land in our township (Mellor) +was occupied by between fifty and sixty farmers ... +and out of these fifty or sixty farmers there were +only six or seven who raised their rents directly from +the produce of their farms, all the rest got their rent partly in +some branch of trade, such as spinning and weaving woollen, +linen or cotton. The cottagers were employed entirely in +this matter, except for a few weeks in the harvest.”<a name="FnAnchor_15c" id="FnAnchor_15c" href="#Footnote_15c"><span class="sp">15</span></a> Next +we may cite Edwin Butterworth who, though not an eyewitness +(he was not born till 1812), proved himself by his +researches to be a careful and trustworthy investigator. +In the parish of Oldham, he recorded, there were “a number +of master (cotton-linen fustian)<a name="FnAnchor_16c" id="FnAnchor_16c" href="#Footnote_16c"><span class="sp">16</span></a> manufacturers, as well as +many weavers who worked for manufacturers, and at the same +time were holders of land or farmers.... The number of +fustian farmers who were cottagers working for manufacturers, +without holding land, were few; but there were a considerable +number of weavers who worked on their own account, and held at +the same time small pieces of land.”<a name="FnAnchor_17c" id="FnAnchor_17c" href="#Footnote_17c"><span class="sp">17</span></a> Other passages might be +quoted, but these two will suffice. Weaving was not exactly a +by-employment of farm labourers, but many weavers made +agriculture a by-employment to some extent, (a) by working +small parcels of land, which varied from the size of allotments to +farms of a very few acres, and (b) by lending aid in gathering in +the harvest when their other work enabled them to do so. The +association of manufacturing and weaving survived beyond the +first quarter of the 19th century. Of the weavers in many +districts and “more especially in Lancashire” we read in the +report of the committee on emigration, “it appears that persons +of this description for many years past, have been occupiers of +small farms of a few acres, which they have held at high rents, and +combining the business of the hand-loom weaver with that of a +working farmer have assisted to raise the rent of their land from +the profits of their loom.”<a name="FnAnchor_18c" id="FnAnchor_18c" href="#Footnote_18c"><span class="sp">18</span></a> One of the first lines of specialism +to appear was the severing of the connexion described above, and +the concentration of the weavers in hamlets and towns. Finer +fabrics and more complicated fabrics were introduced, and the +weaver soon learnt that such rough work as farming unfitted his +hands for the delicate tasks required of them. Again, really to +prosper a weaver found it necessary to perfect himself by close +application. The days of the rough fabrics that anybody could +make with moderate success were closing in. As a consequence +the dispersion of the weavers becomes less and less. They no +longer wanted allotments or farms; and their looms having +become more complicated, the mechanic proved himself a +convenient neighbour. Finding spinners too was an easier task +in the hamlet or town than in the remote country parts. But +there is no reason to suppose that agriculture and the processes of +the domestic cotton manufacturer had ever been universally +twin callings. There never was a time, probably, when weavers +who did nothing but weave were not a significant proportion, if +not the major part, of the class of weavers. All again were not +independent and all were not employees. Some were simply +journeymen in small domestic workshops; others were engaged +by fustian masters or Manchester merchants and paid by the piece +for what they made out of material supplied them; others again +bought their warps and cotton and sold to the merchants their +fabrics, which were their own property. The last class was swept +away soon after the industry became large, when by the organization +of men of capital consumers and producers were more and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span> +more kept in touch. In early days most weavers owned their +looms, the great part of which they had frequently constructed +themselves: later, however, a large number hired looms, and it +was as usual in certain quarters for lodgings to be let with a loom +as it is to-day for them to be provided with a piano. When it +became customary for weavers to undertake a variety of work, +the masters usually provided reeds (which had to vary in fineness +with the fineness of the warp), healds, and other changeable parts, +and sometimes they employed the gaiters to fit the new work in +the looms.</p> + +<p>Until the success of the water-frame, cotton could not be spun +economically of sufficient strength and fineness for warps, and the +warps were therefore invariably made of either linen or wool. +Some were manufactured locally, others were imported from +Germany, Ireland and Scotland. The weaver prepared them for +his loom by the system of peg-warping,<a name="FnAnchor_19c" id="FnAnchor_19c" href="#Footnote_19c"><span class="sp">19</span></a> but after the introduction +of the warping-mill he received them as a rule all ready for +insertion into the loom from the Manchester merchant or local +fustian master.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“It did not pay the individual weaver to keep a warping-mill for +occasional use only, and frequently the contracted space of his workroom +precluded even the possibility of his doing so. The invention +of the warping-mill necessitated specialism in warping, and it was +essential that warping should be done to order, since at that time, +the state of the industrial world being what it was, no person could +ordinarily have been found to adventure capital in producing warps +ready made in anticipation of demand for the great variety of fabrics +which was even then produced. Moreover, had the weaver himself +placed the orders for his warps, any occasional delay in the execution +of his commissions might have stopped his work entirely until the +warps were ready; for warps cannot be delivered partially, like +weft, in quantities sufficient for each day’s work. To ensure continuous +working in the industry, therefore, it was almost inevitable +that the merchant should himself prepare the warps for such fabrics +as he required, or possibly have them prepared. To the system of +the merchant delegating the preparation of warps there was less +objection than to the system of the weaver doing so, since the +merchant, dealing in large quantities, was more likely to get pressing +orders completed to time. Further, the merchant knew first what +kind of warps would be needed. The first solution, however, that +of the merchant undertaking the warping himself, was the surer, +and there was no doubt as to its being the one destined for selection +in a period when a tendency to centralize organization, responsibility +and all that could be easily centralized, was steadily gaining in +strength.”<a name="FnAnchor_20c" id="FnAnchor_20c" href="#Footnote_20c"><span class="sp">20</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p>Guest says the system by which the weaver was supplied with +warps and other material was substituted for the purchase of +warps and cotton-wool by the weaver about 1740. No doubt +the change was very gradual, especially as Aikin mentions the use +of warping-mills in the 17th century. The weaver as a rule +received his weft material in the form of cotton-wool and was +required to arrange himself for its cleaning and spinning. According +to Aikin,<a name="FnAnchor_21c" id="FnAnchor_21c" href="#Footnote_21c"><span class="sp">21</span></a> dealers tried the experiment of giving out weft +instead of cotton-wool, but “the custom grew into disuse as +there was no detecting the knavery of the spinners till a piece +came in woven.” As it was impossible to unwrap the yarn and +test it throughout its length, defects were hidden until it came to +be used, and the complaints of weavers were not conclusive as to +the inferiority of the yarn, since their own bad workmanship +might have had something to do with its having proved unsatisfactory. +It was therefore found best to saddle the weaver +with full responsibility for both the spinning and weaving. +Women and children cleaned, carded and spun the cotton-wool in +their homes. The cotton had to be more thoroughly cleaned +after its arrival in this country. The ordinary process of cleaning +was known as “willowing,” because the cotton was beaten with +willow switches after it had been laid out on a tight hammock of +cords. The cotton used for fine spinning was also carefully +washed; and even when it was not washed it was soaked with +water and partially dried so that the fibres might be made to +cling together.<a name="FnAnchor_22c" id="FnAnchor_22c" href="#Footnote_22c"><span class="sp">22</span></a> Most of the weaving was done by men, and until +the invention of the fly-shuttle they cast the shuttle from hand to +hand in the manner of their remotest ancestors. For the making +of the broader fabrics two weavers were required when the +width was greater than the easy stretch of a man’s arms. Sometimes +cloths were woven wide and then split into two or more: +hence the term “splits.” This became a common practice +when the hand-loom workers were groaning under the pressure of +competition from the power-loom.</p> + +<p>We now reach the era of the great inventions. In order to +ensure clearness it will be desirable to consider separately the +branches of spinning and weaving: to pass from the +one to the other, and follow the chronological order, +<span class="sidenote">The invention of machinery.</span> +might cause confusion. First emphasis must be laid +upon the point that it was not mechanical change alone +which constituted the industrial revolution. No doubt small +hand-looms factories would have become the rule, and more and +more control over production would have devolved upon the +factory master, and the work to be done would have been +increasingly assigned by merchants, had the steam-engine +remained but the dream of Watt, and semi-automatic machinery +not been invented. The spirit of the times was centralizing +management before any mechanical changes of a revolutionizing +character had been devised. Loom-shops, in which several +journeymen were employed, were not uncommon: thus “in the +latter part of the last (18th) and the beginning of the present +(19th) century,” says Butterworth, describing the state of affairs +in Oldham and the neighbourhood, “a large number of weavers +... possessed spacious loom-shops, where they not only +employed many journeymen weavers, but a considerable proportion +of apprentice children.” It is true that both the fly-shuttle +and drop-box had been invented by that time, but the +loom was still worked by human power. Specialism, however, +was on the increase, the capitalist was assuming more control, and +the operative was being transformed more and more into the mere +executive agent. Further, as creative of enterprise, an atmosphere +of freedom and a general economic restlessness, consequent +upon the reaction against mercantilism, were noticeable. Great +changes, no doubt, would soon have swept over Lancashire had a +new source of power and big factories not been rendered essential +by inventions in spinning.</p> + +<p>The chief inventors were Lewis Paul and John Wyatt, James +Hargreaves and Samuel Crompton. The two first originated the +principle of spinning by rollers. Their patent was taken +out in 1738, but no good came of it immediately, though +<span class="sidenote">Spinning and preparatory machinery.</span> +many trials were made and moderately large sums of +money were lost. Ultimately Richard Arkwright brought +forward the same plan improved:<a name="FnAnchor_23c" id="FnAnchor_23c" href="#Footnote_23c"><span class="sp">23</span></a> his first patent was +dated 1769. Over the real authorship of the fundamental idea +there has been much controversy, and it has not been absolutely +proved that the second inventor, whether Thomas Highs, +Arkwright or John Kay (a clockmaker of Warrington who +assisted Arkwright to construct his machine and is said by some +to have told him of an invention by Highs), did not hit upon the +device afresh in ignorance of the work already done. Even as +between Paul and Wyatt it is not easy to award due measure of +praise. Probably the invention, as a working machine, resulted +from real collaboration, each having an appreciable share in it. +Robert Cole, in his paper to the British Association in 1858 +(reprinted as an appendix to the 1st ed. of French’s <i>Life of +Crompton</i>), championed the claims of Paul, but Mantoux, in his +<i>La Révolution industrielle au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, after studying the +Wyatt MSS., inclines to attribute to Wyatt a far more important +position, though he dissents from the view of Baines, who ascribes +little or nothing to Paul.</p> + +<p>Arkwright’s prospects of financial success were much greater +than those of his predecessors, because, first, there was more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>285</span> +need in his time of mechanical aids, and secondly, he was highly +talented as a business man. In 1775 he followed up his patent of +1769 with another relating to machinery for carding, drawing and +roving. The latter patent was widely infringed, and Arkwright +was compelled to institute nine actions in 1781 to defend his +rights. An association of Lancashire spinners was formed to +defend them, and by the one that came to trial the patent was +set aside on the ground of obscurity in the specifications. +Arkwright again attempted to recover his patent rights in 1785, +after the first patent had been in abeyance for two years. Before +making this further trial of the courts he had thought of proceeding +by petition to parliament, and had actually drawn up his +“case,” which he was ultimately dissuaded from presenting. +In it he prayed not only that the decision of 1781 should be set +aside, but that both patents should be continued to him for the +unexpired period of the second patent, <i>i.e.</i> until 1789. In his +“case” (<i>i.e.</i> the petition mentioned above) Arkwright stated that +he had sold to numbers of adventurers residing in the different +counties of Derby, Leicester, Nottingham, Worcester, Stafford, +York, Hertford and Lancaster, many of his patent machines, and +continued: “Upon a moderate computation, the money expended +in consequence of such grants (before 1782) amounted +to at least £60,000. Mr Arkwright and his partners also expended +in large buildings in Derbyshire and elsewhere upwards of +£30,000, and Mr Arkwright also erected a very large and extensive +building in Manchester at the expense of upwards of £4000. +Thus a business had been formed which already (he calculated) +employed upwards of five thousand persons, and a capital on the +whole of not less than £200,000.”<a name="FnAnchor_24c" id="FnAnchor_24c" href="#Footnote_24c"><span class="sp">24</span></a> It is impossible to discover +exactly the rights of the matter. Certainly Arkwright had been +intentionally obscure in his specifications, as he admitted, and +for his defence, namely that it was to preserve the secret for his +countrymen, there was only his word. He may have hoped to +keep the secret for himself; and as to the originality of both +inventions there were grave doubts. But Arkwright has received +little sympathy, because his claims were regarded as grasping in +view of the large fortune which he had already won. He began +work with his first partners at Nottingham (when power was +derived from horses) and started at Cromford in 1771 (where the +force of water was used). Soon he was involved in numerous +undertakings, and he remained active till his death in 1792. +He had met throughout with a good deal of opposition, which +possibly to a man of his temperament was stimulating. Even in +the matter of getting protective legislation reframed to give +scope to the application of the water-frame, a powerful section of +Lancashire employers worked against him. This protective +legislation must here be shortly reviewed.</p> + +<p>In 1700 an act had been passed (11 & 12 William III. c. 10) +prohibiting the importation of the printed calicoes of India, +Persia and China. In 1721 the act 7 George I. c. 7 prohibited the +use of any “printed, painted, stained or dyed calico,” excepting +only calicoes dyed all blue and muslins, neckcloths and fustians. +This act was modified by the act 9 George II. c. 4 (allowing +British calicoes with linen warps). Thus the matter stood as +regards prints when Arkwright had demonstrated that stout +cotton warps could be spun in England, and at the same time +the officers of excise insisted upon exacting a tax of 6d. from the +plain all-cottons instead of the 3d. paid by the cotton-linens, on +the ground that the former were calicoes. Arkwright’s plea, +however, was admitted, and by the act 14 George II. c. 72 the +still operative part of the act of 1721 was set aside, and the +manufacture, use, and wear of cottons printed and stained, &c., +was permitted subject to the payment of a duty of 3d. per sq. yd. +(the same as the excise on cotton-linens) provided they were +stamped “British manufactory.” The duty was varied from +time to time until its repeal in 1832.</p> + +<p>Some more powerful force than that of man or horse was +soon needed to work the heavy water-frames. Hence Arkwright +placed his second mill on a water-course, fitting it +with a water-wheel, and until the steam-engine became economical +most of the new twist mills were built on water-courses. +On rare occasions the old fire-engines seem to have +been tried.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following passage quoted from a note in Barnes’s <i>History</i> +illustrates the pressing need of the early mills: “On the river Irwell, +from the first mill near Bacup, to Prestolee, near Bolton, there is +about 900 ft. of fall available from mills, 800 of which is occupied. +On this river and its branches it is computed that there are no less +than three hundred mills. A project is in course of execution to +increase the water-power of the district, already so great and so +much concentrated, and to equalize the force of the stream by +forming eighteen reservoirs on the hills, to be filled in times of flood, +and to yield their supplies in the drought of summer. These reservoirs, +according to the plan, would cover 270 acres of ground, and +contain 241,300,000 cub. ft. of water, which would give a power +equal to 6600 horses. The cost is estimated at £59,000. One +reservoir has been completed, another is in course of formation, +and it is probable that the whole design will be carried into effect.”<a name="FnAnchor_25c" id="FnAnchor_25c" href="#Footnote_25c"><span class="sp">25</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p>As early as 1788 there were 143 water-mills in the cotton +industry of the United Kingdom, which were distributed as +follows among the counties which had more than one.<a name="FnAnchor_26c" id="FnAnchor_26c" href="#Footnote_26c"><span class="sp">26</span></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Lancashire</td> <td class="tcc">41</td> <td class="tcl">Flintshire</td> <td class="tcc">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Derbyshire</td> <td class="tcc">22</td> <td class="tcl">Berkshire</td> <td class="tcc">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Nottinghamshire</td> <td class="tcc">17</td> <td class="tcl">Lanarkshire</td> <td class="tcc">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Yorkshire</td> <td class="tcc">11</td> <td class="tcl">Renfrewshire</td> <td class="tcc">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cheshire</td> <td class="tcc"> 8</td> <td class="tcl">Perthshire</td> <td class="tcc">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Staffordshire</td> <td class="tcc"> 7</td> <td class="tcl">Midlothian</td> <td class="tcc">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Westmorland</td> <td class="tcc"> 5</td> <td class="tcl">Isle of Man</td> <td class="tcc">1</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The need of water to drive Arkwright’s machinery, and its +value for working other machinery, caused a strong decentralizing +tendency to show itself in the cotton industry at this time, but +more particularly in the twist-spinning branch. Ultimately the +steam-engine (first used in the cotton industry in 1785) drew all +branches of the industry into the towns, where the advantages of +their juxtaposition—<i>i.e.</i> the external economies of centralization—could +be enjoyed. Out of the crowding of the mills in one +locality sprang the business specialism which has continued up +to the present day. Here it will not be out of place to notice the +appearance of the new power, electricity, in the cotton industry, +the extension of which may involve striking economic changes. +The first electric-driven spinning-mill in Lancashire, that of the +“Acme” Spinning Company at Pendlebury, the work of which +is confined to the ring-frame, was opened in 1905. Power is +obtained from the stations of the Lancashire Power Company at +Outwood near Radcliffe, some 5 m. distant.</p> + +<p>The chief principle of the water-frame was the drawing out +of the yarn to the required degree of tenuity by sets of gripping +rollers revolving at different speeds. This principle is still +applied universally. Twist was given by a “flyer” revolving +round the bobbin upon which the yarn was being wound; the +spinning so effected was known as throstle-spinning. The plan is +still common in the subsidiary processes of the cotton industry, +but for spinning itself the ring-frame, which appears to have been +invented simultaneously in England and the United States (the +first American patent is dated 1828), is rapidly supplanting the +throstle-frame,<a name="FnAnchor_27c" id="FnAnchor_27c" href="#Footnote_27c"><span class="sp">27</span></a> though the “ooziness” of mule yarn has not yet +been successfully imitated by ring-frame yarn. The great invention +relating to weft-spinning was the jenny, introduced by James +Hargreaves probably about 1764, and first tried in a factory four +years later.<a name="FnAnchor_28c" id="FnAnchor_28c" href="#Footnote_28c"><span class="sp">28</span></a> Hargreaves unfortunately was unable to maintain +his patent, because he had sold jennies before applying for +protection. Crompton’s mule, which combined the principles of +the rollers and the jenny, was perfected about 1779. Both +jennies and mules were known as “wheels,” because they were +worked in part by the turning of a wheel. As they could be set in +motion without using much power, being light when of moderate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>286</span> +size, for a long time they were worked entirely by hand or +partially with the aid of horses or water. The first jenny- and +mule-factories were small for this reason, and also because skill in +the operative was a matter of fundamental importance,<a name="FnAnchor_29c" id="FnAnchor_29c" href="#Footnote_29c"><span class="sp">29</span></a> as it was +not in twist-spinning on the water-frame. The size of the typical +weft-spinning mill suddenly increased after the scope for the +application of power was enlarged by the use of the self-actor +mule, invented in 1825 by Richard Roberts, of the firm of Sharp, +Roberts & Co., machinists, of Manchester. In 1830 Roberts +improved his invention and brought out the complete self-actor. +Self-actors had been put forward by others besides Roberts—for +instance by William Strutt, F.R.S. (son of Arkwright’s partner), +before 1790; William Kelly, formerly of Lanark mills, in 1792; +William Eaton of Wiln in Derbyshire; Peter Ewart of Manchester; +de Jongh of Warrington; Buchanan, of Catrine works, Scotland; +Knowles of Manchester; and Dr Brewster of America<a name="FnAnchor_30c" id="FnAnchor_30c" href="#Footnote_30c"><span class="sp">30</span></a>—but +none had succeeded. And Roberts’s machines did not immediately +win popularity. For a long time the winding done by them was +defective, and they suffered from other imperfections. Broadly +speaking, until the American Civil War the number of hand-mules +in use remained high. It was for the fine “counts” in +particular that many employers preferred them.<a name="FnAnchor_31c" id="FnAnchor_31c" href="#Footnote_31c"><span class="sp">31</span></a> About the end +of the ’sixties, however, and in the early ’seventies, great +improvements were effected in machinery, partly under the +stimulus of a desire to elevate its fitness for dealing with short-staple +cotton, and it became evident that hand-mules were +doomed. Here we may suitably refer to the scutching machine +for opening and cleaning cotton, invented by Mr Snodgrass of +Glasgow in 1797, and introduced by Kennedy<a name="FnAnchor_32c" id="FnAnchor_32c" href="#Footnote_32c"><span class="sp">32</span></a> to Manchester in +1808 or 1809; the cylinder carder invented by Lewis Paul and +improved by Arkwright; and the lap-machine first constructed +by Arkwright’s son.</p> + +<p>We now transfer our attention to that accumulation of improvements +in manufacturing (as weaving is technically termed) +which, taken in conjunction with the inventions already +described, presaged the large factory system which +<span class="sidenote">Weaving machinery.</span> +covers Lancashire to-day. Gradually, for many years, +the loom had been gathering complexities, though no fundamental +alteration was introduced into its structure until 1738, +when John Kay of Bury excited the wrath of his fellow-weavers +by designing and employing the device of the fly-shuttle. For +some unfathomable reason—for the opposition of the weavers +hardly explains it, though they expressed their views forcibly and +acted upon them violently—this invention was not much applied +in the cotton industry until about a quarter of a century after its +appearance. The plan was merely to substitute for human hands +hammers at the ends of a lengthened lathe along which the +shuttle ran, the hammers being set in motion by the jerking of a +stick (the picking peg) to which they were attached by strings. +The output of a weaver was enormously increased in consequence. +In 1760 John Kay’s son Robert added the drop-box, by the use of +which many different kinds of weft could be worked into the same +fabric without difficulty. It was in fact a partitioned lift, any +partition of which could be brought to a level with the lathe and +made for the time continuous with it. The drop-box usefully +supplemented the “draw-boy,” or “draught-boy,” which provided +for the raising of warps in groups, and thereby enabled figured +goods to be produced. The “draw-boy” had been well known +in the industry for a long time; in 1687 a Joseph Mason patented +an invention for avoiding the expense of an assistant to work +it,<a name="FnAnchor_33c" id="FnAnchor_33c" href="#Footnote_33c"><span class="sp">33</span></a> but there is no evidence to show that his invention was of +practical value. Looms with “draw-boys” affixed, which could +sometimes be worked by the weavers themselves, later became +common under the name of harness-looms, which have since been +supplanted by Jacquard looms, wherein the pattern is picked out +mechanically.</p> + +<p>The principle of the fly-shuttle was a first step towards the +complete mechanizing of the action required for working a +loom. The second step was the power-loom, the initial effort to +design which was created by the tardiness of weaving as contrasted +with the rapidity of spinning by power. After the general +adoption of the jenny, supplies of yarn outran the productive +powers of the agencies that existed for converting them into +fabrics, and as a consequence, it would seem, some yarn was +directed into exports which might have been utilized for the +manufacture of cloth for export had the loom been more productive. +The agitation for the export tax on yarn at the end of +the 18th, and in the first years of the 19th century, is therefore +comprehensible, but there was no foundation for some of the +allegations by which it was supported. For a large proportion of +the exported yarn, fabrics could not have been substituted, since +the former was required to feed the hand-looms in continental +homes and domestic workshops, against much of the product of +which there was no chance of competing. The hand-loom was +securely linked to the home of the peasant, and though he would +buy yarn to feed his loom he would not buy cloth and break +it up.<a name="FnAnchor_34c" id="FnAnchor_34c" href="#Footnote_34c"><span class="sp">34</span></a></p> + +<p>Cartwright’s loom was not the first design adapted for weaving +by power. A highly rudimentary and perfectly futile self-actor +weaving machine, which would have been adapted for +power-working had it been capable of working at all, had been +invented by a M. de Gennes: a description of it, extracted from +the <i>Journal de sçavans</i>, appeared in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> +for July and August 1678, and again in the <i>Gentleman’s +Magazine</i> in 1751 (vol. xxi. pp. 391-392). It consisted of +mechanical hands, as it were, that shot in and out of the warp and +exchanged the shuttle.<a name="FnAnchor_35c" id="FnAnchor_35c" href="#Footnote_35c"><span class="sp">35</span></a> Another idea, which however proved +fruitful, was that of grinding the shuttle through the warps by +the agency of cog-wheels working at each end upon teeth affixed +to the upper side of the shuttle. Though shuttles could not in +this fashion be set in rapid movement, the machine turned out to +be economical for the production of ribbons and tapes, because +many pieces could be woven by it at once. These contrivances +were known as swivel-looms, and in 1724 Stukeley in his <i>Itinerarium +curiosum</i> wrote that the people of Manchester have +“looms that work twenty-four laces at a time, which was +stolen from the Dutch.” Ogden says also that they were set +up in imitation of Dutch machines by Dutch mechanics +invited over for the purpose. Another interesting passage +relating to the swivel-looms will be found in the rules of +the Manchester small-ware weavers dated 1756, where the +complaint is made that the masters have acquired by the employment +of “engine or Dutch looms such large and opulent fortunes +as hath enabled them to vie with some of the best gentlemen +of the country,” and it is alleged that these machines, which +wove twelve or fourteen pieces at once, “were in use in Manchester +thirty years ago.”<a name="FnAnchor_36c" id="FnAnchor_36c" href="#Footnote_36c"><span class="sp">36</span></a> One power-factory at least was +devoted to them as early as 1760, namely that of a Mr Gartside +at Manchester, where water-power was applied, but the enterprise +failed.<a name="FnAnchor_37c" id="FnAnchor_37c" href="#Footnote_37c"><span class="sp">37</span></a> Cartwright’s invention was probably perfected in its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>287</span> +first form about 1787, but many corrections, improvements +and additions had to be effected before it became an unqualified +success. Cartwright’s original idea was elaborated by numerous +followers, and supplementary ideas were needed to make the +system complete. Of the latter the most important were +those due to William Radcliffe, and an ingenious mechanic +who worked with him, Thomas Johnson, which were patented in +1803 and 1804. They related to the dressing of the warp before it +was placed in the loom, and for the mechanical taking up of the +cloth and drawing forward of +the warp, so that the loom had +not to be stopped for the cloth +to be moved on and the warp +brought within play of the +shuttle to be sized. Looms +fitted with the latter of these +devices were known as +“dandy” looms. The looms +that followed need not be +described here, nor need we +concern ourselves with the +degree in which some were +imitations of others. It is of +interest to note, however, in +view of recent developments, +that one of Cartwright’s +patents included a warp-stop motion, though it was never tried +practically so far as the writer is aware. Looms with warp-stop +motions are now common in the United States, as are also +automatic looms, but both are still the exception in Lancashire +for reasons that will be sketched later.</p> + +<p>Power-looms won their way only very gradually. Cartwright +and others lost fortunes in trying to make them pay, but the +former was compensated by a grant of £10,000 from government. +In 1813 there were 2400 only in the whole of the United +Kingdom; in 1820 there were 14,000, beside some 240,000 +hand-looms; in 1829, 55,500; in 1833, 100,000; and in 1870, +440,700.<a name="FnAnchor_38c" id="FnAnchor_38c" href="#Footnote_38c"><span class="sp">38</span></a> To-day there are about 700,000 in the cotton +industry. The beginning, and the final consequences, of the +competitive pressure of the power-looms may be read in the +reports of official inquiries and in Rowbotham’s diary.<a name="FnAnchor_39c" id="FnAnchor_39c" href="#Footnote_39c"><span class="sp">39</span></a> It was +upon the fine work that the hand-loom weavers retained their +last hold. In 1829 John Kennedy wrote in his paper to the +Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society on “The Rise and +Progress of the Cotton Trade,” “It is found ... that one person +cannot attend upon more than two power-looms, and it is still +problematical [even in 1829, observe] whether the saving of +labour counterbalances the expense of power and machinery and +the disadvantage of being obliged to keep an establishment of +power-looms constantly at work.” It was not easy to obtain +a sufficiency of good hands for the power-looms, because the +operatives, who had acquired their habits under the domestic +system, hated factory life. This, in conjunction with the ease +with which the art of coarse weaving could be acquired and the +cheapness of rough looms, helps to explain the wretched straits +into which the hand-loom weavers were driven.</p> + +<p>Improvements in machinery, which ultimately affected every +process from cleaning the cotton to finishing the fabric, and the +application of water and steam-power, so lowered the +cost of production as to render Lancashire the cotton +<span class="sidenote">Growth.</span> +factory of the world. Figures are quoted in the table to show +the rate of growth in different periods of England’s imports and +exports as regards the raw material and products of this industry. +It is important to remember when reading the last 6 columns +that the value of money was the same in 1831-1835, 1851-1855 +and 1876-1880: the sums of Sauerbeck’s index numbers for these +periods were 454, 451 and 444 respectively. In the last two +periods there were considerable depressions in prices. If prices +had remained constant, in the periods 1891-1895 and 1896-1900 +the figures of exports would have been £90 millions and £91 +millions respectively. The growth in trade has been partly +occasioned by the enormous increase in the volume of cotton +goods consumed all over the world, which in turn has been due to +(1) the growth of population, (2) the increase in productive +efficiency and well-being, and (3) the substitution of cotton +fabrics for woollen and linen fabrics. The rate of growth between +the periods 1771-1781 and 1781-1791 (which is not shown in +the above table) was particularly remarkable, and reached as +high a figure (when measured by importations of weight of +cotton) as 320%.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Imports of<br />Raw Cotton,<br />Million ℔.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Raw Cotton<br />re-exported,<br />Million ℔.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Exports of Cotton Yarns and<br />Manufactures, Million £.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Imports of Cotton Yarns and<br />Manufactures, Million £</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Yarns.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Manu-<br />factures.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Yarns.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Manu-<br />factures<br />(excluding<br />Lace).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1700-1705</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.17</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1771-1775</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.76</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1785-1789</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 1.07*</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1791-1795</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 2.09*</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1816-1820</td> <td class="tcr rb">139.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1831-1835</td> <td class="tcr rb">313.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">23.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1851-1855</td> <td class="tcr rb">872.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">124.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">24.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">31.70</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1876-1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">1456.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">180.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">56.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">68.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.29</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1891-1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">1746.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">217.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">56.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">66.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">.42</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.78</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1896-1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">1798.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">223.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">58.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">67.10</td> <td class="tcc rb">.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.27</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.53</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1901-1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1920.00</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">265.00</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8.4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">70.7</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">79.10</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">.22</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.10</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.32</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="9">* Official values.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Nothing is more interesting in the cotton industry than the +processes of differentiation and integration that have taken place +from time to time. Weaving and spinning had been to +a large extent united in the industry in its earliest form, +<span class="sidenote">Differentiation and Integration.</span> +in that both were frequently conducted beneath the +same roof. With mechanical improvements in spinning, +that branch of the industry became a separate business, and a +substantial section of it was brought under the factory régime. +Weaving continued to be performed in cottages or in hand-loom +sheds where no spinning at all was attempted. Cartwright’s +invention carried weaving back to spinning, because both operations +then needed power, and the trouble of marketing yarn was +largely spared by the reunion. Mr W. R. Grey stated in 1833 +to the committee of the House of Commons on manufactures, +commerce and shipping, that he knew of no single person then +building a spinning mill who was not attaching to it a power-loom +factory. Some years later the weaving-shed split away +from spinning, partly no doubt because of the economies of +industrial specialism, partly because of commercial developments, +to be described later, which rendered dissociation less hazardous +than it had been, and partly because, in consequence of these +developments, much manufacturing (as weaving is termed) was +constituted a business strikingly dissimilar from spinning. The +manufacturer runs more risks in laying by stocks than the +spinner, because of the greater variety of his product and the +more frequent changes that it undergoes. The former, therefore, +must devote more time than the latter to keeping his order book +and the productive power of his shed in close correspondence. +The minute care of this kind that must be exercised in some +classes of businesses explains why the small manufacturer still +holds his own while the small spinner has been crushed out. +It also explains to some extent the prevalence of joint-stock +companies in spinning, and their comparative rarity in manufacturing. +Here we should notice, perhaps, that the only +combination of importance in the cotton industry proper (apart +from calico-printing, bleaching, &c., and the manufacture of +sewing-cotton) is the Fine Cotton Spinners and Doublers +Association, founded in 1898, which is practically coextensive +with fine spinning and doubling.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>288</span></p> + +<p>The specialism of the two main branches of the industry +has been followed by the specialism of sub-branches +and by the localization of specialized parts. Of the +localization of certain sections of the cotton industry +<span class="sidenote">Localization of branches of the industry.</span> +the late Mr Elijah Helm, who spoke with the authority +of great local knowledge, has written as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Spinning is largely concentrated in south Lancashire and in the +adjoining borderland of north Cheshire. But even within this area +there is further allocation. The finer and the very finest yarns are +spun in the neighbourhood of Bolton, and in or near Manchester, +much of this being used for the manufacture of sewing-thread; +whilst other descriptions, employed almost entirely for weaving, +are produced in Oldham and other towns. The weaving branches +of the industry are chiefly conducted in the northern half of Lancashire—most +of it in very large boroughs, as Blackburn, Burnley +and Preston. Here, again, there is a differentiation. Preston and +Chorley produce the finer and lighter fabrics; Blackburn, Darwen +and Accrington, shirtings, dhooties and other goods extensively +shipped to India; whilst Nelson and Colne make cloths woven from +dyed yarn, and Bolton is distinguished for fine quiltings and fancy +cotton dress goods. These demarcations are not absolutely observed, +but they are sufficiently clear to give to each town in the area +covered by the cotton industry a distinctive place in its general +organization.”<a name="FnAnchor_40c" id="FnAnchor_40c" href="#Footnote_40c"><span class="sp">40</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p>The present local distribution of the cotton industry, as far as it +is displayed statistically, is revealed in the table beneath, based +upon the figures of spindles and looms given by Worrall and those +of operatives in the census returns of 1901.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Distribution of Cotton Operatives in Lancashire and the Vicinity +according to the Census Returns of 1901, together with the Number +of Spindles and Looms according to Worrall.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> + <td class="tccm allb">No. of<br />Operatives.</td> <td class="tccm allb">No. of<br />Spindles (in<br />Thousands).</td> + <td class="tccm allb">No. of<br />Looms.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Blackburn</td> <td class="tcr rb">41,400</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,325</td> <td class="tcr rb">75,300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bolton</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,800</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,035</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oldham</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,603</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Burnley</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,900</td> <td class="tcr rb">687</td> <td class="tcr rb">79,300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Manchester and Salford</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,200</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,666</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,200*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Preston</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,036</td> <td class="tcr rb">57,900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rochdale</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,800</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,168</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Darwen</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">336</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,700</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nelson</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,400</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Glossop**</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">968</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,400</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bury</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,700</td> <td class="tcr rb">818</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Stockport</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,700</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,803</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,700</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ashton-under-Lyne</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,600</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,839</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Accrington</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,300</td> <td class="tcr rb">417</td> <td class="tcr rb">36,400</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Colne</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,300</td> <td class="tcr rb">140***</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Heywood</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,300</td> <td class="tcr rb">869</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,400</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Stalybridge</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,100</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,106</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Todmorden</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,900</td> <td class="tcr rb">261</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,800</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rawtenstall</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,600</td> <td class="tcr rb">356</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,800</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hyde</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">553</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chadderton</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,400</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Haslingden</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,100</td> <td class="tcr rb">148</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bacup</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,900</td> <td class="tcr rb">315</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chorley</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,900</td> <td class="tcr rb">547</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Farnworth, near Bolton</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,700</td> <td class="tcr rb">738</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leigh</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,667</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Harwood</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,900</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,400</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Middleton</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,900</td> <td class="tcr rb">511</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Radcliffe</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4,800</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">157</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8,900</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="4">* Manchester only.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="4">** The number of operatives in places in Derbyshire is not separately +specified.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="4">*** Includes Foulridge with Colne.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Local markets have steadily lost in importance, partly owing to +railway development, and it is now almost entirely in Manchester, +on the Exchange, that dealing in yarns and fabrics takes place, +and arrangements are made for export. The old Manchester +Exchange, built in 1729, was taken down in 1792. A new +Exchange, reared on a contiguous site, was opened in 1809, the +first stone having been laid in 1806. The present building was +erected in 1869. The great bulk of the exports of cotton goods +proceeds from Liverpool, though London used to be the leading +port, and Liverpool is still the chief English market for raw +cotton, though now from one-sixth to one-eighth of English +cotton supplies come up the Manchester Ship Canal.</p> + +<p>To understand the present organization of the cotton industry +the reader must begin by mentally separating the commercial +from the industrial functions. By the industrial +functions are meant the arrangements of factors in +<span class="sidenote">Modern organization.</span> +production—choosing the most suitable machinery and +hands, combining them in the most economical system, +adapting the material used to this system, and keeping its +working at the highest attainable level. The commercial +functions consist in business which is not industrial. Analysis +will show that there are, broadly speaking, two classes of commercial +functions, namely (1) arranging for purchases and sales, +and (2) the bearing of risks. The character of the former is +apparent; it consists, as regards yarn, in discovering for each +manufacturer which spinner makes the yarn which is best +adapted to his requirements at the lowest cost, and in finding the +most suitable customers for spinners. Risk-bearing is a commercial +function of another kind. Every business that involves +anticipation involves commercial risks. Thus the spinner who +sells “forward” yarn, trusting that the price of cotton will not +rise, is taking commercial risks, and so is the spinner who produces +for stock, trusting that the class of yarn that he is making +will continue in demand. These two instances will suffice to +indicate what is meant by the carrying of commercial risks. To +make the rest of our argument clear it will be well to write down +formulae. Let A and B represent respectively the industrial +operations of spinning and manufacturing. Let a and α represent +respectively the commercial operations implied by the separate +existence of A, that is, the buying of cotton and the selling of yarn; +and let b and β stand for the commercial operations associated +with manufacturing, that is, the buying of yarn on the one hand, +and the finding of customers and arranging for their purchases +on the other hand. Then, A and B being distinct businesses, it +is obvious that a range of schemes is possible of which the +extremes may be roughly represented as follows:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>1. (aAα), (bBβ)</p> +<p>2. (a), (A), (αb), (B), (β),</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">where the brackets signify independent businesses. In case 1 +each spinning business would be engaged with three problems, +namely, (i.) buying material at the most favourable time, (ii.) +producing at the lowest cost, and (iii.) finding buyers and selling +at the highest price, including the arranging for the performance of +the most remunerative work. But in case 2 the spinner would +confine his attention to purely industrial matters, while the +problem of finding cotton and arranging for the bearing of the +risks as to future prices would rest with other persons, and the +business of bringing spinner and manufacturer together and +taking such risks as may be involved in ordering or disposing of +yarn would be the function of yet others. In case 2 the commercial +functions may be said to have differentiated completely +from the main body of the industry. We need hardly give +illustrations of the intermediate arrangements that formally lie +between cases 1 and 2. A may retain commercial risks but find +customers through intermediaries; in such an event there would +be only partial differentiation of the commercial functions. The +reader must be reminded also that for the sake of simplicity in the +formulae we have overlooked different classes of A and of B, +omitted bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing, and drawn no +distinction between the various classes of commercial work +covered by one letter, for instance, selling in the home market +and selling abroad.</p> + +<p>It may help the reader to appreciate the organic growth of the +cotton industry if we now run over the main lines of its evolution. +Originally the industrial units were held together in one homogeneous +commercial setting. The Manchester merchants bought +cotton and warps, put them out to the weavers, and arranged for +the finishing of the cloth and then for its sale, so far as they had +not been acting on orders already received. There were variations +of this system—for instance, in early years weavers sometimes +bought their own yarns and cotton and sold their cloth—but +just before the industrial revolution the arrangement +sketched above was the most usual. Adverting to our formula, +the Manchester merchants, we observe, performed functions +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span> +a (in conjunction with importers), b (as regarded warps), and β. +Weft the weaver had to get spun by his family or outsiders. So, +broadly speaking, there was one single commercial setting. After +the appearance of the factory, the commercial work as between the +water-twist mills, the mule-spinning businesses and the manufacturers, +so far as the businesses were distinct, appears to have +been done by the several producing firms concerned. It was not +at once that (αb) began to differentiate, β was already a separate +business in the hands of Manchester merchants and the foreign +houses who had established themselves in Manchester to direct the +export trade. At the present time an advanced stage of commercial +specialism has been reached. From the risks connected +with the buying of cotton the spinner may if he please escape +entirely.<a name="FnAnchor_41c" id="FnAnchor_41c" href="#Footnote_41c"><span class="sp">41</span></a> Selling work is now done usually through intermediaries, +but there is no one uniform rule as to the carrying of +the commercial risks involved. This appears to be now to some +extent a matter of arrangement between the persons concerned, +but ultimately no doubt the risks will have to be borne by those +most qualified by experience to bear them, namely, the commercial +specialists. In no other trade in England, and in no other +cotton industry abroad, has commercial specialism been carried +so far as in the cotton trade of Lancashire. It is partly in +consequence of the difference in this respect between the cotton +industry in Lancashire and abroad that the separation of spinning +from weaving is far more common in England than elsewhere. +Elsewhere producers are deterred from specializing processes +further in distinct businesses by the fear of the worries of buying +and selling as between them.</p> + +<p>The explanation of differences in respect of the degree of +commercial specialism in different places and industries can be +formulated only very generally. Time is required for the +differentiation and localization to take place. The English +cotton trade had not advanced very far in the “’thirties,” if we +are to judge from the evidence given to commissions and parliamentary +committees. The general conditions under which +commercial specialism evolves may be taken to be a moderately +limited range of products which do not present many varieties, +and the qualities of which can be judged generally on inspection. +In such circumstances private markets need not be built up, as +they must be, for instance, for a new brand of soap which +claims some subtle superiority to all others. Soaps under +present conditions must be marketed by their producers. +Broadly stated, if there be little competition as to substitutes, +though there may be much as to price in relation to quality, +commercial functions may specialize. On the whole this is the +case in the cotton industry; in so far as it is not and firms +produce specialities, they undertake much of the marketing +work themselves.</p> + +<p>The advantages of commercial specialism are numerous. +Firstly it allows of differentiation of industrial processes, and +this, of necessity, is accompanied by increasing returns. When +weaving dissociates from spinning, both the number of looms +in each business and the number of spindles in each business +tend to increase; more division of labour is therefore secured, +and lower costs of production are reached, and there is a further +gain because producers concentrate their attention upon a +smaller range of work. Again when producers are freed entirely, +or to some extent, from commercial worries, they can attain a +higher level of efficiency at the industrial task of mill organization, +and a more perfect accommodation of capacity to function +will be brought about. If the business unit is (aAα), a particular +person may retain his place in the market by reason of his +excellence at the work a or α, though as works organizer (<i>i.e.</i> at +the performances of function A) he may be incompetent. The +heads of businesses will succeed according to their average +capacities at the three tasks a, A and α, and there is no guarantee, +therefore, that any one of these tasks will be performed with the +highest attainable efficiency in our present somewhat immobile +economic system. But if the three functions are separated +there is more certainty of a person’s success in the performance +of each determining his continued discharge of it. The +problems that arise when specialized markets become very +highly developed are dealt with in the article <a>Cotton: +Marketing and Supply</a>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The distribution of cotton operatives among the chief centres +has already been shown, but their distribution between processes +has yet to be considered, and the proportions of different +ages and sexes from time to time, together with the +<span class="sidenote">Operatives in various processes.</span> +total. With such statistical material as is available +relating to supplies of labour we may set forth also the +official returns made of the quantity of machinery at work from +time to time. It hardly need be pointed out that the ratio of +machinery to operatives roughly measures the efficiency of labour, +other things being equal.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Machinery in the United Kingdom (in Thousands).</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Years.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Spinning<br />Spindles.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Doubling<br />Spindles.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Power-<br />Looms.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1874</td> <td class="tcc rb">37,516</td> <td class="tcc rb">4366</td> <td class="tcc rb">463</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1878</td> <td class="tcc rb">39,528</td> <td class="tcc rb">4679</td> <td class="tcc rb">515</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1885</td> <td class="tcc rb">40,120</td> <td class="tcc rb">4228</td> <td class="tcc rb">561</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">40,512</td> <td class="tcc rb">3993</td> <td class="tcc rb">616</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">43,905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3952</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">684</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Operatives employed in the Cotton Industry</i> (<i>in Thousands</i>). (<i>From the Census Returns</i>.*) +(The figures in italics relate to Married and Widowed Women.)</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="4">1901.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="4">1891.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="4">1881.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Lancashire.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">England<br />and Wales.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Lancashire.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">England<br />and Wales.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Lancashire.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">England<br />and Wales.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">M.</td> <td class="tcc rb">F.</td> <td class="tcc rb">M.</td> <td class="tcc rb">F.</td> <td class="tcc rb">M.</td> <td class="tcc rb">F.</td> <td class="tcc rb">M.</td> <td class="tcc rb">F.</td> <td class="tcc rb">M.</td> <td class="tcc rb">F.</td> <td class="tcc rb">M.</td> <td class="tcc rb">F.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cotton, card and blowing-room processes</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">28.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">34.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"><i>10.1</i></td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"><i>12.2</i></td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cotton spinning processes</td> <td class="tcr rb">49.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">64.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">28.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"><i>4.3</i></td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"><i>6.0</i></td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cotton weaving, warping, &c.</td> <td class="tcr rb">57.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">113.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">66.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">130.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"><i>13.0</i></td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"><i>15.8</i></td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cotton winding, warping, &c.</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">38.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">48.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"><i>38.1</i></td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"><i>44.4</i></td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Total  </td> <td class="tcr allb">133.3</td> <td class="tcr allb">265.9</td> <td class="tcr allb">162.3</td> <td class="tcr allb">320.7</td> <td class="tcr allb">178.2</td> <td class="tcr allb">281.8</td> <td class="tcr allb">213.2</td> <td class="tcr allb">332.8</td> <td class="tcr allb">150.7</td> <td class="tcr allb">249.8</td> <td class="tcr allb">185.4</td> <td class="tcr allb">302.4</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cotton workers in other processes or undefined</td> <td class="tcr rb">29.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">34.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"><i>1.8</i></td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"><i>2.3</i></td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tape, manufacturer dealer</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">.47</td> <td class="tcr rb">.25</td> <td class="tcr rb">.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">.24</td> <td class="tcr rb">.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Thread, manufacturer dealer</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">.2 </td> <td class="tcr rb">.9 </td> <td class="tcr rb">.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">.9 </td> <td class="tcr rb">.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Fustian, manufacturer dealer</td> <td class="tcr rb">.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.1 </td> <td class="tcr rb">2.9 </td> <td class="tcr rb">3.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.5 </td> <td class="tcr rb">3.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"><i>.55</i></td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"><i>1.0</i></td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Cotton, calico, warehouseman, dealer</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3.2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.38</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="13">* Census classifications have been altered twice in the period covered by this table.</td></tr> +</table> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span></p> + +<p>In Scotland there are less than 15,000 cotton operatives distributed +as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">In Thousands.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Card and blowing-room processes</td> <td class="tcr">.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Spinning-room processes</td> <td class="tcr">2.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Winding, warping, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">2.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Weaving, warping, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">6.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Workers in other processes or undefined </td> <td class="tcr">2.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">——</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">Total </td> <td class="tcr">14.8</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Operatives employed in Cotton Factories in the United Kingdom and +Percentages of each Class</i>. (<i>From Returns of Factory Inspectors.</i>)</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">1835.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">1838.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1847.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">1850.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1856.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">1862.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1867.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Male and Female under 13, or half-timers.</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">45.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Male, 13 to 18</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Male, over 18</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">24.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">27.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">28.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">27.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Female, over 13</td> <td class="tcr rb">47.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">53.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">55.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">55.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">55.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">55.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">55.0</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb tb bb2">Total number of Cotton Operatives</td> <td class="tcr rb tb bb2">218,000</td> <td class="tcr rb tb bb2">259,500</td> <td class="tcr rb tb bb2">316,400</td> <td class="tcr rb tb bb2">331,000</td> <td class="tcr rb tb bb2">379,300</td> <td class="tcr rb tb bb2">451,600</td> <td class="tcr rb tb bb2">401,100</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">1870.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1874.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1878.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1885.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1890.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1895.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1901.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Male and Female under 13, or half-timers.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.8 </td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Male, 13 to 18</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.9 </td> <td class="tcr rb">7.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Male, over 18</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">24.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">27.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">27.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Female, over 13</td> <td class="tcr rb">55.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">53.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">54.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">55.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">55.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">58.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">61.1</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Total number of Cotton Operatives</td> <td class="tcr allb">450,100</td> <td class="tcr allb">479,600</td> <td class="tcr allb">483,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">504,100</td> <td class="tcr allb">528,800</td> <td class="tcr allb">538,900</td> <td class="tcr allb">513,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Number of Operatives</i> (<i>in Thousands</i>) <i>engaged in Spinning, Manufacturing and +Subsidiary Processes</i> (<i>excluding Lace-making, but including the Fustian +Manufacture</i>). (<i>From Census Returns</i>.)</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="4">Males.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="4">Females.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="4">Males and Females.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> + <td class="tccm allb">Under<br />15.</td> <td class="tccm allb"><br />15-20.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Over<br />20.</td> <td class="tccm allb">All<br />Ages.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Under<br />15.</td> <td class="tccm allb"><br />15-20.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Over<br />20.</td> <td class="tccm allb">All<br />Ages.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Under<br />15.</td> <td class="tccm allb"><br />15-20.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Over<br />20.</td> <td class="tccm allb">All<br />Ages.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">29</td> <td class="tcc rb">39</td> <td class="tcc rb">121</td> <td class="tcc rb">189</td> <td class="tcc rb">40</td> <td class="tcc rb">81</td> <td class="tcc rb">189</td> <td class="tcc rb">310</td> <td class="tcc rb">69</td> <td class="tcc rb">120</td> <td class="tcc rb">310</td> <td class="tcc rb">500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">36</td> <td class="tcc rb">45</td> <td class="tcc rb">137</td> <td class="tcc rb">218</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">94</td> <td class="tcc rb">197</td> <td class="tcc rb">341</td> <td class="tcc rb">86</td> <td class="tcc rb">139</td> <td class="tcc rb">334</td> <td class="tcc rb">560</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">24</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">36</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">139</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">199</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">36</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">92</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">207</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">335</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">60</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">128</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">346</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">535</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The fact that the branches of work covered by the figures are not +identical explains discrepancies between this and the previous table.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Number of Operatives engaged in the Cotton Industry</i> (<i>Processes being distinguished +and Ages and Sex</i>). (<i>From Special Returns made by Factory Inspectors</i>.)</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Males in Thousands.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Females in Thousands.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Total in<br />Thousands.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Half-<br />timers.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Under<br />18.</td> <td class="tccm allb">18 and<br />over.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Half-<br />timers.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Under<br />18.</td> <td class="tccm allb">18 and<br />over.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="4">Spinning and Preparatory Processes</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.24</td> <td class="tcc rb">71.44</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.40</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.12</td> <td class="tcr rb">78.96</td> <td class="tcc rb">212</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1898-1899*</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.42</td> <td class="tcc rb">21.57</td> <td class="tcc rb">71.37</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.86</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.44</td> <td class="tcr rb">77.64</td> <td class="tcc rb">210</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.98</td> <td class="tcc rb">21.10</td> <td class="tcc rb">68.98</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.10</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.98</td> <td class="tcr rb">81.68</td> <td class="tcc rb">211</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="4">Weaving and Preparatory Processes</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.54</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.79</td> <td class="tcc rb">75.81</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.87</td> <td class="tcc rb">49.19</td> <td class="tcr rb">151.34</td> <td class="tcc rb">315</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1898-1899*</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.21</td> <td class="tcc rb">17.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">72.74</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.38</td> <td class="tcc rb">48.38</td> <td class="tcr rb">150.99</td> <td class="tcc rb">306</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.72</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14.86</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">73.81</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">45.66</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">155.03</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">302</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="8">* Average for 1898 and 1899.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The figures in this table are not quite complete except for 1901; +the relations between the changes shown for each class should +nevertheless be accurately represented.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Index Numbers of Money, Wages and Prices.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">1840.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1855.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1860.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1866.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1870.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1874.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1877.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1880.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1883.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1886.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1891.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1902.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cotton operatives.</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">54</td> <td class="tcc rb">64</td> <td class="tcc rb">74</td> <td class="tcc rb">74</td> <td class="tcc rb">90</td> <td class="tcc rb">90</td> <td class="tcc rb">85</td> <td class="tcc rb">90</td> <td class="tcc rb">93</td> <td class="tcc rb">100</td> <td class="tcc rb">105</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Average wages for eight trades</td> <td class="tcc rb">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">73</td> <td class="tcc rb">81</td> <td class="tcc rb">83</td> <td class="tcc rb">97</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 94</td> <td class="tcc rb">89</td> <td class="tcc rb">92</td> <td class="tcc rb">90</td> <td class="tcc rb">100</td> <td class="tcc rb">108.7*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sauerbeck’s index number</td> <td class="tcc rb">103</td> <td class="tcc rb">73</td> <td class="tcc rb">99</td> <td class="tcc rb">102</td> <td class="tcc rb">96</td> <td class="tcc rb">102</td> <td class="tcc rb">94</td> <td class="tcc rb">88</td> <td class="tcc rb">82</td> <td class="tcc rb">69</td> <td class="tcc rb">72</td> <td class="tcc rb">69</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Average price of wheat per quarter</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">66/4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">40/3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">53/3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">49/11</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">46/11</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">55/9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">56/9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">44/4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">41/7</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">31/-</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">37/-</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">28/1</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="13">* Average for a slightly different group.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Weekly Wages in the Manchester and District Cotton Trade.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb tb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">1834.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1836.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1839.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1841.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1849.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1850.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1859.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1860.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1870.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1877.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1882.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1883.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1886.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">s. d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">s. d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">s. d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">s. d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">s. d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">s. d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">s. d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">s. d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">s. d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">s. d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">s. d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">s. d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">s. d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spinners’ average</td> <td class="tcc rb">23 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">23 11</td> <td class="tcc rb">22 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">22 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">21 7</td> <td class="tcc rb">20 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">24 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">23 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">27 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">34 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">31 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">32 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">35 7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Big piecers’ average</td> <td class="tcc rb">11 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">9 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">8 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">8 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">8 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">13 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">10 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">10 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">11 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">12 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">16 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">16 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">13 7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Weavers’ average</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11 0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10 2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">9 6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">9 6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10 6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10 3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11 2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10 8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12 2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15 1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15 6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15 0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">13 3</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The most noticeable features of these tables are the decrease in +the proportion of children employed and the steady increase in the +number of operatives as a whole until recent years. The contraction +of the body of operatives of late years seems to have occurred +primarily among children and young persons (where the first check +would naturally be looked for), and secondarily among adult males. +If allowance be made for the smaller value of children as compared +with adults, and the census results be taken, it is not evident that +there has been any diminution in the amount of labour-power; +and if the factory inspectors’ returns be accepted, the falling off +in the number of operatives cannot be proved to have taken place +in either of the chief +branches of the industry +at so rapid a rate as to +have occasioned the enforced +dismissal of any +hands. An industry +which was not recruited +at all would have +dwindled at a greater +rate. At least it may +be inferred from these +figures, when taken in +conjunction with the +large increase in spindles +and looms, that the output +per head has considerably +advanced in +spite of the rise in the +average quality of both +yarns and fabrics produced. +This rise in the +value per unit of the output +accounts to some +extent for the fact that +wages have not been +adversely affected of late.</p> + +<p>Mr A. L. Bowley has +calculated index numbers +of wages for +the leading +trades, including +the manufacture +of cotton. Those +for the cotton industry +are given below, together with averages for cotton and wool +workers, the building trades, mining, workers in iron, sailors, compositors +<span class="sidenote">Wages and piece-rate lists.</span> +and agriculturists +(England), the numbers in +each class being allowed for +in the average. Side by side +with these figures, Sauerbeck’s +index numbers of general +wholesale prices are given, +together with the average +prices of wheat per quarter.</p> + +<p>It must be remembered that +the figures given above for +cotton workers and average +wages for eight trades do not +measure the differences between +each, but only the differences +between the movements +of each. Actual average money +wages in the cotton industry +have probably been approximately those stated in the second table +beneath, but as these figures are culled from various sources they +must not be taken to indicate fluctuations.<a name="FnAnchor_42c" id="FnAnchor_42c" href="#Footnote_42c"><span class="sp">42</span></a></p> + +<p>The wage of fine spinners exceeds the average wage of spinners +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>291</span> +by percentages varying from about 25 to 35. In the above figures +the earnings of three classes of spinners are averaged.</p> + +<p>The highest wages are earned by mule-spinners (who are all +males); their assistants, known as piecers, are badly paid. Persons +can easily be found, however, to work as piecers, because they hope +ultimately to become “minders,” <i>i.e.</i> mule-spinners in charge of +mules. The division of the total wage paid on a pair of mules +between the minder and the piecers is largely the result of the +policy of the spinners’ trade union. Almost without exception in +Lancashire one minder takes charge of a pair of mules with two or +three assistants according to the amount of work to be done. Among +the weavers there is no rule as to the number of assistants to full +weavers (who are both male and female), or as to the number of +looms managed by a weaver, but the proportion of assistants is +much less than in the spinning branches, perhaps because of the +inferior strength of the weavers’ unions. For the calculation of wages +piece-rate lists are universally employed as regards the payment of +full weavers and spinners; some piecers get a definite share of the +total wage thus assigned to a pair of mules, while others are paid a +fixed weekly amount. Many ring-spinners are now paid also by +piece-rate lists, and all other operatives are almost universally so +paid, except, as a rule, the hands in the blowing-room and on the +carding-machines. Spinning and weaving lists are most complicated; +allowances are made in them for most incidents beyond the operatives’ +control, by which the amount of the wage might be affected. +Still, however, they could not cover all circumstances, and much is +left to the manner of their application and private arrangement. +They should be regarded as giving the basis, rather than as actually +settling, the wage in all cases. The history of lists stretches back +to the first quarter of the 19th century as regards spinners, and +to about the middle of the century generally as regards weavers, +though a weaving list agreed to by eleven masters was drawn up +as early as 1834. There are still many different district lists in use, +but the favourite spinning lists are those of Oldham and Bolton, +and the weaving list most generally employed is that known as the +“Uniform List,” which is a compromise between the lists of Blackburn, +Preston and Burnley. Under the “Particulars Clause,” first +included in a Factory Act in 1891 and given extended application in +1895, the particulars required for the calculation of wages must be +rendered by the employer. As in spinning there used to be doubts +about the quantity of work done, the “indicator,” which measures +the length of yarn spun, is coming into general use under pressure +from the operatives. We ought to observe here that the Oldham +Spinning list differs from all others in that its basis is an agreed +normal time-wage for different kinds of work on which piece-rates +are reckoned. But in effect understandings as to the level of normal +time-wages are the real basis everywhere. If the average wages in a +particular mill are lower than elsewhere for reasons not connected +with the quality of labour (<i>e.g.</i> because of antiquated machinery or +the low quality of the cotton used), the men demand “allowances” +to raise their wages to the normal level. Advances and reductions +are made on the lists, and under the Brooklands Agreement, entered +into by masters and men in the cotton spinning industry in 1893, +advances and reductions in future must not exceed 5% or succeed +one another by a shorter period than twelve months. The changes +as a rule now are 5% or 2½%. In all branches of the cotton industry +it is usual for a conference to take place between the interested +parties before a strike breaks out, on the demand of one or other +for an advance or reduction.</p> + +<p>Organization among the workers in the cotton industry is remarkably +thorough. Almost all spinners are members of trade unions, +and though the weavers are not so strongly united, +the bulk of them are organized. The piecers are admitted +<span class="sidenote">Trade Unions.</span> +as members of piecers’ associations, connected with the +spinners’ associations and controlled by them. Attempts to form +independent piecers’ unions have failed. Weavers’ assistants are +included in the weavers’ unions, which may be joined in different +classes, the benefits connected with which vary with the amounts +paid. One subscription only, however, is imposed by each branch +spinners’ association, but in all branches it is not the same, though +every branch pays the same per member to the amalgamation. +All the trade unions of the chief workers in the cotton industry are +federated in the four societies: (1) the Amalgamated Association +of Operative Cotton Spinners (created in 1853 and reformed in +1870), (2) the Northern Counties Amalgamated Association of +Weavers (founded 1884), (3) the Amalgamated Association of Card +and Blowing-room Operatives (established 1886), and (4) the Amalgamated +Association of Power-loom Overlookers (founded 1884). +These were not, however, the first attempts at federation, and the +term “federation” must not be taken in any strict sense. The +distribution of power between the central authority and the local +Societies varies, but in some cases, for instance among the spinners, +the local societies approximate as closely to the status of mere +branches, as to that of independent units federated for limited +objects. We ought also to mention the societies of warp-dressers and +warpers, tape-sizers and cloth-workers and warehousemen. There +is no one federation of all cotton-workers, but the United Textile +Factory Workers has been periodically called into being to press the +matter of factory legislation, and international textile congresses +are occasionally held by the operatives of different countries.</p> + +<p>As to employers, four extensive associations include almost all +the organization among them, two concerned chiefly with spinning +and two with weaving. The former two are the Federation of +Master Cotton Spinners’ Associations with local associations and +including 21,000,000 spindles, and the Bolton Master Cotton Spinners’ +Association with 7,000,000 spindles; the latter two are the North +and North-East Lancashire Spinners’ and Manufacturers’ Association, +covering about 3,000,000 spindles in addition to a large section +of the looms of Lancashire, and the United Cotton Manufacturers’ +Association.<a name="FnAnchor_43c" id="FnAnchor_43c" href="#Footnote_43c"><span class="sp">43</span></a></p> + +<p>Factory legislation began in the cotton industry, and in no industry +is it now more developed. The first acts were those of 1802 +and 1819, both of which applied only to cotton-mills, +and the former of which related only to parish apprentices. +<span class="sidenote">Factory Acts.</span> +The first really important measure was that of 1833, +which curtailed the abuse of child-labour, enforced some education +and provided for factory inspectors, of whom there were at first only +four. The next act of importance, that of 1844, was chiefly remarkable +for its inclusion of all women among young persons. The +proportion of women, young persons and children engaged in the +cotton industry is so high, that most regulations affecting them, +<i>e.g.</i> those relating to the hours of labour, must practically be extended +to all cotton operatives. This act killed night work for “young +persons,” and children were not allowed to work at night. The year +1847 saw the introduction of what was known as the Ten Hours Act—after +the 1st of May 1848 the hours of young persons (women +included) and children were not to exceed ten a day and fifty-eight +a week. A further limitation of hours to 56½ a week was secured in +1874, and this was cut down by another hour (the concession of the +12 o’clock Saturday) in 1901. “Young persons” now includes all +who are not half-timers and have not attained the age of eighteen, +and all women. The rules as regards the employment of children, +which have steadily improved, are at present as follows. No child +under twelve may be employed. On attaining the age of thirteen the +child may become a full-timer if he has obtained the prescribed +educational certificate (<i>i.e.</i> fifth standard attainment or three +hundred attendances each year for five consecutive years). Failing +this he must wait till he is fourteen before he can be employed full +time. Half-timers may be employed either (a) on alternate days, +which must not be the same days in two successive weeks, or (b) +in morning and afternoon sets. In the case of arrangement (a), +the child when at work may be employed during the same period +as a young person or woman, which in Lancashire is almost universally +from 6 to 6 with two hours for meals.<a name="FnAnchor_44c" id="FnAnchor_44c" href="#Footnote_44c"><span class="sp">44</span></a> In the case of +arrangement (b), which is the system generally adopted in Lancashire, +a half-timer in the morning set works from 6 to 12.30, with +half an hour for breakfast, and in the afternoon from 1.30 to 6 +except on Saturdays, when the hours are from 6 till 11.30 for a +manufacturing operative, or till 12 for other work, for instance, cleaning. +The child must not work two consecutive weeks in the same +set (that is, in mornings or afternoons), nor on two successive Saturdays, +nor on Saturday at all if during any other day of the same week +the period of employment has exceeded 5½ hours (<i>i.e.</i> a child in the +morning set does not work on the Saturday). Other important +features of factory legislation relate to the fencing of dangerous +machinery and its cleaning when in motion (the regulations being +strictest in the case of children and most lax in the case of male +adults), and conditions of health, including the amount of steaming +allowed, which was first regulated by the Cotton Cloth Factories +Act of 1889.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>The Cotton Industry outside England.</i></p> + +<p>A brief survey will now be made of the cotton industry in parts +of the globe other than the British Isles, and as a prelude the +following broad estimates of the numbers of spindles and looms in +the chief national seats of the cotton industry may be put +forward.<a name="FnAnchor_45c" id="FnAnchor_45c" href="#Footnote_45c"><span class="sp">45</span></a> The table is further supplemented by other figures<a name="FnAnchor_46c" id="FnAnchor_46c" href="#Footnote_46c"><span class="sp">46</span></a> +for the number of spindles at different times in the United +Kingdom, the United States and the continent; and finally +we may add the figures of cotton consumed.</p> + +<p>The different average fineness of counts spun in different +places must be borne in mind when the consumption of each +district at the same time is being considered, but the relations +between the amounts consumed in the contrasted districts in +the two periods would not be affected much by this difference.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>292</span></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Estimated<br />Population<br />in 1902.<br />In Millions.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Million<br />Spinning<br />Spindles<br />in 1909.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousand<br />Power-<br />Looms<br />about 1906.</td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">United Kingdom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 42</td> <td class="tcr rb">53.