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text-indent: -3em;} + + .pt05 {padding-top: 0.5em;} + .pt1 {padding-top: 1em;} + .pt2 {padding-top: 2em;} + .ptb1 {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 7, Slice 6, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 6 + "Coucy-le-Château" to "Crocodile" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: May 19, 2010 [EBook #32423] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Marius Masi, Juliet +Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team +at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME VII SLICE VI<br /><br /> +Coucy-le-Château to Crocodile</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">COUCY-LE-CHÂTEAU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">CRANK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">COUES, ELLIOTT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">CRANMER, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">COULISSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">CRANNOG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">COULOMB, CHARLES AUGUSTIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">CRANSAC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">COULOMMIERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">CRANSTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">COUMARIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">CRANTOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">COUMARONES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">CRANWORTH, ROBERT MONSEY ROLFE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">COUNCIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">CRAPE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">COUNCIL BLUFFS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">CRASH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">COUNSEL AND COUNSELLOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">CRASHAW, RICHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">COUNT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">CRASSULACEAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">COUNTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">CRASSUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">COUNTERFEITING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">CRATER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">COUNTERFORT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">CRATES</a> (Athenian actor)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">COUNTERPOINT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">CRATES</a> (Greek philosophers)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">COUNTERSCARP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">CRATES</a> (of Mallus)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">COUNTERSIGN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">CRATINUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">COUNTRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">CRATIPPUS</a> (Greek historian)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">COUNTY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">CRATIPPUS</a> (of Mitylene)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">COUNTY COURT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">CRAU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">COUPÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">CRAUCK, GUSTAVE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">COUPLET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">CRAUFURD, QUINTIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">COUPON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">CRAUFURD, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">COURANTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">CRAVAT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">COURAYER, PIERRE FRANÇOIS LE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">CRAVEN, PAULINE AGLAÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">COURBET, GUSTAVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">CRAVEN, WILLIAM CRAVEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">COURBEVOIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">CRAWFORD, EARLS OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">COURCELLE-SENEUIL, JEAN GUSTAVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">COURCI, JOHN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">CRAWFORD, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">COURIER, PAUL LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">CRAWFORD, WILLIAM HARRIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">COURIER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">CRAWFORDSVILLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">COURLAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">CRAWFURD, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">COURNOT, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">CRAYER, GASPARD DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">COURSING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">CRAYFISH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">COURT, ANTOINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">CRAYON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">COURT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">CREASY, SIR EDWARD SHEPHERD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">COURT BARON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">CREATIANISM AND TRADUCIANISM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">COURT DE GEBELIN, ANTOINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">CRÉBILLON, PROSPER JOLYOT DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">COURTENAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">CRÈCHE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">COURTENAY, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">CRÉCY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">COURTENAY, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">CREDENCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">COURTESY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">CREDENTIALS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">COURTHOPE, WILLIAM JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">CREDI, LORENZO DI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">COURT LEET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">CREDIT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">COURT-MARTIAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">CRÉDIT FONCIER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">COURTNEY, LEONARD HENRY COURTNEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">CRÉDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">COURTOIS, JACQUES and GUILLAUME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">CREDITON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">COURTRAI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">CREDNER, CARL FRIEDRICH HEINRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">COURVOISIER, JEAN JOSEPH ANTOINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">CREE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">COUSCOUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">CREECH, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">COUSIN, JEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">CREEDS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">COUSIN, VICTOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">CREEK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">COUSIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">CREEK or MUSKOGEE INDIANS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">COUSINS, SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">CREETOWN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">COUSTOU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">CREEVEY, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">COUTANCES, WALTER OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">CREFELD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">COUTANCES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">CREIGHTON, MANDEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">COUTHON, GEORGES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">CREIL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">COUTTS, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">CRELL NICHOLAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">COUTURE, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">CREMA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">COUVADE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">CREMATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">COVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">CREMER, JAKOBUS JAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">COVELLITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">CREMERA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">COVENANT</a> (mutual agreement)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">CRÉMIEUX, ISAAC MOÏSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">COVENANT</a> (law term)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">CREMONA, LUIGI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">COVENANTERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">CREMONA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">COVENT GARDEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">CREMORNE GARDENS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">COVENTRY, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">CRENELLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">COVENTRY, THOMAS COVENTRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">CREODONTA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">COVENTRY, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">CREOLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">COVENTRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">CREON</a> (king of Corinth)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">COVER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">CREON</a> (king of Thebes)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">COVERDALE, MILES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">CREOPHYLUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">COVERTURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">CREOSOTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">COVILHÃ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">CREPUSCULAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">COVILHAM PERO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">CRÉQUY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">COVIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">CRÉQUY, RENÉE DE FROULLAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">COVINGTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">CRESCAS, HASDAI BEN ABRAHAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">COWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">CRESCENT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">COWBRIDGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">CRESCIMBENI, GIOVANNI MARIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">COWDENBEATH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">CRESILAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">COWELL, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">CRESOLS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">COWEN, FREDERIC HYMEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">CRESPI, DANIELE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">COWEN, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">CRESPI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">COWES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">CRESPI, GIUSEPPE MARIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">COWL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">CRESS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">COWLEY, ABRAHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">CRESSENT, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">COWLEY, HANNAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">CRESSWELL, SIR CRESSWELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">COWLEY, CHARLES WELLESLEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar236">CRESSY, HUGH PAULINUS DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">COWLEY FATHERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar237">CREST</a> (town of France)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">COWPENS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar238">CREST</a> (plume or tuft)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">COWPER, WILLIAM COWPER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar239">CRESTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">COWPER, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar240">CRESWICK, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">COWRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar241">CRESWICK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">COW-TREE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar242">CRETACEOUS SYSTEM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">COX, DAVID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar243">CRETE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">COX, SIR GEORGE WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar244">CRETINISM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">COX, JACOB DOLSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar245">CRETONNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">COX, KENYON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar246">CREUSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">COX, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar247">CREUTZ, GUSTAF FILIP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">COX, SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar248">CREUZER, GEORG FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">COX, SAMUEL HANSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar249">CREVASSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">COXCIE, MICHAEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar250">CREVIER, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">COXE, HENRY OCTAVIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar251">CREVILLENTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">COXE, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar252">CREW, NATHANIEL CREW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">COXSWAIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar253">CREW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">COXWELL, HENRY TRACEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar254">CREWE, ROBERT CREWE-MILNES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">COYOTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar255">CREWE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">COYPEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar256">CREWKERNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">COYPU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar257">CRIB</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">COYSEVOX, CHARLES ANTOINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar258">CRIBBAGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">CRAB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar259">CRICCIETH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">CRABBE, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar260">CRICHTON, JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">CRACKER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar261">CRICKET</a> (insect)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">CRACOW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar262">CRICKET</a> (game)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">CRADDOCK, CHARLES EGBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar263">CRICKHOWELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">CRADLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar264">CRICKLADE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">CRADOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar265">CRIEFF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">CRAFT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar266">CRIME</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">CRAG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar267">CRIMEA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">CRAGGS, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar268">CRIMEAN WAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">CRAIG, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar269">CRIMINAL LAW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">CRAIG, SIR THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar270">CRIMINOLOGY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">CRAIGIE, PEARL MARY TERESA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar271">CRIMMITZSCHAU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">CRAIK, DINAH MARIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar272">CRIMP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">CRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar273">CRIMSON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">CRAIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar274">CRINAGORAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">CRAILSHEIM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar275">CRINOLINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">CRAIOVA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar276">CRINUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">CRAMBO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar277">CRIOBOLIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">CRAMER, JOHANN BAPTIST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar278">CRIPPLE CREEK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">CRAMER, JOHN ANTONY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar279">CRISA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">CRÄMER, KARL VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar280">CRISPI, FRANCESCO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">CRAMP, CHARLES HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar281">CRISPIN and CRISPINIAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">CRAMP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar282">CRITIAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">CRAMP-RINGS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar283">CRITICISM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">CRANACH, LUCAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar284">CRITIUS and NESIOTES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">CRANBERRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar285">CRITOLAUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">CRANBROOK, GATHORNE-HARDY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar286">CRITTENDEN, JOHN JORDAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">CRANBROOK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar287">CRIVELLI, CARLO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">CRANDALL, PRUDENCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar288">CROATIA-SLAVONIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">CRANE, STEPHEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar289">CROCIDOLITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">CRANE, WALTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar290">CROCKET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">CRANE, WILLIAM HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar291">CROCKETT, DAVID</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">CRANE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar292">CROCKETT, SAMUEL RUTHERFORD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">CRANES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar293">CROCKFORD, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">CRANIOMETRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar294">CROCODILE</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">COUCY-LE-CHÂTEAU,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> a village of northern France, in the +department of Aisne, 18 m. W.S.W. of Laon on a branch of the +Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 663. It has extensive remains of +fortifications of the 13th century, the most remarkable feature of +which is the Porte de Laon, a gateway flanked by massive towers +and surmounted by a fine apartment. Coucy also has a church of +the 15th century, preserving a façade in the Romanesque style. +The importance of the place is due, however, to the magnificent +ruins of a feudal fortress (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Castle</a></span>) crowning the eminence +on the slope of which the village is built. The remains, which +embrace an area of more than 10,000 sq. yds., form an irregular +quadrilateral built round a court-yard and flanked by four huge +towers. The nucleus of the stronghold is a donjon over 200 ft. +high and over 100 ft. in diameter, standing on the south side +of the court. Three large vaulted apartments, one above the +other, occupy its interior. The court-yard was surrounded on the +ground-floor by storehouses, kitchens, &c., above which on the +west and north sides were the great halls known as the <i>Salle des +preux</i> and the <i>Salle des preuses</i>. A chapel projected from the +west wing. The bailey or base-court containing other buildings +and covering three times the area of the château extended +between it and the village. The architectural unity of the +fortress is due to the rapidity of its construction, which took +place between 1230 and 1242, under Enguerrand III., lord of +Coucy. A large part of the buildings was restored or enlarged +at the end of the 14th century by Louis d’Orléans, brother of +Charles VI., by whom it had been purchased. The place was +dismantled in 1652 by order of Cardinal Mazarin. It is now +state property. In 1856 researches were carried on upon the spot +by Viollet-le-Duc, and measures for the preservation of the ruins +were subsequently undertaken.</p> + +<p><i>Sires de Coucy.</i>—Coucy gave its name to the sires de Coucy, a +feudal house famous in the history of France. The founder of the +family was Enguerrand de Boves, a warlike lord, who, at the end of +the 11th century seized the castle of Coucy by force. Towards +the close of his life, he had to fight against his own son, Thomas +de Marle, who in 1115 succeeded him, subsequently becoming +notorious for his deeds of violence in the struggles between the +communes of Laon and Amiens. He was subdued by King Louis +VI. in 1117, but his son Enguerrand II. continued the struggle +against the king. Enguerrand III., the Great, fought at Bouvines +under Philip Augustus (1214), but later he was accused of +aiming at the crown of France, and he took part in the disturbances +which arose during the regency of Blanche of Castile. +These early lords of Coucy remained till the 14th century in +possession of the land from which they took their name. +Enguerrand IV., sire de Coucy, died in 1320 without issue and was +succeeded by his nephew Enguerrand, son of Arnold, count of +Guines, and Alix de Coucy, from whom is descended the second +line of the house of Coucy. Enguerrand VI. had his lands +ravaged by the English in 1339 and died at Crécy in 1346. +Enguerrand VII., sire de Coucy, count of Soissons and Marle, and +chief butler of France, was sent as a hostage to England, where he +married Isabel, the eldest daughter of King Edward III. Wishing +to remain neutral in the struggle between England and +France, he went to fight in Italy. Having made claims upon the +domains of the house of Austria, from which he was descended +through his mother, he was defeated in battle (1375-1376). He +was entrusted with various diplomatic negotiations, and took +part in the crusade of Hungary against the Sultan Bayezid, +during which he was taken prisoner, and died shortly after the +battle of Nicopolis (1397). His daughter Marie sold the fief of +Coucy to Louis, duke of Orleans, in 1400. The Châtelain de +Coucy (see above) did not belong to the house of the lords of +Coucy, but was castellan of the castle of that name.</p> + + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">COUES, ELLIOTT<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1842-1899), American naturalist, was born +at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the 9th of September 1842. +He graduated at Columbian (now George Washington) University, +Washington, D.C., in 1861, and at the Medical school of that +institution in 1863. He served as a medical cadet at Washington +in 1862-1863, and in 1864 was appointed assistant-surgeon in the +regular army. In 1872 he published his <i>Key to North American +Birds</i>, which, revised and rewritten in 1884 and 1901, has done +much to promote the systematic study of ornithology in America. +In 1873-1876 Coues was attached as surgeon and naturalist to the +United States Northern Boundary Commission, and in 1876-1880 +was secretary and naturalist to the United States Geological and +Geographical Survey of the Territories, the publications of which +he edited. He was lecturer on anatomy in the medical school +of the Columbian University in 1877-1882, and professor of +anatomy there in 1882-1887. He resigned from the army in 1881 +to devote himself entirely to scientific research. He was a +founder of the American Ornithologists’ Union, and edited its +organ, <i>The Auk</i>, and several other ornithological periodicals. He +died at Baltimore, Maryland, on the 25th of December 1899. +In addition to ornithology he did valuable work in mammalogy; +his book <i>Fur-Bearing Animals</i> (1877) being distinguished by the +accuracy and completeness of its description of species, several of +which are already becoming rare. In 1887 he became president of +the Esoteric Theosophical Society of America. Among the most +important of his publications, in several of which he had collaboration, +are <i>A Field Ornithology</i> (1874); <i>Birds of the North-west</i> (1874); +<i>Monographs on North American Rodentia</i>, with J. A. Allen (1877); +<i>Birds of the Colorado Valley</i> (1878); <i>A Bibliography of Ornithology</i> +(1878-1880, incomplete); <i>New England Bird Life</i> (1881); <i>A +Dictionary and Check List of North American Birds</i> (1882); +<i>Biogen, A Speculation on the Origin and Motive of Life</i> (1884); +<i>The Daemon of Darwin</i> (1884); <i>Can Matter Think?</i> (1886); and +<i>Neuro-Myology</i> (1887). He also contributed numerous articles +to the Century Dictionary, wrote for various encyclopaedias, and +edited the <i>Journals of Lewis and Clark</i> (1893), and <i>The Travels of +Zebulon M. Pike</i> (1895).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COULISSE<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (French for “groove,” from <i>couler</i>, to slide), a term +for a groove in which a gate of a sluice, or the side-scenes in a +theatre, slide up and down, hence applied to the space on the +stage between the wings, and generally to that part of the theatre +“behind the scenes” and out of view of the public. It is also +a term of the Paris Bourse, derived from a <i>coulisse</i>, or passage +in which transactions were carried on without the authorized +<i>agents de change</i>. The name <i>coulissier</i> was thus given to unauthorized +<i>agents de change</i>, or “outside brokers” who, after +many attempts at suppression, were finally given a recognized +status in 1901. They bring business to the <i>agents de change</i>, and +act as intermediaries between them and other parties. (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stock Exchange:</a></span> <i>Paris</i>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COULOMB, CHARLES AUGUSTIN<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1736-1806), French +natural philosopher, was born at Angoulême on the 14th of June +1736. He chose the profession of military engineer, spent three +years, to the decided injury of his health, at Fort Bourbon, +Martinique, and was employed on his return at Rochelle, the +Isle of Aix and Cherbourg. In 1781 he was stationed permanently +at Paris, but on the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 he +resigned his appointment as <i>intendant des eaux et fontaines</i>, and +retired to a small estate which he possessed at Blois. He was +recalled to Paris for a time in order to take part in the new +determination of weights and measures, which had been decreed +by the Revolutionary government. Of the National Institute he +was one of the first members; and he was appointed inspector +of public instruction in 1802. But his health was already very +feeble, and four years later he died at Paris on the 23rd of +August 1806. Coulomb is distinguished in the history alike of +mechanics and of electricity and magnetism. In 1779 he published +an important investigation of the laws of friction (<i>Théorie +des machines simples, en ayant regard au frottement de leurs parties +et à la roideur des cordages</i>), which was followed twenty years later +by a memoir on fluid resistance. In 1785 appeared his <i>Recherches +théoriques et expérimentales sur la force de torsion et sur l’élasticité +des fils de métal</i>, &c. This memoir contained a description of +different forms of his torsion balance, an instrument used by him +with great success for the experimental investigation of the +distribution of electricity on surfaces and of the laws of electrical +and magnetic action, of the mathematical theory of which he may +also be regarded as the founder. The practical unit of quantity +of electricity, the <i>coulomb</i>, is named after him.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COULOMMIERS,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> a town of northern France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Seine-et-Marne, 45 m. E. +of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906) 5217. It is situated in the fertile +district of Brie, in a valley watered by the Grand-Morin. The +church of St Denis (13th and 16th centuries), and the ruins of a +castle built by Catherine of Gonzaga, duchess of Longueville, +in the early 17th century, are of little importance. There is a +statue to Commandant Beaurepaire, who, in 1792, killed himself +rather than surrender Verdun to the Prussians. Coulommiers +is the seat of a subprefect, and has a tribunal of first +instance and a communal college. Printing is the chief industry, +tanning, flour-milling and sugar-making being also carried on. +Trade is in agricultural products, and especially in cheeses +named after the town.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUMARIN,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> C<span class="su">9</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, a substance which occurs naturally in +sweet woodruff (<i>Asperula odorata</i>), in the tonka bean and in +yellow melilot (<i>Melilotus officinalis</i>). It can be obtained from the +tonka bean by extraction with alcohol. It is prepared artificially +by heating aceto-ortho-coumaric acid (which is formed from +sodium salicyl aldehyde) or from the action of acetic anhydride +and sodium acetate on salicyl aldehyde (Sir W. H. Perkin, +<i>Berichte</i>, 1875, 8, p. 1599). It can also be prepared by heating a +mixture of phenol and malic acid with sulphuric acid, or by +passing bromine vapour at 107° C. over the anhydride of melilotic +acid. It forms rhombic crystals (from ether) melting at 67° C. +and boiling at 290° C., which are readily soluble in alcohol, and +moderately soluble in hot water. It is applied in perfumery +for the preparation of the <i>Asperula</i> essence. On boiling with +concentrated caustic potash it yields the potassium salt of +coumaric acid, whilst when fused with potash it is completely +decomposed into salicylic and acetic acids. Sodium amalgam +reduces it, in aqueous solution, to melilotic acid. It forms +addition products with bromine and hydrobromic acid. By +the action of phosphorus pentasulphide it is converted into +thiocoumarin, which melts at 101° C.; and in alcoholic solution, +on the addition of hydroxylamine hydrochloride and soda, it +yields coumarin oxime.