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">700</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 79</td> <td class="tcr rb">27.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">550</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 58</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">215</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 39</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Russia</td> <td class="tcl rb">139</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">150</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">India</td> <td class="tcl rb">294 (1901)</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Austria</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 26.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Spain</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 18.6 (1900)</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">69</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Italy</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 33</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Switzerland</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 3.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Japan</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 46</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb bb">Belgium</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1.2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Cotton Spindles</i> (<i>including Doubling Spindles</i>) <i>in Millions.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">United<br />Kingdom.</td> <td class="tccm allb"><br />Europe.</td> <td class="tccm allb">United<br />States.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Other<br />Countries.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1870</td> <td class="tcc rb">37.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">57.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">44.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">2 </td> <td class="tcr rb">78.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">44.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">26</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">4 </td> <td class="tcr rb">88.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">46.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcr rb">19 </td> <td class="tcc rb">7 </td> <td class="tcr rb">104.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">47.9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">33</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">22.2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">7.5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">110.6</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Average Annual Consumption of Cotton in the Period 1831-1835.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">Millions of ℔.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">United Kingdom</td> <td class="tcr">295  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Continent of Europe</td> <td class="tcr">143  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">United States</td> <td class="tcr">79  </td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Average Annual Consumption of Cotton in the Period 1900-1905.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">Millions of ℔.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">United Kingdom</td> <td class="tcr">1634  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Continent of Europe</td> <td class="tcr">2486  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">United States</td> <td class="tcr">1995  </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Roughly the consumption of cotton per spindle in the three +areas to-day is, in ℔, 35 for the United Kingdom, 70 for the +continent, and 95 for the United States.</p> + +<p>Before the cotton industry in other countries is described it will +be necessary to explain how it could have developed there on a +large scale at all. Of course this growth is to be accounted for +very largely by the natural protection of cost of transport aided +by tariffs. But it would be a mistake for Englishmen to imagine +that all foreign cotton mills are the product of a forcing culture, +and that if the favourable conditions created by import duties +were removed they would totally disappear. No doubt some of +the growth is artificial, but much is natural and would have taken +place under universal free trade conditions. Much of it, indeed, +would have appeared in these circumstances even were cost of +production a negligible quantity, difficult though it may be at +first to reconcile this statement with certain ordinary conceptions +of the operations of the law of increasing returns. Lancashire +secured an immense lead at the beginning of the 19th century, +and if the cost of production may be represented as varying +inversely as the magnitude of the industry, every addition to her +success increased her advantages. How could the small industry, +with a high cost of production because it was small, compete with +Lancashire? The answer is to be found in the peculiar conditions +governing international trade and a closer analysis of “increasing +returns.” “Increasing returns” in any place are a function of +two variables, (1) the magnitude of the world market under +conditions of world commerce, and (2) the magnitude of the +industry in the spot in question. The economies connected with +the first variable, which in such an industry as the cotton industry +are enormous, and govern ultimately the limits of business +specialism, are shared by every national section of the industry +whether it be great or small. If Haiti started a cotton factory she +might import all her specialized machinery—the specialism +involved in producing which is dependent upon the exportation +of some of it—and restrict narrowly the work undertaken by her +one factory. The cotton goods outside this range she would still +import, and if her specialized product were in excess of local +demand she could export some of it, if she were favourably +placed in respect of cost of carriage, for cost of production in +Haiti would not be impossibly high, since machinery and the +general system of production would be quite up to date though +labour might be highly inefficient. Of course, the country with a +large industry enjoys high local economies, and it might be +thought that these alone would be a menace to the stability of +the small industry, because if the industry in the favoured +locality increased these would increase also and the small industry +would be undersold. The answer to this difficulty is that foreign +trade depends upon ratios between ratios, that is, upon the +ratios between the costs of production of all the products of +each country in relation to similar ratios for other countries. +Relatively, therefore, diminishing returns operate in every +country. In every country there must come a time, the utility of +commodities being taken into account, when a unit of labour and +capital provides less utility when applied to the creation of cotton +goods, say, than when applied to producing something else for +home consumption or for export in exchange for commodities +wanted at home. It becomes apparent, therefore, that cotton +industries of widely varying sizes dispersed throughout the +world can settle into relations of perfectly stable equilibrium, as +that term is understood by the economist. Slow changes, of +course, in their relative volumes might be looked for with +changes in a mutable world, but very sudden collapses would be +impossible unless the general course of human affairs were +revolutionized.</p> + +<p><i>The United States.</i>—The machine-cotton industry was carried +to North America almost as soon as it evolved in England. +Models of Arkwright’s machines were smuggled across the +Atlantic in 1786—Arkwright’s first mill had not been started in +England until 1769—and these with a jenny and stock-card +were publicly exhibited. From these models a great mass of +machinery was soon constructed. The first mill was erected in +1788 (that of the Beverly Association), the second appeared in +1790, the third five years later, and in 1798 Samuel Slater +started with some of his wife’s relatives the first mill in which the +principle of the water-frame was carried throughout. It is said +that it was not until 1814 that power-loom manufacturing was +commenced, but in England success with the power-loom was +long delayed. As early as 1831, however, there were in the +United States—mainly in the New England states—800 factories, +a million and a quarter spindles, 33,500 looms and 62,200 +operatives. At this time the annual consumption of cotton was +about 77,000,000 ℔ as compared with some 300,000,000 ℔ in +England at the same date, and 2,000,000,000 approximately in +the United States at the present time.<a name="FnAnchor_47c" id="FnAnchor_47c" href="#Footnote_47c"><span class="sp">47</span></a> Writing in 1840, James +Montgomery said that, in respect of cost of production, the +American industry was 19% behind that of England apart from +the cost of raw material, which was then a good deal less to the +Americans. In 1878, when there was much interest in the +question of British efficiency in the cotton industry because the +passage of the Factory Act of 1874 had cut down the working +hours, the <i>Economist</i> contrasted the result of twenty-five years’ +growth in England and America:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“In 1853 the average English production per weaver of 8¼ ℔ +shirting was 825 yds. per week of sixty hours. In 1878 the working +hours had fallen to fifty-seven, and the production had risen to +975 yds. An increased production of 23% is thus due to improvement +in the processes of manufacture. In 1865 there were 24,151 +persons employed in Massachusetts in the production of cotton +goods, and they produced 175,000,000 yds. In 1875 the operatives +numbered 60,176, and their product was 874,000,000 yds. The +operatives had increased 150% and their products had increased +500%. The increase of production due to improved methods was +thus in England 23%, and in Massachusetts 100%. I do not, of +course, suppose that the American manufacturer is in advance of +his English rival to the extent of this difference, for I presume +that he started upon the career of improvement from a lower platform. +But a progress so greatly more rapid than ours will be admitted +to cast much light on the change which has occurred in our +relative positions.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The contrast no doubt was not perfect, as indeed it could not be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>293</span> +in view of the varieties of product and their changes, but it proves +at any rate that Americans were making vast strides in industrial +efficiency even before the period when American methods and +American enterprise were monopolizing in a wonderful degree the +attention of the business world.<a name="FnAnchor_48c" id="FnAnchor_48c" href="#Footnote_48c"><span class="sp">48</span></a> About a dozen years later the +low real cost of production of simple fabrics in the United States +was universally admitted, and also that American manufacturers +were making more use of machinery than their European rivals. +In a typical weaving shed in Massachusetts, for instance, of +which particulars were published, twenty women “tended” as +many as eight looms apiece, forty-three managed seven, two +hundred and thirty-two managed six, and only eleven had five +only.<a name="FnAnchor_49c" id="FnAnchor_49c" href="#Footnote_49c"><span class="sp">49</span></a> Since then, moreover, advance has been rapid, and the +sudden development of the South has astonished the business +community of other centres of the cotton industry.</p> + +<p>Before the lines of development in America are specifically +dealt with, and particularly the industrial phenomena in the +South, a few words must be said of the general extension of the +industry. The consumption of cotton in the United States in +million ℔ was about 75 in 1830, 390 in 1860, 1100 in 1890 and +nearly 2000 on an average of the five crop years from 1900-1901 to +1904-1905: active spindles advanced from 1,250,000 in 1830 to +10,653,000 in 1880 and about 21,250,000 in 1905. Looms which +numbered 33,500 in 1830 had reached 226,000 in 1880 and nearly +550,000 in 1905. At the same time population, it must be +remembered, was growing at a phenomenal rate: from 31.4 +millions in 1860 it had passed to 38.6, 50.2, 62.6 and 76.3 at the +succeeding decennial censuses, the decennial rates of increase +being in order 22.5, 30, 25 and 20.5 as compared with 8.5, 10.5, +8 and 9 as shown by the corresponding censuses in the United +Kingdom. Protection was of course contributory to the growth +of the American cotton industry. It may be remarked incidentally +that the New World, including the West Indies and the +Chinese empire, take the bulk of American exports, which for so +large an industry are inconsiderable. The imports have always +been well in excess of the exports. The encouragement of home +industries by tariffs was definitely aimed at after the war with +England during the Napoleonic struggles, and although a +sensible reduction of duties was experienced after 1845 the +reaction to protection that followed the Civil War was never +significantly departed from except by the single act of 1883. +In 1790 the duties on cotton goods were 7½% <i>ad valorem</i>, and +they rose gradually until they reached 25% in 1816. Slight +reductions some seventeen years later were followed in the early +’forties by a tariff of 30%. Diminutions were succeeded by +oscillations, though at no point was a low level touched. Severe +charges were imposed in 1890, and after some relaxation in 1894 +the policy of restrictiveness was restored in 1897. According to +the calculations made by the English Board of Trade in 1903<a name="FnAnchor_50c" id="FnAnchor_50c" href="#Footnote_50c"><span class="sp">50</span></a> +no fabrics were admitted at a charge equivalent to less than 68% +<i>ad valorem</i>, and no yarns were admitted at a charge lower than +45% <i>ad valorem</i>. Cotton thread is subjected to a rate equivalent +to 375%<a name="FnAnchor_51c" id="FnAnchor_51c" href="#Footnote_51c"><span class="sp">51</span></a></p> + +<p>The character of the growth of the cotton industry in the +United States, as revealed by recent census returns, is peculiarly +interesting:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="4">Thousands</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Percentage Increase</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">1880.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1890.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1900.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1905.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1880-1890</td> <td class="tccm allb">1890-1900</td> <td class="tccm allb">1900-1905</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Active Spindles</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,653</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,188</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,008</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,156</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.8 </td> <td class="tcc rb">34 </td> <td class="tcc rb">21.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Looms</td> <td class="tcr rb">226</td> <td class="tcr rb">325</td> <td class="tcr rb">451</td> <td class="tcr rb">541</td> <td class="tcc rb">43.90</td> <td class="tcc rb">38.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">20 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">℔ cotton consumed</td> <td class="tcr rb">750,344</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,117,946</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,814,003</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,875,075</td> <td class="tcc rb">48.99</td> <td class="tcc rb">62.3</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 3.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wages</td> <td class="tcr rb">$42,041</td> <td class="tcr rb">$66,025</td> <td class="tcr rb">$85,126</td> <td class="tcr rb">$94,378</td> <td class="tcc rb">57 </td> <td class="tcc rb">28.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Capital</td> <td class="tcr rb">$208,280</td> <td class="tcr rb">$354,021</td> <td class="tcr rb">$460,843</td> <td class="tcr rb">$605,100</td> <td class="tcc rb">70 </td> <td class="tcc rb">30.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">31.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Employees not officers and clerks</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">174.7</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">218.9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">297.9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">310.5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">25.3 </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">36.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 4.2</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Cotton small wares are included in the totals for 1880 and +1890, but excluded from those for 1900 and 1905. We must +observe further that “capital” is a vague term. Recent events +in the United States afford a valuable empirical indication of the +effect that improved machinery actually has upon wages. The +new automatic looms caused a saving of labour per unit of product +which recalled the complete subversion at the industrial revolution +of the proportions in which the several factors in production +were organized. Displacement of labour and falling wages might +not unreasonably have been looked for temporarily, but wages +stuck at their old level or rose. The rise was caused by numerous +converging forces which brought their united weight to bear. +First, prices so fell as the result of the new machinery that the increased +volume of commodities which the market could absorb +more than counterbalanced, it would seem, the labour-saving of +the new machinery, the cotton industry being taken as a whole. +It must be remembered that to increase the output from the +subsidiary processes where labour had not been saved more +hands had to be drafted in. Thus, a contraction of the body of +weavers was accompanied by an expansion of the body of cotton +operatives. Again weavers’ wages were naturally raised in a +special degree because automatic machinery called for quick, +trustworthy and intelligent hands, endowed with versatility, +especially in the days when the machinery was still in the semi-experimental +stage. The American employer tries to save in labour +but not to save in wages, if a generalization may be ventured. +The good workman gets high pay, but he is kept at tasks requiring +his powers and is not suffered to waste his time doing the work of +unskilled and boy labour. There is, certainly, in the American +labour problem no serious grievance on the question of wages. +If there is any abuse it consists in excessively fierce work. +Mr. T. M. Young, who visited the American cotton districts in +1904 with an informal commission of Lancashire spinners and +manufacturers, did not think that the cause of the high wages—allowance +being made for the purchasing power of money, they +are above those of England, though cotton operatives in England +are well paid relatively—was the superiority of the American +cotton worker; neither did the representatives of the English +cotton operatives who accompanied the Moseley Commission. +As often as not “the cotton operative in the United States +is a French Canadian, a German, an Italian, a Hungarian, an +Albanian, a Portuguese, a Russian, a Greek, or an Armenian.” +It is the extensive “exploitation” of machinery seemingly, +together with the speed of work, which keep wages high, combined +with the horizontal and vertical mobility of American +labour, which prevents it from accumulating in pools, and causes +streams of the best hands to be flowing continuously to other +callings and places, and no insignificant proportion to climb the +social ladder. The remainder naturally profit, for a local or trade +congestion of labour is avoided, and the voluminous recruiting +of enterprise by the intensified competition among employers +keeps the demand for labour high.</p> + +<p>One noticeable point in the table quoted above is that until +recently cotton consumed increased much faster than the +number of spindles. This might be explained in a variety of ways. +Average counts remaining constant, the average speed of the +spindle might have risen; or the latter remaining constant, +counts might have been getting finer. Speeds have certainly +gone up a good deal of late on some counts. And it is +quite likely, too, that concentration on the manufacture of +coarse goods for export, with stout warps to keep down the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span> +breakages and raise the output per loom, may be reckoned as +one cause.</p> + +<p>Despite the recent sensational growth in the South, the New +England States still remain the most prominent seat of the +American cotton industry. They contained in 1905 about 14 +million spindles as compared with 7.7 millions in the South and +West, and their relative possession of looms approaches, though +it does not quite reach, the same proportion. The leading States +in the South in order of importance are South Carolina, North +Carolina, Georgia and Alabama, and in the North, first Massachusetts +with an enormous lead, then, in order, Rhode Island, +New Hampshire, Connecticut, Maine, New York, Pennsylvania, +New Jersey. The bulk of the cotton industry in the North is +contained within a small area. A circle around Providence, +Rhode Island, of 30 m. radius includes, according to the +twelfth census, nearly 7¼ million spindles,—there were only +58,500 spindles in this area in 1809. Of the chief towns Fall +River stood first in 1900 in value output, and was followed in +order by Philadelphia, New Bedford, Lowell, Manchester and +Pawtucket. The climate of Fall River is very similar to that +of English spinning districts. Its population in 1900 was 105,000, +and of these only 14,600 were of American parentage. Of the +remainder, 16,700 were English, 17,800 Irish, 29,600 French +Canadians and about 5000 Portuguese. Among the rest of foreign +parentage, Armenians, Russians and Italians are numerous. +But Massachusetts is famous for the number of immigrants it +attracts. It is almost incredible, but nevertheless a fact according +to a recent statistical report, that in 1903 as many as 91% of +the cotton operatives of the State were of foreign descent—chiefly +French Canadian and Irish. In 1902 there were nearly +90 mills at Fall River with 3,000,000 spindles and 16,000 looms. +The spindles amount to about one-third of all in Massachusetts, +but Fall River’s share of the looms of the State is not large. +The spindles exceed in number those possessed by any State +except of course the one in which it is placed. In comparison +with a great spinning town in England, nevertheless, Fall River +does not appeal strongly to the English imagination. It has +little over a quarter of the spindles of Oldham, or three-fifths of +those of Bolton,—among English towns it would stand third, +<i>i.e.</i> between Bolton and Manchester and Salford, which, in spite +of the movement of spinning to the hills, still holds in England a +leading place. The whole of Massachusetts, it is of interest to +observe, has fewer spindles than Oldham, and only about half +those of Oldham and Bolton together. Originally it was the +river which attracted the mills to Fall River, and as the water-power +available was almost inexhaustible, it was possible for the +mills to congregate together and for a town to grow up. In +England, when much of the industry was dependent for power +upon water, decentralization was entailed, for the thin streams +of Lancashire could not support more than two or three mills at +most in proximity. Hence in England, after Watt’s steam-engine +had succeeded, the economies of centralization led +eventually to the desertion of the mills on the water-courses. +But at Fall River the perfecting of the application of steam-power +merely involved its use to supplement the water-power +on the old site. The presence of water-power explains half the +success of New England. In the six States 35% of all the power +used is derived from water, and in the cotton-manufacturing of +these States water provides 32.6% of the power. For industrial +purposes generally the river most exploited is the Merrimac, +upon which stand the leading cotton towns of Lowell, Lawrence +and Manchester. Hitherto little has been done in the way of +using water to generate electric power.<a name="FnAnchor_52c" id="FnAnchor_52c" href="#Footnote_52c"><span class="sp">52</span></a></p> + +<p>The two most striking features of the American industry +to-day are the introduction of the automatic looms, already +briefly referred to, and the development of the South. The +Northrop Loom Company has spent a fortune in pushing its +loom on to the market. It has not hesitated to share risks, and +it has run one “advertisement” mill at least, namely that at +Burlington, Vermont, with 55,000 spindles and nearly 1300 +looms. In this mill the labour-saving is shown by the following +figures, the looms being of two sizes, 32 in. and 44 in. Of the +former, 3 weavers run 18 each, 39 tend 16 each, only a few odd +weavers tend less than 16, and learners even are at work on 8 to 11 +each; on the latter, of 29 weavers 17 mind 16 looms each and 12 +mind 12 (on stripped fabrics).<a name="FnAnchor_53c" id="FnAnchor_53c" href="#Footnote_53c"><span class="sp">53</span></a> Of course a high level of efficiency +would be expected in this show mill. That American employers +have readily been converted to a belief in the economy of the +new machinery we are not astonished to learn in view of the +American temperament, the intensity of competition among +business leaders, and the prevailing spirit of adventure. +Thousands of workable old looms have been scrapped, and probably +at the present time there are 100,000 automatic looms +running in the United States. No other country can point +to a rate of substitution which approaches that in the United +States. The causes, apart from the temperamental and social to +which reference has already been made, are probably (1) that +there is disagreement as to the present economy of automatic +looms on many fabrics,<a name="FnAnchor_54c" id="FnAnchor_54c" href="#Footnote_54c"><span class="sp">54</span></a> (2) that Americans aim at frequency of +renewal of plant, and avoid making their machinery so durable +as to prove ultimately, perhaps, a handicapping inheritance, and +(3) that a greater bulk of American work is appropriate for the +new looms than of English or continental work. But automatic +machinery is being used increasingly in Lancashire.<a name="FnAnchor_55c" id="FnAnchor_55c" href="#Footnote_55c"><span class="sp">55</span></a> And the +operatives ultimately benefit. It is the half-developed machine, +to which labour must actually be linked as an essential part, +which is responsible for monotonous work and creates the dislike +of mechanical aids.</p> + +<p>Now we turn to the recent development of the Southern +States. Never has an industry grown faster than that of the two +Carolinas, Georgia and Alabama. Some of the earliest experiments +with the machine industry were conducted in South +Carolina, but from that time till the end of the 19th century +nobody imagined the possibility of a great Southern expansion. +In 1880 the South contained less than half a million spindles—<i>i.e.</i> +about as many as Hyde, Middleton or Chorley, and one-twenty-third +of the numbers in Oldham. Twenty years later +they had increased twelvefold and the Southern States, in +respect of the number of spindles, had taken precedence of +Bolton. To-day probably about eight and a half millions might +be counted. In addition there are some two hundred thousand +looms, or nearly as many as in the three leading cotton-weaving +towns of England—Burnley, Blackburn and Preston. The rapid +oncoming of the South may also be traced by its consumption of +cotton—which as an index, however, is not perfect. This on an +annual average was, in thousand bales, 164, 269, 453, 717 and +1233 in each of the periods 1876-1880, 1881-1885, 1886-1889, +1891-1895 and 1895-1900 successively. The consumption since +then, as compared with that of the Northern States, Great Britain +and the European continent, has been as follows. It must be +remembered that the consumption per spindle varies greatly +from place to place.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Consumption of Cotton in Thousand Bales of about 500 ℔ each.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Southern<br />States.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Northern<br />States.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />United <br />States.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Great<br />Britain.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Europe.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc rb lb">1900-1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">1583</td> <td class="tcc rb">1963</td> <td class="tcc rb">3546</td> <td class="tcc rb">3269</td> <td class="tcc rb">4576</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb lb">1901-1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">2017</td> <td class="tcc rb">2066</td> <td class="tcc rb">4083</td> <td class="tcc rb">3253</td> <td class="tcc rb">4836</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb lb">1902-1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">1958</td> <td class="tcc rb">1866</td> <td class="tcc rb">3824</td> <td class="tcc rb">3185</td> <td class="tcc rb">5148</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb lb">1903-1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">1889</td> <td class="tcc rb">2046</td> <td class="tcc rb">3935</td> <td class="tcc rb">3017</td> <td class="tcc rb">5148</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb lb bb">1904-1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2270</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2292</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4562</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3620</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5148</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The densest distribution of mills in the South is along the line of +the Southern railroad, in the district known as the Piedmont. +Of this group Charlotte in North Carolina is the natural centre: +roughly, half the spindles and half the looms in the Southern +States would be included within a circle around Charlotte of a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span> +radius of about 100 m. Of the remainder a large proportion is +scattered over a wide area.</p> + +<p>Much interest has been excited by this newly created Lancashire +of a new type, and much speculation as to the causes that +account for it has been elicited. An informal commission of +Lancashire spinners and manufacturers crossed the Atlantic to +make inquiries in 1902 and investigations have been undertaken +by other persons<a name="FnAnchor_56c" id="FnAnchor_56c" href="#Footnote_56c"><span class="sp">56</span></a>, and much has been written on the subject. +A general explanation can now be framed without much difficulty, +as in all probability most of the relevant facts have been brought +to light. First and foremost the general development of the +cotton industry in the United States must be emphasized. The +industry was unquestionably foredoomed to expansion at this +time, and the only question was where the expansion should take +place. It was plain that the growth might be so great as to present +the appearance of a new industry created with new labour +rather than an extension of an old industry. It was not +altogether surprising, therefore, that the exploitation of a new +field of labour was thought of. The labour market of the North +was comparatively exhausted; in less developed parts of the +country larger supplies of intrinsically good labour might be +looked for at lower wages. Skill was not a matter of much +moment, because in the North it would have been necessary to +incorporate much labour without previous experience in the +industry, the work was intended to be of the rough kind upon +which manual skill is least important, and it was intended to repose +reliance for economy upon machinery in the main. The choice +of new fields meant at the outset the sacrifice of some of the +economies of localization, but so large an expansion was looked +for that projectors did not despair of creating fresh industrial +localization of sufficient magnitude to produce such economies as +are derived from it, which, it must be observed, are inconsiderable +in America, and have declined relatively with falling cost of transport +and the adoption, as regards machinery, of the principle of +interchangeable parts. And at any rate a new local industry would +have a slight advantage in supplying markets in proximity to it.</p> + +<p>These were the main general considerations, and the scale was +turned in favour of the new locality (a) by the advantage of +nearer supplies of cotton, and (b) by the known presence of much +half-occupied white labour in the vicinity of otherwise suitable +sites close to the cotton-fields. It must be borne in mind that the +whole calculation had not to be reared merely upon an intangible +theoretical basis. Cotton mills already existed in the South, and +comparisons of costs of production, as things were then, afforded +some groundwork for judgment.</p> + +<p>As regards the first of the two special advantages mentioned +above, the saving in the cost of carriage of the raw material is not +commonly held to be high. Transport to the cotton ports is so +well organized and sea-carriage is so cheap that Lancashire’s +distance from the source of her raw material is not a very appreciable +handicap. A good deal of the cotton that must be used in +some of the Southern mills cannot be supplied locally because it is +not grown in the neighbourhood, and the requirements of these +mills are met by transport arrangements which at present cost +a sum not altogether out of relation to similar costs in the New +England States and Lancashire. The percentages of freight +charges on raw material in 1900 were $2.18 in Georgia, $1.59 in +North Carolina, $1.17 in South Carolina, and the amazingly low +figure of $1.20 in Massachusetts, but of course some part of the +explanation is the somewhat higher quality of cotton on an +average that is worked up in Massachusetts. For some years, +however, the saving in labour has been a most important economy. +Large supplies of half-occupied white labour existed in the +Southern States among the families of small farmers who flocked +South after the Civil War, and in the districts of the decayed +hand industry in the mountains of Kentucky and North Carolina. +For small money wages much of this labour could be attracted to +the mills. Negroes do not work in the mills; the reason is said to +be partly their own disinclination and partly that they are not very +efficient at factory work. As outside labourers, however, they +have afforded important aid at a very trifling cost, but the expense +of outside labour to a mill is never an item of much weight. +The halcyon days to employers, when keen workers could be had +for low wages, are now said to be past. The demand for labour +was considerable, and as time went on additional supplies could +be enticed only with the offer of better pay. In 1904 it was +reported that some mills were unable to get fully to work for +want of hands even at the improved rates. Again the Southern +operatives have been visited by emissaries from the operatives +of the New England States, which explains partly the present +aspect of the wages question. Mr Pidgin, in his official report to +the Massachusetts Bureau of Labour Statistics, questions whether +a saving in wages can be expected to continue, and points out +that though wages have been low the average efficiency of the +operatives has not been high. Some, indeed, were sent to gain +experience in Northern mills in the hopes that on their return +they would spread the tradition of working at high pressure. +Mr Pidgin is at some pains to measure labour efficiency in the +South and North as far as it is possible to do so, but no simple +sets of figures will prove very much. The value of the product +per operative in 1900 was $1200 in Massachusetts, $1010 in +Georgia, $937 in North Carolina and $984 in South Carolina, but +the value of the product per operative depends as much upon the +fixed capital charge per operative as upon the latter’s efficiency. +And the amount of machinery used per head is higher in the +South than in the North. The percentage of operatives to +machinery in Massachusetts being expressed as 100, that of +Georgia was 53, that of North Carolina 43 and that of South +Carolina 55 in 1900. These figures must be borne in mind when +the average numbers employed in a mill in different States are +being considered: in 1900 the averages were 565 for Massachusetts, +273 for Georgia, 171 for North Carolina and 378 for +South Carolina. Measured by quantity of machinery the sizes of +mills would stand in quite different relations. Hours of work in +the South are bound to fall and the abuse of child labour, which +had unquestionably crept in, may be expected to discontinue +entirely. The factory conditions of children are better now than +they were, but in some places they are still very bad. In +Georgia no children under twelve are employed, but infants +without fathers may begin work at ten years of age, and according +to Mr Pidgin’s report, “it certainly seemed as though the +intention was honoured more in the breach than in the observance, +or that there must be many widows in the neighbourhood +of the cotton mills.” In North and South Carolina the employment +of children under twelve is illegal, but in these States also +conditions are recognized under which it is possible to employ +them earlier. According to figures relating to 1900 the dependence +on child labour in the Southern States is very striking. The +proportions engaged at different ages in the three chief cotton-manufacturing +Southern States and Massachusetts are as follows:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Men,<br />16 Years<br />and over.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Women,<br />16 Years<br />and over.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Children<br />under 16.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Massachusetts</td> <td class="tcc rb">48.98</td> <td class="tcc rb">44.59</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 6.43</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Georgia</td> <td class="tcc rb">39.98</td> <td class="tcc rb">35.52</td> <td class="tcc rb">24.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North Carolina</td> <td class="tcc rb">42.22</td> <td class="tcc rb">34.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">23.55</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">South Carolina</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">44.43</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">28.72</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">26.85</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>It might be said that children are more useful when the work is +rough, but this argument can hardly be regarded as accounting +altogether for the great discrepancy as between Massachusetts +and the South. The work is much rougher in the South: in 1900 +the counts spun respectively in Massachusetts, Georgia, North +Carolina and South Carolina were 25.10, 14.37, 18.83, and 19.04, +and on the showing of the American census of 1900 spinning was +getting finer over the last decade of the 19th century.</p> + +<p>As contributory to the influences already recorded as accounting +for Southern success it has been hinted that in the North +employers have been less ready to welcome the new machinery, +though in comparison with European rivals they would seem at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>296</span> +first to have acted rashly. However this may be, the South +enjoyed the important advantage that its industry began just after +a great technical advance had been made. When Northern mill-owners +were anxiously deliberating about the destruction of good +machinery merely because it was antiquated in design, the +fortunate Southern mill-proprietor was getting to work with +appliances up to date in every particular. It will be easier to +balance comparative advantages as between North and South +when undertakers in the newer district are confronted by +problems concerning replacements and alterations. The +rapidity of Southern growth need not astonish those who have +watched the operations by which new mills are frequently set up +in Lancashire and remember that the American business man is +more daring than his British cousin. Company promotion in the +great financial centres, payment for machinery and other plant +in shares, or partially in shares, a general diffusion of risks and +pledging of credit, would explain even more rapid growth of +industries of even greater magnitude.</p> + +<p>Broad generalizations are difficult to frame, hard to establish +and liable to be misleading; some generalizations relating +to the features of the American cotton industry taken +as a whole the author is tempted to venture nevertheless. +<span class="sidenote">Character of the American Industry.</span> +The characteristics of labour have already +been incidentally commented upon. We have also +noticed that the bulk of the work done is of a rough and +simple character. In spite of American nationalism and +the prevalence of protective sentiments it is said that there +is still a prejudice in the United States against home-made +fine cotton goods.<a name="FnAnchor_57c" id="FnAnchor_57c" href="#Footnote_57c"><span class="sp">57</span></a> “The product of the American system is a +cloth which is, on the whole, distinctly inferior in appearance, +’feel’ and finish to that produced by the Lancashire system. +To equal a Lancashire cloth in these respects an American cloth +must not only be made of better cotton, but must contain more of +it—perhaps 5% more. To this rule of inferiority there are, it is +needless to say, exceptions, notably some of the American drills +made for the China market. But the American home market, +which absorbs nearly the whole of the product of American +looms, is less exacting in these matters than the markets in which +Lancashire cloths are sold.”<a name="FnAnchor_58c" id="FnAnchor_58c" href="#Footnote_58c"><span class="sp">58</span></a> It follows that the average counts +spun in the United States are lower than in England, though they +have been rising somewhat. Another feature of American +spinning as compared with English is the high proportion of +ring-frames to mules. In New England between 1890 and 1900 +mule-spindles advanced by 100,000 and ring-spindles by nearly +2,000,000: in the South mule-spindles increased only from +108,500 to 180,500, while to the ring-frames 2,700,000 were +added. To the general rule Rhode Island is the sole exception; +here mule-spindles have increased and ring-spindles decreased; +but in Rhode Island much of the fine spinning—for instance that +for hosiery—is congregated.<a name="FnAnchor_59c" id="FnAnchor_59c" href="#Footnote_59c"><span class="sp">59</span></a> One explanation of the preponderance +of ring-spinning is to be found in the character of American +fabrics. Again most of the operatives are not of a kind likely to +acquire great excellence at mule-spinning. To the Americans +we largely owe the ring-frame, because their encouragement +helped it through the difficult period when its defects were +serious, though it appears to have been discovered independently +in both countries.</p> + +<p>American organization display intense specialism, but of a +type different from that in England, where businesses are +specialized by processes; in America they are specialized by +products but hardly at all by processes. Independent spinning, +independent manufacturing, independent bleaching, dyeing and +finishing are the significant features of English industry to the +bird’s-eye view; in the United States the typical firm will spin, +make up its own yarn, and perhaps complete its fabrics for the +market; but the mills, it must be remembered, are intensely +specialized as to the range of their product, so that the statement +that American mills are less specialized than English mills must +be received with caution. For some reasons we should expect to +find the American method applied even in England for fabrics of +the highest qualities, because in their case the adaptation of the +yarn to the fabric, and finishing to the fabric, are of great +importance, and actually where the American plan is followed in +England the explanation is frequently the speciality of the +product which is associated with the particular firm producing it. +When a firm manufactures a speciality of this kind it cannot +always trust bought yarn, or the finishing applied to fabrics in the +ton. But for other reasons specialized processes might be looked +for where qualities were highest, as by specialism alone can the +greatest excellence be attained. The final selection of method +depends upon the relative importance for high qualities in the +finished product of the connectedness of processes and the +perfection of parts; and to these considerations must be added +cost of transport between the works devoted to distinct processes, +and the development of the commercial functions by which +specialized process businesses are kept functioning as a whole. +Probably it is the high development of British industry on the +commercial side which chiefly explains the arrangements found +in England. Attention should also be directed to the huge +magnitude of American businesses. This is partly a consequence +of American ambition in business, and partly a consequence of +the undeveloped commercial ligaments by which producing +businesses are brought into union. American producers in both +North and South are too widely scattered for one town, like +Manchester in the English cotton district, to be visited frequently +by them for the purpose of making purchases and effecting sales. +Even if the Americans did possess a convenient commercial +centre, the high cost of transport between works distributed over +a very wide area would prevent much specialism of businesses by +processes from appearing. Writing capital letters for industrial +processes and small letters and Greek letters for commercial +functions, the possible arrangements in the cotton industry may +be represented broadly as follows, brackets indicating the scope of +businesses:<a name="FnAnchor_60c" id="FnAnchor_60c" href="#Footnote_60c"><span class="sp">60</span></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">I.</td> <td class="tcl">(a,A,B,C,d)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">II.</td> <td class="tcl">(a)(A,B,C)(d).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">III.</td> <td class="tcl">(aAα)(bBβ)(cCγ).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">IV.</td> <td class="tcl">(a)(A)(α,b)(B)(β,c)(C)(γ).</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The American industry approximates to the first type, while +the English approximates rather to the last. Differences in +respect of specialism by range of product are not shown in the +formulae.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Other Parts of America.</i>—Little need be said of the cotton industry +in other parts of the New World. In Canada in 1909 there were, +approximately, 855,000 Spindles, and in Mexico in 1906, where the first +factory was established in 1834, 450,000 Spindles. In Brazil also +there is an appreciable number of spindles, distributed (in 1895) +among 134 factories, which are located chiefly in Rio de Janeiro +and Minas Geraes, and are run for the most part by turbines and +water-wheels.</p> + +<p><i>Germany.</i>—In Germany the cotton industry is by no means so +intensely localized as in England, but three large districts may be +distinguished:—</p> + +<p>1. The north-west district, which consists of the Rhine Province +and Westphalia and contained 1¾ million spindles in 1901.</p> + +<p>2. The country north of the mountain ranges of northern Bohemia +comprises the middle district, which contained 2½ million spindles in +1901. In Saxony the industry has been carried on for four centuries.</p> + +<p>3. Alsace, Baden, Württemberg and Bavarian Swabia make +up the south-west district, to which some 3½ million spindles were +assigned. It is in close proximity to the cotton districts of east +France, Switzerland and Vorarlberg.</p> + +<p>According to Oppel (1902) the German spinning industry is chiefly +localized in—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>Prussia with 2020 thousand spindles</p> +<p>Saxony with 1870 thousand spindles</p> +<p>Alsace with 1600 thousand spindles</p> +<p>Bavaria with 1390 thousand spindles</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>The spindles of Württemberg, which stands next, do not much +exceed half a million. Only sixteen places in Germany (shown in +tabular form on p. 169) contained as many as 100,000 spindles in 1901.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Spindles in<br />Thousands.</td> <td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Spindles in<br />Thousands.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mülhausen</td> <td class="tcc rb">471</td> <td class="tcl rb">Chemnitz</td> <td class="tcc rb">195</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Augsburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">373</td> <td class="tcl rb">Gebweiler</td> <td class="tcc rb">187</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gronau</td> <td class="tcc rb">274</td> <td class="tcl rb">Leipzig</td> <td class="tcc rb">182</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Werdau</td> <td class="tcc rb">249</td> <td class="tcl rb">Crimmitzschau</td> <td class="tcc rb">168</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rheydt</td> <td class="tcc rb">248</td> <td class="tcl rb">Logelbach</td> <td class="tcc rb">141</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">München-Gladbach</td> <td class="tcc rb">216</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bocholt</td> <td class="tcc rb">128</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rheine</td> <td class="tcc rb">198</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bamberg</td> <td class="tcc rb">125</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Hof</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">196</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Bayreuth</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">100</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The history of the hand industry in Germany runs back some +centuries. At the time when it flourished in the Netherlands +we may be sure that it was prosecuted to some extent farther +north and east. The start with the machine industry was not long +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>297</span> +delayed after its economies had been learnt in England. It was +fostered by protection against the cheap products of Lancashire, +and in the course of time stimulated by every step taken towards the +economic unity of the German States which broke down local barriers +and therefore enlarged the German market. Duties upon cotton +goods, however, were not immoderately high until the measure of +1879, the policy of which was carried to a further stage in 1885. +Slight reactions were brought about in 1888 and 1891, largely by the +complaints, not only of the consumers of finished goods, but also of +manufacturers whose costs of production were kept up by the high +prices of home-spun yarns and the tax on imported substitutes. +According to the investigations made by the Board of Trade, the +general ad valorem impact of German duties on British goods stood +somewhat as follows in 1902:—</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Statement showing the Average Incidence</i> (ad valorem) <i>of the Import Duties levied by +Germany on British Cotton Goods.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"></td> <td class="tccm allb">Average Value of<br />Exports from the<br />United Kingdom<br />to all Countries<br />in 1902.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Rate of Duty<br />estimated<br />Equivalent.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Approximate<br />Equivalent<br />Rate of Duty<br /><i>ad valorem</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cotton manufactures—</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Per Cent.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Piece goods, unbleached</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 2.01d. per yd.</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.87d. per yd.</td> <td class="tcc rb">43</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  ”  ” bleached</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 2.46d. ”</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.09d. ”</td> <td class="tcc rb">44</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  ”  ” printed</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 2.68d. ”</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.31d. ”</td> <td class="tcc rb">49</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  ”  ” dyed, &c.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 3.46d. ”</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.31d. ”</td> <td class="tcc rb">38</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cotton thread for sewing</td> <td class="tcl rb">26.89d. per ℔</td> <td class="tcl rb">3.81d. per ℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cotton yarn—</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Grey</td> <td class="tcl rb">10.49d. ”</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.98d. ”</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> Bleached or dyed</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">11.23d. ”</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">1.63d. ”</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The duties are not prohibitive—they are much less than those of +the United States at the same time—but they are heavy on the classes +of goods which come into competition with home-made goods. The +general principle of the tariff is to treat easiest commodities which +are made with least success at home, or are in the highest degree +raw material for a home manufacture. Therefore yarns are not taxed +very heavily, and of these the finest counts escape with slight discouragement.</p> + +<p>In the cotton industry, as well as in numerous other industries +of Germany, almost feverish activity was shown after the Franco-German +War. Previously great advance had been made, but it +was not until the last quarter of the 19th century that Germany +forced herself into the first rank. As measured by the annual +consumption of cotton the German industry increased as follows:—</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Metric Tons of Cotton per Annum.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">(In Thousands.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1836-1840</td> <td class="tcr">9  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1856-1860</td> <td class="tcr">46  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1876-1880</td> <td class="tcr">124  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1886-1890</td> <td class="tcr">201  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1899-1903</td> <td class="tcr">324  </td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">It must be remembered that the spindles and looms of Alsace and +Lorraine were reckoned as German after the war: they amounted +in 1895 to one and a half million spindles and nearly forty thousand +looms.</p> + +<p>In the ’seventies there was no dispute as to England’s substantial +lead in respect of efficiency. Alexander Redgrave, the chief +factory inspector, made inquiries on the continent both in 1873, +when Lancashire was anxious as to the comparative cost of production +abroad because of the short-time bill then before parliament, +and previously, and reported most unfavourably upon the state of +the industry in Germany. Hours were long, the skill of the hands was +inferior, speeds were low and time was wasted. In several important +respects his views were corroborated by M. Taine in his <i>Notes on +England</i>, and by the evidence adduced before the German commission +upon the cotton and linen industries in 1878. A marked contrast is +noticeable between the sketches drawn of this period and the careful +picture presented by Professor Schulze-Gaevernitz of the early +“’nineties,” but even in the latter the advantage of England is +represented as substantial in every essential respect. The gap +which existed has narrowed, but it is still unmistakable. To give +one example, according to Dr Huber’s figures there were in Saxony +at the end of the 19th century 106 spindles to an operative and about +as many weavers as looms, whereas in England there were about +twice as many spindles to an operative and twice as many looms +as persons engaged in weaving sheds.<a name="FnAnchor_61c" id="FnAnchor_61c" href="#Footnote_61c"><span class="sp">61</span></a> As regards manufacturing, +the character of the product may partly explain the difference, +but it will not entirely. The reader need hardly be warned that the +comparison drawn is exceedingly rough. German cotton operatives +taken all round are certainly less efficient than English labour of the +same kind. The reason is partly that the proportion of the German +workpeople who have been for long specialized to the industry, +and look forward to continuing in it all their lives, is not high. +Complaint is constantly made of the number of vacancies created +in the mills each year by operatives leaving, and of the impossibility +of filling them with experienced hands. Many of the vacancies +are caused by the return of workpeople to the country parts. +Sometimes the mills are in the country, or within easy reach of it, +and labour is obtained from the unoccupied members of peasants’ +families. In these cases the factories do not always succeed in +attracting the most capable people, and work in the factory is not +infrequently looked upon as a makeshift to supplement a family’s +earnings. Among Lancashire operatives far more pride of occupation +may be met with. In many of the industrial parts of Germany +English conditions are evolving, but they are not generally the rule. +An American consul may be taken to report to his own country +without prejudice as to the rival merits of German and English +conditions: one such wrote in 1901:—“The task of educating labour +up to a high degree of efficiency is difficult, and +many generations are necessary to achieve that +result. The English cotton spinners have attained +such a degree of skill and intelligence that, for the +most part, no supervision is necessary. In Germany +the presence of a technical overseer is indispensable. +Another advantage which England enjoys is the +cheap price of machinery. Germany imports the +major part of her machinery from England, and +German wholesale dealers in these machines have +not been able, by placing large orders, to overcome +the difference caused by freight and tariff.” +Wages reflect the efficiencies of countries, not of +course perfectly, but in some degree. They are +much higher in Lancashire than in Germany, as is +made evident by an article from the pen of Professor +Hasbach in <i>Schmollers Jahrbuch</i> (vol. ii., 1903). +The author tries to show that Germany is not so +far behind England industrially as is generally +believed, and the contrast drawn by him, greatly to +the advantage of Lancashire, is not likely to exaggerate +the superiority of English conditions. It is calculated by +Professor Hasbach that the daily wages of spinners are about +5/10 to <span class="correction" title="amended from 6/">6/10</span> at Oldham, 6/6 at Bolton and 5/6 in Stalybridge and +neighbouring places. With these he compares the 3.70 to 3.80 +marks paid in the Rhine Province and Leipzig, and the 3 to 3.15 +marks paid in the Vogtland, Bavaria and Alsace, and mentions +an exceptionally high wage of 4<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> marks, which was earned by +an operative who worked a new and long doubling mule. The +wage paid to the big piecer in England, Dr Hasbach goes on to +show, is not much greater than that received by a good assistant +in Germany. This comparison as it stands will probably give +some readers an idea that English advantages are greater than they +actually are, because it may be overlooked that the great difference +between wages in the case of English and German spinners +is not repeated among the piecers. Taking a spinner and his first +assistant as the unit, we should have a joint average daily wage of +about 8/6 in England and 6/6 in Germany. In the case of weavers, +comparison of wages is more difficult to draw, but the advantage of +England would seem to be but little less. However, in instituting +a comparison between two countries, as regards the relative efficiency +of labour in some industries, we should do well to remind ourselves +that efficiency is a somewhat transitory thing, dependent upon +education and experience as much as upon aptitude. In respect of +the capacity of labour for the task required in the cotton industry, +we could not (writing in 1907) make the statement that England +leads significantly with the assurance with which we can assert her +superiority in respect of present attainments. The cotton industry +has not been prosecuted on a large scale in Germany so long as in +England, and the Germans have not, therefore, had the same +opportunity for developing their latent powers. But the thoughtfulness +and carefulness of the German workman are beyond dispute, +and these qualities will procure for him a leading place where work +is not mechanical. Already in the cotton industry it is said that +the operatives are displaying quite striking powers of undertaking +a wide range of work and changing easily from one pattern to another. +Hence German firms feel little hesitation in taking small orders on +special designs; they do not experience any great difficulty in +getting their factors accommodated to produce the required articles.</p> + +<p>Apart from the efficiency of labour, reasons exist for the lower +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span> +real cost of production in England in the organization of the industry. +The German industry is not only less localized, but, as we might +perhaps infer from that circumstance, less specialized. A German +factory will turn out scores of patterns where an English firm will +confine itself to a few specialities. Time is wasted in accommodating +machinery to changes and in accustoming the hands to new work. +The German producer suffers from the undeveloped state of the +market. In England specialized markets with specialized dealers +have greatly assisted producers both in their buying and selling. +A German manufacturer may have to find his customers as the +English manufacturer need not; at least, so Professor Schulze-Gaevernitz +has assured us, and conditions have not been wholly +transformed since he made his careful analysis. He wrote:—“But +especially disadvantageous is the decentralization in respect to the +sale. Here also the German manufacturer stands under the same +disadvantages with which the English had to struggle in the +’thirties. The German manufacturer still seeks his customers +through travellers and agents, and in many instances through retail +sellers, whose financial standing is often questionable, whose necessity +for credit is always certain. Hence the complaints about the bad +conditions of payment in Germany which crop up continually in the +<i>enquête</i>. The manufacturers had to wait three, four or six months, +and even twelve months and longer for payment. In reality there +existed ‘termless terms,’ a ‘complete anarchy in the method of +payment.’ ... The manufacturer cannot be at the same time +commission agent, banker, merchant and retail dealer; he needs +sound customers capable of paying. He fares best if the sale is +concentrated in one market, and ‘change’ prices simplify the +struggle between buyer and seller. The search for customers, +foreign as well as home, and the bearing of all possible risks of +disposal, are in any case difficult enough to necessitate the whole +strength of a man. The wholesale merchant alone is in a position +to pay the manufacturer in cash or on sure, short terms. But +especially where export is in question is the dispersal of sales an +extreme impediment. The manufacturer cannot follow the fashions +in Australia and South America; the foreign buyer cannot travel +from mill to mill.”</p> + +<p>It is the want of commercial development in Germany which +accounts for the more frequent combination of weaving and spinning +there than in England. But in Germany to-day economic enterprise +is flourishing, and commercial development may confidently be +looked for together with advance in other directions. It is not many +years since the typical German cotton factory was comparatively +primitive; now mills can be exhibited which might have been +erected recently in Oldham. Between the early ’eighties and the +’nineties the expansion of the German industry was enormous—the +imports of cotton-wool rose by nearly 70%—yet the number of +spinning-mills was actually reduced from 6750 to 2450, while the +number of weaving-sheds fell from 56,200 to 32,750. At the same +time the factories devoted to mixed goods declined from 25,200 to +less than 16,350. From these figures we may gather how rapidly +the average size of mills and weaving-sheds enlarged in the period. +One cause, no doubt, was that improved economies in the new +businesses forced antiquated factories to shut down and make way +for still newer erections. There were recently about twice as many +persons engaged in weaving as in spinning, but the largest numbers +of all—slightly in excess of those in weaving-sheds—were the persons +occupied in the manufacture of cotton-lace, trimmings, &c. As we +might imagine, Germany’s exports of cotton goods are not high. +Including yarns they amounted to £13.7 million per annum in +1899-1903. In order of value their largest exports are (1) coloured +goods, (2) hosiery, (3) lace and embroidery, (4) yarns, and (5) +trimmings, &c.</p> + +<p><i>France.</i>—Into the industrial conditions of the two leading rivals +of England we have entered in some detail; the state of affairs +in the rest of the world must be dealt with more briefly. Of France +more ought to be said than we can find place for, though in respect +of the magnitude of her cotton industry, as measured by the quantity +of spindles, she stands now not fourth, but fifth, Russia taking +precedence. But the work of the French is incomparably superior +to anything that is turned out from Russia. France suffered a +severe blow when the industry of Alsace and Lorraine was lost to +Germany, but the inexhaustible originality of French <i>design</i> will +always secure for her goods a place in the first rank. As regards +<i>artistic</i> results France leads, but the real cost of her spinning and +weaving cannot approach in lowness that of Lancashire. After +costly strikes the French workmen have succeeded in shortening +their hours to ten and a half a day; and here it may be remarked +that the International Association of Textile Operatives tends to +equate continental industrial conditions to those of England. The +French industry has been fostered by tariffs. When the Board of +Trade calculation was made, French tariffs were found to bear upon +British cotton goods with about the same severity as those of +Germany, except that the former treated more hardly yarns and +cotton thread for sewing. French protectionism has kept down her +exports; such as they are the majority proceed now to her colonies. +Normandy, the north and east, in order, are the chief seats of the +industry. In Normandy the leading city is Rouen, and Darnétal, +Maromme, Sotteville, Havre, Yvetot, Dieppe, Évreux, Gisors, +Falaise and Flers are important places. The north contains the +important towns of Lille, Tourcoing, Roubaix, St Quentin, Amiens +and Hellemmes. The Vosges is the chief district of the east, and the +leading towns are Epinal, St Dié, Remiremont, Senones, Val d’Ajol, +Cornimont and La Bresse. The following towns which are not included +in any of the districts mentioned above are also noteworthy:—Troyes, +Nantes, Cholet, Laval, Tarare, Roanne, Thizy and Villefranche +upon the Saône. Cotton arrives at Havre and Marseilles; +at the latter chiefly the product of Egypt and the East. Havre +used to be the most important cotton port in continental Europe, +but to-day more spindles are fed from Bremen than from Havre. +France’s consumption of cotton annually in the period 1899-1903 +was 215,000 metric tons.</p> + +<p><i>Russia.</i>—Power-spinning was carried into Russia by Ludwig +Knoop, who had learnt the trade in Manchester, and to his efforts +its early success was due. The growth, largely the result of very +heavy protectionism—according to the Board of Trade report, +from 50 to more than 100% more severe than that of Germany,—has +been rapid, as the following table bears witness:—</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Average yearly Importation of Cotton wool and +Yarn into Russia.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Raw Cotton in<br />thousand tons.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cotton Yarn in<br />thousand tons.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1824-1826</td> <td class="tcr rb">.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1836-1838</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1842-1844</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1848-1850</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1889-1891</td> <td class="tcr rb">117.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1899-1903</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">180.0</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.9</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Table showing approximately the Growth of +Spindles and Looms in Russia.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Spindles.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Looms.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1857</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1877</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">55,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1887</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">85,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">146,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1909</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7,800,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The chief districts were the following in 1900:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Government.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Factories.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Spindles<br />(in thousands).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Looms<br />(in thousands).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Moscow</td> <td class="tcr rb">56</td> <td class="tcr rb">1295</td> <td class="tcr rb">33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Vladimir</td> <td class="tcr rb">67</td> <td class="tcr rb">1224</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Piotrkov</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">745</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">St Petersburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">1074</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Jaroslaw</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">347</td> <td class="tcr rb"> 2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kostroma</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">274</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tver</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">348</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Esthonia</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">440</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ryazan</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">146</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Elsewhere</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">198</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">227</td> <td class="tcr allb">6091</td> <td class="tcr allb">146</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Fine spinning has been attempted only recently. Generally +speaking 70’s used to be the upper limit, but now counts up to 140’s +are tried, though the bulk of the output is coarse yarn. The inefficiency +of the labour was made abundantly plain by Dr Schulze-Gaevernitz +in his economic study of Russia, and conditions have not +greatly altered for the better since. Roughly, 170,000 operatives +worked 6,000,000 spindles in 1900, which means 35 spindles per head +as compared with more than 100 in Saxony and more than 200 in +England. In weaving the ratio of operatives to machinery worked +out at about one loom to each weaver, which is comparatively much +less unfavourable to Russia. The proportion in Saxony is about the +same, but in England the average approaches two looms to a weaver. +The speed of machinery cannot be compared, and we must remember +that the above contrasts are rough only, and made without regard to +differences of product. Russia is encouraging the growth of cotton +at home. It is of very inferior quality, but 100,000 tons from the +provinces of central Asia and Trans-Caucasia were used in 1900: +her imports in the same year were about 170,000 tons.</p> + +<p><i>Switzerland.</i>—Swiss spindles advanced until the early “’seventies,” +but a decline followed. Details are:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">1830</td> <td class="tcr">400,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1850</td> <td class="tcr">950,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1876</td> <td class="tcr">1,854,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1883</td> <td class="tcr">1,809,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1898</td> <td class="tcr">1,704,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1909 (estimated)</td> <td class="tcr">1,500,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The falling off is occasioned mainly by (a) the developing industrialism +of the rest of Europe, notably Germany, and (b) the diminishing +importance of the natural advantage of water-power with the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span> +improvement of steam-engines. Swiss yarns have been kept out of +continental markets in the interests of home spinning. Now fancy +cotton goods, laces and trimmings are the leading specialities of the +Swiss textile workers. About half the Swiss spindles are in the +canton of Zürich, between a quarter and a third in Glarus, about the +same in St Gall and 9% in Aargau. Figures show that the average +size of the Swiss mill is small. The average spindles to a mill were +22,000, and very few mills held more than 50,000 spindles. Some +9000 of the power-looms are in Zürich, some 4500 in Glarus and 4000 +in St Gall. Wald in the south-east of the canton of Zürich is an +important centre of the muslin manufacture.</p> + +<p><i>Austria.</i>—Austria contains about 4,200,000 spindles and more +yarn is consumed than it produces, as on balance there is an excess +of imports of yarn. Bohemia, lower Austria, Tirol and Vorarlberg +account for the mass of Austrian spinning. The following details +relating to these districts recently are of interest:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Mills.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Spindles.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average<br />spindles<br />to a mill.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bohemia</td> <td class="tcc rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,870,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">22,800</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lower Austria</td> <td class="tcc rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">460,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">20,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Tirol and Vorarlberg</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">435,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">21,700</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Reichenberg and the surrounding district is the chief manufacturing +place: here are more than 80,000 looms, nearly a half of which are +hand-looms.</p> + +<p><i>Italy.</i>—Recent industrial growth in Italy is remarkable: statistics +of spindles since 1870 are as follows, but the percentage of error is +probably high:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 30%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">1870</td> <td class="tcr">500,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1888</td> <td class="tcr">900,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1898</td> <td class="tcr">2,100,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1909</td> <td class="tcr">4,000,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The distribution of spindles is roughly as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Lombardy</td> <td class="tcr">1,850,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Piedmont</td> <td class="tcr">1,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Venetia</td> <td class="tcr">550,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Campania</td> <td class="tcr">250,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Liguria</td> <td class="tcr">250,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Tuscany</td> <td class="tcr">100,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The distribution of spindles and power-looms in the chief manufacturing +towns in Italy is shown in the following table:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb tb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb2 tb">Spindles.</td> <td class="tcl rb tb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb tb">Spindles.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb">Turin</td> <td class="tcr rb2">470,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Genoa</td> <td class="tcr rb">210,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb">Bergamo</td> <td class="tcr rb2">450,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Salerno</td> <td class="tcr rb">150,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb">Como</td> <td class="tcr rb2">250,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Brescia</td> <td class="tcr rb">310,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb">Milan</td> <td class="tcr rb2">660,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Naples</td> <td class="tcr rb">100,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb bb">Novara</td> <td class="tcr rb2 bb">410,000</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Udine</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">240,000</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb2">Power-</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Power-</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb2">Looms.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Looms.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb">Milan</td> <td class="tcr rb2">40,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pisa</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb">Turin</td> <td class="tcr rb2">22,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Como</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb">Novara</td> <td class="tcr rb2">13,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bergamo</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb bb">Genoa</td> <td class="tcr rb2 bb">6,000</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Udine</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3,500</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The district between Milan and Lago Maggiore contains numerous +villages devoted to the cotton industry. Many of the factories in the +province of Bergamo are situated in the Valle Seriana, which is +endowed with abundant water-power. In this district coarse and +medium yarns and grey cloth are the chief products. In the province +of Milan there are several small towns, notably Gallarate, Busto +Arsizio and Monza, in which the manufacture of coloured and fancy +goods is extensively carried on. The finest spinning in Italy is done +in Turin. The coarsest spinning is done in Venetia.</p> + +<p><i>The Netherlands.</i>—In 1805 the cotton industry was reintroduced +into the Netherlands from England in its factory form. Seventeen +mules bearing 16,000 spindles are said to have been smuggled across +the channel, while forty Englishmen were enticed over to work them, +in spite of English legal prohibitions. Liévin Bauwens was the +prime mover of the achievement. Expansion rapidly followed, and +in 1892 Belgian spindles numbered nearly a million. Since then a +decline has set in. Ghent, with about 600,000 spindles, is the only +really important place: no other place has as many as 50,000. +Holland possesses about 417,000 spindles: the leading district is +Twente and the leading town Enschede; Twente contains also about +20,000 power-looms. Rotterdam is the chief cotton port; Amsterdam, +always a far-away second, has lost place still further of late.</p> + +<p><i>Spain and Portugal.</i>—The greatness of Spain in the cotton industry +lies buried in the remote past, but of late she has awakened +somewhat, with the result that her spindles now number about +1,853,000. Catalonia is the chief province where the industry is +carried on, and Barcelona surpasses all other centres. Portugal +possesses nearly half a million spindles (the bulk in Lisbon and +Oporto), many of which have appeared since 1894.</p> + +<p><i>The Rest of Europe</i>.—Of Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Greece and +Macedonia no special mention need be made, nor of other parts where +the cotton industry may just exist. It may be mentioned here that +among the scattered rural populations of many parts of the continent, +even in such advanced countries as France and Germany, hand-looms +are still to be found in large numbers.</p> + +<p><i>India</i>.—The hand-cotton-industry has been carried on in +India since the earliest times, and for many years English fabrics +were protected against the all-cottons of India. Soon after the +introduction of spinning by rollers, English all-cottons began to +rival the Indian in quality as well as in cost. A large export trade +to India has grown up, but Indian hand-loom weavers still ply their +craft. In 1851 power-spinning was started, and by 1876 there were +in India 1,000,000 spindles. Since then they have nearly reached six +millions and importations of yarn have been significantly affected. +The growth of Indian power-spinning, which is almost entirely of the +ring variety, was attributed by some to the depreciation of the rupee +after 1873, but the fall in the value of the rupee was stopped in 1893 +and the competition continued. The real explanation, no doubt, +is that at the cost of Indian labour it is found cheaper to import +machinery and coal than to export or cease to grow cotton and +import yarn. This was the conclusion of the majority report of the +committee of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce, which made +an inquiry into Bombay and Lancashire spinning in 1888. Besides, +as regards Indian exports to China, the remission in 1875 of the 3% +export duty on yarns must be borne in mind. The efficiency of +labour in India is only a small fraction of that of Lancashire +operatives. Recently complaint has been made that Indian mills +are being run inhumanely long hours with the same set of labour, +and that child-labour is being abused, both legally and illegally—legally +as regards children over fourteen who are classed as adults. +The working of heavy hours began with the electric lighting of the +mills; previously all shut down at sunset largely because of the cost +of illumination. The outcry which has been raised is, perhaps, +sufficient guarantee that the worst evils will be remedied. Indian +spinning, it must be remembered, is still very coarse as a rule, +though some fine work is attempted and the average of counts spun +is rising. Though there are about a ninth as many spindles in +India as in the United Kingdom, there are only about one-fifteenth +as many power-looms, 46,400 in all, to which figure they rose between +1891 and 1904 from 24,700. The reason for the paucity of power-looms +is probably two-fold, (1) the low cost of production of Lancashire +weavers, and (2) the habit of hand-loom weaving which is fixed +in the Indian people. A rapid increase of power-looms is, however, +observable. The hand-loom industry is gigantic, particularly in the +Madras Presidency and the Central Provinces; in the latter district +alone there were estimated to be 150,000 hand-looms in 1883. The +following details relating to the Indian cotton industry are supplied +officially:—</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Cotton Mills in India, including Mills in Native States and +French India</i>.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Mills.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1897-1898.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1903-1904.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb">Mills (number)</td> <td class="tcr rb">164</td> <td class="tcr rb">204</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb">Capital (thousand £s)</td> <td class="tcr rb">648</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,067</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb">Looms (number)</td> <td class="tcr rb">36,946</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,421</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb">Spindles (thousands)</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,219</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,213</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb">Persons employed (daily average)</td> <td class="tcr rb">148,753</td> <td class="tcr rb">186,271</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb">Yarn produced:—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb"> Counts (1 to 20 thousand ℔)</td> <td class="tcr rb">400,384</td> <td class="tcr rb">474,509</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb"> Counts (above ”  ”  ”)</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,212</td> <td class="tcr rb">104,250</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb lb">Total ℔  </td> <td class="tcr allb">462,596</td> <td class="tcr allb">578,759</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb">Yarn produced:—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb"> Bombay (thousand ℔)</td> <td class="tcr rb">324,649</td> <td class="tcr rb">414,932</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb"> Bengal  ”  ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">44,807</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,487</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb"> Madras  ”  ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,516</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,714</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb"> United Provinces (including Ajmere-Merwara) (thousand ℔)</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,747</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,930</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb"> Central Provinces (thousand ℔)</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,334</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,549</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb"> Punjab   ”   ”  ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,607</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,578</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb"> Elsewhere ”   ”  ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,936</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,569</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb lb">Total ℔  </td> <td class="tcr allb">462,596</td> <td class="tcr allb">578,759</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb">Woven Goods:—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb"> Grey (thousand ℔)</td> <td class="tcr rb">83,136</td> <td class="tcr rb">111,494</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb lb"> Others ”  ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,152</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,550</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb lb bb">Total ℔  </td> <td class="tcr allb">91,288</td> <td class="tcr allb">138,044</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>China</i>.—In China spinning has not met with the same success as +India, and power-manufacturing has not yet obtained a sure footing. +The ingrained conservatism of the Chinese temperament is no doubt +a leading cause. Of the spindles in China—about 600,000 in all—from +a half to three-fifths are in Shanghai. The following details +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span> +relating to the inception of the power-industry are quoted from a +Diplomatic and Consular Report of 1905:—</p> + +<p>“The initial experiment on modern lines was made in 1891, when +a semi-official Chinese syndicate started at Shanghai—the Chinese +Cotton Cloth Mill and the Chinese Cotton Spinning Company. Its +originators claimed for themselves a quasi-monopoly, and prohibited +outsiders who were not prepared to pay a fixed royalty for the privilege +from engaging in similar undertakings. Although certain +Chinese accepted this onerous condition, foreigners resented it as +an undue interference with their treaty rights, and it was only when +Japan, in 1895, after her war with China, inserted in the treaty of +Shimonoseki an article providing for the freedom of Japanese subjects +to engage in all kinds of manufacturing industries in the open +ports of China, and permitting them to import machinery for such +purposes, that outsiders were afforded an opportunity of exploiting +the rich field for commercial development thereby thrown open. +Accordingly, so soon as the Japanese treaty came into force no time +was lost in turning this particular clause to account, and the erection +of no less than 11 mills—Chinese and foreign—was taken in hand. +At that time the pioneer mill, which was burnt to the ground in +October 1893, but subsequently rebuilt, and other Chinese-owned +mills were together working some 120,000 spindles and 850 looms.”</p> + +<p>By 1905 the mills increased to 17, the spindles to 620,000 and +the looms to 2250, but there is little inclination to expansion. +Yarns for the hand-looms are obtained primarily from India and +secondarily from Japan. The following are the recent figures relating +to imported yarns:—</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>In million</i> ℔</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">1898.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1899.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1900.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1901.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1902.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1903.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.2 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Indian</td> <td class="tcr rb">186.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">254.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">131.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">228.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">251.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">250.8 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Japanese</td> <td class="tcr rb">64.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">104.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">62.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">66.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">69.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">110.9 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hong-Kong</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.2 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tongkinese</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">.01</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">260.5</td> <td class="tcr allb">366.0</td> <td class="tcr allb">198.5</td> <td class="tcr allb">303.0</td> <td class="tcr allb">326.4</td> <td class="tcr allb">365.1 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Japan.</i>—If in China the factory cotton industry reveals no prospects +as yet of a great future, the same cannot be said of Japan.</p> + +<p>The chief centres of spinning with their outputs in value of yarn +for a year at the beginning of the 20th century are stated beneath:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm tb lb rb2 bb">Thousands.</td> <td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb2">£ s.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">£ s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Osaka</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1226.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Nara</td> <td class="tcr rb">111.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hyogo</td> <td class="tcr rb2">495.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Hiroshima</td> <td class="tcr rb">91.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Okayama</td> <td class="tcr rb2">374.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Kyoto</td> <td class="tcr rb">82.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Miye</td> <td class="tcr rb2">238.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Wakayama</td> <td class="tcr rb">79.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tokyo</td> <td class="tcr rb2">227.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ehime</td> <td class="tcr rb">70.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Aichi</td> <td class="tcr rb2">224.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Kajawa</td> <td class="tcr rb">36.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Fukuoka</td> <td class="tcr rb2 bb">168.1</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The following table gives other valuable information:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Gross<br />Amount<br />of Capital<br />invested.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Average<br />Number<br />of<br />Spindles<br />used daily.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Quantity<br />of Raw<br />and<br />Ginned<br />Cotton<br />demanded.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Production<br />of Cotton<br />Yarn.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Average<br />Number<br />of Male<br />Operatives<br />daily<br />employed.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Average<br />Number<br />of Female<br />Operatives<br />daily<br />employed.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Annual<br />Working<br />Days.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Daily<br />Working<br />Hours.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Average<br />Daily<br />Wage<br />of Male<br />Operatives</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Average<br />Daily<br />Wage<br />of Female<br />Operatives</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1892-1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">1123</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 420</td> <td class="tcc rb">112.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">97.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,916</td> <td class="tcc rb">21,695</td> <td class="tcc rb">290</td> <td class="tcc rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">4d. to 4¼d.</td> <td class="tcr rb">2d. to 2¼d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1900-1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">3569</td> <td class="tcc rb">1209</td> <td class="tcc rb">335.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">288.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,373</td> <td class="tcc rb">50,271</td> <td class="tcc rb">312</td> <td class="tcc rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">7½d.</td> <td class="tcr rb">4½d. to 5d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">3441</td> <td class="tcc rb">1290</td> <td class="tcc rb">375.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">322.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,160</td> <td class="tcc rb">57,166</td> <td class="tcc rb">308</td> <td class="tcc rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">7½d. to 8d.</td> <td class="tcr rb">4½d. to 5d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3470</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1306</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">332.1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">285.9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10,967</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">52,115</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">309</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8d.</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5d.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>With amazing adaptability the Japanese have assumed the methods +of Western civilization as a whole. But hand-weaving more than +holds its own, and power-weaving has as yet met with little success. +The custom already mentioned as a cause of the continued triumph +of the hand-loom in India and China is strong also in Japan, and the +economy of the factory system is greater relatively in spinning than +in manufacturing. In Japan it is ring-spinning which prevails: +95% of the spindles are on ring-frames. Ring-spinning entails less +skill on the part of the operative, and ring-yarn is quite satisfactory +for the sort of fabrics used most largely in the Far East. The counts +produced are low as a rule. Generally mills run day and night with +double shifts, and the system seems to pay, though night-work is +found to be less economical than day-work there as elsewhere. +More operatives are placed on a given quantity of machinery in Japan +than in Lancashire—possibly more “labour” as well as more +operatives, because labour as well as operatives may be cheaper. +On the same work the output per spindle per hour is less in Japan +than in England, even when day-shifts only are taken into account. +Japanese work has been severely criticized, but the recency of the +introduction of the cotton industry must not be forgotten.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The literature relating to the cotton industry +is enormous. The most complete bibliographies will be found in +Chapman’s <i>Lancashire Cotton Industry</i> (where short descriptions of +the several works included, which relate only to the United Kingdom, +are given); Hammond’s <i>Cotton Culture and Trade</i>; and Oppel’s +<i>Die Baumwolle</i>. The list of books set forth here must be select only.</p> + +<p>The development of the English industry can be traced through +the following:—Aikin, <i>A Description of the Country from Thirty +to Forty Miles round Manchester</i> (1795); Andrew, <i>Fifty Years’ +Cotton Trade</i> (1887); Baines, <i>History of the Cotton Manufacture in +Great Britain</i> (1835); Banks, <i>A Short Sketch of the Cotton Trade of +Preston for the last Sixty-Seven Years</i> (1888); Butterworth, <i>Historical +Sketches of Oldham</i> (1847 or 1848); Butterworth, <i>An Historical +Account of the Towns of Ashton-under-Lyne, Stalybridge and Dukinfield</i> +(1842); Chapman, <i>The Lancashire Cotton Industry</i> (1904); +Cleland, <i>Description of the City of Glasgow</i> (1840); <i>A Complete +History of the Cotton Trade, &c.</i>, by a person concerned in trade +(1823); Ellison, <i>The Cotton Trade of Great Britain including a +History of the Liverpool Cotton Market and of the Liverpool Cotton +Brokers’ Association</i> (1886); Léon Faucher, <i>Études sur Angleterre</i> +(1845); French, <i>The Life and Times of Samuel Crompton</i> (1859); +Guest, <i>A Compendious History of the Cotton-manufacture, with a +Disproval of the Claim of Sir Richard Arkwright to the Invention of its +Ingenious Machinery</i> (1823); Guest, <i>The British Cotton Manufacture +and a Reply to the Article on Spinning Machinery, contained in a +recent Number of the Edinburgh Review</i> (1828); Helm, <i>Chapters in the +History of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce</i> (1902); Kennedy, +<i>Miscellaneous Papers on Subjects connected with the Manufactures +of Lancashire</i> (1849); Ogden, <i>A Description of Manchester ... with +a Succinct History of its former original Manufactories, and their +Gradual Advancement to the Present State of Perfection at which they +are arrived, by a Native of the Town</i> (1783); Radcliffe, <i>Origin of the +New System of Manufacture, commonly called “Power-Loom Weaving” +and the Purposes for which this System was invented and brought +into use, fully explained in a Narrative concerning William Radcliffe’s +Struggles through Life to remove the Cause which has brought this +Country to its Present Crisis</i> (1828); Rees’ <i>Cyclopaedia</i>, articles on +Cotton (1808), Spinning (1816) and Weaving (1818); Ure, <i>The +Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain, investigated and illustrated, with +an Introductory View of its Comparative State in Foreign Countries</i> +(2 vols.); Ure, <i>The Philosophy of Manufacture; or An Exposition +of the Scientific, Moral and Commercial Economy of the Factory +System of Great Britain</i> (1835); Watts, <i>Facts of the Cotton Famine</i> +(1866); Wheeler, <i>Manchester: its Political, Social and Commercial +History, Ancient and Modern</i> (1836).</p> + +<p>In addition there are many short papers in the Manchester public +library. Much valuable information may be obtained from parliamentary +papers; a list of relevant ones is printed as an appendix +to Chapman’s <i>Lancashire Cotton Industry</i>, but it is too lengthy to +repeat here. The most important are the reports relating to the +hand-loom weavers, those on the employment of children in factories +(of which a list will be found in Hutching and Harrison’s <i>History of +the Factory Legislation</i>), and the state of trade and the annual reports +of the factory inspectors. On labour questions there is a list of +authorities in Chapman’s <i>Lancashire Cotton Industry</i> and also of +parliamentary papers containing useful material. Printed copies of +the “Wages Lists” are issued by the trade unions. The Factory +Acts are dealt with in Hutchins and Harrison’s <i>History</i>, mentioned +above, as well as the literature relating to them; while the handbooks +by Redgrave and by Abraham and Davies are specially useful.</p> + +<p>On the industry abroad the following are the fullest authorities:—Besso, +<i>The Cotton Industry in Switzerland, Vorarlberg and Italy</i> (1910) +(a report made as a Gartside Scholar of the University of Manchester); +Chapman’s <i>Cotton Industry and Trade</i> (1905); Hammond, <i>The +Cotton Industry</i>; Hasbach’s article, “Zur Characteristik der englischen +Industrie,” in <i>Schmollers Jahrbuch</i>, vol. ii. (1903); Leconte, +<i>Le Coton</i>; Lochmüller, <i>Zur Entwicklung der Baumwollindustrie in +Deutschland</i> (1906); Montgomery, <i>The Cotton Manufacture of the +United States of America contrasted and compared with that of Great +Britain</i> (1840); Oppel, <i>Die Baumwolle</i> (1902); Schulze-Gaevernitz, +<i>Der Grossbetrieb: ein wirtschaftlicher und socialer Fortschritt: eine +Studie auf dem Gebiete der Baumwollindustrie</i> (1892; translated as +<i>The Cotton Trade in England and on the Continent</i>); T. M. Young, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span> +<i>American Cotton Industry</i> (1902); Uttley, <i>Cotton Spinning and +Manufacturing in the United States of North America</i> (1905; a report +of a tour as Gartside scholar of the university of Manchester); +and the Gartside reports on the cotton industries of France and +Germany by Forrester and Dehn respectively. Information will +also be found in Diplomatic and Consular Reports, and fragments +may be gathered from other books such as G. Drage’s <i>Russian Affairs</i>, +Dyer’s <i>Dai Nippon</i>, and Huber’s <i>Deutschland als Industriestaat</i>. +Japan has published since 1901 a very full financial and economical +annual, and the British government issues annually a good statistical +abstract for India. The American census contains much detailed +information, and there are, in addition to the statistics issued by the +Federal government, those of Massachusetts, the Bureau of Statistics +of which has also reported the results of an investigation into the +industry in the Southern states. Among official matter the semi-official +Bombay and Lancashire cotton spinning inquiry of the Manchester +Chamber of Commerce may be included. The census of production +of the United Kingdom must be mentioned, and the reports of +the International Congresses of Cotton Spinners and Manufacturers. +As to labour, see the reports of the International Textile Congresses.</p> + +<p>The periodical literature is of good quality and much of it is filed +in the Patent Office library. We may notice particularly the <i>Cotton +Factory Times</i>; <i>Textile Journal</i>; <i>Textile Manufacturer</i>; <i>Textile +Mercury</i>; <i>Textile Recorder</i>; <i>Textile World Record</i> (American); +<i>Der Leipzige Monatsschrift für Textilindustrie</i>; and the French +<i>Textile Journal</i>. Shepperson’s <i>Cotton Facts</i> is an annual which relates +chiefly, though not entirely, to raw cotton, as does also <i>Cotton</i>, the +periodical of the Manchester Cotton Association. For technical +works we may refer here to the well-known treatises of Brooks, +Guest, Marsden, Nasmith and Walmsley, and to Johannsen’s +ponderous two-volumed <i>Handbuch der Baumwollspinnerei, Rohweissweberei +und Fabrikanlagen</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. J. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1c" id="Footnote_1c" href="#FnAnchor_1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See the extract from the books of Bolton Abbey, given by Baines +(p. 96) and dated 1298.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2c" id="Footnote_2c" href="#FnAnchor_2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Vol. ii. p. 206; Baines, pp. 96-97.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3c" id="Footnote_3c" href="#FnAnchor_3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Baines, pp. 93 and 94.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4c" id="Footnote_4c" href="#FnAnchor_4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Lancashire and Cheshire Record Society, vol. ii.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5c" id="Footnote_5c" href="#FnAnchor_5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>State Papers, Domestic</i>, lix. 5. See W. H. Price, <i>Quar. Jour. +Econ.</i>, vol. xx.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6c" id="Footnote_6c" href="#FnAnchor_6c"><span class="fn">6</span></a> London Guildhall Library, vol. Beta, <i>Petitions and Parliamentary +Matters</i> (1620-1621), No. 16 (old No. 25).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7c" id="Footnote_7c" href="#FnAnchor_7c"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The act referred to is 33 Henry VIII. c. xv., already mentioned.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8c" id="Footnote_8c" href="#FnAnchor_8c"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Cunningham, <i>Growth of English Industry and Commerce</i> (1903), +vol. ii. p. 623.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9c" id="Footnote_9c" href="#FnAnchor_9c"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Original edition, pp. 32, 33.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10c" id="Footnote_10c" href="#FnAnchor_10c"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Aikin’s <i>Description of the Country from Thirty to Forty Miles +round Manchester</i>, p. 154.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11c" id="Footnote_11c" href="#FnAnchor_11c"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Tour</i>, vol. iii. p. 219.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12c" id="Footnote_12c" href="#FnAnchor_12c"><span class="fn">12</span></a> For instance Radcliffe p. 61. Ogden (author of <i>A Description +of Manchester</i>, &c., published in 1783), if Aikin’s “accurate and +well-informed enquirer” by Ogden, says that the period of rapid +extension of the cotton industry began about 1770. See also +Butterworth’s <i>History of Oldham</i> and the passage quoted below in +the text.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13c" id="Footnote_13c" href="#FnAnchor_13c"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Account of Society for Promotion of Industry in Lindsey (1789), +Brit. Mus. 103, L. 56. Quoted from Cunningham’s <i>English Industry +and Commerce</i>, vol. ii. p. 452, n. ed., 1892.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_14c" id="Footnote_14c" href="#FnAnchor_14c"><span class="fn">14</span></a> In 1838 the only other county with more than 1000 was Gloucester +with 1500. 217,000 of the 219,100 operatives in England and Wales +were employed in the counties enumerated. Of the 2000 operatives +whose location is not given, about 1000 worked in Flintshire.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15c" id="Footnote_15c" href="#FnAnchor_15c"><span class="fn">15</span></a> W. Radcliffe’s <i>Origin of the New System of Manufacturing</i>, p. 59.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_16c" id="Footnote_16c" href="#FnAnchor_16c"><span class="fn">16</span></a> The term “fustian” had originally been used to designate +certain woollen or worsted goods made at Norwich and in Scotland. +A reference to Norwich fustians of as early a date as the 14th century +is quoted by Baines.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_17c" id="Footnote_17c" href="#FnAnchor_17c"><span class="fn">17</span></a> E. Butterworth’s <i>History of Oldham</i>, p. 101.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_18c" id="Footnote_18c" href="#FnAnchor_18c"><span class="fn">18</span></a> <i>Parliamentary Reports, &c.</i> (1826-1827), v. p. 5. See for even +later examples Gardner’s evidence to the committee on hand-loom +weavers in 1835.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_19c" id="Footnote_19c" href="#FnAnchor_19c"><span class="fn">19</span></a> This is illustrated in one of the plates to Guest’s <i>History of the +Cotton Manufacture</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_20c" id="Footnote_20c" href="#FnAnchor_20c"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Chapman’s <i>Lancashire Cotton Industry</i>, pp. 15 and 16.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_21c" id="Footnote_21c" href="#FnAnchor_21c"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Page 167.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_22c" id="Footnote_22c" href="#FnAnchor_22c"><span class="fn">22</span></a> Mrs Crompton, wife of Samuel Crompton, we are told, used to +employ her son George shortly after he could walk, as a “dolly-peg” +to tread the cotton in the soapy water in which it was placed for +washing. See French’s <i>Life of Crompton</i>, pp. 58-59 (3rd ed.). Rowbotham +in his diary gives two accounts of fires which were caused by +carelessness in drying cotton.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_23c" id="Footnote_23c" href="#FnAnchor_23c"><span class="fn">23</span></a> On the difference between the two machines see Baines’s <i>History</i>, +p. 138 et seq.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_24c" id="Footnote_24c" href="#FnAnchor_24c"><span class="fn">24</span></a> Baines p. 183.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_25c" id="Footnote_25c" href="#FnAnchor_25c"><span class="fn">25</span></a> Baines’s <i>History of the Cotton Manufacture</i>, p. 86 n.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_26c" id="Footnote_26c" href="#FnAnchor_26c"><span class="fn">26</span></a> These figures are quoted from a pamphlet published in 1788 +entitled “An Important Crisis in the Calico and Muslin Manufactory +in Great Britain explained.” Many of the estimates given in this +pamphlet are worthless, but there seems no reason why the figures +quoted here should not be at least approximately correct.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_27c" id="Footnote_27c" href="#FnAnchor_27c"><span class="fn">27</span></a> See article on <span class="sc">Cotton-spinning Machinery</span>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_28c" id="Footnote_28c" href="#FnAnchor_28c"><span class="fn">28</span></a> Hargreaves’ claim to this invention has been disputed, but no +satisfactory evidence has been brought forward to disprove his +claim. Hargreaves was a carpenter and weaver of Stand-hill near +Blackburn, and died in 1778.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_29c" id="Footnote_29c" href="#FnAnchor_29c"><span class="fn">29</span></a> See Chapman’s <i>Lancashire Cotton Industry</i>, pp. 59 et seq.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_30c" id="Footnote_30c" href="#FnAnchor_30c"><span class="fn">30</span></a> See Baines p. 207.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_31c" id="Footnote_31c" href="#FnAnchor_31c"><span class="fn">31</span></a> “Counts” are determined by the number of hanks to the +lb. A hank is 840 yds. The origin of the hank of 840 yds. is +probably that spinners used a winding-reel of 1½ yds. in circumference, +so that 80 threads (one “lea” or “rap” according to old phraseology) +would contain 120 yds., and seven leas (<i>i.e.</i> a hank) would +contain 840 yds. A hank of seven leas was the common measure +in the woollen industry, in which the reels were 1 yd. or 2 yds. in circumference. +For details see an article on the subject in the <i>Textile +World Record</i>, vol. xxxi. No. 1.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_32c" id="Footnote_32c" href="#FnAnchor_32c"><span class="fn">32</span></a> The author of the memoir of Crompton (see bibliography).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_33c" id="Footnote_33c" href="#FnAnchor_33c"><span class="fn">33</span></a> Specification 257.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_34c" id="Footnote_34c" href="#FnAnchor_34c"><span class="fn">34</span></a> For further analysis of the arguments current see Chapman’s +<i>Lancashire Cotton Industry</i>, pp. 66 et seq.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_35c" id="Footnote_35c" href="#FnAnchor_35c"><span class="fn">35</span></a> Also in the 17th century a John Barkstead was granted a patent +for a method of manufacturing cotton goods, but the method is not +described. 1691, Specification 276.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_36c" id="Footnote_36c" href="#FnAnchor_36c"><span class="fn">36</span></a> In the parliamentary reports (1840), xxiv. p. 611, the invention +of the swivel-loom is claimed for a “Van Anson.” It is a plausible +supposition that by “Van Anson” is meant Vaucanson, as he +appears to have improved the swivel-loom. But he could not have +been the original inventor, since in 1724 (that is, when Vaucanson +was at the most fifteen years of age) they were being employed in +Manchester.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_37c" id="Footnote_37c" href="#FnAnchor_37c"><span class="fn">37</span></a> Aikin, pp. 175-176, and Guest, p. 44. An explanation of the +mechanism of the swivel-loom will be found in the <i>Encyclopédie +méthodique, manufactures, arts et métiers</i>, pt. i. vol. ii. pp. 202, 208, +and <i>Recueil de planches</i>, vol. vi. (1786), pp. 72-78.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_38c" id="Footnote_38c" href="#FnAnchor_38c"><span class="fn">38</span></a> Figures for the years above up to 1838 will be found in parliamentary +reports (1840), xxiv. p. 611.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_39c" id="Footnote_39c" href="#FnAnchor_39c"><span class="fn">39</span></a> This is the manuscript diary of a weaver of Oldham roughly +covering the period 1787 to 1830. It is now in the Oldham public +library. Mr S. Andrew edited extracts from it in a series of articles +in the <i>Standard</i> (an Oldham paper), under the title <i>Annals of Oldham</i>, +beginning January 1, 1887.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_40c" id="Footnote_40c" href="#FnAnchor_40c"><span class="fn">40</span></a> Printed in <i>British Industries</i>. Edited by W. J. Ashley.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_41c" id="Footnote_41c" href="#FnAnchor_41c"><span class="fn">41</span></a> This is explained in the article <span class="sc">Cotton</span>: <i>Marketing and Supply</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_42c" id="Footnote_42c" href="#FnAnchor_42c"><span class="fn">42</span></a> See chapter on cotton in Bowley’s <i>Wages in the United Kingdom</i> and table there given.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_43c" id="Footnote_43c" href="#FnAnchor_43c"><span class="fn">43</span></a> A detailed analysis of the whole labour question in the cotton +industry will be found in Chapman’s <i>Lancashire Cotton Industry</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_44c" id="Footnote_44c" href="#FnAnchor_44c"><span class="fn">44</span></a> There are other permissible arrangements, namely from 7 to 7 +and from 8 to 8, but they are not used in the textile trades of Lancashire.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_45c" id="Footnote_45c" href="#FnAnchor_45c"><span class="fn">45</span></a> The figures for looms are based upon a number of returns and +estimates. Those for spindles are taken from the highly authoritative +estimates of the International Federation of Master Cotton +Spinners.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_46c" id="Footnote_46c" href="#FnAnchor_46c"><span class="fn">46</span></a> <i>Journal of Board of Trade</i>, April 28th, 1904.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_47c" id="Footnote_47c" href="#FnAnchor_47c"><span class="fn">47</span></a> The early history of the industry in the United States +is summarized in one of the official bulletins of the state of +Massachusetts, dated 1798. See W. R. Bagnall, <i>Textile Industries +of the U. S.</i> (1893).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_48c" id="Footnote_48c" href="#FnAnchor_48c"><span class="fn">48</span></a> See also the official report of J. P. Harris-Gastrell in 1873.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_49c" id="Footnote_49c" href="#FnAnchor_49c"><span class="fn">49</span></a> Quoted by Schulze-Gaevernitz.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_50c" id="Footnote_50c" href="#FnAnchor_50c"><span class="fn">50</span></a> <i>Memorandum</i> on British and foreign trade and industrial +conditions.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_51c" id="Footnote_51c" href="#FnAnchor_51c"><span class="fn">51</span></a> The method of calculating these percentages is discussed in +the blue-book mentioned.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_52c" id="Footnote_52c" href="#FnAnchor_52c"><span class="fn">52</span></a> Upon the above see Uttley’s report.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_53c" id="Footnote_53c" href="#FnAnchor_53c"><span class="fn">53</span></a> The figures are those quoted by Mr T. M. Young and relate to +the year 1902.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_54c" id="Footnote_54c" href="#FnAnchor_54c"><span class="fn">54</span></a> See <i>e.g.</i> some passages upon this point in Uttley’s report.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_55c" id="Footnote_55c" href="#FnAnchor_55c"><span class="fn">55</span></a> For an account of the numerous types of automatic looms see +the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Weaving</a></span>: § Machinery.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_56c" id="Footnote_56c" href="#FnAnchor_56c"><span class="fn">56</span></a> Of which special mention may be made of Uttley’s report as a +Gartside scholar of the university of Manchester, already referred +to, and Pidgin’s report for the Massachusetts Bureau of Labour +Statistics.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_57c" id="Footnote_57c" href="#FnAnchor_57c"><span class="fn">57</span></a> <i>Textile Recorder</i>, August 15th, 1905.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_58c" id="Footnote_58c" href="#FnAnchor_58c"><span class="fn">58</span></a> Young’s <i>American Cotton Industry</i>, p. 13.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_59c" id="Footnote_59c" href="#FnAnchor_59c"><span class="fn">59</span></a> Uttley’s report, p. 4.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_60c" id="Footnote_60c" href="#FnAnchor_60c"><span class="fn">60</span></a> Similar formulae have been used above, where a fuller explanation +is given.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_61c" id="Footnote_61c" href="#FnAnchor_61c"><span class="fn">61</span></a> Deutschland als Industriestaat.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY.<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> The earliest inventors of +spinning machinery (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spinning</a></span>) directed their energies chiefly +to the improvement of the final stage of the operation, but no +sooner were these machines put to practical use than it became +apparent that success depended upon mechanically conducting +the operations preliminary to spinning. Later inventors were, +therefore, called upon not only to improve the inventions of their +predecessors, but to devise machinery for preparing the fibres to +be spun. Arkwright quickly perceived the importance of this +aspect of the problem, and he devoted even more energy to it than +to the invention with which his name is more intimately associated. +But, given a complete series of machines for preparing and +spinning, the cotton industry (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cotton Manufacture</a></span>) must +have remained unprogressive without the co-operation of cotton +growers, for by the then existing methods of separating cotton lint +from seed it would have been impossible to provide an adequate +supply of raw material. By inventing the saw gin, Eli Whitney, +an American, in the year 1792, did for cotton planters what Paul, +Arkwright, Crompton, Cartwright, Watt and others did for +textile manufacturers, for he provided them with the means for +increasing their output almost indefinitely.</p> + +<p class="noind pt2 f80 sc">Plate I.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:442px" src="images/img300a1.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—BLOWING ROOM.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:425px" src="images/img300a2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—CARDING ROOM.<br /> +<span class="f80">(<i>From Photographs taken in a Manchester Fine Cotton-spinning Mill, by R. Banks.</i>)</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind pt2 f80 sc">Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:445px" src="images/img300b1.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>—JACK-FRAME ROOM.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:442px" src="images/img300b2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—SPINNING-ROOM.<br /> +<span class="f80">(<i>From Photographs taken in a Manchester Fine Cotton-spinning Mill, by R. Banks.</i>)</span></td></tr></table> + +<div class="pt2"> </div> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:722px; height:596px" src="images/img301a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:494px" src="images/img301b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Cotton-ginning</i> is the process by which cotton seeds are separated +from the adhering fibres. The most primitive machine employed in +India and China for this purpose is the churka, which consists of two +wooden rollers fixed in a frame and revolving +in contact. Seed cotton is fed into +these rollers and the fibres pass forward +but the seeds remain behind. It is a +device which does not injure the fibres, but +no improvement has been found by which +the churka can be converted into a sufficiently +productive machine for modern requirements. +In a modified form Whitney’s +saw gin is still used to clean a large +portion of the annual crop of short and +medium stapled cottons. It consists of +from 60 to 70 saws (A, fig. 1), which are +mounted upon a shaft and revolve between +the interstices of an iron grid (B); against +this grid the seed cotton is held whilst the +fibres are drawn through, the seeds being +left behind. The operation is as follows:—seed +cotton is fed into the hopper (C), and +conveyed by a lattice (D) to a spiked roller +(E), which regulates the supply to the hopper +(F). Whilst in (F) the cotton is engaged +by the teeth of the saws (A), and drawn +through the grid (B), but the bars are too +close to permit the seeds to pass. A brush +(G) strips the cotton lint from the saws, +after which it is drawn through a flue (H) +to the surface of a perforated roller (I) by +pneumatic action; it then passes between +(I) and (J) out of the machine. The +Macarthy gin is the only other type in +extensive use; it is employed to clean +both long and short stapled cottons. In +this gin the fibres are drawn by a leather-covered +roller (A, fig. 2) over the edge +of a stationary blade (B) called a doctor, +which is fixed tangential to the roller. +Two cranks (E) move two other blades +(C, D) up and down immediately behind, +and parallel to, the fixed blade (B). The +cotton is thrown into the hopper (F) and the fibres are drawn +by the roller (A) until the seeds are against the edge of the doctor +(B), when the beaters (C, D) strike them off, but permit the fibres +to go forward with the roller. Attempts continue to be made +so to improve both machines, that production may be increased, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>302</span> +and labour charges, and the risks of injuring the fibres, +reduced.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:800px; height:333px" src="images/img302a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Baling.</i>—As cotton leaves the gin, it is in some cases rolled, under +compression, into cylindrical bales; but it is usually packed into +rectangular bales, that vary in weight from 160 ℔ to 750 ℔, by steam +or hydraulic presses. After pressing, the cotton is covered with +coarse jute bagging, and the whole secured by iron bands. In this +form it arrives at the spinning mills.</p> + +<p>In the mill treatment of cotton it soon became an established +practice to divide the work into the following operations, namely +(1) Mixing the fibres into a homogeneous mass; (2) removing impurities; +(3) combing out entanglements in, and ranging the fibres +in parallel lines; (4) simultaneous combination and attenuation of +groups of parallel fibres; (5) completing the combination and attenuation, +and twisting the fibres into a thread; (6) compounding, +finishing and making-up of threads. These remain the essential +conditions of cotton-spinning. The principal machines used to carry +out the foregoing stages are: The bale breaker, opener and scutcher; +the card and comber; the drawing, slubbing, intermediate and +roving frames; ring and mule spinning; winding, doubling; clearing +and gassing the reel, and bundling press, together with several +auxiliary machines. All the operations included in this list are not +necessarily employed in the production of all kinds of yarn; low +counts require fewer, and high counts more processes.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:800px; height:510px" src="images/img302b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>A <i>bale breaker</i> is used to disentangle fibres which have been, by +hydraulic or steam presses, converted into hard masses that resist +manual efforts to disentangle them. It may consist of three pairs +of spiked and one pair of fluted rollers. If so, the matted cotton is +fed into the first pair, seized by the second pair, which have a higher +surface velocity, and pulled, while the third pair reduce the whole +to a more or less fluffy mass, and the fluted rollers deliver it upon +a travelling lattice by which it is conveyed to, and deposited upon, +the floor of the mixing room. Instead of rollers, a <i>hopper breaker</i> +may be used. In this machine the cotton is carried by a horizontal +lattice into contact with a sloping spiked one, whose spikes tear away +small tufts and deposit them upon a second lattice for removal to +the mixing room. A stack of pulled cotton is formed by superposing +thin layers from different bales, and when completed the cotton is +drawn from top to bottom of the stack. By this means a thorough +mixing of fibres is effected.</p> + +<p><i>The Opener.</i>—Mixed cotton may be thrown upon a lattice and +conveyed to a spiked roller to be pulled, beaten, discharged into a +trunk, and drawn by pneumatic force to the opener. Or it may be +spread (fig. 3) upon a lattice (I), and carried between feed-rollers (E) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>303</span> +to be subjected to the action of a beater (A) whose teeth first seize +tufts of cotton and then fling them upon a grid (B), to be subsequently +seized by other teeth and again flung off until dirt and other +impurities pass between the grating. The beater may be cylindrical +(as at A) or in the form of a truncated cone: in either event, from +four to twelve rows of teeth project from its surface. It is from +18 in. to upwards of 36 in. in diameter, approximately 40 in. wide, +and the largest cylindrical beaters make from 300 to 700 revolutions; +whilst conical beaters make about 1000, and small ones make from +1000 to 1500 revolutions per minute. The opened cotton is carried, +in the direction indicated by the arrows, upon a strong blast of air +which is generated by a fan (H), and this deposits it in patches +upon the surfaces of two perforated zinc or wire cylinders (C), but +dust and foreign particles pass through the interstices. As these +cylinders revolve towards each other the cotton passes between +them in the form of a sheet to a pair of feed-rollers (D), which may +again deliver it to a beater with two or three blades; if so, from this +beater the cotton is next borne on an air current to, and between, +a second pair of perforated cylinders. In either event, the final +cages (C, C) deliver the cotton to feed-rollers (D) and they pass it to +calender-rollers (F), by which it is compressed into a sheet, and +finally coiled into a lap (G). Various kinds of openers have been +patented, all of which differ in some important respects; for example, +a hopper feed may be substituted for the trunk or the lattice feed, +in which event the cotton from the mixing room is conveyed mechanically +upon lattices, and deposited in a hopper affixed to an opener. +In this hopper a sloping spiked lattice elevates the cotton to an +evening roller, whose office is to sweep back the surplus supply from +the spikes, but allow the requisite quantity to pass forward to the +beater. A regular supply of cotton to an opener is of great importance, +and in order to insure it a table is often formed by substituting for +the lower roller (E) a series of levers (A, fig. 4) all mounted upon a +fulcrum (B), and having their free arms weighted by wedge-shaped +pendents (C), that are separated by bowls (D). A fluted feed-roller +(E) is fixed above this table and the cotton is led over the lever +but beneath the roller. If the cotton is unequally distributed, thick +places will press down the levers and thin ones will permit them to +rise (as at A’, E’). The rise of one pendent may be cancelled by the +fall of another, but any balance of their movements is transmitted +to a belt fork which governs a belt running upon a pair of inverted +cones, and by this means the belt is traversed to and fro to drive the +feed-roller (E) at a superior speed when the supply of cotton is +insufficient, and at an inferior speed when the supply is excessive.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:800px; height:518px" src="images/img303.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>The Scutcher.</i>—In many respects a scutcher resembles an opener; +its function is to continue the cleaning and form laps of uniform +weight and density for the carding engine. Occasionally the scutcher +is the first cleaning machine, in which event cotton, in a loose fleece, +is spread evenly upon a lattice. But in order to carry the combination +of fibres one stage further, three or four opener laps are generally +placed upon the feeder, so that, as the laps unroll, three or four sheets +of cotton will be superposed, and in this form are passed by the +lattice (F, fig. 4) and the feed-roller (E) to either one or two beaters, +which are furnished with two or three blades. The beater (G) flings +the cotton against the bars of a grid (H) to loosen, and cause the dirt +to pass between the bars, after which the cotton is carried forward +upon an air current, in the same manner as in an opener, and formed +into a lap. In case two scutchers are required, the laps from the +first are fed into the second, where they are similarly treated; in +both machines the lever and pendent mechanism furnishes the means +by which uniformity is attained. A beater may consist of a straight, +smooth blade (as at G), or of a blade provided with stout teeth; in +the latter event the operation resembles combing rather than beating. +Two-bladed beaters revolve from 1200 to 1500 times per minute; +those with three blades from 900 to 1000 times per minute.</p> + +<p><i>Carding Engine.</i>—The functions of a card (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carding</a></span>) are: +to place the fibres parallel; to remove remaining impurities and +immature fibres; and to form mature fibres into a porous band, called +a sliver. A carding engine consists of three cylinders which are +covered with cards; the first, or taker-in (see fig. 5), is the smallest; +the second and largest is the main cylinder; and the third is the doffer. +If the main cylinder is surmounted with a series of small ones (as +at A), the engine is called a roller and clearer card. If a series of +fixed strips of card are placed above the main cylinder, the engine +is known as a stationary flat card. But if the strips move forward +(as at B), it is a revolving flat card. In a roller and clearer card the +small cylinders (E) are also covered with cards, but their teeth are +bent to oppose those on the main cylinder, and they revolve with +a different velocity. The taker-in is covered with saw teeth cut in +a strip of steel which is fixed in the surface of that cylinder; it receives +the cotton (I) from a feed-roller (C) that turns above a smooth +iron table (D) called the feed plate, and strikes out the heaviest +particles of remaining dirt. In passing through the fringe of lap, +the teeth comb the attached fibres but deliver the loose ones to the +main cylinder. The latter carries them into contact with the teeth +on the rollers (E), by whose lower surface velocity combing is again +effected. Short fibres become fixed amongst the teeth of (A) and +(E), but those lying crosswise are transferred from (A) to (E) and +from (E) to the clearer, which again presents them to the cylinder.</p> + +<p>When long fibres are turned to point in the direction of rotation +they advance upon the cylinder A to the doffer teeth, where the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span> +scattered fibres on the surface of A are collected into a light fleece. +In this condition they are stripped by a vibrating comb (F), drawn +together by a funnel, formed into a sliver, and deposited in a can (G). +This machine is now chiefly used to card waste and low-class cotton. +If such a card is made with two main cylinders, a connecting cylinder +called a tummer collects the fibres from the first and passes them on +to a second main cylinder, where they are again treated as already +described. In a stationary flat card the teeth in the flats are bent +to oppose those on the main cylinder, and by this means the fibres +are combed and straightened. In a revolving flat card the flats (H) +are formed into an endless chain, and they travel slowly in the same +direction as the cylinder. In other respects both flat cards are +similar to a roller and clearer card. Formerly double carding, namely, +two passages of the fibres through separate cards, or one passage +through a double card, was general, but single carding is now employed +for most purposes.</p> + +<p><i>Combing.</i>—For counts from 60s upward, and for exceptionally +good yarn of lower counts, from 14 to 20 cans from the carding +engine are taken to a <i>sliver lap machine</i> +where the slivers are drawn alongside +each other, passed between three pairs +of drawing rollers and two pairs of +calender rollers, and formed into laps +that vary in width from 7½ in. to 12 in. +This machine is provided with mechanical +devices for stopping it on the failure +of a sliver, and on the completion of a +predetermined length of lap. When the +sliver lap machine furnishes laps for the +comber, the slivers are previously put +through one head of drawing, namely, +between four lines of drawing rollers, +to straighten out the fibres. The more +general practice is to pass sliver laps to +a <i>ribbon lap machine</i>, at the back of which +six laps are placed, end facing end, in one +long line and simultaneously unrolled +to feed each web between four pairs of +drawing rollers. From the rollers the +cotton passes in separate films over +curved plates to a smooth table where +one is superposed upon another, and +in the combined state it is led between +two pairs of calender rollers and formed +into a lap from 7½ to 10½ in. wide. In +the cotton industry the <i>Heilmann +comber</i>, or some modification of that +machine, is used to straighten thoroughly the fibres of carded +cotton, to cast out all below a certain length, and leave only those +that are perfectly clean and approximate to uniformity in length. +For fine yarns of medium quality only part of the slivers required +to form a thread are combed. But for fine yarns of good quality +all slivers are once combed, and those for superfine yarns are twice, +or “double combed.” This machine is made with six or eight heads, +each of which is supplied with a ribbon lap. One end of every lap is +fed by a pair of rollers between the open jaws of a nipper which +immediately closes upon the sheet of cotton, but a fringe is left +protruding into the path of a cylinder, on whose periphery either +one set of 17, or two sets of 13, graduated needle combs, and one, or +two, fluted segments are secured. The first comb to reach the cotton +may have as few as 16, and the last 90 teeth per inch. After the +combs have passed successively through the overhanging fringe of +fibres, the nipper opens and a fresh length of about <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> to <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span> of an inch +is fed in. Meanwhile, a fluted segment on the cylinder has moved +up to support the fringe; a top comb, which was inoperative when +the cylinder combs were acting, has descended into the fringe, and +three rollers first return a portion of the material already combed +so that it may overlap that last treated. The rollers then reverse +the direction of their rotation; one of them and the segment engage +the fringe, and draw the tail ends of all free fibres through the teeth +of the top comb. The product of all the heads is next united, condensed, +formed into a continuous sliver, and deposited in a can. +One cycle of movements, therefore, only combs from <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> to <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span> of an +inch of each fibre; the top comb deals with the tail ends, and the +major portion of the work is done by the cylinder combs. The foregoing +operations are repeated at the rate of from 85 to 90 times per +minute, during which from 15% to upwards of 25% of carded +material is removed; but this is capable of being spun into coarse +yarns. A comber invented by John W. Nasmith is a modification +of the foregoing. In his machine the cylinder combs act upon the +forward ends of the fibres whilst under the control of the nipper, +after which two pairs of rollers return a sufficient portion of the +previously combed film to overlap, and to enable the front rollers +to engage the fringe. The rollers then draw a part of the fringe +through the teeth of the top comb, which, as a sequence, treats all +but the forward ends of the fibres. Since one passage through the +cylinder and top combs completes the operation for one set of fibres, +this machine gives a higher production; it also gives a wider range +of adaptability, and a lower percentage of waste than the Heilmann +machine.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:755px; height:717px" src="images/img304.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>The Drawing Frame.</i>—For fine counts the slivers from the comber, +and for low or medium counts those from the card, are passed to the +drawing frame, because in both conditions the material is irregularly +distributed throughout the several slivers, and it is the function +of the drawing frame to eliminate all such irregularities by drawing +several slivers down to the dimensions of one, for here the processes +of combination and attenuation are carried further than in any other +machine. A drawing frame consists of three or four heads, +each of four pairs of drawing rollers (A, B, fig. 6). The lower rollers +(B) are fluted longitudinally and the upper ones (A) are covered +with leather, and weighted as at (H) to give the two a proper hold +of the cotton. Each head contains several deliveries. Six or eight +slivers (C) are put up to each delivery and drawn down into one by +causing succeeding lines of rollers (A, B) to move at an accelerated +speed; the front one revolving about six or eight times faster than +the back one. On leaving the front roller the sliver is conducted +to a trumpet-shaped tube (D), thence between a pair of calender +rollers (E), and, finally, through a diagonal passage in a plate (F); +the latter coils the sliver into a rotating can (G). Back and front +devices are provided to arrest motion in this machine when a sliver +fails. At the back, each sliver passes over and depresses a separate +spoon-shaped lever (I), thereby lifting the hooked lower end of (I) +high enough to allow an arm (J) to vibrate. On the failure of a sliver +the hook of (I) engages with (J) and dislocates the driving gear. In +front, the trumpet-shaped tube (D) is mounted on a lever (K), and +so long as a sliver presses down the mouth of (D), the machine continues +in motion, but when a sliver fails, the lever (K) causes the +driving gear to stop the machine. Six or eight cans containing once +drawn slivers are put up to the second head and similarly drawn, +and finally, a similar number of twice drawn slivers are fed into the +third head and again drawn, giving in all 6 × 6 × 6 = 216 doublings; +or 8 × 8 × 8 = 512 doublings. Occasionally four heads of drawings +are used and eight slivers drawn into one, which gives 8 × 8 × 8 × 8 = 4096 +doublings; hence, irregularities in an original sliver have been +minimized by successive combination and attenuation.</p> + +<p><i>Flyer Frames.</i>—Cotton in cans, from the final head of drawing, is +transferred to the <i>slubbing frame</i>, by which it is attenuated, slightly +twisted, and wound upon spools. Each sliver is drawn out by means +of three pairs of rollers, and as it emerges from the front pair, a +flyer (A, fig. 7), which revolves uniformly upon a spindle (B), carries +the sliver (C) round with it to twist the fibres axially. This flyer +coils the twisted material upon a wooden tube (D) in close-wound +spirals and in successive layers. The tube is loosely mounted upon, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>305</span> +but driven independently of, the spindle, in order that as the tube +increases in diameter the number of revolutions it makes may be +reduced to suit the constant delivery of the roving. This is effected +by a differential motion which usually consists of a large wheel, +within which two other wheels are made to work; the interior wheels +have a regular motion, but the large wheel is driven from a pair of +cone drums at a decreasing speed.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:209px; height:636px" src="images/img305a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>The intermediate frame</i> comes between the slubbing and roving +frames and is of similar construction to the slubber, but has a larger +number of spindles and smaller tubes. +Instead of having cans put at the +back, the slubbing tubes are mounted +vertically in a creel, passed in pairs +through the rollers, and drawn down +to a smaller diameter than a single +slubbing. In this machine, therefore, +the fourfold processes of combination, +attenuation, twisting and +winding are effected consecutively and +continuously.</p> + +<p><i>The roving frame</i> is similar in +principle to the slubber and intermediate +machines, but it contains a +greater number of spindles, and the +tubes are smaller than either. It +receives the rovings from the intermediate +frame, draws two into one, +twists them and winds them upon +tubes. This machine is usually the +last employed to prepare cotton for +spinning, but for spinning fine yarns +from the best Egyptian and Sea +Islands cottons, a second roving, or +<i>Jack frame</i> may be required, in which +event pairs of rovings from the first +machine are similarly treated in the +second in order to render the final +product sufficiently fine for spinning +yarns of the requisite counts.</p> + +<p><i>Spinning</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spinning</a></span>).—Improvements +upon the Saxony wheel +caused continuous spinning to become +a mechanical art at an earlier date +than intermittent spinning. Arkwright’s +water-twist frame was gradually +changed to the <i>throstle</i>, which +was a duplex machine furnished with +one set of drawing rollers, and one set +of spindles and flyers at each side of +the frame-work. All the bosses of one +line of rollers were connected so that +one driving gear would serve for the +whole length, and all the spindles +were driven by bands from a central cylinder. The roving spools +were placed vertically in a creel between the two sets of rollers, +and the rovings reduced to the requisite fineness by the latter; +after which each was passed through a coiled eye at the lower +end of a flyer leg, and attached to a double-flanged spool which +was loosely mounted upon a spindle. At each revolution of a +flyer a twist was put into the attenuated roving, and the flyer +wrapped as much thread upon a spool as the rollers delivered. +The spools rested upon a piece of woollen cloth stretched over +a rail, and this rail rose and fell through a space equal to the +length of the spool barrel. On account of a thread having to pull +a spool round, it was not possible to spin finer counts than 60^s, +and since each flyer was mounted upon the top of an unsupported +spindle, vibration increased with speed. In order to avoid such +vibration Mr Danforth, in or about 1829, placed an inverted cup +upon the top of a stationary spindle, and upon the spindle a freely +fitting sleeve and wharve; the former to receive a spool, the latter +to rotate both. By a traverse motion all the spools were simultaneously +raised or depressed, so as to have their barrels, when at +the highest point, entirely within the cup, and when at the lowest +entirely below it. A thread passed from the drawing rollers, outside +the cup, to a spool. As a spool rotated its thread was uniformly +twisted, the lower edge of the cup built the yarn equally on every +part of the spool barrel, and the requisite drag resulted from friction +set up by the thread rubbing against the surface of the cup. The +throstle has almost disappeared from the cotton industry, and +Danforth’s cap frame entirely so, but the latter is still used to spin +worsted.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:347px; height:507px" src="images/img305b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 8.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Ring spinning</i> is practically the only system of continuous spinning +used in the cotton industry; it was first patented in the United +States of America by J. Thorpe, in 1828, and in that country was +extensively used long before it became established in England. +Its chief feature consists in the substitution for the flyer, or the cap, +of a smooth annular ring (A, fig. 8) formed with a flange at the upper +edge, over which a light C-shaped piece of wire (B), called a traveller, +is sprung. The rings are secured in a rail (C) that rises quickly and +falls slowly, but at each succeeding ascent and descent it attains +a higher point than that previously reached. A spindle (D) is supported +by, and turns in a bolster secured to a fixed rail (E). If the +bolster only provides a bearing for the centre of the spindle, and so +leaves the foot free to find its own position of steadiness, it is known +as a self-balancing or gravity spindle. A recess in the bolster is +filled with oil to automatically lubricate the bearing. A spindle is +placed in the centre of each ring; it has a sleeve fitted upon it which +carries a wharve (F) that covers the upper part of the bolster, and +a band from a pair of +drums is drawn round +the wharve to drive +the spindle. So perfect +is the construction +of these spindles +that they can be run +without appreciable +vibration at speeds +far beyond the ability +of operatives to attend +them; although +a speed of 11,000 revolutions +per minute +is a practicable one. +After passing the +drawing rollers (G), +the roving (H) is +twisted, hooked into +the traveller (B), and +made fast to a spool +(I) placed upon the +spindle. As spinning +proceeds the traveller +is pulled round the +ring by the thread; it +thus puts a drag +upon, and holds the +thread at the winding +point. In all continuous +spinning the +number of twists inserted +into a given +length of thread is +governed by the surface +speed of the front roller, relatively to the revolutions of the flyer, +or to the speed of the winding surface.</p> + +<p><i>Intermittent Spinning</i>.—The essential difference between continuous +and intermittent spinning is that the former draws and twists +consecutively, whilst the latter draws and twists simultaneously. +In the <i>mule</i>, a creel (A, fig. 9), fixed at the back of the machine, +is designed to hold the rovings (B) in three or four tiers, from whence +they pass between three lines of drawing rollers (C) and two faller +wires (D). They are next led to spindles (E) mounted in a carriage +(F) whose wheels run upon rails (G) called slips. As the rollers (C) +feed the partially attenuated rovings the carriage recedes from the +rollers a little faster than the rovings are delivered, thus completing +the attenuation. Meanwhile, the spindles are revolved rapidly by +bands passing from a tinned cylinder (H) and the threads are twisted. +This twist goes first to the thin places where least resistance is offered +to it, leaving thick places almost untwisted; the pull of the carriage, +therefore, causes the fibres to slip most readily where there are +fewest twists, and gives to a thread an approximation to uniformity +in diameter. For fine yarns the rollers cease to rotate slightly before +the carriage has attained the end of its outward run, or stretch, and +at such times all attenuation is due to the pull of the spindles upon +the threads. On the termination of a stretch the carriage stops, the +twisting is completed, the spindles reverse the direction of their +rotation to back off, or remove the yarn which is coiled round the +spindles above the winding point, and whilst one faller wire (D), +operating on all the threads at once, descends to the winding position +of each spindle, the other rises to take up the yarn delivered by the +spindles. This completed, the carriage returns to the roller beam, +and in doing so the spindles revolve in their normal direction to wind +the stretch of 48 to 66 in. of yarn spun in the outward journey. All +the foregoing movements are regulated to succeed each other in their +proper order, the termination of one operation being the initiation +of the next.</p> + +<p>Crompton’s original machine was controlled manually throughout, +but later he devised means for moving the carriage out mechanically, +for stopping the rollers at the proper time, and for locking the +carriage whilst the spindles added the final twist to the threads. +After which all parts became stationary and the manual operations +commenced. These consisted in backing off, operating the faller +wire, rotating the spindles and pushing the carriage home. In the +year 1785 the first steam-engine was employed for cotton spinning, +and in 1792 William Kelly placed the headstock of a mule, in which +the chief mechanism is situated, in the middle of the carriage, +instead of at one end. By this device one machine was doubled in +length, and shortly afterwards two mules, each of 300 to 400 spindles, +were allotted to one spinner and his assistants. Kelly also attempted +to control all parts of the machine mechanically, but in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span> +this he failed, as did Eaton, Smith and many others, although +each contributed something towards the solution of the problems involved +in automatic spinning. Eventually the hand mule became a +machine in which most of the work was done automatically; the +spinner being chiefly required to regulate the velocity of the backing +off, and the inward run of the carriage, and to actuate the fallers. +As a result of these alterations the machine was made almost double +the length of Kelly’s. In this state many mules continued to be +used until the last decade of the 19th century, and a few are still in +use. Between the years 1824 and 1830 Richard Roberts invented +mechanism that rendered all parts of the mule self-acting, the chief +parts of which are shown at (I, J), and they regulate the rotation +of the spindles during the inward run of the carriage. At first his +machine was only used to spin coarse and low-medium counts, +but it is now employed to spin all counts of yarn. Although numerous +changes have since been made in the self-acting mule, the +machine still bears indelible marks of the genius of Roberts.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:800px; height:360px" src="images/img306.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 9.</td></tr></table> + +<p>For many purposes the threads as spun by the ring frame or the +mule are ready for the manufacturer; but where extra strength or +smoothness is required, as in threads for sewing, crocheting, hosiery, +lace and carpets; also where multicoloured effects are needed, as in +Grandrelle, or some special form of irregularity, as in corkscrewed, +and knopped yarns, two or more single threads are compounded +and twisted together. This operation is known as doubling. In +order to prepare threads for doubling it may be necessary to wind +side by side upon a flanged bobbin, or upon a straight or a tapering +spool, from two to six threads before twisting them into one.</p> + +<p><i>Winding machines</i> for this purpose are of various kinds. There +are those in which the threads are laid evenly between the flanges +of a bobbin, and those that coil the threads upon a straight or a +tapering tube to form “cheeses.” In the latter the tubes may be +laid upon diagonally split drums and rotated by frictional contact. +By placing each group of threads to be wound in the slit of a rotating +drum, it is drawn quickly to and fro and coiled upon a spool. If +solid instead of split drums be used, the guides for all the threads +on one side of a machine are attached to a bar, which is traversed +by a cam placed at one end of the frame. Or independent mechanism +may be provided throughout for treating each group of threads +to be wound. The bobbins or tubes may be filled from cops, ring +spools or hanks, but a stop motion is required for each thread, +which will come into operation immediately a fracture occurs.</p> + +<p><i>Doublers</i>.—In action doublers are continuous and intermittent. +The former resemble throstle and ring spinning machines, but since +they do not attenuate the material, only one line of rollers is provided. +The folded material is placed in a creel and led through the +rollers to the spindles to be twisted in a wet or dry condition. If +wet, the moisture flattens down most of the protruding ends of the +fibres and produces a comparatively smooth thread; if dry, the +doubled yarn retains some of its furry character. There are two +types of continuous doublers, which are known respectively as +English and Scotch. By the English system of dry doubling the +yarn from the creel may be treated, on its way to the spindle, in +various ways to obtain the desired tension. It may be led under a +rod, over a guide, round and between the rollers, and round a glass +peg. For wet doubling, a trough containing water is placed behind +the rollers, and the yarn passes beneath a glass rod in the water, +thence over a guide, beneath, between and over the rollers to the +spindles. By the Scotch system the trough is placed below the +rollers, and the bottom roller is partly immersed in water. It is +claimed that this system wets the fibres more thoroughly than the +English one. For the purpose of twisting the strands together the +spindles may be provided either with flyers, as in throstle spinning, +or with rings and travellers, as in ring spinning. The twist is generally +in the opposite direction to that in the single threads. When +more than three strands are required in a compound thread it is +customary to pass the material more than once through the doubler, +as, for example, in a sixfold thread, two strands may be first twisted +together in the same or in the opposite direction to the spinning +twist; after which the once-doubled thread is “cleared,” folded, and +three strands of twofold yarn are twisted in the opposite direction +to that employed in the first operation. In some machines folding +and twisting proceed simultaneously, and some are furnished with +an automatic stop motion. But when twisting two threads together +to oppose the spinning twist, the failure of one causes the other to +untwist and break, therefore, under such circumstances a stop +motion is unnecessary.</p> + +<p>Intermittent doublers are known as twinners, and these are of +two kinds, namely, English and French. In the former the spindles +are fitted in a stationary rail, but the creel, containing the cops or +ring spools, is mounted upon a carriage and moves in and out, as in +Hargreaves’ spinning jenny (see <span class="sc">Spinning</span>). French twinners have a +stationary creel, and the spindles move in and out with the carriage, +as in the spinning mule. The material to be folded is often subjected +to the action of steam in order to render it less resilient, after which +it is mounted upon skewers in the creel, and two or three threads are +passed to each spindle to be twisted together and formed into a cop. +Between the creel and the spindles all the strands are kept equally +tense by drawing them over flannel-covered boards and under porcelain +weights. For wet doubling, the strands pass through a trough +containing water, and the flannel surfaces are also wet.</p> + +<p><i>Clearing</i>.—After the first, or the final, doubling it is often necessary +to remove lumps, imperfect knots and loose fibres from a thread. +This is accomplished by passing each through a slit, or clearer, whose +width is adjusted to the diameter of the thread to be treated. By +this means anything which gives a thread abnormal bulk will be +prevented from passing the slit. Once through the slit, a thread +is coiled upon a friction-driven, double or single-headed bobbin. +If the former, the coils are evenly laid; if the latter, they are disposed +into a bottle shape. Or, again, cheeses may be wound.</p> + +<p><i>Gassing</i>.—In cases where a thread with a smooth surface is required +the extending ends of fibres must be burned off. Thus: +each thread from a creel is drawn over a tension rod to two freely +mounted pulleys, having parallel grooves cut in their surfaces and +axes in the same horizontal plane. After bending a thread forward +and backward in the grooves of both pulleys, it passes through a +Bunsen flame and is coiled upon a tube, which is held against the +face of a rotating drum, while a vibrating guide distributes the thread +across the tube. The gas-burner is situated midway between the +grooved pulleys, and so mounted beneath the thread that it will +automatically swivel sideways and thus move the flame away from +a stationary thread. Winding begins slightly before the flame +moves beneath a thread, and the rapid motion of the latter permits +the flame to burn off undesirable matters without injuring the +thread.</p> + +<p><i>Reeling</i>.—Doubled or gassed yarn may be wound upon warpers’ +bobbins and made into warps for the loom, or it may be reeled into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span> +hanks for the preparing and finishing processes. But a reel hanks +yarns for bleaching, dyeing, printing, polishing and bundling, and +is adapted for cops, ring spools, doubling bobbins or cheeses. From +cops, ring spools and cheeses the yarn is usually drawn over one +end, but flanged bobbins are mounted upon spindles and the yarn is +drawn from the side. A reel has a circumference of 54 in., and after +making 80 or 560 revolutions it automatically stops; the first gives +a lea of 120 yds. and the last a hank of 840 yds. For grant reeling, +however, a hank may be from 5000 to 10,000 yds. long. Reeling is +of two kinds, namely, open and crossed. Open reeling forms <span class="correction" title="amended from leas">lease</span>, +and seven of these are united in one hank by a lease band which +retains the divisions. In cross reeling a thread is traversed over +a portion of the reel surface by a reciprocating guide to form a +hank without divisions. On the completion of a set of hanks +the reel is made to collapse and thus facilitate the removal of the +yarn.</p> + +<p><i>Bundling Press</i>.—Hanks are made into short or long bundles, +each weighing 5 or 10 ℔. In short bundles it is usual to form +groups of ten hanks, and these are twisted together, folded and +compressed into bundles; but in long bundles the hanks are compressed +without being folded. A press consists of a strong table upon +which a box, with open ends, is formed. The bottom of this box +is grooved transversely and made to rise and fall by wheel gearing +or by eccentrics. The sides and top are made of vertical and horizontal +bars, set to coincide with the grooves in the bottom. To +one set of vertical bars a similar number of horizontal top pieces are +hinged, and to the other set levers are jointed, which hold the horizontal +bars in position. When the hinged bars are turned up, strings +are drawn through the grooves, and the bottom is covered with stout +paper. The hanks are then laid in the box, another paper is placed +above them, and the hinged bars are drawn down and locked. The +bottom then rises a predetermined distance, and automatically +stops. While in this position the strings are tied, the bottom of +the press next descends, and the bundle is removed.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. W. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COTYS<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span>, a name common to several kings of Thrace. The most +important of them, a cruel and drunken tyrant, who began to +reign in 382 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was involved with the Athenians in a dispute +for the possession of the Thracian Chersonese. In this he was +assisted by the Athenian Iphicrates, to whom he had given his +daughter in marriage. On the revolt of Ariobarzanes from +Persia, Cotys opposed him and his ally, the Athenians. In +358 he was murdered by the sons of a man whom he had +wronged.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Cornelius Nepos, <i>Iphicrates</i>, <i>Timotheus</i>; Xenophon, <i>Agesilaus</i>; +Demosthenes, <i>Contra Aristocratem</i>; Theopompus in Müller, <i>Fragmenta +Historicorum Graecorum</i>, i.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUCH, DARIUS NASH<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1822-1897), American soldier, was +born at South East, Putnam county, N.Y., on the 23rd of July +1822, and graduated from West Point in 1846, serving in the +Mexican war and in the war against the Seminole Indians. He +left the army in 1855, but soon after the outbreak of the civil war +he was made a brigadier-general U.S.V. He served as a divisional +commander in the battles of the Army of the Potomac in 1862, +and at Fredericksburg (December 1862) and Chancellorsville +(May 1863) he commanded the II. corps. He had been made +a major-general U.S.V. in July 1862. During the Gettysburg +campaign he was employed in organizing the Pennsylvanian +militia, and he subsequently served in the West, taking part in the +battle of Nashville, and in the final operations in the Carolinas. +He left the army after the war. General Couch died on the 12th +of February 1897 at Norwalk, Connecticut.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUCY, LE CHÂTELAIN DE<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span>, French <i>trouvère</i> of the 12th +century. He is probably the Guy de Couci who was castellan of +the castle of that name from 1186 to 1203. Some twenty-six +songs are attributed to him, and about fifteen or sixteen are +undoubtedly authentic. They are modelled very closely on +Provençal originals, but are saved from the category of mere +imitations by a grace and simplicity peculiar to the author. +The legend of the love of the Châtelain de Coucy and the Lady +of Fayel, in which there figures a jealous husband who makes his +wife eat the heart of her lover, has no historical basis, and dates +from a late 13th century romance by Jakemon Sakesep. It is +worth noting that the story, which seems to be Breton in origin, +has been also told of a Provençal troubadour, Guilhem de Cabestaing, +and of the minnesinger Reinmar von Brennenberg. Pierre +de Belloy, who wrote some account of the family of Couci, made +the story the subject of his tragedy <i>Gabrielle de Vergy</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The songs of the Châtelain de Coucy were edited by Fritz Fath +(Heidelberg, 1883). For the romance see Gaston Paris, in the <i>Hist. +litt. de la France</i> (vol. 28, pp. 352-360). An exquisite song, “Chanterai +por mon courage,” expressing a woman’s regrets for her lover at the +Crusade, is attributed in one MS., probably erroneously, to the Lady +of Fayel (<i>Hist. litt.</i> xxiii. 556). An English metrical romance of +“The Knight of Curtesy,” and the “Fair Lady of Faguell,” was +printed by William Copland, and reprinted in Ritson’s <i>Eng. Metrical +Romances</i> (ed. E. Goldsmid, vol. iii., 1885).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 7, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 32294-h.htm or 32294-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/2/2/9/32294/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 5 + "Cosway" to "Coucy" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: May 8, 2010 [EBook #32294] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. When letters are subscripted, they are + preceded by an underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were originally printed in + superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + COTTINGTON: "He signed the surrender of Oxford in July 1646, and + being excepted from the indemnity retired abroad." 'indemnity' + amended from 'idemnity'. + + COTTON: "Also, inside the young bolls which had been pierced a + similar proliferation or growth of the tissue was set up ..." + 'proliferation' amended from 'poliferation'. + + COTTON: "Cotton Buying Company, which, constituted originally of + twenty to thirty limited cotton-spinning companies ..." 'thirty' + amended from 'thrity'. + + COTTON: "Though there are local rivalries there is nothing in + competitive division to compare with the northern and southern + sections in America ..." 'competitive' amended from 'cempetitive'. + + COTTON: "a good many small manufacturers exist who have little + capital and are practically financed by their agents or customers." + 'financed' amended from 'financied'. + + COTTON MANUFACTURE: "It is calculated by Professor Hasbach that the + daily wages of spinners are about 5/10 to 6/10 at Oldham ..." + '6/10' amended from '6/'. + + COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY: "Open reeling forms lease, and seven of + these are united in one hank by a lease band which retains the + divisions." 'lease' amended from 'leas'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME VII, SLICE V + + Cosway to Coucy + + + + +Articles in This Slice: + + + COSWAY, RICHARD COTTER + COTA DE MAGUAQUE, RODRIGO COTTESWOLD HILLS + COTE-D'OR COTTET, CHARLES + COTES, ROGER COTTII REGNUM + COTES-DU-NORD COTTIN, MARIE + COTGRAVE, RANDLE COTTINGTON, FRANCIS COTTINGTON + COTHEN COTTON (Anglo-Indian administrators) + COTMAN, JOHN SELL COTTON, CHARLES + COTONEASTER COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH + COTOPAXI COTTON, JOHN + COTRONE COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE + COTTA (German publishers) COTTON + COTTA, BERNHARD VON COTTON MANUFACTURE + COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY + COTTABUS COTYS + COTTBUS COUCH, DARIUS NASH + COTTENHAM, CHARLES PEPYS COUCY, LE CHATELAIN DE + + + + +COSWAY, RICHARD (c. 1742-1821), English miniature painter, was baptized +in 1742; his father was master of Blundell's school, Tiverton, where +Cosway was educated, and his uncle mayor of that town. He it was who, in +conjunction with the boy's godfather, persuaded the father to allow +Richard to proceed to London before he was twelve years old, to take +lessons in drawing, and undertook to support him there. On his arrival, +the youthful artist won the first prize given by the newly founded +Society of Arts, of the money value of five guineas. He went to Thomas +Hudson for his earliest instruction, but remained with him only a few +months, and then attended William Shipley's drawing class, where he +remained until he began to work on his own account in 1760. He was one +of the earliest members of the Royal Academy, Associate in 1770 and +Royal Academician in 1771. His success in miniature painting is said to +have been started by his clever portrait of Mrs Fitzherbert, which gave +great satisfaction to the prince of Wales, and brought Cosway his +earliest great patron. He speedily became one of the most popular +artists of the day, and his residence at Schomberg House, Pall Mall, was +a well-known aristocratic rendezvous. In 1791 he removed to Stratford +Place, where he lived in a state of great magnificence till 1821, when +after selling most of the treasures he had accumulated he went to reside +in Edgware Road. He died on the 4th of July 1821, when driving in a +carriage with his friend Miss Udney. He was buried in Marylebone New +church. + +He married in 1781 Maria Hadfield, who survived him many years, and died +in Italy in January 1838, in a school for girls which she had founded, +and which she had attached to an important religious order devoted to +the cause of female education, known as the Dame Inglesi. She had been +created a baroness of the Empire on account of her devotion to female +education by the emperor Francis I. in 1834. Her college still exists, +and in it are preserved many of the things which had belonged to her and +her husband. + +Cosway had one child who died young. She is the subject of one of his +most celebrated engravings. He painted miniatures of very many members +of the royal family, and of the leading persons who formed the court of +the prince regent. Perhaps his most beautiful work is his miniature of +Madame du Barry, painted in 1791, when that lady was residing in Bruton +Street, Berkeley Square. This portrait, together with many other +splendid works by Cosway, came into the collection of Mr J. Pierpont +Morgan. There are many miniatures by this artist in the royal collection +at Windsor Castle, at Belvoir Castle and in other important collections. +His work is of great charm and of remarkable purity, and he is certainly +the most brilliant miniature painter of the 18th century. + + For a full account of the artist and his wife, see _Richard Cosway, + R.A._, by G. C. Williamson (1905). (G. C. W.) + + + + +COTA DE MAGUAQUE, RODRIGO (d. c. 1498), Spanish poet, who flourished +towards the end of the 15th century, was born at Toledo. Little is known +of him save that he was of Jewish origin. The _Coplas de Mingo Revulgo_, +the _Coplas del Provincial_, and the first act of the _Celestina_ have +been ascribed to him on insufficient grounds. He is undoubtedly the +author of the _Dialogo entre el amor y un viejo_, a striking dramatic +poem first printed in the _Cancionero general_ of 1511, and of a +burlesque epithalamium written in 1472 or later. He abjured Judaism +about the year 1497, and is believed to have died shortly afterwards. + + See "Epithalame burlesque," edited by R. Foulche-Delbosc, in the + _Revue hispanique_ (Paris, 1894), i. 69-72; A. Bonilla y San Martin, + _Anales de la literatura espanola_ (Madrid, 1904), pp. 164-167. + + + + +COTE-D'OR, a department of eastern France, formed of the northern region +of the old province of Burgundy, bounded N. by the department of Aube, +N.E. by Haute-Marne, E. by Haute-Saone and Jura, S. by Saone-et-Loire, +and W. by Nievre and Yonne. Area, 3392 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 357,959. A +chain of hills named the Plateau de Langres runs from north-east to +south-west through the centre of the department, separating the basin of +the Seine from that of the Saone, and forming a connecting-link between +the Cevennes and the Vosges mountains. Extending southward from Dijon is +a portion of this range which, on account of the excellence of its +vineyards, bears the name of Cote-d'Or, whence that of the department. +The north-west portion of the department is occupied by the calcareous +and densely-wooded district of Chatillonais, the south-west by spurs of +the granitic chain of Morvan, while a wide plain traversed by the Saone +extends over the eastern region. The Chatillonais is watered by the +Seine, which there takes its rise, and by the Ource, both fed largely by +the _douix_ or abundant springs characteristic of Burgundy. The Armancon +and other affluents of the Yonne, and the Arroux, a tributary of the +Loire, water the south-west. + +The climate of Cote-d'Or is temperate and healthy; the rainfall is +abundant west of the central range, but moderate, and, in places, +scarce, in the eastern plain. Husbandry flourishes, the wealth of the +department lying chiefly in its vineyards, especially those of the +Cote-d'Or, which comprise the three main groups of Beaune, Nuits and +Dijon, the latter the least renowned of the three. The chief cereals are +wheat, oats and barley; potatoes, hops, beetroot, rape-seed, colza and a +small quantity of tobacco are also produced. Sheep and cattle-raising is +carried on chiefly in the western districts. The department has +anthracite mines and produces freestone, lime and cement. The +manufactures include iron, steel, nails, tools, machinery and other iron +goods, paper, earthenware, tiles and bricks, morocco leather goods, +biscuits and mustard, and there are flour-mills, distilleries, oil and +vinegar works and breweries. The imports of the department are +inconsiderable, coal alone being of any importance; there is an active +export trade in wine, brandy, cereals and live stock and in manufactured +goods. The Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway serves the department, its +main line passing through Dijon. The canal of Burgundy, connecting the +Saone with the Yonne, has a length of 94 m. in the department, while +that from the Marne to the Saone has a length of 24 m. + +Cote-d'Or is divided into the arrondissements of Dijon, Beaune, +Chatillon and Semur, with 36 cantons and 717 communes. It forms the +diocese of the bishop of Dijon, and part of the archiepiscopal province +of Lyons and of the 8th military region. Dijon is the seat of the +educational circumscription (_academie_) and court of appeal to which +the department is assigned. The more noteworthy places are Dijon, the +capital, Beaune, Chatillon, Semur, Auxonne, Flavigny and Citeaux, all +separately treated. St Jean de Losne, at the extremity of the Burgundy +canal, is famous for its brave and successful resistance in 1636 to an +immense force of Imperialists. Chateauneuf has a chateau of the 15th +century, St Seine-l'Abbaye, a fine Gothic abbey church, and Saulieu, a +Romanesque abbey church of the 11th century. The chateau of Bussy +Rabutin (at Bussy-le-Grand), founded in the 12th century, has an +interesting collection of pictures made by Roger de Rabutin, comte de +Bussy, who also rebuilt the chateau. Montbard, the birthplace of the +naturalist Buffon, has a keep of the 14th century and other remains of a +castle of the dukes of Burgundy. The remarkable Renaissance chapel +(1536) of Pagny-le-Chateau, belonging to the chateau destroyed in 1768, +contains the tomb of Jean de Vienne (d. 1455) and that of Jean de Longwy +(d. 1460) and Jeanne de Vienne (d. 1472), with alabaster effigies. At +Fontenay, near Marmagne, a paper-works occupies the buildings of a +well-preserved Cistercian abbey of the 12th century. At Vertault there +are remains of a theatre and other buildings marking the site of the +Gallo-Roman town of Vertilium. + + + + +COTES, ROGER (1682-1716), English mathematician and philosopher, was +born on the 10th of July 1682 at Burbage, Leicestershire, of which place +his father, the Rev. Robert Cotes, was rector. He was educated at +Leicester school, and afterward at St Paul's school, London. Proceeding +to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1699, he obtained a fellowship in +1705, and in the following year was appointed Plumian professor of +astronomy and experimental philosophy in the university of Cambridge. He +took orders in 1713; and the same year, at the request of Dr Richard +Bentley, he published the second edition of Newton's Principia with an +original preface. He died on the 5th of June 1716, leaving unfinished a +series of elaborate researches on optics, and a large amount of +unpublished manuscript. He contributed two memoirs to the _Philosophical +Transactions_, one, "Logometria," which discusses the calculation of +logarithms and certain applications of the infinitesimal calculus, the +other, a "Description of the great fiery meteor seen on March 6th, +1716." After his death his papers were collected and published by his +cousin and successor in the Plumian chair, Dr Robert Smith, under the +title _Harmonia Mensurarum_ (1722). This work included the "Logometria," +the trigonometrical theorem known as "Cotes' Theorem on the Circle" (see +TRIGONOMETRY), his theorem on harmonic means, subsequently developed by +Colin Maclaurin, and a discussion of the curves known as "Cotes' +Spirals," which occur as the path of a particle described under the +influence of a central force varying inversely as the cube of the +distance. In 1738 Dr Robert Smith published Cotes' _Hydrostatical and +Pneumatical Lectures_, a work which was held in great estimation. The +exceptional genius of Cotes earned encomiums from both his +contemporaries and successors; Sir Isaac Newton said, "If Mr Cotes had +lived, we should have known something." + + + + +COTES-DU-NORD, a maritime department of the north-west of France, formed +in 1790 from the northern part of the province of Brittany, and bounded +N. by the English Channel, E. by the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, S. +by Morbihan, and W. by Finistere. Pop. (1906) 611,506. Area, 2786 sq. m. +In general conformation, Cotes-du-Nord is an undulating plateau +including in its more southerly portion three well-marked ranges of +hills. A granitic chain, the Monts du Mene, starting in the south-east +of the department runs in a north-westerly direction, forming the +watershed between the rivers running respectively to the Channel and the +Atlantic Ocean. Towards its western extremity this chain bifurcates to +form the Montagnes Noires in the south-west and the Montagne d'Arree in +the west of the department. The rivers of the Channel slope are the +Rance, Arguenon, Gouessan, Gouet, Trieux, Treguier and Leguer, while the +Blavet, Meu, Oust and Aulne belong to the southern slope. Off the coast, +which is steep, rocky and much indented, are the Sept-Iles, Brehat and +other small islands. The principal bays are those of St Malo and St +Brieuc. + +The climate is mild and not subject to extremes; in the west it is +especially humid. Agriculture is more successful on the coast, where +seaweed can be used as a fertilizer, than in the interior. Cereals are +largely grown, wheat, oats and buck-wheat being the chief crops. +Potatoes, flax, mangels, apples, plums, cherries and honey are also +produced. Pasture and various kinds of forage are abundant, and there is +a large output of milk and butter. The horses of the department are in +repute. It produces slate, building-stone, lime and china-clay. +Flour-mills, saw-mills, sardine factories, tanneries, iron-works, +manufactories of polish, boat-building yards, and rope-works employ many +of the inhabitants, and cloth, agricultural implements and nails are +manufactured. The chief imports are coal, wood and salt. Exports include +agricultural products (eggs, butter, vegetables, &c.), horses, flax and +fish. The chief commercial ports are Le Legue and Paimpol; and Paimpol +also equips a large fleet for the Icelandic fisheries. The coast fishing +is important and large quantities of sardines are preserved. The +department is served by the Ouest-Etat railway; its chief waterway is +the canal from Nantes to Brest which traverses it for 73 m. + +Cotes-du-Nord is divided into the five arrondissements of St Brieuc, +Dinan, Guingamp, Lannion and Loudeac, which contain 48 cantons and 390 +communes. Bas Breton is spoken in the arrondissements of Guingamp and +Lannion, and in part of those of Loudeac and St Brieuc. The department +belongs to the ecclesiastical province, the academie (educational +division), and the appeal court of Rennes, and in the region of the X. +army corps. St Brieuc, Dinan, Guingamp, Lamballe, Paimpol and Treguier, +the more noteworthy towns, are separately treated. Extensive remains of +an abbey of the Premonstratensian order, dating chiefly from the 13th +century, exist at Kerity; and Lehon has remains of a priory, which dates +from the same period. The department is rich in interesting churches, +among which those of Ploubezre (12th, 14th and 16th centuries), +Perros-Guirec (12th century), Plestin-les-Greves (16th century) and +Lanleff (12th century) may be mentioned. The church of St Mathurin at +Moncontour, which is a celebrated place of pilgrimage, contains fine +stained glass of the 16th century, and the mural paintings of the chapel +of Kermaria-an-Isquit near Plouha, which belongs to the 13th and 14th +centuries, are celebrated. Near Lannion (pop. 5336), itself a +picturesque old town, is the ruined castle of Tonquedec, built in the +14th century and sometimes known as "the Pierrefonds of Brittany," owing +to its resemblance to the more famous castle. At Corseul are a temple +and other Roman remains. + + + + +COTGRAVE, RANDLE (?-1634), English lexicographer, came of a Cheshire +family, and was educated at Cambridge, entering St John's College in +1587. He became secretary to Lord Burghley, and in 1611 published his +French-English dictionary (2nd ed., 1632), a work of real historical +importance in lexicography, and still valuable in spite of such errors +as were due to contemporary want of exact scholarship. + + + + +COTHEN, or KOTHEN, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Anhalt on the +Ziethe, at the junction of several railway lines, 42 m. N.W. of Leipzig +by rail. Pop. (1905) 22,978. It consists of an old and a new town with +four suburbs. The former palace of the dukes of Anhalt-Cothen, in the +old town, has fine gardens and contains collections of pictures and +coins, the famous ornithological collection of Johann Friedrich Naumann +(1780-1857), and a library of some 20,000 volumes. Of the churches the +Lutheran Jakobskirche (called the cathedral), a Gothic building with +some fine old stained glass, is noteworthy. Besides the usual classical +and modern schools (Gymnasium and Realschule) Cothen possesses a +technical institute, a school of gardening and a school of forestry. The +industries include iron-founding and the manufacture of agricultural and +other machinery, malt, beet-root sugar, leather, spirits, &c.; a +tolerably active trade is carried on in grain, wool, potatoes and +vegetables. Among others, there is a monument to Sebastian Bach, who was +music director here from 1717 to 1723. + +In the 10th century Cothen was a Slav settlement, which was captured and +destroyed by the German king Henry I. in 927. By the 12th century it had +secured town rights and become a considerable centre of trade in +agricultural produce. In 1300 it was burned by the margrave of Meissen. +In 1547 the town was taken from its prince, Wolfgang (a cadet of the +house of Anhalt), who had joined the league of Schmalkalden, and given +by the emperor Charles V., with the rest of the prince's possessions, to +the Spanish general and painter, Felipe Ladron y Guevara (1510-1563), +from whom it was, however, soon repurchased. Hahnemann, the founder of +homoeopathy, lived and worked in Cothen. From 1603 to 1847 Cothen was +the capital of the principality, later duchy, of Anhalt-Cothen. + + + + +COTMAN, JOHN SELL (1782-1842), English landscape-painter and etcher, son +of a well-to-do silk mercer, was born at Norwich on the 16th of May +1782. He showed a talent for art and was sent to London to study, where +he became the friend of Turner, T. Girtin and other artists. He first +exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1800. In 1807 he went back to Norwich +and joined the Norwich Society of Artists, of which in 1811 he became +president. In 1825 he was made an associate of the Society of Painters +in Water-colours; in 1834 he was appointed drawing-master at King's +College, London; and in 1836 he was elected a member of the Institute of +British Architects. He died in London on the 24th of July 1842. Cotman's +work was not considered of much importance in his own day, and his +pictures only procured small prices; but he now ranks as one of the +great figures of the Norwich school. He was a fine draughtsman, and a +remarkable painter both in oil and water-colour. One of his paintings is +in the National Gallery. His fine architectural etchings, published in a +series of volumes, the result of tours in Norfolk and Normandy, are +valuable records of his interest in archaeology. He married early in +life, and had five children, his sons, Miles Edmund (1810-1858) and +Joseph John (1814-1878), both becoming landscape-painters of merit; and +his younger brother Henry's son, Frederic George Cotman (b. 1850), the +water-colour artist, continued the family reputation. + + + + +COTONEASTER, a genus of the rose family (Rosaceae), containing about +twenty species of shrubs and small trees, natives of Europe, North +Africa and temperate Asia. C. _vulgaris_ is native on the limestone +cliffs of the Great Orme in North Wales. Several species are grown in +shrubberies and borders, or as wall plants, mainly for their clusters of +bright red or yellow berry-like fruits. Plants are easily raised by +seeds, cuttings or layers, and grow well in ordinary soil. + + + + +COTOPAXI, a mountain of the Andes, in Ecuador, South America, 35 m. +S.S.E. of Quito, remarkable as the loftiest active volcano in the world. +The earliest outbursts on record took place in 1532 and 1533; and since +then the eruptions have been both numerous and destructive. Among the +most important are those of 1744, 1746, 1766, 1768 and 1803. In 1744 the +thunderings of the volcano were heard at Honda on the Rio Magdalena, +about 500 m. distant; in 1768 the quantity of ashes ejected was so great +that it covered all the lesser vegetation as far as Riobamba; and in +1803 Humboldt reports that at the port of Guayaquil, 160 m. from the +crater, he heard the noise day and night like continued discharges of a +battery. There were considerable outbursts in 1851, 1855, 1856, 1864 and +1877. In 1802 Humboldt made a vain attempt to scale the cone, and +pronounced the enterprise impossible; and the failure of Jean Baptiste +Boussingault in 1831, and the double failure of M. Wagner in 1858, +seemed to confirm his opinion. In 1872, however, Dr Wilhelm Reiss +succeeded on the 27th and 28th of November in reaching the top; in the +May of the following year the same feat was accomplished by Dr A. +Stubel, and he was followed by T. Wolf in 1877, M. von Thielmann in 1878 +and Edward Whymper in 1880. + +Cotopaxi is frequently described as one of the most beautiful mountain +masses of the world, rivalling the celebrated Fujiyama of Japan in its +symmetry of outline, but overtopping it by more than 7000 ft. It is more +than 15,000 ft. higher than Vesuvius, over 7000 ft. higher than +Teneriffe, and nearly 2000 ft. higher than Popocatepetl. Its slope, +according to Orton, is 30 deg., according to Wagner 29 deg., the +north-western side being slightly steeper than the south-eastern. The +apical angle is 122 deg. 30'. The snowfall is heavier on the eastern +side of the cone which is permanently covered, while the western side is +usually left bare, a phenomenon occasioned by the action of the moist +trade winds from the Atlantic. Its height according to Whymper is 19,613 +ft., and its crater is 2300 ft. in diameter from N. to S., 1650 ft. from +E. to W., and has an approximate depth of 1200 ft. It is bordered by a +rim of trachytic rock, forming a black coronet above the greyish +volcanic dust and sand which covers its sides to a great depth. Whymper +found snow and ice under this sand. On the southern slope, at a height +of 15,059 ft., is a bare cone of porphyritic andesite called _El +Picacho_, "the beak," or _Cabeza del Inca_, "the Inca's head," with dark +cliffs rising fully 1000 ft., which according to tradition is the +original summit of the volcano blown off at the first-known eruption of +1532. The summit of Cotopaxi is usually enveloped in clouds; and even in +the clearest month of the year it is rarely visible for more than eight +or ten days. Its eruptions produce enormous quantities of pumice, and +deep layers of mud, volcanic sand and pumice surround it on the plateau. +Of the air currents about and above Cotopaxi, Wagner says (_Naturw. +Reisen im trop. Amerika_, p. 514): "On the Tacunga Plateau, at a height +of 8000 Paris feet, the prevailing direction of the wind is meridional, +usually from the south in the morning, and frequently from the north in +the evening; but over the summit of Cotopaxi, at a height of 18,000 ft., +the north-west wind always prevails throughout the day. The +gradually-widening volcanic cloud continually takes a south-eastern +direction over the rim of the crater; at a height, however, of about +21,000 ft. it suddenly turns to the north-west, and maintains that +direction till it reaches a height of at least 28,000 ft. There are thus +from the foot of the volcano to the highest level attained by its +smoke-cloud three quite distinct regular currents of wind." + + + + +COTRONE (anc. _Croto, Crotona_), a seaport and episcopal see on the E. +coast of Calabria, Italy, in the province of Catanzaro, 37 m. E.N.E. of +Catanzaro Marina by rail, 143 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, +7917; commune, 9545. It has a castle erected by the emperor Charles V. +and a small harbour, which even in ancient times was not good, but +important as the only one between Taranto and Reggio. It exports a +considerable quantity of oranges, olives and liquorice. + + + + +COTTA, the name of a family of German publishers, intimately connected +with the history of German literature. The Cottas were of noble Italian +descent, and at the time of the Reformation the family was settled in +Eisenach in Thuringia. + +JOHANN GEORG COTTA (1) (1631-1692), the founder of the publishing house +of J. G. Cotta, married in 1659 the widow of the university bookseller, +Philipp Braun, in Tubingen, and took over the management of his +business, thus establishing the firm which was subsequently associated +with Cotta's name. On his death, in 1692, the undertaking passed to his +only son, Johann Georg (2); and on his death in 1712, to the latter's +eldest son, also named Johann Georg (3), while the second son, Johann +Friedrich (see below), became the distinguished theologian. + +Although the eldest son of Johann Georg (3), Christoph Friedrich Cotta +(1730-1807), established a printing-house to the court at Stuttgart, the +business languished, and it was reserved to his youngest son, JOHANN +FRIEDRICH, FREIHERR COTTA VON COTTENDORF (1764-1832), who was born at +Stuttgart on the 27th of April 1764, to restore the fortunes of the +firm. He attended the gymnasium of his native place, and was originally +intended to study theology. He, however, entered the university of +Tubingen as a student of mathematics and law, and after graduating spent +a considerable time in Paris, studying French and natural science, and +mixing with distinguished literary men. After practising as an advocate +in one of the higher courts, Cotta, in compliance with his father's +earnest desire, took over the publishing business at Tubingen. He began +in December 1787, and laboured incessantly to acquire familiarity with +all the details. The house connexions rapidly extended; and, in 1794, +the _Allgemeine Zeitung_, of which Schiller was to be editor, was +planned. Schiller was compelled to withdraw on account of his health; +but his friendship with Cotta deepened every year, and was a great +advantage to the poet and his family. Cotta awakened in Schiller so warm +an attachment that, as Heinrich Doring tells us in his life of Schiller +(1824), when a bookseller offered him a higher price than Cotta for the +copyright of _Wallenstein_, the poet firmly declined it, replying "Cotta +deals honestly with me, and I with him." In 1795 Schiller and Cotta +founded the _Horen_, a periodical very important to the student of +German literature. The poet intended, by means of this work, to infuse +higher ideas into the common lives of men, by giving them a nobler human +culture, and "to reunite the divided political world under the banner of +truth and beauty." The _Horen_ brought Goethe and Schiller into intimate +relations with each other and with Cotta; and Goethe, while regretting +that he had already promised _Wilhelm Meister_ to another publisher, +contributed the _Unterhaltung deutscher Ausgewanderten_, the _Roman +Elegies_ and a paper on Literary Sansculottism. Fichte sent essays from +the first, and the other brilliant German authors of the time were also +represented. In 1798 the _Allgemeine Zeitung_ appeared at Tubingen, +being edited first by Posselt and then by Huber. Soon the editorial +office of the newspaper was transferred to Stuttgart, in 1803 to Ulm, +and in 1810 to Augsburg; it is now in Munich. In 1799 Cotta entered on +his political career, being sent to Paris by the Wurttemberg estates as +their representative. Here he made friendships which proved very +advantageous for the _Allgemeine Zeitung_. In 1801 he paid another visit +to Paris, also in a political capacity, when he carefully studied +Napoleon's policy, and treasured up many hints which were useful to him +in his literary undertakings. He still, however, devoted most of his +attention to his own business, and, for many years, made all the entries +into the ledger with his own hand. He relieved the tedium of almost +ceaseless toil by pleasant intercourse with literary men. With Schiller, +Huber, and Gottlieb Konrad Pfeffel (1736-1809) he was on terms of the +warmest friendship; and he was also intimate with Herder, Schelling, +Fichte, Richter, Voss, Hebel, Tieck, Therese Huber, Matthisson, the +brothers Humboldt, Johann Muller, Spittler and others, whose works he +published in whole or in part. In the correspondence of Alexander von +Humboldt with Varnhagen von Ense we see the familiar relations in which +the former stood to the Cotta family. In 1795 he published the +_Politischen Annalen_ and the _Jahrbucher der Baukunde_, and in 1798 the +_Damenalmanach_, along with some works of less importance. In 1807 he +issued the _Morgenblatt_, to which Schorn's _Kunstblatt_ and Menzel's +_Literaturblatt_ were afterwards added. In 1810 he removed to Stuttgart; +and from that time till his death he was loaded with honours. State +affairs and an honourable commission from the German booksellers took +him to the Vienna congress; and in 1815 he was deputy-elect at the +Wurttemberg diet. In 1819 he became representative of the nobility; then +he succeeded to the offices of member of committee and (1824) +vice-president of the Wurttemberg second chamber. He was also appointed +Prussian _Geheimrat_, and knight of the order of the Wurttemberg crown; +King William I. of Wurttemberg having already revived the ancient +nobility in his family by granting him the patent of Freiherr (Baron) +Cotta von Cottendorf. Meanwhile such publications as the _Polytechnische +Journal_, the _Hesperus_, the _Wurttembergische Jahrbucher_, the +_Hertha_, the _Ausland_, and the _Inland_ issued from the press. In +1828-1829 appeared the famous correspondence between Schiller and +Goethe. Cotta was an unfailing friend of young struggling men of talent. +In addition to his high standing as a publisher, he was a man of great +practical energy, which flowed into various fields of activity. He was a +scientific agriculturist, and promoted many reforms in farming. He was +the first Wurttemberg landholder to abolish serfdom on his estates. In +politics he was throughout his life a moderate liberal. In 1824 he set +up a steam printing press in Augsburg, and, about the same time, founded +a literary institute at Munich. In 1825 he started steamboats, for the +first time, on Lake Constance, and introduced them in the following year +on the Rhine. In 1828 he was sent to Berlin, on an important commission, +by Bavaria and Wurttemberg, and was there rewarded with orders of +distinction at the hands of the three kings. He died on the 29th of +December 1832 leaving a son and a daughter as coheirs. + +His son, JOHANN GEORG (4), FREIHERR COTTA VON COTTENDORF (1796-1863), +succeeded to the management of the business on the death of his father, +and was materially assisted by his sister's husband, Freiherr Hermann +von Reischach. He greatly extended the connexions of the firm by the +purchase, in 1839, of the publishing business of G. J. Goschen in +Leipzig, and in 1845 of that of Vogel in Landshut; while, in 1845, +"Bible" branches were established at Stuttgart and Munich. He was +succeeded by his younger son, Karl, and by his nephew (the son of his +sister), Hermann Albert von Reischach. Under their joint partnership, +the before-mentioned firms in Leipzig and Landshut, and an artistic +establishment in Munich passed into other hands, leaving on the death of +Hermann Albert von Reischach, in 1876, Karl von Cotta the sole +representative of the firm, until his death in 1888. In 1889 the firm of +J. G. Cotta passed by purchase into the hands of Adolf and Paul Kroner, +who took others into partnership. In 1899 the business was converted +into a limited liability company. + + See Albert Schaffle, _Cotta_ (1895); _Verlags-Katalog der J. G. + Cotta'schen Buchhandlung, Nachfolger_ (1900); and Lord Goschen's _Life + and Times of G. J. Goschen_ (1903). + +JOHANN FRIEDRICH COTTA (1701-1779), the theologian, was born on the 12th +of March 1701, the son of Johann Georg Cotta (2). After studying +theology at Tubingen he began his public career as lecturer in Jena +University. He then travelled in Germany, France and Holland, and, after +residing several years in London, became professor at Tubingen in 1733. +In 1736 he removed to the chair of theology in the university of +Gottingen, which had been instituted as a seat of learning, two years +before, by George II. of England, in his capacity as elector of Hanover. +In 1739, however, he returned, as extraordinary professor of theology, +to his Alma Mater, and, after successively filling the chairs of +history, poetry and oratory, was appointed ordinary professor of +theology in 1741. Finally he died, as chancellor of Tubingen University, +on the 31st of December 1779. His learning was at once wide and +accurate; his theological views were orthodox, although he did not +believe in strict verbal inspiration. He was a voluminous writer. His +chief works are his edition of Johann Gerhard's _Loci Theologici_ +(1762-1777), and the _Kirchenhistorie des Neuen Testaments_ (1768-1773). + + + + +COTTA, BERNHARD VON (1808-1879), German geologist, was born in a +forester's lodge near Eisenach, on the 24th of October 1808. He was +educated at Freiberg and Heidelberg and from 1842 to 1874 he held the +professorship of geology in the Bergakademie of Freiberg. Botany at +first attracted him, and he was one of the earliest to use the +microscope in determining the structure of fossil plants. Later on he +gave his attention to practical geology, to the study of ore-deposits, +of rocks and metamorphism; and he was regarded as an excellent teacher. +His _Rocks classified and described: a Treatise on Lithology_ +(translated by P. H. Lawrence, 1866) was the first comprehensive work on +the subject issued in the English language, and it gave great impetus to +the study of rocks in Britain. He died at Freiberg on the 14th of +September 1879. + + PUBLICATIONS.