</p> + +<p>Ortho-coumaric acid (o-oxycinnamic acid) is obtained from +coumarin as shown above, or by boiling coumarin for some time +with sodium ethylate. It melts at 208° C. and is easily soluble in +hot water and in alcohol. It cannot be converted into coumarin +by heating alone, but it is readily transformed on heating with +acetic anhydride or acetyl chloride. By the action of sodium +amalgam it is readily converted into <i>melilotic acid</i>, which melts at +81° C., and on distillation furnishes its lactone, <i>hydrocoumarin</i>, +melting at 25° C. For the relations of coumaric and coumarinic +acid see <i>Annalen</i>, 254, p. 181. The homologues of coumarin may +be obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on phenol and the +higher fatty acids (propionic, butyric and isovaleric anhydrides), +substitution taking place at the carbon atom in the α position to +the -CO- group, whilst by the condensation of acetoacetic +ester and phenols with sulphuric acid the β substituted coumarins +are obtained.</p> + +<p><i>Umbelliferone</i> or 4-oxycoumarin, occurs in the bark of <i>Daphne +mezereum</i> and may be obtained by distilling such resins as +galbanum or asafoetida. It may be synthesized from resorcin +and malic anhydride or from β resorcyl aldehyde, acetic +anhydride and sodium acetate. <i>Daphnetin</i> and <i>Aesculetin</i> are +dioxycoumarins.</p> + +<p>The structural formulae of coumarin and the related substances are:</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:463px; height:70px" src="images/img308.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">COUMARONES<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Benzofurfuranes</span>, organic compounds +containing the ring system +<img style="width:151px; height:37px" src="images/img309a.jpg" alt="" /> +This ring system +may be synthesized in many different ways, the chief methods +employed being as follows: by the action of hot alcoholic +potash on α-bromcoumarin (R. Fittig, <i>Ann.</i>, 1883, 216, p. 162),</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:525px; height:39px" src="images/img309b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">from sodium salts of phenols and α-chloracetoacetic ester (A. +Hantzsch, <i>Ber.</i>, 1886, 19, p. 1292),</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:442px; height:47px" src="images/img309c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">or from ortho-oxyaldehydes by condensation with ketones +(S. Kostanecki and J. Tambor, <i>Ber.</i>, 1896, 29, p. 237), or with +chloracetic acid (A. Rossing, <i>Ber.</i>, 1884, 17, p. 3000),</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:528px; height:160px" src="images/img309d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The parent substance coumarone, C<span class="su">8</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O, is also obtained +by heating ω-chlor-ortho-oxystyrol with concentrated potash +solution (G. Komppa, <i>Ber.</i>, 1893, 26. p. 2971),</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:359px; height:39px" src="images/img309e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">It is a colourless liquid which boils at 171-172° C. and is readily +volatile in steam, but is insoluble in water and in potash solution. +Concentrated acids convert it into a resin. When heated with +sodium and absolute alcohol, it is converted into <i>hydrocoumarone</i>, +C<span class="su">8</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O, and ethyl phenol.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUNCIL<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (Lat. <i>concilium</i>, from <i>cum</i>, together, and the root cal, +to call), the general word for a convocation, meeting, assembly. +The Latin word was frequently confused with <i>consilium</i> (from +<i>consulere</i>, to deliberate, cf. <i>consul</i>), advice, <i>i.e.</i> counsel, and thus +specifically an advisory assembly. Du Cange (<i>Gloss. Med. +Infim. Latin.</i>) quotes the Greek words <span class="grk" title="synodos, synedrion, symboulion"> +σύνοδος, συνέδριον, συμβούλιον</span> as the equivalent of <i>concilium</i>. In French the +distinction between <i>conseil</i> (from <i>consilium</i>), advice, and +<i>concile</i>, council (<i>i.e.</i> ecclesiastical—its only meaning) has survived, +but the two English derivatives are much confused. In the New +Testament, “council” is the rendering of the Hebrew Sanhedrin, +Gr. <span class="grk" title="synedrion">συνέδριον</span>. The word is generally used in English for all +kinds of congregations or convocations assembled for administrative +and deliberative purposes.<a name="FnAnchor_1a" id="FnAnchor_1a" href="#Footnote_1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>The present article is confined to a history of the development +of the ecclesiastical council, summoned to adjust matters in +dispute with the civil authority or for the settlement of doctrinal +and other internal disputes. For details see under separate +headings, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nicaea</a></span>, &c.</p> + +<p>From a very early period in the history of the Church, councils +or synods have been held to decide on matters of doctrine and +discipline. They may be traced back to the second half of the +2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, when sundry churches in Asia Minor held +consultations about the rise of Montanism. Their precise origin +is disputed. The common Roman Catholic view is that they are +apostolic though not prescribed by divine law, and the apostolic +precedent usually cited is the “council” of Jerusalem (Acts xv.; +Galatians ii.). Waiving the consideration of vital critical +questions and accepting Acts xv. at its face value, the assembly at +Jerusalem would scarcely seem to have been a council in the +technical sense of the word; it was in essence a meeting of the +Jerusalem church at which delegates from Antioch were heard +but apparently had no vote, the decision resting solely with the +mother church. R. Sohm argues that synods grew from the +custom of certain local churches which, when confronted with a +serious problem of their own, augmented their numbers by +receiving delegates from the churches of the neighbourhood. +Hauck, however, holds that these augmented church meetings, +which dealt with the affairs of but a single church, are to be +distinguished from the synods, which took cognizance of matters +of general interest. Older Protestant writers have contented +themselves with saying either that synods were of apostolic +origin, or that they were the inevitable outcome of the need of +the leaders of churches to take counsel together, and that they +were perhaps modelled on the secular provincial assemblies +(<i>concilia provincialia</i>).</p> + +<p>Every important alteration in the constitution of the Church +has affected the composition and function of synods; but the +changes were neither simultaneous nor precisely alike throughout +the Roman empire. The synods of the 2nd century were extraordinary +assemblies which met to deliberate upon pressing +problems. They had no fixed geographical limits for membership, +no <i>ex-officio</i> members, nor did they possess an authority which +did away with the independence of the local church. In the +course of the 3rd century came the decisive change, which +increased the prestige of the councils: the right to vote was +limited to bishops. This was the logical outgrowth of the +belief that each local church ought to have but one bishop +(monarchical episcopate), and that these bishops were the sole +legitimate successors of the apostles (apostolic succession), and +therefore official organs of the Holy Spirit. Although as late as +250 the consensus of the priests, the deacons and the people was +still considered essential to the validity of a conciliar decision at +Rome and in certain parts of the East, the development had +already run its course in northern Africa. It was a further step +in advance when synods began to meet at regular intervals. +They were held annually in Cappadocia by the middle of the 3rd +century, and the council of Nicaea commanded in 325 that semiannual +synods be held in every province, an arrangement which +was not systematically enforced, and was altered in 692, when +the Trullan Council reduced the number to one a year.</p> + +<p>With the multiplication of synods came naturally a differentiation +of type. In text-books we find clear lines drawn between +diocesan, provincial, national, patriarchal and oecumenical +synods; but the first thousand years of church history do not +justify the sharpness of the traditional distinction. The <i>provincial</i> +synods, presided over by the metropolitan (archbishop), +were usually held at the capital of the province, and attempted +to legislate on all sorts of questions. The state had nothing to do +with calling them, nor did their decrees require governmental +sanction. Various abortive attempts were made to set up +synods of <i>patriarchal</i> or at least of more than provincial rank. +In North Africa eighteen such synods were held between 393 and +424; during part of the 5th and 6th centuries <i>primatial</i> councils +assembled at Arles; and the patriarchs of Constantinople were +accustomed to invite to their “<i>endemic</i> synods” (<span class="grk" title="synodoi endêmousai"> +σύνοδοι ἐνδημοῦσαι</span>) all bishops who happened to be sojourning at the +capital. <i>Papal</i> synods from the 5th and especially from the 9th +century onward included members such as the archbishops of +Ravenna, Milan, Aquileia and Grado, who resided outside the +Roman archdiocese; but the territorial limits from which the +membership was drawn do not appear to have been precisely +defined.</p> + +<p>Before the form of the provincial synod had become absolutely +fixed, there arose in the 4th century the <i>oecumenical</i> council. +The Greek term <span class="grk" title="synodos oikoumenikê">σύνοδος οἰκουμενική</span><a name="FnAnchor_2a" id="FnAnchor_2a" href="#Footnote_2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> (1) (used by Eusebius, +<i>Vita Constantini</i>, iii. 6) is preferable to the Latin <i>concilium +universale</i> or <i>generale</i>, which has been applied loosely to national +and even to provincial synods. The oecumenical synods were not +the logical outgrowth of the network of provincial synods; they +were creations of the imperial power. Constantine, who had not +even been baptized, laid the foundations when, in response to a +petition of the Donatists, he referred their case to a committee of +bishops that convened at Rome, which meeting Eusebius calls a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span> +synod. After that the emperor summoned the council of Arles to +settle the matter. For both of these assemblies it was the emperor +that decided who should be summoned, paid the travelling +expenses of the bishops, determined where the council should be +held and what topics should be discussed. He regarded them +as temporary advisory bodies, to whose recommendations the +imperial authority might give the force of law. In the same +manner he appointed the time and place for the council of +Nicaea, summoned the episcopate, paid part of the expenses out +of the public purse, nominated the committee in charge of the +order of business, used his influence to bring about the adoption +of the creed, and punished those who refused to subscribe. To be +sure, the council of Nicaea commanded great veneration, for it +was the first attempt to assemble the entire episcopate; but no +more than the synods of Rome and of Arles was it an organ of +ecclesiastical self-government—it was rather a means whereby +the Church was ruled by the secular power. The subsequent +oecumenical synods of the undivided Church were patterned on +that of Nicaea. Most Protestant scholars maintain that the +secular authorities decided whether or not they should be +convened, and issued the summons; that imperial commissioners +were always present, even if they did not always preside; that on +occasion emperors have confirmed or refused to confirm synodal +decrees; and that the papal confirmation was neither customary +nor requisite. Roman Catholic scholars to-day tend to recede +from the high ground very generally taken several centuries ago, +and Funk even admits that the right to convoke oecumenical +synods was vested in the emperor regardless of the wishes of the +pope, and that it cannot be proved that the Roman see ever +actually had a share in calling the oecumenical councils of +antiquity. Others, however, while acknowledging the futility of +seeking historical proofs that the popes <i>formally</i> called, directed +and confirmed these synods, yet assert that the emperor performed +these functions not of his own right but in his quality as +protector of the Church, that this involved his acting at the +request or at least with the permission and approval of the +Church, and in particular of the pope, and that a special though +not a stereotyped papal confirmation of conciliar decrees was +necessary to their validity.</p> + +<p>In the Germanic states which arose on the ruins of the Western +Empire we find <i>national</i> and <i>diocesan</i> synods; provincial synods +were unusual. National synods were summoned by the king or +with his consent to meet special needs; and they were frequently +<i>concilia mixta</i>, at which lay dignitaries appeared. Although the +Frankish monarchs were not <span class="correction" title="amended from abolute">absolute</span> rulers, nevertheless they +exercised the right of changing or rejecting synodal decrees +which ran counter to the interests of the state. Clovis held the +first French national synod at Orleans in 511; Reccared, the +first in Spain in 589 at Toledo. Under Charlemagne they were +occasionally so representative that they might almost be ranked +as general synods of the West (Regensburg, 792, Frankfort, 794). +Contemporaneous with the evolution of the national synod was +the development of a new type of diocesan synod, which included +the priests of separate and mutually independent parishes and +also the leaders of the monastic clergy.</p> + +<p>The papal synods came into the foreground with the success of +the Cluniac reform of the Church, especially from the Lateran +synod of 1059 on. They grew in importance until at length +Calixtus II. summoned to the Lateran the synod of 1123 as +“<i>generale concilium</i>.” The powers which the pope as bishop of +the church in Rome had exercised over its synods he now extended +to the oecumenical councils. They were more completely under +his control than the ancient ones had been under the sway of the +emperor. The Pseudo-Isidorean principle that all major synods +need papal authorization was insisted on, and the decrees were +formulated as papal edicts.</p> + +<p>The absolutist principles cherished by the papal court in the +12th and 13th centuries did not pass unchallenged; but the +protests of Marsilius of Padua and the less radical William of +Occam remained barren until the Great Schism of 1378. As +neither the pope in Rome nor his rival in Avignon would give way, +recourse was had to the idea that the supreme power was vested +not in the pope but in the oecumenical council. This “conciliar +theory,” propounded by Conrad of Gelnhausen and championed +by the great Parisian teachers Pierre d’Ailly and Gerson, proceeded +from the nominalistic axiom that the whole is greater +than its part. The decisive revolutionary step was taken when +the cardinals independently of both popes ventured to hold the +council of Pisa (1409). The council of Constance asserted the +supremacy of oecumenical synods, and ordered that these be +convened at regular intervals. The last of the Reform councils, +that of Basel, <span class="correction" title="amended from appoved">approved</span> these principles, and at length passed a +sentence of deposition against Pope Eugenius IV. Eugenius, +however, succeeded in maintaining his power, and at the council +of Florence (1439) secured the condemnation of the conciliar +theory; and this was reiterated still more emphatically, on the +eve of the Reformation, by the fifth Lateran council (1516). +Thenceforward the absolutist theories of the 13th and 14th +centuries increasingly dominated the Roman Church. The +popes so distrusted oecumenical councils that between 1517 and +1869 they called but one; at this (Trent, 1545-1563), however, +all treatment of the question of papal versus conciliar authority +was purposely avoided. Although the Declaration of the French +clergy of 1682 reaffirmed the conciliar doctrines of Constance, +since the French Revolution this “Gallicanism” has shown +itself to be but a passing phase of constitutional theory; and in +the 19th century the ascendancy of Ultramontanism became so +secure that Pius IX. could confidently summon to the Vatican a +synod which set its seal on the doctrine of papal infallibility. Yet +it would be a misconception to suppose that the Vatican decrees +mean the surrender of the ancient belief in the infallibility of +oecumenical synods; their decisions may still be regarded as +more solemn and more impressive than those of the pope alone; +their authority is fuller, though not higher. At present it is +agreed that the pope has the sole right of summoning oecumenical +councils, of presiding or appointing presidents and of determining +the order of business and the topics which shall come up. The +papal confirmation is indispensable; it is conceived of as the +stamp without which the expression of conciliar opinion lacks +legal validity. In other words, the oecumenical council is now +practically in the position of the senate of an absolute monarch. +It is in fact an open question whether a council is to be ranked as +really oecumenical until after its decrees have been approved by the +pope. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vatican Council</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ultramontanism</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infallibility</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The earlier oecumenical councils have well been called “the +pitched battles of church history.” Summoned to combat +heresy and schism, in spite of degrading pressure from without +and tumultuous disorder within, they ultimately brought about +a modicum of doctrinal agreement. On the one side as time went +on they bound scholarship hand and foot in the winding-sheet of +tradition, and also fanned the flames of intolerance; yet on the +other side they fostered the sense of the Church’s corporate +oneness. The diocesan and provincial synods have formed a +valuable system of regularly recurring assemblies for disposing of +ecclesiastical business. They have been held most frequently, +however, in times of stress and of reform, for instance in the 11th, +16th and 19th centuries; at other periods they have lapsed into +disuse: it is significant that to-day the prelate who neglects to +convene them suffers no penalty. At present the main function +of both provincial and oecumenical synods seems to be to facilitate +obedience to the wishes of the central government of the Church.</p> + +<p>The <i>right to vote</i> (<i>votum definitivum</i>) has been distinguished +from early times from the right to be heard (<i>votum consultativum</i>). +The Reform Synods of the 15th century gave a decisive vote to +doctors and licentiates of theology and of laws, some of them +sitting as individuals, some as representatives of universities. +Roman Catholic canonists now confine the right to vote at +oecumenical councils to bishops, cardinal deacons, generals or +vicars general of monastic orders and the <i>praelati nullius</i> (exempt +abbots, &c.); all other persons, lay or clerical, who are admitted +or invited, have merely the <i>votum consultativum</i>—they are +chiefly procurators of absent bishops, or very learned priests. +It was but a clumsy and temporary expedient, designed to offset +the preponderance of Italian bishops dependent on the pope +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span> +when the council of Constance subdivided itself into several +groups or “nations,” each of which had a single vote. In +voting, the simple majority decides; yet such is the importance +attached to a unanimous verdict that an irreconcilable minority +may absent itself from the final vote, as was the case at the +Vatican Council.</p> + +<p>The numbering of oecumenical synods is not fixed; the list +most used in the Roman Church to-day is that of Hefele (<i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, +2nd ed., I. 59 f.):</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="3"><span class="scs">A.D.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> 1.</td> <td class="tcl">Nicaea I.</td> <td class="tcr">325</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 2.</td> <td class="tcl">Constantinople I.</td> <td class="tcr">381</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 3.</td> <td class="tcl">Ephesus</td> <td class="tcr">431</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 4.</td> <td class="tcl">Chalcedon</td> <td class="tcr">451</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 5.</td> <td class="tcl">Constantinople II.</td> <td class="tcr">553</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 6.</td> <td class="tcl">Constantinople III.</td> <td class="tcr">680</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 7.</td> <td class="tcl">Nicaea II.</td> <td class="tcr">787</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 8.</td> <td class="tcl">Constantinople IV.</td> <td class="tcr">869</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 9.</td> <td class="tcl">Lateran I.</td> <td class="tcr">1123</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">10.</td> <td class="tcl">Lateran II.</td> <td class="tcr">1139</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">11.</td> <td class="tcl">Lateran III.</td> <td class="tcr">1179</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">12.</td> <td class="tcl">Lateran IV.</td> <td class="tcr">1215</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">13.</td> <td class="tcl">Lyons I.</td> <td class="tcr">1245</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">14.</td> <td class="tcl">Lyons II.</td> <td class="tcr">1274</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">15.</td> <td class="tcl">Vienne</td> <td class="tcr">1311</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">16.</td> <td class="tcl">Constance (in part)</td> <td class="tcr">1414-1418</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">17a.</td> <td class="tcl">Basel (in part)</td> <td class="tcr">1431 ff.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">17b.</td> <td class="tcl">Ferrara-Florence (a continuation of Basel)</td> <td class="tcr">1438-1442</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">18.</td> <td class="tcl">Lateran V.</td> <td class="tcr">1512-1517</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">19.</td> <td class="tcl">Trent</td> <td class="tcr">1545-1563</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">20.</td> <td class="tcl">Vatican</td> <td class="tcr">1869-1870</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">(Each of these and certain other important synods are treated in +separate articles.)</p> + +<p>By including Pisa (1409) and by treating Florence as a separate +synod, certain writers have brought the number of oecumenical +councils up to twenty-two. These standard lists are of the type +which became established through the authority of Cardinal +R. F. Bellarmine (1542-1621), who criticized Constance and +Basel, while defending Florence and the fifth Lateran council +against the Gallicans. As late as the 16th century, however, +“the majority did not regard those councils in which the Greek +Church did not take part as oecumenical at all” (Harnack, +<i>History of Dogma</i>, vi. 17). The Greek Church accepts only the +first seven synods as oecumenical; and it reckons the Trullan +synod of 692 (the Quinisextum) as a continuation of the sixth +oecumenical synod of 680. But concerning the first seven +councils it should be remarked that Constantinople I. was but a +general synod of the East; its claim to oecumenicity rests upon +its reception by the West about two centuries later. Similarly +the only representatives of the West present at Constantinople II. +were certain Africans; the pope did not accept the decrees till +afterwards and they made their way in the West but gradually. +Just as there have been synods which have come to be considered +oecumenical though not convoked as such, so there have been +synods which though summoned as oecumenical, failed of +recognition: for instance Sardica (343), Ephesus (449), Constantinople +(754). The last two received the imperial confirmation +and from the legal point of view were no whit inferior to the +others; their decrees, however, were overthrown by subsequent +synods. As the Protestant leaders of the 16th century held fast +the traditional christology, they regarded with veneration the +dogmatic decisions of Nicaea I., Constantinople I., Ephesus and +Chalcedon. These four councils had enjoyed a more or less +fortuitous pre-eminence both in Roman and in canon law, and by +many Catholics at the time of the Reformation were regarded, +along with the three great creeds (Apostles’, Nicene, Athanasian), +as a sort of irreducible minimum of orthodoxy. In the 17th +century the liberal Lutheran George Calixtus based his attempts +at reuniting Christendom on this <i>consensus quinquesaecularis</i>. +Many other Protestants have accepted Constantinople II. and +III. as supporting the first four councils; and still others, +notably many Anglican high churchmen, have felt bound by all +the oecumenical synods of the undivided Church. The common +Protestant attitude toward synods is, however, that they may +err and have erred, and that the Scriptures and not conciliar +decisions are the sole infallible standard of faith, morals and +worship.</p> + +<p><i>Protestant Councils.</i>—The churches of the Reformation have all +had a certain measure of synodal life. The Church of England +has maintained its ancient provincial synods or convocations, +though for the greater part of the 18th and the first part of the +19th centuries they transacted no business. In the Lutheran +churches of Germany there was no strong agitation in favour of +introducing synods until the 19th century, when a movement, +designed to render the churches less dependent on the governmental +consistories, won its way, until at length Prussia itself +fell into line (1873 and 1876). As the powers granted to the +German synods are very limited, many of their advocates have +been disillusioned; but the Lutheran churches of America, +being independent of the state, have developed synods both +numerous and potent. In the Reformed churches outside +Germany synodal life is vigorous; its forms were developed by +the Huguenots in days of persecution, and passed thence to +Scotland and other presbyterian countries. Even many of the +churches of congregational polity have organized national +councils (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Congregationalism</a></span>); but here the principle of the +independence of the local church prevents the decisions from +binding those congregations which do not approve of the decrees. +Moreover, in the last decade of the 19th century a growing +desire for a rapprochement between the Free Churches in the +United Kingdom as a whole led to the annual assembly of the +Free Church Council for the consideration of all matters affecting +the dissenting bodies. This body has no executive or doctrinal +authority and is rather a conference than a council. In general +it may be said that synods are becoming more and more powerful +in Protestant lands, and that they are destined to still greater +prominence because of the growing sentiment for Christian +unity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.—General Collections:</span> <i>Collectio regia</i> (Paris, +1644, 37 vols.) (the first very extensive work); P. Labbe (not Labbé) +and G. Cossart, <i>Sacrosancta concilia</i> (Paris, 1672, 17 vols.), with +supplement by Étienne Baluze (Baluzius), 1683 (based on above); +J. Hardouin (Harduinus), <i>Conciliorum collectio regia maxima</i> (Paris, +1715), 11 tomi in 12 vols, (to 1714; more exact; indexed; serious +omissions); enlarged edition by N. Coletus (Venice, 1728-1732), +supplemented by J. D. Mansi, <i>Sanctorum conciliorum et decretorum +nova collectio</i> (Lucca, 1748, 6 tomi). Convenient but fallible is +Mansi’s <i>Sacrorum conciliorum et decretorum nova et amplissima +collectio</i> (Florence, 1759-1767; completed Venice, 1769-1798, 31 +vols.); facsimile reproduction by Welter (Paris, 1901 ff.), adding +(tom. O) <i>Introductio seu apparatus ad sacrosancta concilia</i>, and +(tom. 17B and 18B) Baluze, <i>Capitularia regum Francorum</i>, and continuing +to date by reproducing parts of Coletus and of Mansi’s +supplement to Coletus, and furnishing (tom. 37 ff.) a new edition +of the councils from 1720 on by J. B. Martin and L. Petit. A careful +text of Roman Catholic synods from 1682 to 1870 is <i>Collectio Lacensis</i> +(<i>Acta et decreta sacrorum conciliorum recentiorum</i>, Friburgi, 1870 ff.), +7 vols.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Special Collections: Great Britain:</span> <i>Concilia Magnae +Britanniae et Hiberniae</i>, ed. D. Wilkins (London, 1737, 4 vols.); +<i>Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents relating to Great Britain and +Ireland</i>, ed. by A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs (Oxford, 1869 ff., 4 +vols.); J. W. Joyce, <i>Handbook of the Convocations or Provincial +Synods of the Church of England</i> (London, 1887); <i>Concilia Scotiae</i> +(1225-1559), ed. Joseph Robertson (Edinburgh, Bannatyne Club, +1866, 2 tom.).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">United States:</span> <i>Collectio Lacensis</i> (Roman Catholic synods); +<i>The American Church History Series</i> (New York, 1893 ff. 13 vols.) +gives information on the various Protestant synods.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">France.</span>—<i>Concilia aevi Merovingici</i>, rec. F. Maassen (Hanover, +1893) (<i>Monumenta Germaniae historica, Legum sectio</i> iii., <i>Concilia</i>, +tom. i.); <i>Concilia antiqua Galliae</i>, cur. J. Sirmond (Paris, 1629, 3 +vols.); supplement by P. de la Lande (Paris, 1666); L. Odespun, +<i>Concilia novissima Galliae</i> (Paris, 1646); <i>Conciliorum Galliae tam +editorum quam ineditorum, stud. congreg. S. Mauri</i>, tom. i. (Paris, 1789). +Synods of the Reformed Churches of France are contained in J. Quick, +<i>Synodicon in Gallia reformata</i> (London, 1692, 2 vols.); J. Aymon, +<i>Tous les synodes nationaux des églises réformées de France</i> (La Haye, +1710, 2 vols.); E. Hugues, <i>Les Synodes du désert</i> (Paris, 1885 f., 3 +vols.). For the synods of other countries see Herzog-Hauck, 3rd +ed., 19,262 f., and Wetzer and Welte, 2nd ed., 3809 f.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Less Elaborate Texts:</span> <i>Canones apostolorum et conciliorum +saeculorum</i>, iv.-vii., rec. H. T. Bruns (Berlin, 1839, 2 vols.) (still +useful); J. Fulton, <i>Index Canonum</i> (3rd ed., New York, 1892) +(3rd and 4th centuries); W. Bright, <i>Notes on the Canons of the First +Four General Councils</i> (2nd ed., Oxford, 1892); <i>Die Kanones der +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span> +wichtigsten altkirchlichen Conzilien nebst den apostolischen Kanones</i>, +ed. F. Lauchert (Freiburg i. B., 1896); <i>Enchiridion symbolorum et +definitionum, quae de rebus fidei et morum a conciliis oecumenicis et +summis pontificibus emanarunt</i>, ed. H. Denzinger (7th ed., Würzburg, +1895); <i>Bibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln der alten Kirche</i>, +ed. by A. Hahn (3rd edition, revised and enlarged, Breslau, 1897), +with variant readings; C. Mirbt, <i>Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums +und des römischen Katholizismus</i> (2nd much enlarged ed., Tübingen, +1901); E. F. Karl Müller, Die Bekenntnisschriften der reformierten +Kirche (Leipzig, 1903) (for all countries). These last five are +elaborately indexed.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Translations:</span> John Johnson, <i>A Collection of the Laws and +Canons of the Church of England</i> [601-1519], 2 parts (London, 1720; +reprinted Oxford, 1850 f., in the <i>Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology</i>); +P. Schaff, <i>The Creeds of Christendom</i> (New York, 1877, 3 vols.) +(texts and translations parallel); <i>Canons and Creeds of the First +Four Councils</i>, ed. by E. K. Mitchell, in <i>Translations and Reprints +from the Original Sources of European History, published by the +Department of History of the University of Pennsylvania</i>, vol. iv. 2 +(1897); H. R. Percival, <i>The Ecumenical Councils</i> (New York, 1900) +(<i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, second series, vol. xiv.; translates +canons and compiles notes; bibliography in Introduction).