--_Geognostische Wanderungen_ (1836-1838); _Grundriss der + Geognosie und Geologie_ (1846); _Geologische Briefe aus den Alpen_ + (1850); _Praktische Geologie_ (1852); _Geologische Bilder_ (1852, ed. + 4, 1861); _Die Gesteinslehre_ (1855, ed. 2, 1862). + + + + +COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS (c. 124-73 B.C.), Roman statesman and orator. In +92 he defended his uncle P. Rutilius Rufus, who had been unjustly +accused of extortion in Asia. He was on intimate terms with the tribune +M. Livius Drusus, who was murdered in 91, and in the same year was an +unsuccessful candidate for the tribunate. Shortly afterwards he was +prosecuted under the _lex Varia_, directed against all who had in any +way supported the Italians against Rome, and, in order to avoid +condemnation, went into voluntary exile. He did not return till 82, +during the dictatorship of Sulla. In 75 he was consul, and excited the +hostility of the optimates by carrying a law that abolished the Sullan +disqualification of the tribunes from holding higher magistracies; +another law _de judiciis privatis_, of which nothing is known, was +abrogated by his brother. In 74 Cotta obtained the province of Gaul, and +was granted a triumph for some victory of which we possess no details; +but on the very day before its celebration an old wound broke out, and +he died suddenly. According to Cicero, P. Sulpicius Rufus and Cotta were +the best speakers of the young men of their time. Physically incapable +of rising to passionate heights of oratory, Cotta's successes were +chiefly due to his searching investigation of facts; he kept strictly to +the essentials of the case and avoided all irrelevant digressions. His +style was pure and simple. He is introduced by Cicero as an interlocutor +in the _De oratore_ and _De natura deorum_ (iii.), as a supporter of the +principles of the New Academy. The fragments of Sallust contain the +substance of a speech delivered by Cotta in order to calm the popular +anger at a deficient corn-supply. + + See Cicero, _De oratore_, iii. 3, _Brutus_, 49, 55, 90, 92; Sallust, + _Hist. Frag._; Appian, _Bell. Civ._ i. 37. + +His brother, LUCIUS AURELIUS COTTA, when praetor in 70 B.C. brought in a +law for the reform of the jury lists, by which the judices were to be +eligible, not from the senators exclusively as limited by Sulla, but +from senators, equites and _tribuni aerarii_. One-third were to be +senators, and two-thirds men of equestrian census, one-half of whom must +have been _tribuni aerarii_, a body as to whose functions there is no +certain evidence, although in Cicero's time they were reckoned by +courtesy amongst the equites. In 66 Cotta and L. Manlius Torquatus +accused the consuls-elect for the following year of bribery in connexion +with the elections; they were condemned, and Cotta and Torquatus chosen +in their places. After the suppression of the Catilinarian conspiracy, +Cotta proposed a public thanksgiving for Cicero's services, and after +the latter had gone into exile, supported the view that there was no +need of a law for his recall, since the law of Clodius was legally +worthless. He subsequently attached himself to Caesar, and it was +currently reported that Cotta (who was then quindecimvir) intended to +propose that Caesar should receive the title of king, it being written +in the books of fate that the Parthians could only be defeated by a +king. Cotta's intention was not carried out in consequence of the murder +of Caesar, after which he retired from public life. + + See Cicero, Orelli's _Onomasticon_; Sallust, _Catiline_, 18; + Suetonius, _Caesar_, 79; Livy, _Epit._ 97; Vell. Pat. ii. 32; Dio + Cassius xxxvi. 44, xxxvii. 1. + + + + +COTTABUS (Gr. [Greek: kottabos]), a game of skill for a long time in +great vogue at ancient Greek drinking parties, especially in the 4th and +5th centuries B.C. It is frequently alluded to by the classical writers +of the period, and not seldom depicted on ancient vases. The object of +the player was to cast a portion of wine left in his drinking cup in +such a way that, without breaking bulk in its passage through the air, +it should reach a certain object set up as a mark, and there produce a +distinct noise by its impact. Both the wine thrown and the noise made +were called [Greek: latax]. The thrower, in the ordinary form of the +game, was expected to retain the recumbent position that was usual at +table, and, in flinging the cottabus, to make use of his right hand +only. To succeed in the aim no small amount of dexterity was required, +and unusual ability in the game was rated as high as corresponding +excellence in throwing the javelin. Not only was the cottabus the +ordinary accompaniment of the festal assembly, but at least in Sicily a +special building of a circular form was sometimes erected so that the +players might be easily arranged round the basin, and follow each other +in rapid succession. Like all games in which the element of chance found +a place, it was regarded as more or less ominous of the future success +of the players, especially in matters of love; and the excitement was +sometimes further augmented by some object of value being staked on the +event. + +Various modifications of the original principle of the game were +gradually introduced, but for practical purposes we may reckon two +varieties, (1) In the [Greek: Kottabos di oxybaphon] shallow saucers +([Greek: oxybapha]) were floated in a basin or mixing-bowl filled with +water; the object was to sink the saucers by throwing the wine into +them, and the competitor who sank the greatest number was considered +victorious, and received the prize, which consisted of cakes or +sweetmeats. (2) [Greek: Kottabos kataktos][1] is not so easy to +understand, although there is little doubt as to the apparatus. This +consisted of a [Greek: rhabdos] or bronze rod; a [Greek: plastinx], a +small disk or basin, resembling a scale-pan; a larger disk ([Greek: +lekanis]); and (in most cases) a small bronze figure called [Greek: +manes]. The discovery (by Professor Helbig in 1886) of two sets of +actual apparatus near Perugia and various representations on vases help +to elucidate the somewhat obscure accounts of the method of playing the +game contained in the scholia and certain ancient authors who, it must +not be forgotten, wrote at a time when the game itself had become +obsolete, and cannot therefore be looked to for a trustworthy +description of it. + +The first specimen of the apparatus found at Perugia resembles a +candelabrum on a base, tapering towards the top, with a blunt end, on +which the small disk (found near the rod), which has a hole near the +edge and is slightly hollow in the middle, could be balanced. At about a +third of the height of the rod is a large disk with a hole in the centre +through which the rod runs; in a socket at the top is a small bronze +figure, with right arm and right leg uplifted. In the second specimen +there is no large disk, and the figure is holding up what is apparently +a rhyton or drinking-horn. + +According to Prof. Helbig in _Mittheilungen des deutschen +archaologischen Instituts_ (Romische Abtheilung i., 1886) three games +were played with this apparatus. In the first the smaller disk was +placed on the top of the rod, and the object of the player was to +dislodge it with a cast of the wine, so that it would fall with a +clatter on the larger disk below. In the second (as in the third) the +bronze figure was used; the smaller disk was placed above the figure, +upon which it fell when hit, and thence on to the larger disk below. In +the third, there was no smaller disk; the wine was thrown at the figure, +and fell on to the larger disk underneath. Another supposed variety, in +which two scales were balanced in such a manner that the weight of the +liquid cast into either scale caused it to dip down and touch the top of +an image placed under each, probably had no real existence, but is due +to a confusion of the [Greek: plastinx] with a scale-pan by reason of +its shape. The game appears to have been of Sicilian origin, but it +spread through Greece from Thessaly to Rhodes, and was especially +fashionable at Athens. Dionysius, Alcaeus, Anacreon, Pindar, +Bacchylides, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Antiphanes, +make frequent and familiar allusion to the [Greek: kottabos]; but in the +writers of the Roman and Alexandrian period such reference as occurs +shows that the fashion had died out. In Latin literature it is almost +entirely unknown. + + The most complete treatise on the subject is C. Sartori's _Das + Kottabos-Spiel der alten Griechen_ (1893), in which a full + bibliography of ancient and modern authorities is given. English + readers may be referred to an article by A. Higgins on "Recent + Discoveries of the Apparatus used in playing the Game of Kottabos" + (_Archaeologia_, li. 1888); see also "Kottabos" in Daremberg and + Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_, and L. Becq de Fouquieres, + _Les Jeux des anciens_ (1873). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The epithet [Greek: kataktos] (let down) may refer to + the rod, which might be raised or lowered as required; to the lower + disk, which might be moved up and down the stem; to the moving up and + down of the scales, in the supposed variety of the game mentioned + below. + + + + +COTTBUS, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Spree, 72 +m. S.E. of Berlin by the main railway to Gorlitz, and at the +intersection of the lines Halle-Sagan and Grossenhain-Frankfort-on-Oder. +Pop. (1905) 46,269. It has four Protestant churches, a Roman Catholic +church and a synagogue. The chief industry of the town is the +manufacture of cloth, which has flourished here for centuries and now +employs more than 6000 hands. Wool-spinning, cotton-spinning and the +manufacture of tobacco, machinery, beer, brandy, &c., are also carried +on. The town is also a considerable trading centre, and is the seat of a +chamber of commerce and of a branch of the Imperial Bank (_Reichsbank_). +In the Stadtwald, close to the town, is a women's hospital for diseases +of the lungs, a government institution in connexion with the state +system of insurance against incapacity and old age. At Branitz, a +neighbouring village, are the magnificent chateau and park of Prince +Puckler-Muskau. + +At one time Cottbus formed an independent lordship of the Empire, but in +1462 it passed by the treaty of Guben to Brandenburg. From 1807 to 1813 +it belonged to the kingdom of Saxony. + + + + +COTTENHAM, CHARLES CHRISTOPHER PEPYS, 1st EARL OF (1781-1851), lord +chancellor of England, was born in London on the 29th of April 1781. He +was the second son of Sir William W. Pepys, a master in chancery, who +was descended from John Pepys, of Cottenham, Cambridgeshire, a +great-uncle of Samuel Pepys, the diarist. Educated at Harrow and Trinity +College, Cambridge, Pepys was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in +1804. Practising at the chancery bar, his progress was extremely slow, +and it was not till twenty-two years after his call that he was made a +king's counsel. He sat in parliament, successively, for Higham Ferrars +and Malton, was appointed solicitor-general in 1834, and in the same +year became master of the rolls. On the formation of Lord Melbourne's +second administration in April 1835, the great seal was for a time in +commission, but eventually Pepys, who had been one of the commissioners, +was appointed lord chancellor (January 1836) with the title of Baron +Cottenham. He held office until the defeat of the ministry in 1841. In +1846 he again became lord chancellor in Lord John Russell's +administration. His health, however, had been gradually failing, and he +resigned in 1850. Shortly before his retirement he had been created +Viscount Crowhurst and earl of Cottenham. He died at Pietra Santa, in +the duchy of Lucca, on the 29th of April 1851. + +Both as a lawyer and as a judge, Lord Cottenham was remarkable for his +mastery of the principles of equity. An indifferent speaker, he +nevertheless adorned the bench by the soundness of his law and the +excellence of his judgments. As a politician he was somewhat of a +failure, while his only important contribution to the statute-book was +the Judgments Act 1838, which amended the law for the relief of +insolvent debtors. + +The title of earl of Cottenham descended in turn to two of the earl's +sons, Charles Edward (1824-1863), and William John (1825-1881), and then +to the latter's son, Kenelm Charles Edward (b. 1874). + + AUTHORITIES.--Campbell, _Lives of the Lord Chancellors_ (1869); E. + Foss, _The Judges of England_ (1848-1864); E. Manson, _Builders of our + Law_ (1904); J. B. Atlay, _The Victorian Chancellors_ (1906). + + + + +COTTER, COTTAR, or COTTIER, a word derived from the Latin _cota_, a cot +or cottage, and used to describe a man who occupies a cottage and +cultivates a small plot of land. This word is often employed to +translate the _cotarius_ of Domesday Book, a class whose exact status +has been the subject of some discussion, and is still a matter of doubt. +According to Domesday the _cotarii_ were comparatively few, numbering +less than seven thousand, and were scattered unevenly throughout +England, being principally in the southern counties; they were occupied +either in cultivating a small plot of land, or in working on the +holdings of the _villani_. Like the _villani_, among whom they were +frequently classed, their economic condition may be described as "free +in relation to every one except their lord." + + See F. W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_ (Cambridge, 1897); and + P. Vinogradoff, _Villainage in England_ (Oxford, 1892). + + + + +COTTESWOLD HILLS, or COTSWOLDS, a range of hills in the western midlands +of England. The greater part lies in Gloucestershire, but the system +covered by the name also extends into Worcestershire, Warwickshire, +Oxfordshire, Wiltshire and Somersetshire. It extends on a line from N.E. +to S.W., forming a part of the great Oolitic belt extending through the +English midlands. On the west the hills overlook the vales of Evesham, +Gloucester and Berkeley (valleys of the Worcestershire Avon and the +Severn), with a bold escarpment broken only by a few abrupt spurs, such +as Bredon hill, between Tewkesbury and Evesham. On the east they slope +more gently towards the basins of the upper Thames and the Bristol Avon. +The watershed lies close to the western line, except where the Stroud +valley, with the Frome, draining to the Severn, strikes deep into the +heart of the hills. The principal valleys are those of the Windrush, +Lech, Coln and Churn, feeders of the Thames, the Thames itself, and the +Bristol Avon. The last, wherein lie Bath and Bristol, forms the southern +boundary of the Cotteswolds; the northern is formed by the valleys of +the Evenlode (draining to the Thames) and the Stour (to the +Worcestershire Avon), with the low divide between them. The crest-line +from Bath at the south to Meon Hill at the north measures 57 m. The +breadth varies from 6 m. in the south to 28 towards the north, and the +area is some 300 sq. m. The features are those of a pleasant sequestered +pastoral region, rolling plateaus or wolds and bare uplands alternating +with deep narrow valleys, well wooded and traversed by shallow, rapid +streams. The average elevation is about 600 ft., but Cleeve Cloud above +Cheltenham in the Vale of Gloucester reaches 1134 ft., and Broadway +Hill, in the north, 1086 ft. These heights command splendid views over +the rich vales towards the distant hills of Herefordshire and the Forest +of Dean. The picturesque village of Broadway at the foot of the hill of +that name is much in favour with artists. + +In the soil of the hill country is so much lime that a liberal supply of +manure is required. With this good crops of barley and oats are +obtained, and even of wheat, if the soil is mixed with clay. But the +poorest land of the hill country affords excellent pasturage for sheep, +the staple commodity of the district; and the sainfoin, which grows +wild, yields abundantly under cultivation. The Cotteswolds have been +famous for the breed of sheep named from them since the early part of +the 15th century, a breed hardy and prolific, with lambs that quickly +put on fleece, and become hardened to the bracing cold of the hills, +where vegetation is a month later than in the vales. Improved by +judicious crossing with the Leicester sheep, the modern Cotteswold has +attained high perfection of weight, shape, fleece and quality. An +impulse was given to Cotteswold farming by the chartering in 1845 of the +Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester. + +A number of small market-towns or large villages lie on the outskirts of +the hills, but in the inner parts of the district villages are few. The +"capital of the Cotteswolds" is Cirencester, in the east. In the north +is Chipping Campden, its great Perpendicular church and the picturesque +houses of its wide street commemorating the wealth of its wool-merchants +between the 14th and 17th centuries. Near this town, in the parish of +Weston-sub-Edge, Robert Dover, an attorney, founded the once famous +Cotteswold games early in the 17th century. Horse-racing and coursing +were included with every sort of athletic exercise from quoits and +skittles to wrestling, cudgels and singlestick. The games were +suppressed by act of parliament in 1851. + + See _Proceedings of the Cotteswold Naturalists' Field Club, passim_; + W. H. Hutton, _By Thames and Cotswold_ (London, 1903). + + + + +COTTET, CHARLES (1863- ), French painter, was born at Puy. He studied +at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, and under Puvis de Chavannes and Roll. He +travelled and painted in Egypt, Italy, and on the Lake of Geneva, but he +made his name with his sombre and gloomy, firmly designed, severe and +impressive scenes of life on the Brittany coast. His signal success was +achieved by his painting of the triptych, "_Au pays de la mer_," now at +the Luxembourg museum. The Lille gallery has his "Burial in Brittany." + + + + +COTTII REGNUM, a district in the north of Liguria, including a +considerable part of the important road which led over the pass (6119 +ft.) of the Alpis Cottia (Mont Genevre) into Gaul. Whether Hannibal +crossed the Alps by this route is disputed, but it was certainly in use +about 100 B.C. (see PUNIC WARS). In 58 B.C. Caesar met with some +resistance on crossing it, but seems afterwards to have entered into +friendly relations with Donnus, the king of the district; he must have +used it frequently, and refers to it as the shortest route. Donnus's son +Cottius erected the triumphal arch at his capital Segusio, the modern +Susa, in honour of Augustus. Under Nero, after the death of the last +Cottius, it became a province under the title of "Alpes Cottiae," being +governed by a _procurator Augusti_, though it still kept its old name +also. + + + + +COTTIN, MARIE [called SOPHIE] (1770-1807), French novelist, _nee_ +Risteau (not Ristaud), was born in Paris in 1770. At seventeen she +married a Bordeaux banker, who died three years after, when she retired +to a house in the country at Champlan, where she spent the rest of her +life. In 1799 she published anonymously her _Claire d'Albe_. _Malvina_ +(1801) was also anonymous; but the success of _Amelie Mansfield_ (1803) +induced her to reveal her identity. In 1805 appeared _Mathilde_, an +extravagant crusading story, and in 1806 she produced her last tale, the +famous _Elisabeth, ou les exiles de Siberie_, the subject of which was +treated later with an admirable simplicity by Xavier de Maistre. +Sainte-Beuve asserted that she committed suicide on account of an +unfortunate attachment. This story is, however, unauthenticated. She +died at Champlan (Seine et Oise) on the 25th of April 1807. + + A complete edition of her works, with a notice by A. Petitot, was + published, in five volumes, in 1817. + + + + +COTTINGTON, FRANCIS COTTINGTON, BARON (1578-1652), English lord +treasurer and ambassador, was the fourth son of Philip Cottington of +Godmonston in Somersetshire. According to Hoare, his mother was Jane, +daughter of Thomas Biflete, but according to Clarendon "a Stafford +nearly allied to Sir Edward Stafford," through whom he was recommended +to Sir Charles Cornwallis, ambassador to Spain, becoming a member of his +suite and acting as English agent on the latter's recall, from 1609 to +1611. In 1612 he was appointed English consul at Seville. Returning to +England, he was made a clerk of the council in September 1613. His +Spanish experience rendered him useful to the king, and his bias in +favour of Spain was always marked. He seems to have promoted the Spanish +policy from the first, and pressed on Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador, +the proposal for the Spanish in opposition to the French marriage for +Prince Charles. He was a Roman Catholic at least at heart, becoming a +member of that communion in 1623, returning to Protestantism, and again +declaring himself a Roman Catholic in 1636, and supporting the cause of +the Roman Catholics in England. In 1616 he went as ambassador to Spain, +making in 1618 James's proposal of mediation in the dispute with the +elector palatine. After his return he was appointed secretary to the +prince of Wales in October 1622, and was knighted and made a baronet in +1623. He strongly disapproved of the prince's expedition to Spain, as an +adventure likely to upset the whole policy of marriage and alliance, but +was overruled and chosen to accompany him. His opposition greatly +incensed Buckingham, and still more his perseverance in the Spanish +policy after the failure of the expedition, and on Charles's accession +Cottington was through his means dismissed from all his employments and +forbidden to appear at court. The duke's assassination, however, enabled +him to return. On the 12th of November 1628 he was made a privy +councillor, and in March 1629 appointed chancellor of the exchequer. In +the autumn he was again sent ambassador to Spain; he signed the treaty +of peace of the 5th of November 1630, and subsequently a secret +agreement arranging for the partition of Holland between Spain and +England in return for the restoration of the Palatinate. On the 10th of +July 1631 he was created Baron Cottington of Hanworth in Middlesex. + +In March 1635 he was appointed master of the court of wards, and his +exactions in this office were a principal cause of the unpopularity of +the government. He was also appointed a commissioner for the treasury, +together with Laud. Between Cottington and the latter there sprang up a +fierce rivalry. In these personal encounters Cottington had nearly +always the advantage, for he practised great reserve and possessed great +powers of self-command, an extraordinary talent for dissembling and a +fund of humour. Laud completely lacked these qualities, and though +really possessing much greater influence with Charles, he was often +embarrassed and sometimes exposed to ridicule by his opponent. The aim +of Cottington's ambition was the place of lord treasurer, but Laud +finally triumphed and secured it for his own nominee, Bishop Juxon, when +Cottington became "no more a leader but meddled with his particular +duties only."[1] He continued, however, to take a large share in public +business and served on the committees for foreign, Irish and Scottish +affairs. In the last, appointed in July 1638, he supported the war, and +in May 1640, after the dismissal of the Short Parliament, he declared it +his opinion that at such a crisis the king might levy money without the +Parliament. His attempts to get funds from the city were unsuccessful, +and he had recourse instead to a speculation in pepper. He had been +appointed constable of the Tower, and he now prepared the fortress for a +siege. In the trial of Strafford in 1641 Cottington denied on oath that +he had heard him use the incriminating words about "reducing this +kingdom." When the parliamentary opposition became too strong to be any +longer defied, Cottington, as one of those who had chiefly incurred +their hostility, hastened to retire from the administration, giving up +the court of wards in May 1641 and the chancellorship of the exchequer +in January 1642. He rejoined the king in 1643, took part in the +proceedings of the Oxford parliament, and was made lord treasurer on the +3rd of October 1643. He signed the surrender of Oxford in July 1646, and +being excepted from the indemnity retired abroad. He joined Prince +Charles at the Hague in 1648, and became one of his counsellors. In +1649, together with Hyde, Cottington went on a mission to Spain to +obtain help for the royal cause, having an interview with Mazarin at +Paris on the way. They met, however, with an extremely ill reception, +and Cottington found he had completely lost his popularity at the +Spanish court, one cause being his shortcomings and waverings in the +matter of religion. He now announced his intention of remaining in Spain +and of keeping faithful to Roman Catholicism, and took up his residence +at Valladolid, where he was maintained by the Jesuits. He died there on +the 19th of June 1652, his body being subsequently buried in Westminster +Abbey. He had amassed a large fortune and built two magnificent houses +at Hanworth and Founthill. Cottington was evidently a man of +considerable ability, but the foreign policy pursued by him was opposed +to the national interests and futile in itself. According to Clarendon's +verdict "he left behind him a greater esteem of his parts than love of +his person." He married in 1623 Anne, daughter of Sir William Meredith +and widow of Sir Robert Brett. All his children predeceased him, and his +title became extinct at his death. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_ and + authorities there quoted; Clarendon's _Hist. of the Rebellion, + passim_, and esp. xiii. 30 (his character), and xii., xiii. (account + of the Spanish mission in 1649); Clarendon's _State Papers and Life_; + Strafford's _Letters_; Gardiner's _Hist. of England and of the + Commonwealth_; Hoare's _Wiltshire_; Laud's _Works_, vols, iii.-vii.; + Winwood's _Memorials: A Refutation of a False and Impious Aspersion + cast on the late Lord Cottington_; Dart, _Westmonasterium_, i. 181 + (epitaph and monument). (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Strafford's _Letters_, ii. 52. + + + + +COTTON, the name of a well-known family of Anglo-Indian administrators, +of whom the following are the most notable. + +SIR ARTHUR THOMAS COTTON (1803-1899), English engineer, tenth son of +Henry Calveley Cotton, was born on the 15th of May 1803, and was +educated at Addiscombe. He entered the Madras engineers in 1819, served +in the first Burmese war (1824-26), and in 1828 began his life-work on +the irrigation works of southern India. He constructed works on the +Cauvery, Coleroon, Godavari and Kistna rivers, making anicuts (dams) on +the Coleroon (1836-1838) for the irrigation of the Tanjore, Trichinopoly +and South Arcot districts; and on the Godivari (1847-1852) for the +irrigation of the Godavari district. He also projected the anicut on the +Kistna (Krishna), which was carried out by other officers. Before the +beginning of his work Tanjore and the adjoining districts were +threatened with ruin from lack of water; on its completion they became +the richest part of Madras, and Tanjore returned the largest revenue of +any district in India. He was the founder of the school of Indian +hydraulic engineering, and carried out much of his work in the face of +opposition and discouragement from the Madras government; though, in the +minute of the 15th of May 1858, that government paid an ample tribute to +the genius of Cotton's "master mind." He was knighted in 1861. Sir +Arthur Cotton believed in the possibility of constructing a complete +system of irrigation and navigation canals throughout India, and devoted +the whole of a long life to the partial realization of this project. He +died on the 24th of July 1899. + + See Lady Hope, _General Sir Arthur Cotton_ (1900). + +SIR HENRY JOHN STEDMAN COTTON (1845- ), Anglo-Indian administrator, +son of J. J. Cotton of the Madras Civil Service, was born on the 13th of +September 1845, and was educated at Magdalen College school and King's +College, London. He entered the Bengal Civil Service in 1867, and held +various appointments of increasing importance until he became chief +secretary to the Bengal government (1891-1896), acting home secretary to +the government of India (1896), and chief commissioner of Assam +(1896-1902). He retired in 1902, and soon became known as the leading +English champion of the Indian nationalists. In 1906 he entered +parliament as Liberal member for East Nottingham. He was the author of +_New India_ (1885; revised 1904-1907). + +His brother, JAMES SUTHERLAND COTTON (1847- ), was born in India on +the 17th of July 1847, and was educated at Magdalen College school and +Trinity College, Oxford. For many years he was editor of the _Academy_; +he published various works on Indian subjects, and was the English +editor of the revised edition of the _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ +(1908). + + + + +COTTON, CHARLES (1630-1687), English poet, the translator of Montaigne, +was born at Beresford in Staffordshire on the 28th of April 1630. His +father, Charles Cotton, was a man of marked ability, and counted among +his friends Ben Jonson, John Selden, Sir Henry Wotton and Izaak Walton. +The son was apparently not sent to the university, but he had as tutor +Ralph Rawson, one of the fellows ejected from Brasenose College, Oxford, +in 1648. Cotton travelled in France and perhaps in Italy, and at the age +of twenty-eight he succeeded to an estate greatly encumbered by lawsuits +during his father's lifetime. The rest of his life was spent chiefly in +country pursuits, but from his _Voyage to Ireland in Burlesque_ (1670) +we know that he held a captain's commission and was ordered to that +country. His friendship with Izaak Walton began about 1655, and the fact +of this intimacy seems a sufficient answer to the charges sometimes +brought against Cotton's character, based chiefly on his coarse +burlesques of Virgil and Lucian. Walton's initials made into a cipher +with his own were placed over the door of his fishing cottage on the +Dove; and to the _Compleat Angler_ he added "Instructions how to angle +for a trout or grayling in a clear stream." He married in 1656 his +cousin Isabella, who was a sister of Colonel Hutchinson. It was for his +wife's sister, Miss Stanhope Hutchinson, that he undertook the +translation of Corneille's _Horace_ (1671). His wife died in 1670 and +five years later he married the dowager countess of Ardglass; she had a +jointure of L1500 a year, but it was secured from his extravagance, and +at his death in 1687 he was insolvent. He was buried in St James's +church, Piccadilly, on the 16th of February 1687. Cotton's reputation as +a burlesque writer may account for the neglect with which the rest of +his poems have been treated. Their excellence was not, however, +overlooked by good critics. Coleridge praises the purity and +unaffectedness of his style in _Biographia Literaria_, and Wordsworth +(_Preface_, 1815) gave a copious quotation from the "Ode to Winter." The +"Retirement" is printed by Walton in the second part of the _Compleat +Angler_. His masterpiece in translation, the _Essays of M. de Montaigne_ +(1685-1686, 1693, 1700, &c.), has often been reprinted, and still +maintains its reputation; his other works include _The Scarronides, or +Virgil Travestie_ (1664-1670), a gross burlesque of the first and fourth +books of the Aeneid, which ran through fifteen editions; _Burlesque upon +Burlesque, ... being some of Lucian's Dialogues newly put into English +fustian_ (1675); _The Moral Philosophy of the Stoicks_ (1667), from the +French of Guillaume du Vair; _The History of the Life of the Duke +d'Espernon_ (1670), from the French of G. Girard; the _Commentaries_ +(1674) of Blaise de Montluc; the _Planter's Manual_ (1675), a practical +book on arboriculture, in which he was an expert; _The Wonders of the +Peake_ (1681); the _Compleat Gamester_ and _The Fair one of Tunis_, both +dated 1674, are also assigned to Cotton. + + William Oldys contributed a life of Cotton to Hawkins's edition (1760) + of the _Compleat Angler_. His _Lyrical Poems_ were edited by J. R. + Tutin in 1903, from an unsatisfactory edition of 1689. His translation + of Montaigne was edited in 1892, and in a more elaborate form in 1902, + by W. C. Hazlitt, who omitted or relegated to the notes the passages + in which Cotton interpolates his own matter, and supplied his + omissions. + + + + +COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813-1866), English educationist and +divine, was born at Chester on the 29th of October 1813. He received his +education at Westminster school, and at Trinity College, Cambridge. Here +he joined the Low Church party, and was also the intimate friend of +several disciples of Thomas Arnold, among whom were C. J. Vaughan and W. +J. Conybeare. The influence of Arnold determined the character and +course of his life. He graduated B.A. in 1836, and became an +assistant-master at Rugby. Here he worked devotedly for fifteen years, +inspired with Arnold's spirit, and heartily entering into his plans and +methods. He became master of the fifth form about 1840 and was +singularly successful with the boys. In 1852 he accepted the appointment +of headmaster at Marlborough College, then in a state of almost hopeless +disorganization, and in his six years of rule raised it to a high +position. In 1858 Cotton was offered the see of Calcutta, which, after +much hesitation about quitting Marlborough, he accepted. For its +peculiar duties and responsibilities he was remarkably fitted by the +simplicity and strength of his character, by his large tolerance, and by +the experience which he had gained as teacher and ruler at Rugby and +Marlborough. The government of India had just been transferred from the +East India Company to the crown, and questions of education were eagerly +discussed. Cotton gave himself energetically to the work of establishing +schools for British and Eurasian children, classes which had been +hitherto much neglected. He did much also to improve the position of the +chaplains, and was unwearied in missionary visitation. His sudden death +was widely mourned. On the 6th of October 1866 he had consecrated a +cemetery at Kushtea on the Ganges, and was crossing a plank leading from +the bank to the steamer when he slipped and fell into the river. He was +carried away by the current and never seen again. + + A memoir of his life with selections from his journals and + correspondence, edited by his widow, was published in 1871. + + + + +COTTON, JOHN (1585-1652), English and American Puritan divine, sometimes +called "The Patriarch of New England," born in Derby, England, on the +4th of December 1585. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, +graduating B.A. in 1603 and M.A. in 1606, and became a fellow in +Emmanuel College, Cambridge, then a stronghold of Puritanism, where, +during the next six years, according to his friend and biographer, Rev. +Samuel Whiting, he was "head lecturer and dean, and Catechist," and "a +dilligent tutor to many pupils." In June 1612 he became vicar of the +parish church of St Botolphs in Boston, Lincolnshire, where he remained +for twenty-one years and was extremely popular. Becoming more and more a +Puritan in spirit, he ceased, about 1615, to observe certain ceremonies +prescribed by the legally authorized ritual, and in 1632 action was +begun against him in the High Commission Court. He thereupon escaped, +disguised, to London, lay in concealment there for several months, and, +having been deeply interested from its beginning in the colonization of +New England, he eluded the watch set for him at the various English +ports, and in July 1633 emigrated to the colony of Massachusetts Bay, +arriving at Boston early in September. On the 10th of October he was +chosen "teacher" of the First Church of Boston, of which John Wilson +(1588-1667) was pastor, and here he remained until his death on the 23rd +of December 1652. In the newer, as in the older Boston, his popularity +was almost unbounded, and his influence, both in ecclesiastical and in +civil affairs, was probably greater than that of any other minister in +theocratic New England. According to the contemporary historian, William +Hubbard, "Whatever he delivered in the pulpit was soon put into an order +of court, if of a civil, or set up as a practice in the church, if of an +ecclesiastical concernment." His influence, too, was generally +beneficent, though it was never used to further the cause of religious +freedom, or of democracy, his theory of government being given in an +oft-quoted passage: "Democracy, I do not conceyve that ever God did +ordeyne as a fitt government eyther for church or commonwealth.... As +for Monarchy and aristocracy they are both for them clearly approved, +and directed in Scripture yet so as (God) referreth the sovereigntie to +himselfe, and setteth up Theocracy in both, as the best form of +government." He naturally took an active part in most, if not all, of +the political and theological controversies of his time, the two +principal of which were those concerning Antinomianism and the expulsion +of Roger Williams. In the former his position was somewhat equivocal--he +first supported and then violently opposed Anne Hutchinson,--in the +latter he approved Williams's expulsion as "righteous in the eyes of +God," and subsequently in a pamphlet discussion with Williams, +particularly in his _Bloudy Tenent, Washed and made White in the Blood +of the Lamb_ (1647), vigorously opposed religious freedom. He was a man +of great learning and was a prolific writer. His writings include: _The +Keyes to the Kingdom of Heaven and the Power thereof_ (1644), _The Way +of the Churches of Christ in New England_ (1645), and _The Way of +Congregational Churches Cleared_ (1648), these works constituting an +invaluable exposition of New England Congregationalism; and _Milk for +Babes, Drawn out of the Breasts of Both Testaments, Chiefly for the +Spirituall Nourishment of Boston Babes in either England, but may be of +like Use for any Children_ (1646), widely used for many years, in New +England, for the religious instruction of children. + + See the quaint sketch by Cotton Mather, John Cotton's grandson, in + _Magnalia_ (London, 1702), and a sketch by Cotton's contemporary and + friend, Rev. Samuel Whiting, printed in Alexander Young's _Chronicles + of the First Planters of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay from 1623 to + 1636_ (Boston, 1846); also A. W. McClure's _The Life of John Cotton_ + (Boston, 1846), a chapter in Arthur B. Ellis's _History of the First + Church in Boston_ (Boston, 1881), and a chapter in Williston Walker's + _Ten New England Leaders_ (New York, 1901). (W. WR.) + + + + +COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE, Bart. (1571-1631), English antiquary, the +founder of the Cottonian library, born at Denton in Huntingdonshire on +the 22nd of January 1571, was a descendant, as he delighted to boast, of +Robert Bruce. He was educated at Westminster school under William Camden +the antiquary, and at Jesus College, Cambridge. His antiquarian tastes +were early displayed in the collection of ancient records, charters and +other manuscripts, which had been dispersed from the monastic libraries +in the reign of Henry VIII.; and throughout the whole of his life he was +an energetic collector of antiquities from all parts of England and the +continent. His house at Westminster had a garden going down to the river +and occupied part of the site of the present House of Lords. It was the +meeting-place in the last years of Elizabeth's reign of the antiquarian +society founded by Archbishop Parker. In 1600 Cotton visited the north +of England with Camden in search of Pictish and Roman monuments and +inscriptions. His reputation as an expert in heraldry led to his being +asked by Queen Elizabeth to discuss the question of precedence between +the English ambassador and the envoy of Spain, then in treaty at Calais. +He drew up an elaborate paper establishing the precedence of the English +ambassador. On the accession of James I. he was knighted, and in 1608 he +wrote a _Memorial on Abuses in the Navy_, that resulted in a navy +commission, of which he was made a member. He also presented to the king +an historical _Inquiry into the Crown Revenues_, in which he speaks +freely about the expenses of the royal household, and asserts that +tonnage and poundage are only to be levied in war time, and to "proceed +out of good will, not of duty." In this paper he supported the creation +of the order of baronets, each of whom was to pay the crown L1000; and +in 1611 he himself received the title. + +Cotton helped John Speed in the compilation of his _History of England_ +(1611), and was regarded by contemporaries as the compiler of Camden's +_History of Elizabeth_. It seems more likely that it was executed by +Camden, but that Cotton exercised a general supervision, especially with +regard to the story of Mary queen of Scots. The presentation of his +mother's history was naturally important to James I., and Cotton himself +took a keen interest in the matter. He had had the room in Fotheringay +where Mary was executed transferred to his family seat at Connington. +Meanwhile he was enlarging his collection of documents. In 1614 Arthur +Agarde (q.v.) left his papers to him, and Camden's manuscripts came to +him in 1623. In 1615 Cotton, as the intimate of the earl of Somerset, +whose innocence he always maintained, was placed in confinement on the +charge of being implicated in the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury; he +confessed that he had acted as intermediary between Sarmiento, the +Spanish ambassador, and Somerset, and had altered the dates of +Somerset's correspondence. He was released after about eight months' +imprisonment without formal trial, and obtained a pardon on payment of +L500. His friendship with Gondomar, Spanish ambassador in England from +1613 to 1621, brought further suspicion, probably undeserved, upon +Cotton, of unduly favouring the Catholic party. From Charles I. and +Buckingham Cotton received no favour; his attitude towards the court had +begun to change, and he became the intimate friend of Sir John Eliot, +Sir Simonds d'Ewes and John Selden. He had entered parliament in 1604 as +member for Huntingdon; in 1624 he sat for Old Sarum; in 1625 for +Thetford; and in 1628 for Castle Rising, Norfolk. In the debate on +supply in 1625 Cotton provided Eliot with full notes defending the +action of the opposition in parliament, and in 1628 the leaders of the +party met at Cotton's house to decide on their policy. In 1626 he gave +advice before the council against debasing the standard of the coinage; +and in January 1628 he was again before the council, urging the summons +of a parliament. His arguments on the latter occasion are contained in +his tract entitled _The Danger in which the Kingdom now standeth and the +Remedy_. In October of the next year he was arrested, together with the +earls of Bedford, Somerset, and Clare, for having circulated, with +ironical purpose, a tract known as the _Proposition to bridle +Parliament_, which had been addressed some fifteen years before by Sir +Robert Dudley to James I., advising him to govern by force; the +circulation of this by Parliamentarians was regarded as intended to +insinuate that Charles's government was arbitrary and unconstitutional. +Cotton denied knowledge of the matter, but the original was discovered +in his house, and the copies had been put in circulation by a young man +who lived after him and was said to be his natural son. Cotton was +himself released the next month; but the proceedings in the star chamber +continued, and, to his intense vexation, his library was sealed up by +the king. He died on the 6th of May 1631, and was buried in Connington +church, Huntingdonshire, where there is a monument to his memory. + + Many of Cotton's pamphlets were widely read in manuscript during his + lifetime, but only two of his works were printed, _The Reign of Henry + III_. (1627) and _The Danger in which the Kingdom now Standeth_ + (1628). His son, Sir Thomas (1594-1662), added considerably to the + Cottonian library; and Sir John, the fourth baronet, presented it to + the nation in 1700. In 1731 the collection, which had in the interval + been removed to the Strand, and thence to Ashburnham House, was + seriously damaged by fire. In 1753 it was transferred to the British + Museum. + + See the article LIBRARIES, and Edwards's _Lives of the Founders of the + British Museum_, vol. i. Several of Cotton's papers have been printed + under the title _Cottoni Posthuma_; others were published by Thomas + Hearne. + + + + +COTTON (Fr. _coton_; from Arab, _qutun_), the most important of the +vegetable fibres of the world, consisting of unicellular hairs which +occur attached to the seeds of various species of plants of the genus +_Gossypium_, belonging to the Mallow order (Malvaceae). Each fibre is +formed by the outgrowth of a single epidermal cell of the testa or outer +coat of the seed. + +_Botany and Cultivation._--The genus _Gossypium_ includes herbs and +shrubs, which have been cultivated from time immemorial, and are now +found widely distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical regions +of both hemispheres. South America, the West Indies, tropical Africa and +Southern Asia are the homes of the various members, but the plants have +been introduced with success into other lands, as is well indicated by +the fact that although no species of _Gossypium_ is native to the United +States of America, that country now produces over two-thirds of the +world's supply of cotton. Under normal conditions in warm climates many +of the species are perennials, but, in the United States for example, +climatic conditions necessitate the plants being renewed annually, and +even in the tropics it is often found advisable to treat them as annuals +to ensure the production of cotton of the best quality, to facilitate +cultural operations, and to keep insect and fungoid pests in check. + +Microscopic examination of a specimen of mature cotton shows that the +hairs are flattened and twisted, resembling somewhat in general +appearance an empty and twisted fire hose. This characteristic is of +great economic importance, the natural twist facilitating the operation +of spinning the fibres into thread or yarn. It also distinguishes the +true cotton from the silk cottons or flosses, the fibres of which have +no twist, and do not readily spin into thread, and for this reason, +amongst others, are very considerably less important as textile fibres. +The chief of these silk cottons is kapok, consisting of the hairs borne +on the interior of the pods (but not attached to the seeds) of +_Eriodendron anfractuosum_, the silk cotton tree, a member of the +Bombacaceae, an order very closely allied to the Malvaceae. + +_Classification._--Considerable difficulty is encountered in attempting +to draw up a botanical classification of the species of _Gossypium_. +Several are only known in cultivation, and we have but little knowledge +of the wild parent forms from which they have descended. During the +periods the cottons have been cultivated, selection, conscious or +unconscious, has been carried on, resulting in the raising, from the +same stock probably, in different places, of well-marked forms, which, +in the absence of the history of their origin, might be regarded as +different species. Then again, during at least the last four centuries, +cotton plants have been distributed from one country to another, only to +render still more difficult any attempt to establish definitely the +origin of the varieties now grown. Under these circumstances it is not +surprising to find that those who have paid attention to the botany of +the cottons differ greatly in the number of species they recognize. +Linnaeus described five or six species, de Candolle thirteen. Of the two +Italian botanists who in comparatively recent years have monographed the +group, Parlatore (_Le Specie dei cotoni_, 1866) recognizes seven +species, whilst Todaro (_Relazione sulla culta dei cotoni_, 1877-1878) +describes over fifty species: many of these, however, are of but little +economic importance, and, in spite of the difficulties mentioned above, +it is possible for practical purposes to divide the commercially +important plants into five species, placing these in two groups +according to the character of the hairs borne on the seeds. Sir G. +Watt's exhaustive work on _Wild and Cultivated Cotton Plants of the +World_ (1907) is the latest authority on the subject; and his views on +some debated points have been incorporated in the following account. + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 1.--Seed-hairs of the Cotton, _Gossypium herbaceum_. A, Part of +seed-coat with hairs; B_1, insertion and lower part; B_2, middle part; +and B_3, upper part of a hair.] + +A seed of "Sea Island cotton" is covered with long hairs only, which are +readily pulled off, leaving the comparatively small black seed quite +clean or with only a slight fuzz at the end, whereas a seed of "Upland" +or ordinary American cotton bears both long and short hairs; the former +are fairly easily detached (less easily, however, than in Sea Island +cotton), whilst the latter adhere very firmly, so that when the long +hairs are pulled off the seed remains completely covered with a short +fuzz. This is also the case with the ordinary Indian and African +cottons. There remains one other important group, the so-called "kidney" +cottons in which there are only long hairs, and the seed easily comes +away clean as with "Sea Island," but, instead of each seed being +separate, the whole group in each of the three compartments of the +capsule is firmly united together in a more or less kidney-shaped mass. +Starting with this as the basis of classification, we can construct the +following key, the remaining principal points of difference being +indicated in their proper places:-- + + i. Seeds covered with long hairs only, flowers yellow, turning to red. + + A. Seeds separate. + Country of origin, Tropical America--(1) _G. barbadense_, L. + B. Seeds of each loculus united. + Country of origin, S. America--(2) _G. brasiliense_, Macf. + + ii. Seeds covered with long and short hairs. + + A. Flowers yellow or white, turning to red. + a. Leaves 3 to 5 lobed, often large. Flowers white. + Country of origin, Mexico--(3) _G. hirsutum_, L. + b. Leaves 3 to 5, seldom 7 lobed. Small. Flowers yellow. + Country of origin, India--(4) _G. herbaceum_, L. + B. Flowers purple or red. Leaves 3 to 7 lobed. + Place of origin, Old World--(5) _G. arboreum_, L. + +1. _G. barbadense_, Linn. This plant, known only in cultivation, is +usually regarded as native to the West Indies. Watt regards it as +closely allied to _G. vitifolium_, and considers the modern stock a +hybrid, and probably not indigenous to the West Indies. He classifies +the modern high-class Sea Island cottons as _G. barbadense_, var. +_maritima_. Whatever may be its true botanical name it is the plant +known in commerce as "Sea Island" cotton, owing to its introduction and +successful cultivation in the Sea Islands and the coastal districts of +South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. It yields the most valuable of all +cottons, the hairs being long, fine and silky, and ranging in length +from 3/8 to 2-1/2 in. By careful selection (the methods of which are +described below) in the United States, the quality of the product was +much improved, and on the recent revival of the cotton industry in the +West Indies American "Sea Island" seed was introduced back again to the +original home of the species. + +Egyptian cotton is usually regarded as being derived from the same +species. Watt considers many of the Egyptian cottons to be races or +hybrids of _G. peruvianum_, Cav. Egyptian cotton in length of staple is +intermediate between average Sea Island and average Upland. It has, +however, certain characteristics which cause it to be in demand even in +the United States, where during recent years Egyptian cotton has +comprised about 80% of all the "foreign" cottons imported. These special +qualities are its fineness, strength, elasticity and great natural +twist, which combined enable it to make very fine, strong yarns, suited +to the manufacture of the better qualities of hosiery, for mixing with +silk and wool, for making lace, &c. It also mercerizes very well. The +principal varieties of Egyptian cotton are: _Mitafifi_, the best-known +and most extensively grown, hardy and but little affected by climatic +variation. It is usually regarded as the standard Egyptian cotton; the +lint is yellowish brown, the seeds black and almost smooth, usually with +a little tuft of short green hairs at the ends. _Abassi_, a variety +comparatively recently obtained by selection. The lint is pure white, +very fine and silky, but not so strong as Mitafifi cotton. _Yannovitch_, +a variety known since about 1897, yields the finest and most silky lint +of the white Egyptian cottons. _Bamia_, yielding a brown lint, very +similar to Mitafifi, but slightly less valuable. _Ashmouni_, a variety +principally cultivated in Upper Egypt. The lint is brown and generally +resembles Mitafifi but is less valuable. + +Other varieties are _Zifiri_, _Hamouli_ and _Gallini_, all of minor +importance. + +2. _G. brasiliense_, Macf. (_G. peruvianum_, Engler), or kidney cotton. +Amongst the varieties of cotton which are derived from this species +appear to be Pernambuco, Maranham, Ceara, Aracaty and Maceio cottons. +The fibre is generally white, somewhat harsh and wiry, and especially +adapted for mixing with wool. The staple varies in length from 1 to +about 1-1/2 in. + +3. _G. hirsutum_, Linn. Although _G. barbadense_ yields the most +valuable cotton, _G. hirsutum_ is the most important cotton-yielding +plant, being the source of American cotton, i.e. Upland, Georgia, New +Orleans and Texas varieties. The staple varies usually in length between +3/4 and 1-1/4 in. According to Watt there are many hybrids in American +cottons between _G. hirsutum_ and _G. mexicanum_. + + +4. _G. herbaceum_, Linn. Levant cotton is derived from this species. The +majority of the races of cotton cultivated in India are often referred +to this species, which is closely allied to _G. hirsutum_ and has been +regarded as identical with it. Amongst the cottons of this source are +Hinganghat, Tinnevelly, Dharwar, Broach, Amraoti (Oomras or +Oomrawattee), Kumta, Westerns, Dholera, Verawal, Bengals, Sind and +Bhaunagar. Watt dissents from this view and classes these Indian cottons +as _G. obtusifolium_ and _G. Nanking_ with their varieties. The Indian +cottons are usually of short staple (about 3/4 in.), but are probably +capable of improvement. + +5. _G. arboreum_, Linn. This species is often considered as indigenous +to India, but Dr Engler has pointed out that it is found wild in Upper +Guinea, Abyssinia, Senegal, etc. It is the "tree cotton" of India and +Africa, being typically a large shrub or small tree. The fibre is fine +and silky, of about an inch in length. In India it is known as Nurma or +Deo cotton, and is usually stated to be employed for making thread for +the turbans of the priests. Commercially it is of comparatively minor +importance. + +The following table, summarized from the _Handbook to the Imperial +Institute Cotton Exhibition_, 1905, giving the length of staple and +value on one date (January 16, 1905), will serve to indicate the +_comparative_ values of some of the principal commercial cottons. The +actual value, of course, fluctuates greatly. + + Length of Staple. Value + Inches. Per lb. + Sea Island Cotton-- s. d. + Carolina Sea Island 1.8 1 3 + Florida " " 1.8 1 0 + Georgia " " 1.7 11-1/4 + Barbados " " 2.0 1 3 + + Egyptian Cottons-- + Yannovitch 1.5 9-1/4 + Abassi 1.5 8-3/4 + Good Brown Egyptian (Mitafifi) 1.2 7-1/2 + + American Cotton-- + Good middling Memphis 1.3 4-2/5 + Good middling Texas 1.0 4-1/5 + Good middling Upland 1.0 4 + + Indian Cottons-- + Fine Tinnevelly 0.8 4-1/4 + Fine Bhaunagar 1.0 3-7/8 + Fine Amraoti 1.0 3-7/8 + Fine Broach 0.9 3-13/16 + Fine Bengal 0.9 3-11/16 + Fine ginned Sind 0.8 3-11/16 + Good ginned Kumta 1.0 3-1/2 + +The close relationship between the length of the staple and the market +price will be at once apparent. + +_Cultivation._--Cotton is very widely cultivated throughout the world, +being grown on a greater or less scale as a commercial crop in almost +every country included in the broad belt between latitudes 43 deg. N. +and 33 deg. S., or approximately within the isothermal lines of 60 deg. +F. + +The cotton plant requires certain conditions for its successful +cultivation; but, given these, it is very little affected by seasonal +vicissitudes. Thus, for example, in the United States the worst season +rarely diminishes the crop by more than about a quarter or one-third; +such a thing as a "half-crop" is unknown. Various climatic factors may +cause temporary checks, but the growing and maturing period is +sufficiently long to allow the plants to overcome these disturbances. + +Cotton requires for its development from six to seven months of +favourable weather. It thrives in a warm atmosphere, even in a very hot +one, provided that it is moist and that the transpiration is not in +excess of the supply of water. An idea of the requirements of the plant +will perhaps be afforded by summarizing the conditions which have been +found to give the best results in the United States. + +During April (when the seed is usually sown) and May frequent light +showers, which keep the ground sufficiently moist to assist germination +and the growth of the young plants, are desired. Three to four inches of +rain per month is the average. The active growing period is from early +June to about the middle of August. During June and the first fortnight +in July plenty of sunshine is necessary, accompanied by sufficient rain +to promote healthy, but not excessive, growth; the normal rainfall in +the cotton belt for this period is about 4-1/2 in. per month. During the +second portion of July and the first of August a slightly higher +rainfall is beneficial, and even heavy rains do little harm, provided +the subsequent months are dry and warm. The first flowers usually appear +in June, and the bolls ripen from early in August. Picking takes place +normally during September and October, and during these months dry +weather is essential. Flowering and fruiting go on continually, although +in diminishing degree, until the advent of frost, which kills the +flowers and young bolls and so puts an end to the production of cotton +for the season. + +In the tropics the essential requirements are very similar, but there +the dry season checks production in much the same way as do the frosts +in temperate climates. In either case an adequate but not excessive +rainfall, increasing from the time of sowing to the period of active +growth, and then decreasing as the bolls ripen, with a dry picking +season, combined with sunny days and warm nights, provide the ideal +conditions for successful cotton cultivation. In regions where climatic +conditions are favourable, cotton grows more or less successfully on +almost all kinds of soil; it can be grown on light sandy soils, loams, +heavy clays and sandy "bottom" lands with varying success. Sandy uplands +produce a short stalk which bears fairly well. Clay and "bottom" lands +produce a large, leafy plant, yielding less lint in proportion. The most +suitable soils are medium grades of loam. The soil should be able to +maintain very uniform conditions of moisture. Sudden variations in the +amount of water supplied are injurious: a sandy soil cannot retain +water; on the other hand a clay soil often maintains too great a supply, +and rank growth with excess of foliage ensues. The best soil for cotton +is thus a deep, well-drained loam, able to afford a uniform supply of +moisture during the growing period. Wind is another important factor, as +cotton does not do well in localities subject to very high winds; and in +exposed situations, otherwise favourable, wind belts have at times to be +provided. + +_Cultivation in the United States._--The United States being the most +important cotton-producing country, the methods of cultivation practised +there are first described, notes on methods adopted in other countries +being added only when these differ considerably from American practice. + +The culture of cotton must be a clean one. It is not necessarily deep +culture, and during the growing season the cultivation is preferably +very shallow. The result is a great destruction of the humus of the +soil, and great leaching and washing, especially in the light loams of +the hill country of the United States. The main object, therefore, of +the American cotton-planter is to prevent erosion. Wherever the planters +have failed to guard their fields by hillside ploughing and terracing, +these have been extensively denuded of soil, rendering them barren, and +devastating other fields lying at a lower level, which are covered by +the wash. The hillsides have gradually to be terraced with the plough, +upon almost an exact level. On the better farms this is done with a +spirit-level or compass from time to time and hillside ditches put in at +the proper places. In the moist bottom-lands along the rivers it is the +custom to throw the soil up in high beds with the plough, and then to +cultivate them deep. This is the more common method of drainage, but it +is expensive, as it has to be renewed every few years. More intelligent +planters drain their bottom-lands with underground or open drains. In +the case of small plantations the difficulties of adjusting a +right-of-way for outlet ditches have interfered seriously with this +plan. Many planters question the wisdom of deepbreaking and subsoiling. +There can be no question that a deep soil is better for the +cotton-plant; but the expense of obtaining it, the risk of injuring the +soil through leaching, and the danger of bringing poor soil to the +surface, have led many planters to oppose this plan. Sandy soils are +made thereby too dry and leachy, and it is a questionable proceeding to +turn the heavy clays upon the top. Planters are, as a result, divided in +opinion as to the wisdom of subsoiling. Nothing definite can be said +with regard to a rotation of crops upon the cotton plantation. Planters +appreciate generally the value of broad-leaved and narrow-leaved plants +and root crops, but there is an absence of exact knowledge, with the +result that their practices are very varied. It is believed that the +rotation must differ with every variety of soil, with the result that +each planter has his own method, and little can be said in general. A +more careful study of the physical as well as the chemical properties of +a soil must precede intelligent experimentation in rotation. This +knowledge is still lacking with regard to most of the cotton soils. The +only uniform practice is to let the fields "rest" when they have become +exhausted. Nature then restores them very rapidly. The exhaustion of the +soil under cotton culture is chiefly due to the loss of humus, and +nature soon puts this back in the excellent climate of the +cotton-growing belt. Fields considered utterly used up, and allowed to +"rest" for years, when cultivated again have produced better crops than +those which had been under a more or less thoughtful rotation. In spite +of the clean culture, good crops of cotton have been grown on some soils +in the south for more than forty successive years. The fibre takes +almost nothing from the land, and where the seeds are restored to the +soil in some form, even without other fertilizers, the exhaustion of the +soil is very slow. If the burning-up of humus and the leaching of the +soil could be prevented, there is no reason why a cotton soil should not +produce good crops continuously for an indefinite time. Bedding up land +previous to planting is almost universal. The bed forms a warm seed-bed +in the cool weather of early spring, and holds the manure which is +drilled in usually to better advantage. The plants are generally left 2 +or 3 in. above the middle of the row, which in four-foot rows gives a +slope of 1 in. to the foot, causing the plough to lean from the plants +in cultivating, and thus to cut fewer roots. The plants are usually cut +out with a hoe from 8 to 14 in. apart. It seems to make little +difference exactly what distance they are, so long as they are not wider +apart on average land than 1 ft. On rich bottom-land they should be more +distant. The seed is dropped from a planter, five or six seeds in a +single line, at regular intervals 10 to 12 in. apart. A narrow deep +furrow is usually run immediately in advance of the planter, to break up +the soil under the seed. The only time the hoe is used is to thin out +the cotton in the row; all the rest of the cultivation is by various +forms of ploughs and so-called cultivators. The question of deep and +shallow culture has been much discussed among planters without any +conclusion applicable to all soils being reached. All grass and weeds +must be kept down, and the crust must be broken after every rain, but +these seem to be the only principles upon which all agree. The most +effective tool against the weeds is a broad sharp "sweep," as it is +called, which takes everything it meets, while going shallower than most +ploughs. Harrows and cultivators are used where there are few weeds, and +the mulching process is the one desired. + +The date of cotton-planting varies from March 1 to June 1, according to +situation. Planting begins early in March in Southern Texas, and the +first blooms will appear there about May 15. Planting may be done as +late as April 15 in the Piedmont region of North Carolina, and continue +as late as the end of May. The first blooms will appear in this region +about July 15. Picking may begin on July 10 in Southern Texas, and +continue late into the winter, or until the rare frost kills the plants. +It may not begin until September 10 in Piedmont, North Carolina. It is a +peculiarity of the cotton-plant to lose a great many of its blooms and +bolls. When the weather is not favourable at the fruiting stage, the +otherwise hardy cotton plant displays its great weakness in this way. It +sheds its "forms" (as the buds are called), blooms, and even half-grown +bolls in great numbers. It has frequently been noted that even +well-fertilized plants upon good soil will mature only 15 or 20% of the +bolls produced. No means are known so far for preventing this great +waste. Experts are at an entire loss to form a correct idea of the +cause, or to apply any effective remedy. + +Cotton-picking is at once the most difficult and most expensive +operation in cotton production. It is paid for at the rate of from 45 to +50 cents per cwt. of seed cotton. The work is light, and is effectually +performed by women and even children, as well as men; but it is tedious +and requires care. The picking season will average 100 days. It is +difficult to get the hands to work until the cotton is fully opened, and +it is hard to induce them to pick over 100 lb. a day, though some +expert hands are found in every cotton plantation who can pick twice as +much. The loss resulting from careless work is very serious. The cotton +falls out easily or is dropped. The careless gathering of dead leaves +and twigs, and the soiling of the cotton by earth or by the natural +colouring matter from the bolls, injure the quality. It has been +commonly thought that the production of cotton in the south is limited +by the amount that can be picked, but this limit is evidently very +remote. The negro population of the towns and villages of the cotton +country is usually available for a considerable share in cotton-picking. +There is in the cotton states a rural population of over 7,000,000, more +or less occupied in cotton-growing, and capable, at the low average of +100 lb. a day, of picking daily nearly 500,000 bales. It is evident, +therefore, that if this number could work through the whole season of +100 days, they could pick three or four times as much cotton as the +largest crop ever made. Great efforts have been made to devise +cotton-picking machines, but, as yet, complete success has not been +attained. Lowne's machine is useful in specially wide-planted fields and +when the ground is sufficiently hard. + +_Cotton Ginning._--The crop having been picked, it has to be prepared +for purpose of manufacture. This comprises separating the fibre or lint +from the seeds, the operation being known as "ginning." When this has +been accomplished the weight of the crop is reduced to about one-third, +each 100 lb. of seed cotton as picked yielding after ginning some 33 +lb of lint and 66 lb. of cotton seed. The actual amounts differ with +different varieties, conditions of cultivation, methods of ginning, &c.; +a recent estimate in the United States gives 35% of lint for Upland +cotton and 25% for Sea Island cotton as more accurate. + +The separation of lint from seed is accomplished in various ways. The +most primitive is hand-picking, the fibre being laboriously pulled from +off each seed, as still practised in parts of Africa. In modern +commercial cotton production ginning machines are always used. Very +simple machines are used in some parts of Africa. The simplest cotton +gin in extensive use is the "churka," used from early times, and still +largely employed in India and China. It consists essentially of two +rollers either both of wood, or one of wood and one of iron, geared to +revolve in contact in opposite directions; the seed cotton is fed to the +rollers, the lint is drawn through, and the seed being unable to pass +between the rollers is rejected. With this primitive machine, worked by +hand, about 5 lb. of lint is the daily output. In the Macarthy roller +gin, the lint, drawn by a roller covered with leather (preferably walrus +hide), is drawn between a metal plate called the "doctor" (fixed +tangentially to the roller and very close to it) and a blade called the +"beater" or knife, which rapidly moves up and down immediately behind, +and parallel to, the fixed plate. The lint is held by the roughness of +the roller, and the blade of the knife or beater readily detaches the +seed from the lint; the seed falls through a grid, while the lint passes +over the roller to the other side of the machine. A hand Macarthy roller +gin worked by two men will clean about 4 to 6 lb. of lint per hour. A +similar, but larger machine, requiring about 1-1/2 horse-power to run it, +will turn out 50 to 60 lb. of Egyptian or 60 to 80 lb. of Sea Island +cleaned cotton per hour. By simple modifications the Macarthy gin can be +used for all kinds of cotton. Various attempts have been made to +substitute a comb for the knife or beater, and one of the latest +productions is the "Universal fibre gin," in which a series of blunt +combs working horizontally replace the solid beater and so-called knife +of the Macarthy gin. + +Opposed to the various types of roller gins is the "saw gin," invented +by Eli Whitney, an American, in 1792. This machine, under various +modifications, is employed for ginning the greater portion of the cotton +grown in the Southern States of America. It consists essentially of a +series of circular notched disks, the so-called saws, revolving between +the interstices of an iron bed upon which the cotton is placed: the +teeth of the "saws". catch the lint and pull it off from the seeds, then +a revolving brush removes the detached lint from the saws, and creates +sufficient draught to carry the lint out of the machine to some +distance. Saw gins do considerable damage to the fibre, but for +short-stapled cotton they are largely used, owing to their great +capacity. The average yield of lint per "saw" in the United States, when +working under perfect conditions, is about 6 lb. per hour. Some of the +American ginners are very large indeed, a number (_Bulletin of the +Bureau of the Census on Cotton Production_) being reported as containing +on the average 1156 saws with an average production of 4120 bales of +cotton. Saw gins are not adapted to long-stapled cottons, such as Sea +Island and Egyptian, which are generally ginned by machines of the +Macarthy type. + +The machine which will gin the largest quantity in the shortest time is +naturally preferred, unless such injury is occasioned as materially to +diminish the market value of the cotton. This has sometimes been to the +extent of 1d. or 2d. per lb. and even more as regards Sea Island and +other long-stapled cottons. The production, therefore, of the most +perfect and efficient cotton-cleaning machinery is of importance alike +to the planter and manufacturer. + +_Baling._--The cotton leaves the ginning machine in a very loose +condition, and has to be compressed into bales for convenience of +transport. Large baling presses are worked by hydraulic power; the +operation needs no special description. Bales from different countries +vary greatly in size, weight and appearance. The American bale has been +described in a standard American book on cotton as "the clumsiest, +dirtiest, most expensive and most wasteful package, in which cotton or +any other commodity of like value is anywhere put up." Suggestions for +its improvement, which if carried out would (it is estimated) result in +a monetary saving of L1,000,000 annually, were made by the Lancashire +Private Cotton Investigation Commission which visited the Southern +States of America in 1906. + +The approximate weights of some of the principal bales on the English +market are as follows:-- + + United States 500 lb. + Indian 400 lb. + Egyptian 700 lb. + Peruvian 200 lb. + Brazilian 200 to 300 lb. + +With baling the work of the producer is concluded. + +_Cultivation in Egypt._--Climatic conditions in Egypt differ radically +from those in the United States, the rainfall being so small as to be +quite insufficient for the needs of the plant, very little rain indeed +falling in the Nile Delta during the whole growing season of the crop: +yet Egypt is in order the third cotton-producing country of the world, +elaborate irrigation works supplying the crop with the requisite water. +The area devoted to cotton in Egypt is about 1,800,000 acres, and +nine-tenths of it is in the Nile Delta. The delta soil is typically a +heavy, black, alluvial clay, very fertile, but difficult to work; +admixture of sand is beneficial, and the localities where this occurs +yield the best cotton. Formerly in Egypt the cotton was treated as a +perennial, but this practice has been generally abandoned, and fresh +plants are raised from seed each year, as in America; one great +advantage is that more than one crop can thus be obtained each year. The +following rotation is frequently adopted. It should be noted that in +Egypt the year is divided into three seasons--winter, summer and "Nili." +The two first explain themselves; Nili is the season in which the Nile +overflows its banks. + + +----------------+---------------+-----------+---------------+ + | | Winter. | Summer. | Nili. | + | +---------------+-----------+---------------+ + | First year |Clover | Cotton | .. | + | Second year |Beans or wheat | .. |Corn or fallow | + +----------------+---------------+-----------+---------------+ + +For cotton cultivation the land is ploughed, carefully levelled, and +then thrown up into ridges about 3 ft. apart. Channels formed at right +angles to the cultivation ridges provide for the access of water to the +crop. The seeds, previously soaked, are sown, usually in March, on the +sides of the ridges, and the land watered. After the seedlings appear, +thinning is completed in usually three successive hoeings, the plants +being watered after thinning, and subsequently at intervals of from +twelve to fifteen days, until about the end of August when picking +commences. The total amount of water given is approximately equivalent +to a rainfall of about 35 in. The crop is picked, ginned and baled in +the usual way, the Macarthy style action roller gins being almost +exclusively employed. + +_Cotton Seed._--The history of no agricultural product contains more of +interest and instruction for the student of economics than does that of +cotton seed in the United States. The revolution in its treatment is a +real romance of industry. Up till 1870 or thereabouts, cotton seed was +regarded as a positive nuisance upon the American plantation. It was +left to accumulate in vast heaps about ginhouses, to the annoyance of +the farmer and the injury of his premises. Cotton seed in those days was +the object of so much aversion that the planter burned it or threw it +into running streams, as was most convenient. If the seed were allowed +to lie about, it rotted, and hogs and other animals, eating it, often +died. It was very difficult to burn, and when dumped into rivers and +creeks was carried out by flood water to fill the edges of the flats +with a decaying and offensive mass of vegetable matter. Although used in +the early days to a limited extent as a food for milch cows and other +stock, and to a larger extent as a manure, no systematic efforts were +made anywhere in the South to manufacture the seed until the later +'fifties, when the first cotton seed mills were established. It is said +that there were only seven cotton oil mills in the South in 1860. The +cotton-growing industry was interrupted by the Civil War, and the +seed-milling business did not begin again until 1868. After that time +the number of mills rapidly increased. There were 25 in the South in +1870, 50 in 1880, 120 in 1890, and about 500 in 1901, about one-third +being in Texas. + +Experience shows that 1000 lb. of seed are produced for every 500 lb +of cotton brought to market. On the basis, therefore, of a cotton crop +of 10,000,000 bales of 500 lb. each, there are produced 5,000,000 tons +of cotton seed. If about 3,000,000 tons only are pressed, there remain +to be utilized on the farm 2,000,000 tons of cotton seed, which, if +manufactured, would produce a total of $100,000,000 from cotton seed. In +contrast with the farmers of the 'sixties, the southern planter of the +20th century appreciates the value of his cotton seed, and farmers, too +remote from the mills to get it pressed, now feed to their stock all the +cotton seed they conveniently can, and use the residue either in compost +or directly as manure. The average of a large number of analyses of +Upland cotton seed gives the following figures for its fertilizing +constituents:--Nitrogen, 3.07%; phosphoric acid, 1.02%; potash, 1.17%; +besides small amounts of lime, magnesia and other valuable but less +important ingredients. Sea Island cotton seed is rather more valuable +than Upland: the corresponding figures for the three principal +constituents being nitrogen 3.51, phosphoric acid 1.69, potash 1.59%. +Using average prices paid for nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash when +bought in large quantities and in good forms, these ingredients, in a +ton of cotton seed, amount to $9.00 worth of fertilizing material. +Compared with the commercial fertilizer which the farmer has to buy, +cotton seed possesses, therefore, a distinct value. + +The products of cotton seed have become important elements in the +national industry of the United States. The main product is the refined +oil, which is used for a great number of purposes, such as a substitute +for olive oil, mixed with beef products for preparation of compound +lard, which is estimated to consume one-third of cotton seed oil +produced in the States. The poorer grades are employed in the +manufacture of soap, candles and phonograph records. Miners' lamp oil +consists of the bleached oil mixed with kerosene. Cotton seed cake or +meal (the residue after the oil is extracted) is one of the most +valuable of feeding stuffs, as the following simple comparison between +it and oats and corn will show:-- + + + +-----------------+----------+--------------+-------+-----------+ + | | Proteins |Carbohydrates | |Ash or Bone| + |Average Analyses.| or Flesh | or Fuel and | Fats. | Makers. | + | | Formers. |Fat Suppliers.| | | + +-----------------+----------+--------------+-------+-----------+ + |Cotton seed meal | 43.26 | 22.31 | 13.45 | 7.02 | + |Corn | 10.5 | 70.0 | 5.5 | 1.02 | + |Oats | 17.0 | 65.0 | 8.0 | 1.2 | + +-----------------+----------+--------------+-------+-----------+ + +Cotton seed meal, though poor in carbohydrates, the fat- and +energy-supplying ingredients, is exceedingly rich in protein, the nerve- +and muscle-feeding ingredients. But it still contains a large amount of +oil, which forms animal fat and heat, and thus makes up for part of its +deficiency in carbohydrates. The meal, in fact, is so rich in protein +that it is best utilized as a food for animals when mixed with some +coarse fodder, thus furnishing a more evenly-balanced ration. In +comparative valuations of feeding stuffs it has been found that cotton +seed meal exceeds corn meal by 62%, wheat by 67%, and raw cotton seed by +26%. Cotton seed meal, in the absence of sufficient stock to consume it, +is also used extensively as a fertilizer, and for this purpose it is +worth, determining the price on the same basis as used above for the +seed, from $19 to $20 per ton. But it has seldom reached this price, +except in some of the northern states, where it is used for feeding +purposes. A more rational proceeding would be to feed the meal to +animals and apply the resulting manure to the soil. When this is done, +from 80 to 90% of the fertilizing material of the meal is recovered in +the manure, only 10 to 20% being converted by the animal into meat and +milk. The profit derived from the 20% thus removed is a very large one. +These facts indicate that we have here an agricultural product the +market price of which is still far below its value as compared, on the +basis of its chemical composition, either with other feeding stuffs or +with other fertilizers. Though it is probably destined to be used even +more extensively as a fertilizer before the demand for it as a feeding +stuff becomes equal to the supply, practically all the cotton seed meal +of the south will ultimately be used for feeding. One explanation of +this condition of things is that there is still a large surplus of +cotton seed which cannot be manufactured by the mills. Another reason is +found in the absence of cattle in the south to eat it. + +With the consideration of cotton seed oil and meal we have not, however, +exhausted its possibilities. Cotton seed hulls constitute about half the +weight of the ginned seed. After the seed of Upland cotton has been +passed through a fine gin, which takes off the short lint or linters +left upon it by the farmer, it is passed through what is called a +sheller, consisting of a revolving cylinder, armed with numerous knives, +which cut the seed in two and force the kernels or meats from the +shells. The shells and kernels are then separated in a winnowing +machine. This removal of the shell makes a great difference in the +oilcake, as the decorticated cake is more nutritious than the +undecorticated. For a long time these shells or hulls, as they are +called, were burned at oil mills for fuel, 2-1/2 tons being held equal +to a cord of wood, and 4-1/3 tons to a ton of coal. The hulls thus +burned produced an ash containing an average of 9% of phosphoric acid +and 24% of potash--a very valuable fertilizer in itself, and one eagerly +sought by growers of tobacco and vegetables. It was not long, however, +before the stock-feeder in the South found that cotton seed hulls were +an excellent substitute for hay. They are used on a very large scale in +the vicinity of oil mills in southern cities like Memphis, New Orleans, +Houston, and Little Rock, from 500 to 5000 cattle being often collected +in a single yard for this purpose. No other feed is required, the only +provision necessary being an adequate supply of water and an occasional +allowance of salt. Many thousands of cattle are fattened annually in +this way at remarkably low cost. + +Careful attention is now given to the employment of the seed in new +cotton countries, and oil expression is practised in the West Indies. +Hull is the principal seat of the industry in Great Britain, and +enormous quantities of Indian and Egyptian cotton seed are imported and +worked up. + +The following diagram, modified from one by Grimshaw, in accordance +with the results obtained by the better class of modern mills, gives an +interesting _resume_ of the products obtained from a ton of cotton +seed:-- + + _Products from a Ton of Cotton Seed._ + + Cotton seed, 2000 pounds. + +------+------------------------+------ + | | | + | Linters, 23 pounds. | + | ------------------- | + | | + Meats, 1090 pounds. Hulls, 888 pounds. + --------+-----------+---- +---+------+----- + | | | | | + Cake, 800 pounds. | | | | + ---+---------------+ | | | + | | | | | + Meal. | Fibre. | | Bran. + -----------------------------+ -----+----+ | --+-- + (Feeding stuff. Fertilizer.)| | | | + -----------------------------+ | | | + | ----------+--------+------+------- + Crude oil, 290 pounds. (High-grade paper.)|(Cattle food.) + -----+-------+-------- -------------------+-------------- + | | | + Summer Yellow. |Soap stock. (Fuel.) | + +--------+------------ +--+-------- ---+-------+-------+ + |(Winter | Cotton seed | | | + |yellow | stearin.) Soaps. Ashes. | + +--------+----------- ------ --+--- -----+------- + | | (Cattle food) + | | with the meal. + | Salad oil. Fertilizer. | + +------------------- These together, + | Summer white. a very valuable + +-------+----------- manure. + | | + | Lard. | + +-------+ + | + | Cottolene (with beef stearin, cooking oil). + +-------------------------------------------- + | + | Miners' oil. + +------------- + | + | Soap. + +------ + +_Pests and Diseases of the Cotton Plant._ + +_Insect Pests._--It is common knowledge that when any plant is cultivated +on a large scale various diseases and pests frequently appear. In some +cases the pest was already present but of minor importance. As the supply +of its favourite food plant is increased, conditions of life for the pest +are improved, and it accordingly multiplies also, possibly becoming a +serious hindrance to successful cultivation. At other times the pest is +introduced, and under congenial conditions (and possibly in the absence +of some other organism which keeps it in check in its native country) +increases accordingly. Some idea of the enormous damage wrought by the +collective attacks of individually small and weak animals may be gathered +from the fact that a conservative estimate places the loss due to insect +attacks on cotton in the United States at the astounding figure of +$60,000,000 (L12,000,000) annually. Of this total no less than +$40,000,000 (L8,000,000) is credited to a small beetle, the cotton boll +weevil, and to two caterpillars. The best means of combating these +attacks depends on a knowledge of the life-histories and habits of the +pests. The following notes deal only with the practical side of the +question, and as the United States produce some seven-tenths of the +world's cotton crop attention is especially directed to the principal +cotton pests of that country. Those of other regions are only referred to +when sufficiently important to demand separate notice. + +The cotton boll weevil (_Anthonomus grandis_), a small grey weevil often +called the Mexican boll weevil, is the most serious pest of cotton in +the United States, where the damage done by it in 1907 was estimated at +about L5,000,000. It steadily increased in destructiveness during the +preceding eight years. Attention was drawn to it in 1862, when it caused +the abandonment of cotton cultivation about Monclova in Mexico. About +1893 it appeared in Texas, and then rapidly spread. It is easily +transported from place to place in seed-cotton, and for this reason the +Egyptian government in 1904 prohibited the importation of American +cotton seed. Not only is the pest carried from place to place, but it +also migrates, and in 1907 it crossed from Louisiana, where it first +appeared in 1905, to Mississippi. That the insect is likely to prove +adaptable is perhaps indicated by the fact that in 1906 it made a +northward advance of about 60 m. in a season with no obvious special +features favouring the pest. Its eastern progress was also rapid. "The +additional territory infested during 1904 aggregates about 15,000,000 +sq. m., representing approximately an area devoted to the culture of +cotton of 900,000 acres" (_Year-book, U.S. Dept. Agriculture_, 1904). In +1906 the additional area invaded amounted to 1,500,000 acres (_Ibid._, +1906). + +The adult weevils puncture the young flower-buds and deposit eggs; and +as the grubs from the eggs develop, the bud drops. They also lay eggs +later in the year in the young bolls. These do not drop, but as the +grubs develop the cotton is ruined and the bolls usually become +discoloured and crack, their contents being rendered useless. + +No certain remedy is known for the destruction on a commercial scale of +the boll weevil, but every effort has been made in the United States to +check the advance of the insect, to ascertain and encourage its natural +enemies, and to propagate races of cotton which resist its attacks. +Special interest attaches to the investigations made by Mr O. F. Cook, +of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, in Guatemala. The Indians in part of +Guatemala raise cotton, although the boll weevil is abundant. +Examination showed that although the weevil attacked the young buds +these did not drop off, but that a special growth of tissue inside the +bud frequently killed the grub. Also, inside the young bolls which had +been pierced a similar proliferation or growth of the tissue was set up, +which enveloped and killed the pest. Probably by unconscious selection +of surviving plants through long ages this type has been evolved in +Guatemala, and experiments have been made to develop weevil-resistant +races in the United States. Mr Cook also found that the boll weevil was +attacked, killed and eaten by an ant-like creature, the "kelep." +Attempts have been made to introduce this into the infested area in +Texas; but owing to the winter proving fatal to the "kelep" its +usefulness may be restricted to tropical and subtropical regions. + +The cotton boll worm (_Chloridea obsoleta_, also known as _Heliothis +armiger_) is a caterpillar. The parent moth lays eggs, from which the +young "worms" hatch out. They bore holes and penetrate into flower-buds +and young bolls, causing them to drop. Fortunately the "worms" prefer +maize to cotton, and the inter-planting at proper times of maize, to be +cut down and destroyed when well infested, is a method commonly employed +to keep down this pest. Paris green kills it in its young stages before +it has entered the buds or bolls. The boll worm is most destructive in +the south-western states, where the damage done is said to vary from 2 +to 60% of the crop. Taking a low average of 4%, the annual loss due to +the pest is estimated at about L2,500,000, and it occupies second place +amongst the serious cotton pests of the U.S.A. The boll worm is widely +spread through the tropical and temperate zones. It may occur in a +country without being a pest to cotton, e.g. in India it attacks various +plants but not cotton. It has not yet been reported as a cotton pest in +the West Indies. + +The Egyptian boll worm (_Earias insulana_) is the most important insect +pest in Egypt and occurs also in other parts of Africa. Indian boll +worms include the same species, and the closely related _Earias fabia_, +which also occurs in Egypt. + +The cotton worm (_Aletia argillacea_)--also called cotton caterpillar, +cotton army worm, cotton-leaf worm--is also one stage in the +life-history of a moth. It is a voracious creature, and unchecked will +often totally destroy a crop. In former years the annual damage done by +it in the United States was assessed at L4,000,000 to L6,000,000. +Dusting with Paris green is, however, an efficient remedy _if promptly +applied at the outset of the attack_. The annual damage was in 1906 +reduced to L1,000,000 to L2,000,000, and this on a larger area devoted +to cotton than in the case of the estimate given above. It is the most +serious pest of cotton in the West Indies. The Egyptian cotton worm is +_Prodenia littoralis_. + +The caterpillars ("cut worms") of various species of _Agrotis_ and other +moths occur in all parts of the world and attack young cotton. They can +be killed by spreading about cabbage leaves, &c., poisoned with Paris +green. + +Locusts, green-fly, leaf-bugs, blister mites, and various other pests +also damage cotton, in a similar way to that in which they injure other +crops. + +The "cotton stainers," various species of _Dysdercus_, are widely +distributed, occurring for example in America, the West Indies, Africa, +India, &c. The larvae suck the sap from the young bolls and seeds, +causing shrivelling and reduction in quantity of fibre. They are called +"stainers" because their excrement is yellow and stains the fibre; also +if crushed during the process of ginning they give the cotton a reddish +coloration. The Egyptian cotton seed bug or cotton stainer belongs to +another genus, being _Oxycarenus hyalinipennis_. Other species of this +genus occur on the west coast of Africa. They do considerable damage to +cotton seed. + +_Fungoid Diseases._--"Wilt disease," or "frenching," perhaps the most +important of the fungoid disease of cotton in the United States, is due +to _Neocosmospora vasinfecta_. Young plants a few inches high are +usually attacked; the leaves, beginning with the lower ones, turn +yellow, and afterwards become brown and drop. The plants remain very +dwarf and generally unhealthy, or die. The roots also are affected, and +instead of growing considerably in length, branch repeatedly and give +rise to little tufts of rootlets. There is no method known of curing +this disease, and all that can be done is to take every precaution to +eradicate it, by pulling up and burning diseased plants, isolating the +infected area by means of trenches, and avoiding growing cotton, or an +allied plant such as the ochro (_Hibiscus esculentus_), in the field. +Fortunately the careful work of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and +of planters such as Mr E. L. Rivers of James Island, South Carolina, has +resulted in the production of disease-resistant races. In one instance +Mr Rivers found one healthy plant in a badly affected field. The seed +was saved and gave rise to a row of plants all of which grew healthily +in an infected field, whereas 95% of ordinary Sea Island cotton plants +from seed from a non-infected field planted alongside as a control were +killed. The resistance was well maintained in succeeding generations, +and races so raised form a practical means of combating this serious +disease. + +In "Root rot," as the name implies, the roots are attacked, the fungus +being a species of _Ozonium_, which envelops the roots in a white +covering of mould or mycelium. The roots are prevented from fulfilling +their function of taking up water and salts from the soil; the leaves +accordingly droop, and the whole plant wilts and in bad attacks dies. It +has yearly proved a more serious danger in Texas and other parts of the +south-west of the United States, and the damage due to it in Texas +during 1905 was estimated at about L750,000. No remedy is known for the +disease, and cotton should not be planted on infected land for at least +three or four years. + +"Boll rot," or "Anthracnose," is a disease which may at times be +sufficiently serious to destroy from 10 to 50% of the crop. The fungus +which causes it (_Colletotrichum gossypii_) is closely related to one of +the fungi attacking sugar-cane in various parts of the world. Small +red-brown spots appear on the bolls, gradually enlarge, and develop into +irregular black and grey patches. The damage may be only slight, or the +entire boll may ripen prematurely and become dry and dead. + +Many other diseases occur, but the above are sufficient to indicate some +of the principal ones in the most important cotton countries of the +world. + + +_Improvement of Cotton by Seed Selection._ + +In the cotton belt of the United States it would be possible to put a +still greater acreage under this crop, but the tendency is rather +towards what is known as "diversified" or mixed farming than to making +cotton the sole important crop. Cotton, however, is in increasing +demand, and the problem for the American cotton planter is to obtain a +better yield of cotton from the same area,--by "better yield" meaning an +increase not only in quantity but also in quality of lint. This ideal is +before the cotton grower in all parts of the world, but practical steps +are not always taken to realize it. Some of the United States planters +are alert to take advantage of the application of science to industry, +and in many cases even to render active assistance, and very successful +results have been attained by the co-operation of the United States +Department of Agriculture and planters. With the improvement of cotton +the name of Mr Herbert J. Webber is prominently associated, and a full +discussion of methods and results will be found in his various papers in +the _Year-books_ of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The principle on +which the work is based is that plants have their individualities and +tend to transmit them to their progeny. Accordingly a selection of +particular plants to breed from, because they possess certain desirable +characteristics, is as rational as the selection of particular animals +for breeding purposes in order to maintain the character of a herd of +cattle or of a flock of sheep. + +Inspection of a field of cotton shows that different plants vary as +regards productiveness, length, and character of the lint, period of +ripening, power of resistance to various pests and of withstanding +drought. A simple method of increasing the yield is that practised with +success by some growers in the States. Pickers are trained to recognize +the best plants, "that is, those most productive, earliest in ripening, +and having the largest, best formed and most numerous bolls." These +pickers go carefully over the field, usually just before the second +picking, and gather ripe cotton from the best plants only; this selected +seed cotton is ginned separately, and the seed used for sowing the next +year's crop. + +A more elaborate method of selection is practised by some of the Sea +Island cotton planters in the Sea Islands, famous for the quality of +their cotton. A field is gone over carefully, and perhaps some 50 of the +best plants selected; a second examination in the field reduces these +perhaps to one half, and each plant is numbered. The cotton from each is +collected and kept separately, and at the end of the season carefully +examined and weighed, and a final selection is then made which reduces +the number to perhaps five; the cotton from each of these plants is +ginned separately and the seed preserved for sowing. The simplest +possible case in which only one plant is finally selected is illustrated +in the diagram. + + 1st. Year 2nd. Year 3rd. Year 4th. Year 5th. Year + +------+ +-------+ +-------+ + Select (1) --->| 500 | --->|5 Acres| --->|General| + Plant |Plants| | | | Crop | + +------+ +-------+ +-------+ + | + | + \/ +-------+ +-------+ +-------+ + Select Plant (1) ----->| 500 | --->|5 Acres| --->|General| + | Plants| | | | Crop | + +-------+ +-------+ +-------+ + | + | + \/ +-------+ +-------+ + Select Plant (1) ------>| 500 | --->|5 Acres| + | Plants| | | + +-------+ +-------+ + | + | + \/ +-------+ + Select Plant (1) ------>| 500 | + | Plants| + +-------+ + | + | + \/ + Select Plant (1) + + After Webber, _Year-book, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture_, 1902. + + Improvement of Cotton by Seed Selection. + +From the seeds of the selected plant of the 1st year about 500 plants +can be raised in the next year. One plant is selected again from these +500, and the general crop of seed is used to sow about five acres for +the 3rd year, from which seed is obtained for the general crop in the +4th year. One special plant is selected each year from the 500 raised +from the previous season's test plant, and in four years' time the +progeny of this plant constitutes the "general crop." The practice may +be modified according to the size of estate by selecting more than one +plant each year, but the principle remains unaltered. This method is in +actual use by growers of Sea Island cotton in America and in the islands +off the coast of S. Carolina; the greatest care is taken to enhance the +quality of the lint, which has been gradually improved in length, +fineness and silkiness. Mr Webber, in summing up, says, "When Sea Island +cotton was first introduced into the United States from the West Indies, +it was a perennial plant, unsuited to the duration of the season of the +latitude of the Sea Islands of S. Carolina; but, through the selection +of seed from early maturing individual plants, the cotton has been +rendered much earlier, until now it is thoroughly adapted to the +existing conditions. The fibre has increased in length from about 1-3/4 +to 2-1/2 in., and the plants have at the same time been increased in +productiveness. The custom of carefully selecting the seed has grown +with the industry and may be said to be inseparable from it. It is only +by such careful and continuous selection that the staple of these +high-bred strains can be kept up to its present superiority, and if for +any reason the selection is interrupted there is a general and rapid +decline in quality." + +When selection is being made for several characters at the same time, +and also in hybridization experiments, where it is important to have +full records of the characters of individual plants and their progeny, +"score cards," such as are used in judging stock, with a scale of +points, are used. + +The improvements desired in cotton vary to some degree in different +countries, according to the present character of the plants, climatic +conditions, the chief pests, special market requirements, and other +circumstances. Amongst the more important desiderata are:-- + +1. Increased Yield. + +2. Increase in Length of Lint.--Webber records the case of Stamm +Egyptian cotton imported into Columbia, in which by simple selection, as +outlined above, during two years plants were obtained uniformly earlier, +more productive, and yielding longer and better lint. + +3. Uniformity in Length of the Lint.--This is important especially in +the long-stapled cottons, unevenness leading to waste in manufacture, +and consequently to a lower price for the cotton. + +4. Strength of Fibre.--Long-stapled cottons have been produced in the +States by crossing Upland and Sea Island cotton. These hybrids produce a +lint which is long and silky, but often deficient in strength: selection +for strength amongst the hybrids, with due regard to length, may +overcome this. + +5. Season of Maturing.--Seed should be selected from early and late +opening bolls, according to requirements. Earliness is especially +important in countries where the season is short. + +6. Adaptation to Soil and Climate.--High-class cottons often do not +flourish if introduced into a new country. They are adapted to special +conditions which are lacking in their new surroundings, but a few will +probably do fairly well the first year, and the seeds from these +probably rather better the next, and so on, so that in a few years' time +a strain may be available which is equal or even superior to the +original one introduced. + +7. Resistance to Disease.--The method employed is to select, for seed +purposes, plants which are resistant to the particular disease. Thus +sometimes a field of cotton is attacked by some disease, perhaps "wilt," +and a comparatively few plants are but very slightly affected. These are +propagated, and there are instances as described above of very +successful and commercially important results having been attained. +Special interest attaches to experiments made in the United States to +endeavour to raise races of cotton resistant to the boll weevil. + +8. Resistance to Weather.--Strong winds and heavy rains do much damage +to cotton by blowing or beating the lint out of the bolls. In some +instances a slight difference in the shape, mode of opening, &c., of the +boll prevents this, and accordingly seed is selected from bolls which +suffer least under the particular adverse conditions. + +Attention has been paid in the West Indies to seed selection, by the +officers of the imperial Department of Agriculture, with the object of +retaining for West Indian Sea Island cotton its place as the most +valuable cotton on the British market. + +In India, where conditions are much more diversified and it is more +difficult to induce the native cultivator to adopt new methods, +attention has also been directed during recent years to the improvement +of the existing races. Efforts have been made in the same direction in +Egypt, West Africa, &c. + + +_The World's Commercial Cotton Crop._ + +It is impossible to give an exact return of the total amount of cotton +produced in the world, owing to the fact that in China, India and other +eastern countries, in Mexico, Brazil, parts of the Russian empire, +tropical Africa, &c., considerable--in some eases very large--quantities +of cotton are made up locally into wearing apparel, &c., and escape all +statistical record. It is estimated that the amount thus used in India +exclusive of the consumption of mills is equivalent to about 400,000 +bales. Neglecting, however, these quantities, which do not affect the +world's market, the annual supplies of cotton are approximately as +follows:-- + + +---------------------------+------------------+-----------+ + | | Approximate | | + | Country | Production. |Percentage.| + | | Bales of 500 lb. | | + |---------------------------+------------------+-----------+ + | United States of America | 11,000,000 | 68.75 | + | India | 3,000,000 | 18.75 | + | Egypt | 1,000,000 | 6.25 | + | All other countries | 1,000,000 | 6.25 | + | +------------------+-----------+ + | Total | 16,000,000 | 100.00 | + +---------------------------+------------------+-----------+ + +In 1905 the world's crop closely approximated to 16,000,000 bales, +whilst in 1904 it was nearly 19,000,000 bales and in 1906 nearly +20,000,000 bales. The United States produced very nearly seven-tenths of +the total "visible" cotton crops of the world. This, however, is quite a +modern development, comparatively speaking. "During the period from 1786 +to 1790 the West Indies furnished about 70% of the British supply, the +Mediterranean countries 20%, and Brazil 8%; whilst the quantity +contributed by the United States and India was less than 1% and Egypt +contributed none. In 1906 the United States contributed 65% of the +commercial cotton, British India 19%, Egypt 7%, and Russia 3%. Of the +countries which were prominent in the production of cotton in 1790, +Brazil and Asiatic Turkey alone remain" (_U.S.A. Bureau of the Census, +Bulletin No. 76_). The actual figures for the chief countries for +1904-1906, taken from the same source, are as follows:-- + + _The World's Commercial Cotton Crop._ (In 500 lb. Bales.) + + +-----------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | Country. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906. | + +-----------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | United States | 13,085,000 | 10,340,000 | 13,016,000 | + | British India | 2,843,000 | 2,519,000 | 3,708,000 | + | Egypt | 1,258,000 | 1,181,000 | 1,400,000 | + | Russia | 554,000 | 585,000 | 675,000 | + | China | 468,000 | 415,000 | 418,000 | + | Brazil | 210,000 | 258,000 | 275,000 | + | Mexico | 114,000 | 125,000 | 130,000 | + | Peru | 40,000 | 55,000 | 55,000 | + | Turkey | 100,000 | 107,000 | 107,000 | + | Persia | 45,000 | 47,000 | 47,000 | + | Japan | 16,000 | 15,000 | 11,000 | + | Other countries | 70,000 | 100,000 | 100,000 | + +-----------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | Total | 18,803,000 | 15,747,000 | 19,942,000 | + +-----------------+------------+------------+------------+ + +This title serves to indicate the principal countries contributing to +the world's supply of cotton. The following notes afford a summary of +the position of the industry in the more important countries. + +_United States of America._--The cultivation of cotton as a staple crop +in the United States dates from about 1770,[1] although efforts appear +to have been made in Virginia as far back as 1621. The supplies +continued to be small up to the end of the century. In 1792 the quantity +exported from the United States was only equivalent to 275 bales, but +by the year 1800 it had increased to nearly 36,000 bales. At the close +of the war in 1815 the revival of trade led to an increased demand, and +the progress of cotton cultivation in America became rapid and +continuous, until at length about 85% of the raw material used by +English manufacturers was derived from this one source. With a capacity +for the production of cotton almost boundless, the crop which was so +insignificant when the century began had in 1860 reached the enormous +extent of 4,824,000 bales. This great source of supply, when apparently +most abundant and secure, was shortly after suddenly cut off, and +thousands were for a time deprived of employment and the means of +subsistence. In this period of destitution the cotton-growing resources +of every part of the globe were tested to the utmost; and in the +exhibition of 1862 the representatives of every country from which +supplies might be expected met to concert measures for obtaining all +that was wanted without the aid of America. The colonies and +dependencies of Great Britain, including India, seemed well able to grow +all the cotton that could be required, whilst numerous other countries +were ready to afford their co-operation. A powerful stimulus was thus +given to the growth of cotton in all directions; a degree of activity +and enterprise never witnessed before was seen in India, Egypt, Turkey, +Greece, Italy, Africa, the West Indies, Queensland, New South Wales, +Peru, Brazil, and in short wherever cotton could be produced; and there +seemed no room to doubt that in a short time there would be abundant +supplies independently of America. But ten years afterwards, in the +exhibition of 1872, which was specially devoted to cotton, a few only of +the _thirty-five_ countries which had sent their samples in 1862 again +appeared, and these for the most part only to bear witness to +disappointment and failure. America had re-entered the field of +competition, and was rapidly gaining ground so as to be able to bid +defiance to the world. True, the supply from India had been more than +doubled, the adulteration once so rife had been checked, and the +improved quality and value of the cotton had been fully acknowledged, +but still the superiority of the produce of the United States was proved +beyond all dispute, and American cotton was again king. Slave labour +disappeared, and under new and more promising auspices a fresh career of +progress began. With rare combination of facilities and advantages, made +available with remarkable skill and enterprise, the production of cotton +in America seems likely for a long series of years to continue to +increase in magnitude and importance. The total area of the +cotton-producing region in the States is estimated at 448,000,000 acres, +of which in 1906 only about one acre in fifteen was devoted to cotton. +The potentialities of the region are thus enormous. + + +------------------+---------------------------+----------------------+------------+ + | States and | Upland Cotton. | Sea Island Cotton. | Total | + | Territories. +--------------+------------+-----------+----------+ Value. | + | | Quantity. | Value. | Quantity. | Value. | | + +------------------+--------------+------------+-----------+----------+------------+ + | | lb. | $ | lb. | $ | $ | + | Alabama | 603,651,989 | 60,425,564 | .. | .. | 60,425,564 | + | Arkansas | 450,991,361 | 45,144,235 | .. | .. | 45,144,235 | + | Florida | 17,876,133 | 1,789,401 | 9,031,896 | 2,587,638| 4,377,039 | + | Georgia | 750,762,910 | 75,151,367 | 9,950,634 | 2,850,857| 78,002,224 | + | Indian Territory | 196,648,765 | 19,684,542 | .. | .. | 19,684,542 | + | Kansas | 9,844 | 985 | .. | .. | 985 | + | Kentucky | 1,008,290 | 100,930 | .. | .. | 100,930 | + | Louisiana | 473,222,310 | 47,369,553 | .. | .. | 47,369,553 | + | Mississippi | 732,755,978 | 73,348,874 | .. | .. | 73,348,874 | + | Missouri | 26,040,093 | 2,606,613 | .. | .. | 2,606,613 | + | New Mexico | 74,340 | 7,442 | .. | .. | 7,442 | + | North Carolina | 276,215,506 | 27,649,172 | .. | .. | 27,649,172 | + | Oklahoma | 233,396,905 | 23,363,030 | .. | .. | 23,363,030 | + | South Carolina | 415,386,362 | 41,580,175 | 2,723,859 | 999,656| 42,579,831 | + | Tennessee | 146,569,434 | 14,671,600 | .. | .. | 14,671,600 | + | Texas |2,001,181,289 |200,318,247 | .. | .. |200,318,247 | + | Virginia | 6,609,963 | 661,657 | .. | .. | 661,657 | + +------------------+--------------+------------+-----------+----------+------------+ + | Total--United |6,332,401,472 |633,873,387 |21,706,389 | 6,438,151|640,311,538 | + | States | (=12,644,803 | .. | (=43,413 | .. | .. | + | | bales) | .. | bales) | .. | .. | + +------------------+--------------+------------+-----------+----------+------------+ + +Cotton is now the second crop of the United States, being surpassed in +value only by Indian corn (maize). The area devoted to this crop in 1879 +was 14,480,019 acres, and the total commercial crop was 5,755,359 +bales. In 1899 the acreage had increased to 24,275,101 and the crop to +9,507,786 bales. In 1906 the total area was 28,686,000 acres and the +crop 13,305,265 bales. + +The preceding table gives the quantity, value and character of the crop +for each of the cotton-growing states in 1906, as reported by the Bureau +of the Census. + +_Mexico._--Cotton is extensively grown in Mexico, and large quantities +are used for home consumption. The cultivation is of very old standing. +Cortes in 1519 is said to have received cotton garments as presents from +the natives of Yucatan, and to have found the Mexicans using cotton +extensively for clothing. From 1900 to 1905 the crop was about 100,000 +bales per annum; the whole is consumed in local mills, and cotton is +imported also from the United States. + +_Brazil._--The cotton-growing region in Brazil comprises a belt some 200 +m. in width, in the north-eastern portion of the country, and a strip +along the valley of the San Francisco, where a large amount of the +present crop is produced. The cotton is known in commerce under the name +of the place of export, e.g. Maceio, Pernambuco or Pernam, Ceara, Rio +Grande, &c. The export fluctuates greatly. + + Bales of 500 lb. Approx. Value. + 1901 53,002 L500,000 + 1902 143,963 1,200,000 + 1903 126,896 1,300,000 + 1904 59,413 800,000 + 1905 107,887 1,000,000 + 1906 142,972 1,500,000 + +The total production in 1906 was estimated at about 275,000 bales, but +only a portion was available for export, there being an increasing +consumption in Brazil itself. + +_Peru._--Cotton is an important crop in Peru, where it has long been +cultivated. Most of the crop is grown in the irrigated coastal valleys. +With more water available, the output could be considerably increased, +e.g. in the Piura district. "Rough Peruvian," the produce of one of the +tree cottons, has a special use, as being rather harsh and wiry it is +well adapted for mixing with wool. Egyptian cotton is also grown. The +annual export is about 30,000 bales. + +_Cotton Production in the British West Indies_: 1905-1906.[2] + + +-------------------------+--------+----------+---------+----------+ + | | | Yield = | Average | Value of | + | Island. |Area in | Bales of | Price | Lint and | + | | Acres. | 500 lb. |in Pence | Seed. | + | | | | per lb. | | + +-------------------------+--------+----------+---------+----------+ + | Barbados. | 2,000 | 959 | 15.2 | L33,557 | + | St Vincent. | 790 | 330 | 18.0 | 13,557 | + | Grenada (mostly _Marie_ | 3,600 | 623 | 5.0 | 8,400 | + | _galante_ cotton). | | | | | + | St Kitts | 1,000 | 241 | 15.0 | 8,380 | + | Nevis | 1,700 | 240 | 13.0 | 8,364 | + | Anguilla | 1,000 | 161 | 15.0 | 5,280 | + | Antigua | 700 | 200 | 14.2 | 6,522 | + | Montserrat | 770 | 196 | 15.0 | 6,789 | + | Virgin Islands | 40 | 14 | .. | 400 | + | Jamaica | 1,500 | 123 | .. | 4,025 | + +-------------------------+--------+----------+---------+----------+ + | Total | 12,900 | 3087 | .. | L95,274 | + +-------------------------+--------+----------+---------+----------+ + +_British West Indies._--Cotton was cultivated as a minor crop in parts +of the West Indies as long ago as the 17th century, and at the opening +of the 18th century the islands supplied about 70% of all the cotton +used in Great Britain. Greater profits obtained from sugar caused the +industry to be abandoned, except in the small island of Carriacou. In +1900 the Imperial Department of Agriculture and private planters began +experiments with the object of reintroducing the cultivation, owing to +the decline in value of sugar. The department was actively assisted by +the British Cotton Growing Association, and the results have been very +successful, as was shown at an exhibition held in Manchester in 1908. A +supply of seed of a high grade of Sea Island cotton was obtained from +Colonel Rivers's estate in the Sea Islands, S. Carolina, and so +successful has the cultivation been that from some of the islands West +Indian Sea Island cotton obtains a higher price than the corresponding +grade of cotton from the Sea Islands themselves. + +In 1902 the total area under cotton cultivation in the British West +Indies was 500 acres. The industry made rapid progress. In 1903 it was +4000; in 1905-1906 it was 12,900; and for 1906-1907 it was 18,166 acres. +The table indicates the chief cotton-producing islands, the acreage in +each, yield, average value per pound and total value of the crop in +1905-1906. + +The whole of this crop was Sea Island cotton, with the exception of the +"Marie galante" grown in Carriacou. Marie galante is a harsh cotton of +the Peruvian or Brazilian type. The low yield per acre in this island, +and also the low value of the lint per lb. compared with the Sea Island +cotton, is clearly apparent. + +In 1906-1907 the acreage was substantially increased in many of the +islands, e.g. Barbados from 2000 to 5000; St Vincent 790 to 1533; St +Kitts and Anguilla 1000 to 1500 each; Antigua 700 to 1883. In Jamaica, +on the other hand, it was reduced from 1500 to 300 acres. + +_Spain._--Cotton was formerly grown in southern Spain on an extensive +scale, and as recently as during the American Civil War a crop of 8000 +to 10,000 bales was obtained. It is considered that with facilities for +irrigation Andalusia could produce 150,000 bales annually. The former +industry was abandoned as other crops became more remunerative. The +government is encouraging recent efforts to re-establish the +cultivation. + +_Malta._--Cotton has long been cultivated in Malta, but the acreage +diminished from 1750 acres in 1899 to 670 acres in 1906. A considerable +quantity of the produce is spun and woven locally; e.g. in 1904 the +export was equivalent to about 120 bales out of a total production of +330 bales, and in 1905 to 258 out of 333 bales (of 500 lb. each). + +_Cyprus_ has a soil and climate suited to cotton, which was formerly +grown here on a large scale. The rainfall is uncertain and low, however, +never exceeding 40 in., and on the supply of water by irrigation the +future of the industry mainly depends. The exports dwindled from 3600 +bales in 1865 to 946 in 1905; great fluctuations occur, the export in +1904, for example, being only 338 bales. The cotton grown is rather +short-stapled and goes mainly to Marseilles and Trieste. Some is used +locally in the manufacture of cloth. + +_Egypt._--The position of Egypt as the third cotton-producing country of +the world has already been pointed out, and the varieties grown and the +mode of cultivation described. The introduction of the exotic varieties +dates from the beginning of the 19th century. The industry was actively +promoted by a Frenchman named Jumel, in the service of Mehemet Ali, from +1820 onwards with great success. The area under cotton is about +1,800,000 acres. + + _Cotton Production in Egypt._ + + 1850 87,200 bales of 500 lb. + 1865 439,000 " " + 1890 798,000 " " + 1904 1,258,000 " " + 1905 1,250,000 " " + 1906 1,400,000 " " + +_The Egyptian Sudan._--Egyptian cotton was cultivated in the Sudan to +the extent of 21,788 acres in 1906 chiefly on non-irrigated land. The +exports, however, are small, almost all the crop being used locally. The +chief difficulties are the supply of water, labour and transport +facilities. Lord Cromer in his report on the Sudan for 1906 remarks +that: "There seems to be some reason for thinking that the future--or at +all events the immediate future--of Sudan agriculture lies more in the +direction of cultivating wheat and other cereals than in that of +cultivating cotton." + +_West Africa._--Cotton has long been grown in the various countries on +the west coast of Africa, ginned by hand or by very primitive means, +spun into yarn, and woven on simple looms into "country cloths"; these +are often only a few inches wide, so that any large cloths have to be +made by sewing the narrow strips together. These native cloths are +exceedingly durable, and many of them are ornamented by using dyed yarns +and in other ways. + +Southern Nigeria (Lagos) and northern Nigeria are the most important +cotton countries amongst the British possessions on the coast. From the +former there has been an export trade for many years which fluctuates +remarkably according to the demand. Northern Nigeria is the seat of a +very large native cotton industry, to supply the demand for cotton robes +for the Mahommedan races inhabiting the country. The province of Zaria +alone is estimated to produce annually 30,000 to 40,000 bales, all of +which is used locally. Northern Nigeria contributes to the cotton +exported from Lagos. The country offers a fairly promising field for +development, especially now that arrangements have been made for +providing the necessary means of transport by the construction of the +new railways. The profits obtained from ground-nuts (_Arachis hypogea_) +in Gambia, gold mining in the Gold Coast, and from products of the oil +palm (_Elaeis guineensis_) in the palm-oil belt serve to prevent much +attention being given to cotton in these districts. + + _Exports of Cotton from Lagos._ + + 1865 868 bales of 500 lb. + 1869 1785 " " + 1900 48 " " + 1901 15 " " + 1902 25 " " + 1903 582 " " + 1904 1725 " " + 1905 2578 " " + + + _Exports of Cotton from British West Africa_, 1904, 1905 and 1906. + + +----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | 1904. | 1905. | 1906. | + +----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | Bales | Bales | Bales | + | | (500 lb). | (500 lb). | (500 lb). | + | Gambia | 120 | 5 | 0 | + | Sierra Leone | 56 | 139 | 176 | + | Gold Coast | 115 | 50 | 186 | + | Southern Nigeria and Lagos | 2296 | 2771 | 5392 | + | Northern Nigeria | 574 | 250* | 712 | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Total | 3161 | 3215 | 6466 | + +----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + *Approximately. + +_Nyasaland (British Central Africa).--_The cultivation of cotton on a +commercial scale is quite new in Nyasaland, and although general +conditions of soil and climate appear favourable the question of +transport is serious and labour is not abundant. The exports were +equivalent to 2 bales of 500 lb. in 1902-1903, 114 bales in 1903-1904, +570 bales in 1904-1905, 1553 bales in 1905-1906 and 1052 bales in +1906-1907. In the lower river lands Egyptian cotton has been the most +successful, whilst Upland cotton is more suited to the highlands. + +_British East Africa and Uganda.--_In these adjoining protectorates wild +cottons occur, and suitable conditions exist in certain localities. +Experimental work has been carried on, and in 1904 Uganda exported about +43 bales of cotton, and British East Africa about 177 bales. In 1906 the +combined exports had risen to 362 bales, including a little from German +East Africa. In 1904-1905 there were some 300 acres under cotton in +British East Africa. Lack of direct transport facilities is a +difficulty. Some of the native cottons are of fair quality, but Egyptian +cotton appears likely to be best suited for growing for export. + +_India_ is probably the most ancient cotton-growing country. For five +centuries before the Christian era cotton was largely used in the +domestic manufactures of India; and the clothing of the inhabitants then +consisted, as now, chiefly of garments made from this vegetable product. +More than two thousand years before Europe or England had conceived the +idea of applying modern industry to the manufacture of cotton, India had +matured a system of hand-spinning, weaving and dyeing which during that +vast period received no recorded improvement. The people, though +remarkable for their intelligence whilst Europe was in a state of +barbarism, made no approximation to the mechanical operations of modern +times, nor was the cultivation of cotton either improved or considerably +extended. Possessing soil, climate and apparently all the requisite +elements from nature for the production of cotton to an almost boundless +extent, and of a useful and acceptable quality, India for a long series +of years did but little towards supplying the manufactures of other +countries with the raw material which they required. Between the years +1788 and 1850 numerous attempts were made by the East India Company to +improve the cultivation and to increase the supply of cotton in India, +and botanists and American planters were engaged for the purpose. One +great object of their experiments was to introduce and acclimatize +exotic cottons. Bourbon, New Orleans, Upland, Georgia, Sea Island, +Pernambuco, Egyptian, &c., were tried but with little permanent success. +The results of these and similar attempts led to the conclusion that +efforts to improve the indigenous cottons were most likely to be +rewarded with success. Still more recently, however, experiments have +been made to grow Egyptian cotton in Sind with the help of irrigation. +Abassi has given the best results, and the experiments have been so +successful that in 1904-1905 an out-turn of not less than 100,000 bales +"was prophesied in the course of a few years" (Report of Director, Land +Records and Agriculture). The average annual production in India +approximates to 3,000,000 bales. The area under cotton in all British +India is about 20,000,000 acres, the crop being grown in a very +primitive manner. The bulk of the cotton is of very short staple, about +three-quarters of an inch, and is not well suited to the requirements of +the English spinner, but very large mills specially fitted to deal with +short-stapled cottons have been erected in India and consume about +one-half the total crop, the remainder being exported to Germany and +other European countries, Japan and China. In 1906 the United Kingdom +took less than 5% of the cotton exported. + + _Cotton Production in British India._[3] + + 1859 1,316,800 bales of 500 lb. + 1904 3,172,800 " " + 1905 2,848,800 " " + 1906 4,038,400 " " + +About 50% of the cotton produced is consumed in Indian mills and the +remainder is exported. + +_China._--Cotton has not been cultivated in China from such early times +as in India, and although cotton cloths are mentioned in early writings +it was not until about A.D. 1300 that the plant was grown on any +considerable scale. There are no figures obtainable as to the +production, but it must be very large, considering that the crop +provides clothing for a large proportion of the population of China. +During recent years a considerable quantity of cotton has been exported, +but more than a compensating amount of raw cotton, yarns and textiles, +is imported. An estimate of the crop puts it at about 1,500,000 bales. + +_Korea_ is stated to have originally received its cotton plants from +China some 500 years ago. Conditions are well adapted to the cultivation +of the plant, and since the cessation of the Russo-Japanese War the +Japanese have undertaken the development of the industry. Figures are +difficult to obtain, but an official report from the Japanese Residency +General in 1907 estimated the crop at about 214,000 bales, all being +used locally. In the future Korea may become an important source of +supply for Japan, especially if, as appears likely, Korea proves suited +to the cultivation of American cotton. + +_Japan_ received cotton from India before China, and the plant is +extensively grown, especially in West and Middle Japan. The production +is not sufficient to meet the home demand; during the five years of +normal trade before the war with Russia Japan imported annually about +800,000 bales of cotton, chiefly from British India, China and the +United States, and during the same period exported each year some 2000 +bales, mainly to Korea. + +_Dutch East Indies._--In Java and other Dutch possessions in the East +cotton is cultivated. A considerable amount is used locally, and during +the six years ending in 1907 the surplus exported ranged from about +24,000 to 40,000 bales per annum. + +_Russia._--Some cotton is produced in European Russia in the southern +Caucasus, but Turkestan in central Asia is by far the more important +source of Russian-grown cotton. In this region cotton has been +cultivated from very early times to supply local demands, and to a minor +degree for export. Since about 1875 the Russians have fostered the +industry, introducing American Upland varieties, distributing seed free, +importing gins, providing instruction, and guaranteeing the purchase of +the crops. The Trans-Caspian railway has been an important factor; +almost all the cotton exported passes over this line, and the statistics +of this trade indicate the progress made. The shipments increased from +250,978 bales in 1896-1897 to 495,962 bales in 1901-1902--part, however, +being Persian cotton. The production of cotton in Russia in 1906 was +estimated at 675,000 bales of 500 lb. each. About one-third of the +cotton used in Russian mills is grown on Russian territory, the +remainder coming chiefly from the United States. + +_Asia Minor._--Smyrna is the principal centre of cotton cultivation in +this region. A native variety known as "Terli," and American cotton, are +grown. The general conditions are favourable. According to the Liverpool +_Cotton Gazette_, Asiatic Turkey produced in 1906 about 100,000 bales, +and Persia about 47,000 bales. Cotton was formerly cultivated profitably +in Palestine. + +_Australasia._--The quantity of cotton now produced in Australasia is +extremely small. Queensland, New South Wales and South Australia possess +suitable climatic conditions, and in the first-named state the cotton +has been grown on a commercial scale in past years, the crop in 1897 +being about 450 bales. Considerable interest attaches to the +"Caravonica" cotton raised in South Australia, which has been +experimented with in Australia, Ceylon and elsewhere. It is probably a +hybrid between Sea Island and rough Peruvian cotton, but lacks most of +the essential features of Sea Island. + +In _Fiji_ the cotton exported in the 'sixties and 'seventies was worth +L93,000 annually; but the cultivation has been practically abandoned. In +1899 about 60 bales, and in 1900 about 6 bales, were exported. During +1901-1903 there were no exports of cotton, and in 1904 only 70 bales +were sent out. + +Into the _Society Islands_ Sea Island cotton was introduced about +1860-1870. Up to the year 1885 there was an average yearly export +equivalent to about 2140 bales of 500 lb., after which date the export +practically ceased. The industry has, however, been revived, and in 1906 +over 100 bales, valued at L1052, were exported. (W. G. F.) + + +MARKETING AND SUPPLY + + Moving the harvest to the ports. + +In the days of slave-grown cotton, the American planters, being men of +wealth farming on a large scale, consigned the bulk of their produce as +a rule direct to the ports. Now, however, a large proportion of the crop +is sold to local store-keepers who transfer it to exporting firms in +neighbouring cities. The cultivators, whether owners of the plantations, +as is usual in some districts, or tenants, as is customary in others, +are financed as a rule by commission agents. The decline of "spot" sales +at the ports, partly but not entirely in consequence of the appearance +of the small cultivator, has proceeded steadily. Hammond[4] has +constructed a table from information supplied by the secretaries of the +cotton exchanges at New York, Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, New Orleans +and Galveston, showing the sales of "spot" cotton at those ports for the +twenty-two years between 1874-1875 and 1895-1896, and in all cases an +absolute decline is evident. The receipts of cotton in the season +1904-1905 at the leading interior towns and ports of the United States +are given below. + + _Receipts of Cotton at 28 Interior Towns._ + (In Thousand Statistical Bales of 500 lb. each.) + + Brenham, Tex. 17 | Memphis, Tenn. 984 + Dallas, Tex. 96 | Nashville, Tenn. 19 + Shreveport, La. 256 | Selma, Ala. 126 + Little Rock, Ark. 219 | Montgomery, Ala. 211 + Helena, Ark. 91 | Eufaula, Ala. 29 + Vicksburg, Miss. 100 | Columbus, Ga. 74 + Columbus, Miss. 57 | Macon, Ga. 87 + Natchez, Miss. 76 | Albany, Ga. 35 + Atlanta, Ga. 134 | Houston, Tex. 2,423 + Rome, Ga. 72 | Meridian, Miss. 133 + Augusta, Ga 446 | Cincinnati, Ohio 167 + Columbia, S.C. 68 | Yazoo City, Miss. 65 + Newberry, S.C. 17 | ---- + Charlotte, N.C. 21 | Total 6712 + Raleigh, N. C. 19 | ----- + St Louis, Mo. 672 | Crop. 13,565 + + _Receipts of Cotton at American Ports._ + (In Thousand Statistical Bales of 500 lb. each.) + + Galveston, Tex. 2,879 | Boston, Mass. 84 + New Orleans, La. 2,690 | Philadelphia, Pa. 14 + Mobile, Ala. 330 | Brunswick, Ga. 200 + Savannah, Ga. 1,877 | Pensacola, Fla. 187 + Charleston, S.C. 225 | Minor Ports 518 + Wilmington, N.C. 375 | ------ + Norfolk, Va. 820 | Total 10,295 + Baltimore, Md. 62 | ------ + New York 34 | Crop 13,565 + +Galveston and Savannah have risen considerably in relative importance of +late years. + + + Ginning and packing. + +Before the Civil War each planter would have his own gin-house. Now, +however, ginning is a distinct business, and one gin will serve on an +average about thirty farmers. Moveable gins were tried for a time in +some places; they were dragged by traction engines from farm to farm, +like threshing machines in parts of England, but the plan proved +uneconomical because, among other reasons, farmers were not prepared to +meet the cost of providing facilities for storing their cotton. In +addition to the small country ginneries, large modern ginneries have now +been set up in all the leading Southern market towns. The cotton is +pressed locally and afterwards "compressed" into a very small compass. +The bales are usually square, but cylindrical bales are becoming more +common, though their cost is greater. In the latter, the cotton is +arranged in the form of a rolled sheet or "lap." Owing to complaints of +the careless packing of American cotton, attention has been devoted of +late to the improvement of the square bale. + + + English ports of entry. + +London used to be the chief cotton port of England, but Liverpool had +assumed undisputed leadership before the 19th century began. Some +arrivals have been diverted to Manchester since the opening of the +Manchester ship canal; shipments through the canal from the 1st of +September to the 30th of August in each year for the decade 1894-1895 to +1904-1905 are appended--six to eight times as much is still unloaded at +Liverpool. + +A Manchester cotton-importing company was recently formed for increasing +deliveries direct to Manchester, and establishing a "spot" market there, +an end to which the Manchester Cotton Association had directed its +efforts for some time past. The latter association was established at +the end of 1894, with a membership of 265, in the interests of those +spinners who desired importations direct to Manchester. The objects of +the association are officially stated to be: (1) to frame suitable and +authoritative forms of contract, and to make rules and regulations for +the proper conduct of the trade; (2) to supervise and facilitate the +delivery of the importations of cotton at the Manchester docks to the +various consignees; (3) to provide and maintain trustworthy standards of +classification; (4) to procure and disseminate useful information on all +subjects pertaining to the trade; (5) to act in concert with chambers of +commerce and other bodies throughout the world for mutual protection; +(6) to establish a market for cotton at Manchester. Spinning members +preponderate, but almost all the Manchester cotton merchants and cotton +brokers have also joined the association. The importance of the original +spinners' representation on the association is shown by the fact that +they worked over 14,000,000 spindles: in December 1905 the spindles +represented by members had risen to nearly 20,000,000. Some 73,000 looms +are also represented. As most of the Lancashire cotton mills lie far +from Manchester, direct importations to that city do not usually +dispense with a "handling," and frequently save little or nothing in +freight rates, though in some cases the economy derived from direct +importation is considerable. One gain accruing to Lancashire from the +Canal, however, is that its competition has brought down railway +rates. + + + Cotton market methods. + +Fundamental alterations have been made in the structure of the leading +cotton markets, and in methods of buying and selling cotton, in the last +hundred years. We shall not attempt to trace the changes as they +appeared in every market of importance, but shall confine our attention +to one only, and that perhaps the most important of all, namely, the +market at Liverpool. This selection of one market for detailed +examination does not rob our sketch of generality, as might at first be +thought, since broadly the history of the development of one market is +the history of the development of all, and on the whole the economic +explanation of the evolution that has taken place may be universalized. + + _Cotton landed at the Port of Manchester since the Canal was opened._ + (In thousand Bales.) + The season is from the 1st of September to the 31st of August each year. + + +----------------------------+---------+----------------------------------+ + | |Jan. 1894| Season | + | | +------+------+------+------+------+ + | |to Aug. | 1894-| 1895-| 1896-| 1897-| 1898-| + | |31, 1894.| 1895.| 1896.| 1897.| 1898.| 1899.| + +----------------------------+---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + |American | 21 | 32 | 121 | 211 | 245 | 311 | + |Egyptian | 1.4 | 34 | 68 | 88 | 98 | 84 | + |East Indian | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + |West African | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | +---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Total | 22 | 66 | 189 | 299 | 344| 395 | + | +---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + |Total American Crop* | 7,549 | 9,901| 7,157| 8,757|11,199|11,274| + |Total Egyptian Crop (in | | | | | | | + | bales of 7-1/2 cantars)** | 657 | 615| 703| 783| 872| 745| + +----------------------------+---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | | Season | + | +---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | | 1899- | 1900-| 1901-| 1902-| 1903-| 1904-| + | | 1900. | 1901.| 1902.| 1903.| 1904.| 1905.| + +----------------------------+---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + |American | 415 | 442 | 421 | 478 | 365 | 552 | + |Egyptian | 136 | 107 | 125 | 145 | 148 | 183 | + |East Indian | .. | .. | .. | 2.5| 6 | 1.3| + |West African | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .1| + | +---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Total | 551 | 549 | 546 | 626 | 519 | 736 | + | +---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + |Total American Crop* | 9,436 |10,383|10,680|11,011|13,565|10,727| + |Total Egyptian Crop (in | | | | | | | + | bales of 7-1/2 cantars)** | 868 | 723| 849| 867| 846| 778| + -----------------------------+---------+------+------+------+------+------+ + * Commercial crop. + ** A cantar is 99.05 lb. avoirdupois. + + + Evolution of broking. + +Originally cotton was imported by the Liverpool dealer as an agent for +American firms or at his own risk, and then sold by private treaty, +auction, or through brokers, to Manchester dealers, who retailed it to +the spinners. This statement is, of course, only roughly correct. Some +Manchester dealers imported themselves, and some spinners bought direct +from Liverpool importers, but the rule was the arrangement first +described. Early in the 19th century it became customary for Manchester +dealers and Liverpool importers to carry on business with one another +through representatives known as "buying" and "selling" brokers. About +this time the broker of cotton only began to specialize from the ranks +of the brokers who dealt in all kinds of colonial produce. Previously +there had not been enough business done in cotton to make it worth any +person's while to devote himself to the buying and selling on commission +of cotton only. The evolution of the distinct business of cotton broking +is readily comprehensible when we remind ourselves that the +requirements, as regards raw material, of all spinners are much alike +generally, and that no spinner could afford to pay an expert to devote +himself entirely to purchasing cotton for his mill. + +So far change had been gradual, but the success of the Manchester and +Liverpool railway undermined beyond repair the old system of doing +business. Spinners could easily run over to Liverpool and buy their +cotton from the large stocks displayed at that port. Before the railway +was opened some spinners had been in the habit of making their purchases +of raw material in Liverpool, but the great inconveniences of the +journey, combined with less easy terms for payment than were usual in +Manchester, prevented any great numbers from departing from the beaten +track. Cotton dealers up to this time had regularly financed the +spinners, who were frequently men of little capital, by allowing long +credit, and had even employed them to spin on commission. As men of +substance increased among the ranks of the spinners, the Manchester +cotton dealers found it impossible to retard a movement set on foot by +the prospects of such appreciable advantages. Ultimately many of the old +Manchester cotton dealers became brokers for their old customers. In +1875 there were said to be upwards of 100 cotton dealers in Manchester, +but from that time onward their members steadily declined. It is +interesting to observe that a later development of transport between +Manchester and Liverpool, namely, the Manchester Ship Canal, has drawn +back into Manchester a part of the cotton market which was attracted +from Manchester into Liverpool by the famous improvement in transport +opened to the public three-quarters of a century ago. + +The centralization of the cotton market in Liverpool fixed firmly the +system of buying through brokers, for the Liverpool importer, or his +broker, was in no sense a professional adviser to the spinners, +informally pledged to advance the latter's interests, as the old +Manchester dealers had been. The system was rendered comparatively +inexpensive by the drop in commissions from 1 to 1/2% which had followed +the adoption of selling by sample. This custom of buying and selling +through brokers continued unshaken until the laying of the Atlantic +cable tempted selling brokers occasionally, and even some buying +brokers, to buy direct from American factors by telegraph and thus +transform themselves into quasi-importers. The temptation was made the +more difficult to resist by the development of "future" dealings. When +the agents of the spinners, that is, the buying brokers, by becoming +principals in some transactions, had acquired interests diametrically +opposed to those of their customers, the consequent feeling of distrust +among spinners gave birth to the Cotton Buying Company, which, +constituted originally of twenty to thirty limited cotton-spinning +companies, represents to-day nearly 6,000,000 spindles distributed among +nearly one hundred firms. Its object was to squeeze out some middlemen +and economize for its members on brokerage. This company, it is said, +helped to attract the brokers back to the spinners, and an informal +understanding was arrived at that the buying broker should not figure +both as agent and principal in the same transaction. + + + Cotton-Clearing house, Cotton Bank and periodic settlement of + "differences." + +By 1876 "forward" operations had become so vast and complicated that a +cotton-clearing house had to be established to deal with the confusing +networks of debits and credits created by them. Its principle was +exactly that of the clearing houses used by the railways and the banks, +the cancellation of indebtedness and discharge simply of balances. The +final settlement of a "future" contract involved usually a crowd of +persons, and the passage of large sums of money backwards and forwards, +so that the amount of cash required for circulation on the exchange +became unreasonably excessive and an annoying waste of time was +entailed. The cotton-clearing house substituted book-keeping for the +bulk of these payments. The establishment of the Cotton Bank naturally +followed. Now debts are discharged in the first instance by vouchers. +Dealers pass their debit and credit vouchers into the Cotton Bank and +pay or receive the balances which they owe or are entitled to. In order +to protect dealers against the losses due to the insolvency of those +with whom they have had transactions, weekly settlements on the exchange +have been made compulsory; between brokers and their clients they are +also usual. At the settlement, every member of the exchange receives the +"differences" owing to him and pays those which he has incurred. Thus if +a person holds futures for 10,000 bales which stood at 5.20 on the last +settlement day and now stand at 5.30, and in the course of the previous +week has sold 5000 bales of "futures" at 5.10, he receives 10,000 X +(10/100)d. on his old holding, and has to pay 5000 X (20/100)d. on his +sales, and therefore on balance neither receives nor pays. Differences +may be very large sums. The unit of a "future" being 100 bales, an +alteration in the price of cotton of .01d. causes a difference on each +unit of L2. Periodic settlements are obviously periodic tests of the +solvency of dealers. If the test of the settlement were not frequently +applied, speculators who were unfortunate would be tempted to plunge +deeper until finally some became insolvent for large sums. As it is, the +speculator who has incurred losses beyond his means tends to be +discovered before his creditors are heavily involved. Settlement days +fall on Thursday, and the closing prices on the preceding Monday are +taken as the basis of the settlement. From all differences interest at +5% is deducted for the time between settlement day and the tenth day of +the second month on which the "future" elapses, since settlement terms +mean that money is paid in instalments before it is actually due. To the +admission of periodic settlements there was for a time vehement +opposition on the ground that the door would be opened to gambling on +"differences." Hence at first, in 1882, they were used only by a section +of the market constituted of members who had voluntarily agreed to do +business with one another upon these terms alone. By 1884, however, the +advantages of "settlement terms" became so evident that they were +adopted by the Cotton Association, at first for fortnightly periods, +with the saving clause originally that they should not be compulsory. + + + Origin of Liverpool Cotton Association. + +As soon as the clearing house was set up it became evident that +"futures" were an impossibility away from it. At the same time "futures" +were becoming an increasing necessity to importers, because through +"futures" alone could they hedge on their purchases of cotton, or buy +when the market seemed favourable, and they were not prepared to assume +heavy risks. Now from the clearing house importers were rigorously +excluded, and on invoking the aid of "futures," therefore, they were +penalized to the extent of double broker's commission, one commission +being charged on the sale of the "futures" and one on their purchase +back. The importers, therefore, found it necessary to establish a club +of their own, the Liverpool Cotton Exchange, which they as rigorously +guarded against brokers. The split in the market so caused was so +damaging to both parties that a satisfactory arrangement was eventually +agreed upon, and both institutions were absorbed in the Liverpool Cotton +Association. + + + Publication of information relating to demand and supply. + +A condition of specialist dealers working to the public service is that +they should not act in the dark. They must watch demand, be able to form +reasonable anticipations of its movements, and at the same time know +the existing stocks of cotton, the sales taking place from day to day, +and the best forecasts of the coming supplies. A man accustomed to +devote the whole of his time to the study of demand and supply in +relation to cotton, after some years of experience, will be qualified +ordinarily to form fairly accurate judgments of the prices to be +expected. His success depends upon his ability to interpret rightly the +facts and intangible signs with which he is brought in contact. The +information at the disposal of dealers has steadily enlarged in volume +and improved in trustworthiness, though some of it is not yet invariably +above suspicion, and the time elapsing between an event and the +knowledge of it becoming common property has been reduced to a fraction +of what it used to be, in consequence chiefly of the telegraph and +cables. All sales that take place on the Exchange must be returned. +Estimates are published of the area under cotton cultivation, and +conditions of the American crop are issued by the American agricultural +bureau at the beginning of the months of June, July, August, September +and October of each year. To represent the standard of perfect +healthiness and exemption from injury due to insects, or drought, or any +other causes, one hundred is taken. The estimates for 1901 to 1905 are +given, to illustrate their variations:-- + + +-------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+----------+ + | Year. | June 1st.| July 1st.| Aug. 1st.| Sept. 1st.| Oct. 1st.| + +-------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+----------+ + | 1901 | 81.5 | 81.1 | 77.2 | 71.4 | 61.4 | + | 1902 | 95.1 | 84.7 | 81.9 | 64.0 | 58.3 | + | 1903 | 74.1 | 77.1 | 79.7 | 81.2 | 65.1 | + | 1904 | 83 | 88 | 91.6 | 84.1 | 75.8 | + | 1905 | 77.2 | 77 | 74.9 | 72.1 | 71.2 | + +-------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+----------+ + +These estimates are the averages of separate estimates which are +published for the states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, +Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Tennessee. +The official figures are supplemented from time to time by numerous +private forecasts, for instance those in "Neild's circular." Ellison, in +his work on the cotton trade of Great Britain, traces in detail the +increase in the volume of information collected and made public. At the +close of the 18th century there was a tacit understanding among brokers +to supply one another with information. There were no printed circulars, +except the monthly prices current of all kinds of produce, but brokers +used to send particulars of business done to their customers in letters. +These letters were the origin of circulars. Messrs Ewart and Rutson +pioneered in 1805 by issuing a weekly account of the sales and imports +of cotton, and three years later three such circulars were on the +market, though Hope's alone was confined to cotton. For the first +associated circular of any importance, the market had to wait until +1832. The issue of this circular by subscribing firms, on the basis of +particulars collected by brokers appointed at a weekly meeting, gave +rise in 1841 to the Cotton Brokers' Association, to which the +development of the market by the systematizing of procedure is largely +due. The rest of the tale may be told in Mr Ellison's own words:-- + + "Down to 1864 the leading firms continued to issue weekly market + reports, but in that year the association commenced the publication of + an associated circular. This was followed in the same year by the + _Daily Table_ of sales and imports, which in 1874 was succeeded by the + present more complete _Daily Circular_. To these publications were at + various times added the annual report, issued in December, the + American crop report, issued in September, and the daily advices by + cable from America, issued every morning."[5] + + + Futures. + +We shall now enter upon a detailed analysis of "forward" operations. The +term "futures" is used broadly and narrowly: broadly it is a generic +term denoting "futures" in the narrow sense, and also "options" and +"straddles"; narrowly it implies merely contracts for future delivery at +a price fixed in the present. Again we must distinguish between the +"future" contracts for the delivery of a particular kind of cotton, +which may be entered into by spinners and their brokers, and are real +purchases in the sense that the spinners want delivery of the cotton +referred to, and the "futures," which always relate to the same grade +of cotton, and are drawn up according to certain forms and circulate on +the exchange as media for the shifting of risks connected with purchase +and sale. The latter are not "real" purchases in the sense given to that +term above, but fictitious because delivery of the cotton is not +desired. It will no doubt aid the understanding of the functions of the +latter if some explanation is offered of the needs met by the former, +which are sometimes known technically as "deferred deliveries." + + + The spinner's risks. + +When a spinner is required to quote prices of yarn for delivery in the +future he is fixed on the horns of a dilemma. If he does not at once buy +cotton, but quotes on the assumption that price will remain steady, he +may be involved in serious loss through his estimate being mistaken. If +he determines to buy cotton at once, others who risk more, and trust +their judgment of the future, may secure the contract. On first thoughts +it would seem desirable that all spinners should buy cotton outright to +cover their contracts, but on second thoughts the social disadvantage of +their doing so becomes apparent. Much buying might take place when +stocks were scanty, with the result that prices would be needlessly +forced up; and when stocks were plentiful demand might be weak and +prices, therefore, be unduly depressed. It is evident that the buying of +cotton on the principles suggested would be calculated to cause great +unsteadiness of prices, especially as cotton is not continuously +forthcoming, but is produced periodically in harvests. Demands for yarn +cannot be expected to come always at the most favourable time socially +for the distribution of the cotton. One way out of the difficulty is +that the spinner should exercise his judgment and buy his raw material +at what seems to him the most suitable times. But to this course there +are three objections. The first is that spinners would be performing the +two functions of industrial management and cotton buying (together with +others perhaps), and that in consequence the best industrial men would +not necessarily be able to maintain their position in the trade because +as buyers of cotton they might be unfortunate. The second is that +spinners being required to give attention to two distinct classes of +problems would be less likely as a body to become complete masters of +either. The third, which is not distinct in principle from the two +preceding, is that such limited speculation in cotton buying on the part +of spinners worried with other matters would not be likely to steady the +cotton market in any high degree. It may be assumed as desirable that +the demand for cotton should be so spread as to keep its price as steady +as possible--"steadiness" will be defined more exactly later--and that +to this end it is essential that specialists should devote themselves to +the task of spreading it. Such specialists have appeared in the cotton +brokers and dealers who make their living out of bearing the risks +connected with anticipating demand and supply in relation to cotton. +To-day a spinner who is asked to quote for deliveries of yarn for, say, +the next six months, may obtain from a broker quotations for deliveries +of the cotton that he needs, in quantities as he needs it, for the next +six months, and upon these quotations he may base his own for yarn. If a +spinner is pressed by a shipper to make quotations with refusal for two +or three days to give time for business to be settled by cable, it is +evidently not impossible for the spinner to shift the risk involved by +getting in turn from his broker refusal quotations for cotton. But +spinners do not try always to take the safest course. + + + Method of distributing risks. + +Now it is evident that brokers in turn require some means of passing on +the risks that they are bearing, or some portion of them from one to +another, or of sharing them with other market experts, as they find +themselves overburdened, and as their judgment of the situation changes. +The means have been provided in the "futures" which circulate on the +Cotton Exchange. The risks of anticipating are carried by those who +create or hold "futures" without a hedge. In order to facilitate +business, "futures" are all drawn in the same unit (100 bales), and are +all based on the same class of cotton, namely Upland cotton of middling +grade of "no staple" (i.e. with a fibre of about 3/4 in.) and of the worst +growth. American cotton, we may remind the reader, is graded into a +number of classes, both on the Liverpool and New York Exchanges, and an +attempt is made in each market to keep the grades as fixed as possible. +But what, it may be inquired, is the value of "futures" relating to +"middling" cotton to a broker whose contracts with spinners are not in +"middling" cotton? The answer is that though the ratios between the +prices of the various grades alter, the prices of all of them move +generally together, and that the "futures" of the Exchange at least +provide a hedge against the latter movements. Other things being equal, +the broker would be better off if he could hedge with equal ease against +all his risks. But other things are not equal: the market would be more +confusing and quotations would be complicated if "futures" were in use +for all grades. + + + Characteristics of "futures." + +We may now examine the exchange "futures" in minuter detail. They are +quoted as a rule for about ten months ahead. Thus in January the futures +quoted will be January (technically termed "current," "present month" or +"near month," "futures"), January-February, February-March, March-April, +April-May, May-June, June-July, July-August, and perhaps two or three +more. Each group, it will be observed, except "current futures," +culminates in two defined months. The rule is that on the first of the +two months the seller of "futures" may, and before the last day of the +second month must, deliver cotton against them, or, what comes to the +same thing, buy back the "futures" on the basis of the price of "spot" +cotton of middling grade. Various grades of cotton are tenderable +against "futures": if this were not so "futures" would be in danger of +defeating their object, because the price of the grade upon which they +were founded would probably at times be thrown widely out of relation to +the general level of prices in the cotton market. The lowest grade +tenderable used to be "low middling," but since October 1901 "good +ordinary" has also been accepted. Arbitrators report on deliveries and +award allowances on those of grades above "middling" and deductions of +price from those below. A sample is taken from each bale and the "points +on or off" are fixed for each bale separately. If either party is +dissatisfied with the award, he may appeal to an appeals committee on +paying L3:3:0: which is refunded to him by the other party if the appeal +be upheld. The detailed arrangements described above are those of the +Liverpool market. The great bulk of "futures," however, are bought back +and not delivered against. + + + Quotations. + +Beneath are the official Liverpool quotations of "futures," as they +appeared on the morning of the 19th of April 1906:-- + +_American Deliveries, any port, basis of middling, good ordinary clause +(the fractions are given in 100ths of a penny)._ + + +------------+-----------+---------------------------+---------+ + | |Yesterday's| To-day's Early Sales. | Values | + | | Close. | | 12.15. | + +------------+-----------+---------------------------+---------+ + | April | 6.05 | | 6.03 | + | April-May | 6.05 | | 6.03 | + | May-June | 6.05 | 6.06, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3 | 6.03 | + | June-July | 6.05 | 6.05, 2,* 3 | 6.03 | + | July-August| 6.04 | 6.05, 4, 3, 2 | 6.03 | + | Aug.-Sept. | 5.98 | 5.99, 8, 6 | 5.97 | + | Sept.-Oct. | 5.34 | 5.85, 4 | 5.84 | + | Oct.-Nov. | 5.76 | 5.77, 6 | 5.76 | + | Nov.-Dec. | 5.75 | 5.75, 4* | 5.75 | + | Dec.-Jan. | 5.74 | 5.75* | 5.75 | + | Jan.-Feb. | 5.75 | 5.75* | 5.75 | + +============+===========+===========================+=========+ + | | Late Business. | Closing | + | | | Values. | + +------------+---------------------------------------+---------+ + | April | 6.03* | 5.98 | + | April-May | 6.03 | 5.98 | + | May-June | 6.03, 4, 3, 2, 1, 2, 0 | 5.99 | + | June-July | 6.04, 3, 2 | 5.99 | + | July-Aug. | 6.03, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0,* 1, 2,* 1, 0 | | + | | 5.99, 6.0,* 5.99, 6.0, 5.99, 8 | 5.98 | + | Aug.-Sept. | 5.98,* 6, 5, 4, 5 | 5.92 | + | Sept.-Oct. | 5.84, 2* | 5.78 | + | Oct.-Nov. | 5.76,* 5,* 4, 3, 4, 3,* 2, 1, 0 | 5.70 | + | Nov.-Dec. | 5.70* | 5.69 | + | Dec.-Jan. | 5.72, 1, 2* | 5.69 | + | Jan.-Feb. | | 5.69 | + +------------+---------------------------------------+---------+ + * Transactions of 100 bales only. + + + _Egyptian Deliveries, fully good fair (in 64ths of a penny)._ + + +----------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------+ + | |Yesterday's| Business | To-day's |Closing | + | | Close. | before Noon. | Business |Values. | + | | | | Afternoon. | | + +----------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------+ + | April | 10-11 | .. | .. | 10-1 | + | May | 10-12 |9-62, 3, 10-0 | 10-2* | 10-1 | + | | |9-63, 2, 10-0 | | | + | June | 10-11 | .. | .. | 10-0 | + | July | 10-9 |9-60, 1, 0* |9-63,* 10-0,* | 9-62 | + | | | | 9-63, 2 | | + | Aug. | 10-0 | .. | .. | 9-54 | + | Sept. | 9-58 | .. | .. | 9-48 | + | Oct. | 9-24 | .. | .. | 9-18 | + | Nov. | 8-58 |8-52,* 0, 49 | .. | 8-52 | + | Dec. | 8-50 |8-39* | .. | 8-42 | + | Jan. | 8-44 |8-36 | .. | 8-35 | + +----------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------+ + * Transactions of 100 bales only. + + +Egyptian futures, it will be observed, run out in single months. As the +cost of dealing in "futures" is only one shilling on each transaction +for a member of the Cotton Exchange (the outsider is charged in addition +a commission by his broker), it is not surprising that the transactions +taking place in "futures" number legion. + +The methods of dealing in cotton are very intricate, and it is necessary +here to interpolate an explanation of the relations between the prices +paid by spinners for cotton and the quoted "spot" prices. We begin by +giving the official quotations of "spot," and statement of business +done, published on the morning of the 19th of April 1906. + + _Quotations._ + + G.O. L.M. Mid. G.M. F.G.M. M.F. + American 5.87 6.05 6.21 6.41 6.49 6.71 + + Mid Fair. Fair. Gd. Fair. + + Pernam 5.95 6.35 6.61 + Ceara 6.02 6.40 6.62 + Paraiba 5.94 6.32 6.56 + Maceio 5.96n 6.34n 6.56n + + Fair. Gd. Fair. F.G.F. Good. Fine. + + Egyptian br'n 8-7/8 9-7/8 10-1/4 11 11-5/8 + " Upper -- 9-3/16 9-5/8 9-7/8n 10n + + Gd. Fr. F.G.F. Gd. G.F. Fine. S'fine. + + M. G. Broach. .. .. 5-7/16 5-19/32 5-3/4 .. + Bhownuggar 4-9/16n 4-11/16n 4-13/16n 4-15/16n 5-1/16n .. + No. 1 Comra 4-9/16n 4-11/16n 4-13/16n 4-15/16n 5-1/16n .. + Bengal 3-25/32 3-29/32 4-1/32 4-5/32 4-5/16 4-1/4 + Tinnevelly 5-1/4 5-7/16 5-9/16 .. .. .. + + _Cotton Ships arrived._ + Boston: Canadian S. Hamburg: Iceland S. + + +-----------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ + | | Sales. | Speculation | Imports includ-| + | | | and Export. | ing Hull, &c. | + | +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ + | | |Previous| |Previous| | Week's | + | |To-day.| this |To-day.| this |To-day.| Total. | + | | | Week. | | Week. | | | + +-----------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ + |American | 6330 | 18,050 | 500 | 1500 |17,665 | 53,684 | + |Pernam, &c. | 150 | 200 | .. | .. | .. | .. | + |Paraiba, &c. | 460 | 130 | .. | .. | .. | 2 | + |Ceara and Arac'ty| .. | 30 | .. | .. | .. | .. | + |Egyptian | 500 | 1200 | .. | .. | 321 | 7,983 | + |Peruvian | 460 | 350 | .. | .. | 32 | 32 | + |W. I. and African| 50 | 20 | .. | .. | .. | .. | + |Surat | .. | .. | .. | .. | 3,664 | 3,829 | + |Madras | 50 | 20 | .. | .. | .. | .. | + |Bengal | .. | .. | .. | .. | 608 | 608 | + |Sundries | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + +-----------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ + | Total | 8000 | 20,000 | 500 | 1500 | 2,290 | 66,138 | + | | | 8,000 | | 500 | | | + | | +--------+ +--------+ | | + |Since Wednesday | | 28,000 | | 2000 | | | + +-----------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ + + + "Points on or off." + +Purchases for "speculation" remain in the market and therefore figure +again in the sales. These official prices are sometimes prices actually +paid, and sometimes prices settled by a committee according to their +notions of the prices that would have been realized at the close of the +market had business been done. The work of the committee is by no means +simple, as frequently very few transactions take place in the kinds of +cotton of which quotations are given. As regards "middling" American, +the committee fixes "spot" by allowing so many "points on or off" +present month futures. The variations of the gaps between "spot" and +"present month futures" are somewhat mysterious, a matter to which we +shall recur. "Spot" quotations, the reader will now understand, are +partly nominal, and must therefore be taken as affording a general idea +only of movements in the prices of cotton. While quoted "spot" remained +low, the prices paid by most spinners for the special kinds of cotton +that they needed might rise. When the spinner has informed the dealer +exactly what quality of cotton he needs, the dealer quotes so many +"points on or off" the "future" quotations prevailing in Liverpool at +the time of the purchase, which refer to Upland cotton of "middling +grade," of "no staple" and of the worst growth. Then, according as the +spinner wants immediate delivery or delivery in some future month, he +pays the price of current "futures," or of "futures" of the month in +which he requires delivery, plus or minus the "points on or off" +previously fixed. + +The considerations which determine the "points on or off" charged to the +spinner may be taken roughly as three:-- + +1. The grade, i.e. the colour, cleanliness, &c., of the cotton. These +are of importance to the spinner owing to the necessity of his cleaning +machinery being adapted to the condition of the cotton. The lower the +grade the more elaborate and expensive is the machinery required to +clean it, and consequently a spinner is willing to pay a certain amount +extra for high grade cotton in order to save expenditure on preparatory +machinery. + +2. The length of the staple. This determines to a large extent the +fineness of the yarn which can be spun. Only the very lowest counts can +be spun from cotton with "no staple," that is, with a fibre of about +three-quarters of an inch. The longer the staple above the minimum the +higher the counts that can be spun. + +3. The growth. The best American cotton (Sea Island and Florida cotton +are always considered quite apart) is grown in the Mississippi valley, +the next best in Texas, and the poorest on the Uplands (i.e. in Georgia +and Alabama). Considerations of growth determine to a great extent the +hardness or softness, and strength or weakness, of the fibre, and thus, +indirectly, whether the cotton is suitable for warp or weft. + +Some spinners cover their yarn contracts merely by buying "futures," but +the cover thus provided is frequently most inadequate owing to +variations in the "points on or off" for the particular cotton that they +want. For example, after the size of 1904-1905 crops became known, and +the Americans attempted to hold back cotton, the "points on" for many +qualities rose considerably owing to artificial scarcity, though the +price of cotton, as indicated by "spot," remained low. There is a +tendency for cautious spinners in England to run no risks and fix the +prices of their yarn in accordance with quotations for actual cotton of +specified qualities made by their brokers. + + + "Options" and "straddles." + +We now return to exchange "future" transactions regarded as a genus. In +addition to "futures" proper there are "options" and "straddles." +Options are single ("puts" or "calls") or double (that is, alternative +"puts" or "calls"). The "put" is a right to sell cotton within some +specified time in the future at a price fixed in the present, which need +not, of course, be exercised. The "call" is similar, but relates to +buying. It will be evident that the "put" is a hedge against prices +falling, and the "call" a hedge against their rising. The basis of +"options" is the same as that of ordinary "futures," i.e. middling +American cotton of "no staple," &c. Whether the purchaser of an option +gains or loses depends upon the price that he has paid in relation to +the gain, if any, that he makes out of his power. The price of options +of course varies: that of double options is always highest, but they are +little used. A "straddle" is a speculation on the difference between the +prices of nearer and more distant futures, which varies from time to +time, or on the difference between the prices of different kinds of +cotton. An example will make the nature of the straddle clear. Suppose a +dealer buys April-May "futures" at 4d. a lb. and sells the same quantity +of May-June "futures" at 4-10/64d. a lb. Then, whether prices rise or +fall as a whole, he gains if the difference between the two prices +becomes less than 10/64d., but if it becomes more, he loses. On the +other hand, had the dealer bought May-June at 4-10/64d. and sold +April-May at 4d. he would have gained in the event of the difference +increasing, and lost in the event of its decreasing. + + + Measures of steadiness in prices. + +A question which has met with a good deal of attention is whether the +speculation, which has been encouraged by the various arrangements made +for facilitating operations in "futures," has steadied or unsteadied +prices. Before we are prepared to answer this question we must be +furnished with a precise conception of what is meant by "steadiness" in +prices. It is sometimes assumed that this is measured perfectly by the +standard deviation,[6] which is obtained by taking the squares of the +differences between the average and the individual prices, summing them +and extracting the square root. But obviously the information given by +the standard deviation is limited: the frequency of movement cannot be +inferred from it; two series might have quite different average +oscillations and yet the same standard deviation; and the range of +movement, or spread of the variations from the average price (though +allowed for in the standard deviation more than in the average error), +is hidden. Now frequency of movement, average daily price variation, and +range of price movements are matters of fundamental importance to the +public. Hence for practical purposes we require several kinds of +measurement of price movements, and it is impossible to weigh exactly +the one against the other in respect of importance. Observe that an +increase of the frequency of movement, or even of the average daily +movement, is not necessarily objectionable, since changes are less +harassing when they take place by small increments than when they are +brought about by a few big variations. The difference between the +highest and lowest price, we may observe, is a very imperfect indication +of the range of movement (though, taken in conjunction with the standard +deviation, it is the best at our disposal), because either of the +extreme prices might be accidental and quite out of relation to all +others. An investigator must be on his guard against using quotations of +this kind. There is also a difficulty about the frequency of movement, +because as a rule many movements take place in one day the total over a +period sufficiently lengthy to yield general results is enormous, and +many are unrecorded. In one day, for instance, when the net drop was 33 +points and the range of variation 59 points (namely, 8.45 to 7.86), 150 +price fluctuations were recorded. However, the count of frequency of +movement from daily closing prices would probably afford a roughly +satisfactory comparative measurement in markets in which prices +sometimes remain the same for a day or two together. The points just +noted apply also to the average fluctuation and the standard deviation, +but it is probable in these cases that daily or even weekly quotations +would be sufficient to yield the information sought for with sufficient +exactness for purposes of comparison. + + + Effect of speculation on steadiness of prices. + +Now, supposing dealing to be confined to experts, what effects upon the +course of prices would one expect from the specialism of the cotton +market and improved facilities for dealing, on the assumption that +dealers were governed wholly in their actions by the course of prices +and never tried to manipulate them? The frequency of movement ought to +increase because the market would become more sensitive, but, other +things being equal, the range of movement ought to diminish, and +ultimately the average daily movement also, though at first the latter +might not fall appreciably if, indeed, it did not rise, owing to the +increased frequency of movement. These results would prove beneficial to +the community. May we infer deductively that they have been attained +because of the increase of speculative transactions? By no means, and +for two reasons. In the first place, the public speculates to a large +extent on the cotton exchange, and its speculation (taken as a whole) is +sheer gambling. But, it may be replied, the outsiders, being as a whole +completely ignorant of the forces at work, so that they cannot form +rational anticipations, cannot have any effect either way: by the law of +chance their influences would neutralize one another. This would be so +if people acted independently and without guidance, but actually they +are sometimes misled by published advice and movements in the market +intended to deceive them, and, even when they are not, they watch each +other's attitudes and tend to act as a crowd. The mass becomes unduly +sanguine or weakly surrenders to panic. Hence the law of error does not +apply, and speculation by the public may unsteady prices. Again, dealers +sometimes try to create corners and form powerful syndicates for that +purpose: the dealing syndicate of late years has become a force to be +reckoned with. Many large-scale operations are entered into, not because +prices are relatively high or low, but to make them high or low for +ulterior purposes; i.e. the market is deliberately "bulled or beared." +In consequence of this tampering with the market no certainty can be +felt about the effect even of expert dealing. + + + Movement of prices. + +What, then, we may profitably inquire next, has actually happened to +price movements generally as the market has developed? This question can +readily be answered as regards the past forty years or so, for which +material has been collected, but the reader must bear in mind that if +improvement can be traced it cannot logically be attributed +unhesitatingly to the perfecting of the machinery of speculation, +whereby a larger use has been made of "futures," since many other +economic changes have taken place concomitantly and they may have +wrought the major effect. The world may be steadying and steeling its +nerves. Now, turning to the actual effects, we discover somewhat +remarkable facts. Expressed both absolutely and as percentages of the +price averaged from the 1st of October to the 31st of July, the range of +movement, standard deviation, and mean weekly movement calculated +between the times mentioned above (October 1st to July 31st), after +diminishing significantly for some years after the later 'sixties, have +risen appreciably on the whole of late years. The figures in the table +below are from the _Journal of the Royal Statistical Society_, June +1906: quotations for August and September were omitted to avoid the +transition movements between the price levels of two crops. + +In this table measurements of price movements stated both absolutely and +as percentages of price levels are given, because authorities have +expressed doubts as to whether the former or the latter might be +expected to remain constant, other things being equal, when price rose. +On the one hand, it is argued that speculators are affected only by the +absolute variations in price, while on the other hand it is contended +that a movement of one "point," say, is less influential when the price +is about 8d. than when it is about 4d. In response to the first view it +might be argued that if speculators are influenced only by the +differences for which they become liable, a "point" movement would have +a somewhat slighter effect on their action, other things being equal, +when price was high, because, supplies being relatively short, each of +them would tend to be engaged in a smaller volume of transactions +measured in quantity of cotton, than when supplies were larger. But the +point need not be discussed further here, since both percentage and +absolute indices of unsteadiness have risen of late years. The +explanation of this change in the direction of indices of steadiness +cannot be proved to consist in any peculiarity in the supplies of recent +years. But the dealing syndicate has probably been of late more common +and more powerful--that is, the syndicate which exists to make profits +out of manipulating the market--and the public has probably been +speculating increasingly. It is plausible, then, to suppose that the +dealing syndicate primarily, and the speculations of the public +secondarily (secondarily, because in all likelihood the effect of its +operation would be much less in magnitude), may account for the change. + + Table calculated from Weekly Prices between the 1st of October and the + 31st of July in each Year. + + +--------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ + | | Expressed as Per- | + | | centage of Average | + | |(1 Oct. to 31 July) | + | | Weekly Prices. | + +---------+---------+---------+---------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | | | | |Range of|Stan- | Mean |Range |Stan- | Mean | + | Year. | Average | Lowest | Highest | Move- |dard |Weekly| of |dard |Weekly| + | | Price. | Price. | Price. | ment. |Devia-|Move- |Move- |Devia-|Move- | + | | | | | |tion. | ment.|ment. |tion. | ment.| + +---------+---------+---------+---------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | | d. | d. | d. | d. | d. | d. | d. | d. | d. | + |1867-1868| 9-5/8 | 7-3/8 |12-7/8 | 5-1/2 | 1.74 | 0.31 | 57.1 | 18.1 | 3.22 | + |1868-1869|11-1/2 |10-1/2 |12-5/8 | 2-1/8 | 0.58 | 0.19 | 18.5 | 5.0 | 1.65 | + |1869-1870|11-1/8 | 7-3/4 |12-3/8 | 4-5/8 | 0.92 | 0.23 | 41.6 | 8.3 | 2.07 | + |1870-1871| 8-1/8 | 7-3/16 | 9-3/16 | 2 | 0.65 | 0.17 | 24.6 | 8.0 | 2.09 | + |1871-1872|10-7/8 | 9-3/8 |11-1/2 | 2-1/8 | 0.75 | 0.15 | 19.5 | 6.9 | 1.38 | + |1872-1873| 9-3/4 | 8-3/4 |10-5/16 | 1-9/16 | 0.53 | 0.10 | 16.9 | 5.7 | 1.08 | + |1873-1874| 8-5/16 | 7-3/4 | 9-1/8 | 1-3/8 | 0.32 | 0.10 | 16.5 | 3.9 | 1.20 | + |1874-1875| 7-11/16 | 6-15/16 | 8 | 1-1/16 | 0.26 | 0.07 | 13.8 | 3.4 | 0.89 | + |1875-1876| 6-1/2 | 5-7/8 | 7-1/8 | 1-1/4 | 0.37 | 0.08 | 19.2 | 5.7 | 1.23 | + |1876-1877| 6-5/16 | 5-7/8 | 7 | 1-1/8 | 0.33 | 0.11 | 17.8 | 5.2 | 1.74 | + |1877-1878| 6-3/4 | 5-7/8 | 6-9/16 | 1-11/16| 0.21 | 0.07 | 11.0 | 3.4 | 1.12 | + |1878-1879| 6 | 4-15/16 | 7-3/28 | 2-1/4 | 0.67 | 0.13 | 37.5 | 11.2 | 2.17 | + |1879-1880| 7 | 6-10/16 | 7-3/8 | 1-3/4 | 0.24 | 0.12 | 10.7 | 3.4 | 1.71 | + |1880-1881| 6-5/16 | 5-3/4 | 6-13/16 | 1-1/16 | 0.34 | 0.08 | 16.8 | 5.4 | 1.27 | + |1881-1882| 6-5/8 | 6-3/8 | 7-1/16 | 11/16 | 0.15 | 0.07 | 10.4 | 2.3 | 1.06 | + |1882-1883| 5-13/16 | 5-7/16 | 6-5/8 | 1-3/16 | 0.31 | 0.07 | 20.4 | 5.3 | 1.20 | + |1883-1884| 6-1/16 | 5-3/4 | 6-7/16 | 11/16 | 0.20 | 0.08 | 11.3 | 3.3 | 1.32 | + |1884-1885| 5-13/16 | 5-7/16 | 6-1/8 | 11/16 | 0.19 | 0.07 | 11.8 | 3.3 | 1.20 | + |1885-1886| 5-1/8 | 4-3/4 | 5-8/16 | 3/4 | 0.18 | 0.07 | 14.5 | 3.5 | 1.35 | + |1886-1887| 5-7/16 | 5-1/8 | 6 | 7/8 | 0.28 | 0.05 | 16.1 | 5.2 | 0.92 | + |1887-1888| 5-1/2 | 5-3/16 | 5-11/16 | 1/2 | 0.14 | 0.05 | 9.1 | 2.5 | 0.91 | + |1888-1889| 5-3/4 | 5-5/16 | 6-3/16 | 7/8 | 0.23 | 0.06 | 15.0 | 4.0 | 1.04 | + |1889-1890| 6-1/8 | 5-9/16 | 6-11/16 | 1/8 | 0.34 | 0.08 | 18.4 | 5.5 | 1.31 | + |1890-1891| 5 | 4-3/8 | 5-3/4 | 1-3/8 | 0.36 | 0.06 | 27.5 | 7.2 | 1.20 | + |1891-1892| 4-1/8 | 3-6/16 | 4-15/16 | 1-3/8 | 0.36 | 0.07 | 33.3 | 8.7 | 1.70 | + |1892-1893| 4-3/4 | 4-1/8 | 5-15/16 | 1-3/16 | 0.37 | 0.09 | 25.0 | 7.8 | 1.89 | + |1893-1894| 4-1/4 | 3-29/32 | 4-11/16 | 25/32 | 0.22 | 0.04 | 18.4 | 5.2 | 0.94 | + |1894-1895| 3-3/8 | 2-31/32 | 3-7/8 | 9/32 | 0.30 | 0.06 | 26.9 | 8.9 | 1.79 | + |1895-1896| 4-3/8 | 3-3/4 | 4-27/32 | 3/32 | 0.28 | 0.07 | 25.0 | 6.4 | 1.60 | + |1896-1897| 4-3/16 | 3-25/32 | 4-11/16 | 29/32 | 0.22 | 0.07 | 21.6 | 5.2 | 1.67 | + |1897-1898| 3-13/32 | 3-3/16 | 3-13/16 | 5/8 | 0.18 | 0.05 | 18.5 | 5.3 | 1.47 | + |1898-1899| 3-9/32 | 3 | 3-15/32 | 15/32 | 0.15 | 0.04 | 14.3 | 4.6 | 1.22 | + |1899-1900| 4-15/16 | 3-29/32 | 6-1/16 | 25/32 | 0.63 | 0.12 | 43.6 | 12.8 | 2.48 | + |1900-1901| 5-1/8 | 4-5/16 | 6-1/2 | 2-3/16 | 0.53 | 0.13 | 42.7 | 10.3 | 2.54 | + |1901-1902| 4-3/4 | 4-9/32 | 5-11/32 | 1-1/16 | 0.24 | 0.09 | 22.4 | 5.0 | 1.89 | + |1902-1903| 5.35 | 4.42 | 7.12 | 2.70 | 0.78 | 0.13 | 50.5 | 14.6 | 2.43 | + |1903-1904| 7.04 | 5.78 | 8.92 | 3.14 | 0.91 | 0.33 | 44.4 | 12.9 | 4.83 | + |1904-1905| 4.86 | 3.63 | 6.01 | 2.38 | 0.71 | 0.15 | 48.9 | 14.6 | 3.09 | + +---------+---------+---------+---------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+ + + + Price movements in different markets. + +"Futures" are not used in all markets--for instance, they are not to be +found at Bremen; and in those in which they are used they play parts of +different prominence--at Havre, for instance, the transactions in +"futures" are of incomparably less relative importance than they are at +Liverpool. But it is futile to seek the effect of much dealing in +"futures" in the differences between price movements in the various +markets, because (1) demand expresses itself in different ways--in +Germany, for example, spinners buy to hold large stocks--and (2) the +markets are in telegraphic communication, so that their price movements +are kept parallel. Mr Hooker has shown with reference to the wheat +market how close is the correlation between prices in different +places,[7] and the same has been observed of the cotton market, though +the correlations have not been worked out.[8] It is worthy of note that +Liverpool "futures" are largely used for hedging by continental cotton +dealers. + + +----------------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+------+------+-----+------+ + | | | Jan.-| Feb.-| Mar.-| Apr.-| May- | June-|July-|Aug.-| Sep.-| Oct.-|Nov.-| Dec. | + | |Spot.| Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | Jun. | July |Aug. |Sep. | Oct. | Nov. |Dec. | Jan. | + +----------------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+------+------+-----+------+ + |Nov. 18th, 1895 | 4.34|27 |28 |28-1/2|29-1/2|31 |32 |3 | .. | .. | .. | 27 |27 | + |Jan. 18th, 1899 | 3.8 | 6-1/2| 6-1/2| 7-1/2| 8-1/2| 9-1/2|10-1/2|1-1/2| 12 |12-1/2| .. | .. | 6-1/2| + |Sept. 14th, 1899| 3.36|24-1/2|25 |25-1/2|26 |27 | .. | .. | 30 |28 |26-1/2| 25 |24-1/2| + +----------------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+------+------+-----+------+ + + + Differences between the prices of near and distant "futures." + +Conceivably some indication of the working of "futures" might be gleaned +from observation of the relations of near and distant "futures" to one +another and of both to "spot." The complete explanation of changes in +these relations is still a mystery.