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">General Histories of Councils:</span> C. J. von Hefele, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i> +(Freiburg i. B., 1855); English translation of the earlier +volumes to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 787, from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 326 on, based on the second German +edition (Edinburgh, 1871 ff.); French, by Delarc (Paris, 1869-1874, +10 vols.). This first edition not entirely superseded by the second, +made after the Vatican council, and continued by Knöpfler and by +Hergenröther (Freiburg, 1873-1890, 9 vols.); a French translation, +with continuation and critical and bibliographical notes, <i>par un +religieux bénédictin de Farnborough</i>, tome i. 1<span class="sp">re</span> partie (Paris, Létouzey, +1907); Paul Viollet, <i>Examen de l’histoire des conciles de Mgr +Hefele</i> (Paris, 1876) (<i>Extrait de la Revue historique</i>); W. P. du Bose, +<i>The Ecumenical Councils</i> (New York, 1896) (popular); P. Guérin, +<i>Les Conciles généraux et particuliers</i> (Paris, 1868, 3rd impression, 1897, +3 tom.); see also A. Harnack, <i>History of Dogma</i> (Boston, 1895-1900, +7 vols.); F. Loofs, <i>Leitfaden der Dogmengeschichte</i> (4th ed., enlarged, +Halle, 1906).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature:</span> <i>Dictionnaire universel et complet des conciles</i>, rédigé +par A. C. Peltier, publié par Migne (Paris, 1847, 2 vols.) (Migne, +<i>Encyclopédie théologique</i>, vol. 13 f.); Z. Zitelli-Natali, <i>Epitome +historico-canonica conciliorum generalium</i> (Rome, 1881); F. X. +Kraus, <i>Realencyklopädie der christlichen Altertümer</i>, vol. i. (Freiburg-i.-B., +1882) (art. “Concilien” by Funk); William Smith and S. +Cheetham, <i>Dictionary of Christian Antiquities</i> (London, 1876-1880, +2 vols.) (erudite detail); Wetzer und Welte’s <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>, +2nd ed. by Hergenröther and Kaulen (Freiburg i. B., 1882-1903, +13 vols.) (art. “Concil” by Scheeben); <i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i> +(Paris, s.d., 31 vols.) (numerous articles); P. Hinschius, <i>Das Kirchenrecht +der Katholiken und Protestanten in Deutschland</i>, vol. 3 (Berlin, +1883) (fundamental and masterly); R. von Scherer, <i>Handbuch des +Kirchenrechtes</i>, vol. i. (Graz, 1886) (excellent notes and references); +E. H. Landon, <i>A Manual of Councils of the Holy Catholic Church</i>, +(revised ed., London, [1893], 2 vols.) (paraphrases chief canons; +needs revision); Martigny, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités chrétiennes</i> +(3rd ed., Paris, 1889) (for ceremonial); R. Sohm, <i>Kirchenrecht</i>, +vol. i. (Leipzig, 1892) (brilliant); A. Kneer, <i>Die Entstehung der +konziliaren Theorie</i> (Rome, 1893); <i>Realencyklopädie für protestantische +Theologie und Kirche</i>, begründet von J. J. Herzog, 3rd revised ed. +by A. Hauck (Leipzig, 1896 ff.) (in vol. 19 Hauck’s excellent <i>Synoden</i>, +1907); F. X. Funk, <i>Kirchengeschichtliche Abhandlungen und +Untersuchungen</i> (Paderborn, 1897); A. V. G. Allen, <i>Christian Institutions</i> +(New York, 1897), chap. xi.; C. A. Kneller, “Papst und +Konzil im ersten Jahrtausend” (<i>Zeitschrift für katholische Theologie</i>, +vols. 27 and 28, Innsbruck, 1893 f.); F. Bliemetzrieder, <i>Das Generalkonzil +im grossen abendländischen Schisma</i> (Paderborn, 1904); +Wilhelm and Scannell, <i>Manual of Catholic Theology</i> (3rd ed., London, +1906, sect. 32); J. Forget, “Conciles,” in A. Vacant and E. Mangeot, +<i>Dictionnaire de théologie catholique</i>, tome 3, 636-676 (Paris, 1906 ff.), +with elaborate bibliography; <i>The Catholic Encyclopedia</i> (New York, +1907 ff.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1a" id="Footnote_1a" href="#FnAnchor_1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the Greek Council see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Boule</a></span>; for the Hebdomadal Council +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oxford</a></span>; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">England</a></span>: <i>Local Government</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2a" id="Footnote_2a" href="#FnAnchor_2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> From <span class="grk" title="hê oikoumenê (gê)">ἡ οἰκουμἐνη (γῆ)</span>. the inhabited world; Latin <i>oecumenicus</i> +or <i>universalis</i>. The English forms “oecumenical” and +“ecumenical” are both used.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUNCIL BLUFFS,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Pottawattamie +county, Iowa, U.S.A., about 2½ m. E. of the Missouri river +opposite Omaha, Nebraska, with which it is connected by a road +bridge and two railway bridges. Pop. (1890) 21,474; (1900) +25,802, of whom 3723 were foreign-born; (1910) 29,292. It +is pre-eminently a railway centre, being served by the Union +Pacific, of which it is the principal eastern terminus, the Chicago, +Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul, the +Chicago & Northwestern, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, +the Chicago Great-Western, the Illinois Central, and the Wabash, +which together have given it considerable commercial importance. +It is built for the most part on level ground at the foot of high +bluffs; and has several parks, the most attractive of which, +commanding fine views, is Fairmount Park. With the exception +of bricks and tiles, carriages and wagons, agricultural implements, +and the products of its railway shops, its manufactures are +relatively unimportant, the factory product in 1905 being valued +at only $1,924,109. Council Bluffs is the seat of the Western +Iowa Business College, and of the Iowa school for the deaf. +On or near the site of Council Bluffs, in 1804, Lewis and Clark +held a council with the Indians, whence the city’s name. In +1838 the Federal government made this the headquarters of the +Pottawattamie Indians, removed from Missouri. They remained +until 1846-1847, when the Mormons came, built many cabins, +and named the place Kanesville. The Mormons remained only +about five years, but on their departure for Utah their places +were speedily taken by new immigrants. During 1849-1850 +Council Bluffs became an important outfitting point for California +gold seekers—the goods being brought by boat from Saint +Louis—and in 1853 it was incorporated as a city.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUNSEL AND COUNSELLOR,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> one who gives advice, more +particularly in legal matters. The term “counsel” is employed +in England as a synonym for a barrister-at-law, and may refer +either to a single person who pleads a cause, or collectively, to the +body of barristers engaged in a case. Counsellor or, more fully, +counsellor-at-law, is practically an obsolete term in England, but +is still in use locally in Ireland as an equivalent to barrister. In +the United States, a counsellor-at-law is, specifically, an attorney +admitted to practice in all the courts; but as there is no formal +distinction of the legal profession into two classes, as in England, +the term is more often used loosely in the same sense as “lawyer,” +<i>i.e.</i> one who is versed in, or practises law.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUNT<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (Lat. <i>comes</i>, gen. <i>comitis</i>, Fr. <i>comte</i>, Ital. <i>conte</i>, Span. +<i>conde</i>), the English translation of foreign titles equivalent +generally to the English “earl.”<a name="FnAnchor_1b" id="FnAnchor_1b" href="#Footnote_1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In Anglo-French documents +the word <i>counte</i> was at all times used as the equivalent of earl, but, +unlike the feminine form “countess,” it did not find its way into +the English language until the 16th century, and then only in the +sense defined above. The title of earl, applied by the English to +the foreign counts established in England by William the +Conqueror, is dealt with elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Earl</a></span>). The present +article deals with (1) the office of count in the Roman empire +and the Frankish kingdom, (2) the development of the feudal +count in France and under the Holy Roman Empire, (3) modern +counts.</p> + +<p>1. The Latin <i>comes</i> meant literally a companion or follower. In +the early Roman empire the word was used to designate the +companions of the emperor (<i>comites principis</i>) and so became a +title of honour. The emperor Hadrian chose senators as companions +on his travels and to help him in public business. They +formed a permanent council, and Hadrian’s successors entrusted +these <i>comites</i> with the administration of justice and finance, or +placed them in military commands. The designation <i>comes</i> thus +developed into a formal official title of high officers of state, some +qualification being added to indicate the special duties attached +to the office in each case. Thus in the 5th century, among the +<i>comites</i> attached to the emperor’s establishment, we find, <i>e.g.</i>, the +<i>comes sacrarum largitionum</i> and the <i>comes rei privatae</i>; while +others, forming the council, were styled <i>comites consistorii</i>. +Others were sent into the provinces as governors, <i>comites per +provincias constituti</i>; thus in the <i>Notitia dignitatum</i> we find a +<i>comes Aegypti</i>, a <i>comes Africae</i>, a <i>comes Belgicae</i>, a <i>comes +Lugdunensis</i> and others. Two of the generals of the Roman +province of Britain were styled the <i>comes Britanniae</i> and the +<i>comes littoris Saxonici</i> (count of the Saxon shore).</p> + +<p>At Constantinople in the latter Roman empire the Latin word +<i>comes</i> assumed a Greek garb as <span class="grk" title="komês">κόμης</span> and was declined as a +Greek noun (gen. <span class="grk" title="komêtos">κόμητος</span>); the <i>comes sacrarum largitionum</i> +(count of the sacred bounties) was called at Constantinople +<span class="grk" title="ho komês tôn sakrôn largitiônôn">ὁ κόμης τῶν σακρῶν λαργιτιώνων</span> and the <i>comes rerum privatarum</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span> +(count of the private estates) was called <span class="grk" title="komês tôn pribatôn">κόμης τῶν πριβάτων</span>. +The count of the sacred bounties was the lord treasurer or +chancellor of the exchequer, for the public treasury and the +imperial fisc had come to be identical; while the count of the +private estates managed the imperial demesnes and the privy +purse. In the 5th century the “sacred bounties” corresponded +to the <i>aerarium</i> of the early Empire, while the <i>res privatae</i> +represented the fisc. The officers connected with the palace and +the emperor’s person included the count of the wardrobe (<i>comes +sacrae vestis</i>), the count of the residence (<i>comes domorum</i>), and, +most important of all, the <i>comes domesticorum et sacri stabuli</i> +(graecized as <span class="grk" title="komês tou stablou">κόμης τοῦ στάβλου</span>). The count of the stable, +originally the imperial master of the horse, developed into the +“illustrious” commander-in-chief of the imperial army (Stilicho, +<i>e.g.</i>, bore the full title as given above), and became the prototype +of the medieval constable (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>An important official of the second rank (<i>spectabilis</i>, “respectable” +as contrasted with those of highest rank who were +“illustrious”) was the count of the East, who appears to have had +the control of a department in which 600 officials were engaged. +His power was reduced in the 6th century, when he was deprived +of his authority over the Orient diocese, and became civil +governor of Syria Prima, retaining his “respectable” rank. +Another important officer of the later Roman court was the +<i>comes sacri patrimonii</i>, who was instituted by the emperor +Anastasius. In this connexion it should be observed that the +word <i>patrimonium</i> gradually changed in meaning. In the beginning +of the 3rd century <i>patrimonium</i> meant crown property, +and <i>res privata</i> meant personal property: at the beginning of the +6th century <i>patrimonium</i> meant personal property, and <i>res +privata</i> meant crown property. It is difficult to give briefly a +clear idea of the functions of the three important officials <i>comes +sacrarum largitionum</i>, <i>comes rei privatae</i> and <i>comes sacri</i> <span class="correction" title="amended from partrimonii"><i>patrimonii</i></span>; +but the terms have been well translated by a German +author as <i>Finanzminister des Reichsschatzes</i> (finance minister of +the treasury of the Empire), <i>F. des Kronschatzes</i> (of the crown +treasury), and <i>F. des kaiserlichen Privatvermögens</i> (of the +emperor’s private property).</p> + +<p>The Frankish kings of the Merovingian dynasty retained the +Roman system of administration, and under them the word +<i>comes</i> preserved its original meaning; the <i>comes</i> was a companion +of the king, a royal servant of high rank. Under the early +Frankish kings some <i>comites</i> did not exercise any definite +functions; they were merely attached to the king’s person and +executed his orders. Others filled the highest offices, <i>e.g.</i> the +<i>comes palatii</i> and <i>comes stabuli</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Constable</a></span>). The kingdom +was divided for administrative purposes into small areas called +<i>pagi</i> (<i>pays</i>, Ger. <i>Gau</i>), corresponding generally to the Roman +<i>civitates</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">City</a></span>).<a name="FnAnchor_2b" id="FnAnchor_2b" href="#Footnote_2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> At the head of the <i>pagus</i> was the <i>comes</i>, +corresponding to the German <i>Graf</i> (<i>Gaugraf</i>, cf. Anglo-Saxon +<i>scire-gerefa</i>,<a name="FnAnchor_3b" id="FnAnchor_3b" href="#Footnote_3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> sheriff). The <i>comes</i> was appointed by the king and +removable at his pleasure, and was chosen originally from all +classes, sometimes from enfranchised slaves. His essential +functions were judicial and executive, and in documents he is +often described as the king’s agent (<i>agens publicus</i>) or royal +judge (<i>judex publicus</i> or <i>fiscalis</i>). As the delegate of the executive +power he had the right to military command in the king’s name, +and to take all the measures necessary for the preservation of the +peace, <i>i.e.</i> to exercise the royal “ban” (<i>bannus regis</i>). He was at +once public prosecutor and judge, was responsible for the execution +of the sentences of the courts, and as the king’s representative +exercised the royal right of protection (<i>mundium regis</i>) over +churches, widows, orphans and the like. He enjoyed a triple +wergeld, but had no definite salary, being remunerated by the +receipt of certain revenues, a system which contained the germs +of discord, on account of the confusion of his public and private +estates. He also retained a third of the fines which he imposed +in his judicial capacity.</p> + +<p>Under the early Carolings the title count did not indicate noble +birth. A <i>comes</i> was generally raised from childhood in the king’s +palace, and rose to be a count through successive stages. The +count’s office was not yet a dignity, nor hereditary; he was not +independent nor appointed for life, but exercised the royal power +by delegation, as under the Merovingians. While, however, he +was theoretically paid by the king, he seems to have been +himself one of the sources of the royal revenue. The counties +were, it appears, farmed out; but in the 7th century the royal +choice became restricted to the larger landed proprietors, who +gradually emancipated themselves from royal control, and in the +8th century the term <i>comitatus</i> begins to denote a geographical +area, though there was little difference in its extent under the +Merovingian kings and the early Carolings. The count was +about to pass into the feudatory stage. Throughout the middle +ages, however, the original official and personal connotation of +the title was never wholly lost; or perhaps it would be truer to +say, with Selden, that it was early revived with the study of the +Roman civil law in the 12th century. The unique dignity of +count of the Lateran palace,<a name="FnAnchor_4b" id="FnAnchor_4b" href="#Footnote_4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> bestowed in 1328 by the emperor +Louis IV. the Bavarian on Castrucio de’ Antelminelli, duke of +Lucca, and his heirs male, was official as well as honorary, +being charged with the attendance and service to be performed +at the palace at the emperor’s coronation at Rome (Du +Cange, s.v. <i>Comites Palatii Lateranensis</i>; Selden, op. cit. p. 321). +This instance, indeed, remained isolated; but the personal +title of “count palatine,” though honorary rather than official, +was conferred on officials—especially by the popes on those of +the Curia—had no territorial significance, and was to the last +reminiscent of those early comites palatii whose relations to the +sovereign had been purely personal and official (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palatine</a></span>). +A relic of the old official meaning of “count” still survives in +Transylvania, where the head of the political administration of +the Saxon districts is styled count (<i>comes</i>, <i>Graf</i>) of the Saxon +Nation.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Feudal Counts.</i>—The process by which the official counts +were transformed into feudal vassals almost independent is +described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feudalism</a></span>. In the confusion of the +period of transition, when the title to possession was usually the +power to hold, designations which had once possessed a definite +meaning were preserved with no defined association. In France, +by the 10th century, the process of decomposition of the old +organization had gone far, and in the 11th century titles of +nobility were still very loosely applied. That of “count” was, +as Luchaire points out, “equivocal” even as late as the 12th +century; any castellan of moderate rank could style himself +<i>comte</i> who in the next century would have been called <i>seigneur</i> +(<i>dominus</i>). Even when, in the 13th century, the ranks of the +feudal hierarchy in France came to be more definitely fixed, the +style of “count” might imply much, or comparatively little. +In the oldest register of Philip Augustus counts are reckoned +with dukes in the first of the five orders into which the nobles are +divided, but the list includes, besides such almost sovereign +rulers as the counts of Flanders and Champagne, immediate +vassals of much less importance—such as the counts of Soissons +and Dammartin—and even one mediate vassal, the count of +Bar-sur-Seine. The title was still in fact “equivocal,” and so it +remained throughout French history. In the official lists it was +early placed second to that of duke (Luchaire, <i>Manuel</i>, p. 181, +note 1), but in practice at least the great <i>comtes-pairs</i> (<i>e.g.</i> of +Champagne) were the equals of any duke and the superiors of +many. Thus, too, in modern times royal princes have been given +the title of count (Paris, Flanders, Caserta), the heir of Charles X. +actually changing his style, without sense of loss, from that of duc +de Bordeaux to that of comte de Chambord. From the 16th +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span> +century onwards the equivocal nature of the title in France was +increased by the royal practice of selling it, either to viscounts or +barons in respect of their fiefs, or to rich <i>roturiers</i>.</p> + +<p>In Germany the change from the official to the territorial and +hereditary counts followed at the outset much the same course as +in France, though the later development of the title and its +meaning was different. In the 10th century the counts were +permitted by the kings to divide their benefices and rights +among their sons, the rule being established that countships +(<i>Grafschaften</i>) were hereditary, that they might be held by boys, +that they were heritable by females and might even be administered +by females. The <i>Grafschaft</i> became thus merely a +bundle of rights inherent in the soil; and, the count’s office +having become his property, the old counties or <i>Gauen</i> rapidly +disappeared as administrative units, being either amalgamated or +subdivided. By the second half of the 12th century the official +character of the count had quite disappeared; he had become a +territorial noble, and the foundation had been laid of territorial +sovereignty (<i>Landeshoheit</i>). The first step towards this was the +concession to the counts of the military prerogatives of dukes, +a right enjoyed from the first by the counts of the marches (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Margrave</a></span>), then given to counts palatine (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palatine</a></span>) and, +finally, to other counts, who assumed by reason of it the style of +landgrave (<i>Landgraf</i>, <i>i.e.</i> count of a province). At first all counts +were reckoned as princes of the Empire (<i>Reichsfürsten</i>); but +since the end of the 12th century this rank was restricted to those +who were immediate tenants of the crown,<a name="FnAnchor_5b" id="FnAnchor_5b" href="#Footnote_5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a> the other counts of +the Empire (<i>Reichsgrafen</i>) being placed among the free lords +(<i>barones</i>, <i>liberi domini</i>). Counts of princely rank (<i>gefürstete +Grafen</i>) voted among the princes in the imperial diet; the others +(<i>Reichsgrafen</i>) were grouped in the <i>Grafenbänke</i>—originally two, +to which two more were added in the 17th century—each of +which had one vote. In 1806, on the formation of the Confederation +of the Rhine, the sovereign counts were all mediatized (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mediatization</a></span>). Even before the end of the Empire (1806) +the right of bestowing the title of count was freely exercised by +the various German territorial sovereigns.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Modern Counts.</i>—Any political significance which the feudal +title of count retained in the 18th century vanished with the +changes produced by the Revolution. It is now simply a title of +honour and one, moreover, the social value of which differs +enormously, not only in the different European countries, but +within the limits of the same country. In Germany, for instance, +there are several categories of counts: (1) the mediatized princely +counts (<i>gefürstete Grafen</i>), who are reckoned the equals in blood +of the European sovereign houses, an equality symbolized by +the “closed crown” surmounting their armorial bearings. The +heads of these countly families of the “high nobility” are +entitled (by a decree of the federal diet, 1829) to the style of +<i>Erlaucht</i> (illustrious, most honourable); (2) Counts of the +Empire<a name="FnAnchor_6b" id="FnAnchor_6b" href="#Footnote_6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a> (<i>Reichsgrafen</i>), descendants of those counts who, +before the end of the Holy Roman Empire (1806), were <i>Reichsständisch</i> +<i>i.e.</i> sat in one of the <i>Grafenbänke</i> in the imperial diet, +and entitled to a ducal coronet; (3) Counts (a) descended from +the lower nobility of the old Empire, titular since the 15th +century, (b) created since; their coronet is nine-pointed (cf. the +nine points and strawberry leaves of the English earl). The +difficulty of determining in any case the exact significance of +the title of a German count, illustrated by the above, is increased +by the fact that the title is generally heritable by all male +descendants, the only exception being in Prussia, where, since +1840, the rule of primogeniture has prevailed and the bestowal of +the title is dependent on a rent-roll of £3000 a year. The result +is that the title is very widespread and in itself little significant. +A German or Austrian count may be a wealthy noble of princely +rank, a member of the Prussian or Austrian Upper House, or he +may be the penniless cadet of a family of no great rank or +antiquity. Nevertheless the title, which has long been very +sparingly bestowed, always implies a good social position. The +style <i>Altgraf</i> (old count), occasionally found, is of some antiquity, +and means that the title of count has been borne by the family +from time immemorial.</p> + +<p>In medieval France the significance of the title of count varied +with the power of those who bore it; in modern France it varies +with its historical associations. It is not so common as in +Germany or Italy; because it does not by custom pass to all +male descendants. The title was, however, cheapened by its +revival under Napoleon. By the decree of the 1st of March 1808, +reviving titles of nobility, that of count was assigned <i>ex officio</i> to +ministers, senators and life councillors of state, to the president of +the Corps Législatif and to archbishops. The title was made +heritable in order of primogeniture, and in the case of archbishops +through their nephews. These Napoleonic countships, increased +under subsequent reigns, have produced a plentiful crop of titles +of little social significance, and have tended to lower the status of +the counts deriving from the <i>ancien régime</i>. The title of marquis, +which Napoleon did not revive, has risen proportionately in the +estimation of the Faubourg St Germain. As for that of count, it +is safe to say that in France its social value is solely dependent on +its historical associations.</p> + +<p>Of all European countries Italy has been most prolific of counts. +Every petty Italian prince, from the pope downwards, created +them for love or money; and, in the absence of any regulating +authority, the title was also widely and loosely assumed, while +often the feudal title passed with the sale of the estate to which it +was attached. Casanova remarked that in some Italian cities +all the nobles were <i>baroni</i>, in others all were <i>conti</i>. An Italian +<i>conte</i> may or may not be a gentleman; he has long ceased, +<i>qua</i> count, to have any social prestige, and his rank is not recognized +by the Italian government. As in France, however, +there are some Italian <i>conti</i> whose titles are respectable, and +even illustrious, from their historic associations. The prestige +belongs, however, not to the title but to the name. As for the +papal countships, which are still freely bestowed on those of all +nations whom the Holy See wishes to reward, their prestige +naturally varies with the religious complexion of the country in +which the titles are borne. They are esteemed by the faithful, but +have small significance for those outside. In Spain, on the other +hand, the title of <i>conde</i>, the earlier history of which follows much +the same development as in France, is still of much social value, +mainly owing to the fact that the rule of primogeniture exists, +and that, a large fee being payable to the state on succession to +a title, it is necessarily associated with some degree of wealth. +The Spanish counts of old creation, some of whom are grandees +and members of the Upper House, naturally take the highest +rank; but the title, still bestowed for eminent public services or +other reasons, is of value. The title, like others in Spain, can +pass through an heiress to her husband. In Russia the title of +count (<i>graf</i>, fem. <i>grafinya</i>), a foreign importation, has little social +prestige attached to it, being given to officials of a certain rank. +In the British empire the only recognized counts are those of +Malta, who are given precedence with baronets of the United +Kingdom.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Selden, <i>Titles of Honor</i> (London, 1672); Du Cange, <i>Glossarium +Med. Lat.</i> (ed. Niort, 1883) s.v. “Comes”; <i>La Grande +Encyclopédie</i>, s.v. “Comte”; A. Luchaire, <i>Manuel des institutions +françaises</i> (Paris, 1892); P. Guilhiermoz, <i>Essai sur l’origine de la +noblesse en France au moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1902); Brunner, <i>Deutsche +Rechtsgeschichte</i>, Band ii. (Leipzig, 1892).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1b" id="Footnote_1b" href="#FnAnchor_1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The exact significance of a title is difficult to reproduce in a +foreign language. Actually, only some foreign counts could be said +to be equivalent to English earls; but “earl” is always translated +by foreigners by words (<i>comte</i>, <i>Graf</i>) which in English are represented +by “count,” itself never used as the synonym of “earl.” Conversely +old English writers had no hesitation in translating as +“earl” foreign titles which we now render “count.”</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2b" id="Footnote_2b" href="#FnAnchor_2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The changing language of this epoch speaks of <i>civitates</i>, subsequently +of <i>pagi</i>, and later of <i>comitatus</i> (counties).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3b" id="Footnote_3b" href="#FnAnchor_3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The A.S. <i>gerefa</i>, however, meaning “illustrious,” “chief,” has +apparently, according to philologists, no connexion with the German +<i>Graf</i>, which originally meant “servant” (cf. “knight,” “valet,” +&c.). It is the more curious that the <i>gerefa</i> should end as a servant +(“reeve”), the <i>Graf</i> as a noble (count).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4b" id="Footnote_4b" href="#FnAnchor_4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> “Count of the Lateran Palace” (<i>Comes Sacri Lateranensis +Palatii</i>) was later the title usually bestowed by the popes in creating +counts palatine. The emperors, too, continued to make counts +palatine under this title long after the Lateran had ceased to be an +imperial palace.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5b" id="Footnote_5b" href="#FnAnchor_5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Of these there were four who, as counts of the Empire <i>par +excellence</i>, were sometimes styled “simple counts” (<i>Schlechtgrafen</i>), +<i>i.e.</i> the counts of Cleves, Schwarzburg, Cilli and Savoy; they +were entitled to the ducal coronet. Three of these had become dukes +by the 17th century, but the count (now prince) of Schwarzburg still +styled himself “Of the four counts of the Holy Roman Empire, +count of Schwarzburg” (see Selden, ed. 1672, p. 312).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6b" id="Footnote_6b" href="#FnAnchor_6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> This title is borne by certain English families, <i>e.g.</i> by Lord +Arundell of Wardour. In other cases it has been assumed without +due warrant. See J. H. Round, “English Counts of the Empire,” +in <i>The Ancestor</i>, vii. 15 (Westminster, October 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUNTER<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span>. (1) (Through the O. Fr. <i>conteoir</i>, modern <i>comptoir</i>, +from Lat. <i>computare</i>, to reckon), a round piece of metal, wood or +other material used anciently in making calculations, and now for +reckoning points in games of cards, &c., or as tokens representing +actual coins or sums of money in gambling games such as roulette. +The word is thus used, figuratively, of something of no real value, +a sham. In the original sense of “a means of counting money, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span> +or keeping accounts,” “counter” is used of the table or flat-topped +barrier in a bank, merchant’s office or shop, on which +money is counted and goods handed to a customer. The term +was also applied, usually in the form “compter,” to the debtors’ +prisons attached to the mayor’s or sheriff’s courts in London and +some other boroughs in England. The “compters” of the +sheriff’s courts of the city of London were, at various times, in +the Poultry, Bread St., Wood St. and Giltspur St.; the Giltspur +St. compter was the last to be closed, in 1854. (2) (From Lat. +<i>contra</i>, opposite, against), a circular parry in fencing, and in +boxing, a blow given as a parry to a lead of an opponent. The +word is also used of the stiff piece of leather at the back of a boot +or shoe, of the rounded angle at the stern of a ship, and, in a +horse, of the part lying between the shoulder and the under part +of the neck. In composition, counter is used to express contrary +action, as in “countermand,” “counterfeit,” &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUNTERFEITING<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>contra-facere</i>, to make in +opposition or contrast), making an imitation without authority +and for the purpose of defrauding. The word is more particularly +used in connexion with the making of imitations of money, +whether paper or coin. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coinage Offences</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Forgery</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUNTERFORT<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (Fr. <i>contrefort</i>), in architecture, a buttress or +pier built up against the wall of a building or terrace to strengthen +it, or to resist the thrust of an arch or other constructional +feature inside.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUNTERPOINT<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (Lat. <i>contrapunctus</i>, “point counter point,” +“note against note”), in music, the art happily defined by Sir +Frederick Gore Ouseley as that “of combining” melodies: this +should imply that good counterpoint is the production of beautiful +harmony by a combination of well-characterized melodies. +The individual audibility of the melodies is a matter of which +current criticism enormously overrates the importance. What is +always important is the peculiar life breathed into harmony by +contrapuntal organization. Both historically and aesthetically +“counterpoint” and “harmony” are inextricably blended; for +nearly every harmonic fact is in its origin a phenomenon of +counterpoint. And if in later musical developments it becomes +possible to treat chords as, so to speak, harmonic lumps with a +meaning independent of counterpoint, this does not mean that +they have really changed their nature; but it shows a difference +between modern and earlier music precisely similar to that between +modern English, in which metaphorical and abstract expressions +are so constantly used that they have become a mere shorthand +for the literal and concrete expression, and classical Greek, where +metaphors and abstractions can appear only as elaborate +similes or explicit philosophical ideas. The laws of counterpoint +are, then, laws of harmony with the addition of such laws of +melody as are not already produced by the interaction of +harmonic and melodic principles. In so far as the laws of +counterpoint are derived from purely harmonic principles, that is +to say, derived from the properties of concord and discord, their +origin and development are discussed in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harmony</a></span>. +In so far as they depend entirely on melody they are too minute +and changeable to admit of general discussion; and in so far as +they show the interaction of melodic and harmonic principles it is +more convenient to discuss them under the head of harmony, +because they appear in such momentary phenomena as are more +easily regarded as successions of chords than as principles of +design. All that remains, then, for the present article is the +explanation of certain technical terms.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Canto Fermo</i> (<i>i.e.</i> plain chant) is a melody in long notes +given to one voice while others accompany it with quicker +counterpoints (the term “counterpoint” in this connexion +meaning accompanying melodies). In the simplest cases the +<i>Canto Fermo</i> has notes of equal length and is unbroken in flow. +When it is broken up and its rhythm diversified, the gradations +between counterpoint on a <i>Canto Fermo</i> and ordinary forms of +polyphony, or indeed any kind of melody with an elaborate +accompaniment, are infinite and insensible.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Double Counterpoint</i> is a combination of melodies so designed +that either can be taken above or below the other. When this +change of position is effected by merely altering the octave of +either or both melodies (with or without transposition of the +whole combination to another key), the artistic value of the +device is simply that of the raising of the lower melody to the +surface. The harmonic scheme remains the same, except in so far +as some of the chords are not in their fundamental position, while +others, not originally fundamental, have become so. But double +counterpoint may be in other intervals than the octave; that is +to say, while one of the parts remains stationary, the other may +be transposed above or below it by some interval other than an +octave, thus producing an entirely different set of harmonies.</p> + +<p><i>Double Counterpoint in the 12th</i> has thus been made a powerful +means of expression and variety. The artistic value of this +device depends not only on the beauty and novelty of the second +scheme of harmony obtained, but also on the change of melodic +expression produced by transferring one of the melodies to +another position in the scale. Two of the most striking illustrations +of this effect are to be found in the last chorus of Brahms’s +<i>Triumphlied</i> and in the fourth of his variations on a theme by +Haydn.</p> + +<p><i>Double Counterpoint in the 10th</i> has, in addition to this, the +property that the inverted melody can be given in the new and in +the original positions simultaneously.</p> + +<p>Double counterpoint in other intervals than the octave, 10th +and 12th, is rare, but the general principle and motives for it +remain the same under all conditions. The two subjects of the +<i>Confiteor</i> in Bach’s B minor Mass are in double counterpoint in +the octave, 11th and 13th. And Beethoven’s Mass in D is full of +pieces of double counterpoint in the inversions of which a few +notes are displaced so as to produce momentary double counterpoint +in unusual intervals, obviously with the intention of +varying the harmony. Technical treatises are silent as to this +purpose, and leave the student in the belief that the classical +composers used these devices, if at all, in a manner as meaningless +as the examples in the treatises.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Triple, Quadruple and Multiple Counterpoint.</i>—When more +than two melodies are designed so as to combine in interchangeable +positions, it becomes increasingly difficult to avoid chords +and progressions of which some inversions are incorrect. In +triple counterpoint this difficulty is not so great; although a +complete triad is dangerous, as it is apt to invert as a “6/4<span class="spp">6</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span>” +which requires careful handling. On the other hand, in triple +counterpoint the necessity for strictness is at its greatest, +because there are only six possible inversions, and in a long +polyphonic work most of these will be required. Moreover, the +artistic value of the device is at its highest in three-part polyphonic +harmony, which, whether invertible or not, is always a +fine test of artistic economy, while the inversions are as evident +to the ear, especially where the top part is concerned, as those +in double counterpoint. Triple counterpoint (and a fortiori +multiple counterpoint) is normally possible only at the octave; +for it will be found that if three parts are designed to invert in +some other interval this will involve two of them inverting in a +third interval which will give rise to incalculable difficulty. +This makes the fourth of Brahms’s variations on a theme of +Haydn almost miraculous. The plaintive expression of the whole +variation is largely due to the fact that the flowing semiquaver +counterpoint below the main theme is on each repeat inverted in +the 12th, with the result that its chief emphasis falls upon the +most plaintive parts of the scale. But in the first eight bars of +the second part of the variation a third contrapuntal voice +appears, and this too is afterwards inverted in the 12th, with +perfectly natural and smooth effect. But this involves the +inversion of two of the counterpoints with each other in the 9th, +a kind of double counterpoint which is almost impossible. The +case is unique, but it admirably illustrates the difference between +artistic and merely academic mastery of technical resource.</p> + +<p><i>Quadruple Counterpoint</i> is not rare with Bach. It would be +more difficult than triple, but for the fact that of its twenty-four +possible inversions not more than four or five need be correct. +<i>Quintuple counterpoint</i> is admirably illustrated in the finale of +Mozart’s <i>Jupiter Symphony</i>, in which everything in the successive +statement and gradual development of the five themes conspires +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>316</span> +to give the utmost effect to their combination in the coda. Of +course Mozart has not room for more than five of the 120 possible +combinations, and from these he selects such as bring fresh +themes into the outside parts, which are the most clearly audible. +<i>Sextuple Counterpoint</i> may be found in Bach’s great double +chorus, <i>Nun ist das Heil</i>, and in the finale of his concerto for +three claviers in C, and probably in other places.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Added Thirds and Sixths.</i>—An easy and effective imitation +of triple and quadruple counterpoint, embodying much of the +artistic value of inversion, is found in the numerous combinations +of themes in thirds and sixths which arise from an extension of +the principle which we mentioned in connexion with double +counterpoint in the 10th, namely, the possibility of performing +it in its original and inverted positions simultaneously. The +<i>Pleni sunt coeli</i> of Bach’s B minor Mass is written in this kind of +transformation of double into quadruple counterpoint; and the +artistic value of the device is perhaps never so magnificently +realized as in the place, at bar 84, where the trumpet doubles the +bass three octaves and a third above while the alto and second +tenor have the counter subjects in close thirds in the middle.</p> + +<p>Almost all other contrapuntal devices are derived from the +principle of the <i>canon</i> and are discussed in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contrapuntal +Forms</a></span>.</p> + +<p>As a training in musical grammar and style, the rhythms of +16th-century polyphony were early codified into “the five +species of counterpoint” (with various other species now forgotten) +and practised by students of composition. The classical +treatise on which Haydn and Beethoven were trained was Fux’s +<i>Gradus ad Parnassum</i> (1725). This was superseded in the 19th +century by Cherubini’s, the first of a long series of attempts to +bring up to date as a dead language what should be studied in its +original and living form.</p> +<div class="author">(D. F. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUNTERSCARP<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> ( = “opposite scarp,” Fr. <i>contrescarpe</i>), a +term used in fortification for the outer slope of a ditch; see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fortification</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Siegecraft</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUNTERSIGN,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a military term for a sign, word or signal previously +arranged and required to be given by persons approaching +a sentry, guard or other post. In some armies the “countersign” +is strictly the reply of the sentry to the pass-word given by +the person approaching.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUNTRY<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (from the Mid. Eng. <i>contre</i> or <i>contrie</i>, and O. Fr. +<i>cuntrée</i>; Late Lat. <i>contrata</i>, showing the derivation from <i>contra</i>, +opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the +sight, cf. Ger. <i>Gegend</i>, neighbourhood), an extent of land without +definite limits, or such a region with some peculiar character, as +the “black country,” the “fen country” and the like. The +extension from such descriptive limitation to the limitation of +occupation by particular owners or races is easy; this gives the +common use of the word for the land inhabited by a particular +nation or race. Another meaning is that part of the land not +occupied by towns, “rural” as opposed to “urban” districts; +this appears too in “country-house” and “country town”; +so too “countryman” is used both for a rustic and for the native +of a particular land. The word appears in many phrases, in the +sense of the whole population of a country, and especially of +the general body of electors, as in the expression “go to the +country,” for the dissolution of parliament preparatory to a +general election.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUNTY<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (through Norm. Fr. <i>counté</i>, cf. O. Fr. <i>cunté</i>, <i>conté</i>, +Mod. Fr. <i>comté</i>, from Lat. <i>comitatus</i>, cf. Ital. <i>comitato</i>, Prov. <i>comtat</i>; +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Count</a></span>), in its most usual sense the name given to certain +important administrative divisions in the United Kingdom, the +British dominions beyond the seas, and the United States of +America. The word was first introduced after the Norman +Conquest as the equivalent of the old English “shire,” which has +survived as its synonym, though occasionally also applied to +divisions smaller than counties, <i>e.g.</i> Norhamshire, Hexhamshire +and Hallamshire. The word “county” is also sometimes used, +alternatively with “countship,” to translate foreign words, +<i>e.g.</i> the French <i>comté</i> and the German <i>Grafschaft</i>, which connote +the territorial jurisdiction of a count (<i>q.v.</i>). The present article +is confined to a sketch of the origin and development of English +counties, which have served in a greater or less degree as the +model for the county organizations in the various countries of the +English-speaking world which are described under their proper +headings.</p> + +<p>About one-third of the English counties represent ancient +kingdoms, sub-kingdoms or tribal divisions, such as Kent, +Sussex, Norfolk, Devon; but most of the remaining counties +take their names from some important town within their respective +boundaries. The counties to the south of the Thames +(except Cornwall) already existed in the time of Alfred, but those +of the midlands seem to have been created during the reign of +Edward the Elder (901-925) and to have been artificially +bounded areas lying around some stronghold which became a +centre of civil and military administration. There is reason, +however, for thinking that the counties of Bedford, Cambridge, +Huntingdon and Northampton are of Danish origin. +Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmorland were not +recognized as English counties until some time after the Norman +Conquest, the last two definitely appearing as fiscal areas in 1177. +The origin of Rutland as a county is obscure, but it had its own +sheriff in 1154.</p> + +<p>In the period preceding the Norman Conquest two officers +appear at the head of the county organization. These are the +ealdorman or earl, and the <i>scirgerefa</i> or sheriff. The shires of +Wessex appear each to have had an ealdorman, whose duties +were to command its military forces, to preside over the county +assembly (<i>scirgemot</i>), to carry out the laws and to execute +justice. The name ealdorman gave way to that of earl, probably +under Danish influence, in the first half of the 11th century, and +it is probable that the office of sheriff came into existence in the +reign of Canute (1017-1035), when the great earldoms were +formed and it was no longer possible for the earl to perform his +various administrative duties in person in a group of counties. +After the Norman Conquest the earl was occasionally appointed +sheriff of his county, but in general his only official connexion +with it was to receive the third penny of its pleas, and the +earldom ceased to be an office and became merely a title. In the +12th century the office of coroner was created, two or more of +them being chosen in the county court as vacancies occurred. +In the same century verderers were first chosen in the same +manner for the purpose of holding inquisitions on vert and +venison in those counties which contained royal forests. It was +the business of the sheriff (<i>vicecomes</i>) as the king’s representative +to serve and return all writs, to levy distresses on the king’s +behalf, to execute all royal precepts and to collect the king’s +revenue. In this work he was assisted by a large staff of clerks +and bailiffs who were directly responsible to him and not to the +king. The sheriff also commanded the armed forces of the crown +within his county, and either in person or by deputy presided +over the county court which was now held monthly in most +counties. In 1300 it was enacted that the sheriffs might be +chosen by the county, except in Worcestershire, Cornwall, +Rutland, Westmorland and Lancashire, where there were then +sheriffs in fee, that is, sheriffs who held their offices hereditarily +by royal grant. The elective arrangement was of no long +duration, and it was finally decided in 1340 that the sheriffs +should be appointed by the chancellor, the treasurer and the +chief baron of the exchequer, but should hold office for one year +only. The county was from an early period regarded as a +community, and approached the king as a corporate body, while +in later times petitions were presented through the knights of the +shire. It was also an organic whole for the purpose of the +conservation of the peace. The assessment of taxation by +commissioners appointed by the county court developed in the +13th century into the representation of the county by two knights +of the shire elected by the county court to serve in parliament, +and this representation continued unaltered save for a short +period during the Protectorate, until 1832, when many of the +counties received a much larger representation, which was still +further increased by later acts.</p> + +<p>The royal control over the county was strengthened from the +14th century onward by the appointment of justices of the peace. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span> +This system was further developed under the Tudors, while in the +middle of the 16th century the military functions of the sheriff +were handed over to a new officer, the lord-lieutenant, who is now +more prominently associated with the headship of the county +than is the sheriff. The lord-lieutenant now usually holds the +older office of <i>custos rotulorum</i>, or keeper of the records of the +county. The justices of the peace are appointed upon his +nomination, and until lately he appointed the clerk of the peace. +The latter appointment is now made by the joint committee of +quarter sessions and county council.</p> + +<p>The Tudor system of local government received little alteration +until the establishment of county councils by the Local Government +Act of 1888 handed over to an elected body many of the +functions previously exercised by the nominated justices of the +peace. For the purposes of this act the ridings of Yorkshire, the +divisions of Lincolnshire, east and west Sussex, east and west +Suffolk, the soke of Peterborough and the Isle of Ely are regarded +as counties, so that there are now sixty administrative counties +of England and Wales. Between 1373 and 1692 the crown +granted to certain cities and boroughs the privilege of being +counties of themselves. There were in 1835 eighteen of these +counties corporate, Bristol, Chester, Coventry, Gloucester, +Lincoln, Norwich, Nottingham, York and Carmarthen, each of +which had two sheriffs, and Canterbury, Exeter, Hull, Lichfield, +Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Poole, Southampton, Worcester and +Haverfordwest, each of which had one sheriff. All these +boroughs, with the exception of Carmarthen, Lichfield, Poole and +Haverfordwest, which remain counties of themselves, and forty-seven +others, were created county boroughs by the Local Government +Act 1888, and are entirely dissociated from the control of +a county council. The City of London is also a county of itself, +whose two sheriffs are also sheriffs of Middlesex, while for the +purposes of the act of 1888 the house-covered district which +extends for many miles round the City constitutes a county.</p> + +<p>The county has always been the unit for the organization of the +militia, and from about 1782 certain regiments of the regular +army were associated with particular counties by territorial +titles. The army scheme of 1907-1908 provided for the formation +of county associations under the presidency of the lords-lieutenant +for the organization of the new territorial army.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Statutes of the Realm</i>; W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History of +England</i> (1874-1878); F. W. Maitland, <i>Domesday Book and Beyond</i> +(1897); Sir F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, <i>History of English Law</i> +(1895); H. M. Chadwick, <i>Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions</i> (1905), +and <i>The Victoria History of the Counties of England</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. J. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUNTY COURT,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> in England, a local court of civil jurisdiction. +The county court, it has been said, is at once the most ancient +and the most modern of English civil tribunals. The Saxon +Curia Comitatus, maintained after the Norman Conquest, was a +local court and a small debts court. It was instituted by Alfred +the Great, its jurisdiction embracing civil, and, until the reign of +William I., ecclesiastical matters. The officers of the court +consisted of the earldorman, the bishop and the sheriff. The +court was held once in every four weeks, being presided over by +the earl, or, in his absence, the sheriff. The suitors of the court, +<i>i.e.</i> the freeholders, were the judges, the sheriff being simply +a presiding officer, pronouncing and afterwards executing the +judgment of the court. The court was not one of record. The +appointment of judges of assize in the reign of Henry II., as well +as the expensive and dilatory procedure of the court, brought +about its gradual disuse, and other local courts, termed courts +of request or of conscience, were established. These, in turn, +proved unsatisfactory, owing both to the limited nature of their +jurisdiction (restricted to causes of debt not exceeding 40s. in +value, and to the fact that they were confined to particular places). +Accordingly, with the view of making justice cheaper and more +accessible the County Courts Act 1846 was passed. This act had +the modest title of “An Act for the Recovery of Small Debts and +Demands in England.” The original limit of the jurisdiction of +the new courts was £20, extended in 1850 to £50 in actions of +debt, and in 1903 (by an act which came into force in 1905) +to £100. Thirteen amending acts were passed, by which new +jurisdiction was from time to time conferred on the county +courts, and in the year 1888 an act was passed repealing the +previous acts and consolidating their provisions, with some +amendment. This is now the code or charter of the county courts.</p> + +<p>The grain of mustard-seed sown in 1846 has grown into a +goodly tree, with branches extending over the whole of England +and Wales; and they embrace within their ambit a more +multifarious jurisdiction than is possessed by any other courts +in the kingdom. England and Wales were mapped out into 59 +circuits (not including the city of London), with power for the +crown, by order in council, to abolish any circuit and rearrange +the areas comprised in the circuits (sec. 4). There is one +judge to each circuit, but the lord chancellor is empowered to +appoint two judges in a circuit, provided that the total number of +judges does not exceed 60. The salary of a county court judge +was originally fixed at £1200, but he now receives £1500. He +must at the time of his appointment be a barrister-at-law of at +least seven years’ standing, and not more than sixty years of age; +after appointment he cannot sit as a member of parliament or +practise at the bar.</p> + +<p>Every circuit (except in Birmingham, Clerkenwell, and Westminster) +is divided into districts, in each of which there is a +court, with a registrar and bailiffs. The judges are directed to +attend and hold a court in each district at least once in every +month, unless the lord chancellor shall otherwise direct (secs. +10, 11). But in practice the judge sits several times a month in +the large centres of population, and less frequently than once a +month in the court town of sparsely inhabited districts. By sec. +185 of the act of 1888 the judges and officers of the city of London +court have the like jurisdiction, powers, and authority as those of +a county court, and the county court rules apply to that court.</p> + +<p>The ordinary jurisdiction of the county courts may be thus +tabulated:—</p> + +<table class="reg" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc">Subject matter.</td> <td class="tccm" style="white-space: nowrap;">Pecuniary limit<br />of jurisdiction.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Common-law actions, with written consent of both parties</td> <td class="tccb">Unlimited.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Actions founded on contract (except for breach of +promise of marriage, in which the county courts +have no jurisdiction)</td> <td class="tccb">£100.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Actions founded on tort (except libel, slander, and +seduction, in which the county courts have no jurisdiction)</td> <td class="tccb">£100.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Counter claims (unless plaintiff gives written notice +of objection)</td> <td class="tccb">Unlimited.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Ejectment or questions of title to reality</td> <td class="tccb">£100 annual value.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Equity jurisdiction</td> <td class="tccb">£500.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Probate jurisdiction</td> <td class="tccb" style="white-space: nowrap;">£200 personalty<br />and £300 realty.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Admiralty jurisdiction</td> <td class="tccb">£300.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Bankruptcy jurisdiction</td> <td class="tccb">Unlimited.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Replevin</td> <td class="tccb">Unlimited.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Interpleader transferred from High Court</td> <td class="tccb">£500.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Actions in contract transferred from High Court</td> <td class="tccb">£100.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Actions in tort transferred from High Court</td> <td class="tccb">Unlimited.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Companies (winding up), when the paid-up capital +does not exceed</td> <td class="tccb">£10,000.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>There is no discoverable principle upon which these limits of the +jurisdiction of the county courts have been determined. But +the above table is not by any means an exhaustive statement of +the jurisdiction of the county courts. For many years it has been +the practice of parliament to throw on the county court judges +the duty of acting as judges or arbitrators for the purpose of new +legislation relating to social subjects. It is impossible to classify +the many statutes which have been passed since 1846 and which +confer some jurisdiction, apart from that under the County Courts +Act, on county courts or their judges. Some of these acts +impose exceptional duties on the judges of the county courts, +others confer unlimited jurisdiction concurrently with the High +Court or some other court, others, again, confer limited or, +sometimes, exclusive jurisdiction. A list of all the acts will be +found in the <i>Annual County Courts Practice</i>. A county court +judge may determine all matters of fact as well as law, but a jury +may be summoned at the option of either plaintiff or defendant +when the amount in dispute exceeds £5, and in actions under £5 +the judge may in his discretion, on application of either of the +parties, order that the action be tried by jury. The number of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>318</span> +jurymen impanelled and sworn at the trial was, by the County +Courts Act 1903, increased from five to eight.</p> + +<p>There is an appeal from the county courts on matters of law +to a divisional court of the High Court, <i>i.e.</i> to the admiralty +division in admiralty cases and to the king’s bench division in +other cases (sec. 120 of act of 1888). The determination of the +divisional court is final, unless leave be given by that court or +the court of appeal (Judicature Acts 1894). (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Appeal</a></span>.) +In proceedings under the Workmen’s Compensation Act the +appeal from a county court judge is to the court of appeal, with +a subsequent appeal to the House of Lords. In 1908 a Committee +was appointed by the lord chancellor “to inquire into certain +matters of county court procedure.” The committee presented +a report in 1909 (H.C. 71), recommending the extension of +existing county court jurisdiction, but a bill introduced to give +effect to the recommendations was not proceeded with.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Annual County Courts Practice</i>, also “Fifty Years of the +English County Courts,” by County Court Judge Sir T. W. Snagge, +in <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, October 1897.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUPÉ<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (French for “cut off”), a small closed carriage of the +brougham type, with four wheels and seats for two persons; +the term is also used of the front compartment on a <i>diligence</i> or +mail-coach on the continent of Europe, and of a compartment in a +railway carriage with seats on one side only.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUPLET,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a pair of lines of verse, which are welded together +by an identity of rhyme. The <i>New English Dict.</i> derives the use +of the word from the French <i>couplet</i>, signifying two pieces of +iron riveted or hinged together. In rhymed verse two lines +which complete a meaning in themselves are particularly known +as a couplet. Thus, in Pope’s <i>Eloisa to Abelard</i>:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Speed the soft intercourse from soul to soul,</p> +<p class="i05">And waft a sigh from Indus to the Pole.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">In much of old English dramatic literature, when the mass of the +composition is in blank verse or even in prose, particular emphasis +is given by closing the scene in a couplet. Thus, in the last act +of Beaumont and Fletcher’s <i>Thierry and Theodoret</i> the action +culminates in an unexpected rhyme:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“And now lead on; they that shall read this story</p> +<p class="i05">Shall find that virtue lives in good, not glory.