[9] Probably an infinitude of subtle +influences came into play, and among these there seems reason to include +the intentional and unintentional "bulling" or "bearing" of the market. +Some examples of the diverse relations to be found, even when all the +"futures" fall in the same crop year, may be quoted here--quotations +running into the new crop year are obviously affected by anticipations +of the new crop. + +As we pass from the "future" of the month in which the quotation is made +to the most distant "future" it will be observed that in the first and +second cases price rises continuously, in the second case even passing +"spot," whereas in the third case it falls first and then rises. +Instances might be given of its falling unintermittently. It seems a +plausible conjecture that if "futures" were "bulling" the market in the +first case, they were at least "bulling" it less in the second case +_ceteris paribus_, and probably "bearing" it in the last case. A closer +examination will reveal further that the magnitude of these gaps varies +a great deal; and if the "futures" do "bear" and "bull," as has been +supposed, they probably influence these magnitudes. It might be thought +that the "futures" of different months, being substitutes in proportion +to their temporal proximity to one another, should vary together +exactly; but it would seem to be a sufficient reply that as they are not +perfect substitutes they are in some slight degree independent +variables. The "spot" market might be judged generally as too high, in +view of crops and the probable normal demand of the year, but it might +not therefore drop immediately, owing partly to the pressure of demand +that must be satisfied instantaneously. "Current futures" would be +affected more than "spot" by this impression as to the relation of +"spot" to a conceived normal price for the year, and they might +therefore be expected to drop more than "spot" when this impression was +at all widely entertained. But the fall of "current futures" would be +checked by the demands that must be satisfied in the near future. +Probably the prices of the more distant "futures" are determined in a +higher degree by far-reaching imagination than the prices of nearer +futures. This explains what has been called above the unintentional +"bearing" of "spot" by "futures." And it is immediately evident that the +deliberate "bear" works by selling "futures," and that the effect of his +sales is propagated to "spot." These statements are equally true of +"bulling." The influence of expectations of the new crop on "futures" +running into the new crop is plain on inspection; but owing to the gap +between the two crop years it would be astonishing if "futures" against +which cotton from a new crop could be delivered were not appreciably +independent of "spot" at the time of their quotation. However, it is +noticeable that they are still so closely bound up with "futures" +culminating in the old crop year that the daily movements of the former +are closely correlated with those of the latter. Concluding cautiously, +we may admit the probability of the relations between near and distant +"futures" and "spot" (even in respect of "futures" running out in the +same crop year) indicating sometimes at least the intentional or +unintentional "bulling" or "bearing" or "spot" by "futures." But nothing +has yet been proved from these facts as to the effect "futures" are +having upon the steadiness of prices. In the case of any crop year, if +the relations which are suggested as indicating the "bulling" work of +"futures" usually corresponded with "spot" prices being below the normal +price of the crop year, or of what was left of the crop year, while the +relations which are suggested to indicate the "bearing" work of +"futures" on the whole corresponded with a relatively abnormal height of +"spot," it would be a legitimate inference that "futures" were tending +to smooth prices. However, it is made clear as the result of an +elaborate examination that the generality of these correspondences +cannot be affirmed.[10] The outcome of the whole matter is that the +investigator is still baffled in his attempt to discover what effect the +use of "futures" is having upon prices to-day. The sole piece of +evidence, from which probable conclusions may be drawn, is that three +separate measurements of price fluctuations over some forty years reveal +a growing unsteadiness of late, whether they be expressed absolutely or +as percentages of price. + + + Recent attempts to open up new cotton-fields. + +The uneasiness caused by the excessive dependence of Great Britain upon +the United States for cotton, coupled with the belief that shortages of +supply are more frequent than they ought to be, and the fear that +diminishing returns may operate in America, occasioned the formation in +England of the British Cotton Growing Association on the 12th of June +1902. The proportions of England's supplies drawn from different fields +is indicated in the table below. + +British dependence on American supplies is greater even than that of the +continent of Europe, for Russia possesses some internal supplies, and +more Indian cotton is used in continental countries than in England. + + _Average Quantities of Raw Cotton imported Annually into the United + Kingdom from the following Countries in the Periods 1896-1900 and + 1901-1904._ + + +----------------------------------------+-------------+-------------+ + | Country | 1896-1900. | 1901-1904. | + | | Million lb. | Million lb. | + +----------------------------------------+-------------+-------------+ + | United States | 1436 | 1424 | + | Brazil | 13.8 | 31.5 | + | Peru | 8.5 | 8.6 | + | Chile (including the Pacific coast of | .8 | 2.2 | + | Patagonia) | | | + | Venezuela and Republic of Colombia | .5 | .5 | + | British West Indies and British Guiana | .3 | .6 | + | Turkey (European and Asiatic) | .5 | 1.1 | + | Egypt | 295.7 | 314.4 | + | British possessions in the East Indies | 40.7 | 61.9 | + | Australasia | .035 | .041 | + | All other countries | 2.3 | 3.8 | + | +-------------+-------------+ + | Total | 1800 | 1849 | + | +-------------+-------------+ + | Re-exported | 223 | 260 | + +----------------------------------------+-------------+-------------+ + +The annual average shipments from Bombay to the European continent and +to Great Britain in 1900-1904 were as follows:-- + + To the continent 600 bales of 3-1/2 cwt. + To Great Britain 50 " " " + +At the end of the 18th century the bulk of British cotton was obtained +from the West Indies. Approximately the supplies were as follows in +million lb.:-- + + British West Indies 6.6 + French and Spanish settlements 6 + Dutch settlements 1.7 + Portuguese " 2.5 + East Indies " .1 + Smyrna or Turkey 5.7 + +The British Cotton Growing Association works under the sanction of a +royal charter and has met with valuable official support. Financial +assistance and assurances as to sales and prices have been given +liberally by the association where they are needed; ginning and buying +centres have been established; experts have been engaged to distribute +seed and afford instruction; and some land has been acquired for working +under the direct management of the association. The governments of some +colonies have aided the efforts of the association. Professor Wyndham +Dunstan of the Imperial Institute, on a reference from the government, +made favourable reports as to the possibilities of extending cotton +cultivation. The results may be seen in the approximate estimates below +of cotton grown more or less directly under the auspices of the +association. + + _Bales of 400 lb._ + + +-------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+ + | | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906. | + +-------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+ + | Gambia | 50 | 100 | 300 | .. | + | Sierra Leone | 50 | 100 | 200 | 250 | + | Gold Coast | 50 | 150 | 200 | 250 | + | Lagos | 500 | 2,000 | 3,200 | 6,300 | + | Nigeria | 100 | 200 | 650 | 1,200 | + | | ----- | ----- | ----- | ----- | + | West Africa | 750 | 2,550 | 4,550 | 8,000 | + | West Indies | 1,000 | 2,000 | 4,000 | 6,000 | + | East Africa | 150 | 850 | 2,000 | 3,500 | + | Sind | .. | .. | 500 | 2,000 | + | Sundries | .. | 100 | 250 | 500 | + +-------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+ + | Total | 1,900 | 5,500 | 11,300 | 20,000 | + +-------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+ + | Approximate value |L29,000 |L75,000 | L150,000 | L270,000 | + +-------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+ + +In the West Indies results are most favourable, both as regards quantity +and quality of the crops. West Indian grown cotton has realized even +higher prices than American grown Sea Island. In West Africa also +prospects appear encouraging. In Sierra Leone little success has been +met with, but on the Gold Coast some cotton better than middling +American has been grown, and the association has concluded an agreement +with the government for an extension of its work. In Lagos crops +increased rapidly. The cotton is almost entirely grown by natives in +small patches round their villages, and generally it has sold for about +the same price as middling American, though some of it realized as much +as 25 to 30 "points on." The quality in greatest demand in England, it +should be observed, is worth about 1/4d. to 1/2d. per lb. above middling +American. In Southern Nigeria the association has met with only slight +success; in Northern Nigeria, a working arrangement was entered into +with the Niger Company, and a small ginning establishment was set to +work in February 1906. In British Central Africa, the results on the +whole have not been satisfactory. Though planters who confined their +efforts to the lower lying grounds--of which there is a fairly large +tract--succeeded, all the cotton planted on the highlands proved more or +less a failure. In Uganda the association took no steps, but activity in +cotton-growing is not unknown, and some good cotton is being produced. +Arrangements were concluded with the British South Africa Company for +the formation of a small syndicate for working in Rhodesia. + +The general movement for the extension of cotton cultivation was +welcomed by the International Congress of representatives of master +cotton spinners and manufacturers' associations at the meeting at Zurich +in May 1904. It placed on record "its cordial appreciation of the +efforts of those governments and institutions which have already +supported cotton-growing in their respective colonies." England is +pre-eminent but not alone in the matter. Germany and France, and in a +less degree Belgium, Portugal and Italy, have taken some steps. Russia, +too, is developing her internal supplies. + +The advantages that might accrue from the wider distribution of +cotton-growing are mainly fourfold, (1) Greater elasticity of supply +might be caused. It is probably easier to extend the area under cotton +rapidly when crops are raised from many places in proximity to other +crops than when the mass of the cotton is obtained from a few highly +specialized districts. Possibly the advantages of specialism might be +retained and yet the elasticity of supply be enhanced. (2) Greater +stability of crops in proportion to area cultivated is hoped for. The +eggs are now too much in one basket, and local disease, or bad weather, +or some other misfortune, may diminish by serious percentages the +supplies anticipated. Were there numerous important centres, the bad +fortune of one would be more adequately offset by the good fortune of +another. (3) Desirable variations in the raw material might conceivably +eventuate from the introduction of cotton to spots in the globe where +its growth was previously unknown or little regarded. The results of the +enterprise of Mehemet Ali and Jumel in Egypt prove such an idea to be +not altogether fanciful, and warn us also against hastily arguing that +the plan is too artificial to succeed on a large scale. Without the +active intervention of a strong body of interested parties it is +sometimes unlikely that new industries will be undertaken even in places +well suited for them. (4) Lastly, the countries to which cotton-growing +is carried should gain in prosperity. + + + The Cotton Supply Association. + +The general difficulties in the way of the British Cotton Growing +Association are many and will be sufficiently evident. Lessons of value +may be learnt from the fate of similar work undertaken by the Cotton +Supply Association, which was instituted in April 1857. According to its +fifth report, it originated "in the prospective fears of a portion of +the trade that some dire calamity must inevitably, sooner or later, +overtake the cotton manufacture of Lancashire, whose vast superstructure +had so long rested upon the treacherous foundation of restricted slave +labour as the main source of supply for its raw material."[11] Its +methods were stated to be: "To afford information to every country +capable of producing cotton, both by the diffusion of printed directions +for its cultivation, and sending competent teachers of cotton planting +and cleaning, and by direct communication with Christian missionaries +whose aid and co-operation it solicits; to supply, gratuitously, in the +first instance, the best seeds to natives in every part of the world who +are willing to receive them; to give prizes for the extended cultivation +of cotton; and to lend gins and improved machines for cleaning and +preparing cotton." Though the association brought about an extension and +improvement of the Indian crop, in which result it was enormously +assisted by the high prices consequent upon the American Civil War, it +sank after a few years into obscurity, and soon passed out of existence +altogether, while the effects of its work dwindled finally into +insignificance. Much the same had been the ultimate outcome of the +spasmodic attempt of the British government to bring about the +introduction of cotton to new districts, after it had been pressed to +take some action a few years prior to the formation of the Cotton Supply +Association. A Mr Clegg, who afterwards interested himself keenly in the +activities of the Cotton Supply Association reported that in the course +of a tour in 1855 through the Eastern countries bordering on the +Mediterranean he had found none of the gins presented by the British +government at work or workable. + +BIBLIOGRAPHY.--On the question of cotton supplies, as treated in this +article, the reader may be referred to _Brook's Cotton, its Uses, &c._; +Dabney's _Cotton Plant_ (Department of Agriculture of the United +States); Foaden's _Cotton Culture in Egypt_; Dunstan's _Report on Cotton +Cultivation_ for the British government; Oppel's _Die Baumwolle_; +Leconte's _Le Coton_; publications of the British Cotton Growing +Association; _Report_ of the Lancashire Commission on the possibility of +extending cotton cultivation in the Southern States of North America; +Watt's _Lancashire and the Cotton Famine_; publications of the old +Cotton Supply Association (many will be found in the Manchester public +library in the volume marked "677 I. C. ii."), including their weekly +paper, _The Cotton Supply Reporter_; Hammond's _Cotton Culture and +Trade_. On methods of marketing to certain portions of the above must be +added: Ellison's _Cotton Trade of Great Britain_; Chapman's _Lancashire +Cotton Industry_ (ch. vii.); articles by Chapman and Knoop in the +_Economic Journal_ (December, 1904) and the _Journal of the Royal +Statistical Society_ (April, 1906); Emery's _Speculation on Stock and +Produce Exchanges of the United States_ (small portions of which relate +to cotton). Many statistics will be found in the works mentioned, and +these may be supplemented from the trade publications of different +countries. Many valuable figures of cotton imports, &c., in early years +will be found in Baines' _History of the Cotton Trade_. Recent +statistics bearing upon cotton are collected annually in the two +publications, Shepperson's _Cotton Facts_ and Jones's _Handbook for +Daily Cable Records of Cotton Crop Statistics_. For current information +the following may be added: Nield's, Ellison's and Tattersall's +circulars; _Cotton_ (the publication of the Manchester Cotton +Association); and daily reports and articles in the local press. Price +curves are published by Messrs Turner, Routledge & Co. (S. J. C.) + + +COTTON GOODS AND YARN + +The two great sections of the cotton industry are _yarn_ and _cloth_, +and in Great Britain the production of both of these is mainly in South +Lancashire, though the area extends to parts of Cheshire, Yorkshire and +Derbyshire, and there is a Scottish branch, besides certain isolated +ventures in other parts of the country. Though there are local rivalries +there is nothing in competitive division to compare with the northern +and southern sections in America, and the British industry is, for its +size, more homogeneous than most of the European industries. Both +operatives and employers are highly organized and both parties are able +to make articulate contribution to the solution of the various problems +connected with the trade. + +_Cotton Yarn._--The yarn trade is mainly in the hands of limited +companies, and a private firm is looked upon as something of a survival +from the past. The two great centres of production are Oldham, in which +American cotton is chiefly, though not exclusively, spun, and Bolton, +which spins the finer counts from Egyptian or Sea Island cotton. +Spinning mills are established, however, in most of the large Lancashire +towns as well as in some parts of Cheshire and in Yorkshire, where there +is a considerable industry in doubling yarns. The centre of trade is the +Manchester Royal Exchange, and though some companies or firms prefer to +do business by means of their own salaried salesmen, managers or +directors, most of the yarn is sold by agents. Frequently a single agent +has the consignment of the whole of a company's yarn, but many spinners, +especially those whose business connexion is not perfectly assured, +prefer to have more outlets than can be explored by an individual. At +times of bad trade even those who usually depend on their own resources +seek the aid of experienced agents, who sometimes find a grievance if +their services are rejected when trade improves and sales are made +easily. + +Yarn is sold upon various terms, but a regular custom in the home trade +is for the spinner to allow 4% discount, for payment in 14 days, of +which 2-1/2 goes to the buyer, who is commonly a manufacturer, and 1-1/2 +to the agent for sale and guaranteeing the account. In selling yarn for +export it is usual to allow the buyer only 1-1/2% for payment in 14 +days, or in some cases the discount is at the rate of 5% per annum for 3 +months, which is equivalent to 1-1/4%. + +The great bulk of the yarn spun in Great Britain ranges between +comparatively narrow limits of count, and such staples as 32^s to 36^s +twist and 36^s to 46^s weft in American, 50^s to 60^s twist and 42^s to +62^s weft in Egyptian, make up a large part of the total. It is +nevertheless the experience of yarn salesmen that Lancashire produces an +increasingly large amount of specialities that indicate a continued +differentiation in trade. The tendency to spin finer counts has been to +some extent counteracted by the development of the flannelette trade, +for which heavy wefts are used, and there has been again a tendency +lately to use "condensor" or waste wefts, which has worked to the +disadvantage of the spinners of the regular coarse counts spun at Royton +and elsewhere. The demand for cloths which require careful handling and +regularity in weaving has helped to develop the supply of ring yarns +which will stand the strain of the loom better than mule twists. A great +amount of doubled and trebled yarn is now sold, though it does not +appear that recent expansions have added much to doubling spindles, and +considerable developments continue in the use of dyed and mercerized +yarns. + +Yarns are sold according to their "actual" counts, though when they are +woven into cloth they frequently attain nominal or brevet rank. There +has been a long-continued discussion, which between buyer and seller +sometimes degenerates into a dispute, on the subject of moisture in +yarns, and the difficulty is not confined to the Lancashire industry. +The amount permissible, according to the recommendation of the +Manchester Chamber of Commerce, is 8%, but while it may be assumed that +yarns at the time of their sale rarely contain less than this, they +frequently contain a good deal more. It is a matter of experience that +cotton yarns which when spun contain only a small percentage of moisture +will absorb up to about 8% when they are exposed to what may be rather +vaguely described as natural conditions. The exigencies of competition +prompted the discovery that if yarn were sold by weight fresh from the +spindle its comparative dryness made such early sale less profitable +than if it were allowed to "condition." Between loss and delay the +spinner found an obvious alternative in damping the yarn artificially. +As it was often clearly to the advantage of the buyer that he should +receive immediate delivery he did not object to water in moderation, but +art soon began to run a little ahead of nature. The essentially +dishonest practice of deluging yarn with water, which has sometimes even +degenerated into the use of weighting materials deleterious to weaving, +has been recognized as a great nuisance, but while various attempts have +been made to protect the buyer the question seems to have pretty well +settled itself on the principles which commonly rule the sales of +commodities between those who intend to do business continuously. The +spinner who persists in over-weighting his yarn finds it difficult to +obtain "repeat" orders. + +A remarkable point in the Lancashire yarn trade is the looseness of the +contracts between spinner and manufacturer. Doubtless some kind of sale +note or acknowledgment usually passes between them, but in the home +trade at least it is quite usual to leave the question of delivery an +open one. It would not be correct to say that this system or want of +system is satisfactory, but the trade manages to rub along very well +with it, although inconveniences and disagreements sometimes arise when +prices have advanced or declined considerably. Thus when prices have +advanced the manufacturer may find it difficult to obtain delivery of +the yarn that he had bought at low rates, for some spinners have a +curious, indefensible preference for delivering their higher-priced +orders; and, on the other hand, when prices have fallen the manufacturer +sometimes ceases to take delivery of the high-priced yarn and actually +purchases afresh for his needs. Yet positive repudiation is very rare +though compromises are not uncommon, and a good many illogical +arrangements are made that imply forbearance and amity. Litigation in +the yarn trade is very unusual, and Lancashire traders generally have +only vague notions of the bearing of law upon their transactions, and a +wholesome dread of the experience that would lead to better knowledge. + + The average yearly values of the exports of cotton, yarn and cloth + from Great Britain for the decades 1881-1890 and 1891-1900 + respectively, are given by Professor Chapman in his _Cotton Industry + and Trade_, in million pounds:-- + + 1881-1890. 1891-1900. + Cloth L60.4 L57.3 + Yarn 12.3 9.3 + ----- ----- + Total L72.7 L66.6 + + During the earlier decade the prices of cotton were comparatively + high. + + The whole of the cloth exports represent, of course, a corresponding + home trade in yarns. The following table, taken from the _Manchester + Guardian_, gives in thousands of lb. the amounts of cotton yarns + exported from Great Britain during 1903, 1904 and 1905 respectively, + according to the Board of Trade returns, together with the average + value per lb. for each of the countries:-- + + +-----------------------------+--------------+---------------+--------------+ + | | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | + | +-------+------+-------+-------+-------+------+ + | | |Price | | Price | | Price| + | | lb.* | per | lb.* | per | lb.* | per | + | | | lb. | | lb. | | lb. | + +-----------------------------+-------+------+-------+-------+-------+------+ + | | | d. | | d. | | d. | + | Russia | 814| 30.22| 713| 30.71| 557| 30.66| + | Sweden | 1,526| 11.00| 1,486| 12.55| 1,512| 11.12| + | Norway | 1,656| 9.54| 1,511| 11.05| 1,606| 9.73| + | Denmark | 2,429| 8.91| 2,368| 10.18| 2,860| 9.51| + | Germany | 27,239| 16.05| 40,295| .27| 39,513| 16.38| + | Netherlands | 29,591| 9.10| 29,384| 10.48| 37,341| 8.93| + | Belgium | 3,970| 15.89| 5,864| 16.50| 7,205| 16.12| + | France | 3,974| 17.59| 3,084| 20.01| 3,518| 22.64| + | Italy | 204| 21.78| 174| 24.70| 204| 22.21| + | Austria-Hungary | 2,662| 11.60| 3,329| 14.36| 3,066| 13.36| + | Rumania | 4,608| 8.55| 5,072| 10.13| 7,856| 9.73| + | Turkey | 12,966| 8.93| 14,253| 10.05| 17,389| 9.37| + | Egypt | 4,590| 8.66| 4,381| 9.83| 4,382| 8.59| + | China (including Hong-Kong) | 4,660| 9.45| 2,457| 10.24| 8,441| 8.70| + | Japan | 1,406| 12.98| 681| 11.46| 4,071| 13.99| + | British India-- | | | | | | | + | Bombay | 6,286| 10.80| 8,145| 11.88| 13,112| 10.86| + | Madras | 6,683| 11.07| 8,288| 12.48| 10,930| 11.91| + | Bengal | 6,777| 11.04| 6,596| 12.82| 11,068| 11.20| + | Burma | 5,611| 12.17| 3,388| 12.39| 4,211| 12.31| + | Straits Settlements | 1,945| 10.81| 1,137| 11.57| 2,149| 10.71| + | Ceylon | 33| 11.92| 44| 16.51| 42| 13.55| + | Other countries | 21,129| 12.39| 21,252| 13.28| 23,970| 12.43| + | +-------+------+-------+-------+-------+------+ + | Total and average |150,758| 11.79|163,901| 13.11|205,001| 12.08| + +-----------------------------+-------+------+-------+-------+-------+------+ + * 000 omitted. + + It should be understood, however, that in some cases the Board of + Trade figures represent only an approximation to the ultimate + distribution, as the exports are sometimes assigned to the + intermediate country, and in particular it is understood that a + considerable part of the yarn sent to the Netherlands is destined for + Germany or Austria. The large business done in yarns with the + continent of Europe is in some respects an extension of the British + home trade, though certain countries have their own specialities. A + considerable business is done with European countries in doubled yarns + and in fine counts of Egyptian, including "gassed" yarns, which are + also sent intermittently to Japan. "Extra hard" yarns are sent to + Rumania and other Near Eastern markets, and Russia, as the average + price indicates, buys sparingly of very fine yarns. The trade with the + Far East, which, though not very large for any one market, is + important in the aggregate, is a good deal specialized, and since the + development of Indian and Japanese cotton mills some of the trade in + the coarser counts has been lost. The various Indian markets take + largely of 40^s mule twist and in various proportions of 30^s mule, + water twists, two-folds grey and bleached, fine Egyptian counts and + dyed yarns. China also takes 40^s mule, water twists and two-folds. + The general export of yarn varies according to influences such as + tariff charges, spinning and manufacturing development in the + importing countries and the price of cotton. A particular effect of + high-priced piece-goods is seen in various Eastern countries that are + still partly dependent on an indigenous hand-loom industry. The big + price of imported cloths throws the native consumer to some extent + upon the local goods, and so stimulates the imports of yarn. It + appears that as the native industries decline the weaving section + persists longer than the spinning section. + +_Cotton Goods._--Cotton goods are of an infinite variety, and the titles +that experience or fancy have evoked are even more numerous than the +kinds. Descriptions of the following fabrics, which are not of course +invariably made of cotton, will be found in separate articles: BAIZE, +BANDANA, BOMBAZINE, BROCADE, CALICO, CAMBRIC, CANVAS, CHINTZ, CORDUROY, +CRAPE, CRETONNE, DENIM, DIMITY, DRILL, DUCK, FLANNELETTE, FUSTIAN, +GAUZE, GINGHAM, LONGCLOTH, MOLESKIN, MULL, MUSLIN, NANKEEN, PRINT, REP, +TICKING, TWILL, VELVETEEN. The following are notes on other varieties. + +_Grey cloth_ is a comprehensive term that includes unbleached cotton +cloth generally. It may be a nice question whether "yellow" would not +have been the more nearly correct description. A very large proportion +of the Lancashire export trade is in grey goods and a smaller yet +considerable proportion of the home trade. + +_Shirting_, which has long since ceased to refer exclusively to shirt +cloths, includes a large proportion of Lancashire manufacture. Grey and +white shirtings are exported to all the principal Eastern markets and +also to Near Eastern, European, South American, &c. markets. Certain +staple kinds, such as 39 in. 37-1/2 yd. 8-1/4 lb. 16 x 15 (threads to +the 1/4 in.), largely exported to China and India, are made in various +localities and by many manufacturers. The length quoted is to some +extent a conventional term, as the pieces in many cases actually measure +considerably more. The export shirting trade is done mainly on "repeat" +orders for well-known "chops" or marks. These trade marks are sometimes +the property of the manufacturer, but more commonly of the exporter. +Generally the China markets use rather better qualities than the Indian +markets. The principal China market for shirtings and other staple goods +is Shanghai, which holds a large stock and distributes to minor markets. +A considerable trade is also done through Hong-Kong and other Far +Eastern ports. The principal Indian markets are Calcutta, Bombay, +Karachi and Madras. + +_Shirt-cloth_ is the term more commonly applied to what is actually used +in the manufacture of shirts, and it may be used for either plain or +fancy goods. + +_Sheeting_ has two meanings in the cotton trade: (1) the ordinary bed +sheeting, usually a stout cloth of anything from 45 in. to 120 in. wide +(the extremes being used on the one hand for children's cots or ship +bunks and on the other for old-fashioned four-posters), which may be +either plain or twilled, bleached, unbleached or half-bleached; (2) a +grey calico, heavier than a shirting, sent largely to China and other +markets, usually 36 in. by 40 yd. and weighing about 12 lb. American +sheetings compete with Lancashire goods in the China market. The _Cabot_ +is a kind of heavy sheeting, and for the Levant markets the name as a +trade mark is said to be the exclusive property of an American firm, +although the general class is known by the name and supplied by other +firms. + +_Mexican_ is a plain, heavy grey calico, sometimes heavily sized. The +origin of the word is doubtful, and it seems to be an arbitrary term. +Mexicans are exported to various markets and also used in the home +trade. For export the dimensions are commonly 32 or 36 in. by 24 yd., +and a usual count is 18 x 18. In the Mexican the yarns were originally +of nearly the same weight and number of threads to the 1/4 in., an +arrangement which gave the cloth an even appearance, thus differing from +the "pin-head" or medium makes. Now, however, Mexicans are often made +with lighter wefts, though the name is usually applied to the better +class of cloths of the particular character. _Punjum_ is a Mexican, +generally 36 yd. in length, sent mainly to the South African market. + +_T Cloth_ is a plain grey calico, similar in kind to the Mexican and +exported to the same markets. There is no absolute distinction between +the two cloths, but the T cloth is generally lower in quality than the +Mexican. The name seems to have been originally an arbitrary +identification or trade mark. + +_Domestic_, a name originally used in the sense of "home-made," is +applied especially to home-made cotton goods in the United States. In +Great Britain it is employed rather loosely, but commonly to describe +the kind of cloth which if exported would be called a Mexican. It may be +either bleached or unbleached. + +_Medium_ is a plain calico, grey or bleached, of medium weight, used +principally in the home and colonial trade. The word is sometimes +particularly applied to cloths with a comparatively heavy weft, the +distinction being made between the even "Mexican make" and the +"pin-head" or "medium-make." + +_Raising-cloths_ are of various kinds and may be merely mediums with a +heavy weft, or "condensor" weft made from waste yarns. The essence of +the raising-cloth is a weft that will provide plenty of nap and yet have +sufficient fibre to maintain the strength of the web. + +_Wigan_ is a name derived from the town Wigan and seems to have been +originally applied to a stiff canvas-like cloth used for lining skirts. +Now it is commonly applied to medium or heavy makes of calico. + +_Double-warp_, as its name implies, is a cloth with a twofold warp. It +is usually a strong serviceable material and may be either twilled or +plain. Sheetings for home trade are often double-warp, and double-warp +twills and Wigans were and are used for the old-fashioned type of men's +night-shirts. + +_Croydon_, which seems to be an arbitrary trade name, is a heavy, +bleached, plain calico, usually stiff and glossy in finish. It used to +be sold largely in the Irish trade as well as in the English home trade, +but it has been supplanted a good deal by softer finishes. + +_Printing-cloth_ is a term with a general significance, but it is also +particularly applied to a class of plain cloths in which a very large +trade is done both for home trade and export. The chief place in +Lancashire for the manufacture of printing-cloths is Burnley, and in the +United States, Fall River. The Burnley cloths range in width from 29 in. +to 40 in., and are usually about 120 yd. in length. The warp is commonly +from 36^s to 44^s, the weft from 36^s to 54^s, and the threads from 13 X +13 to 20 X 20 to the 1/4 in. Cheshire printers, which are made at Hyde, +Stockport, Glossop and elsewhere, are commonly 34 in. to 36 in. wide, +the warp is from 32^s to 36^s, the weft 32^s to 40^s, and the counts 16 +X 16 to 19 X 22. + +_Jacconet_ is understood to be the corruption of an Indian name, and the +first jacconets were probably of Indian origin. They now make one of the +principal staple trades of Lancashire with India. The jacconet is a +plain cloth, lighter than a shirting and heavier than a mull. When +bleached it is usually put into a firm and glossy finish. A _nainsook_ +is a jacconet bleached and finished soft. It also goes largely to India. + +_Dhootie_ is a name taken from a Hindu word of similar sound and +referred originally to the loin-cloth worn by Hindus. It is a light, +narrow cloth made with a coloured border which is often so elaborate as +to require a dobby loom for its manufacture. The finer kinds, made from +Egyptian yarns, are called mull-dhooties. The dhootie is one of the +principal staples for India and is exported both white and grey. + +_Scarf_ is a kind of dhootie made usually with a taped or corded border. + +_Madapolam_ or _Madapollam_ is a name derived from a suburb of Narsapur +in the Madras presidency where the cloth was first made. It is now +exported grey or white to India and other countries. In weight it is +lighter than a shirting, and it is usually ornamented with a distinctive +coloured heading. + +_Baft_, probably of Persian derivation, and originally a fine cloth, is +now a coarse and cheap cloth exported especially to Africa. + + +_Sarong_, the Malay word for a garment wrapped round the lower part of +the body and used by both men and women, is now applied to plain or +printed cloths exported to the Indian or Eastern Archipelago for this +purpose. + +_Jean_, said to be derived from Genoa where a kind of fustian with this +title was made, is a kind of twilled cloth. The cloth is woven "one end +up and two ends down," and as there are more picks of weft per inch than +ends of warp the diagonal lines pass from selvage to selvage at an angle +of less than 45 degrees. The weft surface is the face or wearing surface +of the cloth. Jeans are exported to China and other markets, and are +also used in the home trade. _Jeanette_ is the converse of jean, being a +twill of "two ends up to one down"; the diagonal passes from selvage to +selvage at a greater angle than 45 degrees and the warp makes the +wearing surface. + +_Oxford_ is a plain-woven cloth usually with a coloured pattern, and is +used for shirts and dresses. The name is comparatively modern, and is, +no doubt, arbitrarily selected. + +_Harvard_ is a twilled cloth similar to the Oxford. + +_Regatta_ is a stout, coloured shirt cloth similar in make to a +jeanette. It was originally made in blue and white stripes and was used +largely and is still used for men's shirts. + +Fancy cotton goods are of great variety, and many of them have trade +names that are used temporarily or occasionally. Apart from the large +class of brocaded cloths made in Jacquard looms there are innumerable +simpler kinds, including stripes and checks of various descriptions, +such as Swiss, Cord, Satin, Doriah stripes, &c. _Mercerized cloths_ are +of many kinds, as the mercerizing process can be applied to almost +anything. _Lace_ and _lace curtains_ are made largely at Nottingham. +Various light goods are made in Scotland, such as _book muslin_, a fine +light muslin with an elastic finish, so called from being folded in +book-form. + +Among the fancy cloths made in cotton may be mentioned: _matting_, which +includes various kinds with some similarity in appearance to a matting +texture; _matelasse_, which is in some degree an imitation of French +dress goods of that name; _pique_, also of French origin, woven in +stripes in relief, which cross the width of the piece, and usually +finished stiff; _Bedford cord_, a cheaper variety of pique in which the +stripes run the length of the piece; _oatmeal cloth_, which has an +irregular surface suggesting the grain of oatmeal, commonly dyed cream +colour; _crimp cloth_, in which a puckered effect is obtained by uneven +shrinkage; _grenadine_, said to be derived from Granada, a light dress +material originally made of silk or silk and wool; _brilliant_, a dress +material, usually with a small raised pattern; _leno_, possibly a +corrupt form of the French _linon_ or lawn, a kind of fancy gauze used +for veils curtains, &c.; _lappet_, a light material with a figure or +pattern produced on the surface of the cloth by needles placed in a +sliding frame; _lustre_, a light dress material with a lustrous face +sometimes made with a cotton warp and woolen weft; _zephyr_, a light, +coloured dress material usually in small patterns; _bobbin-net_, a +machine-made fabric, originally an imitation of lace made with bobbins +on a pillow. + +Some fancy cloths have descriptive names such as _herringbone stripe_, +and there are many arbitrary trade names, such as _Yosemite stripe_, +which may prevail and become the designation of a regular class or die +after a few seasons. + +Cotton linings include _silesia_, originally a linen cloth made in +Silesia and now usually a twilled cotton cloth which is dyed various +colours; _Italian cloth_, a kind of jean or sateen produced originally +in Italy. Various cotton cloths are imitations of other textures and +have modified names which indicate their superficial character, +frequently produced by finishing processes. Among these are _sateen_, +which, dyed or printed, is largely used for dresses, linings, +upholstery, &c.; _linenette_, dyed and finished to imitate coloured +linen in the north of Ireland and elsewhere; _hollandette_, usually +unbleached or half-bleached and finished to imitate linen holland; and +_interlining_, a coarse, plain white calico used as padding for linen +collars. + + +------------------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ + | | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | + | +---------+-----+---------+-----+---------+-----+ + | Country. | |Price|Thousands|Price|Thousands|Price| + | |Thousands| per |Thousands| per |Thousands| per | + | |of Yards.|Yard.|of Yards.|Yard.|of Yards.|Yard.| + +------------------------------+---------+-----+---------+-----+---------+-----+ + | Germany | 60,650| 3.77| 60,129| 4.02| 65,842| 3.98| + | Netherlands | 47,570| 3.57| 46,187| 3.68| 56,639| 3.47| + | Belgium | 52,199| 4.34| 56,237| 4.42| 67,509| 4.41| + | France | 17,552| 4.61| 17,759| 4.39| 14,875| 4.65| + | Portugal, Azores and Madeira | 32,824| 2.70| 29,440| 2.92| 29,867| 3.03| + | Italy | 6,363| 5.07| 7,904| 5.19| 8,746| 5.31| + | Austria-Hungary | 2,405| 3.44| 2,102| 3.40| 1,905| 3.60| + | Greece | 40,973| 2.64| 32,658| 3.11| 28,190| 3.20| + | Turkey | 305,611| 2.45| 379,557| 2.53| 376,209| 2.53| + | Egypt | 229,704| 2.41| 283,521| 2.57| 272,737| 2.53| + | Algeria | 709| 2.74| 438| 2.71| 455| 2.63| + | Morocco | 52,368| 2.28| 51,262| 2.44| 44,407| 2.44| + | Foreign West Africa | 64,589| 2.92| 55,131| 3.12| 69,163| 3.08| + | Persia | 34,859| 2.46| 33,119| 2.67| 38,647| 2.59| + | Dutch East Indies | 156,905| 2.45| 185,196| 2.72| 226,586| 2.57| + | Philippine Islands | 25,558| 2.59| 25,969| 2.86| 42,876| 2.66| + | China, including Hong-Kong | 477,691| 2.83| 548,974| 3.34| 799,732| 3.06| + | Japan | 67,315| 3.08| 42,373| 3.34| 128,725| 2.99| + | United States of America | 72,360| 6.80| 52,391| 7.18| 65,563| 7.40| + | Foreign West Indies | 86,349| 2.08| 98,797| 2.21| 80,679| 2.24| + | Mexico | 19,327| 3.10| 21,679| 3.42| 21,028| 3.31| + | Central America | 40,879| 1.97| 53,018| 2.21| 49,523| 2.29| + | Colombia and Panama | 44,299| 2.25| 44,648| 2.54| 31,798| 2.41| + | Venezuela | 52,330| 1.87| 52,934| 2.07| 32,717| 2.11| + | Peru | 28,962| 2.66| 32,430| 2.85| 39,035| 2.78| + | Chile | 84,118| 2.50| 80,836| 2.57| 96,996| 2.62| + | Brazil | 152,402| 2.64| 134,841| 2.89| 131,504| 2.50| + | Uruguay | 44,062| 2.79| 35,670| 2.85| 56,770| 2.95| + | Argentine Republic | 151,003| 2.91| 186,022| 3.04| 159,115| 3.24| + | Gibraltar | 11,961| 2.39| 10,578| 2.47| 3,960| 2.73| + | Malta | 4,065| 3.11| 3,659| 3.45| 4,006| 3.31| + | British W. Africa | 69,795| 3.27| 69,308| 3.43| 74,392| 3.40| + | " S. " | 61,778| 3.61| 29,670| 4.03| 50,592| 3.69| + | British India-- | | | | | | | + | Bombay | 678,684| 2.07| 818,261| 2.23| 908,619| 2.24| + | Madras | 132,825| 2.48| 141,675| 2.63| 131,145| 2.62| + | Bengal |1,122,004| 1.97|1,215,607| 2.18|1,280,314| 2.18| + | Burma | 64,654| 2.84| 79,765| 3.10| 72,528| 3.13| + | Straits Settlements* | 112,006| 2.61| 100,230| 2.84| 121,690| 2.71| + | Ceylon | 17,395| 2.75| 19,336| 2.95| 24,991| 2.94| + | Australia | 106,000| 3.83| 128,247| 4.01| 136,481| 3.85| + | New Zealand | 38,499| 3.58| 33,538| 3.81| 32,315| 3.63| + | Canada | 47,439| 4.15| 49,903| 4.25| 45,189| 4.47| + | British West India Islands, | | | | | | | + | Bahamas and British Guiana | 49,614| 2.49| 43,487| 2.61| 47,173| 2.21| + | Other countries | 188,662| 2.84| 197,339| 3.14| 226,971| 3.03| + +------------------------------+---------+-----+---------+-----+---------+-----+ + | Total |5,157,316| 2.57|5,591,822| 2.75|6,198,200| 2.74| + +------------------------------+---------+-----+---------+-----+---------+-----+ + * Including Federated Malay States. + +Various cotton imitations share the name of the original, such as lawn, +batiste, serge, huckaback, galloon, and a large number of names are of +obvious derivation and use, such as umbrella cloth, apron cloth, sail +cloth, book-binding cloth, shroud cloth, butter cloth, mosquito +netting, handkerchief, blanket, towelling, bagging. + +Among the miscellaneous cloths made or made partly of cotton may be +mentioned: _waste cloths_, made from waste yarns and usually coarse in +texture; _khaki cloth_, made largely for military clothing in cotton as +well as in woollen; _cottonade_, a name given to various coarse low +cloths in the United States and elsewhere; _lasting_, which seems to be +an abbreviation of "lasting cloth," a stiff, durable texture used in +making shoes, &c.; _bolting cloth_, used in bolting or sifting; +_brattice cloth_, a stout, tarred cloth made of cotton or wool and used +for bratticing or lining the sides of shafts in mines; _sponge cloths_, +used for cleaning machinery; _shoddy_ and _mungo_, which though mainly +woollen have frequently a cotton admixture; and _splits_, either plain +or fancy, usually of low quality, which include any cloth woven two or +three in the breadth of the loom and "split" into the necessary width. +Cotton is used too for many miscellaneous purposes, including the +manufacture of lamp wicks and even of billiard balls. + +_British Cotton Cloth Exports._--The main lines of the Lancashire export +trade in cotton goods are indicated in the Board of Trade returns. The +table on p. 278 compiled from them is taken from the _Manchester +Guardian_. It gives in thousands of yards the quantities of cotton goods +exported from Great Britain during 1903, 1904 and 1905 respectively, +together with average value per yard for each of the countries. + +The following table gives, approximately, in thousands of yards the +quantities exported of the four main divisions of cotton cloths:-- + + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | Thousands | Thousands | Thousands | + | | of Yards. | of Yards. | of Yards. | + |---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Grey or unbleached | 1,880,321 | 2,033,895 | 2,336,018 | + | Bleached | 1,326,255 | 1,528,165 | 1,710,742 | + | Printed | 1,027,925 | 1,036,901 | 1,053,900 | + | Dyed and coloured | 922,735 | 993,009 | 1,097,540 | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + +In the case of cloth, too, the Board of Trade returns must not be taken +as an absolute record of imports to the particular countries, as the +ultimate recipient is not always determined. The development of the +Eastern trade has been one of the most remarkable features of the cotton +trade in the 19th century. Professor Chapman writes in his _Cotton +Industry and Trade_: "In 1820 Europe received about half the cotton +fabrics which were sent abroad, while the United States received nearly +one-tenth and eastern Asia little more than one-twentieth. By 1880 +Europe was taking less than one-twelfth, the United States less than +one-fiftieth, and eastern Asia more than a half." + +Naturally a trade tends to find out the most direct means of +distribution, and Manchester merchants are now generally in direct +connexion with native dealers in India. Bombay was the pioneer in the +custom, followed now by Calcutta and Karachi, by which deliveries of +goods from British merchants remained under the control of the banks +until the native dealers took them up. Manchester business with India, +China, &c., is done under various conditions, however, and a good many +firms have branches abroad. The regular "indent" by which most of the +Manchester Eastern business is conducted now implies a definite offer +for shipment from the dealer abroad, either direct or through the +exporter's agents, and commonly includes freight and insurance. The term +"commission agent" is now discredited, and buying done by Manchester +houses on simple commission terms is unusual though not unknown. This +has been so since the famous law case of _Williamson_ v. _Barbour_ in +1877, when it was established that whatever might be the custom of the +trade a commission agent was not entitled to make a profit over his +commission on the various processes, such as handling and packing, which +are a necessary part of the exporter's work. A good deal of business is +done, however, for South America and other markets in which the goods +are bought for delivery in the Manchester warehouse, all charges for +packing, &c., and carriage being extra. + +Transactions with distant markets are now done almost entirely by cable, +and a remarkable development of the telegraphic code has enabled +merchants to pack a good deal into a brief message. A cable sent to +India in the evening may bring a reply next morning, and in these days +of rapid cotton fluctuations mail advices are confined mainly to general +discussion, hypothetical inquiry, advice, admonition and complaint. Some +Manchester export business is done through London, Glasgow, and +continental towns, of which Hamburg is the principal. Glasgow buys +largely of yarns and cloth, some considerable part of which is dyed or +printed, for India and elsewhere, and has an indigenous manufacture and +trade in fine goods such as book-muslins and lappets, a somewhat +delicate department of manufacture which necessitates a slower running +of machinery than is usual in Lancashire. + +Besides the indent business there is, of course, purely merchant +business by Manchester exporters, who buy on their own initiative at +what they consider to be opportune times or on recommendations from +their houses or correspondents abroad. In the Indian trade, especially +in the Calcutta trade, a large proportion of the total amount is done by +a few houses who buy in this way, and there is some difference of +opinion as to whether the method, which had fallen out of fashion, may +not further develop. It is more speculative than the indent business, +but the dealing with large quantities which it involves gives the +opportunity to buy very cheaply. A good many firms venture occasionally +to buy in anticipation of their customers' needs, especially when they +expect a rising market. During the great trade "boom" of 1905 there was +a good deal of buying by exporters in advance of their indents because +manufacturers continued to contract engagements which threatened to +exclude dilatory buyers. On the whole, however, what may be called the +speculative centre of gravity of Great Britain's export business in +cotton goods is not in Manchester but abroad. + +The terms on which business is conducted are various even in a single +market, and it is sometimes a reproach that British firms are +old-fashioned in their reluctance to give credit. The so-called +enterprising methods of some German traders are, however, condemned by +many experienced English traders, and it is said that in China, for +instance, the seeming successes of the newcomers are delusive. The +Tientsin developments of German business on credit terms are said to +have proved unsatisfactory, and heavy losses were suffered in Hong-Kong +some years ago by merchants who endeavoured to initiate a bolder system +of trading. The very common complaint of British consuls that British +firms neglect to send out travellers may have some foundation, but a +commercial house naturally follows the line of least resistance to the +development of its trade, and cannot be expected to work remote and +barren ground when better opportunities are near at hand. On the whole +it appears that the British cotton trade continues to increase to a +satisfactory degree in fancy and special goods, which require for their +production a comparatively high degree of technical skill, and are more +lucrative than some of the simpler products in which competitors have +been most formidable. Various finishing processes, and particularly the +mercerizing of yarn and cloth, have increased the possibilities in +cotton materials, and while staples still form the bulk of our foreign +trade, it seems that as the stress of competition in these grows acute, +more and more of our energy may be transferred to the production of +goods which appeal to a growing taste or fancy. + +_British Home Trade._--The home trade in cotton cloths is a great and +important section, but it is not comparable in volume to the export +trade. It involves more numerous and more elaborate processes, and the +qualities for home use are generally finer and more costly than those +for export. Of course by far the larger part of the yarn spun in +Lancashire is woven in Lancashire, but of the cotton cloth woven in +Lancashire it is roughly estimated that about 20% is used in Great +Britain. Not only is the average of quality better, but the variety of +kinds and designs is greater in the home trade than in the export trade. +A good home trade connexion is considered an extremely valuable asset, +and as the trade is highly differentiated the profits are usually good. +Some manufacturers devote themselves exclusively to the home trade, and +some exclusively to foreign trade, but there is a large class with what +may be called a margin of alternation, which serves to redress the +balance as business in one or other of the sections is good or bad. + +Certain kinds of light goods made for India and other Eastern markets +are not used in the home trade, and the typical Eastern staples are not +generally used in their particular "sizings," but with these exceptions +and various specialities almost every kind of cotton cloth is used to +some extent in Great Britain. Grey calicoes for home use, except the +lowest kinds, are comparatively pure, and of late years the heavy +fillings which used to be common in bleached goods have become +discredited. The housewife long persisted in deceiving herself by +purchasing filled calicoes, and the movement in favour of purer goods +owes a good deal, strangely enough, to the increase in the making-up +trade and the consequent inconveniences to workers of sewing machines, +whose needles were constantly broken by hard filled calicoes. + +This development of the making-up trade has become an important element +in the home trade, and it has greatly reduced the retail sale of +piece-goods. The purchase of ready-made shirts, underclothing, &c., +corresponds to a change in the habits of the people. The factories which +have been erected in the north of Ireland, on the outskirts of London +and elsewhere turn out millions of garments that would, under the old +conditions, have been made at home. It is not necessary here to balance +the advantages and disadvantages of the two systems, and it must not be +supposed that made-up cotton garments are necessarily cheap and +inefficient. + +The chief distributing centre of cotton made-up goods is London, though +a considerable trade is done through wholesale houses in Manchester and +elsewhere. Large warehouses in the city of London carry on the trade and +frequently supply Lancashire with her own goods. Of course the partial +loss of the piece-goods trade by the shops is not a loss in aggregate +trade, as they are the ultimate distributors of the made-up garments, +which are probably at least as profitable to retail as calico or +flannelette sold in lengths. + +The normal course of home trade piece-goods is from manufacturer to +bleacher, dyer, printer or finisher, either on account of a merchant to +whom the goods are sold or on the manufacturer's own account. By far the +majority of Lancashire manufacturers sell their goods as they come from +the loom, or, as it is called, in the "grey state," but an increasing +number now cultivate the trade in finished goods. Usually the +manufacturer sells either directly or through an agent to a merchant who +sells again to the shopkeeper, but the last twenty or thirty years have +seen a considerable development of more direct dealing. Some +manufacturers now go to the shopkeeper, and this has made it difficult +for the merchant with a limited capital and therefore a limited +assortment to survive. The great general houses such as Rylands's, +Philips's and Watt's in Manchester, and Cook's and Pawson's in London, +some of which are manufacturers to a minor degree, continue to flourish +because under one roof they can supply all that the draper requires, and +so enable him to economize in the time spent in buying and to save +himself the trouble of attending to many accounts. Some general +merchants, indeed, supply what are practically "tied houses," which give +all their trade in return for pecuniary assistance or special terms. + +The tendency to eliminate the middleman has not only brought a good many +manufacturers into direct relation with the shopkeeper, but in some +exceptional cases the manufacturer, adopting some system of broadcast +advertisement and postal delivery, has dealt with the consumer. +Naturally, the merchant resents any developments which exclude him, and +some mild forms of boycott have occasionally been instituted. In the +United States there has been an arduous struggle over this question, and +combinations of merchants have sometimes compelled favourable terms. In +England, though the merchant has maintained a great part of the trade +with shopkeepers, the developing trade with makers of shirts, +underclothing, &c., is mainly done by the manufacturers directly, and +perhaps the simplification of relations by direct dealing in the cotton +trade has now reached a point of fairly stable compromise. The tendency +to direct trading is naturally controlled by the exigencies of capital. +Those manufacturers who act as merchants aim to retain the merchant +profit and must employ a merchant capital in stocks. There has been a +tendency, indeed, to make the manufacturer the stock-keeper, and some +merchants do little more than pass on the goods a stage after taking +toll. The great improvement in trade during 1905 and 1906 checked this +tendency, and probably the manufacturing extensions owed something to +the capital set free by the reductions of stocks. + +It must be noted, however, that while most of the spinning concerns are +worked by limited companies or individuals with a considerable capital, +a good many small manufacturers exist who have little capital and are +practically financed by their agents or customers. This is so in both +the export and home trades. + +The home trade merchant or merchant-manufacturer works largely through +agents and travellers, and though railway facilities continue to +improve, some shopkeepers rarely visit their markets. The difficulty +that is naturally experienced by a traveller in finding sufficient +support on a sparsely populated "ground" has brought into vogue the +traveller on commission who represents several firms. The traveller with +salary and allowances for expenses survives, but the quickening induced +by an interest in the amount of sales has caused many firms to adopt the +principle of commission, which may, however, be an addition to a minimum +salary. Of course, such travellers are not peculiar to the cotton trade, +but cotton goods in various forms are an important factor in the home +trade. + +The profits of manufacturers, merchants and shopkeepers are commonly +very much less on the lower classes of cotton goods than on the higher +ones. Thus while there may be a difference of 1d. per yd. between the +qualities on a manufacturer's list, the difference in cost may not be +more than a farthing; and, again, while the shopkeeper sometimes pays +2-1/2d. or even 2-5/8d. per yd. for a calico to retail at 2-3/4d., his +next selling price may be 3-3/4d. for one which costs him only 2-3/4d. +or 3d. per yd. It appears, therefore, that if the poorer classes of the +community have the discretion to avoid the lowest qualities they may +obtain very good value in serviceable goods. In the matter of profits, +however, there is a good deal of irregularity. + +_The Manchester Royal Exchange._--There are not many cotton mills or +weaving sheds in Manchester, which is, however, the great distributive +centre, and its Exchange is the meeting-place of most classes of buyers +and sellers in the cotton trade and various trades allied to it. As +buyers of finished goods for London and the country do not attend it, +certain departments of the home trade are hardly represented, but +practically all the spinners and manufacturers and all the export +merchants of any importance are subscribers. Transactions between +spinners and manufacturers are largely effected on Tuesdays and Fridays, +the old "market days," when the manufacturing towns are well +represented, but a large amount of business is transacted every day. +Besides the persons immediately concerned in the cotton trade and +connected with allied trades, a large number of members find it +convenient to use this great meeting-place as a means of approach to a +body of responsible persons. Thus not only bleachers, carriers, chemical +manufacturers, mill furnishers and accountants find their way there, but +also tanners, timber merchants, stockbrokers and even wine merchants. +Since the Ship Canal made Manchester into a cotton port there has been a +steady development of the raw cotton trade in Manchester, and many +cotton brokers and merchants have Manchester offices or pay regular +visits from Liverpool. + +The various expansions and developments have made it difficult to +maintain the ratio between accommodation and requirements, and although +overcrowding is troublesome only during some three or four hours a week, +at "high 'Change" on market days, various complaints and suggestions +provoked in 1906 an appeal from the chairman of directors to the +Manchester corporation. This took the form of a suggestion that the +Exchange should be worked as a municipal institution on a new site, and +though such a development met with opposition it was apparent that +Manchester must presently have a new or an enlarged Exchange. The +present building is, however, the largest of the kind in the world, and +the history of the various exchanges coincides with the expansion of the +Lancashire industry. + +According to semi-official records "the first building in the nature of +an Exchange" was erected in 1729 by Sir Oswald Mosley, and though +designed for "chapmen to meet and transact their business" it appears +that, as to-day, encroachments were made by other traders until cotton +manufacturers and merchants preferred to do their business in the +street. In 1792 the building was demolished, and for a period of some +eighteen years there was nothing of the kind. In 1809 the new Exchange +was opened, and terms of membership were fixed at two guineas for those +within 5 m. of the building and one guinea for those outside this +radius. In the following year plans for enlargement were submitted to +the shareholders, and various extensions followed, particularly in 1830 +and 1847. The present building was opened partly in 1871 and partly in +1874. The area of the great room is 4405 sq. yds. The subscription was +raised on the 1st of January 1906 from three guineas to four guineas for +new members, but the number of members continues to increase and early +in 1906 amounted to 8786. + +Of course in this great mart a large variety of types is to be found and +the members fall into some kind of rough grouping. Export buyers, +attended by salesmen, are commonly more or less stationary and +prominent; Burnley manufacturers abound in one locality and spinners of +Egyptian yarns in another. The importance of the Exchange as a +bargaining centre is fairly maintained, though buyers are assiduously +cultivated in their own offices, and the telephone has done a good deal +to abbreviate negotiation. As to the amount of business transacted on +the Exchange there is no record. The market reporters make some attempt +to materialize the current gossip, and doubtless catch well enough the +great movements in the ebb and flow of demand, but the sum of countless +obscure transactions cannot be estimated. Some few years ago an attempt +was made to mark more clearly the course of business in Manchester, and +a scheme was prepared for the recording of daily transactions. This +could only have been a somewhat rough affair, but its originator +maintained reasonably that it would be of interest if some indication of +the daily movements could be obtained. For some time a memorandum of the +total of daily sales reported was posted on 'Change, but the +indifference of traders, together with the distrust that makes any +innovation difficult, caused the scheme to be abandoned. + +It would be difficult in any attempt to estimate the volume of British +home trade to distinguish what may be called the effective movements of +goods. There is a considerable amount of re-selling both in yarn and +cloth, and, though the bulk of cotton goods finds the way through +regular and normal channels to the consumer, these channels are not +always direct. A good many transactions on the Manchester Exchange are +intermediate, without fulfilling any useful function, and could be +accomplished by the principals if they were brought together. Agents, of +whom there are many, sometimes occupy a precarious position, but they +are protected in some degree by law as well as by the custom of the +trade and the point of honour. Points of honour in the Manchester +business may seem to be arbitrarily selected, but they are an important +part of the scheme. An immense amount of business is done without any +apparent check against repudiation. It is, of course, the verbal bargain +that binds, and large transactions are commonly completed without +witnesses, though before the contract or memorandum of sale passes the +fluctuations of the market may have made the bargain, to one side or the +other, a very bad one. (A. N. M.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] It is related that in the year 1784 William Rathbone, an American + merchant resident in Liverpool, received from one of his + correspondents in the southern states a consignment of eight bags of + cotton, which on its arrival in Liverpool was seized by the + custom-house officers, on the allegation that it could not have been + grown in the United States, and that it was liable to seizure under + the Shipping Acts, as not being imported in a vessel belonging to the + country of its growth. When afterwards released, it lay for many + months unsold, in consequence of the spinners doubting whether it + could be profitably worked up. + + [2] Taken with some modifications from the _Agricultural News_ (1907), + vi. p. 38. + + [3] Cotton Production 1906, _U.S.A. Bureau of the Census_, Bulletin + No. 76. + + [4] _Cotton Culture and the Cotton Trade_, p. 298. + + [5] _The Cotton Trade of Great Britain_, by Thomas Ellison, p. 186. + + [6] See article on "Dealings in Futures in the Cotton Market," in the + _Journal of the Royal Statistical Society_, vol. lxix, p. 325. + + [7] Journal of the Statistical Society, 1906. + + [8] See paper in the Journal of the Statistical Society for June 1906. + + [9] Attempts to explain them were made in an article in the _Economic + Journal_ in December 1904, and in the paper already referred to read + to the Royal Statistical Society. + + [10] See the paper already mentioned in the _Journal of the Royal + Statistical Society_ for June 1906, where the several points noticed + briefly above are fully discussed. + + [11] The Association published a weekly paper known as The Cotton + Supply Reporter. + + + + +COTTON MANUFACTURE. The antiquity of the cotton industry has hitherto +proved unfathomable, as can readily be understood from the difficulty of +proving a universal negative, especially from such scanty material as we +possess of remote ages. That in the 5th century B.C. cotton fabrics were +unknown or quite uncommon in Europe may be inferred from Herodotus' +mention of the cotton clothing of the Indians. Ultimately the cotton +industry was imported into Europe, and by the middle of the 13th century +we find it flourishing in Spain. In the New World it would seem to have +originated spontaneously, since on the discovery of America the wearing +apparel in use included cotton fabrics. After the collapse of Spanish +prosperity before the Moors in the 14th century the Netherlands assumed +a leadership in this branch of the textile industries as they did also +in other branches. It has been surmised that the cotton manufacture was +carried from the Netherlands to England by refugees during the Spanish +persecution of the second half of the 16th century; but no absolute +proof of this statement has been forthcoming, and although workers in +cotton may have been among the Flemish weavers who fled to England about +that time, and some of whom are said to have settled in and about +Manchester, it is quite conceivable that cotton fabrics were made on an +insignificant scale in England years before, and there is some evidence +to show that the industry was not noticeable till many years later. If +England did derive her cotton manufacture from the Netherlands she was +unwillingly compelled to repay the loan with interest more than two +hundred years later when the machine industry was conveyed to the +continent through the ingenuity of Lievin Bauwens, despite the +precautions taken to preserve it for the British Isles. About the same +time English colonists transported it to the United States. Since, as +transformed in England, the cotton industry, particularly spinning, has +spread throughout the civilized and semi-civilized world, though its +most important seat still remains the land of its greatest development. + + + Early history in England. + +As early as the 13th century cotton-wool was used in England for +candle-wicks.[1] The importation of the cotton from the Levant in the +16th century is mentioned by Hakluyt,[2] and according to Macpherson it +was brought over from Antwerp in 1560. Reference to the manufacture of +cottons in England long before the second half of the 16th century are +numerous, but the "cottons" spoken of were not cottons proper as Defoe +would seem to have mistakenly imagined. Thus, for example, there is a +passage by William Camden (writing in 1590) quoted below, in which +Manchester cottons are specifically described as woollens, and there is +a notice in the act of 33 Henry VIII. (c. xv.) of the Manchester linen +and woollen industries, and of cottons--which are clearly woollens since +their "dressyng and frisyng" is noted, and the latter process, which +consists in raising and curling the nap, was not applicable to cotton +textiles. John Leland, after his visit to Manchester about 1538, used +these words--"Bolton-upon-Moore market standeth most by cottons; divers +villages in the Moores about Bolton do make cottons." Leland, it is +true, might conceivably be referring to manufactures from the vegetable +fibre, but it is exceedingly unlikely, since the term "cottons" would +seem to have been current with a perfectly definite meaning. The goods +were probably an English imitation in wool of continental cotton +fustians--which would explain the name. Again we may quote from the act +of 5 and 6 Edward VI., "all the cottons called _Manchester_, Lancashire +and Cheshire _cottons_, full wrought to the sale, shall be in length +twenty-two yards and contain in breadth three-quarters of a yard in the +water and shall weigh thirty pounds in the piece at least"; and from the +act 8 Elizabeth c. xi., "every of the said cottons being sufficiently +milled or thicked, clean scoured, well-wrought and full-dried, shall +weigh 21 lb. at the least."[3] These are evidently the weights of woollen +goods: further, it may be observed that milling is not applicable to +cotton goods. The earliest reference to a cotton manufacture in England +which may reasonably be regarded as pointing to the fabrication of +textiles from cotton proper, is in the will of James Billston (a not +un-English name), who is described as a "cotton manufacturer," proved at +Chester in 1578.[4] It may plausibly be contended that James Billston +was a worker in the vegetable fibre, since otherwise "manufacturer of +cottons" would have been a more natural designation. But the proof of +the will of one cotton manufacturer establishes very little. + +The next earliest known reference to the cotton industry proper occurs +in a petition to the earl of Salisbury, made presumably in 1610, asking +for the continuance of a grant for reforming frauds committed in the +manufacture of "bambazine cotton such as groweth in the land of Persia +being no kind of wool."[5] But a far more valuable piece of evidence, +discovered by W. H. Price, is a petition of "Merchants and citizens of +London that use buying and selling of fustians made in England, as of +the makers of the same fustians."[6] Its probable date is 1621, and it +contains the following important passages:-- + + "About twenty years past, divers people in this kingdom, but chiefly + in the county of Lancaster, have found out the trade of making of + other fustians, made of a kind of bombast or down, being a fruit of + the earth growing upon little shrubs or bushes, brought into this + kingdom by the Turkey merchants, from Smyrna, Cyprus, Acra and Sydon, + but commonly called cotton wool; and also of linen yarn most part + brought out of Scotland, and othersome made in England, and no part of + the same fustians of any wool at all, for which said bombast and yarn + imported, his majesty has a great yearly sum of money for the custom + and subsidy thereof. + + "There is at the least 40 thousand pieces of fustian of this kind + yearly made in England, the subsidy to his majesty of the materials + for making of every piece coming to between 8d. and 10d. the piece; + and thousands of poor people set on working of these fustians. + + "The right honourable duke of Lennox in 11 of Jacobus 1613 procured a + patent from his majesty, of alnager of new draperies for 60 years, + upon pretence that wool was converted into other sorts of commodities + to the loss of customs and subsidies for wool transported beyond seas; + and therein is inserted into his patent, searching and sealing; and + subsidy for 80 several stuffs; and among the rest these fustians or + other stuffs of this kind of cotton wool, and subsidy and a fee for + the same, and forfeiture of 20s. for putting any to sale unsealed, the + moiety of the same forfeiture to the said duke, and power thereby + given to the duke or his deputies, to enter any man's house to search + for any such stuffs, and seize them till the forfeiture be paid; and + if any resist such search, to forfeit L10 and power thereby given to + the lord treasurer or chancellor of the exchequer, to make new + ordinances or grant commissions for the aid of the duke and his + officers in execution of their office." + +Here the date of the appearance of the cotton industry on an appreciable +scale--it is questionable whether any importance should be attached to +the expression "found out"--is given by those who would be speaking of +facts within the memory of themselves or their friends as "about twenty +years past" from 1621, and the annual output of the industry in 1621 is +mentioned. Moreover, it is established by this document that for a time +at least the cotton manufacture was "regulated" like the other textile +trades. The date assigned by the petitioners for the first attraction of +attention by the English cotton industry may be supported on negative +grounds. + +Baines assures us that William Camden, who wrote in 1590, devoted not a +sentence to the cotton industry, though Manchester figures among his +descriptions: "This town," he says, "excels the towns immediately around +it in handsomeness, populousness, woollen manufacture, market place, +church and college; but did much more excel them in the last age, as +well by the glory of its woollen cloths (_laneorum pannorum honore_), +which they call Manchester cottons, as by the privilege of sanctuary, +which the authority of parliament under Henry VIII. transferred to +Chester."[7] It is significant too that in the Elizabethan poor law of +1601 (43 Elizabeth), neither cotton-wool nor yarn is included among the +fabrics to be provided by the overseers to set the poor to work upon; +though, of course, it might be argued that so short-stapled a fibre +needed for its working, when machinery was rough, a skill in the +operative which would be above that of the average person unable to find +employment. However, a proposal was made in 1626 to employ the poor in +the spinning of cotton and weaving wool.[8] + +Prior to Mr Price's discovery of the petition mentioned above, the +earliest known notice of the existence in England of a cotton industry +of any magnitude was the oft-quoted passage from Lewes Roberts's +_Treasure of Traffic_ (1641), which runs: "The town of Manchester, in +Lancashire, must be also herein remembered, and worthily for their +encouragement commended, who buy the yarne of the Irish in great +quantity, and weaving it, return the same again into Ireland to sell: +Neither doth their industry rest here, for they buy cotton-wool in +London that comes first from Cyprus and Smyrna, and at home work the +same, and perfect it into fustians, vermillions, dimities and other such +stuffs, and then return it to London, where the same is vented and sold, +and not seldom sent into foreign parts."[9] + +Despite Lewes Roberts's flattering reference, the trade of Manchester +about that time consisted chiefly in woollen frizes, fustians, +sackcloths, mingled stuffs, caps, inkles, tapes, points, &c., according +to "A Description of the Towns of Manchester and Salford," 1650,[10] and +woollens for a long time held the first place. But before another +century had run its course cottons proper had pushed into the first +rank, though the woollen industry continued to be of unquestionable +importance. In 1727 Daniel Defoe could write, "the grand manufacture +which has so much raised this town is that of cotton in all its +varieties,"[11] and he did not mean the woollen "cottons," as he made +plain by other references to the industry in the same connexion; but it +was not until some fifty years later that the ousting of the woollen +industry from what is now peculiarly the cotton district became +unmistakable.[12] As a rule the woollen weavers were driven farther and +farther east--Bury lay just outside the cotton area when Defoe +wrote--and finally many of them settled in the West Riding. Edwin +Butterworth even tells of woollen weavers who migrated from Oldham to +the distant town of Bradford in Wiltshire because of the decline of +their trade before the victorious cotton industry. Much the same fate +was being shared by the linen industry in Lancashire, which was forced +out of the county westwards and northwards. The explanation of the three +centralizations, namely of the woollen industry, the cotton industry and +the linen industry, is not far to seek. The popularity of the fabrics +produced by the rising cotton industry enabled it to pay high wages, +which, indeed, were essential to bring about its expansion. This a +priori diagnosis is supported by contemporary analysis: thus "the rapid +progress of that business (cotton spinning) and the higher wages which +it afford, have so far distressed the makers of worsted goods in that +county (Lancashire), that they have found themselves obliged to offer +their few remaining spinners larger premiums than the state of their +trade would allow."[13] The best operatives of Lancashire were attracted +sooner or later to assist the triumphs of art over the vegetable wool. +At the same time the scattered woollen and linen workers of Lancashire +were suffering from the competition of rivals enjoying elsewhere the +economies of some centralization, and the demand for woollen and linen +warps in the cotton industry ceased after the introduction of +Arkwright's water-twist. When the factory became common the economies of +centralization (which arise from the wide range of specialism laid open +to a large local industry) increased; moreover they were reinforced by +the diminution of social friction and the intensification of business +sensitiveness which marked the development of the 19th century. Once +begun, the centralizing movement proceeded naturally with accelerating +speed. The contrast beneath is an instructive statistical comment:-- + + _Distribution of Cotton Operatives in 1838 and 1898-1899 (from Returns + of Factory Inspectors)._ + + +--------------------------+--------------+---------------+ + | | 1838. | 1898-1899. | + +--------------------------+--------------+---------------+ + | Cheshire | 36,400 | 34,300 | + | Cumberland | 2,000 | 700 | + | Derbyshire | 10,500 | 10,500 | + | Lancashire | 152,200 | 398,100 | + | Nottinghamshire | 1,500 | 1,600 | + | Staffordshire | 2,000 | 2,300 | + | Yorkshire | 12,400 | 35,200 | + | +--------------+---------------+ + | England and Wales[14] | 219,100 | 496,200 | + | Scotland | 35,600 | 29,000 | + | Ireland | 4,600 | 800 | + | +--------------+---------------+ + | United Kingdom | 259,300 | 526,000 | + +--------------------------+--------------+---------------+ + +The distribution of the industry has varied greatly in the two periods. +If it had remained constant Lancashire would only have contained 300,000 +operatives in 1899, instead of the actual 400,000. Scotland, on the +other hand, only contained 30,000 instead of 70,000, and in Ireland the +numbers were one-tenth of what they should have been. The percentage of +operatives in Lancashire in 1838 was 58.5, but this increased to 75.7 in +1898. + + + Lancashire advantages. + +Why, we may naturally inquire, did not the cotton industry localize in +the West Riding or Cheshire and the woollen industry maintain its +position in Lancashire? Accident no doubt partly explains why the cotton +industry is carried on where it is in the various parts of the globe, +but apart from accident, as regards Lancashire, it is sufficient answer +to point to the peculiarly suitable congeries of conditions to be found +there. There is firstly the climate, which for the purpose of cotton +spinning is unsurpassed elsewhere, and which became of the first order +of importance when fine spinning was developed. In the Lancashire +atmosphere in certain districts just about the right humidity is +contained on a great number of days for spinning to be done with the +least degree of difficulty. Some dampness is essential to make the +fibres cling, but excessive moisture is a disadvantage. Over the county +of Lancashire the prevailing west wind carries comparatively continuous +currents of humidified air. These currents vary in temperature according +to their elevation. Hot and cold layers mix when they reach the hills, +and the mixture of the two is nearer to the saturation point than either +of its components. The degree of moisture is measured by the ratio of +the actual amount of moisture to the moisture of the saturation point +for that particular temperature. Owing to the sudden elevation the air +is rarefied, its temperature being thereby lowered, and in consequence +condensation tends to be produced. In several places in England and +abroad, where there is a scarcity of moisture, artificial humidifiers +have been tried, but no cheap and satisfactory one has hitherto been +discovered. To the advantages of the Lancashire climate for cotton +spinning must be added--especially as regards the early days of the +cotton industry--its disadvantages for other callings. The +unpleasantness of the weather renders an indoor occupation desirable, +and the scanty sunshine, combined with the unfruitful nature of much of +the soil, prevents the absorption of the population in agricultural +pursuits. In later years the port of Liverpool and the presence of coal +supplemented the attractions which were holding the cotton industry in +Lancashire. All the raw material must come from abroad, and an enormous +proportion of English cotton products figures as exports. The proximity +of Liverpool has aided materially in making the cotton industry a great +exporting industry. + + + Early system of manufacture and organisation. + +Before the localization of the separate parts of the industry can be +treated the differentiation of the industry must be described. We pass +then, at this stage, to consider the manufacture in its earliest form +and the lines of its development. First, and somewhat incidentally, we +notice the early connexion between the conduct of the cotton +manufacture, when it was a domestic industry in its primitive form, and +the performance of agricultural operations. A few short extracts will +place before us all the evidence that it is here needful to adduce. +First Radcliffe, an eye-witness, writing of the period about 1770, says +"the land in our township (Mellor) was occupied by between fifty and +sixty farmers ... and out of these fifty or sixty farmers there were +only six or seven who raised their rents directly from the produce of +their farms, all the rest got their rent partly in some branch of trade, +such as spinning and weaving woollen, linen or cotton. The cottagers +were employed entirely in this matter, except for a few weeks in the +harvest."[15] Next we may cite Edwin Butterworth who, though not an +eyewitness (he was not born till 1812), proved himself by his researches +to be a careful and trustworthy investigator. In the parish of Oldham, +he recorded, there were "a number of master (cotton-linen fustian)[16] +manufacturers, as well as many weavers who worked for manufacturers, and +at the same time were holders of land or farmers.... The number of +fustian farmers who were cottagers working for manufacturers, without +holding land, were few; but there were a considerable number of weavers +who worked on their own account, and held at the same time small pieces +of land."[17] Other passages might be quoted, but these two will +suffice. Weaving was not exactly a by-employment of farm labourers, but +many weavers made agriculture a by-employment to some extent, (a) by +working small parcels of land, which varied from the size of allotments +to farms of a very few acres, and (b) by lending aid in gathering in the +harvest when their other work enabled them to do so. The association of +manufacturing and weaving survived beyond the first quarter of the 19th +century. Of the weavers in many districts and "more especially in +Lancashire" we read in the report of the committee on emigration, "it +appears that persons of this description for many years past, have been +occupiers of small farms of a few acres, which they have held at high +rents, and combining the business of the hand-loom weaver with that of a +working farmer have assisted to raise the rent of their land from the +profits of their loom."[18] One of the first lines of specialism to +appear was the severing of the connexion described above, and the +concentration of the weavers in hamlets and towns. Finer fabrics and +more complicated fabrics were introduced, and the weaver soon learnt +that such rough work as farming unfitted his hands for the delicate +tasks required of them. Again, really to prosper a weaver found it +necessary to perfect himself by close application. The days of the rough +fabrics that anybody could make with moderate success were closing in. +As a consequence the dispersion of the weavers becomes less and less. +They no longer wanted allotments or farms; and their looms having become +more complicated, the mechanic proved himself a convenient neighbour. +Finding spinners too was an easier task in the hamlet or town than in +the remote country parts. But there is no reason to suppose that +agriculture and the processes of the domestic cotton manufacturer had +ever been universally twin callings. There never was a time, probably, +when weavers who did nothing but weave were not a significant +proportion, if not the major part, of the class of weavers. All again +were not independent and all were not employees. Some were simply +journeymen in small domestic workshops; others were engaged by fustian +masters or Manchester merchants and paid by the piece for what they made +out of material supplied them; others again bought their warps and +cotton and sold to the merchants their fabrics, which were their own +property. The last class was swept away soon after the industry became +large, when by the organization of men of capital consumers and +producers were more and more kept in touch. In early days most weavers +owned their looms, the great part of which they had frequently +constructed themselves: later, however, a large number hired looms, and +it was as usual in certain quarters for lodgings to be let with a loom +as it is to-day for them to be provided with a piano. When it became +customary for weavers to undertake a variety of work, the masters +usually provided reeds (which had to vary in fineness with the fineness +of the warp), healds, and other changeable parts, and sometimes they +employed the gaiters to fit the new work in the looms. + +Until the success of the water-frame, cotton could not be spun +economically of sufficient strength and fineness for warps, and the +warps were therefore invariably made of either linen or wool. Some were +manufactured locally, others were imported from Germany, Ireland and +Scotland. The weaver prepared them for his loom by the system of +peg-warping,[19] but after the introduction of the warping-mill he +received them as a rule all ready for insertion into the loom from the +Manchester merchant or local fustian master. + + "It did not pay the individual weaver to keep a warping-mill for + occasional use only, and frequently the contracted space of his + workroom precluded even the possibility of his doing so. The invention + of the warping-mill necessitated specialism in warping, and it was + essential that warping should be done to order, since at that time, + the state of the industrial world being what it was, no person could + ordinarily have been found to adventure capital in producing warps + ready made in anticipation of demand for the great variety of fabrics + which was even then produced. Moreover, had the weaver himself placed + the orders for his warps, any occasional delay in the execution of his + commissions might have stopped his work entirely until the warps were + ready; for warps cannot be delivered partially, like weft, in + quantities sufficient for each day's work. To ensure continuous + working in the industry, therefore, it was almost inevitable that the + merchant should himself prepare the warps for such fabrics as he + required, or possibly have them prepared. To the system of the + merchant delegating the preparation of warps there was less objection + than to the system of the weaver doing so, since the merchant, dealing + in large quantities, was more likely to get pressing orders completed + to time. Further, the merchant knew first what kind of warps would be + needed. The first solution, however, that of the merchant undertaking + the warping himself, was the surer, and there was no doubt as to its + being the one destined for selection in a period when a tendency to + centralize organization, responsibility and all that could be easily + centralized, was steadily gaining in strength."[20] + +Guest says the system by which the weaver was supplied with warps and +other material was substituted for the purchase of warps and cotton-wool +by the weaver about 1740. No doubt the change was very gradual, +especially as Aikin mentions the use of warping-mills in the 17th +century. The weaver as a rule received his weft material in the form of +cotton-wool and was required to arrange himself for its cleaning and +spinning. According to Aikin,[21] dealers tried the experiment of giving +out weft instead of cotton-wool, but "the custom grew into disuse as +there was no detecting the knavery of the spinners till a piece came in +woven." As it was impossible to unwrap the yarn and test it throughout +its length, defects were hidden until it came to be used, and the +complaints of weavers were not conclusive as to the inferiority of the +yarn, since their own bad workmanship might have had something to do +with its having proved unsatisfactory. It was therefore found best to +saddle the weaver with full responsibility for both the spinning and +weaving. Women and children cleaned, carded and spun the cotton-wool in +their homes. The cotton had to be more thoroughly cleaned after its +arrival in this country. The ordinary process of cleaning was known as +"willowing," because the cotton was beaten with willow switches after it +had been laid out on a tight hammock of cords. The cotton used for fine +spinning was also carefully washed; and even when it was not washed it +was soaked with water and partially dried so that the fibres might be +made to cling together.[22] Most of the weaving was done by men, and +until the invention of the fly-shuttle they cast the shuttle from hand +to hand in the manner of their remotest ancestors. For the making of the +broader fabrics two weavers were required when the width was greater +than the easy stretch of a man's arms. Sometimes cloths were woven wide +and then split into two or more: hence the term "splits." This became a +common practice when the hand-loom workers were groaning under the +pressure of competition from the power-loom. + + + The invention of machinery. + +We now reach the era of the great inventions. In order to ensure +clearness it will be desirable to consider separately the branches of +spinning and weaving: to pass from the one to the other, and follow the +chronological order, might cause confusion. First emphasis must be laid +upon the point that it was not mechanical change alone which constituted +the industrial revolution. No doubt small hand-looms factories would have +become the rule, and more and more control over production would have +devolved upon the factory master, and the work to be done would have been +increasingly assigned by merchants, had the steam-engine remained but the +dream of Watt, and semi-automatic machinery not been invented. The spirit +of the times was centralizing management before any mechanical changes of +a revolutionizing character had been devised. Loom-shops, in which +several journeymen were employed, were not uncommon: thus "in the latter +part of the last (18th) and the beginning of the present (19th) century," +says Butterworth, describing the state of affairs in Oldham and the +neighbourhood, "a large number of weavers ... possessed spacious +loom-shops, where they not only employed many journeymen weavers, but a +considerable proportion of apprentice children." It is true that both the +fly-shuttle and drop-box had been invented by that time, but the loom was +still worked by human power. Specialism, however, was on the increase, +the capitalist was assuming more control, and the operative was being +transformed more and more into the mere executive agent. Further, as +creative of enterprise, an atmosphere of freedom and a general economic +restlessness, consequent upon the reaction against mercantilism, were +noticeable. Great changes, no doubt, would soon have swept over +Lancashire had a new source of power and big factories not been rendered +essential by inventions in spinning. + + + Spinning and preparatory machinery. + +The chief inventors were Lewis Paul and John Wyatt, James Hargreaves and +Samuel Crompton. The two first originated the principle of spinning by +rollers. Their patent was taken out in 1738, but no good came of it +immediately, though many trials were made and moderately large sums of +money were lost. Ultimately Richard Arkwright brought forward the same +plan improved:[23] his first patent was dated 1769. Over the real +authorship of the fundamental idea there has been much controversy, and +it has not been absolutely proved that the second inventor, whether +Thomas Highs, Arkwright or John Kay (a clockmaker of Warrington who +assisted Arkwright to construct his machine and is said by some to have +told him of an invention by Highs), did not hit upon the device afresh +in ignorance of the work already done. Even as between Paul and Wyatt it +is not easy to award due measure of praise. Probably the invention, as a +working machine, resulted from real collaboration, each having an +appreciable share in it. Robert Cole, in his paper to the British +Association in 1858 (reprinted as an appendix to the 1st ed. of French's +_Life of Crompton_), championed the claims of Paul, but Mantoux, in his +_La Revolution industrielle au XVIII^e siecle_, after studying the +Wyatt MSS., inclines to attribute to Wyatt a far more important +position, though he dissents from the view of Baines, who ascribes +little or nothing to Paul. + +Arkwright's prospects of financial success were much greater than those +of his predecessors, because, first, there was more need in his time of +mechanical aids, and secondly, he was highly talented as a business man. +In 1775 he followed up his patent of 1769 with another relating to +machinery for carding, drawing and roving. The latter patent was widely +infringed, and Arkwright was compelled to institute nine actions in 1781 +to defend his rights. An association of Lancashire spinners was formed +to defend them, and by the one that came to trial the patent was set +aside on the ground of obscurity in the specifications. Arkwright again +attempted to recover his patent rights in 1785, after the first patent +had been in abeyance for two years. Before making this further trial of +the courts he had thought of proceeding by petition to parliament, and +had actually drawn up his "case," which he was ultimately dissuaded from +presenting. In it he prayed not only that the decision of 1781 should be +set aside, but that both patents should be continued to him for the +unexpired period of the second patent, i.e. until 1789. In his "case" +(i.e. the petition mentioned above) Arkwright stated that he had sold to +numbers of adventurers residing in the different counties of Derby, +Leicester, Nottingham, Worcester, Stafford, York, Hertford and +Lancaster, many of his patent machines, and continued: "Upon a moderate +computation, the money expended in consequence of such grants (before +1782) amounted to at least L60,000. Mr Arkwright and his partners also +expended in large buildings in Derbyshire and elsewhere upwards of +L30,000, and Mr Arkwright also erected a very large and extensive +building in Manchester at the expense of upwards of L4000. Thus a +business had been formed which already (he calculated) employed upwards +of five thousand persons, and a capital on the whole of not less than +L200,000."