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">In French literature, the term couplet is not confined to a pair of +lines, but is commonly used for a stanza. A “square” couplet, +in French, for instance, is a strophe of eight lines, each composed +of eight syllables. In this sense it is employed to distinguish the +more emphatic parts of a species of verse which is essentially gay, +graceful and frivolous, such as the songs in a vaudeville or a +comic opera. In the 18th century, Le Sage, Piron and even +Voltaire did not hesitate to engage their talents on the production +of couplets, which were often witty, if they had no other merit, +and were well fitted to catch the popular ear. This signification +of the word <i>couplet</i> is not unknown in England, but it is not +customary; it is probably used in a stricter and a more technical +sense to describe a pair of rhymed lines, whether serious or merry. +The normal type, as it may almost be called, of English versification +is the metre of ten-syllabled rhymed lines designated as +<i>heroic couplet</i>. This form of iambic verse, with five beats to each +line, is believed to have been invented by Chaucer, who employs +it first in the Prologue <i>The Legend of Good Women</i> the +composition of which is attributed to the year 1385. That poem +opens with the couplet:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“A thousand times have I heard man tell</p> +<p class="i05">That there is joy in heaven and pain in hell.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">This is an absolutely correct example of the heroic couplet, +which ultimately reached such majesty in the hands of Dryden +and such brilliancy in those of Pope. It has been considered +proper for didactic, descriptive and satirical poetry, although in +the course of the 19th century blank verse largely took its place. +Epigram often selects the couplet as the vehicle of its sharpened +arrows, as in Sir John Harington’s</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Treason doth never prosper: what’s the reason?</p> +<p class="i05">Why, if it prosper, none dare call it treason.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUPON<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>couper</i>, to cut), a certificate entitling its +owner to some payment, share or other benefit; more specifically, +one of a series of interest certificates or dividend warrants +attached to a bond running for a number of years. The word +coupon (a piece cut off) possesses an etymological meaning so +comprehensive that, while on the Stock Exchange it is only used +to denote such an interest certificate or a certificate of stock +of a joint-stock company, it may be as suitably, and elsewhere +is perhaps more frequently, applied to tickets sold by tourist +agencies and others. The coupons by means of which the interest +on a bond or debenture is collected are generally printed at the +side or foot of that document, to be cut off and presented for +payment at the bank or agency named on them as they become +due. The last portion, called a “talon,” is a form of certificate, +and entitles the holder, when all the coupons have been presented, +to obtain a fresh coupon sheet. They pass by delivery, and are as +a rule exempt from stamp duty. Coupons for the payment of +dividends are also attached to the share warrants to bearer +issued by some joint-stock companies. The coupons on the +bonds of most of the principal foreign loans are payable in +London in sterling as well as abroad.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURANTE<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (a French word derived from <i>courir</i>, to run), a +dance in 3-2 time march in vogue in France in the 17th century +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dance</a></span>). It is also a musical term for a movement or +independent piece based on the dance. In a <i>suite</i> it followed the +Allemande (<i>q.v.</i>), with which it is contrasted in rhythm.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURAYER, PIERRE FRANÇOIS LE<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1681-1776), French +Roman Catholic theological writer, was born at Rouen on the +17th of November 1681. While canon regular and librarian of +the abbey of St Geneviève at Paris, he conducted a correspondence +with Archbishop Wake on the subject of episcopal succession +in England, which supplied him with material for his work, +<i>Dissertation sur la validité des ordinations des Anglais et sur la +succession des évêques de l’Église anglicane, avec les preuves +justificatives des faits avancés</i> (Brussels, 1723; Eng. trans. by +D. Williams, London, 1725; reprinted Oxford, 1844, with +memoir of the author), an attempt to prove that there has been +no break in the line of ordination from the apostles to the English +clergy. His opinions exposed him to a prosecution, and with the +help of Bishop Atterbury, then in exile in Paris, he took refuge +in England, where he was presented by the university of Oxford +with a doctor’s degree. In 1736 he published a French translation +of Paolo Sarpi’s <i>History of the Council of Trent</i>, and dedicated +it to Queen Caroline, from whom he received a pension of £200 a +year. Besides this he translated Sleidan’s <i>History of the Reformation</i>, +and wrote several theological works. He died in London on +the 17th of October 1776, and was buried in the cloisters of +Westminster Abbey. In his will, dated two years before his +death, he declared himself still a member of the Roman Catholic +Church, although dissenting from many of its opinions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURBET, GUSTAVE<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1819-1877), French painter, was born +at Ornans (Doubs) on the 10th of June 1819. He went to Paris +in 1839, and worked at the studio of Steuben and Hesse; but +his independent spirit did not allow him to remain there long, as +he preferred to work out his own way by the study of Spanish, +Flemish and French painters. His first works, an “Odalisque,” +suggested by Victor Hugo, and a “Lélia,” illustrating George +Sand, were literary subjects; but these he soon abandoned for +the study of real life. Among other works he painted his own +portrait with his dog, and “The Man with a Pipe,” both of which +were rejected by the jury of the Salon; but the younger school of +critics, the neo-romantics and realists, loudly sang the praises of +Courbet, who by 1849 began to be famous, producing such pictures +as “After Dinner at Ornans” and “The Valley of the Loire.” +The Salon of 1850 found him triumphant with the “Burial at +Ornans,” the “Stone-Breakers” and the “Peasants of Flazey.” +His style still gained in individuality, as in “Village Damsels” +(1852), the “Wrestlers,” “Bathers,” and “A Girl Spinning” +(1852). Though Courbet’s realistic work is not devoid of importance, +it is as a landscape and sea painter that he will be most +honoured by posterity. Sometimes, it must be owned, his +realism is rather coarse and brutal, but when he paints the +forests of Franche-Comté, the “Stag-Fight,” “The Wave,” or +the “Haunt of the Does,” he is inimitable. When Courbet had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>319</span> +made a name as an artist he grew ambitious of other glory; he +tried to promote democratic and social science, and under the +Empire he wrote essays and dissertations. His refusal of the +cross of the Legion of Honour, offered to him by Napoleon III., +made him immensely popular, and in 1871 he was elected, +under the Commune, to the chamber. Thus it happened that he +was responsible for the destruction of the Vendôme column. A +council of war, before which he was tried, condemned him to pay +the cost of restoring the column, 300,000 francs (£12,000). To +escape the necessity of working to the end of his days at the orders +of the State in order to pay this sum, Courbet went to Switzerland +in 1873, and died at La Tour du Peilz, on the 31st of +December 1877, of a disease of the liver aggravated by intemperance. +An exhibition of his works was held in 1882 at the École +des Beaux-Arts.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Champfleury, <i>Les Grandes Figures d’hier et d’aujourd’ hui</i> (Paris, +1861); Mantz, “G. Courbet,” <i>Gaz. des beaux-arts</i> (Paris, 1878); +Zola, <i>Mes Haines</i> (Paris, 1879); C. Lemonnier, <i>Les Peintres de la +Vie</i> (Paris, 1888).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Fr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURBEVOIE,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the department +of Seine, 5 m. W.N.W. of Paris on the railway to Versailles. +Pop. (1906) 29,339. It is a residential suburb of Paris, and +has a fine avenue opening on the Neuilly bridge, and forming +with it a continuation of the Champs Elysées. It carries on +bleaching and the manufacture of carriage bodies, awnings, drugs, +biscuits, &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURCELLE-SENEUIL, JEAN GUSTAVE<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1813-1892), +French economist, was born at Seneuil (Dordogne) on the 22nd of +December 1813. Seneuil was an additional name adopted from +his native place. Devoting himself at first to the study of the +law, he was called to the French bar in 1835. Soon after, however, +he returned to Dordogne and settled down as a manager of ironworks. +He found leisure to study economic and political +questions, and was a frequent contributor to the republican +papers. On the establishment of the second republic in 1848 he +became director of the public domains. After the <i>coup d’état</i> of +Napoleon III. in 1851 he went to South America, and held the +professorship of political economy at the National Institute of +Santiago, in Chile, from 1853 to 1863, when he returned to France. +In 1879 he was made a councillor of state, and in 1882 was elected +a member of the <i>Académie des sciences morales et politiques</i>. He +died at Paris on the 29th of June 1892. Courcelle-Seneuil, as an +economist, was strongly inclined towards the liberal school, and +was equally partial to the historical and experimental methods; +but his best energies were directed to applied economy and +social questions. His principal work is <i>Traité théorique et +pratique d’économie politique</i> (2 vols., 1858); among his others +may be mentioned <i>Traité théorique et pratique des opérations de +banque</i> (1853); <i>Études sur la science sociale</i> (1862); <i>La Banque +libre</i> (1867); <i>Liberté et socialisme</i> (1868); <i>Protection et libre +échange</i> (1879); he also translated into French John Stuart +Mill’s <i>Principles</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURCI, JOHN DE<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (d. 1219?), Anglo-Norman conqueror of +Ulster, was a member of a celebrated Norman family of Oxfordshire +and Somersetshire, whose parentage is unknown, and +around whose career a mass of legend has grown up. It would +appear that he accompanied William Fitz-Aldelm to Ireland +when the latter, after the death of Strongbow, was sent thither +by Henry II., and that he immediately headed an expedition from +Dublin to Ulster, where he took Downpatrick, the capital of the +northern kingdom. After some years of desultory fighting de +Courci established his power over that part of Ulster comprised +in the modern counties of Antrim and Down, throughout which +he built a number of castles, where his vassals, known as “the +barons of Ulster,” held sway over the native tribes. After the +accession of Richard I., de Courci in conjunction with William +de Lacy appears in some way to have offended the king by his +proceedings in Ireland. De Lacy quickly made his peace with +Richard, while de Courci defied him; and the subsequent history +of the latter consisted mainly in the vicissitudes of a lasting feud +with the de Lacys. In 1204 Hugh de Lacy utterly defeated de +Courci in battle, and took him prisoner. De Courci, however, +soon obtained his liberty, probably by giving hostages as security +for a promise of submission which he failed to carry out, seeking +an asylum instead with the O’Neills of Tyrone. He again +appeared in arms on hearing that Hugh de Lacy had obtained a +grant of Ulster with the title of earl; and in alliance with the +king of Man he ravaged the territory of Down; but was completely +routed by Walter de Lacy, and disappeared from the scene +till 1207, when he obtained permission to return to England. In +1210 he was in favour with King John, from whom he received a +pension, and whom he accompanied to Ireland. There is some +indication of his having sided with John in his struggle with the +barons; but of the later history of de Courci little is known. +He probably died in the summer of 1219. Both de Courci and his +wife Affreca were benefactors of the church, and founded several +abbeys and priories in Ulster.</p> + +<p>A story is told that de Courci when imprisoned in the Tower +volunteered to act as champion for King John in single combat +against a knight representing Philip Augustus of France; that +when he appeared in the lists his French opponent fled in panic; +whereupon de Courci, to gratify the French king’s desire to +witness his prowess, “cleft a massive helmet in twain at a single +blow,” a feat for which he was rewarded by a grant of the +privilege for himself and his heirs to remain covered in the +presence of the king and all future sovereigns of England. This +tale, which still finds a place in Burke’s <i>Peerage</i> in the account +of the baron Kingsale, a descendant of the de Courci family, is a +legend without historic foundation which did not obtain currency +till centuries after John de Courci’s death. The statement that +he was created earl of Ulster, and that he was thus “the first +Englishman dignified with an Irish title of honour,” is equally +devoid of foundation. John de Courci left no legitimate +children.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. H. Round’s art. “Courci, John de,” in <i>Dictionary of National +Biography</i>, vol. xii. (London, 1887), to which is added a bibliography +of the original and later authorities for the life of de Courci.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURIER, PAUL LOUIS<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1773-1825), French Hellenist and +political writer, was born in Paris on the 4th of January 1773. +Brought up on his father’s estate of Méré in Touraine, he conceived +a bitter aversion for the nobility, which seemed to +strengthen with time. He would never take the name “de Méré,” +to which he was entitled, lest he should be thought a nobleman. +At the age of fifteen he was sent to Paris to complete his education; +his father’s teaching had already inspired him with a +passionate devotion to Greek literature, and although he showed +considerable mathematical ability, he continued to devote all his +leisure to the classics. He entered the school of artillery at +Châlons, however, and immediately on receiving his appointment +as sub-lieutenant in September 1793 he joined the army of the +Rhine. He served in various campaigns of the Revolutionary +wars, especially in those of Italy in 1798-99 and 1806-7, and in +the German campaign of 1809. He became <i>chef d’escadron</i> in +1803.</p> + +<p>He made his first appearance as an author in 1802, when he +contributed to the <i>Magasin encyclopédique</i> a critique on Johannes +Schweighäuser’s edition of Athenaeus. In the following year +appeared his <i>Éloge d’Hélène</i>, a free imitation rather than a +translation from Isocrates, which he had sketched in 1798. +Courier had given up his commission in the autumn of 1808, but +the general enthusiasm in Paris over the preparations for the new +campaign affected him, and he attached himself to the staff of a +general of artillery. But he was horror-struck by the carnage at +Wagram (1809), refusing from that time to believe that there was +any art in war. He hastily quitted Vienna, escaping the formal +charge of desertion because his new appointment had not been +confirmed. The savage independence of his nature rendered +subordination intolerable to him; he had been three times +disgraced for absenting himself without leave, and his superiors +resented his satirical humour. After leaving the army he went +to Florence, and was fortunate enough to discover in the +Laurentian Library a complete manuscript of Longus’s <i>Daphnis +and Chloe</i>, an edition of which he published in 1810. In consequence +of a misadventure—blotting the manuscript—he was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>320</span> +involved in a quarrel with the librarian, and was compelled by +the government to leave Tuscany. He retired to his estate +at Véretz (Indre-et-Loire), but frequently visited Paris, and +divided his attention between literature and his farm.</p> + +<p>After the second restoration of the Bourbons the career of +Courier as political pamphleteer began. He had before this time +waged war against local wrongs in his own district, and had been +the adviser and helpful friend of his neighbours. He now made +himself by his letters and pamphlets one of the most dreaded +opponents of the government of the Restoration. The first of +these was his <i>Pétition aux deux chambres</i> (1816), exposing the +sufferings of the peasantry under the royalist reaction. In 1817 +he was a candidate for a vacant seat in the Institute; and +failing, he took his revenge by publishing a bitter <i>Lettre à Messieurs +de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres</i> (1819). This was +followed (1819-1820) by a series of political letters of extraordinary +power published in <i>Le Censeur Européen</i>. He advocated +a liberal monarchy, at the head of which he doubtless wished to +see Louis Philippe. The proposal, in 1821, to purchase the +estate of Chambord for the duke of Bordeaux called forth from +Courier the <i>Simple Discours de Paul Louis, vigneron de la +Chavonnière</i>, one of his best pieces. For this he was tried and +condemned to suffer a short imprisonment and to pay a fine. +Before he went to prison he published a <i>compte rendu</i> of his trial, +which had a still larger circulation than the Discours itself. In +1823 appeared the <i>Livret de Paul Louis</i>, the <i>Gazette de village</i>, +followed in 1824 by his famous <i>Pamphlet des pamphlets</i>, called +by his biographer, Armand Carrel, his swan-song. Courier published +in 1807 his translation from Xenophon, <i>Du commandement +de la cavalerie et de l’équitation</i>, and had a share in editing +the <i>Collections des romans grecs</i>. He also projected a translation +of Herodotus, and published a specimen, in which he attempted +to imitate archaic French; but he did not live to carry out +this plan. In the autumn of 1825, on a Sunday afternoon +(August 18th), Courier was found shot in a wood near his house. +The murderers, who were servants of his own, remained undiscovered +for five years.</p> + +<p>The writings of Courier, dealing with the facts and events of +his own time, are valuable sources of information as to the +condition of France before, during, and after the Revolution. +Sainte-Beuve finds in Courier’s own words, “peu de matière et +beaucoup d’art,” the secret and device of his talent, which gives +his writings a value independent of the somewhat ephemeral +subject-matter.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A <i>Collection complète des pamphlets politiques et opuscules littéraires +de P. L. Courier</i> appeared in 1826. See editions of his <i>Œuvres</i> (1848), +with an admirable biography by Armand Carrel, which is reproduced +in a later edition, with a supplementary criticism by F. Sarcey (1876-1877); +also three notices by Sainte-Beuve in the <i>Causeries du lundi</i> +and the <i>Nouveaux Lundis</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURIER<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (from the O. Fr. <i>courier</i>, modern <i>courrier</i>, from Lat. +<i>currere</i>, to run), properly a running messenger, who carried +despatches and letters; a system of couriers, mounted or on +foot, formed the beginnings of the modern post-office (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Post</a></span>, +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Postal Service</a></span>). The despatches which pass between the +foreign office and its representatives abroad, and which cannot +be entrusted to the postal service or the telegraph, are carried by +special couriers, styled, in the British service, King’s Messengers. +“Courier,” more particularly, is applied to a travelling attendant, +whose duties are to arrange for the carrying of the luggage, +obtaining of passports, settling of hotel accommodation, and +generally to look to the comfort and facility of travel. The +name “courier” and the similar word “<i>courant</i>” (Ital. <i>coranto</i>) +have often been used as the title of a newspaper or periodical (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Newspapers</a></span>); the <i>Courier</i>, founded in 1792, was for some time +the leading London journal.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURLAND,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kurland</span>, one of the Baltic provinces of +Russia, lying between 55° 45′ and 57° 45′ N. and 21° and 27° E. +It is bounded on the N.E. by the river Dvina, separating it from +the governments of Vitebsk and Livonia, N. by the Gulf of Riga, +W. by the Baltic, and S. by the province of East Prussia and the +Russian government of Kovno. The area is 10,535 sq. m., of +which 101 sq. m. are occupied by lakes. The surface is generally +low and undulating, and the coast-lands flat and marshy. The +interior is characterized by wooded dunes, covered with pine, fir, +birch and oak, with swamps and lakes, and fertile patches +between. The surface nowhere rises more than 700 ft. above sea-level. +The Mitau plain divides it into two parts, of which the +western is fertile and thickly inhabited, except in the north, +while the eastern is less fertile and thinly inhabited. One-third +of the area is still forest.</p> + +<p>Courland is drained by nearly one hundred rivers, of which +only three, the Dvina, the Aa and the Windau, are navigable. +They all flow north-westwards and discharge into the Baltic +Sea. Owing to the numerous lakes and marshes, the climate is +damp and often foggy, as well as changeable, and the winter is +severe. Agriculture is the chief occupation, the principal crops +being rye, barley, oats, wheat, flax and potatoes. The land is +mostly owned by nobles of German descent. In 1863 laws were +issued to enable the Letts, who form the bulk of the population, +to acquire the farms which they held, and special banks were +founded to help them. By this means some 12,000 farms were +bought by their occupants; but the great mass of the population +are still landless, and live as hired labourers, occupying a low +position in the social scale. On the large estates agriculture is +conducted with skill and scientific knowledge. Fruit grows well. +Excellent breeds of cattle, sheep and pigs are kept. Libau and +Mitau are the principal industrial centres, with iron-works, +agricultural machinery works, tanneries, glass and soap works. +Flax spinning is mostly a domestic industry. Iron and limestone +are the chief minerals; a little amber is found on the coast. +The only seaports are Libau, Windau and Polangen, there being +none on the Courland coast of the Gulf of Riga. The population +was 619,154 in 1870; 674,437 in 1897, of whom 345,756 were +women; 714,200 (estimate) in 1906. Of the whole, 79% are +Letts, 8¼% Germans, 1.7% Russians, and 1% each Poles and +Lithuanians. In addition there are about 8% Jews and some +Lives. The chief towns of the ten districts are Mitau (Doblenskiy +district), capital of the government (pop. 35,011 in 1897), +Bauske (6543), Friedrichstadt (5223), Goldingen (9733), Grobin +(1489), Hasenpoth (3338), Illuxt (2340), Talsen (6215), Tuckum +(7542) and Windau (7132). The prevailing religion is the +Lutheran, to which 76% of the population belong; the rest +belong to the Orthodox Eastern and the Roman Catholic +churches.</p> + +<p>Anciently Courland was inhabited by the Cours or Kurs, a +Lettish tribe, who were subdued and converted to Christianity +by the Brethren of the Sword, a German military order, in the +first quarter of the 13th century. In 1237 it passed under the +rule of the Teutonic Knights owing to the amalgamation of this +order with that of the Brethren of the Sword. At that time it +comprised the two duchies of Courland and Semgallen. Under +the increasing pressure of Russia (Muscovy) the Teutonic Knights +in 1561 found it expedient to put themselves under the suzerainty +of Poland, the grandmaster Gotthard Kettler (d. 1587) becoming +the first duke of Courland. The duchy suffered severely in the +Russo-Swedish wars of 1700-9. But by the marriage in 1710 +of Kettler’s descendant, Duke Frederick William (d. 1711), to the +princess Anne, niece of Peter the Great and afterwards empress +of Russia, Courland came into close relation with the latter state +Anne being duchess of Courland from 1711 to 1730. The +celebrated Marshal Saxe was elected duke in 1726, but only +managed to maintain himself by force of arms till the next year. +The last Kettler, William, titular duke of Courland, died in 1737, +and the empress Anne now bestowed the dignity on her favourite +Biren, who held it from 1737 to 1740 and again from 1763 till his +death in 1772. During nearly the whole of the 18th century +Courland, devastated by continual wars, was a shuttlecock +between Russia and Poland; until eventually in 1795 the +assembly of the nobles placed it under the Russian sceptre. +The Baltic provinces—Esthonia, Livonia and Courland—ceased +to form collectively one general government in 1876.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Hollmann, <i>Kurlands Agrarverhältnisse</i> (Riga, 1893), and +E. Seraphim, <i>Geschichte Liv-, Esth-, und Kurlands</i> (2 vols., Reval, +1895-1896).</p> +</div> + + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>321</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">COURNOT, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1801-1877), French +economist and mathematician, was born at Gray (Haute-Saône) +on the 28th of August 1801. Trained for the scholastic profession, +he was appointed assistant professor at the Academy of +Paris in 1831, professor of mathematics at Lyons in 1834, rector of +the Academy of Grenoble in 1835, inspector-general of studies in +1838, rector of the Academy of Dijon and honorary inspector-general +in 1854, retiring in 1862. He died in Paris on the 31st of +March 1877. Cournot was the first who, with a competent +knowledge of both subjects, endeavoured to apply mathematics +to the treatment of economic questions. His <i>Recherches sur les +principes mathématiques de la théorie des richesses</i> (English trans. +by N. T. Bacon, with bibliography of mathematics of economics +by Irving Fisher, 1897) was published in 1838. He mentions +in it only one previous enterprise of the same kind (though +there had in fact been others)—that, namely, of Nicholas +François Canard (c. 1750-1833), whose book, <i>Principes d’économie +politique</i> (Paris, 1802), was crowned by the French Academy, +though “its principles were radically false as well as erroneously +applied.” Notwithstanding Cournot’s just reputation as a +writer on mathematics, the <i>Recherches</i> made little impression. +The truth seems to be that his results are in some cases of little +importance, in others of questionable correctness, and that, in +the abstractions to which he has recourse in order to facilitate his +calculations, an essential part of the real conditions of the +problem is sometimes omitted. His pages abound in symbols +representing unknown functions, the form of the function being +left to be ascertained by observation of facts, which he does not +regard as a part of his task, or only some known properties of +the undetermined function being used as bases for deduction. +In his <i>Principes de la théorie des richesses</i> (1863) he abandoned +the mathematical method, though advocating the use of mathematical +symbols in economic discussions, as being of service in +facilitating exposition. Other works of Cournot’s were <i>Traité +élémentaire de la théorie des fonctions et du calcul infinitésimal</i> +(1841); <i>Exposition de la théorie des chances et des probabilités</i> +(1843); <i>De l’origine et des limites de la correspondance entre +l’algèbre et la géométrie</i> (1847); <i>Traité de l’enchaînement des idées +fondamentales dans les sciences et dans l’histoire</i> (1861); and <i>Revue +sommaire des doctrines économiques</i> (1877).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURSING<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>cursus</i>, <i>currere</i>, to run), the hunting of +game by dogs solely by sight and not by scent. From time to +time the sport has been pursued by various nations against +various animals, but the recognized method has generally been +the coursing of the hare by greyhounds. Such sport is of great +antiquity, and is fully described by Arrian in his <i>Cynegeticus</i> +about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 150, when the leading features appear to have been +much the same as in the present day. Other Greek and Latin +authors refer to the sport; but during the middle ages it was but +little heard of. Apart from private coursing for the sake of +filling the pot with game, public coursing has become an exhilarating +sport. The private sportsman seldom possesses good strains +of blood to breed his greyhounds from or has such opportunities +of trying them as the public courser.</p> + +<p>The first known set of rules in England for determining the +merits of a course were drawn up by Thomas, duke of Norfolk, in +Queen Elizabeth’s reign; but no open trials were heard of until +half a century later, in the time of Charles I. The oldest regular +coursing club of which any record exists is that of Swaffham, in +Norfolk, which was founded by Lord Orford in 1766; and in +1780 the Ashdown Park (Berkshire) meeting was established. +During the next seventy years many other large and influential +societies sprang up throughout England and Scotland, the +Altcar Club (on the Sefton estates, near Liverpool) being founded +in 1825. The season lasts about six months, beginning in the +middle of September. It was not until 1858 that a coursing +parliament, so to speak, was formed, and a universally accepted +code of rules drawn up. In that year the National Coursing Club +was founded. It is composed of representatives from all clubs in +the United Kingdom of more than a year’s standing, and possessing +more than twenty-four members. Their rules govern +meetings, and their committee adjudicate on matters of dispute. +A comparative trial of two dogs, and not the capture of the game +pursued, is the great distinctive trait of modern coursing. A +greyhound stud-book was started in 1882.</p> + +<p>The breeding and training of a successful kennel is a precarious +matter; and the most unaccountable ups and downs of fortune +often occur in a courser’s career. At a meeting an agreed-on +even number of entries are made for each stake, and the ties +drawn by lot. After the first round the winner of the first tie is +opposed to the winner of the second, and so on until the last two +dogs left in compete for victory; but the same owner’s greyhounds +are “guarded” as far as it is possible to do so. A staff +of beaters drive the hares out of their coverts or other hiding-places, +whilst the slipper has the pair of dogs in hand, and slips +them simultaneously by an arrangement of nooses, when they +have both sighted a hare promising a good course. The judge +accompanies on horseback, and the six points whereby he +decides a course are—(1) speed; (2) the go-by, or when a +greyhound starts a clear length behind his opponent, passes him +in the straight run, and gets a clear length in front; (3) the turn, +where the hare turns at not less than a right angle; (4) the +wrench, where the hare turns at less than a right angle; (5) the +kill; (6) the trip, or unsuccessful effort to kill. He may return a +“no course” as his verdict if the dogs have not been fairly tried +together, or an “undecided course” if he considers their merits +equal. The open Waterloo meeting, held at Altcar every spring,—the +name being taken from its being originated by the proprietor +of the Waterloo Hotel, Liverpool,—is now the recognized +fixture for the decision of the coursing championship, and the +Waterloo Cup (1836) is the “Blue Riband” of the leash. In the +United States, several British colonies, and other countries, the +name has been adopted, and Waterloo Coursing Cups are found +there as in England. In America an American Coursing Board +controls the sport, the chief meetings being in North and South +Dakota, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa and Minnesota.