[24] It is impossible to discover exactly the rights of the +matter. Certainly Arkwright had been intentionally obscure in his +specifications, as he admitted, and for his defence, namely that it was +to preserve the secret for his countrymen, there was only his word. He +may have hoped to keep the secret for himself; and as to the originality +of both inventions there were grave doubts. But Arkwright has received +little sympathy, because his claims were regarded as grasping in view of +the large fortune which he had already won. He began work with his first +partners at Nottingham (when power was derived from horses) and started +at Cromford in 1771 (where the force of water was used). Soon he was +involved in numerous undertakings, and he remained active till his death +in 1792. He had met throughout with a good deal of opposition, which +possibly to a man of his temperament was stimulating. Even in the matter +of getting protective legislation reframed to give scope to the +application of the water-frame, a powerful section of Lancashire +employers worked against him. This protective legislation must here be +shortly reviewed. + +In 1700 an act had been passed (11 & 12 William III. c. 10) prohibiting +the importation of the printed calicoes of India, Persia and China. In +1721 the act 7 George I. c. 7 prohibited the use of any "printed, +painted, stained or dyed calico," excepting only calicoes dyed all blue +and muslins, neckcloths and fustians. This act was modified by the act 9 +George II. c. 4 (allowing British calicoes with linen warps). Thus the +matter stood as regards prints when Arkwright had demonstrated that +stout cotton warps could be spun in England, and at the same time the +officers of excise insisted upon exacting a tax of 6d. from the plain +all-cottons instead of the 3d. paid by the cotton-linens, on the ground +that the former were calicoes. Arkwright's plea, however, was admitted, +and by the act 14 George II. c. 72 the still operative part of the act +of 1721 was set aside, and the manufacture, use, and wear of cottons +printed and stained, &c., was permitted subject to the payment of a duty +of 3d. per sq. yd. (the same as the excise on cotton-linens) provided +they were stamped "British manufactory." The duty was varied from time +to time until its repeal in 1832. + +Some more powerful force than that of man or horse was soon needed to +work the heavy water-frames. Hence Arkwright placed his second mill on a +water-course, fitting it with a water-wheel, and until the steam-engine +became economical most of the new twist mills were built on +water-courses. On rare occasions the old fire-engines seem to have been +tried. + + The following passage quoted from a note in Barnes's _History_ + illustrates the pressing need of the early mills: "On the river + Irwell, from the first mill near Bacup, to Prestolee, near Bolton, + there is about 900 ft. of fall available from mills, 800 of which is + occupied. On this river and its branches it is computed that there are + no less than three hundred mills. A project is in course of execution + to increase the water-power of the district, already so great and so + much concentrated, and to equalize the force of the stream by forming + eighteen reservoirs on the hills, to be filled in times of flood, and + to yield their supplies in the drought of summer. These reservoirs, + according to the plan, would cover 270 acres of ground, and contain + 241,300,000 cub. ft. of water, which would give a power equal to 6600 + horses. The cost is estimated at L59,000. One reservoir has been + completed, another is in course of formation, and it is probable that + the whole design will be carried into effect."[25] + +As early as 1788 there were 143 water-mills in the cotton industry of +the United Kingdom, which were distributed as follows among the counties +which had more than one.[26] + + Lancashire 41 Flintshire 3 + Derbyshire 22 Berkshire 2 + Nottinghamshire 17 Lanarkshire 4 + Yorkshire 11 Renfrewshire 4 + Cheshire 8 Perthshire 3 + Staffordshire 7 Midlothian 2 + Westmorland 5 Isle of Man 1 + +The need of water to drive Arkwright's machinery, and its value for +working other machinery, caused a strong decentralizing tendency to show +itself in the cotton industry at this time, but more particularly in the +twist-spinning branch. Ultimately the steam-engine (first used in the +cotton industry in 1785) drew all branches of the industry into the +towns, where the advantages of their juxtaposition--i.e. the external +economies of centralization--could be enjoyed. Out of the crowding of +the mills in one locality sprang the business specialism which has +continued up to the present day. Here it will not be out of place to +notice the appearance of the new power, electricity, in the cotton +industry, the extension of which may involve striking economic changes. +The first electric-driven spinning-mill in Lancashire, that of the +"Acme" Spinning Company at Pendlebury, the work of which is confined to +the ring-frame, was opened in 1905. Power is obtained from the stations +of the Lancashire Power Company at Outwood near Radcliffe, some 5 m. +distant. + +The chief principle of the water-frame was the drawing out of the yarn to +the required degree of tenuity by sets of gripping rollers revolving at +different speeds. This principle is still applied universally. Twist was +given by a "flyer" revolving round the bobbin upon which the yarn was +being wound; the spinning so effected was known as throstle-spinning. The +plan is still common in the subsidiary processes of the cotton industry, +but for spinning itself the ring-frame, which appears to have been +invented simultaneously in England and the United States (the first +American patent is dated 1828), is rapidly supplanting the +throstle-frame,[27] though the "ooziness" of mule yarn has not yet been +successfully imitated by ring-frame yarn. The great invention relating to +weft-spinning was the jenny, introduced by James Hargreaves probably +about 1764, and first tried in a factory four years later.[28] Hargreaves +unfortunately was unable to maintain his patent, because he had sold +jennies before applying for protection. Crompton's mule, which combined +the principles of the rollers and the jenny, was perfected about 1779. +Both jennies and mules were known as "wheels," because they were worked +in part by the turning of a wheel. As they could be set in motion without +using much power, being light when of moderate size, for a long time +they were worked entirely by hand or partially with the aid of horses or +water. The first jenny- and mule-factories were small for this reason, +and also because skill in the operative was a matter of fundamental +importance,[29] as it was not in twist-spinning on the water-frame. The +size of the typical weft-spinning mill suddenly increased after the scope +for the application of power was enlarged by the use of the self-actor +mule, invented in 1825 by Richard Roberts, of the firm of Sharp, Roberts +& Co., machinists, of Manchester. In 1830 Roberts improved his invention +and brought out the complete self-actor. Self-actors had been put forward +by others besides Roberts--for instance by William Strutt, F.R.S. (son of +Arkwright's partner), before 1790; William Kelly, formerly of Lanark +mills, in 1792; William Eaton of Wiln in Derbyshire; Peter Ewart of +Manchester; de Jongh of Warrington; Buchanan, of Catrine works, Scotland; +Knowles of Manchester; and Dr Brewster of America[30]--but none had +succeeded. And Roberts's machines did not immediately win popularity. For +a long time the winding done by them was defective, and they suffered +from other imperfections. Broadly speaking, until the American Civil War +the number of hand-mules in use remained high. It was for the fine +"counts" in particular that many employers preferred them.[31] About the +end of the 'sixties, however, and in the early 'seventies, great +improvements were effected in machinery, partly under the stimulus of a +desire to elevate its fitness for dealing with short-staple cotton, and +it became evident that hand-mules were doomed. Here we may suitably refer +to the scutching machine for opening and cleaning cotton, invented by Mr +Snodgrass of Glasgow in 1797, and introduced by Kennedy[32] to Manchester +in 1808 or 1809; the cylinder carder invented by Lewis Paul and improved +by Arkwright; and the lap-machine first constructed by Arkwright's son. + + + Weaving machinery. + +We now transfer our attention to that accumulation of improvements in +manufacturing (as weaving is technically termed) which, taken in +conjunction with the inventions already described, presaged the large +factory system which covers Lancashire to-day. Gradually, for many +years, the loom had been gathering complexities, though no fundamental +alteration was introduced into its structure until 1738, when John Kay +of Bury excited the wrath of his fellow-weavers by designing and +employing the device of the fly-shuttle. For some unfathomable +reason--for the opposition of the weavers hardly explains it, though +they expressed their views forcibly and acted upon them violently--this +invention was not much applied in the cotton industry until about a +quarter of a century after its appearance. The plan was merely to +substitute for human hands hammers at the ends of a lengthened lathe +along which the shuttle ran, the hammers being set in motion by the +jerking of a stick (the picking peg) to which they were attached by +strings. The output of a weaver was enormously increased in consequence. +In 1760 John Kay's son Robert added the drop-box, by the use of which +many different kinds of weft could be worked into the same fabric +without difficulty. It was in fact a partitioned lift, any partition of +which could be brought to a level with the lathe and made for the time +continuous with it. The drop-box usefully supplemented the "draw-boy," +or "draught-boy," which provided for the raising of warps in groups, and +thereby enabled figured goods to be produced. The "draw-boy" had been +well known in the industry for a long time; in 1687 a Joseph Mason +patented an invention for avoiding the expense of an assistant to work +it,[33] but there is no evidence to show that his invention was of +practical value. Looms with "draw-boys" affixed, which could sometimes +be worked by the weavers themselves, later became common under the name +of harness-looms, which have since been supplanted by Jacquard looms, +wherein the pattern is picked out mechanically. + +The principle of the fly-shuttle was a first step towards the complete +mechanizing of the action required for working a loom. The second step +was the power-loom, the initial effort to design which was created by +the tardiness of weaving as contrasted with the rapidity of spinning by +power. After the general adoption of the jenny, supplies of yarn outran +the productive powers of the agencies that existed for converting them +into fabrics, and as a consequence, it would seem, some yarn was +directed into exports which might have been utilized for the manufacture +of cloth for export had the loom been more productive. The agitation for +the export tax on yarn at the end of the 18th, and in the first years of +the 19th century, is therefore comprehensible, but there was no +foundation for some of the allegations by which it was supported. For a +large proportion of the exported yarn, fabrics could not have been +substituted, since the former was required to feed the hand-looms in +continental homes and domestic workshops, against much of the product of +which there was no chance of competing. The hand-loom was securely +linked to the home of the peasant, and though he would buy yarn to feed +his loom he would not buy cloth and break it up.[34] + +Cartwright's loom was not the first design adapted for weaving by power. +A highly rudimentary and perfectly futile self-actor weaving machine, +which would have been adapted for power-working had it been capable of +working at all, had been invented by a M. de Gennes: a description of +it, extracted from the _Journal de scavans_, appeared in the +_Philosophical Transactions_ for July and August 1678, and again in the +_Gentleman's Magazine_ in 1751 (vol. xxi. pp. 391-392). It consisted of +mechanical hands, as it were, that shot in and out of the warp and +exchanged the shuttle.[35] Another idea, which however proved fruitful, +was that of grinding the shuttle through the warps by the agency of +cog-wheels working at each end upon teeth affixed to the upper side of +the shuttle. Though shuttles could not in this fashion be set in rapid +movement, the machine turned out to be economical for the production of +ribbons and tapes, because many pieces could be woven by it at once. +These contrivances were known as swivel-looms, and in 1724 Stukeley in +his _Itinerarium curiosum_ wrote that the people of Manchester have +"looms that work twenty-four laces at a time, which was stolen from the +Dutch." Ogden says also that they were set up in imitation of Dutch +machines by Dutch mechanics invited over for the purpose. Another +interesting passage relating to the swivel-looms will be found in the +rules of the Manchester small-ware weavers dated 1756, where the +complaint is made that the masters have acquired by the employment of +"engine or Dutch looms such large and opulent fortunes as hath enabled +them to vie with some of the best gentlemen of the country," and it is +alleged that these machines, which wove twelve or fourteen pieces at +once, "were in use in Manchester thirty years ago."[36] One +power-factory at least was devoted to them as early as 1760, namely that +of a Mr Gartside at Manchester, where water-power was applied, but the +enterprise failed.[37] Cartwright's invention was probably perfected in +its first form about 1787, but many corrections, improvements and +additions had to be effected before it became an unqualified success. +Cartwright's original idea was elaborated by numerous followers, and +supplementary ideas were needed to make the system complete. Of the +latter the most important were those due to William Radcliffe, and an +ingenious mechanic who worked with him, Thomas Johnson, which were +patented in 1803 and 1804. They related to the dressing of the warp +before it was placed in the loom, and for the mechanical taking up of +the cloth and drawing forward of the warp, so that the loom had not to +be stopped for the cloth to be moved on and the warp brought within play +of the shuttle to be sized. Looms fitted with the latter of these +devices were known as "dandy" looms. The looms that followed need not be +described here, nor need we concern ourselves with the degree in which +some were imitations of others. It is of interest to note, however, in +view of recent developments, that one of Cartwright's patents included a +warp-stop motion, though it was never tried practically so far as the +writer is aware. Looms with warp-stop motions are now common in the +United States, as are also automatic looms, but both are still the +exception in Lancashire for reasons that will be sketched later. + +Power-looms won their way only very gradually. Cartwright and others +lost fortunes in trying to make them pay, but the former was compensated +by a grant of L10,000 from government. In 1813 there were 2400 only in +the whole of the United Kingdom; in 1820 there were 14,000, beside some +240,000 hand-looms; in 1829, 55,500; in 1833, 100,000; and in 1870, +440,700.[38] To-day there are about 700,000 in the cotton industry. The +beginning, and the final consequences, of the competitive pressure of +the power-looms may be read in the reports of official inquiries and in +Rowbotham's diary.[39] It was upon the fine work that the hand-loom +weavers retained their last hold. In 1829 John Kennedy wrote in his +paper to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society on "The Rise +and Progress of the Cotton Trade," "It is found ... that one person +cannot attend upon more than two power-looms, and it is still +problematical [even in 1829, observe] whether the saving of labour +counterbalances the expense of power and machinery and the disadvantage +of being obliged to keep an establishment of power-looms constantly at +work." It was not easy to obtain a sufficiency of good hands for the +power-looms, because the operatives, who had acquired their habits under +the domestic system, hated factory life. This, in conjunction with the +ease with which the art of coarse weaving could be acquired and the +cheapness of rough looms, helps to explain the wretched straits into +which the hand-loom weavers were driven. + +[Sidenote: Growth.] + +Improvements in machinery, which ultimately affected every process from +cleaning the cotton to finishing the fabric, and the application of +water and steam-power, so lowered the cost of production as to render +Lancashire the cotton factory of the world. Figures are quoted in the +table to show the rate of growth in different periods of England's +imports and exports as regards the raw material and products of this +industry. It is important to remember when reading the last 6 columns +that the value of money was the same in 1831-1835, 1851-1855 and +1876-1880: the sums of Sauerbeck's index numbers for these periods were +454, 451 and 444 respectively. In the last two periods there were +considerable depressions in prices. If prices had remained constant, in +the periods 1891-1895 and 1896-1900 the figures of exports would have +been L90 millions and L91 millions respectively. The growth in trade has +been partly occasioned by the enormous increase in the volume of cotton +goods consumed all over the world, which in turn has been due to (1) the +growth of population, (2) the increase in productive efficiency and +well-being, and (3) the substitution of cotton fabrics for woollen and +linen fabrics. The rate of growth between the periods 1771-1781 and +1781-1791 (which is not shown in the above table) was particularly +remarkable, and reached as high a figure (when measured by importations +of weight of cotton) as 320%. + + +---------+-------------+-------------+-----------------------------+---------------------------+ + | | | | Exports of Cotton Yarns |Imports of Cotton Yarns and| + | | | |and Manufactures, Million L. | Manufactures, Million L | + | | Imports of | Raw Cotton | | | + | Year. | Raw Cotton, |re-exported, +------+-------------+--------+------+-------------+------+ + | | Million lb. | Million lb. | | | | |Manufactures.| | + | | | |Yarns.|Manufactures.| Total. |Yarns.| (excluding |Total.| + | | | | | | | | Lace.) | | + +---------+-------------+-------------+------+-------------+--------+------+-------------+------+ + |1700-1705| 1.17 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + |1771-1775| 4.76 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + |1785-1789| .. | .. | .. | .. | 1.07* | .. | .. | .. | + |1791-1795| 26.00 | .. | .. | .. | 2.09* | .. | .. | .. | + |1816-1820| 139.00 | 10.00 | 2.5 | 13.8 | 16.30 | .. | .. | .. | + |1831-1835| 313.00 | 23.00 | 4.8 | 14.2 | 19.00 | .. | .. | .. | + |1851-1855| 872.00 | 124.00 | 6.8 | 24.9 | 31.70 | .. | .. | .. | + |1876-1880| 1456.00 | 180.00 | 12.4 | 56.1 | 68.30 | .. | 2.29 | 2.29 | + |1891-1895| 1746.00 | 217.00 | 9.7 | 56.6 | 66.30 | .42 | 2.78 | 3.20 | + |1896-1900| 1798.00 | 223.00 | 8.9 | 58.2 | 67.10 | .26 | 4.27 | 4.53 | + |1901-1905| 1920.00 | 265.00 | 8.4 | 70.7 | 79.10 | .22 | 5.10 | 5.32 | + +---------+-------------+-------------+------+-------------+--------+------+-------------+------+ + * Official values. + + + Differentiation and Integration. + +Nothing is more interesting in the cotton industry than the processes of +differentiation and integration that have taken place from time to time. +Weaving and spinning had been to a large extent united in the industry +in its earliest form, in that both were frequently conducted beneath the +same roof. With mechanical improvements in spinning, that branch of the +industry became a separate business, and a substantial section of it was +brought under the factory regime. Weaving continued to be performed in +cottages or in hand-loom sheds where no spinning at all was attempted. +Cartwright's invention carried weaving back to spinning, because both +operations then needed power, and the trouble of marketing yarn was +largely spared by the reunion. Mr W. R. Grey stated in 1833 to the +committee of the House of Commons on manufactures, commerce and +shipping, that he knew of no single person then building a spinning mill +who was not attaching to it a power-loom factory. Some years later the +weaving-shed split away from spinning, partly no doubt because of the +economies of industrial specialism, partly because of commercial +developments, to be described later, which rendered dissociation less +hazardous than it had been, and partly because, in consequence of these +developments, much manufacturing (as weaving is termed) was constituted +a business strikingly dissimilar from spinning. The manufacturer runs +more risks in laying by stocks than the spinner, because of the greater +variety of his product and the more frequent changes that it undergoes. +The former, therefore, must devote more time than the latter to keeping +his order book and the productive power of his shed in close +correspondence. The minute care of this kind that must be exercised in +some classes of businesses explains why the small manufacturer still +holds his own while the small spinner has been crushed out. It also +explains to some extent the prevalence of joint-stock companies in +spinning, and their comparative rarity in manufacturing. Here we should +notice, perhaps, that the only combination of importance in the cotton +industry proper (apart from calico-printing, bleaching, &c., and the +manufacture of sewing-cotton) is the Fine Cotton Spinners and Doublers +Association, founded in 1898, which is practically coextensive with fine +spinning and doubling. + + + Localization of branches of the industry. + +The specialism of the two main branches of the industry has been +followed by the specialism of sub-branches and by the localization of +specialized parts. Of the localization of certain sections of the cotton +industry the late Mr Elijah Helm, who spoke with the authority of great +local knowledge, has written as follows:-- + + "Spinning is largely concentrated in south Lancashire and in the + adjoining borderland of north Cheshire. But even within this area + there is further allocation. The finer and the very finest yarns are + spun in the neighbourhood of Bolton, and in or near Manchester, much + of this being used for the manufacture of sewing-thread; whilst other + descriptions, employed almost entirely for weaving, are produced in + Oldham and other towns. The weaving branches of the industry are + chiefly conducted in the northern half of Lancashire--most of it in + very large boroughs, as Blackburn, Burnley and Preston. Here, again, + there is a differentiation. Preston and Chorley produce the finer and + lighter fabrics; Blackburn, Darwen and Accrington, shirtings, dhooties + and other goods extensively shipped to India; whilst Nelson and Colne + make cloths woven from dyed yarn, and Bolton is distinguished for fine + quiltings and fancy cotton dress goods. These demarcations are not + absolutely observed, but they are sufficiently clear to give to each + town in the area covered by the cotton industry a distinctive place in + its general organization."[40] + +The present local distribution of the cotton industry, as far as it is +displayed statistically, is revealed in the table beneath, based upon +the figures of spindles and looms given by Worrall and those of +operatives in the census returns of 1901. + + _Distribution of Cotton Operatives in Lancashire and the Vicinity + according to the Census Returns of 1901, together with the Number + of Spindles and Looms according to Worrall._ + + +------------------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+ + | | No. of | No. | No. of | + | | Operatives. | Spindles (in | Looms. | + | | | Thousands). | | + +------------------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+ + | Blackburn | 41,400 | 1,325 | 75,300 | + | Bolton | 29,800 | 5,035 | 20,100 | + | Oldham | 29,500 | 11,603 | 18,500 | + | Burnley | 27,900 | 687 | 79,300 | + | Manchester and Salford | 27,200 | 2,666 | 24,200* | + | Preston | 25,000 | 2,036 | 57,900 | + | Rochdale | 14,800 | 2,168 | 25,100 | + | Darwen | 12,500 | 336 | 28,700 | + | Nelson | 12,400 | 23 | 39,000 | + | Glossop** | | 968 | 15,400 | + | Bury | 10,700 | 818 | 22,200 | + | Stockport | 9,700 | 1,803 | 8,700 | + | Ashton-under-Lyne | 8,600 | 1,839 | 11,500 | + | Accrington | 8,300 | 417 | 36,400 | + | Colne | 7,300 | 140*** | 20,500 | + | Heywood | 7,300 | 869 | 6,400 | + | Stalybridge | 7,100 | 1,106 | 7,100 | + | Todmorden | 6,900 | 261 | 15,800 | + | Rawtenstall | 6,600 | 356 | 8,800 | + | Hyde | 6,500 | 553 | 7,900 | + | Chadderton | 6,400 | .. | .. | + | Haslingden | 6,100 | 148 | 12,000 | + | Bacup | 5,900 | 315 | 9,300 | + | Chorley | 5,900 | 547 | 17,900 | + | Farnworth, near Bolton | 5,700 | 738 | 10,600 | + | Leigh | 5,000 | 1,667 | 5,900 | + | Great Harwood | 4,900 | 72 | 12,400 | + | Middleton | 4,900 | 511 | 2,500 | + | Radcliffe | 4,800 | 157 | 8,900 | + +------------------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+ + * Manchester only. + ** The number of operatives in places in Derbyshire is not separately + specified. + *** Includes Foulridge with Colne. + +Local markets have steadily lost in importance, partly owing to railway +development, and it is now almost entirely in Manchester, on the +Exchange, that dealing in yarns and fabrics takes place, and +arrangements are made for export. The old Manchester Exchange, built in +1729, was taken down in 1792. A new Exchange, reared on a contiguous +site, was opened in 1809, the first stone having been laid in 1806. The +present building was erected in 1869. The great bulk of the exports of +cotton goods proceeds from Liverpool, though London used to be the +leading port, and Liverpool is still the chief English market for raw +cotton, though now from one-sixth to one-eighth of English cotton +supplies come up the Manchester Ship Canal. + + + Modern organization. + +To understand the present organization of the cotton industry the reader +must begin by mentally separating the commercial from the industrial +functions. By the industrial functions are meant the arrangements of +factors in production--choosing the most suitable machinery and hands, +combining them in the most economical system, adapting the material used +to this system, and keeping its working at the highest attainable level. +The commercial functions consist in business which is not industrial. +Analysis will show that there are, broadly speaking, two classes of +commercial functions, namely (1) arranging for purchases and sales, and +(2) the bearing of risks. The character of the former is apparent; it +consists, as regards yarn, in discovering for each manufacturer which +spinner makes the yarn which is best adapted to his requirements at the +lowest cost, and in finding the most suitable customers for spinners. +Risk-bearing is a commercial function of another kind. Every business +that involves anticipation involves commercial risks. Thus the spinner +who sells "forward" yarn, trusting that the price of cotton will not +rise, is taking commercial risks, and so is the spinner who produces for +stock, trusting that the class of yarn that he is making will continue +in demand. These two instances will suffice to indicate what is meant by +the carrying of commercial risks. To make the rest of our argument clear +it will be well to write down formulae. Let A and B represent +respectively the industrial operations of spinning and manufacturing. +Let a and [alpha] represent respectively the commercial operations +implied by the separate existence of A, that is, the buying of cotton +and the selling of yarn; and let b and [Greek: beta] stand for the +commercial operations associated with manufacturing, that is, the buying +of yarn on the one hand, and the finding of customers and arranging for +their purchases on the other hand. Then, A and B being distinct +businesses, it is obvious that a range of schemes is possible of which +the extremes may be roughly represented as follows:-- + + 1. (aA[alpha]), (bB[beta]) + 2. (a), (A), ([alpha]b), (B), ([beta]), + +where the brackets signify independent businesses. In case 1 each +spinning business would be engaged with three problems, namely, (i.) +buying material at the most favourable time, (ii.) producing at the +lowest cost, and (iii.) finding buyers and selling at the highest price, +including the arranging for the performance of the most remunerative +work. But in case 2 the spinner would confine his attention to purely +industrial matters, while the problem of finding cotton and arranging +for the bearing of the risks as to future prices would rest with other +persons, and the business of bringing spinner and manufacturer together +and taking such risks as may be involved in ordering or disposing of +yarn would be the function of yet others. In case 2 the commercial +functions may be said to have differentiated completely from the main +body of the industry. We need hardly give illustrations of the +intermediate arrangements that formally lie between cases 1 and 2. A may +retain commercial risks but find customers through intermediaries; in +such an event there would be only partial differentiation of the +commercial functions. The reader must be reminded also that for the sake +of simplicity in the formulae we have overlooked different classes of A +and of B, omitted bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing, and drawn +no distinction between the various classes of commercial work covered by +one letter, for instance, selling in the home market and selling abroad. + +It may help the reader to appreciate the organic growth of the cotton +industry if we now run over the main lines of its evolution. Originally +the industrial units were held together in one homogeneous commercial +setting. The Manchester merchants bought cotton and warps, put them out +to the weavers, and arranged for the finishing of the cloth and then for +its sale, so far as they had not been acting on orders already received. +There were variations of this system--for instance, in early years +weavers sometimes bought their own yarns and cotton and sold their +cloth--but just before the industrial revolution the arrangement +sketched above was the most usual. Adverting to our formula, the +Manchester merchants, we observe, performed functions a (in conjunction +with importers), b (as regarded warps), and [beta]. Weft the weaver had +to get spun by his family or outsiders. So, broadly speaking, there was +one single commercial setting. After the appearance of the factory, the +commercial work as between the water-twist mills, the mule-spinning +businesses and the manufacturers, so far as the businesses were +distinct, appears to have been done by the several producing firms +concerned. It was not at once that ([alpha]b) began to differentiate, +[beta] was already a separate business in the hands of Manchester +merchants and the foreign houses who had established themselves in +Manchester to direct the export trade. At the present time an advanced +stage of commercial specialism has been reached. From the risks +connected with the buying of cotton the spinner may if he please escape +entirely.[41] Selling work is now done usually through intermediaries, +but there is no one uniform rule as to the carrying of the commercial +risks involved. This appears to be now to some extent a matter of +arrangement between the persons concerned, but ultimately no doubt the +risks will have to be borne by those most qualified by experience to +bear them, namely, the commercial specialists. In no other trade in +England, and in no other cotton industry abroad, has commercial +specialism been carried so far as in the cotton trade of Lancashire. It +is partly in consequence of the difference in this respect between the +cotton industry in Lancashire and abroad that the separation of spinning +from weaving is far more common in England than elsewhere. Elsewhere +producers are deterred from specializing processes further in distinct +businesses by the fear of the worries of buying and selling as between +them. + +The explanation of differences in respect of the degree of commercial +specialism in different places and industries can be formulated only +very generally. Time is required for the differentiation and +localization to take place. The English cotton trade had not advanced +very far in the "'thirties," if we are to judge from the evidence given +to commissions and parliamentary committees. The general conditions +under which commercial specialism evolves may be taken to be a +moderately limited range of products which do not present many +varieties, and the qualities of which can be judged generally on +inspection. In such circumstances private markets need not be built up, +as they must be, for instance, for a new brand of soap which claims some +subtle superiority to all others. Soaps under present conditions must be +marketed by their producers. Broadly stated, if there be little +competition as to substitutes, though there may be much as to price in +relation to quality, commercial functions may specialize. On the whole +this is the case in the cotton industry; in so far as it is not and +firms produce specialities, they undertake much of the marketing work +themselves. + +The advantages of commercial specialism are numerous. Firstly it allows +of differentiation of industrial processes, and this, of necessity, is +accompanied by increasing returns. When weaving dissociates from +spinning, both the number of looms in each business and the number of +spindles in each business tend to increase; more division of labour is +therefore secured, and lower costs of production are reached, and there +is a further gain because producers concentrate their attention upon a +smaller range of work. Again when producers are freed entirely, or to +some extent, from commercial worries, they can attain a higher level of +efficiency at the industrial task of mill organization, and a more +perfect accommodation of capacity to function will be brought about. If +the business unit is (aA[alpha]), a particular person may retain his +place in the market by reason of his excellence at the work a or +[alpha], though as works organizer (i.e. at the performances of function +A) he may be incompetent. The heads of businesses will succeed according +to their average capacities at the three tasks a, A and [alpha], and +there is no guarantee, therefore, that any one of these tasks will be +performed with the highest attainable efficiency in our present somewhat +immobile economic system. But if the three functions are separated there +is more certainty of a person's success in the performance of each +determining his continued discharge of it. The problems that arise when +specialized markets become very highly developed are dealt with in the +article COTTON: MARKETING AND SUPPLY. + + + Operatives in various processes. + + The distribution of cotton operatives among the chief centres has + already been shown, but their distribution between processes has yet + to be considered, and the proportions of different ages and sexes from + time to time, together with the total. With such statistical material + as is available relating to supplies of labour we may set forth also + the official returns made of the quantity of machinery at work from + time to time. It hardly need be pointed out that the ratio of + machinery to operatives roughly measures the efficiency of labour, + other things being equal. + + + _Machinery in the United Kingdom (in Thousands)._ + + +--------+-----------+-----------+--------+ + | Years. | Spinning | Doubling | Power- | + | | Spindles. | Spindles. | Looms. | + +--------+-----------+-----------+--------+ + | 1874 | 37,516 | 4366 | 463 | + | 1878 | 39,528 | 4679 | 515 | + | 1885 | 40,120 | 4228 | 561 | + | 1890 | 40,512 | 3993 | 616 | + | 1903 | 43,905 | 3952 | 684 | + +--------+-----------+-----------+--------+ + + + _Operatives employed in the Cotton Industry (in Thousands). (From the + Census Returns.*)_ (The figures in italics relate to Married and + Widowed Women.) + + +----------------------------------------+--------------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ + | | 1901. | 1891. | 1881. | + | +-------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | | England | | England | | England | + | | Lancashire | and Wales |Lancashire.| and Wales |Lancashire.| and Wales | + +----------------------------------------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | | M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. | + |Cotton, card and blowing-room processes | 11.4 | 28.7 | 13.8 | 34.0| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | | 10.1 | |12.2 | | | | | | | | | | + |Cotton spinning processes | 49.5 | 19.6 | 64.1 | 28.6| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | | 4.3 | | 6.0 | | | | | | | | | | + |Cotton weaving, warping, &c. | 57.6 |113.5 | 66.1 |130.8| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | | 13.0 | | 15.8 | | | | | | | | | | + |Cotton winding, warping, &c. | 14.8 | 38.6 | 18.3 | 48.9| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | | 38.1 | | 44.4 | | | | | | | | | | + | +------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----------+ + | Total |133.3 | 265.9|162.3 |320.7|178.2|281.8|213.2|332.8|150.7|249.8|185.4|302.4| + | +------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + |Cotton workers in other processes or | 29.0 | 6.7 | 34.5 | 9.4 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | undefined | 1.8 | | | 2.3 | | | | | | | | | + |Tape, manufacturer dealer | .. | .. | .. | .. | .47| .25| .9 | 1.5| .4 | .24| .7 | 1.2 | + |Thread, manufacturer dealer | .. | .. | .. | .. | .2 | .9 | .6 | 2.1| .1 | .9 | .5 | 1.7 | + |Fustian, manufacturer dealer | .6 | 1.2 | 2.1 | 2.6 | 1.1 | 2.9 | 3.2 | 5.0| 1.7 | 3.5 | 3.0 | 5.2 | + | | .55| | | 1.0 | | | | | | | | | + |Cotton, calico, warehouseman, dealer | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 2.5 | .3 | 3.2 | .38| + +----------------------------------------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + * Census classifications have been altered twice in the period covered by this table. + + In Scotland there are less than 15,000 cotton operatives distributed + as follows:-- + + In Thousands. + + Card and blowing-room processes .4 + Spinning-room processes 2.1 + Winding, warping, &c. 2.7 + Weaving, warping, &c. 6.8 + Workers in other processes or undefined 2.8 + ---- + Total 14.8 + + + _Operatives employed in Cotton Factories in the United Kingdom and + Percentages of each Class. (From Returns of Factory Inspectors.)_ + + +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | | 1835.| 1838.| 1847.| 1850.| 1856.| 1862.| 1867.| + +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | Male and Female under | | | | | | | | + | 13, or half-timers. | 13.2 | 45.7 | 5.8 | 4.6 | 6.5 | 8.8 | 10.4 | + | Male, 13 to 18 | 12.5 | 16.6 | 11.8 | 11.2 | 10.3 | 9.1 | 8.6 | + | Male, over 18 | 26.4 | 24.9 | 27.1 | 28.7 | 27.4 | 26.4 | 26.0 | + | Female, over 13 | 47.9 | 53.8 | 55.3 | 55.5 | 55.8 | 55.7 | 55.0 | + +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | Total number of | | | | | | | | + | Cotton Operatives |218,000|259,500|316,400|331,000|379,300|451,600|401,100| + +=======================+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+ + | | 1870.| 1874.| 1878.| 1885.| 1890.| 1895.| 1901.| + +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | Male and Female under | | | | | | | | + | 13, or half-timers. | 9.6 | 14.0 | 12.8 | 9.9 | 9.1 | 5.8 | 4.1 | + | Male, 13 to 18 | 8.5 | 8.0 | 7.2 | 7.9 | 8.2 | 7.9 | 7.0 | + | Male, over 18 | 26.0 | 24.1 | 25.3 | 26.4 | 26.9 | 27.6 | 27.8 | + | Female, over 13 | 55.9 | 53.9 | 54.7 | 55.8 | 55.8 | 58.7 | 61.1 | + +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | Total number of | | | | | | | | + | Cotton Operatives |450,100|479,600|483,000|504,100|528,800|538,900|513,000| + +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + + + _Number of Operatives (in Thousands) engaged in Spinning, + Manufacturing and Subsidiary Processes (excluding Lace-making, but + including the Fustian Manufacture). (From Census Returns.)_ + + +------+------------------------+------------------------+------------------------+ + | | Males. | Females. | Males and Females. | + +------+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+ + | |Under| |Over | All |Under| |Over | All |Under| |Over | All | + | | 15.|15-20.| 20. |Ages.| 15. |15-20.| 20. |Ages.| 15.|15-20.| 20. |Ages.| + +------+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+ + | 1881 | 29 | 39 | 121 | 189 | 40 | 81 | 189 | 310 | 69 | 120 | 310 | 500 | + | 1891 | 36 | 45 | 137 | 218 | 50 | 94 | 197 | 341 | 86 | 139 | 334 | 560 | + | 1901 | 24 | 36 | 139 | 199 | 36 | 92 | 207 | 335 | 60 | 128 | 346 | 535 | + +------+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+ + + + The fact that the branches of work covered by the figures are not + identical explains discrepancies between this and the previous table. + + + _Number of Operatives engaged in the Cotton Industry (Processes + being distinguished and Ages and Sex). (From Special Returns made by + Factory Inspectors.)_ + + +------------+-------------------------+--------------------------+----------+ + | | Males in Thousands. | Females in Thousands. | | + | +-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+--------+ Total in | + | | Half- | Under |18 and | Half- | Under | 18 and |Thousands.| + | |timers.| 18. | over. |timers.| 18. | over. | | + +------------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+--------+----------+ + | | | |Spinning and Preparatory Processes| | + |1896 | 5.58 | 22.24 | 71.44 | 4.40 | 30.12 | 78.96 | 212 | + |1898-1899* | 5.42 | 21.57 | 71.37 | 3.86 | 30.44 | 77.64 | 210 | + |1901 | 4.98 | 21.10 | 68.98 | 3.10 | 30.98 | 81.68 | 211 | + | | | |Weaving and Preparatory Processes | | + |1896 | 7.54 | 18.79 | 75.81 | 11.87 | 49.19 | 151.34 | 315 | + |1898-1899* | 6.21 | 17.29 | 72.74 | 10.38 | 48.38 | 150.99 | 306 | + |1901 | 4.72 | 14.86 | 73.81 | 8.0 | 45.66 | 155.03 | 302 | + +------------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+--------+----------+ + * Average for 1898 and 1899. + + The figures in this table are not quite complete except for 1901; the + relations between the changes shown for each class should nevertheless + be accurately represented. + + + _Index Numbers of Money, Wages and Prices._ + + +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ + | |1840.|1855.|1860.|1866.|1870.|1874.|1877.|1880.|1883.|1886.|1891.| 1902.| + +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ + |Cotton operatives. | 50 | 54 | 64 | 74 | 74 | 90 | 90 | 85 | 90 | 93 | 100 |105 | + |Average wages for | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | eight trades | 61 | 61 | 73 | 81 | 83 | 97 | 94 | 89 | 92 | 90 | 100 |108.7*| + |Sauerbeck's | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | index number | 103 | 73 | 99 | 102 | 96 | 102 | 94 | 88 | 82 | 69 | 72 | 69 | + |Average price of | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | wheat per quarter| 66/4| 40/3| 53/3|49/11|46/11| 55/9| 56/9| 44/4| 41/7| 31/-| 37/-|28/1 | + +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ + * Average for a slightly different group. + + + _Weekly Wages in the Manchester and District Cotton Trade._ + + +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | |1834.|1836.|1839.|1841.|1849.|1850.|1859.|1860.|1870.|1877.|1882.|1883.|1886.| + +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | |s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.| + |Spinners' average |23 4 |23 11|22 1 |22 0 |21 7 |20 5 |24 1 |23 2 |27 8 |34 4 |31 6 |32 4 |35 7 | + |Big piecers' average|11 0 | 9 3 | 8 6 | 8 8 | 8 6 |13 0 |10 0 |10 0 |11 0 |12 4 |16 0 |16 0 |13 7 | + |Weavers' average |11 0 |10 2 | 9 6 | 9 6 |10 6 |10 3 |11 2 |10 8 |12 2 |15 1 |15 6 |15 0 |13 3 | + +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + + The most noticeable features of these tables are the decrease in the + proportion of children employed and the steady increase in the number + of operatives as a whole until recent years. The contraction of the + body of operatives of late years seems to have occurred primarily + among children and young persons (where the first check would + naturally be looked for), and secondarily among adult males. If + allowance be made for the smaller value of children as compared with + adults, and the census results be taken, it is not evident that there + has been any diminution in the amount of labour-power; and if the + factory inspectors' returns be accepted, the falling off in the number + of operatives cannot be proved to have taken place in either of the + chief branches of the industry at so rapid a rate as to have + occasioned the enforced dismissal of any hands. An industry which was + not recruited at all would have dwindled at a greater rate. At least + it may be inferred from these figures, when taken in conjunction with + the large increase in spindles and looms, that the output per head has + considerably advanced in spite of the rise in the average quality of + both yarns and fabrics produced. This rise in the value per unit of + the output accounts to some extent for the fact that wages have not + been adversely affected of late. + + + Wages and piece-rate lists. + + Mr A. L. Bowley has calculated index numbers of wages for the leading + trades, including the manufacture of cotton. Those for the cotton + industry are given below, together with averages for cotton and wool + workers, the building trades, mining, workers in iron, sailors, + compositors and agriculturists (England), the numbers in each class + being allowed for in the average. Side by side with these figures, + Sauerbeck's index numbers of general wholesale prices are given, + together with the average prices of wheat per quarter. + + It must be remembered that the figures given above for cotton workers + and average wages for eight trades do not measure the differences + between each, but only the differences between the movements of each. + Actual average money wages in the cotton industry have probably been + approximately those stated in the second table beneath, but as these + figures are culled from various sources they must not be taken to + indicate fluctuations.[42] + + The wage of fine spinners exceeds the average wage of spinners by + percentages varying from about 25 to 35. In the above figures the + earnings of three classes of spinners are averaged. + + The highest wages are earned by mule-spinners (who are all males); + their assistants, known as piecers, are badly paid. Persons can easily + be found, however, to work as piecers, because they hope ultimately to + become "minders," i.e. mule-spinners in charge of mules. The division + of the total wage paid on a pair of mules between the minder and the + piecers is largely the result of the policy of the spinners' trade + union. Almost without exception in Lancashire one minder takes charge + of a pair of mules with two or three assistants according to the + amount of work to be done. Among the weavers there is no rule as to + the number of assistants to full weavers (who are both male and + female), or as to the number of looms managed by a weaver, but the + proportion of assistants is much less than in the spinning branches, + perhaps because of the inferior strength of the weavers' unions. For + the calculation of wages piece-rate lists are universally employed as + regards the payment of full weavers and spinners; some piecers get a + definite share of the total wage thus assigned to a pair of mules, + while others are paid a fixed weekly amount. Many ring-spinners are + now paid also by piece-rate lists, and all other operatives are almost + universally so paid, except, as a rule, the hands in the blowing-room + and on the carding-machines. Spinning and weaving lists are most + complicated; allowances are made in them for most incidents beyond the + operatives' control, by which the amount of the wage might be + affected. Still, however, they could not cover all circumstances, and + much is left to the manner of their application and private + arrangement. They should be regarded as giving the basis, rather than + as actually settling, the wage in all cases. The history of lists + stretches back to the first quarter of the 19th century as regards + spinners, and to about the middle of the century generally as regards + weavers, though a weaving list agreed to by eleven masters was drawn + up as early as 1834. There are still many different district lists in + use, but the favourite spinning lists are those of Oldham and Bolton, + and the weaving list most generally employed is that known as the + "Uniform List," which is a compromise between the lists of Blackburn, + Preston and Burnley. Under the "Particulars Clause," first included in + a Factory Act in 1891 and given extended application in 1895, the + particulars required for the calculation of wages must be rendered by + the employer. As in spinning there used to be doubts about the + quantity of work done, the "indicator," which measures the length of + yarn spun, is coming into general use under pressure from the + operatives. We ought to observe here that the Oldham Spinning list + differs from all others in that its basis is an agreed normal + time-wage for different kinds of work on which piece-rates are + reckoned. But in effect understandings as to the level of normal + time-wages are the real basis everywhere. If the average wages in a + particular mill are lower than elsewhere for reasons not connected + with the quality of labour (e.g. because of antiquated machinery or + the low quality of the cotton used), the men demand "allowances" to + raise their wages to the normal level. Advances and reductions are + made on the lists, and under the Brooklands Agreement, entered into by + masters and men in the cotton spinning industry in 1893, advances and + reductions in future must not exceed 5% or succeed one another by a + shorter period than twelve months. The changes as a rule now are 5% or + 2-1/2%. In all branches of the cotton industry it is usual for a + conference to take place between the interested parties before a + strike breaks out, on the demand of one or other for an advance or + reduction. + + + Trade Unions. + + Organization among the workers in the cotton industry is remarkably + thorough. Almost all spinners are members of trade unions, and though + the weavers are not so strongly united, the bulk of them are + organized. The piecers are admitted as members of piecers' + associations, connected with the spinners' associations and controlled + by them. Attempts to form independent piecers' unions have failed. + Weavers' assistants are included in the weavers' unions, which may be + joined in different classes, the benefits connected with which vary + with the amounts paid. One subscription only, however, is imposed by + each branch spinners' association, but in all branches it is not the + same, though every branch pays the same per member to the + amalgamation. All the trade unions of the chief workers in the cotton + industry are federated in the four societies: (1) the Amalgamated + Association of Operative Cotton Spinners (created in 1853 and reformed + in 1870), (2) the Northern Counties Amalgamated Association of Weavers + (founded 1884), (3) the Amalgamated Association of Card and + Blowing-room Operatives (established 1886), and (4) the Amalgamated + Association of Power-loom Overlookers (founded 1884). These were not, + however, the first attempts at federation, and the term "federation" + must not be taken in any strict sense. The distribution of power + between the central authority and the local Societies varies, but in + some cases, for instance among the spinners, the local societies + approximate as closely to the status of mere branches, as to that of + independent units federated for limited objects. We ought also to + mention the societies of warp-dressers and warpers, tape-sizers and + cloth-workers and warehousemen. There is no one federation of all + cotton-workers, but the United Textile Factory Workers has been + periodically called into being to press the matter of factory + legislation, and international textile congresses are occasionally + held by the operatives of different countries. + + As to employers, four extensive associations include almost all the + organization among them, two concerned chiefly with spinning and two + with weaving. The former two are the Federation of Master Cotton + Spinners' Associations with local associations and including + 21,000,000 spindles, and the Bolton Master Cotton Spinners' + Association with 7,000,000 spindles; the latter two are the North and + North-East Lancashire Spinners' and Manufacturers' Association, + covering about 3,000,000 spindles in addition to a large section of + the looms of Lancashire, and the United Cotton Manufacturers' + Association.[43] + + + Factory Acts. + + Factory legislation began in the cotton industry, and in no industry + is it now more developed. The first acts were those of 1802 and 1819, + both of which applied only to cotton-mills, and the former of which + related only to parish apprentices. The first really important measure + was that of 1833, which curtailed the abuse of child-labour, enforced + some education and provided for factory inspectors, of whom there were + at first only four. The next act of importance, that of 1844, was + chiefly remarkable for its inclusion of all women among young persons. + The proportion of women, young persons and children engaged in the + cotton industry is so high, that most regulations affecting them, e.g. + those relating to the hours of labour, must practically be extended to + all cotton operatives. This act killed night work for "young persons," + and children were not allowed to work at night. The year 1847 saw the + introduction of what was known as the Ten Hours Act--after the 1st of + May 1848 the hours of young persons (women included) and children were + not to exceed ten a day and fifty-eight a week. A further limitation + of hours to 56-1/2 a week was secured in 1874, and this was cut down + by another hour (the concession of the 12 o'clock Saturday) in 1901. + "Young persons" now includes all who are not half-timers and have not + attained the age of eighteen, and all women. The rules as regards the + employment of children, which have steadily improved, are at present + as follows. No child under twelve may be employed. On attaining the + age of thirteen the child may become a full-timer if he has obtained + the prescribed educational certificate (i.e. fifth standard attainment + or three hundred attendances each year for five consecutive years). + Failing this he must wait till he is fourteen before he can be + employed full time. Half-timers may be employed either (a) on + alternate days, which must not be the same days in two successive + weeks, or (b) in morning and afternoon sets. In the case of + arrangement (a), the child when at work may be employed during the + same period as a young person or woman, which in Lancashire is almost + universally from 6 to 6 with two hours for meals.[44] In the case of + arrangement (b), which is the system generally adopted in Lancashire, + a half-timer in the morning set works from 6 to 12.30, with half an + hour for breakfast, and in the afternoon from 1.30 to 6 except on + Saturdays, when the hours are from 6 till 11.30 for a manufacturing + operative, or till 12 for other work, for instance, cleaning. The + child must not work two consecutive weeks in the same set (that is, in + mornings or afternoons), nor on two successive Saturdays, nor on + Saturday at all if during any other day of the same week the period of + employment has exceeded 5-1/2 hours (i.e. a child in the morning set + does not work on the Saturday). Other important features of factory + legislation relate to the fencing of dangerous machinery and its + cleaning when in motion (the regulations being strictest in the case + of children and most lax in the case of male adults), and conditions + of health, including the amount of steaming allowed, which was first + regulated by the Cotton Cloth Factories Act of 1889. + + +The Cotton Industry outside England. + +A brief survey will now be made of the cotton industry in parts of the +globe other than the British Isles, and as a prelude the following broad +estimates of the numbers of spindles and looms in the chief national +seats of the cotton industry may be put forward.[45] The table is +further supplemented by other figures[46] for the number of spindles at +different times in the United Kingdom, the United States and the +continent; and finally we may add the figures of cotton consumed. + +The different average fineness of counts spun in different places must +be borne in mind when the consumption of each district at the same time +is being considered, but the relations between the amounts consumed in +the contrasted districts in the two periods would not be affected much +by this difference. + + +-----------------+--------------+----------+-------------+ + | | Estimated | Million | Thousand | + | | Population | Spinning | Power-Looms | + | | in 1902. | Spindles | about 1906. | + | | In Millions. | in 1909. | | + +-----------------+--------------+----------+-------------+ + | United Kingdom. | 42 | 53.5 | 700 | + | United States | 79 | 27.8 | 550 | + | Germany | 58 | 9.8 | 215 | + | France | 39 | 6.8 | 110 | + | Russia | 139 | 7.8 | 150 | + | India | 294(1901) | 5.8 | 45 | + | Austria | 26.7 | 4.2 | 80 | + | Spain | 18.6(1900) | 1.9 | 69 | + | Italy | 33 | 4.0 | 100 | + | Switzerland | 3.4 | 1.5 | 30 | + | Japan | 46 | 1.7 | .. | + | Belgium | .. | 1.2 | .. | + +-----------------+--------------+----------+-------------+ + + + _Cotton Spindles (including Doubling Spindles) in Millions._ + + +--------+---------+---------+--------+----------+--------+ + | | United | | United | Other | | + | | Kingdom.| Europe. | States.|Countries.| Total. | + +--------+---------+---------+--------+----------+--------+ + | 1870 | 37.7 | 13 | 7.1 | .. | 57.8 | + | 1880 | 44.5 | 21 | 10.6 | 2 | 78.1 | + | 1890 | 44.5 | 26 | 14.2 | 4 | 88.7 | + | 1900 | 46.2 | 32 | 19 | 7 | 104.2 | + | 1903 | 47.9 | 33 | 22.2 | 7.5 | 110.6 | + +--------+---------+---------+--------+----------+--------+ + + + _Average Annual Consumption of Cotton in the Period 1831-1835._ + + Millions of lb. + United Kingdom 295 + Continent of Europe 143 + United States 79 + + + _Average Annual Consumption of Cotton in the Period 1900-1905._ + + Millions of lb. + United Kingdom 1634 + Continent of Europe 2486 + United States 1995 + +Roughly the consumption of cotton per spindle in the three areas to-day +is, in lb., 35 for the United Kingdom, 70 for the continent, and 95 for +the United States. + +Before the cotton industry in other countries is described it will be +necessary to explain how it could have developed there on a large scale +at all. Of course this growth is to be accounted for very largely by the +natural protection of cost of transport aided by tariffs. But it would +be a mistake for Englishmen to imagine that all foreign cotton mills are +the product of a forcing culture, and that if the favourable conditions +created by import duties were removed they would totally disappear. No +doubt some of the growth is artificial, but much is natural and would +have taken place under universal free trade conditions. Much of it, +indeed, would have appeared in these circumstances even were cost of +production a negligible quantity, difficult though it may be at first to +reconcile this statement with certain ordinary conceptions of the +operations of the law of increasing returns. Lancashire secured an +immense lead at the beginning of the 19th century, and if the cost of +production may be represented as varying inversely as the magnitude of +the industry, every addition to her success increased her advantages. +How could the small industry, with a high cost of production because it +was small, compete with Lancashire? The answer is to be found in the +peculiar conditions governing international trade and a closer analysis +of "increasing returns." "Increasing returns" in any place are a +function of two variables, (1) the magnitude of the world market under +conditions of world commerce, and (2) the magnitude of the industry in +the spot in question. The economies connected with the first variable, +which in such an industry as the cotton industry are enormous, and +govern ultimately the limits of business specialism, are shared by every +national section of the industry whether it be great or small. If Haiti +started a cotton factory she might import all her specialized +machinery--the specialism involved in producing which is dependent upon +the exportation of some of it--and restrict narrowly the work undertaken +by her one factory. The cotton goods outside this range she would still +import, and if her specialized product were in excess of local demand +she could export some of it, if she were favourably placed in respect of +cost of carriage, for cost of production in Haiti would not be +impossibly high, since machinery and the general system of production +would be quite up to date though labour might be highly inefficient. Of +course, the country with a large industry enjoys high local economies, +and it might be thought that these alone would be a menace to the +stability of the small industry, because if the industry in the favoured +locality increased these would increase also and the small industry +would be undersold. The answer to this difficulty is that foreign trade +depends upon ratios between ratios, that is, upon the ratios between the +costs of production of all the products of each country in relation to +similar ratios for other countries. Relatively, therefore, diminishing +returns operate in every country. In every country there must come a +time, the utility of commodities being taken into account, when a unit +of labour and capital provides less utility when applied to the creation +of cotton goods, say, than when applied to producing something else for +home consumption or for export in exchange for commodities wanted at +home. It becomes apparent, therefore, that cotton industries of widely +varying sizes dispersed throughout the world can settle into relations +of perfectly stable equilibrium, as that term is understood by the +economist. Slow changes, of course, in their relative volumes might be +looked for with changes in a mutable world, but very sudden collapses +would be impossible unless the general course of human affairs were +revolutionized. + +_The United States._--The machine-cotton industry was carried to North +America almost as soon as it evolved in England. Models of Arkwright's +machines were smuggled across the Atlantic in 1786--Arkwright's first +mill had not been started in England until 1769--and these with a jenny +and stock-card were publicly exhibited. From these models a great mass +of machinery was soon constructed. The first mill was erected in 1788 +(that of the Beverly Association), the second appeared in 1790, the +third five years later, and in 1798 Samuel Slater started with some of +his wife's relatives the first mill in which the principle of the +water-frame was carried throughout. It is said that it was not until +1814 that power-loom manufacturing was commenced, but in England success +with the power-loom was long delayed. As early as 1831, however, there +were in the United States--mainly in the New England states--800 +factories, a million and a quarter spindles, 33,500 looms and 62,200 +operatives. At this time the annual consumption of cotton was about +77,000,000 lb. as compared with some 300,000,000 lb. in England at the +same date, and 2,000,000,000 approximately in the United States at the +present time.[47] Writing in 1840, James Montgomery said that, in +respect of cost of production, the American industry was 19% behind that +of England apart from the cost of raw material, which was then a good +deal less to the Americans. In 1878, when there was much interest in the +question of British efficiency in the cotton industry because the +passage of the Factory Act of 1874 had cut down the working hours, the +_Economist_ contrasted the result of twenty-five years' growth in +England and America:-- + + "In 1853 the average English production per weaver of 8-1/4 lb. shirting + was 825 yds. per week of sixty hours. In 1878 the working hours had + fallen to fifty-seven, and the production had risen to 975 yds. An + increased production of 23% is thus due to improvement in the + processes of manufacture. In 1865 there were 24,151 persons employed + in Massachusetts in the production of cotton goods, and they produced + 175,000,000 yds. In 1875 the operatives numbered 60,176, and their + product was 874,000,000 yds. The operatives had increased 150% and + their products had increased 500%. The increase of production due to + improved methods was thus in England 23%, and in Massachusetts 100%. I + do not, of course, suppose that the American manufacturer is in + advance of his English rival to the extent of this difference, for I + presume that he started upon the career of improvement from a lower + platform. But a progress so greatly more rapid than ours will be + admitted to cast much light on the change which has occurred in our + relative positions." + +The contrast no doubt was not perfect, as indeed it could not be in +view of the varieties of product and their changes, but it proves at any +rate that Americans were making vast strides in industrial efficiency +even before the period when American methods and American enterprise +were monopolizing in a wonderful degree the attention of the business +world.[48] About a dozen years later the low real cost of production of +simple fabrics in the United States was universally admitted, and also +that American manufacturers were making more use of machinery than their +European rivals. In a typical weaving shed in Massachusetts, for +instance, of which particulars were published, twenty women "tended" as +many as eight looms apiece, forty-three managed seven, two hundred and +thirty-two managed six, and only eleven had five only.[49] Since then, +moreover, advance has been rapid, and the sudden development of the +South has astonished the business community of other centres of the +cotton industry. + +Before the lines of development in America are specifically dealt with, +and particularly the industrial phenomena in the South, a few words must +be said of the general extension of the industry. The consumption of +cotton in the United States in million lb. was about 75 in 1830, 390 in +1860, 1100 in 1890 and nearly 2000 on an average of the five crop years +from 1900-1901 to 1904-1905: active spindles advanced from 1,250,000 in +1830 to 10,653,000 in 1880 and about 21,250,000 in 1905. Looms which +numbered 33,500 in 1830 had reached 226,000 in 1880 and nearly 550,000 +in 1905. At the same time population, it must be remembered, was growing +at a phenomenal rate: from 31.4 millions in 1860 it had passed to 38.6, +50.2, 62.6 and 76.3 at the succeeding decennial censuses, the decennial +rates of increase being in order 22.5, 30, 25 and 20.5 as compared with +8.5, 10.5, 8 and 9 as shown by the corresponding censuses in the United +Kingdom. Protection was of course contributory to the growth of the +American cotton industry. It may be remarked incidentally that the New +World, including the West Indies and the Chinese empire, take the bulk +of American exports, which for so large an industry are inconsiderable. +The imports have always been well in excess of the exports. The +encouragement of home industries by tariffs was definitely aimed at +after the war with England during the Napoleonic struggles, and although +a sensible reduction of duties was experienced after 1845 the reaction +to protection that followed the Civil War was never significantly +departed from except by the single act of 1883. In 1790 the duties on +cotton goods were 7-1/2% _ad valorem_, and they rose gradually until they +reached 25% in 1816. Slight reductions some seventeen years later were +followed in the early 'forties by a tariff of 30%. Diminutions were +succeeded by oscillations, though at no point was a low level touched. +Severe charges were imposed in 1890, and after some relaxation in 1894 +the policy of restrictiveness was restored in 1897. According to the +calculations made by the English Board of Trade in 1903[50] no fabrics +were admitted at a charge equivalent to less than 68% _ad valorem_, and +no yarns were admitted at a charge lower than 45% _ad valorem_. Cotton +thread is subjected to a rate equivalent to 375%[51] + +The character of the growth of the cotton industry in the United States, +as revealed by recent census returns, is peculiarly interesting:-- + + +------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------+ + | | Thousands | Percentage Increase | + | +--------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | | 1880. | 1890. | 1900. | 1905. |1880-1890|1890-1900|1900-1905| + +------------------------+--------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | Active Spindles | 10,653| 14,188| 19,008| 23,156| 33.8 | 34 | 21.8 | + | Looms | 226| 325| 451| 541| 43.90 | 38.7 | 20 | + | lb. cotton consumed | 750,344|1,117,946|1,814,003|1,875,075| 48.99 | 62.3 | 3.3 | + | Wages | $42,041| $66,025| $85,126| $94,378| 57 | 28.9 | 10.9 | + | Capital |$208,280| $354,021| $460,843| $605,100| 70 | 30.2 | 31.3 | + | Employees not officers | | | | | | | | + | and clerks | 174.7| 218.9| 297.9| 310.5| 25.3 | 36.1 | 4.2 | + +------------------------+--------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + +Cotton small wares are included in the totals for 1880 and 1890, but +excluded from those for 1900 and 1905. We must observe further that +"capital" is a vague term. Recent events in the United States afford a +valuable empirical indication of the effect that improved machinery +actually has upon wages. The new automatic looms caused a saving of +labour per unit of product which recalled the complete subversion at the +industrial revolution of the proportions in which the several factors in +production were organized. Displacement of labour and falling wages +might not unreasonably have been looked for temporarily, but wages stuck +at their old level or rose. The rise was caused by numerous converging +forces which brought their united weight to bear. First, prices so fell +as the result of the new machinery that the increased volume of +commodities which the market could absorb more than counterbalanced, it +would seem, the labour-saving of the new machinery, the cotton industry +being taken as a whole. It must be remembered that to increase the +output from the subsidiary processes where labour had not been saved +more hands had to be drafted in. Thus, a contraction of the body of +weavers was accompanied by an expansion of the body of cotton +operatives. Again weavers' wages were naturally raised in a special +degree because automatic machinery called for quick, trustworthy and +intelligent hands, endowed with versatility, especially in the days when +the machinery was still in the semi-experimental stage. The American +employer tries to save in labour but not to save in wages, if a +generalization may be ventured. The good workman gets high pay, but he +is kept at tasks requiring his powers and is not suffered to waste his +time doing the work of unskilled and boy labour. There is, certainly, in +the American labour problem no serious grievance on the question of +wages. If there is any abuse it consists in excessively fierce work. Mr. +T. M. Young, who visited the American cotton districts in 1904 with an +informal commission of Lancashire spinners and manufacturers, did not +think that the cause of the high wages--allowance being made for the +purchasing power of money, they are above those of England, though +cotton operatives in England are well paid relatively--was the +superiority of the American cotton worker; neither did the +representatives of the English cotton operatives who accompanied the +Moseley Commission. As often as not "the cotton operative in the United +States is a French Canadian, a German, an Italian, a Hungarian, an +Albanian, a Portuguese, a Russian, a Greek, or an Armenian." It is the +extensive "exploitation" of machinery seemingly, together with the speed +of work, which keep wages high, combined with the horizontal and +vertical mobility of American labour, which prevents it from +accumulating in pools, and causes streams of the best hands to be +flowing continuously to other callings and places, and no insignificant +proportion to climb the social ladder. The remainder naturally profit, +for a local or trade congestion of labour is avoided, and the voluminous +recruiting of enterprise by the intensified competition among employers +keeps the demand for labour high. + +One noticeable point in the table quoted above is that until recently +cotton consumed increased much faster than the number of spindles. This +might be explained in a variety of ways. Average counts remaining +constant, the average speed of the spindle might have risen; or the +latter remaining constant, counts might have been getting finer. Speeds +have certainly gone up a good deal of late on some counts. And it is +quite likely, too, that concentration on the manufacture of coarse goods +for export, with stout warps to keep down the breakages and raise the +output per loom, may be reckoned as one cause. + +Despite the recent sensational growth in the South, the New England +States still remain the most prominent seat of the American cotton +industry. They contained in 1905 about 14 million spindles as compared +with 7.7 millions in the South and West, and their relative possession +of looms approaches, though it does not quite reach, the same +proportion. The leading States in the South in order of importance are +South Carolina, North Carolina, Georgia and Alabama, and in the North, +first Massachusetts with an enormous lead, then, in order, Rhode Island, +New Hampshire, Connecticut, Maine, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey. +The bulk of the cotton industry in the North is contained within a small +area. A circle around Providence, Rhode Island, of 30 m. radius +includes, according to the twelfth census, nearly 7-1/4 million +spindles,--there were only 58,500 spindles in this area in 1809. Of the +chief towns Fall River stood first in 1900 in value output, and was +followed in order by Philadelphia, New Bedford, Lowell, Manchester and +Pawtucket. The climate of Fall River is very similar to that of English +spinning districts. Its population in 1900 was 105,000, and of these +only 14,600 were of American parentage. Of the remainder, 16,700 were +English, 17,800 Irish, 29,600 French Canadians and about 5000 +Portuguese. Among the rest of foreign parentage, Armenians, Russians and +Italians are numerous. But Massachusetts is famous for the number of +immigrants it attracts. It is almost incredible, but nevertheless a fact +according to a recent statistical report, that in 1903 as many as 91% of +the cotton operatives of the State were of foreign descent--chiefly +French Canadian and Irish. In 1902 there were nearly 90 mills at Fall +River with 3,000,000 spindles and 16,000 looms. The spindles amount to +about one-third of all in Massachusetts, but Fall River's share of the +looms of the State is not large. The spindles exceed in number those +possessed by any State except of course the one in which it is placed. +In comparison with a great spinning town in England, nevertheless, Fall +River does not appeal strongly to the English imagination. It has little +over a quarter of the spindles of Oldham, or three-fifths of those of +Bolton,--among English towns it would stand third, i.e. between Bolton +and Manchester and Salford, which, in spite of the movement of spinning +to the hills, still holds in England a leading place. The whole of +Massachusetts, it is of interest to observe, has fewer spindles than +Oldham, and only about half those of Oldham and Bolton together. +Originally it was the river which attracted the mills to Fall River, and +as the water-power available was almost inexhaustible, it was possible +for the mills to congregate together and for a town to grow up. In +England, when much of the industry was dependent for power upon water, +decentralization was entailed, for the thin streams of Lancashire could +not support more than two or three mills at most in proximity. Hence in +England, after Watt's steam-engine had succeeded, the economies of +centralization led eventually to the desertion of the mills on the +water-courses. But at Fall River the perfecting of the application of +steam-power merely involved its use to supplement the water-power on the +old site. The presence of water-power explains half the success of New +England. In the six States 35% of all the power used is derived from +water, and in the cotton-manufacturing of these States water provides +32.6% of the power. For industrial purposes generally the river most +exploited is the Merrimac, upon which stand the leading cotton towns of +Lowell, Lawrence and Manchester. Hitherto little has been done in the +way of using water to generate electric power.[52] + +The two most striking features of the American industry to-day are the +introduction of the automatic looms, already briefly referred to, and +the development of the South. The Northrop Loom Company has spent a +fortune in pushing its loom on to the market. It has not hesitated to +share risks, and it has run one "advertisement" mill at least, namely +that at Burlington, Vermont, with 55,000 spindles and nearly 1300 looms. +In this mill the labour-saving is shown by the following figures, the +looms being of two sizes, 32 in. and 44 in. Of the former, 3 weavers run +18 each, 39 tend 16 each, only a few odd weavers tend less than 16, and +learners even are at work on 8 to 11 each; on the latter, of 29 weavers +17 mind 16 looms each and 12 mind 12 (on stripped fabrics).[53] Of +course a high level of efficiency would be expected in this show mill. +That American employers have readily been converted to a belief in the +economy of the new machinery we are not astonished to learn in view of +the American temperament, the intensity of competition among business +leaders, and the prevailing spirit of adventure. Thousands of workable +old looms have been scrapped, and probably at the present time there are +100,000 automatic looms running in the United States. No other country +can point to a rate of substitution which approaches that in the United +States. The causes, apart from the temperamental and social to which +reference has already been made, are probably (1) that there is +disagreement as to the present economy of automatic looms on many +fabrics,[54] (2) that Americans aim at frequency of renewal of plant, +and avoid making their machinery so durable as to prove ultimately, +perhaps, a handicapping inheritance, and (3) that a greater bulk of +American work is appropriate for the new looms than of English or +continental work. But automatic machinery is being used increasingly in +Lancashire.[55] And the operatives ultimately benefit. It is the +half-developed machine, to which labour must actually be linked as an +essential part, which is responsible for monotonous work and creates the +dislike of mechanical aids. + +Now we turn to the recent development of the Southern States. Never has +an industry grown faster than that of the two Carolinas, Georgia and +Alabama. Some of the earliest experiments with the machine industry were +conducted in South Carolina, but from that time till the end of the 19th +century nobody imagined the possibility of a great Southern expansion. +In 1880 the South contained less than half a million spindles--i.e. +about as many as Hyde, Middleton or Chorley, and one-twenty-third of the +numbers in Oldham. Twenty years later they had increased twelvefold and +the Southern States, in respect of the number of spindles, had taken +precedence of Bolton. To-day probably about eight and a half millions +might be counted. In addition there are some two hundred thousand looms, +or nearly as many as in the three leading cotton-weaving towns of +England--Burnley, Blackburn and Preston. The rapid oncoming of the South +may also be traced by its consumption of cotton--which as an index, +however, is not perfect. This on an annual average was, in thousand +bales, 164, 269, 453, 717 and 1233 in each of the periods 1876-1880, +1881-1885, 1886-1889, 1891-1895 and 1895-1900 successively. The +consumption since then, as compared with that of the Northern States, +Great Britain and the European continent, has been as follows. It must +be remembered that the consumption per spindle varies greatly from place +to place. + + _Consumption of Cotton in Thousand Bales of about 500 lb. each._ + + +-----------+----------+----------+---------+----------+---------+ + | | Southern | Northern | Total | Great | | + | | States. | States. | United | Britain. | Europe. | + | | | | States. | | | + +-----------+----------+----------+---------+----------+---------+ + | 1900-1901 | 1583 | 1963 | 3546 | 3269 | 4576 | + | 1901-1902 | 2017 | 2066 | 4083 | 3253 | 4836 | + | 1902-1903 | 1958 | 1866 | 3824 | 3185 | 5148 | + | 1903-1904 | 1889 | 2046 | 3935 | 3017 | 5148 | + | 1904-1905 | 2270 | 2292 | 4562 | 3620 | 5148 | + +-----------+----------+----------+---------+----------+---------+ + +The densest distribution of mills in the South is along the line of the +Southern railroad, in the district known as the Piedmont. Of this group +Charlotte in North Carolina is the natural centre: roughly, half the +spindles and half the looms in the Southern States would be included +within a circle around Charlotte of a radius of about 100 m. Of the +remainder a large proportion is scattered over a wide area. + +Much interest has been excited by this newly created Lancashire of a new +type, and much speculation as to the causes that account for it has been +elicited. An informal commission of Lancashire spinners and +manufacturers crossed the Atlantic to make inquiries in 1902 and +investigations have been undertaken by other persons[56], and much has +been written on the subject. A general explanation can now be framed +without much difficulty, as in all probability most of the relevant +facts have been brought to light. First and foremost the general +development of the cotton industry in the United States must be +emphasized. The industry was unquestionably foredoomed to expansion at +this time, and the only question was where the expansion should take +place. It was plain that the growth might be so great as to present the +appearance of a new industry created with new labour rather than an +extension of an old industry. It was not altogether surprising, +therefore, that the exploitation of a new field of labour was thought +of. The labour market of the North was comparatively exhausted; in less +developed parts of the country larger supplies of intrinsically good +labour might be looked for at lower wages. Skill was not a matter of +much moment, because in the North it would have been necessary to +incorporate much labour without previous experience in the industry, the +work was intended to be of the rough kind upon which manual skill is +least important, and it was intended to repose reliance for economy upon +machinery in the main. The choice of new fields meant at the outset the +sacrifice of some of the economies of localization, but so large an +expansion was looked for that projectors did not despair of creating +fresh industrial localization of sufficient magnitude to produce such +economies as are derived from it, which, it must be observed, are +inconsiderable in America, and have declined relatively with falling +cost of transport and the adoption, as regards machinery, of the +principle of interchangeable parts. And at any rate a new local industry +would have a slight advantage in supplying markets in proximity to it. + +These were the main general considerations, and the scale was turned in +favour of the new locality (a) by the advantage of nearer supplies of +cotton, and (b) by the known presence of much half-occupied white labour +in the vicinity of otherwise suitable sites close to the cotton-fields. +It must be borne in mind that the whole calculation had not to be reared +merely upon an intangible theoretical basis. Cotton mills already +existed in the South, and comparisons of costs of production, as things +were then, afforded some groundwork for judgment. + +As regards the first of the two special advantages mentioned above, the +saving in the cost of carriage of the raw material is not commonly held +to be high. Transport to the cotton ports is so well organized and +sea-carriage is so cheap that Lancashire's distance from the source of +her raw material is not a very appreciable handicap. A good deal of the +cotton that must be used in some of the Southern mills cannot be +supplied locally because it is not grown in the neighbourhood, and the +requirements of these mills are met by transport arrangements which at +present cost a sum not altogether out of relation to similar costs in +the New England States and Lancashire. The percentages of freight +charges on raw material in 1900 were $2.18 in Georgia, $1.59 in North +Carolina, $1.17 in South Carolina, and the amazingly low figure of $1.20 +in Massachusetts, but of course some part of the explanation is the +somewhat higher quality of cotton on an average that is worked up in +Massachusetts. For some years, however, the saving in labour has been a +most important economy. Large supplies of half-occupied white labour +existed in the Southern States among the families of small farmers who +flocked South after the Civil War, and in the districts of the decayed +hand industry in the mountains of Kentucky and North Carolina. For small +money wages much of this labour could be attracted to the mills. Negroes +do not work in the mills; the reason is said to be partly their own +disinclination and partly that they are not very efficient at factory +work. As outside labourers, however, they have afforded important aid at +a very trifling cost, but the expense of outside labour to a mill is +never an item of much weight. The halcyon days to employers, when keen +workers could be had for low wages, are now said to be past. The demand +for labour was considerable, and as time went on additional supplies +could be enticed only with the offer of better pay. In 1904 it was +reported that some mills were unable to get fully to work for want of +hands even at the improved rates. Again the Southern operatives have +been visited by emissaries from the operatives of the New England +States, which explains partly the present aspect of the wages question. +Mr Pidgin, in his official report to the Massachusetts Bureau of Labour +Statistics, questions whether a saving in wages can be expected to +continue, and points out that though wages have been low the average +efficiency of the operatives has not been high. Some, indeed, were sent +to gain experience in Northern mills in the hopes that on their return +they would spread the tradition of working at high pressure. Mr Pidgin +is at some pains to measure labour efficiency in the South and North as +far as it is possible to do so, but no simple sets of figures will prove +very much. The value of the product per operative in 1900 was $1200 in +Massachusetts, $1010 in Georgia, $937 in North Carolina and $984 in +South Carolina, but the value of the product per operative depends as +much upon the fixed capital charge per operative as upon the latter's +efficiency. And the amount of machinery used per head is higher in the +South than in the North. The percentage of operatives to machinery in +Massachusetts being expressed as 100, that of Georgia was 53, that of +North Carolina 43 and that of South Carolina 55 in 1900. These figures +must be borne in mind when the average numbers employed in a mill in +different States are being considered: in 1900 the averages were 565 for +Massachusetts, 273 for Georgia, 171 for North Carolina and 378 for South +Carolina. Measured by quantity of machinery the sizes of mills would +stand in quite different relations. Hours of work in the South are bound +to fall and the abuse of child labour, which had unquestionably crept +in, may be expected to discontinue entirely. The factory conditions of +children are better now than they were, but in some places they are +still very bad. In Georgia no children under twelve are employed, but +infants without fathers may begin work at ten years of age, and +according to Mr Pidgin's report, "it certainly seemed as though the +intention was honoured more in the breach than in the observance, or +that there must be many widows in the neighbourhood of the cotton +mills." In North and South Carolina the employment of children under +twelve is illegal, but in these States also conditions are recognized +under which it is possible to employ them earlier. According to figures +relating to 1900 the dependence on child labour in the Southern States +is very striking. The proportions engaged at different ages in the three +chief cotton-manufacturing Southern States and Massachusetts are as +follows: + + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | Men, | Women, | Children | + | | 16 Years | 16 Years | under 16. | + | | and over. | and over. | | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Massachusetts | 48.98 | 44.59 | 6.43 | + | Georgia | 39.98 | 35.52 | 24.50 | + | North Carolina | 42.22 | 34.23 | 23.55 | + | South Carolina | 44.43 | 28.72 | 26.85 | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + +It might be said that children are more useful when the work is rough, +but this argument can hardly be regarded as accounting altogether for +the great discrepancy as between Massachusetts and the South. The work +is much rougher in the South: in 1900 the counts spun respectively in +Massachusetts, Georgia, North Carolina and South Carolina were 25.10, +14.37, 18.83, and 19.04, and on the showing of the American census of +1900 spinning was getting finer over the last decade of the 19th +century. + +As contributory to the influences already recorded as accounting for +Southern success it has been hinted that in the North employers have +been less ready to welcome the new machinery, though in comparison with +European rivals they would seem at first to have acted rashly. However +this may be, the South enjoyed the important advantage that its industry +began just after a great technical advance had been made. When Northern +mill-owners were anxiously deliberating about the destruction of good +machinery merely because it was antiquated in design, the fortunate +Southern mill-proprietor was getting to work with appliances up to date +in every particular. It will be easier to balance comparative advantages +as between North and South when undertakers in the newer district are +confronted by problems concerning replacements and alterations. The +rapidity of Southern growth need not astonish those who have watched the +operations by which new mills are frequently set up in Lancashire and +remember that the American business man is more daring than his British +cousin. Company promotion in the great financial centres, payment for +machinery and other plant in shares, or partially in shares, a general +diffusion of risks and pledging of credit, would explain even more rapid +growth of industries of even greater magnitude. + + + Character of the American Industry. + +Broad generalizations are difficult to frame, hard to establish and +liable to be misleading; some generalizations relating to the features +of the American cotton industry taken as a whole the author is tempted +to venture nevertheless. The characteristics of labour have already been +incidentally commented upon. We have also noticed that the bulk of the +work done is of a rough and simple character. In spite of American +nationalism and the prevalence of protective sentiments it is said that +there is still a prejudice in the United States against home-made fine +cotton goods.[57] "The product of the American system is a cloth which +is, on the whole, distinctly inferior in appearance, 'feel' and finish +to that produced by the Lancashire system. To equal a Lancashire cloth +in these respects an American cloth must not only be made of better +cotton, but must contain more of it--perhaps 5% more. To this rule of +inferiority there are, it is needless to say, exceptions, notably some +of the American drills made for the China market. But the American home +market, which absorbs nearly the whole of the product of American looms, +is less exacting in these matters than the markets in which Lancashire +cloths are sold."[58] It follows that the average counts spun in the +United States are lower than in England, though they have been rising +somewhat. Another feature of American spinning as compared with English +is the high proportion of ring-frames to mules. In New England between +1890 and 1900 mule-spindles advanced by 100,000 and ring-spindles by +nearly 2,000,000: in the South mule-spindles increased only from 108,500 +to 180,500, while to the ring-frames 2,700,000 were added. To the +general rule Rhode Island is the sole exception; here mule-spindles have +increased and ring-spindles decreased; but in Rhode Island much of the +fine spinning--for instance that for hosiery--is congregated.