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief works on coursing are:—Arrian’s <i>Cynegeticus</i>, translated +by the Rev. W. Dansey (1831); T. Thacker, <i>Courser’s Companion +and Breeder’s Guide</i> (1835); Thacker’s <i>Courser’s Annual Remembrancer</i> +(1849-1851); D. P. Blaine, <i>Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports</i> (3rd ed., +1870); and J. H. Walsh, <i>The Greyhound</i> (3rd ed., 1875). See also +the <i>Coursing Calendar</i> (since 1857); <i>Coursing and Falconry</i> (Badminton +Library, 1892); <i>The Hare</i> (“Fur and Feather” series, 1896); +and <i>The Greyhound Stud Book</i> (since 1882).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURT, ANTOINE<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1696-1760), French Protestant divine, was +born in the village of Villeneuve-de-Berg, in the province of the +Vivarais. He has been designated the “Restorer of Protestantism +in France,” and was the organizer of the “Church of the Desert.” +He was eight years old when the Camisard revolt was finally +suppressed, and nineteen when on the 8th of March 1715 the +edict of Louis XIV. was published, declaring that “he had +abolished entirely the exercise of the so-called reformed religion” +(“qu’il avait aboli tout exercice de la religion prétendue réformée”). +Antoine, taken to the secret meetings of the persecuted Calvinists, +began, when only seventeen, to speak and exhort in these congregations +of “the desert.” He came to suspect after a time that +many of the so-called “inspired” persons were “dupes of their +own zeal and credulity,” and decided that it was necessary to +organize at once the small communities of believers into properly +constituted churches. To the execution of this vast undertaking +he devoted his life. On the 21st of August 1715 he summoned +all the preachers in the Cévennes and Lower Languedoc to a +conference or synod near the village of Monoblet. Here elders +were appointed, and the preaching of women, as well as pretended +revelations, was condemned. The village of Monoblet “thus +seems entitled to the honour of having had the first organized +Protestant church after the revocation of the edict of Nantes” +(H. M. Baird). But there were as yet no ordained pastors. +Pierre Corteiz was therefore sent to seek ordination. He was +ordained at Zürich, and from him Court himself received ordination. +The scene of his labours for fifteen years was Languedoc, +the Vivarais, and Dauphiné. His beginnings were very small +prayer-meetings in “the desert.” But the work progressed +under his wise direction, and he was able “to be present, in 1744, +at meetings of ten thousand souls.” In 1724 Louis XV., again +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>322</span> +assuming that there were no Protestants in France, prohibited +the most secret exercise of the Reformed religion, and imposed +severe penalties. It was impossible fully to carry out this menace. +But persecution raged, especially against the pastors. A price +was set on the life of Court; and in 1730 he escaped to Lausanne. +He had already, with the aid of some of the Protestant princes, +established a theological college (“Seminaire de Lausanne”) +there, and during the remaining thirty years of his life he filled +the post of director. He had the title of deputy-general of the +churches, and was really the pillar of their hope. The Seminary +of Lausanne sent forth all the pastors of the Reformed Church of +France till the days of the first French Empire. Court formed +the design of writing a history of Protestantism, and made large +collections for the purpose, which have been preserved in the +Public Library of Geneva; but this he did not live to carry out. +He died at Lausanne in 1760. He wrote, amongst other works, a +<i>Histoire des troubles des Cévennes ou de la guerre des Camisards</i> +(1760). He was the father of the more generally known Antoine +Court de Gebelin (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For details of his life see Napoléon Peyrat’s <i>Histoire des pasteurs +du désert</i> (1842; English translation, 1852); Edmond Hugues, +<i>Antoine Court, histoire de la restauration du protestantisme en +France au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (2nd ed., 1872), <i>Les Synodes du désert</i> +(3 vols., 1885-1886), <i>Mémoires d’Antoine Court</i> (1885); E. and E. +Haag, <i>La France protestante</i>, vol. iv. (1884, new edition); H. M. +Baird, <i>The Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes</i> (1895), +vol. ii.; cf. <i>Bulletin de la société de l’histoire du protestantisme +français</i> (1893-1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURT<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (from the O. Fr. <i>court</i>, Late Lat. <i>cortis</i>, <i>curtis</i>, a +popular form of class. Lat. <i>cohors</i>, gen. <i>cohortis</i>; the mod. Fr. +form <i>cour</i> is due to the influence of the Lat. <i>curia</i>, the word used +in medieval documents to translate “court” in the feudal sense), +a word originally denoting an enclosed place, and so surviving +in its architectural sense (courtyard, &c.), but chiefly used as a +general term for judicial tribunals and in the special sense of the +household of the king, called “the court.”<a name="FnAnchor_1c" id="FnAnchor_1c" href="#Footnote_1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> All law courts +were not, however, purely judicial in character; the old county +court, for instance, was the assembly of the freeholders of the +county in which representatives and certain officers were elected. +Such assemblies in early times exercised political and legislative +as well as judicial functions. But these have now been almost +entirely separated everywhere, and only judicial bodies are now +usually called courts. In every court, says Blackstone, there +must be three parts,—an <i>actor</i> or plaintiff, <i>reus</i> or defendant, and +<i>judex</i>, or judge.</p> + +<p>The language of legal fictions, which English lawyers invariably +use in all constitutional subjects, makes the king the ultimate +source of all judicial authority, and assumes his personal presence +in all the courts.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“As by our excellent constitution,” says Blackstone, “the sole +executive power of the laws is vested in the person of the king, it +will follow that all courts of justice, which are the medium by which +he administers the laws, are derived from the power of the crown. +For whether created by act of parliament or letters patent, or +subsisting by prescription (the only methods by which any court of +judicature can exist), the king’s consent in the two former is expressly, +in the latter impliedly given. In all these courts the king is +supposed in contemplation of law to be always present; but as that +is in fact impossible, he is then represented by his judges, whose +power is only an emanation of the royal prerogative.”</p> +</div> + +<p>These words might give a false impression of the historical and +legal relations of the courts and the crown, if it is not remembered +that they are nothing more than the expression of a venerable +fiction. The administration of justice was, indeed, one of the +functions of the king in early times; the king himself sat on +circuit so late as the reign of Edward IV.; and even after regular +tribunals were established, a reserve of judicial power still +remained in the king and his council, in the exercise of which it +was possible for the king to participate personally. The last +judicial act of an English king, if such it can be called, was that +by which James I. settled the dispute between the court of +chancery and courts of common law. Since the establishment +of parliamentary government the courts take their law directly +from the legislature, and the king is only connected with them +indirectly as a member of the legislative body. The king’s name, +however, is still used in this as in other departments of state +action. The courts exercising jurisdiction in England are divided +by certain features which may here be briefly indicated.</p> + +<p>We may distinguish between (1) superior and inferior courts. +The former are the courts of common law and the court of +chancery, now High Court of Justice. The latter are the local or +district courts, county courts, &c. (2) Courts of record and courts +not of record. “A court of record is one whereof the acts and +judicial proceedings are enrolled for a perpetual memory and +testimony, which rolls are called the records of the court, and are +of such high and supereminent authority that their truth is not +to be called in question. For it is a settled rule and maxim that +nothing shall be averred against a record, nor shall any plea or +even proof be admitted to the contrary. And if the existence of +the record shall be denied it shall be tried by nothing but itself; +that is, upon bare inspection whether there be any such record or +no; else there would be no end of disputes. All courts of record +are the courts of the sovereign in right of the crown and royal +dignity, and therefore any court of record has authority to fine +and imprison for contempt of its authority” (Stephen’s <i>Blackstone</i>). +(3) Courts may also be distinguished as civil or criminal. +(4) A further distinction is to be made between courts of first +instance and courts of appeal. In the former the first hearing in +any judicial proceeding takes place; in the latter the judgment +of the first court is brought under review. Of the superior +courts, the High Court of Justice in its various divisions is a court +of first instance. Over it is the court of appeal, and over that +again the House of Lords. The High Court of Justice is (through +divisional courts) a court of appeal for inferior courts. (5) There +is a special class of local courts, which do not appear to fall +within the description of either superior or inferior courts. +Some, while administering the ordinary municipal law, have or +had jurisdiction exclusive of their superior courts; such were the +common pleas of Durham and Lancaster. Others have concurrent +jurisdiction with the superior courts; such are the lord mayor’s +court of London, the passage court of Liverpool, &c.</p> + +<p>The distribution of judicial business among the various courts +of law in England may be exhibited as follows.</p> + +<p><i>Criminal Courts.</i>—(1) The lowest is that of the justice of the +peace, sitting in petty sessions of two or more, to determine in a +summary way certain specified minor offences. In populous +districts, such as London, Manchester, &c., stipendiary magistrates +are appointed, generally with enlarged powers. Besides +punishing by summary conviction, justices may commit prisoners +for trial at the assizes. (2) The justices in quarter sessions are +commissioned to determine felonies and other offences. An act +of 1842 (5 & 6 Vict. c. 38) contains a list of offences <i>not</i> triable +at quarter sessions—treason, murder, forgery, bigamy, &c. (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Quarter Sessions, Court of</a></span>). The corresponding court in +a borough is presided over by a recorder. (3) The more serious +offences are reserved for the judges of the superior courts sitting +under a commission of oyer and terminer or gaol delivery for each +county. The assize courts, as they are called, sit in general in +each county twice a year, following the division of circuits; but +additional assizes are also held under acts of 1876 and 1877, +which permit several counties to be united together for that +purpose (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Circuit</a></span>). London, which occupies an exceptional +position in all matters of judicature, has a high criminal court of +its own, established by the Central Criminal Court Act 1834, +under the name of the central criminal court. Its judges usually +present are a rota selected from the superior judges of common +law, the recorder, common serjeant, and the judge of the City of +London court.<a name="FnAnchor_2c" id="FnAnchor_2c" href="#Footnote_2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The criminal appeal court, to which all persons +convicted on indictment may appeal, superseded in 1908 (by the +Criminal Appeal Act 1907) the court for crown cases reserved, +to which any question of law arising on the trial of a prisoner +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>323</span> +could after conviction be remitted by the judge in his discretion. +To the criminal appeal court there is an appeal both on questions +of fact and of law (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Appeal</a></span>).</p> + +<p><i>Civil Courts.</i>—In certain special cases, civil claims of small +importance may be brought before justices or stipendiaries. +Otherwise, and excepting the special and peculiar jurisdictions +above mentioned, the civil business of England and Wales may be +said to be divided between the county courts (taking small cases) +and the High Court of Justice (taking all others).</p> + +<p>The effect of the Judicature Acts on the constitution of the +superior courts may be briefly stated. There is now one Supreme +Court of Judicature, consisting of two permanent divisions +called the High Court of Justice and the court of appeal. The +former takes the jurisdiction of the court of chancery, the three +common law courts, the courts of admiralty, probate, and divorce, +the courts of pleas at Lancaster and Durham, and the courts +created by commissions of assize, oyer and terminer, and gaol +delivery. The latter takes the jurisdiction of the court of appeal +in chancery (including chancery of Lancaster), the court of the +lord warden of the stannaries, and of the exchequer chamber, and +the appellate jurisdiction in admiralty and heresy matters of the +judicial committee; and power is given to the sovereign to +transfer the remaining jurisdiction of that court to the court of +appeal. By the Appellate Jurisdiction Act of 1876 the House of +Lords is enabled to sit for the hearing of appeals from the +English court of appeal and the Scottish and Irish courts during +the prorogation and dissolution of parliament. The lords of +appeal, of whom three must be present, are the lord chancellor, +the lords of appeal in ordinary, and peers who have held “high +judicial office” in Great Britain or Ireland. The lords in +ordinary are an innovation in the constitution of the House. +They hold the rank of baron for life only, have a right to sit and +vote in the House during tenure of office only, and a salary of +£6000 per annum.</p> + +<p>There are also many obsolete or decayed courts, of which the +most noticeable are dealt with under their individual headings, as +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Court Baron</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Court Leet</a></span>, &c.</p> + +<p>The history of English courts affords a remarkable illustration +of the continuity that characterizes English institutions. It +might perhaps be too much to say that all the courts now sitting +in England may be traced back to a common origin, but at any +rate the higher courts are all offshoots from the same original +judicature. Leaving out of account the local courts, we find the +higher jurisdiction after the Norman Conquest concentrated +along with all other public functions in the king and council. +The first sign of a separation of the judicial from the other +powers of this body is found in the recognition of a Curia Regis, +which may be described as the king’s council, or a portion of it, +charged specially with the management of judicial and revenue +business. In relation to the revenue it became the exchequer, +under which name a separate court grew up whose special field +was the judicial business arising out of revenue cases. By Magna +Carta the inconvenience caused by the curia following the king’s +person was remedied, in so far as private litigation was concerned, +by the order that common pleas (Communia Placita) should be +held at some fixed place; and hence arose the court of common +pleas. The Curia Regis, after having thrown off these branches, +is represented by the king’s bench, so that from the same stock +we have now three courts, differing at first in functions, but +through competition for business, and the ingenious use of +fictions, becoming finally the co-ordinate courts of common law +of later history. But an inner circle of counsellors still surrounded +the king, and in his name claimed to exercise judicial as well as +other power; hence the chancellor’s jurisdiction, which became, +partly in harmony with the supra-legal power claimed from which +it sprang, and partly through the influence of the ecclesiastical +chancellors by whom it was first administered, the equity of +English law. Similar developments of the same authority were +the court of requests (which was destroyed by a decision of the +common pleas) and the court of star chamber—a court of +criminal equity, as it has been called,—which, having been made +the instrument of tyranny, was abolished in 1641. Even then +the productive power of the council was not exhausted; the +judicial committee of the privy council, established in 1832, +superseding the previous court of delegates, exercises the jurisdiction +in appeal belonging to the king in council. The appellate +jurisdiction of the Lords rests on their claim to be the representatives +of the ancient great council of the realm.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Admiralty, High Court of</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Appeal</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chancery</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Common Law</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Common Pleas, Court of</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Divorce</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equity</a></span>; &c.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>United States.</i>—The Federal judicial system of the United +States is made by the Constitution independent both of the +Legislature and of the Executive. It consists of the Supreme +Court, the circuit courts, and the district courts.</p> + +<p>The Supreme Court is created by the Constitution, and +consisted in 1909 of nine judges, who are nominated by the +President and confirmed by the Senate. They hold office during +good behaviour, <i>i.e.</i> are removable only by impeachment, thus +having a tenure even more secure than that of English judges. +The court sits at Washington from October to July in every year. +The sessions of the court are held in the Capitol. A rule requiring +the presence of six judges to pronounce a decision prevents the +division of the court into two or more benches; and while this +secures a thorough consideration of every case, it also retards the +despatch of business. Every case is discussed twice by the whole +body, once to ascertain the view of the majority, which is then +directed to be set forth in a written opinion; then again, when +the written opinion, prepared by one of the judges, is submitted +for criticism and adoption by the court as its judgment.</p> + +<p>The other Federal courts have been created by Congress under +a power in the Constitution to establish “inferior courts.” The +circuit courts consist of twenty-nine circuit judges, acting in nine +judicial circuits, while to each circuit there is also allotted one of +the justices of the Supreme Court. Circuit courts of appeals, +established to relieve the Supreme Court, consist of three judges +(two forming a quorum), and are made up of the circuit and +district judges of each circuit and the Supreme Court justice +assigned to the circuit. Some cases may, however, be appealed +to the Supreme Court from the circuit court of appeals, and +others directly from the lower courts. The district courts +number (1909) ninety, in most cases having a single justice. +There is also a special tribunal called the court of claims, which +deals with the claims of private persons against the Federal +government. It is not strictly a part of the general judicial +system, but is a creation of Congress designed to relieve that body +of a part of its own labours.</p> + +<p>The jurisdiction of the Federal courts extends only to those +cases in which the Constitution makes Federal law applicable. +All other cases are left to the state courts, from which there is no +appeal to the Federal courts, unless where some specific point +arises which is affected by the Federal Constitution or a Federal +law. The classes of cases dealt with by the Federal courts are as +follows:—</p> + +<p>1. Cases in law and equity arising under the Constitution, +the laws of the United States, and treaties made under their +authority;</p> + +<p>2. Cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and +consuls;</p> + +<p>3. Cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;</p> + +<p>4. Controversies to which the United States shall be a party;</p> + +<p>5. Controversies between two or more states, between a state +and citizens of another state, between citizens of different states, +between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of +different states, and between a state or the citizens thereof and +foreign states, citizens or subjects (<i>Const.</i>, Art. III., § 2). Part +of this jurisdiction has, however, been withdrawn by the eleventh +Amendment to the Constitution, which declares that “the +judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to +extend to any suit commenced or prosecuted against one of the +United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or +subjects of any foreign state.”</p> + +<p>The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is original in cases +affecting ambassadors, and wherever a state is a party; in other +cases it is appellate. In some matters the jurisdiction of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>324</span> +Federal courts is exclusive; in others it is concurrent with that of +the state courts.</p> + +<p>As it frequently happens that cases come before state courts in +which questions of Federal law arise, a provision has been made +whereby due respect for the latter is secured by giving the party +to a suit who relies upon Federal law, and whose contention is +overruled by a state court, the right of having the suit removed +to a Federal court. The Judiciary Act of 1789 (as amended by +subsequent legislation) provides for the removal to the Supreme +Court of the United States of “a final judgment or decree in any +suit rendered in the highest court of a state in which a decision +could be had, where is drawn in question the validity of a treaty +or statute of, or an authority exercised under the United States, +and the decision is against their validity; or where is drawn in +question the validity of a statute of, or an authority exercised +under, any state, on the ground of their being repugnant to the +Constitution, treaties or laws of the United States, and the +decision is in favour of their validity; or where any title, right, +privilege or immunity is claimed under the Constitution, or any +treaty or statute of, or commission held, or authority exercised +under the United States, and the decision is against the title, +right, privilege or immunity specially set up or claimed by either +party under such Constitution, treaty, statute, commission or +authority.” If the decision of the state court is in favour of the +right claimed under Federal law or against the validity or applicability +of the state law set up, there is no ground for removal, +because the applicability or authority of Federal law in the +particular case could receive no further protection from a Federal +court than has in fact been given by the state court.</p> + +<p>The power exercised by the Supreme Court in declaring +statutes of Congress or of state legislatures (or acts of the +Executive) to be invalid because inconsistent with the Federal +Constitution, has been deemed by many Europeans a peculiar +and striking feature of the American system. There is, however, +nothing novel or mysterious about it. As the Federal Constitution, +which emanates directly from the people, is the supreme law +of the land everywhere, any statute passed by any lower +authority (whether the Federal Congress or a state legislature), +which contravenes the Constitution, must necessarily be invalid +in point of law, just as in the United Kingdom a railway by-law +which contravened an act of parliament would be invalid. Now, +the functions of judicial tribunals—of all courts alike, whether +Federal or state, whether superior or inferior—is to interpret the +law, and if any tribunal finds a Congressional statute or state +statute inconsistent with the Constitution, the tribunal is +obliged to hold such statute invalid. A tribunal does this not +because it has any right or power of its own in the matter, but +because the people have, in enacting the Constitution as a supreme +law, declared that all other laws inconsistent with it are <i>ipso jure</i> +void. When a tribunal has ascertained that an inferior law is +thus inconsistent, that inferior law is therewith, so far as +inconsistent, to be deemed void. The tribunal does not enter +any conflict with the Legislature or Executive. All it does +is to declare that a conflict exists between two laws of different +degrees of authority, whence it necessarily follows that the +weaker law is extinct. This duty of interpretation belongs to all +tribunals, but as constitutional cases are, if originating in a lower +court, usually carried by appeal to the Supreme Court, men have +grown accustomed to talk of the Supreme Court as in a special +sense the guardian of the Constitution.</p> + +<p>The Federal courts never deliver an opinion on any constitutional +question unless or until that question is brought before +them in the form of a lawsuit. A judgment of the Supreme +Court is only a judgment on the particular case before it, and +does not prevent a similar question being raised again in another +lawsuit, though of course this seldom happens, because it may +be assumed that the court will adhere to its former opinion. +There have, however, been instances in which the court has +virtually changed its view on a constitutional question, and it is +understood to be entitled so to do.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1c" id="Footnote_1c" href="#FnAnchor_1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Cf. the German <i>Hof</i> for court-yard, court of law, and royal court.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2c" id="Footnote_2c" href="#FnAnchor_2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The sittings are held in the court-house in the Old Bailey. The +old sessions house was destroyed in the Gordon riots of 1780. The +building erected in its place, although enlarged from time to time, +was very incommodious, and a new structure, occupying the site of +Newgate Prison, which was pulled down for the purpose, was completed +in 1907.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURT BARON,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> an English manorial court dating from the +middle ages and still in existence. It was laid down by Coke +that a manor had two courts, “the first by the common law, and +is called a court baron,” the freeholders (“barons”) being its +suitors; the other a customary court for the copyholders. +Stubbs adopted this explanation, but the latest learning, expounded +by Professor Maitland, holds that court baron means +<i>curia baronis</i>, “<i>la court de seigneur</i>,” and that there is no evidence +for there being more than one court. The old view that at least +two freeholders were required for its composition is also now +discarded. Prof. Maitland’s conclusion is that the “court baron” +was not even differentiated from the “court-leet” at the close +of the 13th century, but that there was a distinction of jurisdictional +rights, some courts having only feudal rights, while +others had regalities as well. When the court-leet was differentiated, +the court baron remained with feudal rights alone. +These rights he was disposed to trace to a lord’s jurisdiction over +his men rather than to his possession of the manor, although in +practice, from an early date, the court was associated with the +manor. Its chief business was to administer the “custom of the +manor” and to admit fresh tenants who had acquired copyholds +by inheritance or purchase, and had to pay, on so doing, a “fine” +to the lord of the manor. It is mainly for the latter purpose that +the court is now kept. It is normally presided over by the +steward of the lord of the manor, who is a lawyer, and its proceedings +are recorded on “the court rolls,” of which the older +ones are now valuable for genealogical as well as for legal purposes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Select Pleas in Manorial and other Seignorial Courts</i>, vol. i., +and <i>The Court Baron</i> (Selden Society).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURT DE GEBELIN, ANTOINE<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1728-1784), French scholar, +son of Antoine Court (<i>q.v.</i>), was born at Nîmes in 1728. He +received a good education, and became, like his father, a pastor +of the Reformed Church. This office, however, he soon relinquished, +to devote himself entirely to literary work. He had +conceived the project of a work which should set in a new light +the phenomena, especially the languages and mythologies, of the +ancient world; and, after his father’s death, he went to Paris in +order to be near the necessary books. After long years of research, +he published in 1775 the first volume of his vast undertaking +under the title of <i>Le Monde primitif, analysé et comparé avec le +monde moderne</i>. The ninth volume appeared in 1784, leaving the +work still unfinished. The literary world marvelled at the encyclopaedic +learning displayed by the author, and supposed that the +French Academy, or some other society of scholars, must have +combined their powers in its production. Now, however, the +world has well-nigh forgotten the huge quartos. These learned +labours did not prevent Gebelin from pleading earnestly the cause +of religious tolerance. In 1760 he published a work entitled +<i>Les Toulousaines</i>, advocating the rights of the Protestants; and +he afterwards established at Paris an agency for collecting +information as to their sufferings, and for exciting general +interest in their cause. He co-operated with Franklin and +others in the periodical work entitled <i>Affaires de l’Angleterre et +de l’Amérique</i> (1776, sqq.), which was devoted to the support +of American independence. He was also a supporter of the +principles of the economists, and Quesnay called him his well-beloved +disciple. In the last year of his life he became acquainted +with Mesmer, and published a <i>Lettre sur le magnétisme animal</i>. +He was imposed upon by speculators in whom he placed +confidence, and was reduced to destitution by the failure of a +scheme in which they engaged him. He died at Paris on the +10th of May 1784.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>La France protestante</i>, by the brothers Haag, tome iv.; Charles +Dardier, <i>Court de Gebelin</i> (Nîmes, 1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURTENAY,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> the name of a famous English family. French +genealogists head the pedigree of this family with one Athon or +Athos, who is said to have fortified Courtenay in Gâtinois about +the year 1010. His son Josselin had, with other issue, Miles, +lord of Courtenay, founder of the Cistercian abbey of Fontaine-Jean. +By his wife Ermengarde, daughter of Renaud, count of +Nevers, Miles left a son Renaud, one of the magnates who +followed Louis le Jeune to the Holy Land. This was the last lord +of Courtenay of the line of Athon. Elizabeth, his elder daughter—a +younger daughter died without issue,—carried Courtenay and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>325</span> +other lordships to her husband Pierre, seventh and youngest son +of the French king Louis VI. the Fat, the marriage taking place +about 1150, and the many descendants of this royal match bore +the surname of Courtenay.</p> + +<p>Pierre, the eldest son, was founder of a short-lived dynasty of +emperors of Constantinople, which ended in 1261 when Baldwin +(Baudouin), last of the Frankish emperors, fled before Michael +Palaeologus from a capital in flames. Baldwin’s son Philip, +however, bore the empty title, and his granddaughter Catherine, +wife of Charles, count of Valois, was titular empress. Other +lines of the royal Courtenays, sprung from Pierre of France, +were lords of Champignolles, Tanlai, Yerre, Bleneau, La Ferté +Loupière and Chevillon. On the death of Gaspard, sieur de +Bleneau, in 1655, his cousin Louis de Courtenay, comte de Cési +(<i>jure uxoris</i>) and sieur de Chevillon, had Bleneau, and reckoned +himself the surviving chief of his house. He styled himself Prince +de Courtenay and his family made attempts to obtain recognition +for their royal blood. But their laboriously constructed genealogies +availed nothing to this impoverished race. The last +“Prince de Courtenay,” an ex-captain of dragoons, died in 1730; +his uncle Roger de Courtenay, abbé des Eschalis, who died in +1733, was the last recognized member of the line of Pierre of +France.</p> + +<p>A younger branch of the first house of Courtenay came from +Josselin, second son of Josselin, son of Athon. This Josselin, a +notable crusader, went to the Holy Land with the count of Blois, +and held by the sword for eleven years the county of Edessa, +given him by his cousin King Baldwin II. Edessa was won back +by the infidel from his son Josselin, who died a prisoner in Aleppo +in 1147. A grandson, also a Josselin, was seneschal of the kingdom +of Jerusalem.</p> + +<p>In England a house of Courtenay has flourished with varying +fortunes since the reign of the first Angevin king. The monks of +Ford, to whom they were benefactors, complacently set down +their patrons as the offspring of the royal Courtenays, of whose +origin they had some dim knowledge, deriving them from +“Florus,” son of Louis the Fat. A comparison of dates destroys +the story. But they were, doubtless, Courtenays of the stock of +Athon. Josselin, the first count of Edessa, has been suggested by +modern writers as their founder, but the name Reinaud, borne by +the first known ancestor of the English house, suggests that they +may have sprung from a younger son of Josselin I. of Courtenay +by his marriage about 1095 with Ermengarde, daughter of +Reinaud, count of Nevers. It is also notable that the English +Courtenays have, from the first introduction of armorial bearings, +borne with various differences the three red roundels in a golden +field, the arms of the Courtenays in France, the shield of the earls +of Devonshire being identical with that of the lords of La Ferté +Loupière.</p> + +<p>Several Courtenays whose kinship cannot be exactly ascertained, +appear in English records of the 12th century. One +of them, Robert de Courtenay, married the daughter and +heir of Reynold fitz Urse, the leader of the murderers of Archbishop +Thomas Becket. His son, William, a Shropshire baron, +held the castle of Montgomery, as heir by his mother of Baldwin +de Buslers, or Bollers, to whom Henry I. had given it with his +“niece” Sibil de Falaise. This William married Ada of Dunbar, +daughter of Patrick, earl of Dunbar, but died in the reign of King +John, without issue.</p> + +<p>Reinaud de Courtenay, ancestor of the main English line, may +well have been a brother of the Robert above named. The +English pedigrees confuse him with his son of the same name. +He was a favourite with Henry II., his attestations of charters +showing him as a constant companion at home and abroad of the +king, whom he followed to Wexford in the Irish expedition of +1172. Henry gave him Berkshire lands at Sutton, still known as +Sutton Courtenay, by a charter to which the date of 1161 can be +assigned. In England he had to wife Maude, daughter of Robert +fitz Roy by Maude of Avranches, the elder Maude being the heir +of the house of Brionne. By her, who survived him, dying +before January 1224, he had no issue, but by a wife who may +have died before his coming to England he had, with other issue, +Robert and Reinaud. Robert, who succeeded to Sutton about +1192, was husband of Alice de Rumeli, widow of Gilbert Pipard, +and one of the three sisters and co-heirs of William, the boy of +Egremond, of whose drowning in the Strid Wordsworth has +made a ballad. Robert died childless in 1209. Of his brother +Reinaud or Reynold de Courtenay little is known, save that he +was a married man in 1178 when he and his wife Hawise were +given by the pope a licence to have a free chapel at Okehampton. +This wife, Hawise de Ayencourt, was, with Maude his father’s +second wife, a daughter and co-heir of Maude of Avranches, her +father being the lord of Ayencourt, first husband of the last +named Maude. Her great inheritance included the honour of +Okehampton in Devonshire of which, as a widow, she had livery +about 1205. Her son, Robert de Courtenay, succeeded to her +land in 1219, having been his uncle Robert’s heir in Sutton ten +years before. Like his father he advanced his house by a great +marriage, his wife being Mary, the younger daughter of William +de Vernon, earl of Devon and of the Isle of Wight. He was +succeeded in 1242 by his son John, who by Isabel, a daughter of +Hugh de Vere, earl of Oxford, has issue Hugh, whose wife was +Eleanor, daughter of the earl of Winchester, elder of the two +favourites of Edward II. The son of this marriage, another +Hugh, followed his father at Okehampton in 1291. Two years +later died Isabel, surviving sister and heir of Baldwin de Reviers, +earl of Devon, and widow of William de Forz, last earl of +Aumerle (Albemarle). On her death-bed she had granted her +lordship of the Wight to the king, but her cousin Hugh de +Courtenay succeeded her in the unalienated estates of the house of +Reviers. He was summoned as a baron on the 6th of February +1298/9, and in 1300 he displayed his banner before the castle +of Caerlaverock. Claiming the “third penny” of the county of +Devon, he was refused by the exchequer as he did not claim in the +name of an earl. Following, however, a writ of inquiry, a patent +of the 22nd of February 1334/5 declared him earl of Devon +and qualified to take such style as his ancestors, earls of Devon, +were wont to take. Hugh, his son, the second earl, a warrior who +drove the French back from their descent on Cornwall in 1339, +made another of the brilliant marriages of this family, his wife +being Eleanor, daughter of Humfrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford +and Essex, by Elizabeth daughter of Edward I. Their eldest +son, Sir Hugh de Courtenay, shared in the honours of Crécy and +Calais, and was one of the knights founders of the order of the +Garter, the stall-plate of his arms being yet in St George’s +chapel at Windsor. This knight died in the lifetime of the earl, +as did his only son Hugh, summoned as a baron on the 3rd of +January 1370/1, a companion at Najara of the Black Prince, +whose step-daughter Maude of Holland he had married. The +earl was therefore succeeded by his grandson Edward (son of +Edward his third son), earl marshal of England in 1385, who died +blind in 1419, the year after the death of Sir Edward his heir +apparent, one of the conquerors at Agincourt. Hugh, a second +son of Earl Edward, succeeded as fourth earl of the Courtenay +line. By his wife, a sister of the renowned Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, +he had issue Thomas the fifth earl, a partisan of Henry VI., +whose wife was Margaret Beaufort, daughter of John, earl of +Somerset. The effigy of this grandaughter of John of Gaunt, +with the shields of Courtenay and Beaufort above it, is in Colyton +church. It is less than life size, a fact which has given rise to a +village legend that it represents “Little choke-a-bone,” an infant +daughter of the tenth earl, who died “choked by a fish bone.” +In spite of the evidence of the shields and the 15th century dress +of the effigy, the legend has now been strengthened by an +inscription upon a brass plate, and in the year 1907 ignorance +engaged a monumental sculptor to deface the effigy by giving its +broken features the newly carved face of a young child. Both +sons of this marriage fell in the Wars of the Roses, Thomas the +sixth earl being taken at Towton by the Yorkists and beheaded +at York in 1462, his younger brother Henry having the same fate +at Salisbury in 1466.</p> + +<p>The earldom being extinguished by attainder, Sir Humphrey +Stafford was created earl of Devon in 1469, but in the same +year, having retired with his men from the expedition against +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>326</span> +Robin of Redesdale, another earl of Devon suffered at the +headsman’s hands, his patent being afterwards annulled by a +statute of Henry VII. On the restoration of Henry VI. John +Courtenay, only surviving brother of Thomas and Henry, was +restored to the earldom by the reversal of attainder. He, too, +died in the Lancastrian cause, being killed on the 4th of May 1471 +at Tewkesbury, where he led the rear of the host. The representation +of the Reviers earls and of the Courtenay barony fell then to +his sisters and their descendants. Beside him at Tewkesbury +died his cousin Sir Hugh Courtenay of Boconnoc, son of Hugh, +a younger brother of the blind earl, leaving a son Edward, who +thus became the heir male of the house though not its heir +general. Joining in the cause which had cost so many of his +kinsmen their lives, he and his brother Walter shared the duke of +Buckingham’s rising. On its failure they fled into France to the +earl of Richmond, beside whom Sir Edward fought at Bosworth. +By a patent of the 26th of October 1485 he was created earl of +Devon with remainder to the heirs male of his body, and by an +act of 1485 he was restored to all honours lost in his attainder by +the Yorkist parliament. He defended Exeter against Warbeck’s +rebels and was a knight of the Garter in 1489, dying twenty years +later, when the earldom became again forfeit by his son’s attainder. +That son, William Courtenay, had drawn the jealousy of Henry +VII. by a marriage with Catherine, sister of the queen and +daughter of King Edward IV., the Yorkist sovereign whose hand +had been so heavy on the Courtenays. After the queen’s death, +Henry sent his wife’s brother-in-law to the Tower on a charge of +corresponding with Edmund Pole, an attainder following. But +on the accession of Henry VIII., the young king released his +uncle, who although styled an earl was not fully restored in blood +at his death in 1511. His son Henry Courtenay obtained from +parliament in December 1512 a reversal of his father’s attainder, +thus succeeding to the earldom of his grandfather. At the Field +of Cloth of Gold he ran a course with the king of France. He +was knight of the Garter and on the 15th of June 1525 had a +patent as marquess of Exeter. Profiting by the suppression of +the monasteries he increased his estate, his power being all but +supreme in the west country. But Cromwell was his enemy and +the royal strain in his blood was a dangerous thing. Involved in +correspondence with Cardinal Pole, he was sent to the Tower with +his wife and his young son, and on the 9th of December 1538 he +was beheaded as a traitor. The misfortunes of the house were +heavy upon the son, who at twelve years old was a prisoner for +the sake of his high descent. His honours had been forfeited, +and release did not come until the accession of Queen Mary, who +took him into favour. Noailles the ambassador found him <i>le +plus beau et le plus agréable gentilhomme d’Angleterre</i>, and he had +some hopes of becoming king consort. The queen created him +earl of Devonshire by a patent of the 3rd of September 1553 and +in the next month he was restored in blood. But, disappointed in +his hopes, he formed some wild plans for marrying the Lady +Elizabeth and making her queen. He could raise Devon and +Cornwall. Wyat did raise Kent, but the plot was soon crushed. +The earl was sent back to the Tower and thence to Fotheringhay. +At Easter of 1555 he was released on parole and exiled, dying +suddenly at Padua in 1556. His co-heirs were the descendants of +the four sisters of Earl Edward (d. 1519), the wives of four +Cornish squires, and with him was extinguished, to the belief of +all men, the Courtenays’ earldom of Devon. His heir male was +Sir William Courtenay, his sixth cousin once removed, head of a +knightly line of Courtenays whose seat was Powderham Castle, +a line which, during the civil wars, stood for the White Rose. +Sir William, who is said to have been killed at St Quintin in 1557, +was succeeded by his son, another Sir William, one of the undertakers +for the settling of Ireland, where the family obtained great +estates. William Courtenay of Powderham, of whose marriage +with the daughter of Sir William Waller (the parliament’s +general) it is remarked that the years of bride and bridegroom +added together were less than thirty when their first child was +born, was created a baronet by writ of privy seal in February +1644, the patent being never enrolled. His great grandson, Sir +William Courtenay, many years a member of parliament, was on +the 6th of May 1762, ten days before his death, created Viscount +Courtenay of Powderham Castle.</p> + +<p>Since the death at Padua in 1556 of Edward, earl of Devon, +that ancient title had been twice revived. Charles Blount, +Lord Mountjoy, who was created earl of Devon in 1603, died +without lawful issue in 1606. In 1618 Sir William Cavendish, +son of the famous Bess of Hardwick, was given the same title, +which is still among the peerage honours of the ducal house +descending from him. For the Courtenays, who had without +protest accepted a baronetcy and a viscounty, their earldom was +dead. In the reign of William IV., the third and last Viscount +Courtenay was living unmarried in Paris, an exile who for +sufficient reasons was keeping out of the reach of the English +criminal law. In the name of this man, his presumptive heir +male, William Courtenay, clerk assistant of the parliament, +succeeded in persuading the House of Lords that the Courtenay +earldom under the patent of 1553 was still in existence, the plea +being that the terms of the remainder—to him and his heirs male +for ever—did not limit the succession to heirs male of the body +of the grantee. Five other cases wherein the words <i>de corpore suo</i> +had been omitted from the patent are known to peerage lawyers. +In no case had a peerage before been claimed by collateral +heirs male. “I have often rallied Brougham,” writes Lord +Campbell, “upon his creating William Courtenay earl of Devon. +He says he consulted Chief Justice Tenterden. But Tenterden +knew nothing of peerage law.” After the death of the exile in +1835 the clerk of the parliament succeeded him as an earl by +force of the House of Lords decision of the 15th of March 1831. +His second son, the Rev. Henry Hugh Courtenay (1811-1904), +succeeded, as 13th earl, a nephew whose extravagance had impoverished +the estates. He in turn was followed, as 14th earl, by +his grandson Charles Pepys Courtenay (b. 1870).</p> + +<p>No other recognized branch of this house, once so widely +spread in the western counties, is now among the landed houses of +England. Among its cadets were many famous warriors, but +three prelates must be reckoned as the most eminent of the +Courtenays. William, a younger son of the match of Courtenay +and Bohun, was bishop of Hereford in 1370, bishop of London in +1375 and archbishop of Canterbury in 1381. Proceeding against +Wycliffe he opposed John of Gaunt, who, taunting him with his +trust in his great kinsfolk, threatened to drag him out of St Paul’s +by his hair, a threat which roused the angry Londoners in his +defence. He died in 1396 and lies buried at the feet of the Black +Prince in his cathedral of Canterbury. By his will he left his best +mitre to his nephew Richard Courtenay—son and pupil, as he +styles him—against the time he should be a bishop. This Richard, +a friend of Henry V. when prince, and treasurer of his household, +was bishop of Norwich in 1413. Twice chancellor of Oxford, he +repelled Archbishop Arundel and all his train when that primate +would have had a visitation of the university, although the +claim of the university to independence was at last broken down. +Tall of stature, eloquent and learned, he kept the favour of the +king, who was with him when he died of dysentery in the host +before Harfleur. Heir of this bishop was his nephew Sir Philip +of Powderham, whose younger son Peter Courtenay was the +third of the Courtenay prelates, being bishop of Exeter from 1478 +to 1487, when he was translated to Winchester. Although of the +Yorkist Courtenays, he was of Buckingham’s party and, being +attainted by Richard III. for joining with certain of his kinsfolk in +an attempt to raise the west, he escaped to Brittany, whence he +returned with the first Tudor sovereign, who had him in high +favour. A fourth prelate of this family was Henry Reginald +Courtenay, who was bishop of Bristol 1794-1797 and bishop of +Exeter from 1797 to his death in 1803.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See charter, patent, close, fine and plea rolls, inquests <i>post mortem</i> +and other records. G. E. C.’s <i>Complete Peerage</i>; <i>Dictionary of +National Biography</i>; <i>Notes and Queries</i>, series viii. vol. 7; J. H. +Round’s <i>Peerage Studies</i>; <i>Calendars of State Papers</i>; Machyn’s +<i>Diary</i> (Camden Society); Chronicles of Capgrave, Wavrin, Adam of +Usk, &c.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(O. Ba.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURTENAY, RICHARD<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (d. 1415), English prelate, was a son +of Sir Philip Courtenay of Powderham Castle, near Exeter, and +a grandson of Hugh Courtenay, earl of Devon (d. 1377). He +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>327</span> +was a nephew of William Courtenay, archbishop of Canterbury, +and a descendant of Edward I. Educated at Exeter College, +Oxford, he entered the church, where his advance was rapid. +He held several prebends, was dean of St Asaph and then dean of +Wells, and became bishop of Norwich in 1413. As chancellor of +the university of Oxford, an office to which he was elected in 1407 +and again in 1410, Courtenay asserted the independence of the +university against Thomas Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury, in +1411; but the archbishop, supported by Henry IV. and Pope +John XXIII, eventually triumphed. Courtenay was a personal +friend of Henry V. both before and after he came to the throne; +and in 1413, immediately after Henry’s accession, he was made +treasurer of the royal household. On two occasions he went on +diplomatic errands to France, and he was also employed by +Henry on public business at home. Having accompanied the +king to Harfleur in August 1415, Courtenay was attacked by +dysentery and died on the 15th of September 1415, his body +being buried in Westminster Abbey.</p> + +<p>Another member of this family, <span class="sc">Peter Courtenay</span> (d. 1492), +a grandnephew of Richard, also attained high position in the +English Church. Educated at Exeter College, Oxford, Peter +became dean of Windsor, then dean of Exeter; in 1478 bishop +of Exeter; and in 1487 bishop of Winchester in succession to +William of Waynflete. With Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham, +and others he attempted to raise a rebellion against Richard +III. in 1483, and fled to Brittany when this enterprise failed. +Courtenay was restored to his dignities and estates in 1485 by +Henry VII., whom he had accompanied to England, and he died +on the 23rd of September 1492.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. H. Wylie, <i>History of England under Henry IV</i>. (London, +1884-1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURTENAY, WILLIAM<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (c. 1342-1396), English prelate, was +a younger son of Hugh Courtenay, earl of Devon (d. 1377), and +through his mother Margaret, daughter of Humphrey Bohun, +earl of Hereford, was a great-grandson of Edward I. Being a +native of the west of England he was educated at Stapledon Hall, +Oxford, and after graduating in law was chosen chancellor of +the university in 1367. Courtenay’s ecclesiastical and political +career began about the same time. Having been made prebendary +of Exeter, of Wells and of York, he was consecrated bishop of +Hereford in 1370, was translated to the see of London in 1375, +and became archbishop of Canterbury in 1381, succeeding Simon +of Sudbury in both these latter positions. As a politician the +period of his activity coincides with the years of Edward III.’s +dotage, and with practically the whole of Richard II.’s reign. +From the first he ranged himself among the opponents of John +of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster; he was a firm upholder of the +rights of the English Church, and was always eager to root out +Lollardry. In 1373 he declared in convocation that he would not +contribute to a subsidy until the evils from which the church +suffered were removed; in 1375 he incurred the displeasure of the +king by publishing a papal bull against the Florentines; and in +1377 his decided action during the quarrel between John of +Gaunt and William of Wykeham ended in a temporary triumph +for the bishop. Wycliffe was another cause of difference between +Lancaster and Courtenay. In 1377 the reformer appeared +before Archbishop Sudbury and Courtenay, when an altercation +between the duke and the bishop led to the dispersal of the court, +and during the ensuing riot Lancaster probably owed his safety +to the good offices of his foe. Having meanwhile become archbishop +of Canterbury Courtenay summoned a council, or synod, +in London, which condemned the opinions of Wycliffe; he then +attacked the Lollards at Oxford, and urged the bishops to +imprison heretics. He was for a short time chancellor of England +during 1381, and in January 1382 he officiated at the marriage of +Richard II. with Anne of Bohemia, afterwards crowning the +queen. In 1382 the archbishop’s visitation led to disputes with +the bishops of Exeter and Salisbury, and Courtenay was only +partially able to enforce the payment of a special tax to meet his +expenses on this occasion. During his concluding years the +archbishop appears to have upheld the papal authority in +England, although not to the injury of the English Church. +He protested against the confirmation of the statute of provisors +in 1390, and he was successful in slightly modifying the statute of +praemunire in 1393. Disliking the extravagance of Richard II. +he publicly reproved the king, and after an angry scene the royal +threats drove him for a time into Devonshire. In 1386 he was +one of the commissioners appointed to reform the kingdom and +the royal household, and in 1387 he arranged a peace between +Richard and his enemies under Thomas of Woodstock, duke of +Gloucester. Courtenay died at Maidstone on the 31st of July +1396, and was buried in Canterbury cathedral.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. F. Hook, <i>Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury</i>, vol. iv. +(London, 1860-1876); and W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, vols. +ii. and iii. (Oxford, 1895-1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURTESY<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>curtesie</i>, later <i>courtoisie</i>), manners or +behaviour that suit a court, politeness, due consideration for +others. A special application of the word is in the expression +“by courtesy,” where something is granted out of favour and +not of right, hence “courtesy” titles, <i>i.e.</i> those titles of rank +which are given by custom to the eldest sons of dukes, marquesses +and earls, usually the second title held by the father; to the +younger sons and to the daughters of dukes and marquesses, +viz. the prefix “lord” and “lady” with the Christian and +surname. For “tenure by the courtesy” see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Curtesy</a></span>. Another +form of the word, “curtsey” or “curtsy,” was early confined +to the expression of courtesy or respect by a gesture or bow, +now only of the reverence made by a woman, consisting in a +bending of the knees accompanied by a lowering of the body.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURTHOPE, WILLIAM JOHN<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1842-  ), English writer +and historian of poetry, whose father was rector of South Malling, +Essex, was born on the 17th of July 1842. From Harrow school +he went to New College, Oxford; took first-classes in classical +“moderations” and “greats”; and won the Newdigate prize +for poetry (1864) and the Chancellor’s English essay (1868). +He seemed destined for distinction as a poet, his volume of +<i>Ludibria Lunae</i> (1869) being followed in 1870 by the remarkably +fine <i>Paradise of Birds</i>. But a certain academic quality of mind +seemed to check his output in verse and divert it into the field +of criticism. Apart from many contributions to the higher +journalism, his literary career is associated mainly with his +continuation of the edition of Pope’s works, begun by Whitwell +Elwin (1816-1900), which appeared in ten volumes from 1871-1889; +his life of Addison (Men of Letters series, 1882); his +<i>Liberal Movement in English Literature</i> (1885); and his tenure +of the professorship of Poetry at Oxford (1895-1901), which +resulted in his elaborate <i>History of English Poetry</i> (the first +volume appearing in 1895), and his <i>Life in Poetry</i> (1901). He +deals with the history of English poetry as a whole, and in its +unity as a result of the national spirit and thought in succeeding +ages, and attempts to bring the great poets into relation with +this. In 1887 he was appointed a civil service commissioner, +being first commissioner in 1892, and being made a C.B. He +was made an honorary fellow of his old college at Oxford in 1896, +and was given the honorary degrees of D.Litt. by Durham in +1895 and of LL.D. by Edinburgh University in 1898.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURT LEET<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span>, an English petty criminal court for the punishment +of small offences. It has been usual to make a distinction +between court baron and court leet<a name="FnAnchor_1d" id="FnAnchor_1d" href="#Footnote_1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> as being separate courts, +but in the early history of the court leet no such distinction +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>328</span> +can be drawn. At a very early time the lords of manors exercised +or claimed certain jurisdictional franchises. Of these the most +important was the “view of frankpledge” and its attendant +police jurisdiction. Some time in the later middle ages the +court baron when exercising these powers gained the name of +<i>leet</i>, and, later, of “court leet.” The <i>quo warranto</i> proceedings +of Edward I. established a sharp distinction between the court +baron, exercising strictly manorial rights, and the court leet, +depending for its jurisdiction upon royal franchise. The court +leet was a court of record, and its duty was not only to view the +pledges but to present by jury all crimes that might happen +within the jurisdiction, and punish the same. The steward of +the court acted as judge, presiding wholly in a judicial character, +the ministerial acts being executed by the bailiff. The court +leet began to decline in the 14th century, being superseded by +the more modern courts of the justices, but in many cases courts +leet were kept up until nearly the middle of the 19th century. +Indeed, it cannot be said that they are now actually extinct, +as many still survive for formal purposes, and by s. 40 of the +Sheriffs Act 1887 they are expressly kept up.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1d" id="Footnote_1d" href="#FnAnchor_1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The history of the word “leet” is very obscure. It appears in +Anglo-French documents as <i>lete</i> and in Anglo-Latin as <i>leta</i>. Professor +W. W. Skeat has connected it with Old English <i>láetan</i>, to let, +which is very doubtful, though this is the origin of the use of the +word in such expressions as “two-” “three-way leet,” a place +where cross-roads meet. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> suggests a +connexion with “lathe,” a term which survives as a division of the +county of Kent, containing several “hundreds.” This is of Old +Norwegian origin, and seems to have meant “landed possessions.” +There is also another Old Norwegian <i>léith</i>, a court or judicial assembly, +and modern Danish has <i>laegd</i>, a division of the country for military +purposes. J. H. Round (<i>Feudal England</i>, p. 101) points out that the +Suffolk hundred was divided for assessment into equal blocks called +“leets” (see further F. W. Maitland, <i>Select Pleas in Manorial Courts</i>, +Selden Soc. Publications I. lxxiii-lxxvi). “Leet” is also used, chiefly +in Scotland, for a list of persons nominated for election to an office. +This is, apparently, a shortened form of the French <i>élite</i>, elected.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURT-MARTIAL,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a court for the trial of offences against +military or naval discipline, or for the administration of martial +law. In England courts-martial have inherited part of the +jurisdiction of the old <i>Curia militaris</i>, or court of the chivalry, +in which a single marshal and at one time the high constable +proceeded “according to the customs and usages of that court, +and, in cases omitted according to the civil law, <i>secundum legem +armorum</i>” (Coke, 4 <i>Ins.</i> 17). The modern form of the courts +was adopted by ordinance in the time of Charles I., when English +soldiers were studying the “articles and military laws” of +Gustavus Adolphus and the Dutch military code of Arnheim; +it is first recognized by statute in the first Mutiny Act of 1689. +The Mutiny Act (with various extensions and amendments) +and the statutory articles of war continued to be the sources +of military law which courts-martial administered until 1879, +when they were codified in the Army Discipline and Regulation +Act 1879, which was, in turn, superseded by the Army Act 1881. +This act is re-enacted annually by the Army (Annual) Act. +The constitution of courts-martial, their procedure, &c., are +dealt with under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Military Law</a></span>.</p> + +<p><i>Naval Courts-Martial.</i>—The administration of the barbarous +naval law of England was long entrusted to the discretion of +commanders acting under instructions from the lord high +admiral, who was supreme over both the royal and merchant +navy. It was the leaders of the Long Parliament who first +secured something like a regular tribunal by passing in 1645 +an ordinance and articles concerning martial law for the government +of the navy. Under this ordinance Blake, Monk and Penn +issued instructions for the holding general and ship courts-martial +with written records, the one for captains and commanders, +the other for subordinate officers and men. Of the +latter the mate, gunner and boatswain were members, but the +admirals reserved a control over the more serious sentences. +Under an act of 1661 the high admiral again received power +to issue commissions for holding courts-martial—a power which +continues to be exercised by the board of admiralty. During +the 18th century, under the auspices of Anson, the jurisdiction +was greatly extended, and the Consolidation Act of 1749 was +passed in which the penalty of death occurs as frequently as the +curses in the commination service. The Naval Articles of War +have always been statutory, and the whole system may now be +said to rest on the Naval Discipline Act 1866, as amended by the +act of 1884. The navy has its courts of inquiry for the confidential +investigation of charges “derogatory to the character +of an officer and a gentleman.” Under the act of 1866 a court-martial +must consist of from five to nine officers of a certain +rank, and must be held publicly on board of one of H.M. ships +of war, and where at least two such ships are together. The +rank of the president depends on that of the prisoner. A judge-advocate +attends, and the procedure resembles that in military +courts, except that the prisoner is not asked to plead, and the +sentence, if not one of death, does not require the confirmation +of the commander-in-chief abroad or of the admiralty at home. +The court has a large and useful power of finding the prisoner +guilty of a less serious offence than that charged, which might +well be imitated in the ordinary criminal courts. The death +sentence is always carried out by hanging at the yard-arm; +Admiral Byng, however, was shot in 1757. The board of +admiralty have, under the Naval Discipline Acts, a general +power of suspending, annulling, and modifying sentences which +are not capital. The jurisdiction extends to all persons belonging +to the navy, to land forces and other passengers on board, shipwrecked +crews, spies, persons borne on the books of H.M. ships +in commission, and civilians on board who endeavour to seduce +others from allegiance. The definition of the jurisdiction by +locality includes harbours, havens or creeks, lakes or rivers, +in or out of the United Kingdom; all places within the jurisdiction +of the admiralty; all places on shore out of the United +Kingdom; the dockyards, barracks, hospitals, &c., of the +service wherever situated; all places on shore in or out of the +United Kingdom for all offences punishable under the Articles +of War except those specified in section 38 of the Naval Discipline +Act 1860, which are punishable by ordinary law. The Royal +Marines, while borne on the books of H.M. ships, are subject +to the Naval Discipline Acts, and, by an order in council, 1882, +when they are embarked on board ship for service on shore; +otherwise they are under the Army Acts. By s. 179, sub.