[59] One +explanation of the preponderance of ring-spinning is to be found in the +character of American fabrics. Again most of the operatives are not of a +kind likely to acquire great excellence at mule-spinning. To the +Americans we largely owe the ring-frame, because their encouragement +helped it through the difficult period when its defects were serious, +though it appears to have been discovered independently in both +countries. + +American organization display intense specialism, but of a type +different from that in England, where businesses are specialized by +processes; in America they are specialized by products but hardly at all +by processes. Independent spinning, independent manufacturing, +independent bleaching, dyeing and finishing are the significant features +of English industry to the bird's-eye view; in the United States the +typical firm will spin, make up its own yarn, and perhaps complete its +fabrics for the market; but the mills, it must be remembered, are +intensely specialized as to the range of their product, so that the +statement that American mills are less specialized than English mills +must be received with caution. For some reasons we should expect to +find the American method applied even in England for fabrics of the +highest qualities, because in their case the adaptation of the yarn to +the fabric, and finishing to the fabric, are of great importance, and +actually where the American plan is followed in England the explanation +is frequently the speciality of the product which is associated with the +particular firm producing it. When a firm manufactures a speciality of +this kind it cannot always trust bought yarn, or the finishing applied +to fabrics in the ton. But for other reasons specialized processes might +be looked for where qualities were highest, as by specialism alone can +the greatest excellence be attained. The final selection of method +depends upon the relative importance for high qualities in the finished +product of the connectedness of processes and the perfection of parts; +and to these considerations must be added cost of transport between the +works devoted to distinct processes, and the development of the +commercial functions by which specialized process businesses are kept +functioning as a whole. Probably it is the high development of British +industry on the commercial side which chiefly explains the arrangements +found in England. Attention should also be directed to the huge +magnitude of American businesses. This is partly a consequence of +American ambition in business, and partly a consequence of the +undeveloped commercial ligaments by which producing businesses are +brought into union. American producers in both North and South are too +widely scattered for one town, like Manchester in the English cotton +district, to be visited frequently by them for the purpose of making +purchases and effecting sales. Even if the Americans did possess a +convenient commercial centre, the high cost of transport between works +distributed over a very wide area would prevent much specialism of +businesses by processes from appearing. Writing capital letters for +industrial processes and small letters and Greek letters for commercial +functions, the possible arrangements in the cotton industry may be +represented broadly as follows, brackets indicating the scope of +businesses:[60] + + I. (a, A, B, C, d). + II. (a)(A, B, C)(d). + III. (aA[alpha])(bB[beta])(cC[gamma]). + IV. (a)(A)([alpha], b)(B)([beta], c)(C)([gamma]). + +The American industry approximates to the first type, while the English +approximates rather to the last. Differences in respect of specialism by +range of product are not shown in the formulae. + + _Other Parts of America._--Little need be said of the cotton industry + in other parts of the New World. In Canada in 1909 there were, + approximately, 855,000 Spindles, and in Mexico in 1906, where the + first factory was established in 1834, 450,000 Spindles. In Brazil + also there is an appreciable number of spindles, distributed (in 1895) + among 134 factories, which are located chiefly in Rio de Janeiro and + Minas Geraes, and are run for the most part by turbines and + water-wheels. + + _Germany._--In Germany the cotton industry is by no means so intensely + localized as in England, but three large districts may be + distinguished:-- + + 1. The north-west district, which consists of the Rhine Province and + Westphalia and contained 1-3/4 million spindles in 1901. + + 2. The country north of the mountain ranges of northern Bohemia + comprises the middle district, which contained 2-1/2 million spindles + in 1901. In Saxony the industry has been carried on for four + centuries. + + 3. Alsace, Baden, Wurttemberg and Bavarian Swabia make up the + south-west district, to which some 3-1/2 million spindles were + assigned. It is in close proximity to the cotton districts of east + France, Switzerland and Vorarlberg. + + According to Oppel (1902) the German spinning industry is chiefly + localized in-- + + Prussia with 2020 thousand spindles + Saxony " 1870 " " + Alsace " 1600 " " + Bavaria " 1390 " " + + The spindles of Wurttemberg, which stands next, do not much exceed + half a million. Only sixteen places in Germany (shown in tabular form + on p. 169) contained as many as 100,000 spindles in 1901. + + +------------------+-------------+---------------+-------------+ + | | Spindles in | | Spindles in | + | | Thousands. | | Thousands. | + +------------------+-------------+---------------+-------------+ + | Mulhausen | 471 | Chemnitz | 195 | + | Augsburg | 373 | Gebweiler | 187 | + | Gronau | 274 | Leipzig | 182 | + | Werdau | 249 | Crimmitzschau | 168 | + | Rheydt | 248 | Logelbach | 141 | + | Munchen-Gladbach | 216 | Bocholt | 128 | + | Rheine | 198 | Bamberg | 125 | + | Hof | 196 | Bayreuth | 100 | + +------------------+-------------+---------------+-------------+ + + The history of the hand industry in Germany runs back some centuries. + At the time when it flourished in the Netherlands we may be sure that + it was prosecuted to some extent farther north and east. The start + with the machine industry was not long delayed after its economies + had been learnt in England. It was fostered by protection against the + cheap products of Lancashire, and in the course of time stimulated by + every step taken towards the economic unity of the German States which + broke down local barriers and therefore enlarged the German market. + Duties upon cotton goods, however, were not immoderately high until + the measure of 1879, the policy of which was carried to a further + stage in 1885. Slight reactions were brought about in 1888 and 1891, + largely by the complaints, not only of the consumers of finished + goods, but also of manufacturers whose costs of production were kept + up by the high prices of home-spun yarns and the tax on imported + substitutes. According to the investigations made by the Board of + Trade, the general ad valorem impact of German duties on British goods + stood somewhat as follows in 1902:-- + + _Statement showing the Average Incidence_ (ad valorem) _of the Import + Duties levied by Germany on British Cotton Goods._ + + +-------------------------+-----------------+--------------+--------------+ + | |Average Value of | | Approximate | + | |Exports from the | Rate of Duty | Equivalent | + | |United Kingdom to| estimated | Rate of Duty | + | | all Countries | Equivalent. | _ad valorem_.| + | | in 1902. | | | + +-------------------------+-----------------+--------------+--------------+ + |Cotton manufactures-- | | | Per Cent. | + | Piece goods, unbleached| 2.01d. per yd. |0.87d. per yd.| 43 | + | " " bleached | 2.46d. " |1.09d. " | 44 | + | " " printed | 2.68d. " |1.31d. " | 49 | + | " " dyed, &c. | 3.46d. " |1.31d. " | 38 | + |Cotton thread for sewing | 26.89d. per lb. |3.81d. per lb.| 15 | + |Cotton yarn-- | | | | + | Grey | 10.49d. " |0.98d. " | 9 | + | Bleached or dyed | 11.23d. " |1.63d. " | 15 | + +-------------------------+-----------------+--------------+--------------+ + + The duties are not prohibitive--they are much less than those of the + United States at the same time--but they are heavy on the classes of + goods which come into competition with home-made goods. The general + principle of the tariff is to treat easiest commodities which are made + with least success at home, or are in the highest degree raw material + for a home manufacture. Therefore yarns are not taxed very heavily, + and of these the finest counts escape with slight discouragement. + + In the cotton industry, as well as in numerous other industries of + Germany, almost feverish activity was shown after the Franco-German + War. Previously great advance had been made, but it was not until the + last quarter of the 19th century that Germany forced herself into the + first rank. As measured by the annual consumption of cotton the German + industry increased as follows:-- + + _Metric Tons of Cotton per Annum._ + + (In Thousands.) + 1836-1840 9 + 1856-1860 46 + 1876-1880 124 + 1886-1890 201 + 1899-1903 324 + + It must be remembered that the spindles and looms of Alsace and + Lorraine were reckoned as German after the war: they amounted in 1895 + to one and a half million spindles and nearly forty thousand looms. + + In the 'seventies there was no dispute as to England's substantial + lead in respect of efficiency. Alexander Redgrave, the chief factory + inspector, made inquiries on the continent both in 1873, when + Lancashire was anxious as to the comparative cost of production abroad + because of the short-time bill then before parliament, and previously, + and reported most unfavourably upon the state of the industry in + Germany. Hours were long, the skill of the hands was inferior, speeds + were low and time was wasted. In several important respects his views + were corroborated by M. Taine in his _Notes on England_, and by the + evidence adduced before the German commission upon the cotton and + linen industries in 1878. A marked contrast is noticeable between the + sketches drawn of this period and the careful picture presented by + Professor Schulze-Gaevernitz of the early "'nineties," but even in the + latter the advantage of England is represented as substantial in every + essential respect. The gap which existed has narrowed, but it is + still unmistakable. To give one example, according to Dr Huber's + figures there were in Saxony at the end of the 19th century 106 + spindles to an operative and about as many weavers as looms, whereas + in England there were about twice as many spindles to an operative and + twice as many looms as persons engaged in weaving sheds.[61] As + regards manufacturing, the character of the product may partly explain + the difference, but it will not entirely. The reader need hardly be + warned that the comparison drawn is exceedingly rough. German cotton + operatives taken all round are certainly less efficient than English + labour of the same kind. The reason is partly that the proportion of + the German workpeople who have been for long specialized to the + industry, and look forward to continuing in it all their lives, is not + high. Complaint is constantly made of the number of vacancies created + in the mills each year by operatives leaving, and of the impossibility + of filling them with experienced hands. Many of the vacancies are + caused by the return of workpeople to the country parts. Sometimes the + mills are in the country, or within easy reach of it, and labour is + obtained from the unoccupied members of peasants' families. In these + cases the factories do not always succeed in attracting the most + capable people, and work in the factory is not infrequently looked + upon as a makeshift to supplement a family's earnings. Among + Lancashire operatives far more pride of occupation may be met with. In + many of the industrial parts of Germany English conditions are + evolving, but they are not generally the rule. An American consul may + be taken to report to his own country without prejudice as to the + rival merits of German and English conditions: one such wrote in + 1901:--"The task of educating labour up to a high degree of efficiency + is difficult, and many generations are necessary to achieve that + result. The English cotton spinners have attained such a degree of + skill and intelligence that, for the most part, no supervision is + necessary. In Germany the presence of a technical overseer is + indispensable. Another advantage which England enjoys is the cheap + price of machinery. Germany imports the major part of her machinery + from England, and German wholesale dealers in these machines have not + been able, by placing large orders, to overcome the difference caused + by freight and tariff." Wages reflect the efficiencies of countries, + not of course perfectly, but in some degree. They are much higher in + Lancashire than in Germany, as is made evident by an article from the + pen of Professor Hasbach in _Schmollers Jahrbuch_ (vol. ii., 1903). + The author tries to show that Germany is not so far behind England + industrially as is generally believed, and the contrast drawn by him, + greatly to the advantage of Lancashire, is not likely to exaggerate + the superiority of English conditions. It is calculated by Professor + Hasbach that the daily wages of spinners are about 5/10 to 6/10 at + Oldham, 6/6 at Bolton and 5/6 in Stalybridge and neighbouring places. + With these he compares the 3.70 to 3.80 marks paid in the Rhine + Province and Leipzig, and the 3 to 3.15 marks paid in the Vogtland, + Bavaria and Alsace, and mentions an exceptionally high wage of 4-2/3 + marks, which was earned by an operative who worked a new and long + doubling mule. The wage paid to the big piecer in England, Dr Hasbach + goes on to show, is not much greater than that received by a good + assistant in Germany. This comparison as it stands will probably give + some readers an idea that English advantages are greater than they + actually are, because it may be overlooked that the great difference + between wages in the case of English and German spinners is not + repeated among the piecers. Taking a spinner and his first assistant + as the unit, we should have a joint average daily wage of about 8/6 in + England and 6/6 in Germany. In the case of weavers, comparison of wages + is more difficult to draw, but the advantage of England would seem to + be but little less. However, in instituting a comparison between two + countries, as regards the relative efficiency of labour in some + industries, we should do well to remind ourselves that efficiency is a + somewhat transitory thing, dependent upon education and experience as + much as upon aptitude. In respect of the capacity of labour for the + task required in the cotton industry, we could not (writing in 1907) + make the statement that England leads significantly with the assurance + with which we can assert her superiority in respect of present + attainments. The cotton industry has not been prosecuted on a large + scale in Germany so long as in England, and the Germans have not, + therefore, had the same opportunity for developing their latent + powers. But the thoughtfulness and carefulness of the German workman + are beyond dispute, and these qualities will procure for him a leading + place where work is not mechanical. Already in the cotton industry it + is said that the operatives are displaying quite striking powers of + undertaking a wide range of work and changing easily from one pattern + to another. Hence German firms feel little hesitation in taking small + orders on special designs; they do not experience any great difficulty + in getting their factors accommodated to produce the required + articles. + + Apart from the efficiency of labour, reasons exist for the lower real + cost of production in England in the organization of the industry. The + German industry is not only less localized, but, as we might perhaps + infer from that circumstance, less specialized. A German factory will + turn out scores of patterns where an English firm will confine itself + to a few specialities. Time is wasted in accommodating machinery to + changes and in accustoming the hands to new work. The German producer + suffers from the undeveloped state of the market. In England + specialized markets with specialized dealers have greatly assisted + producers both in their buying and selling. A German manufacturer may + have to find his customers as the English manufacturer need not; at + least, so Professor Schulze-Gaevernitz has assured us, and conditions + have not been wholly transformed since he made his careful analysis. + He wrote:--"But especially disadvantageous is the decentralization in + respect to the sale. Here also the German manufacturer stands under + the same disadvantages with which the English had to struggle in the + 'thirties. The German manufacturer still seeks his customers through + travellers and agents, and in many instances through retail sellers, + whose financial standing is often questionable, whose necessity for + credit is always certain. Hence the complaints about the bad + conditions of payment in Germany which crop up continually in the + _enquete_. The manufacturers had to wait three, four or six months, + and even twelve months and longer for payment. In reality there + existed 'termless terms,' a 'complete anarchy in the method of + payment.' ... The manufacturer cannot be at the same time commission + agent, banker, merchant and retail dealer; he needs sound customers + capable of paying. He fares best if the sale is concentrated in one + market, and 'change' prices simplify the struggle between buyer and + seller. The search for customers, foreign as well as home, and the + bearing of all possible risks of disposal, are in any case difficult + enough to necessitate the whole strength of a man. The wholesale + merchant alone is in a position to pay the manufacturer in cash or on + sure, short terms. But especially where export is in question is the + dispersal of sales an extreme impediment. The manufacturer cannot + follow the fashions in Australia and South America; the foreign buyer + cannot travel from mill to mill." + + It is the want of commercial development in Germany which accounts for + the more frequent combination of weaving and spinning there than in + England. But in Germany to-day economic enterprise is flourishing, and + commercial development may confidently be looked for together with + advance in other directions. It is not many years since the typical + German cotton factory was comparatively primitive; now mills can be + exhibited which might have been erected recently in Oldham. Between + the early 'eighties and the 'nineties the expansion of the German + industry was enormous--the imports of cotton-wool rose by nearly + 70%--yet the number of spinning-mills was actually reduced from 6750 + to 2450, while the number of weaving-sheds fell from 56,200 to 32,750. + At the same time the factories devoted to mixed goods declined from + 25,200 to less than 16,350. From these figures we may gather how + rapidly the average size of mills and weaving-sheds enlarged in the + period. One cause, no doubt, was that improved economies in the new + businesses forced antiquated factories to shut down and make way for + still newer erections. There were recently about twice as many persons + engaged in weaving as in spinning, but the largest numbers of + all--slightly in excess of those in weaving-sheds--were the persons + occupied in the manufacture of cotton-lace, trimmings, &c. As we might + imagine, Germany's exports of cotton goods are not high. Including + yarns they amounted to L13.7 million per annum in 1899-1903. In order + of value their largest exports are (1) coloured goods, (2) hosiery, + (3) lace and embroidery, (4) yarns, and (5) trimmings, &c. + + _France._--Into the industrial conditions of the two leading rivals of + England we have entered in some detail; the state of affairs in the + rest of the world must be dealt with more briefly. Of France more + ought to be said than we can find place for, though in respect of the + magnitude of her cotton industry, as measured by the quantity of + spindles, she stands now not fourth, but fifth, Russia taking + precedence. But the work of the French is incomparably superior to + anything that is turned out from Russia. France suffered a severe blow + when the industry of Alsace and Lorraine was lost to Germany, but the + inexhaustible originality of French _design_ will always secure for + her goods a place in the first rank. As regards _artistic_ results + France leads, but the real cost of her spinning and weaving cannot + approach in lowness that of Lancashire. After costly strikes the + French workmen have succeeded in shortening their hours to ten and a + half a day; and here it may be remarked that the International + Association of Textile Operatives tends to equate continental + industrial conditions to those of England. The French industry has + been fostered by tariffs. When the Board of Trade calculation was + made, French tariffs were found to bear upon British cotton goods with + about the same severity as those of Germany, except that the former + treated more hardly yarns and cotton thread for sewing. French + protectionism has kept down her exports; such as they are the majority + proceed now to her colonies. Normandy, the north and east, in order, + are the chief seats of the industry. In Normandy the leading city is + Rouen, and Darnetal, Maromme, Sotteville, Havre, Yvetot, Dieppe, + Evreux, Gisors, Falaise and Flers are important places. The north + contains the important towns of Lille, Tourcoing, Roubaix, St + Quentin, Amiens and Hellemmes. The Vosges is the chief district of the + east, and the leading towns are Epinal, St Die, Remiremont, Senones, + Val d'Ajol, Cornimont and La Bresse. The following towns which are not + included in any of the districts mentioned above are also + noteworthy:--Troyes, Nantes, Cholet, Laval, Tarare, Roanne, Thizy and + Villefranche upon the Saone. Cotton arrives at Havre and Marseilles; + at the latter chiefly the product of Egypt and the East. Havre used to + be the most important cotton port in continental Europe, but to-day + more spindles are fed from Bremen than from Havre. France's + consumption of cotton annually in the period 1899-1903 was 215,000 + metric tons. + + _Russia._--Power-spinning was carried into Russia by Ludwig Knoop, who + had learnt the trade in Manchester, and to his efforts its early + success was due. The growth, largely the result of very heavy + protectionism--according to the Board of Trade report, from 50 to more + than 100% more severe than that of Germany,--has been rapid, as the + following table bears witness:-- + + _Average yearly Importation of Cotton wool and Yarn into Russia._ + + +-----------+----------------+----------------+ + | | Raw Cotton in | Cotton Yarn in | + | | thousand tons. | thousand tons. | + +-----------+----------------+----------------+ + | 1824-1826 | .9 | 5.4 | + | 1836-1838 | 4.6 | 10.1 | + | 1842-1844 | 8.4 | 9.5 | + | 1848-1850 | 21.4 | 4.5 | + | 1889-1891 | 117.4 | 3.4 | + | 1899-1903 | 180.0 | 2.9 | + +-----------+----------------+----------------+ + + + _Table showing approximately the Growth of Spindles and Looms in + Russia._ + + +---------+---------------+----------------+ + | | Spindles. | Looms. | + +---------+---------------+----------------+ + | 1857 | 1,000,000 | | + | 1877 | | 55,000 | + | 1887 | 4,000,000 | 85,000 | + | 1900 | 6,000,000 | 146,000 | + | 1909 | 7,800,000 | | + +---------+---------------+----------------+ + + + The chief districts were the following in 1900:-- + + +---------------+------------+-----------------+-----------------+ + | Government. | Factories. | Spindles | Looms | + | | | (in thousands). | (in thousands). | + +---------------+------------+-----------------+-----------------+ + | Moscow | 56 | 1295 | 33 | + | Vladimir | 67 | 1224 | 42 | + | Piotrkov | 25 | 745 | 20 | + | St Petersburg | 24 | 1074 | 11 | + | Jaroslaw | 4 | 347 | 2 | + | Kostroma | 25 | 274 | 20 | + | Tver | 6 | 348 | 9 | + | Esthonia | 1 | 440 | 2 | + | Ryazan | 4 | 146 | 3 | + | Elsewhere | 15 | 198 | 4 | + | +------------+-----------------+-----------------+ + | Total | 227 | 6091 | 146 | + +---------------+------------+-----------------+-----------------+ + + Fine spinning has been attempted only recently. Generally speaking + 70's used to be the upper limit, but now counts up to 140's are tried, + though the bulk of the output is coarse yarn. The inefficiency of the + labour was made abundantly plain by Dr Schulze-Gaevernitz in his + economic study of Russia, and conditions have not greatly altered for + the better since. Roughly, 170,000 operatives worked 6,000,000 + spindles in 1900, which means 35 spindles per head as compared with + more than 100 in Saxony and more than 200 in England. In weaving the + ratio of operatives to machinery worked out at about one loom to each + weaver, which is comparatively much less unfavourable to Russia. The + proportion in Saxony is about the same, but in England the average + approaches two looms to a weaver. The speed of machinery cannot be + compared, and we must remember that the above contrasts are rough + only, and made without regard to differences of product. Russia is + encouraging the growth of cotton at home. It is of very inferior + quality, but 100,000 tons from the provinces of central Asia and + Trans-Caucasia were used in 1900: her imports in the same year were + about 170,000 tons. + + _Switzerland._--Swiss spindles advanced until the early "'seventies," + but a decline followed. Details are:-- + + 1830 400,000 + 1850 950,000 + 1876 1,854,000 + 1883 1,809,000 + 1898 1,704,000 + 1909 (estimated) 1,500,000 + + The falling off is occasioned mainly by (a) the developing + industrialism of the rest of Europe, notably Germany, and (b) the + diminishing importance of the natural advantage of water-power with + the improvement of steam-engines. Swiss yarns have been kept out of + continental markets in the interests of home spinning. Now fancy + cotton goods, laces and trimmings are the leading specialities of the + Swiss textile workers. About half the Swiss spindles are in the canton + of Zurich, between a quarter and a third in Glarus, about the same in + St Gall and 9% in Aargau. Figures show that the average size of the + Swiss mill is small. The average spindles to a mill were 22,000, and + very few mills held more than 50,000 spindles. Some 9000 of the + power-looms are in Zurich, some 4500 in Glarus and 4000 in St Gall. + Wald in the south-east of the canton of Zurich is an important centre + of the muslin manufacture. + + _Austria._--Austria contains about 4,200,000 spindles and more yarn is + consumed than it produces, as on balance there is an excess of imports + of yarn. Bohemia, lower Austria, Tirol and Vorarlberg account for the + mass of Austrian spinning. The following details relating to these + districts recently are of interest:-- + + +-----------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+ + | | | | Average | + | | Mills. | Spindles. | spindles | + | | | | to a mill.| + +-----------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+ + | Bohemia | 82 | 1,870,000 | 22,800 | + | Lower Austria | 23 | 460,000 | 20,000 | + | Tirol and Vorarlberg | 20 | 435,000 | 21,700 | + +-----------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+ + + Reichenberg and the surrounding district is the chief manufacturing + place: here are more than 80,000 looms, nearly a half of which are + hand-looms. + + _Italy._--Recent industrial growth in Italy is remarkable: statistics + of spindles since 1870 are as follows, but the percentage of error is + probably high:-- + + 1870 500,000 + 1888 900,000 + 1898 2,100,000 + 1909 4,000,000 + + The distribution of spindles is roughly as follows:-- + + Lombardy 1,850,000 + Piedmont 1,000,000 + Venetia 550,000 + Campania 250,000 + Liguria 250,000 + Tuscany 100,000 + + The distribution of spindles and power-looms in the chief + manufacturing towns in Italy is shown in the following table:-- + + +-------------+--------------++-------------+--------------+ + | | Spindles. || | Spindles. | + | Turin | 470,000 || Genoa | 210,000 | + | Bergamo | 450,000 || Salerno | 150,000 | + | Como | 250,000 || Brescia | 310,000 | + | Milan | 660,000 || Naples | 100,000 | + | Novara | 410,000 || Udine | 240,000 | + +-------------+--------------++-------------+--------------+ + | | Power-Looms. || | Power-Looms. | + | Milan | 40,000 || Pisa | 2,500 | + | Turin | 22,000 || Como | 6,000 | + | Novara | 13,000 || Bergamo | 13,000 | + | Genoa | 6,000 || Udine | 3,500 | + +-------------+--------------++-------------+--------------+ + + The district between Milan and Lago Maggiore contains numerous + villages devoted to the cotton industry. Many of the factories in the + province of Bergamo are situated in the Valle Seriana, which is + endowed with abundant water-power. In this district coarse and medium + yarns and grey cloth are the chief products. In the province of Milan + there are several small towns, notably Gallarate, Busto Arsizio and + Monza, in which the manufacture of coloured and fancy goods is + extensively carried on. The finest spinning in Italy is done in Turin. + The coarsest spinning is done in Venetia. + + _The Netherlands._--In 1805 the cotton industry was reintroduced into + the Netherlands from England in its factory form. Seventeen mules + bearing 16,000 spindles are said to have been smuggled across the + channel, while forty Englishmen were enticed over to work them, in + spite of English legal prohibitions. Lievin Bauwens was the prime + mover of the achievement. Expansion rapidly followed, and in 1892 + Belgian spindles numbered nearly a million. Since then a decline has + set in. Ghent, with about 600,000 spindles, is the only really + important place: no other place has as many as 50,000. Holland + possesses about 417,000 spindles: the leading district is Twente and + the leading town Enschede; Twente contains also about 20,000 + power-looms. Rotterdam is the chief cotton port; Amsterdam, always a + far-away second, has lost place still further of late. + + _Spain and Portugal._--The greatness of Spain in the cotton industry + lies buried in the remote past, but of late she has awakened somewhat, + with the result that her spindles now number about 1,853,000. + Catalonia is the chief province where the industry is carried on, and + Barcelona surpasses all other centres. Portugal possesses nearly half + a million spindles (the bulk in Lisbon and Oporto), many of which have + appeared since 1894. + + _The Rest of Europe_.--Of Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Greece and + Macedonia no special mention need be made, nor of other parts where + the cotton industry may just exist. It may be mentioned here that + among the scattered rural populations of many parts of the continent, + even in such advanced countries as France and Germany, hand-looms are + still to be found in large numbers. + + _India_.--The hand-cotton-industry has been carried on in India since + the earliest times, and for many years English fabrics were protected + against the all-cottons of India. Soon after the introduction of + spinning by rollers, English all-cottons began to rival the Indian in + quality as well as in cost. A large export trade to India has grown + up, but Indian hand-loom weavers still ply their craft. In 1851 + power-spinning was started, and by 1876 there were in India 1,000,000 + spindles. Since then they have nearly reached six millions and + importations of yarn have been significantly affected. The growth of + Indian power-spinning, which is almost entirely of the ring variety, + was attributed by some to the depreciation of the rupee after 1873, + but the fall in the value of the rupee was stopped in 1893 and the + competition continued. The real explanation, no doubt, is that at the + cost of Indian labour it is found cheaper to import machinery and coal + than to export or cease to grow cotton and import yarn. This was the + conclusion of the majority report of the committee of the Manchester + Chamber of Commerce, which made an inquiry into Bombay and Lancashire + spinning in 1888. Besides, as regards Indian exports to China, the + remission in 1875 of the 3% export duty on yarns must be borne in + mind. The efficiency of labour in India is only a small fraction of + that of Lancashire operatives. Recently complaint has been made that + Indian mills are being run inhumanely long hours with the same set of + labour, and that child-labour is being abused, both legally and + illegally--legally as regards children over fourteen who are classed + as adults. The working of heavy hours began with the electric lighting + of the mills; previously all shut down at sunset largely because of + the cost of illumination. The outcry which has been raised is, + perhaps, sufficient guarantee that the worst evils will be remedied. + Indian spinning, it must be remembered, is still very coarse as a + rule, though some fine work is attempted and the average of counts + spun is rising. Though there are about a ninth as many spindles in + India as in the United Kingdom, there are only about one-fifteenth as + many power-looms, 46,400 in all, to which figure they rose between + 1891 and 1904 from 24,700. The reason for the paucity of power-looms + is probably two-fold, (1) the low cost of production of Lancashire + weavers, and (2) the habit of hand-loom weaving which is fixed in the + Indian people. A rapid increase of power-looms is, however, + observable. The hand-loom industry is gigantic, particularly in the + Madras Presidency and the Central Provinces; in the latter district + alone there were estimated to be 150,000 hand-looms in 1883. The + following details relating to the Indian cotton industry are supplied + officially:-- + + _Cotton Mills in India, including Mills in Native States and French + India_. + + +-----------------------------------+------------+------------+ + | Mills. | 1897-1898. | 1903-1904. | + +-----------------------------------+------------+------------+ + |Mills (number) | 164 | 204 | + |Capital (thousand Ls) | 648 | 1,067 | + |Looms (number) | 36,946 | 46,421 | + |Spindles (thousands) | 4,219 | 5,213 | + |Persons employed (daily average) | 148,753 | 186,271 | + |Yarn produced:-- | | | + | Counts (1 to 20 thousand lb.) | 400,384 | 474,509 | + | Counts (above " " ") | 62,212 | 104,250 | + | +------------+------------+ + | Total lb. | 462,596 | 578,759 | + | +------------+------------+ + |Yarn produced:-- | | | + | Bombay (thousand lb.) | 324,649 | 414,932 | + | Bengal " " | 44,807 | 46,487 | + | Madras " " | 32,516 | 28,714 | + | United Provinces (including | | | + | Ajmere-Merwara)(thousand lb.) | 26,747 | 29,930 | + | Central Provinces (thousand lb.) | 18,334 | 24,549 | + | Punjab " " " | 6,607 | 11,578 | + | Elsewhere " " " | 8,936 | 22,569 | + | +------------+------------+ + | Total lb. | 462,596 | 578,759 | + | +------------+------------+ + |Woven Goods:-- | | | + | Grey (thousand lb.) | 83,136 | 111,494 | + | Others " " | 8,152 | 26,550 | + | +------------+------------+ + | Total lb. | 91,288 | 138,044 | + +-----------------------------------+------------+------------+ + + _China_.--In China spinning has not met with the same success as + India, and power-manufacturing has not yet obtained a sure footing. + The ingrained conservatism of the Chinese temperament is no doubt a + leading cause. Of the spindles in China--about 600,000 in all--from a + half to three-fifths are in Shanghai. The following details relating + to the inception of the power-industry are quoted from a Diplomatic + and Consular Report of 1905:-- + + "The initial experiment on modern lines was made in 1891, when a + semi-official Chinese syndicate started at Shanghai--the Chinese + Cotton Cloth Mill and the Chinese Cotton Spinning Company. Its + originators claimed for themselves a quasi-monopoly, and prohibited + outsiders who were not prepared to pay a fixed royalty for the + privilege from engaging in similar undertakings. Although certain + Chinese accepted this onerous condition, foreigners resented it as an + undue interference with their treaty rights, and it was only when + Japan, in 1895, after her war with China, inserted in the treaty of + Shimonoseki an article providing for the freedom of Japanese subjects + to engage in all kinds of manufacturing industries in the open ports + of China, and permitting them to import machinery for such purposes, + that outsiders were afforded an opportunity of exploiting the rich + field for commercial development thereby thrown open. Accordingly, so + soon as the Japanese treaty came into force no time was lost in + turning this particular clause to account, and the erection of no less + than 11 mills--Chinese and foreign--was taken in hand. At that time + the pioneer mill, which was burnt to the ground in October 1893, but + subsequently rebuilt, and other Chinese-owned mills were together + working some 120,000 spindles and 850 looms." + + By 1905 the mills increased to 17, the spindles to 620,000 and the + looms to 2250, but there is little inclination to expansion. Yarns for + the hand-looms are obtained primarily from India and secondarily from + Japan. The following are the recent figures relating to imported + yarns:-- + + _In million_ lb + + +--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | + +--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. | + | British | 9.1 | 7.8 | 4.1 | 7.0 | 4.3 | 2.2 | + | Indian | 186.7 | 254.2 | 131.5 | 228.9 | 251.6 | 250.8 | + | Japanese | 64.7 | 104.0 | 62.9 | 66.4 | 69.7 | 110.9 | + | Hong-Kong | | | | .7 | .8 | 1.2 | + | Tongkinese | | | | | | .01| + | +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | Total | 260.5 | 366.0 | 198.5 | 303.0 | 326.4 | 365.1 | + +--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + + _Japan._--If in China the factory cotton industry reveals no prospects + as yet of a great future, the same cannot be said of Japan. + + The chief centres of spinning with their outputs in value of yarn for + a year at the beginning of the 20th century are stated beneath: + + +------------+------------++------------+------------+ + | | Thousands. || | Thousands. | + +------------+------------++------------+------------+ + | | L s. || | L s. | + | Osaka | 1226.5 || Nara | 111.5 | + | Hyogo | 495.5 || Hiroshima | 91.3 | + | Okayama | 374.4 || Kyoto | 82.2 | + | Miye | 238.1 || Wakayama | 79.2 | + | Tokyo | 227.9 || Ehime | 70.5 | + | Aichi | 224.3 || Kajawa | 36.4 | + | Fukuoka | 168.1 || | | + +------------+------------++------------+------------+ + + + The following table gives other valuable information:-- + + +---------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------+---------+-------+--------------+--------------+ + | | | Average | Quantity | | Average | Average | | | Average | Average | + | | Gross | Number | of Raw | Total | Number | Number | Annual | Daily | Daily | Daily | + | Year | Amount | of | and | Production| of Male |of Female | Working |Working| Wage | Wage of | + | |of Capital| Spindles | Ginned | of Cotton |Operatives|Operatives| Days. | Hours.| of Male | Female | + | | invested.|used daily.| Cotton | Yarn. | daily | daily | | | Operatives. | Operatives. | + | | | | demanded. | | employed.| employed.| | | | | + +---------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------+---------+-------+--------------+--------------+ + | |Thousand L| Thousands.|Million lb.|Million lb.| | | | | | | + |1892-1894| 1123 | 420 | 112.9 | 97.9 | 6,916 | 21,695 | 290 | 22 |4d. to 4-1/4d.|2d. to 2-1/4d.| + |1900-1902| 3569 | 1209 | 335.3 | 288.0 | 13,373 | 50,271 | 312 | 19 | 7-1/2d.|4-1/2d. to 5d.| + | 1903 | 3441 | 1290 | 375.5 | 322.7 | 13,160 | 57,166 | 308 | 20 |7-1/2d. to 8d.|4-1/2d. to 5d.| + | 1904 | 3470 | 1306 | 332.1 | 285.9 | 10,967 | 52,115 | 309 | 20 | 8d.| 5d.| + +---------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------+---------+-------+--------------+--------------+ + + With amazing adaptability the Japanese have assumed the methods of + Western civilization as a whole. But hand-weaving more than holds its + own, and power-weaving has as yet met with little success. The custom + already mentioned as a cause of the continued triumph of the hand-loom + in India and China is strong also in Japan, and the economy of the + factory system is greater relatively in spinning than in + manufacturing. In Japan it is ring-spinning which prevails: 95% of the + spindles are on ring-frames. Ring-spinning entails less skill on the + part of the operative, and ring-yarn is quite satisfactory for the + sort of fabrics used most largely in the Far East. The counts produced + are low as a rule. Generally mills run day and night with double + shifts, and the system seems to pay, though night-work is found to be + less economical than day-work there as elsewhere. More operatives are + placed on a given quantity of machinery in Japan than in + Lancashire--possibly more "labour" as well as more operatives, because + labour as well as operatives may be cheaper. On the same work the + output per spindle per hour is less in Japan than in England, even + when day-shifts only are taken into account. Japanese work has been + severely criticized, but the recency of the introduction of the cotton + industry must not be forgotten. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature relating to the cotton industry is + enormous. The most complete bibliographies will be found in Chapman's + _Lancashire Cotton Industry_ (where short descriptions of the several + works included, which relate only to the United Kingdom, are given); + Hammond's _Cotton Culture and Trade_; and Oppel's _Die Baumwolle_. The + list of books set forth here must be select only. + + The development of the English industry can be traced through the + following:--Aikin, _A Description of the Country from Thirty to Forty + Miles round Manchester_ (1795); Andrew, _Fifty Years' Cotton Trade_ + (1887); Baines, _History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain_ + (1835); Banks, _A Short Sketch of the Cotton Trade of Preston for the + last Sixty-Seven Years_ (1888); Butterworth, _Historical Sketches of + Oldham_ (1847 or 1848); Butterworth, _An Historical Account of the + Towns of Ashton-under-Lyne, Stalybridge and Dukinfield_ (1842); + Chapman, _The Lancashire Cotton Industry_ (1904); Cleland, + _Description of the City of Glasgow_ (1840); _A Complete History of + the Cotton Trade, &c._, by a person concerned in trade (1823); + Ellison, _The Cotton Trade of Great Britain including a History of the + Liverpool Cotton Market and of the Liverpool Cotton Brokers' + Association_ (1886); Leon Faucher, _Etudes sur Angleterre_ (1845); + French, _The Life and Times of Samuel Crompton_ (1859); Guest, _A + Compendious History of the Cotton-manufacture, with a Disproval of the + Claim of Sir Richard Arkwright to the Invention of its Ingenious + Machinery_ (1823); Guest, _The British Cotton Manufacture and a Reply + to the Article on Spinning Machinery, contained in a recent Number of + the Edinburgh Review_ (1828); Helm, _Chapters in the History of the + Manchester Chamber of Commerce_ (1902); Kennedy, _Miscellaneous Papers + on Subjects connected with the Manufactures of Lancashire_ (1849); + Ogden, _A Description of Manchester ... with a Succinct History of its + former original Manufactories, and their Gradual Advancement to the + Present State of Perfection at which they are arrived, by a Native of + the Town_ (1783); Radcliffe, _Origin of the New System of Manufacture, + commonly called "Power-Loom Weaving" and the Purposes for which this + System was invented and brought into use, fully explained in a + Narrative concerning William Radcliffe's Struggles through Life to + remove the Cause which has brought this Country to its Present Crisis_ + (1828); Rees' _Cyclopaedia_, articles on Cotton (1808), Spinning + (1816) and Weaving (1818); Ure, _The Cotton Manufacture of Great + Britain, investigated and illustrated, with an Introductory View of + its Comparative State in Foreign Countries_ (2 vols.); Ure, _The + Philosophy of Manufacture; or An Exposition of the Scientific, Moral + and Commercial Economy of the Factory System of Great Britain_ (1835); + Watts, _Facts of the Cotton Famine_ (1866); Wheeler, _Manchester: its + Political, Social and Commercial History, Ancient and Modern_ (1836). + + In addition there are many short papers in the Manchester public + library. Much valuable information may be obtained from parliamentary + papers; a list of relevant ones is printed as an appendix to Chapman's + _Lancashire Cotton Industry_, but it is too lengthy to repeat here. + The most important are the reports relating to the hand-loom weavers, + those on the employment of children in factories (of which a list will + be found in Hutching and Harrison's _History of the Factory + Legislation_), and the state of trade and the annual reports of the + factory inspectors. On labour questions there is a list of authorities + in Chapman's _Lancashire Cotton Industry_ and also of parliamentary + papers containing useful material. Printed copies of the "Wages Lists" + are issued by the trade unions. The Factory Acts are dealt with in + Hutchins and Harrison's _History_, mentioned above, as well as the + literature relating to them; while the handbooks by Redgrave and by + Abraham and Davies are specially useful. + + On the industry abroad the following are the fullest + authorities:--Besso, _The Cotton Industry in Switzerland, Vorarlberg + and Italy_ (1910) (a report made as a Gartside Scholar of the + University of Manchester); Chapman's _Cotton Industry and Trade_ + (1905); Hammond, _The Cotton Industry_; Hasbach's article, "Zur + Characteristik der englischen Industrie," in _Schmollers Jahrbuch_, + vol. ii. (1903); Leconte, _Le Coton_; Lochmuller, _Zur Entwicklung der + Baumwollindustrie in Deutschland_ (1906); Montgomery, _The Cotton + Manufacture of the United States of America contrasted and compared + with that of Great Britain_ (1840); Oppel, _Die Baumwolle_ (1902); + Schulze-Gaevernitz, _Der Grossbetrieb: ein wirtschaftlicher und + socialer Fortschritt: eine Studie auf dem Gebiete der + Baumwollindustrie_ (1892; translated as _The Cotton Trade in England + and on the Continent_); T. M. Young, _American Cotton Industry_ + (1902); Uttley, _Cotton Spinning and Manufacturing in the United + States of North America_ (1905; a report of a tour as Gartside scholar + of the university of Manchester); and the Gartside reports on the + cotton industries of France and Germany by Forrester and Dehn + respectively. Information will also be found in Diplomatic and + Consular Reports, and fragments may be gathered from other books such + as G. Drage's _Russian Affairs_, Dyer's _Dai Nippon_, and Huber's + _Deutschland als Industriestaat_. Japan has published since 1901 a + very full financial and economical annual, and the British government + issues annually a good statistical abstract for India. The American + census contains much detailed information, and there are, in addition + to the statistics issued by the Federal government, those of + Massachusetts, the Bureau of Statistics of which has also reported the + results of an investigation into the industry in the Southern states. + Among official matter the semi-official Bombay and Lancashire cotton + spinning inquiry of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce may be + included. The census of production of the United Kingdom must be + mentioned, and the reports of the International Congresses of Cotton + Spinners and Manufacturers. As to labour, see the reports of the + International Textile Congresses. + + The periodical literature is of good quality and much of it is filed + in the Patent Office library. We may notice particularly the _Cotton + Factory Times_; _Textile Journal_; _Textile Manufacturer_; _Textile + Mercury_; _Textile Recorder_; _Textile World Record_ (American); _Der + Leipzige Monatsschrift fur Textilindustrie_; and the French _Textile + Journal_. Shepperson's _Cotton Facts_ is an annual which relates + chiefly, though not entirely, to raw cotton, as does also _Cotton_, + the periodical of the Manchester Cotton Association. For technical + works we may refer here to the well-known treatises of Brooks, Guest, + Marsden, Nasmith and Walmsley, and to Johannsen's ponderous + two-volumed _Handbuch der Baumwollspinnerei, Rohweissweberei und + Fabrikanlagen_. (S. J. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See the extract from the books of Bolton Abbey, given by Baines + (p. 96) and dated 1298. + + [2] Vol. ii. p. 206; Baines, pp. 96-97. + + [3] Baines, pp. 93 and 94. + + [4] Lancashire and Cheshire Record Society, vol. ii. + + [5] _State Papers, Domestic_, lix. 5. See W. H. Price, _Quar. Jour. + Econ._, vol. xx. + + [6] London Guildhall Library, vol. Beta, _Petitions and Parliamentary + Matters_ (1620-1621), No. 16 (old No. 25). + + [7] The act referred to is 33 Henry VIII. c. xv., already mentioned. + + [8] Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce_ (1903), + vol. ii. p. 623. + + [9] Original edition, pp. 32, 33. + + [10] Aikin's _Description of the Country from Thirty to Forty Miles + round Manchester_, p. 154. + + [11] _Tour_, vol. iii. p. 219. + + [12] For instance Radcliffe p. 61. Ogden (author of _A Description of + Manchester_, &c., published in 1783), if Aikin's "accurate and + well-informed enquirer" by Ogden, says that the period of rapid + extension of the cotton industry began about 1770. See also + Butterworth's _History of Oldham_ and the passage quoted below in the + text. + + [13] Account of Society for Promotion of Industry in Lindsey (1789), + Brit. Mus. 103, L. 56. Quoted from Cunningham's _English Industry and + Commerce_, vol. ii. p. 452, n. ed., 1892. + + [14] In 1838 the only other county with more than 1000 was Gloucester + with 1500. 217,000 of the 219,100 operatives in England and Wales + were employed in the counties enumerated. Of the 2000 operatives + whose location is not given, about 1000 worked in Flintshire. + + [15] W. Radcliffe's _Origin of the New System of Manufacturing_, p. 59. + + [16] The term "fustian" had originally been used to designate certain + woollen or worsted goods made at Norwich and in Scotland. A reference + to Norwich fustians of as early a date as the 14th century is quoted + by Baines. + + [17] E. Butterworth's _History of Oldham_, p. 101. + + [18] _Parliamentary Reports, &c._ (1826-1827), v. p. 5. See for even + later examples Gardner's evidence to the committee on hand-loom + weavers in 1835. + + [19] This is illustrated in one of the plates to Guest's _History of + the Cotton Manufacture_. + + [20] Chapman's _Lancashire Cotton Industry_, pp. 15 and 16. + + [21] Page 167. + + [22] Mrs Crompton, wife of Samuel Crompton, we are told, used to + employ her son George shortly after he could walk, as a "dolly-peg" + to tread the cotton in the soapy water in which it was placed for + washing. See French's _Life of Crompton_, pp. 58-59 (3rd ed.). + Rowbotham in his diary gives two accounts of fires which were caused + by carelessness in drying cotton. + + [23] On the difference between the two machines see Baines's + _History_, p. 138 et seq. + + [24] Baines p. 183. + + [25] Baines's _History of the Cotton Manufacture_, p. 86 n. + + [26] These figures are quoted from a pamphlet published in 1788 + entitled "An Important Crisis in the Calico and Muslin Manufactory in + Great Britain explained." Many of the estimates given in this + pamphlet are worthless, but there seems no reason why the figures + quoted here should not be at least approximately correct. + + [27] See article on COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. + + [28] Hargreaves' claim to this invention has been disputed, but no + satisfactory evidence has been brought forward to disprove his claim. + Hargreaves was a carpenter and weaver of Stand-hill near Blackburn, + and died in 1778. + + [29] See Chapman's _Lancashire Cotton Industry_, pp. 59 et seq. + + [30] See Baines p. 207. + + [31] "Counts" are determined by the number of hanks to the lb. A hank + is 840 yds. The origin of the hank of 840 yds. is probably that + spinners used a winding-reel of 1-1/2 yds. in circumference, so that 80 + threads (one "lea" or "rap" according to old phraseology) would + contain 120 yds., and seven leas (i.e. a hank) would contain 840 yds. + A hank of seven leas was the common measure in the woollen industry, + in which the reels were 1 yd. or 2 yds. in circumference. For details + see an article on the subject in the _Textile World Record_, vol. + xxxi. No. 1. + + [32] The author of the memoir of Crompton (see bibliography). + + [33] Specification 257. + + [34] For further analysis of the arguments current see Chapman's + _Lancashire Cotton Industry_, pp. 66 et seq. + + [35] Also in the 17th century a John Barkstead was granted a patent + for a method of manufacturing cotton goods, but the method is not + described. 1691, Specification 276. + + [36] In the parliamentary reports (1840), xxiv. p. 611, the invention + of the swivel-loom is claimed for a "Van Anson." It is a plausible + supposition that by "Van Anson" is meant Vaucanson, as he appears to + have improved the swivel-loom. But he could not have been the + original inventor, since in 1724 (that is, when Vaucanson was at the + most fifteen years of age) they were being employed in Manchester. + + [37] Aikin, pp. 175-176, and Guest, p. 44. An explanation of the + mechanism of the swivel-loom will be found in the _Encyclopedie + methodique, manufactures, arts et metiers_, pt. i. vol. ii. pp. 202, + 208, and _Recueil de planches_, vol. vi. (1786), pp. 72-78. + + [38] Figures for the years above up to 1838 will be found in + parliamentary reports (1840), xxiv. p. 611. + + [39] This is the manuscript diary of a weaver of Oldham roughly + covering the period 1787 to 1830. It is now in the Oldham public + library. Mr S. Andrew edited extracts from it in a series of articles + in the _Standard_ (an Oldham paper), under the title _Annals of + Oldham_, beginning January 1, 1887. + + [40] Printed in _British Industries_. Edited by W. J. Ashley. + + [41] This is explained in the article COTTON: _Marketing and Supply_. + + [42] See chapter on cotton in Bowley's _Wages in the United Kingdom_ + and table there given. + + [43] A detailed analysis of the whole labour question in the cotton + industry will be found in Chapman's _Lancashire Cotton Industry_. + + [44] There are other permissible arrangements, namely from 7 to 7 and + from 8 to 8, but they are not used in the textile trades of + Lancashire. + + [45] The figures for looms are based upon a number of returns and + estimates. Those for spindles are taken from the highly authoritative + estimates of the International Federation of Master Cotton Spinners. + + [46] _Journal of Board of Trade_, April 28th, 1904. + + [47] The early history of the industry in the United States is + summarized in one of the official bulletins of the state of + Massachusetts, dated 1798. See W. R. Bagnall, _Textile Industries of + the U. S._ (1893). + + [48] See also the official report of J. P. Harris-Gastrell in 1873. + + [49] Quoted by Schulze-Gaevernitz. + + [50] _Memorandum_ on British and foreign trade and industrial + conditions. + + [51] The method of calculating these percentages is discussed in the + blue-book mentioned. + + [52] Upon the above see Uttley's report. + + [53] The figures are those quoted by Mr T. M. Young and relate to the + year 1902. + + [54] See e.g. some passages upon this point in Uttley's report. + + [55] For an account of the numerous types of automatic looms see the + article on WEAVING: S Machinery. + + [56] Of which special mention may be made of Uttley's report as a + Gartside scholar of the university of Manchester, already referred + to, and Pidgin's report for the Massachusetts Bureau of Labour + Statistics. + + [57] _Textile Recorder_, August 15th, 1905. + + [58] Young's _American Cotton Industry_, p. 13. + + [59] Uttley's report, p. 4. + + [60] Similar formulae have been used above, where a fuller + explanation is given. + + [61] Deutschland als Industriestaat. + + + + +COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. The earliest inventors of spinning machinery +(see SPINNING) directed their energies chiefly to the improvement of the +final stage of the operation, but no sooner were these machines put to +practical use than it became apparent that success depended upon +mechanically conducting the operations preliminary to spinning. Later +inventors were, therefore, called upon not only to improve the +inventions of their predecessors, but to devise machinery for preparing +the fibres to be spun. Arkwright quickly perceived the importance of +this aspect of the problem, and he devoted even more energy to it than +to the invention with which his name is more intimately associated. But, +given a complete series of machines for preparing and spinning, the +cotton industry (see COTTON MANUFACTURE) must have remained +unprogressive without the co-operation of cotton growers, for by the +then existing methods of separating cotton lint from seed it would have +been impossible to provide an adequate supply of raw material. By +inventing the saw gin, Eli Whitney, an American, in the year 1792, did +for cotton planters what Paul, Arkwright, Crompton, Cartwright, Watt and +others did for textile manufacturers, for he provided them with the +means for increasing their output almost indefinitely. + + +PLATE I. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--BLOWING ROOM.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--CARDING ROOM.] + +(_From Photographs taken in a Manchester Fine Cotton-spinning Mill, by +R. Banks._) + + +Plate II. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--JACK-FRAME ROOM.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--SPINNING-ROOM.] + +(_From Photographs taken in a Manchester Fine Cotton-spinning Mill, by +R. Banks._) + + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + _Cotton-ginning_ is the process by which cotton seeds are separated + from the adhering fibres. The most primitive machine employed in India + and China for this purpose is the churka, which consists of two wooden + rollers fixed in a frame and revolving in contact. Seed cotton is fed + into these rollers and the fibres pass forward but the seeds remain + behind. It is a device which does not injure the fibres, but no + improvement has been found by which the churka can be converted into a + sufficiently productive machine for modern requirements. In a modified + form Whitney's saw gin is still used to clean a large portion of the + annual crop of short and medium stapled cottons. It consists of from + 60 to 70 saws (A, fig. 1), which are mounted upon a shaft and revolve + between the interstices of an iron grid (B); against this grid the + seed cotton is held whilst the fibres are drawn through, the seeds + being left behind. The operation is as follows:--seed cotton is fed + into the hopper (C), and conveyed by a lattice (D) to a spiked roller + (E), which regulates the supply to the hopper (F). Whilst in (F) the + cotton is engaged by the teeth of the saws (A), and drawn through the + grid (B), but the bars are too close to permit the seeds to pass. A + brush (G) strips the cotton lint from the saws, after which it is + drawn through a flue (H) to the surface of a perforated roller (I) by + pneumatic action; it then passes between (I) and (J) out of the + machine. The Macarthy gin is the only other type in extensive use; it + is employed to clean both long and short stapled cottons. In this gin + the fibres are drawn by a leather-covered roller (A, fig. 2) over the + edge of a stationary blade (B) called a doctor, which is fixed + tangential to the roller. Two cranks (E) move two other blades (C, D) + up and down immediately behind, and parallel to, the fixed blade (B). + The cotton is thrown into the hopper (F) and the fibres are drawn by + the roller (A) until the seeds are against the edge of the doctor (B), + when the beaters (C, D) strike them off, but permit the fibres to go + forward with the roller. Attempts continue to be made so to improve + both machines, that production may be increased, and labour charges, + and the risks of injuring the fibres, reduced. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + _Baling._--As cotton leaves the gin, it is in some cases rolled, under + compression, into cylindrical bales; but it is usually packed into + rectangular bales, that vary in weight from 160 lb. to 750 lb., by + steam or hydraulic presses. After pressing, the cotton is covered with + coarse jute bagging, and the whole secured by iron bands. In this form + it arrives at the spinning mills. + + In the mill treatment of cotton it soon became an established practice + to divide the work into the following operations, namely (1) Mixing + the fibres into a homogeneous mass; (2) removing impurities; (3) + combing out entanglements in, and ranging the fibres in parallel + lines; (4) simultaneous combination and attenuation of groups of + parallel fibres; (5) completing the combination and attenuation, and + twisting the fibres into a thread; (6) compounding, finishing and + making-up of threads. These remain the essential conditions of + cotton-spinning. The principal machines used to carry out the + foregoing stages are: The bale breaker, opener and scutcher; the card + and comber; the drawing, slubbing, intermediate and roving frames; + ring and mule spinning; winding, doubling; clearing and gassing the + reel, and bundling press, together with several auxiliary machines. + All the operations included in this list are not necessarily employed + in the production of all kinds of yarn; low counts require fewer, and + high counts more processes. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + A _bale breaker_ is used to disentangle fibres which have been, by + hydraulic or steam presses, converted into hard masses that resist + manual efforts to disentangle them. It may consist of three pairs of + spiked and one pair of fluted rollers. If so, the matted cotton is fed + into the first pair, seized by the second pair, which have a higher + surface velocity, and pulled, while the third pair reduce the whole to + a more or less fluffy mass, and the fluted rollers deliver it upon a + travelling lattice by which it is conveyed to, and deposited upon, the + floor of the mixing room. Instead of rollers, a _hopper breaker_ may + be used. In this machine the cotton is carried by a horizontal lattice + into contact with a sloping spiked one, whose spikes tear away small + tufts and deposit them upon a second lattice for removal to the mixing + room. A stack of pulled cotton is formed by superposing thin layers + from different bales, and when completed the cotton is drawn from top + to bottom of the stack. By this means a thorough mixing of fibres is + effected. + + _The Opener._--Mixed cotton may be thrown upon a lattice and conveyed + to a spiked roller to be pulled, beaten, discharged into a trunk, and + drawn by pneumatic force to the opener. Or it may be spread (fig. 3) + upon a lattice (I), and carried between feed-rollers (E) to be + subjected to the action of a beater (A) whose teeth first seize tufts + of cotton and then fling them upon a grid (B), to be subsequently + seized by other teeth and again flung off until dirt and other + impurities pass between the grating. The beater may be cylindrical (as + at A) or in the form of a truncated cone: in either event, from four + to twelve rows of teeth project from its surface. It is from 18 in. to + upwards of 36 in. in diameter, approximately 40 in. wide, and the + largest cylindrical beaters make from 300 to 700 revolutions; whilst + conical beaters make about 1000, and small ones make from 1000 to 1500 + revolutions per minute. The opened cotton is carried, in the direction + indicated by the arrows, upon a strong blast of air which is generated + by a fan (H), and this deposits it in patches upon the surfaces of two + perforated zinc or wire cylinders (C), but dust and foreign particles + pass through the interstices. As these cylinders revolve towards each + other the cotton passes between them in the form of a sheet to a pair + of feed-rollers (D), which may again deliver it to a beater with two + or three blades; if so, from this beater the cotton is next borne on + an air current to, and between, a second pair of perforated cylinders. + In either event, the final cages (C, C) deliver the cotton to + feed-rollers (D) and they pass it to calender-rollers (F), by which it + is compressed into a sheet, and finally coiled into a lap (G). Various + kinds of openers have been patented, all of which differ in some + important respects; for example, a hopper feed may be substituted for + the trunk or the lattice feed, in which event the cotton from the + mixing room is conveyed mechanically upon lattices, and deposited in a + hopper affixed to an opener. In this hopper a sloping spiked lattice + elevates the cotton to an evening roller, whose office is to sweep + back the surplus supply from the spikes, but allow the requisite + quantity to pass forward to the beater. A regular supply of cotton to + an opener is of great importance, and in order to insure it a table is + often formed by substituting for the lower roller (E) a series of + levers (A, fig. 4) all mounted upon a fulcrum (B), and having their + free arms weighted by wedge-shaped pendents (C), that are separated by + bowls (D). A fluted feed-roller (E) is fixed above this table and the + cotton is led over the lever but beneath the roller. If the cotton is + unequally distributed, thick places will press down the levers and + thin ones will permit them to rise (as at A', E'). The rise of one + pendent may be cancelled by the fall of another, but any balance of + their movements is transmitted to a belt fork which governs a belt + running upon a pair of inverted cones, and by this means the belt is + traversed to and fro to drive the feed-roller (E) at a superior speed + when the supply of cotton is insufficient, and at an inferior speed + when the supply is excessive. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + _The Scutcher._--In many respects a scutcher resembles an opener; its + function is to continue the cleaning and form laps of uniform weight + and density for the carding engine. Occasionally the scutcher is the + first cleaning machine, in which event cotton, in a loose fleece, is + spread evenly upon a lattice. But in order to carry the combination of + fibres one stage further, three or four opener laps are generally + placed upon the feeder, so that, as the laps unroll, three or four + sheets of cotton will be superposed, and in this form are passed by + the lattice (F, fig. 4) and the feed-roller (E) to either one or two + beaters, which are furnished with two or three blades. The beater (G) + flings the cotton against the bars of a grid (H) to loosen, and cause + the dirt to pass between the bars, after which the cotton is carried + forward upon an air current, in the same manner as in an opener, and + formed into a lap. In case two scutchers are required, the laps from + the first are fed into the second, where they are similarly treated; + in both machines the lever and pendent mechanism furnishes the means + by which uniformity is attained. A beater may consist of a straight, + smooth blade (as at G), or of a blade provided with stout teeth; in + the latter event the operation resembles combing rather than beating. + Two-bladed beaters revolve from 1200 to 1500 times per minute; those + with three blades from 900 to 1000 times per minute. + + _Carding Engine._--The functions of a card (see CARDING) are: to place + the fibres parallel; to remove remaining impurities and immature + fibres; and to form mature fibres into a porous band, called a sliver. + A carding engine consists of three cylinders which are covered with + cards; the first, or taker-in (see fig. 5), is the smallest; the + second and largest is the main cylinder; and the third is the doffer. + If the main cylinder is surmounted with a series of small ones (as at + A), the engine is called a roller and clearer card. If a series of + fixed strips of card are placed above the main cylinder, the engine is + known as a stationary flat card. But if the strips move forward (as at + B), it is a revolving flat card. In a roller and clearer card the + small cylinders (E) are also covered with cards, but their teeth are + bent to oppose those on the main cylinder, and they revolve with a + different velocity. The taker-in is covered with saw teeth cut in a + strip of steel which is fixed in the surface of that cylinder; it + receives the cotton (I) from a feed-roller (C) that turns above a + smooth iron table (D) called the feed plate, and strikes out the + heaviest particles of remaining dirt. In passing through the fringe of + lap, the teeth comb the attached fibres but deliver the loose ones to + the main cylinder. The latter carries them into contact with the teeth + on the rollers (E), by whose lower surface velocity combing is again + effected. Short fibres become fixed amongst the teeth of (A) and (E), + but those lying crosswise are transferred from (A) to (E) and from (E) + to the clearer, which again presents them to the cylinder. + + When long fibres are turned to point in the direction of rotation they + advance upon the cylinder A to the doffer teeth, where the scattered + fibres on the surface of A are collected into a light fleece. In this + condition they are stripped by a vibrating comb (F), drawn together by + a funnel, formed into a sliver, and deposited in a can (G). This + machine is now chiefly used to card waste and low-class cotton. If + such a card is made with two main cylinders, a connecting cylinder + called a tummer collects the fibres from the first and passes them on + to a second main cylinder, where they are again treated as already + described. In a stationary flat card the teeth in the flats are bent + to oppose those on the main cylinder, and by this means the fibres are + combed and straightened. In a revolving flat card the flats (H) are + formed into an endless chain, and they travel slowly in the same + direction as the cylinder. In other respects both flat cards are + similar to a roller and clearer card. Formerly double carding, namely, + two passages of the fibres through separate cards, or one passage + through a double card, was general, but single carding is now employed + for most purposes. + + _Combing._--For counts from 60s upward, and for exceptionally good + yarn of lower counts, from 14 to 20 cans from the carding engine are + taken to a _sliver lap machine_ where the slivers are drawn alongside + each other, passed between three pairs of drawing rollers and two + pairs of calender rollers, and formed into laps that vary in width + from 7-1/2 in. to 12 in. This machine is provided with mechanical devices + for stopping it on the failure of a sliver, and on the completion of a + predetermined length of lap. When the sliver lap machine furnishes + laps for the comber, the slivers are previously put through one head + of drawing, namely, between four lines of drawing rollers, to + straighten out the fibres. The more general practice is to pass sliver + laps to a _ribbon lap machine_, at the back of which six laps are + placed, end facing end, in one long line and simultaneously unrolled + to feed each web between four pairs of drawing rollers. From the + rollers the cotton passes in separate films over curved plates to a + smooth table where one is superposed upon another, and in the combined + state it is led between two pairs of calender rollers and formed into + a lap from 7-1/2 to 10-1/2 in. wide. In the cotton industry the _Heilmann + comber_, or some modification of that machine, is used to straighten + thoroughly the fibres of carded cotton, to cast out all below a + certain length, and leave only those that are perfectly clean and + approximate to uniformity in length. For fine yarns of medium quality + only part of the slivers required to form a thread are combed. But for + fine yarns of good quality all slivers are once combed, and those for + superfine yarns are twice, or "double combed." This machine is made + with six or eight heads, each of which is supplied with a ribbon lap. + One end of every lap is fed by a pair of rollers between the open jaws + of a nipper which immediately closes upon the sheet of cotton, but a + fringe is left protruding into the path of a cylinder, on whose + periphery either one set of 17, or two sets of 13, graduated needle + combs, and one, or two, fluted segments are secured. The first comb to + reach the cotton may have as few as 16, and the last 90 teeth per + inch. After the combs have passed successively through the overhanging + fringe of fibres, the nipper opens and a fresh length of about 3/16 + to 4/10 of an inch is fed in. Meanwhile, a fluted segment on the + cylinder has moved up to support the fringe; a top comb, which was + inoperative when the cylinder combs were acting, has descended into + the fringe, and three rollers first return a portion of the material + already combed so that it may overlap that last treated. The rollers + then reverse the direction of their rotation; one of them and the + segment engage the fringe, and draw the tail ends of all free fibres + through the teeth of the top comb. The product of all the heads is + next united, condensed, formed into a continuous sliver, and deposited + in a can. One cycle of movements, therefore, only combs from 8/16 to + 4/10 of an inch of each fibre; the top comb deals with the tail + ends, and the major portion of the work is done by the cylinder combs. + The foregoing operations are repeated at the rate of from 85 to 90 + times per minute, during which from 15% to upwards of 25% of carded + material is removed; but this is capable of being spun into coarse + yarns. A comber invented by John W. Nasmith is a modification of the + foregoing. In his machine the cylinder combs act upon the forward ends + of the fibres whilst under the control of the nipper, after which two + pairs of rollers return a sufficient portion of the previously combed + film to overlap, and to enable the front rollers to engage the fringe. + The rollers then draw a part of the fringe through the teeth of the + top comb, which, as a sequence, treats all but the forward ends of the + fibres. Since one passage through the cylinder and top combs completes + the operation for one set of fibres, this machine gives a higher + production; it also gives a wider range of adaptability, and a lower + percentage of waste than the Heilmann machine. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.] + + _The Drawing Frame._--For fine counts the slivers from the comber, and + for low or medium counts those from the card, are passed to the + drawing frame, because in both conditions the material is irregularly + distributed throughout the several slivers, and it is the function of + the drawing frame to eliminate all such irregularities by drawing + several slivers down to the dimensions of one, for here the processes + of combination and attenuation are carried further than in any other + machine. A drawing frame consists of three or four heads, each of four + pairs of drawing rollers (A, B, fig. 6). The lower rollers (B) are + fluted longitudinally and the upper ones (A) are covered with leather, + and weighted as at (H) to give the two a proper hold of the cotton. + Each head contains several deliveries. Six or eight slivers (C) are + put up to each delivery and drawn down into one by causing succeeding + lines of rollers (A, B) to move at an accelerated speed; the front one + revolving about six or eight times faster than the back one. On + leaving the front roller the sliver is conducted to a trumpet-shaped + tube (D), thence between a pair of calender rollers (E), and, finally, + through a diagonal passage in a plate (F); the latter coils the sliver + into a rotating can (G). Back and front devices are provided to arrest + motion in this machine when a sliver fails. At the back, each sliver + passes over and depresses a separate spoon-shaped lever (I), thereby + lifting the hooked lower end of (I) high enough to allow an arm (J) to + vibrate. On the failure of a sliver the hook of (I) engages with (J) + and dislocates the driving gear. In front, the trumpet-shaped tube (D) + is mounted on a lever (K), and so long as a sliver presses down the + mouth of (D), the machine continues in motion, but when a sliver + fails, the lever (K) causes the driving gear to stop the machine. Six + or eight cans containing once drawn slivers are put up to the second + head and similarly drawn, and finally, a similar number of twice drawn + slivers are fed into the third head and again drawn, giving in all 6 X + 6 X 6 = 216 doublings; or 8 X 8 X 8 = 512 doublings. Occasionally four + heads of drawings are used and eight slivers drawn into one, which + gives 8 X 8 X 8 X 8 = 4096 doublings; hence, irregularities in an + original sliver have been minimized by successive combination and + attenuation. + + _Flyer Frames._--Cotton in cans, from the final head of drawing, is + transferred to the _slubbing frame_, by which it is attenuated, + slightly twisted, and wound upon spools. Each sliver is drawn out by + means of three pairs of rollers, and as it emerges from the front + pair, a flyer (A, fig. 7), which revolves uniformly upon a spindle + (B), carries the sliver (C) round with it to twist the fibres axially. + This flyer coils the twisted material upon a wooden tube (D) in + close-wound spirals and in successive layers. The tube is loosely + mounted upon, but driven independently of, the spindle, in order that + as the tube increases in diameter the number of revolutions it makes + may be reduced to suit the constant delivery of the roving. This is + effected by a differential motion which usually consists of a large + wheel, within which two other wheels are made to work; the interior + wheels have a regular motion, but the large wheel is driven from a + pair of cone drums at a decreasing speed. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + + _The intermediate frame_ comes between the slubbing and roving frames + and is of similar construction to the slubber, but has a larger number + of spindles and smaller tubes. Instead of having cans put at the back, + the slubbing tubes are mounted vertically in a creel, passed in pairs + through the rollers, and drawn down to a smaller diameter than a + single slubbing. In this machine, therefore, the fourfold processes of + combination, attenuation, twisting and winding are effected + consecutively and continuously. + + _The roving frame_ is similar in principle to the slubber and + intermediate machines, but it contains a greater number of spindles, + and the tubes are smaller than either. It receives the rovings from + the intermediate frame, draws two into one, twists them and winds them + upon tubes. This machine is usually the last employed to prepare + cotton for spinning, but for spinning fine yarns from the best + Egyptian and Sea Islands cottons, a second roving, or _Jack frame_ may + be required, in which event pairs of rovings from the first machine + are similarly treated in the second in order to render the final + product sufficiently fine for spinning yarns of the requisite counts. + + _Spinning_ (see SPINNING).--Improvements upon the Saxony wheel caused + continuous spinning to become a mechanical art at an earlier date than + intermittent spinning. Arkwright's water-twist frame was gradually + changed to the _throstle_, which was a duplex machine furnished with + one set of drawing rollers, and one set of spindles and flyers at each + side of the frame-work. All the bosses of one line of rollers were + connected so that one driving gear would serve for the whole length, + and all the spindles were driven by bands from a central cylinder. The + roving spools were placed vertically in a creel between the two sets + of rollers, and the rovings reduced to the requisite fineness by the + latter; after which each was passed through a coiled eye at the lower + end of a flyer leg, and attached to a double-flanged spool which was + loosely mounted upon a spindle. At each revolution of a flyer a twist + was put into the attenuated roving, and the flyer wrapped as much + thread upon a spool as the rollers delivered. The spools rested upon a + piece of woollen cloth stretched over a rail, and this rail rose and + fell through a space equal to the length of the spool barrel. On + account of a thread having to pull a spool round, it was not possible + to spin finer counts than 60^s, and since each flyer was mounted upon + the top of an unsupported spindle, vibration increased with speed. In + order to avoid such vibration Mr Danforth, in or about 1829, placed an + inverted cup upon the top of a stationary spindle, and upon the + spindle a freely fitting sleeve and wharve; the former to receive a + spool, the latter to rotate both. By a traverse motion all the spools + were simultaneously raised or depressed, so as to have their barrels, + when at the highest point, entirely within the cup, and when at the + lowest entirely below it. A thread passed from the drawing rollers, + outside the cup, to a spool. As a spool rotated its thread was + uniformly twisted, the lower edge of the cup built the yarn equally on + every part of the spool barrel, and the requisite drag resulted from + friction set up by the thread rubbing against the surface of the cup. + The throstle has almost disappeared from the cotton industry, and + Danforth's cap frame entirely so, but the latter is still used to spin + worsted. + + _Ring spinning_ is practically the only system of continuous spinning + used in the cotton industry; it was first patented in the United + States of America by J. Thorpe, in 1828, and in that country was + extensively used long before it became established in England. Its + chief feature consists in the substitution for the flyer, or the cap, + of a smooth annular ring (A, fig. 8) formed with a flange at the upper + edge, over which a light C-shaped piece of wire (B), called a + traveller, is sprung. The rings are secured in a rail (C) that rises + quickly and falls slowly, but at each succeeding ascent and descent it + attains a higher point than that previously reached. A spindle (D) is + supported by, and turns in a bolster secured to a fixed rail (E). If + the bolster only provides a bearing for the centre of the spindle, and + so leaves the foot free to find its own position of steadiness, it is + known as a self-balancing or gravity spindle. A recess in the bolster + is filled with oil to automatically lubricate the bearing. A spindle + is placed in the centre of each ring; it has a sleeve fitted upon it + which carries a wharve (F) that covers the upper part of the bolster, + and a band from a pair of drums is drawn round the wharve to drive the + spindle. So perfect is the construction of these spindles that they + can be run without appreciable vibration at speeds far beyond the + ability of operatives to attend them; although a speed of 11,000 + revolutions per minute is a practicable one. After passing the drawing + rollers (G), the roving (H) is twisted, hooked into the traveller (B), + and made fast to a spool (I) placed upon the spindle. As spinning + proceeds the traveller is pulled round the ring by the thread; it thus + puts a drag upon, and holds the thread at the winding point. In all + continuous spinning the number of twists inserted into a given length + of thread is governed by the surface speed of the front roller, + relatively to the revolutions of the flyer, or to the speed of the + winding surface. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.] + + _Intermittent Spinning_.--The essential difference between continuous + and intermittent spinning is that the former draws and twists + consecutively, whilst the latter draws and twists simultaneously. In + the _mule_, a creel (A, fig. 9), fixed at the back of the machine, is + designed to hold the rovings (B) in three or four tiers, from whence + they pass between three lines of drawing rollers (C) and two faller + wires (D). They are next led to spindles (E) mounted in a carriage (F) + whose wheels run upon rails (G) called slips. As the rollers (C) feed + the partially attenuated rovings the carriage recedes from the rollers + a little faster than the rovings are delivered, thus completing the + attenuation. Meanwhile, the spindles are revolved rapidly by bands + passing from a tinned cylinder (H) and the threads are twisted. This + twist goes first to the thin places where least resistance is offered + to it, leaving thick places almost untwisted; the pull of the + carriage, therefore, causes the fibres to slip most readily where + there are fewest twists, and gives to a thread an approximation to + uniformity in diameter. For fine yarns the rollers cease to rotate + slightly before the carriage has attained the end of its outward run, + or stretch, and at such times all attenuation is due to the pull of + the spindles upon the threads. On the termination of a stretch the + carriage stops, the twisting is completed, the spindles reverse the + direction of their rotation to back off, or remove the yarn which is + coiled round the spindles above the winding point, and whilst one + faller wire (D), operating on all the threads at once, descends to the + winding position of each spindle, the other rises to take up the yarn + delivered by the spindles. This completed, the carriage returns to the + roller beam, and in doing so the spindles revolve in their normal + direction to wind the stretch of 48 to 66 in. of yarn spun in the + outward journey. All the foregoing movements are regulated to succeed + each other in their proper order, the termination of one operation + being the initiation of the next. + + Crompton's original machine was controlled manually throughout, but + later he devised means for moving the carriage out mechanically, for + stopping the rollers at the proper time, and for locking the carriage + whilst the spindles added the final twist to the threads. After which + all parts became stationary and the manual operations commenced. These + consisted in backing off, operating the faller wire, rotating the + spindles and pushing the carriage home. In the year 1785 the first + steam-engine was employed for cotton spinning, and in 1792 William + Kelly placed the headstock of a mule, in which the chief mechanism is + situated, in the middle of the carriage, instead of at one end. By + this device one machine was doubled in length, and shortly afterwards + two mules, each of 300 to 400 spindles, were allotted to one spinner + and his assistants. Kelly also attempted to control all parts of the + machine mechanically, but in this he failed, as did Eaton, Smith and + many others, although each contributed something towards the solution + of the problems involved in automatic spinning. Eventually the hand + mule became a machine in which most of the work was done + automatically; the spinner being chiefly required to regulate the + velocity of the backing off, and the inward run of the carriage, and + to actuate the fallers. As a result of these alterations the machine + was made almost double the length of Kelly's. In this state many mules + continued to be used until the last decade of the 19th century, and a + few are still in use. Between the years 1824 and 1830 Richard Roberts + invented mechanism that rendered all parts of the mule self-acting, + the chief parts of which are shown at (I, J), and they regulate the + rotation of the spindles during the inward run of the carriage. At + first his machine was only used to spin coarse and low-medium counts, + but it is now employed to spin all counts of yarn. Although numerous + changes have since been made in the self-acting mule, the machine + still bears indelible marks of the genius of Roberts. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + For many purposes the threads as spun by the ring frame or the mule + are ready for the manufacturer; but where extra strength or smoothness + is required, as in threads for sewing, crocheting, hosiery, lace and + carpets; also where multicoloured effects are needed, as in + Grandrelle, or some special form of irregularity, as in corkscrewed, + and knopped yarns, two or more single threads are compounded and + twisted together. This operation is known as doubling. In order to + prepare threads for doubling it may be necessary to wind side by side + upon a flanged bobbin, or upon a straight or a tapering spool, from + two to six threads before twisting them into one. + + _Winding machines_ for this purpose are of various kinds. There are + those in which the threads are laid evenly between the flanges of a + bobbin, and those that coil the threads upon a straight or a tapering + tube to form "cheeses." In the latter the tubes may be laid upon + diagonally split drums and rotated by frictional contact. By placing + each group of threads to be wound in the slit of a rotating drum, it + is drawn quickly to and fro and coiled upon a spool. If solid instead + of split drums be used, the guides for all the threads on one side of + a machine are attached to a bar, which is traversed by a cam placed at + one end of the frame. Or independent mechanism may be provided + throughout for treating each group of threads to be wound. The bobbins + or tubes may be filled from cops, ring spools or hanks, but a stop + motion is required for each thread, which will come into operation + immediately a fracture occurs. + + _Doublers_.--In action doublers are continuous and intermittent. The + former resemble throstle and ring spinning machines, but since they do + not attenuate the material, only one line of rollers is provided. The + folded material is placed in a creel and led through the rollers to + the spindles to be twisted in a wet or dry condition. If wet, the + moisture flattens down most of the protruding ends of the fibres and + produces a comparatively smooth thread; if dry, the doubled yarn + retains some of its furry character. There are two types of continuous + doublers, which are known respectively as English and Scotch. By the + English system of dry doubling the yarn from the creel may be treated, + on its way to the spindle, in various ways to obtain the desired + tension. It may be led under a rod, over a guide, round and between + the rollers, and round a glass peg. For wet doubling, a trough + containing water is placed behind the rollers, and the yarn passes + beneath a glass rod in the water, thence over a guide, beneath, + between and over the rollers to the spindles. By the Scotch system the + trough is placed below the rollers, and the bottom roller is partly + immersed in water. It is claimed that this system wets the fibres more + thoroughly than the English one. For the purpose of twisting the + strands together the spindles may be provided either with flyers, as + in throstle spinning, or with rings and travellers, as in ring + spinning. The twist is generally in the opposite direction to that in + the single threads. When more than three strands are required in a + compound thread it is customary to pass the material more than once + through the doubler, as, for example, in a sixfold thread, two strands + may be first twisted together in the same or in the opposite direction + to the spinning twist; after which the once-doubled thread is + "cleared," folded, and three strands of twofold yarn are twisted in + the opposite direction to that employed in the first operation. In + some machines folding and twisting proceed simultaneously, and some + are furnished with an automatic stop motion. But when twisting two + threads together to oppose the spinning twist, the failure of one + causes the other to untwist and break, therefore, under such + circumstances a stop motion is unnecessary. + + Intermittent doublers are known as twinners, and these are of two + kinds, namely, English and French. In the former the spindles are + fitted in a stationary rail, but the creel, containing the cops or + ring spools, is mounted upon a carriage and moves in and out, as in + Hargreaves' spinning jenny (see SPINNING). French twinners have a + stationary creel, and the spindles move in and out with the carriage, + as in the spinning mule. The material to be folded is often subjected + to the action of steam in order to render it less resilient, after + which it is mounted upon skewers in the creel, and two or three + threads are passed to each spindle to be twisted together and formed + into a cop. Between the creel and the spindles all the strands are + kept equally tense by drawing them over flannel-covered boards and + under porcelain weights. For wet doubling, the strands pass through a + trough containing water, and the flannel surfaces are also wet. + + _Clearing_.--After the first, or the final, doubling it is often + necessary to remove lumps, imperfect knots and loose fibres from a + thread. This is accomplished by passing each through a slit, or + clearer, whose width is adjusted to the diameter of the thread to be + treated. By this means anything which gives a thread abnormal bulk + will be prevented from passing the slit. Once through the slit, a + thread is coiled upon a friction-driven, double or single-headed + bobbin. If the former, the coils are evenly laid; if the latter, they + are disposed into a bottle shape. Or, again, cheeses may be wound. + + _Gassing_.--In cases where a thread with a smooth surface is required + the extending ends of fibres must be burned off. Thus: each thread + from a creel is drawn over a tension rod to two freely mounted + pulleys, having parallel grooves cut in their surfaces and axes in the + same horizontal plane. After bending a thread forward and backward in + the grooves of both pulleys, it passes through a Bunsen flame and is + coiled upon a tube, which is held against the face of a rotating drum, + while a vibrating guide distributes the thread across the tube. The + gas-burner is situated midway between the grooved pulleys, and so + mounted beneath the thread that it will automatically swivel sideways + and thus move the flame away from a stationary thread. Winding begins + slightly before the flame moves beneath a thread, and the rapid motion + of the latter permits the flame to burn off undesirable matters + without injuring the thread. + + _Reeling_.--Doubled or gassed yarn may be wound upon warpers' bobbins + and made into warps for the loom, or it may be reeled into hanks for + the preparing and finishing processes. But a reel hanks yarns for + bleaching, dyeing, printing, polishing and bundling, and is adapted + for cops, ring spools, doubling bobbins or cheeses. From cops, ring + spools and cheeses the yarn is usually drawn over one end, but flanged + bobbins are mounted upon spindles and the yarn is drawn from the side. + A reel has a circumference of 54 in., and after making 80 or 560 + revolutions it automatically stops; the first gives a lea of 120 yds. + and the last a hank of 840 yds. For grant reeling, however, a hank may + be from 5000 to 10,000 yds. long. Reeling is of two kinds, namely, + open and crossed. Open reeling forms lease, and seven of these are + united in one hank by a lease band which retains the divisions. In + cross reeling a thread is traversed over a portion of the reel surface + by a reciprocating guide to form a hank without divisions. On the + completion of a set of hanks the reel is made to collapse and thus + facilitate the removal of the yarn. + + _Bundling Press_.--Hanks are made into short or long bundles, each + weighing 5 or 10 lb. In short bundles it is usual to form groups of + ten hanks, and these are twisted together, folded and compressed into + bundles; but in long bundles the hanks are compressed without being + folded. A press consists of a strong table upon which a box, with open + ends, is formed. The bottom of this box is grooved transversely and + made to rise and fall by wheel gearing or by eccentrics. The sides and + top are made of vertical and horizontal bars, set to coincide with the + grooves in the bottom. To one set of vertical bars a similar number of + horizontal top pieces are hinged, and to the other set levers are + jointed, which hold the horizontal bars in position. When the hinged + bars are turned up, strings are drawn through the grooves, and the + bottom is covered with stout paper. The hanks are then laid in the + box, another paper is placed above them, and the hinged bars are drawn + down and locked. The bottom then rises a predetermined distance, and + automatically stops. While in this position the strings are tied, the + bottom of the press next descends, and the bundle is removed. + (T. W. F.) + + + + +COTYS, a name common to several kings of Thrace. The most important of +them, a cruel and drunken tyrant, who began to reign in 382 B.C., was +involved with the Athenians in a dispute for the possession of the +Thracian Chersonese. In this he was assisted by the Athenian Iphicrates, +to whom he had given his daughter in marriage. On the revolt of +Ariobarzanes from Persia, Cotys opposed him and his ally, the Athenians. +In 358 he was murdered by the sons of a man whom he had wronged. + + See Cornelius Nepos, _Iphicrates_, _Timotheus_; Xenophon, _Agesilaus_; + Demosthenes, _Contra Aristocratem_; Theopompus in Muller, _Fragmenta + Historicorum Graecorum_, i. + + + + +COUCH, DARIUS NASH (1822-1897), American soldier, was born at South +East, Putnam county, N.Y., on the 23rd of July 1822, and graduated from +West Point in 1846, serving in the Mexican war and in the war against +the Seminole Indians. He left the army in 1855, but soon after the +outbreak of the civil war he was made a brigadier-general U.S.V. He +served as a divisional commander in the battles of the Army of the +Potomac in 1862, and at Fredericksburg (December 1862) and +Chancellorsville (May 1863) he commanded the II. corps. He had been made +a major-general U.S.V. in July 1862. During the Gettysburg campaign he +was employed in organizing the Pennsylvanian militia, and he +subsequently served in the West, taking part in the battle of Nashville, +and in the final operations in the Carolinas. He left the army after the +war. General Couch died on the 12th of February 1897 at Norwalk, +Connecticut. + + + + +COUCY, LE CHATELAIN DE, French _trouvere_ of the 12th century. He is +probably the Guy de Couci who was castellan of the castle of that name +from 1186 to 1203. Some twenty-six songs are attributed to him, and +about fifteen or sixteen are undoubtedly authentic. They are modelled +very closely on Provencal originals, but are saved from the category of +mere imitations by a grace and simplicity peculiar to the author. The +legend of the love of the Chatelain de Coucy and the Lady of Fayel, in +which there figures a jealous husband who makes his wife eat the heart +of her lover, has no historical basis, and dates from a late 13th +century romance by Jakemon Sakesep. It is worth noting that the story, +which seems to be Breton in origin, has been also told of a Provencal +troubadour, Guilhem de Cabestaing, and of the minnesinger Reinmar von +Brennenberg. Pierre de Belloy, who wrote some account of the family of +Couci, made the story the subject of his tragedy _Gabrielle de Vergy_. + + The songs of the Chatelain de Coucy were edited by Fritz Fath + (Heidelberg, 1883). For the romance see Gaston Paris, in the _Hist. + litt. de la France_ (vol. 28, pp. 352-360). An exquisite song, + "Chanterai por mon courage," expressing a woman's regrets for her + lover at the Crusade, is attributed in one MS., probably erroneously, + to the Lady of Fayel (_Hist. litt._ xxiii. 556). An English metrical + romance of "The Knight of Curtesy," and the "Fair Lady of Faguell," + was printed by William Copland, and reprinted in Ritson's _Eng. + Metrical Romances_ (ed. E. Goldsmid, vol. iii., 1885). + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 7, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 32294.txt or 32294.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/2/2/9/32294/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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