-sec. +7, of the Army Act, in the application of the act to the Royal +Marines the admiralty is substituted for military authorities.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Simmons, <i>On the Constitution and Practice of +Courts-Martial</i>; Clode, <i>Military and Martial Law</i>; Stephens, +Gifford and Smith, <i>Manual of Naval Law and Court-Martial Procedure</i>. +The earlier writers on courts-martial are Adye (1796), +M’Arthur (1813), Maltby (1813, Boston), James (1820), D’Aguilar +(1843), and Hough, <i>Precedents in Military Law</i> (1855).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURTNEY, LEONARD HENRY COURTNEY,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1832-  ), +English politician and man of letters, eldest son of J. S. +Courtney, a banker, was born at Penzance on the 6th of July +1832. At Cambridge, Leonard Courtney was second wrangler +and first Smith’s prizeman, and was elected a fellow of his college, +St John’s. He was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1858, +was professor of political economy at University College from +1872 to 1875, and in December 1876, after a previous unsuccessful +attempt, was elected to parliament for Liskeard in the Liberal +interest. He continued to represent the borough, and the +district into which it was merged by the Reform Act of 1885, +until 1900, when his attitude towards the South African War—he +was one of the foremost of the so-called “Pro-Boer” party—compelled +his retirement. Until 1885 he was a devoted adherent +of Mr Gladstone, particularly in finance and foreign affairs. +In 1880 he was under-secretary of state for the home department, +in 1881 for the colonies, and in 1882 secretary to the treasury; +but he was always a stubborn fighter for principle, and upon +finding that the government’s Reform Bill in 1884 contained +no recognition of the scheme for proportional representation, +to which he was deeply committed, he resigned office. He +refused to support Mr Gladstone’s Home Rule Bill in 1885, and +was one of those who chiefly contributed to its rejection, and +whose reputation for unbending integrity and intellectual +eminence gave solidity to the Liberal Unionist party. In 1886 +he was elected chairman of committees in the House of Commons, +and his efficiency in this office seemed to mark him out for the +speakership in 1895. A Liberal Unionist, however, could only +be elected by Conservative votes, and he had made himself +objectionable to a large section of the party by his independent +attitude on various questions, on which his Liberalism outweighed +his party loyalty. He would in any case have been incapacitated +by an affection of the eyesight, which for a while threatened +to withdraw him from public life altogether. After 1895 Mr +Courtney’s divergences from the Unionist party on questions +other than Irish politics became gradually more marked. He +became known in the House of Commons principally for his +candid criticism of the measures introduced by his nominal +leaders, and he was rather to be ranked among the Opposition +than as a Ministerialist; and when the crisis with the Transvaal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>329</span> +came in 1899, Mr Courtney’s views, which remained substantially +what they were when he supported the settlement after Majuba +in 1881, had plainly become incompatible with his position even +as a nominal follower of Lord Salisbury and Mr Chamberlain. +He gradually reverted to formal membership of the Liberal +party, and in January 1906 unsuccessfully contested a division +of Edinburgh as a supporter of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman +at the general election. Among the birthday honours of 1906 +he was elevated to the peerage as Baron Courtney of Penwith +(Cornwall). Lord Courtney, who in 1883 married Miss Catherine +Potter (an elder sister of Mrs Sidney Webb), was a prominent +supporter of the women’s movement. In earlier years he was a +regular contributor to <i>The Times</i>, and he wrote numerous essays +in the principal reviews on political and economic subjects. +In 1901 he published a book on <i>The Working Constitution of the +United Kingdom</i>.</p> + +<p>Two of his brothers, John Mortimer Courtney (b. 1838), and +William Prideaux Courtney (b. 1845), also attained public distinction, +the former in the government service in Canada (from +1869, retiring in 1906), rising to be deputy-minister of finance, +and the latter in the British civil service (1865-1892), and as a +prominent man of letters and bibliographer.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURTOIS, JACQUES<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1621-1676) and <b>GUILLAUME</b> (1628-1679). +The two French painters who bore these names are also +called by the Italian equivalents Giacomo (or Jacopo) Cortese +and Guglielmo Cortese. Each of the brothers is likewise named, +from his native province, Le Bourguignon, or Il Borgognone.</p> + +<p>Jacques Courtois was born at St Hippolyte, near Besançon, in +1621. His father was a painter, and with him Jacques remained +studying up to the age of fifteen. Towards 1637 he came to Italy, +was hospitably received at Milan by a Burgundian gentleman, +and entered, and for three years remained in, the French military +service. The sight of some battle-pictures revived his taste for +fine art. He went to Bologna, and studied under the friendly +tutelage of Guido; thence he proceeded to Rome, where he +painted, in the Cistercian monastery, the “Miracle of the Loaves.” +Here he took a house and after a while entered upon his own +characteristic style of art, that of battle-painting, in which he has +been accounted to excel all other old masters; his merits were +cordially recognized by the celebrated Cerquozzi, named Michelangelo +delle Battaglie. He soon rose from penury to ease, and +married a painter’s beautiful daughter, Maria Vagini; she died +after seven years of wedded life. Prince Matthias of Tuscany +employed Courtois on some striking works in his villa, Lappeggio, +representing with much historical accuracy the prince’s military +exploits. In Venice also the artist executed for the senator +Sagredo some remarkable battle-pieces. In Florence he entered +the Society of Jesus, taking the habit in Rome in 1655; it was +calumniously rumoured that he adopted this course in order to +escape punishment for having poisoned his wife. As a Jesuit +father, Courtois painted many works in churches and monasteries +of the society. He lived piously in Rome, and died there of apoplexy +on the 20th of May 1676 (some accounts say 1670 or 1671). +His battle-pieces have movement and fire, warm colouring (now +too often blackened), and great command of the brush,—those of +moderate dimensions are the more esteemed. They are slight +in execution, and tell out best from a distance. Courtois etched +with skill twelve battle-subjects of his own composition. The +Dantzig painter named in Italy Pandolfo Reschi was his pupil.</p> + +<p>Guillaume Courtois, born likewise at St Hippolyte, came to +Italy with his brother. He went at once to Rome, and entered +the school of Pietro da Cortona. He studied also the Bolognese +painters and Giovanni Barbieri, and formed for himself a style +with very little express mannerism, partly resembling that of +Maratta. He painted the “Battle of Joshua” in the Quirinal +Gallery, the “Crucifixion of St Andrew” in the church of that +saint on Monte Cavallo, various works for the Jesuits, some also +in co-operation with his brother. His last production was +Christ admonishing Martha. His draughtsmanship is better than +that of Jacques, whom he did not, however, rival in spirit, +colour or composition. He also executed some etchings. +Guillaume Courtois died of gout on the 15th of June 1679.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURTRAI<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (Flemish, <i>Kortryk</i>), an important and once famous +town of West Flanders, Belgium, situated on the Lys. Pop. +(1904) 34,564. It is now best known for its fine linen, which +ranks with that of Larne. The lace factories are also important +and employ 5000 hands. But considerable as is the prosperity of +modern Courtrai it is but a shadow of what it was in the middle +ages during the halcyon period of the Flemish communes. Then +Courtrai had a population of 200,000, now it is little over a sixth +of that number. On the 11th of July 1302 the great battle of +Courtrai (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infantry</a></span>) was fought outside its walls, when the +French army, under the count of Artois, was vanquished by the +allied burghers of Bruges, Ypres and Courtrai with tremendous +loss. As many as 700 pairs of golden spurs were collected on the +field from the bodies of French knights and hung up as an +offering in an abbey church of the town, which has long disappeared. +There are still, however, some interesting remains of +Courtrai’s former grandeur. Perhaps the Pont de Broel, with its +towers at either end of the bridge, is as characteristic and +complete as any monument of ancient Flanders that has come +down to modern times. The hôtel de ville, which dated from the +earlier half of the 16th century, was restored in 1846, and since +then statues have also been added to represent those that +formerly ornamented the façade. Two richly and elaborately +carved chimney-pieces in the hôtel de ville merit special notice. +The one in the council chamber upstairs dates from 1527 and +gives an allegorical representation of the Virtues and the Vices. +The other, three-quarters of a century later, contains an heraldic +representation of the noble families of the town. The church of +St Martin dates from the 15th century, but was practically +destroyed in 1862 by a fire caused by lightning. It has been +restored. The most important building at Courtrai is the church +of Notre Dame, which was begun by Count Baldwin IX. in 1191 +and finished in 1211. The portal and the choir were reconstructed +in the 18th century. In the chapel behind the choir is hung one +of Van Dyck’s masterpieces, “The Erection of the Cross.” The +chapel of the counts attached to the church dates from 1373, and +contained mural paintings of the counts and countesses of +Flanders down to the merging of the title in the house of +Burgundy. Most if not all of these had become obliterated, but +they have now been carefully restored. With questionable +judgment portraits have been added of the subsequent holders of +the title down to the emperor Francis II. (I. of Austria), the last +representative of the houses of Flanders and Burgundy to rule +in the Netherlands. Courtrai celebrated the 600th anniversary +of the battle mentioned above by erecting a monument on the +field in 1902, and also by fêtes and historical processions that +continued for a fortnight.</p> + +<p>Courtrai, the <i>Cortracum</i> of the Romans, ranked as a town from +the 7th century onwards. It was destroyed by the Normans, but +was rebuilt in the 10th century by Baldwin III. of Flanders, +who endowed it with market rights and laid the foundation of +its industrial importance by inviting the settlement of foreign +weavers. The town was once more burnt, in 1382, by the French +after the battle of Roosebeke, but was rebuilt in 1385 by Philip +the Bold, duke of Burgundy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COURVOISIER, JEAN JOSEPH ANTOINE<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1775-1835), +French magistrate and politician, was born at Besançon on the +30th of November 1775. During the revolutionary period he +left the country and served in the army of the <i>émigrés</i> and later +in that of Austria. In 1801, under the Consulate, he returned +to France and established himself as an advocate at Besançon, +being appointed <i>conseiller-auditeur</i> to the court of appeal there in +1808. At the Restoration he was made advocate-general by +Louis XVIII., resigned and left France during the Hundred Days, +and was reappointed after the second Restoration in 1815. In +1817, after the modification of the constitution by the <i>ordonnance</i> +of the 5th of September, he was returned to the chamber of +deputies, where he attached himself to the left centre and +supported the moderate policy of Richelieu and Decazes. He +was an eloquent speaker, and master of many subjects; and his +proved royalism made it impossible for the ultra-Royalists to +discredit him, much as they resented his consistent opposition to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id="page330"></a>330</span> +their short-sighted violence. After the revolt at Lyons in 1817 he +was nominated <i>procureur-général</i> of the city, and by his sense +and moderation did much to restore order and confidence. He +was again a member of the chamber from 1819 to 1824, and +vigorously opposed the exceptional legislation which the second +administration of Richelieu passed under the influence of the +ultra-Royalists. In 1824 he failed to secure re-election, and +occupied himself with his judicial duties until his nomination as +councillor of state in 1827. On the 8th of August 1829 he +accepted the offer of the portfolio of justice in the Polignac +ministry, but resigned on the 19th of May 1830, when he realized +that the government intended to abrogate the Charter and the +inevitable revolution that would follow. During the trial of the +ex-ministers, in December, he was summoned as a witness, and +paid a tribute to the character of his former colleagues which, +under the circumstances, argued no little courage. He refused +to take office under Louis Philippe, and retired into private life, +dying on the 18th of September 1835.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUSCOUS,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kous-kous</span> (an Arabic word derived from +<i>kaskasa</i>, to pound), a dish common among the inhabitants of +North Africa, made of flour rubbed together and steamed over +a stew of mutton, fowl, &c., with which it is eaten.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUSIN, JEAN<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1500-1590), French painter, was born at +Soucy, near Sens, and began as a glass-painter, his windows in +the Sainte Chapelle at Vincennes being considered the finest in +France. As a painter of subject pictures he is ranked as the +founder of the French school, as having first departed from the +practice of portraits. His “Last Judgment,” influenced by +Parmigiano, is in the Louvre, and a “Descent from the Cross” +(1523) in the museum at Mainz is attributed to him. He was +known also as a sculptor, and an engraver, both in etching and +on wood, his wood-cuts for Jean le Clerc’s Bible (1596) and +other books being his best-known work. He also wrote a <i>Livre +de perspective</i> (1560), and a <i>Livre de portraiture</i> (1571).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ambroise Firmin-Didot, <i>Étude sur J. Cousin</i> (1872), and +<i>Recueil des œuvres choisies de J. Cousin</i> (1873).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUSIN, VICTOR<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1792-1867), French philosopher, the son +of a watchmaker, was born in Paris, in the Quartier St Antoine, +on the 28th of November 1792. At the age of ten he was sent +to the grammar school of the Quartier St Antoine, the Lycée +Charlemagne. Here he studied until he was eighteen. The +lycée had a connexion with the university, and when Cousin +left the secondary school he was “crowned” in the ancient hall +of the Sorbonne for the Latin oration delivered by him there, +in the general concourse of his school competitors. The classical +training of the lycée strongly disposed him to literature. He +was already known among his compeers for his knowledge of +Greek. From the lycée he passed to the Normal School of Paris, +where Laromiguière was then lecturing on philosophy. In +the second preface to the <i>Fragmens philosophiques</i>, in which +he candidly states the varied philosophical influences of his life, +Cousin speaks of the grateful emotion excited by the memory +of the day in 1811, when he heard Laromiguière for the first +time. “That day decided my whole life. Laromiguière taught +the philosophy of Locke and Condillac, happily modified on +some points, with a clearness and grace which in appearance +at least removed difficulties, and with a charm of spiritual +<i>bonhomie</i> which penetrated and subdued.” Cousin was set +forthwith to lecture on philosophy, and he speedily obtained +the position of master of conferences (<i>maître de conférences</i>) in +the school. The second great philosophical impulse of his life +was the teaching of Royer-Collard. This teacher, as he tells +us, “by the severity of his logic, the gravity and weight of his +words, turned me by degrees, and not without resistance, from +the beaten path of Condillac into the way which has since +become so easy, but which was then painful and unfrequented, +that of the Scottish philosophy.” In 1815-1816 Cousin attained +the position of <i>suppléant</i> (assistant) to Royer-Collard in the +history of modern philosophy chair of the faculty of letters. +There was still another thinker who influenced him at this early +period,—Maine de Biran, whom Cousin regarded as the unequalled +psychological observer of his time in France.</p> + +<p>These men strongly influenced both the method and the +matter of Cousin’s philosophical thought. To Laromiguière +he attributes the lesson of decomposing thought, even though +the reduction of it to sensation was inadequate. Royer-Collard +taught him that even sensation is subject to certain internal +laws and principles which it does not itself explain, which are +superior to analysis and the natural patrimony of the mind. +De Biran made a special study of the phenomena of the will. +He taught him to distinguish in all cognitions, and especially +in the simplest facts of consciousness, the fact of voluntary +activity, that activity in which our personality is truly revealed. +It was through this “triple discipline,” as he calls it, that +Cousin’s philosophical thought was first developed, and that +in 1815 he entered on the public teaching of philosophy in the +Normal School and in the faculty of letters.<a name="FnAnchor_1e" id="FnAnchor_1e" href="#Footnote_1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> He then took up +the study of German, worked at Kant and Jacobi, and sought +to master the <i>Philosophy of Nature</i> of Schelling, by which he +was at first greatly attracted. The influence of Schelling may be +observed very markedly in the earlier form of his philosophy. +He sympathized with the principle of faith of Jacobi, but regarded +it as arbitrary so long as it was not recognized as grounded +in reason. In 1817 he went to Germany, and met Hegel at +Heidelberg. In this year appeared Hegel’s <i>Encyclopädie der +philosophischen Wissenschaften</i>, of which Cousin had one of the +earliest copies. He thought Hegel not particularly amiable, +but the two became friends. The following year Cousin went to +Munich, where he met Schelling for the first time, and spent a +month with him and Jacobi, obtaining a deeper insight into the +<i>Philosophy of Nature</i>.</p> + +<p>The political troubles of France interfered for a time with +his career. In the events of 1814-1815 he took the royalist side. +He at first adopted the views of the party known as +<i>doctrinaire</i>, of which Royer-Collard was the philosophical +<span class="sidenote">Political troubles.</span> +chief. He seems then to have gone farther +than his party, and even to have approached the extreme Left. +Then came a reaction against liberalism, and in 1821-1822 +Cousin was deprived of his offices alike in the faculty of letters +and in the Normal School. The Normal School itself was swept +away, and Cousin shared at the hands of a narrow and illiberal +government the fate of Guizot, who was ejected from the chair +of history. This enforced abandonment of public teaching was +not wholly an evil. He set out for Germany with a view to +further philosophical study. While at Berlin in 1824-1825 he +was thrown into prison, either on some ill-defined political +charge at the instance of the French police, or on account of +certain incautious expressions which he had let fall in conversation. +Liberated after six months, he continued under the +suspicion of the French government for three years. It was +during this period, however, that he thought out and developed +what is distinctive in his philosophical doctrine. His eclecticism, +his ontology and his philosophy of history were declared in +principle and in most of their salient details in the <i>Fragmens +philosophiques</i> (Paris, 1826). The preface to the +<span class="sidenote">Fragmens philosophiques.</span> +second edition (1833) and the <i>Avertissement</i> to the +third (1838) aimed at a vindication of his principles +against contemporary criticism. Even the best of his +later books, the <i>Philosophie écossaise</i> (4th ed., 1863), the <i>Du +vrai, du beau, et du bien</i> (12th ed., 1872; Eng. trans., 3rd ed., +Edinburgh, 1854), and the <i>Philosophie de Locke</i> (4th ed., 1861) +were simply matured revisions of his lectures during the period +from 1815 to 1820. The lectures on Locke were first sketched +in 1819, and fully developed in the course of 1829.</p> + +<p>During the seven years of enforced abandonment of teaching +he produced, besides the <i>Fragmens</i>, the edition of the works +of Proclus (6 vols., 1820-1827), and the works of Descartes +(11 vols., 1826). He also commenced his <i>Translation of Plato</i> +(13 vols.), which occupied his leisure time from 1825 to 1840.</p> + +<p>We see in the <i>Fragmens</i> very distinctly the fusion of the +different philosophical influences by which his opinions were +finally matured. For Cousin was as eclectic in thought and habit +of mind as he was in philosophical principle and system. It is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>331</span> +with the publication of the <i>Fragmens</i> of 1826 that the first great +widening of his reputation is associated. In 1827 followed the +<i>Cours de l’histoire de la philosophie</i>.</p> + +<p>In 1828 M. de Vatimesnil, minister of public instruction in +Martignac’s ministry, recalled Cousin and Guizot to their +professorial positions in the university. The three +years which followed were the period of Cousin’s +<span class="sidenote">Career as a lecturer.</span> +greatest triumph as a lecturer. His return to the +chair was the symbol of the triumph of constitutional ideas and +was greeted with enthusiasm. The hall of the Sorbonne was +crowded as the hall of no philosophical teacher in Paris had been +since the days of Abelard. The lecturer had a singular power +of identifying himself for the time with the system which he +expounded and the historical character he portrayed. Clear +and comprehensive in the grasp of the general outlines of his +subject, he was methodical and vivid in the representation of +details. In exposition he had the rare art of unfolding and +aggrandizing. There was a rich, deep-toned, resonant eloquence +mingled with the speculative exposition; his style of expression +was clear, elegant and forcible, abounding in happy turns and +striking antitheses. To this was joined a singular power of +rhetorical climax. His philosophy exhibited in a striking +manner the generalizing tendency of the French intellect, and +its logical need of grouping details round central principles.</p> + +<p>There was withal a moral elevation in his spiritual philosophy +which came home to the hearts of his hearers, and seemed to +afford a ground for higher development in national literature and +art, and even in politics, than the traditional philosophy of +France had appeared capable of yielding. His lectures produced +more ardent disciples, imbued at least with his spirit, than those +of any other professor of philosophy in France during the 18th +century. Tested by the power and effect of his teaching influence, +Cousin occupies a foremost place in the rank of professors of +philosophy, who like Jacobi, Schelling and Dugald Stewart +have united the gifts of speculative, expository and imaginative +power. Tested even by the strength of the reaction which his +writings have in some cases occasioned, his influence is hardly less +remarkable. The taste for philosophy—especially its history—was +revived in France to an extent unknown since the 17th +century.</p> + +<p>Among the men who were influenced by Cousin we may note +T. S. Jouffroy, J. P. Damiron, Garnier, J. Barthélemy St Hilaire, +F. Ravaisson-Mollien, Rémusat, Jules Simon and +A. Franck. Jouffroy and Damiron were first fellow-students +<span class="sidenote">Disciples and followers.</span> +and then disciples. Jouffroy, however, +always kept firm to the early—the French and +Scottish—impulses of Cousin’s teaching. Cousin continued to +lecture regularly for two years and a half after his return to the +chair. Sympathizing with the revolution of July, he was at once +recognized by the new government as a friend of national liberty. +Writing in June 1833 he explains both his philosophical and his +political position:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“I had the advantage of holding united against me for many +years both the sensational and the theological school. In 1830 +both schools descended into the arena of politics. The sensational +school quite naturally produced the demagogic party, and the theological +school became quite as naturally absolutism, safe to borrow +from time to time the mask of the demagogue in order the better +to reach its ends, as in philosophy it is by scepticism that it undertakes +to restore theocracy. On the other hand, he who combated +any exclusive principle in science was bound to reject also any exclusive +principle in the state, and to defend representative government.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The government was not slow to do him honour. He was +induced by the ministry of which his friend Guizot was the head +to become a member of the council of public instruction and +counsellor of state, and in 1832 he was made a peer of France. +He ceased to lecture, but retained the title of professor of +philosophy. Finally, he accepted the position of minister of +public instruction in 1840 under Thiers. He was besides director +of the Normal School and virtual head of the university, and from +1840 a member of the Institute (Academy of the Moral and +Political Sciences). His character and his official position at this +period gave him great power in the university and in the educational +arrangements of the country. In fact, during the seventeen +and a half years of the reign of Louis Philippe, Cousin mainly +moulded the philosophical and even the literary tendencies of the +cultivated class in France.</p> + +<p>But the most important work he accomplished during this +period was the organization of primary instruction. It was to the +efforts of Cousin that France owed her advance, in +primary education, between 1830 and 1848. Prussia +<span class="sidenote">Relation to primary education in France.</span> +and Saxony had set the national example, and France +was guided into it by Cousin. Forgetful of national +calamity and of personal wrong, he looked to Prussia as affording +the best example of an organized system of national education; +and he was persuaded that “to carry back the education of +Prussia into France afforded a nobler (if a bloodless) triumph +than the trophies of Austerlitz and Jena.” In the summer of +1831, commissioned by the government, he visited Frankfort and +Saxony, and spent some time in Berlin. The result was a series +of reports to the minister, afterwards published as <i>Rapport sur +l’état de l’instruction publique dans quelques pays de l’Allemagne +et particulièrement en Prusse</i>. (Compare also <i>De l’instruction +publique en Hollande</i>, 1837.) His views were readily accepted on +his return to France, and soon afterwards through his influence +there was passed the law of primary instruction. (See his +<i>Exposé des motifs et projet de loi sur l’instruction primaire, +présentés à la chambre des députés, séance du 2 janvier 1833</i>.)</p> + +<p>In the words of the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> (July 1833), these +documents “mark an epoch in the progress of national education, +and are directly conducive to results important not only to +France but to Europe.” The <i>Report</i> was translated into English +by Mrs Sarah Austin in 1834. The translation was frequently +reprinted in the United States of America. The legislatures of +New Jersey and Massachusetts distributed it in the schools at +the expense of the states. Cousin remarks that, among all the +literary distinctions which he had received, “None has touched +me more than the title of foreign member of the American +Institute for Education.” To the enlightened views of the +ministries of Guizot and Thiers under the citizen-king, and to the +zeal and ability of Cousin in the work of organization, France +owes what is best in her system of primary education,—a national +interest which had been neglected under the Revolution, the +Empire and the Restoration (see <i>Exposé</i>, p. 17). In the first two +years of the reign of Louis Philippe more was done for the +education of the people than had been either sought or accomplished +in all the history of France. In defence of university +studies he stood manfully forth in the chamber of peers in 1844, +against the clerical party on the one hand and the levelling +or Philistine party on the other. His speeches on this occasion +were published in a tractate <i>Défense de l’université et de la +philosophie</i> (1844 and 1845).</p> + +<p>This period of official life from 1830 to 1848 was spent, so far as +philosophical study was concerned, in revising his former lectures +and writings, in maturing them for publication or +reissue, and in research into certain periods of the +<span class="sidenote">Philosophical writings.</span> +history of philosophy. In 1835 appeared <i>De la +Métaphysique d’Aristote, suivi d’un essai de traduction +des deux premiers livres</i>; in 1836, <i>Cours de philosophie professé à +la faculté des lettres pendant l’année 1818</i>, and <i>Ouvrages inédits +d’Abélard</i>. This <i>Cours de philosophie</i> appeared later in 1854 as +<i>Du vrai, du beau, et du bien</i>. From 1825 to 1840 appeared +<i>Cours de l’histoire de la philosophie</i>, in 1829 <i>Manuel de l’histoire de +la philosophie de Tennemann</i>, translated from the German. In +1840-1841 we have <i>Cours d’histoire de la philosophie morale au +XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (5 vols.). In 1841 appeared his edition of the +<i>Œuvres philosophiques de Maine-de-Biran</i>; in 1842, <i>Leçons de +philosophie sur Kant</i> (Eng. trans. A. G. Henderson, 1854), and in +the same year <i>Des Pensées de Pascal</i>. The <i>Nouveaux fragments</i> +were gathered together and republished in 1847. Later, in 1859, +appeared <i>Petri Abaelardi Opera</i>.</p> + +<p>During this period Cousin seems to have turned with fresh +interest to those literary studies which he had abandoned for +speculation under the influence of Laromiguière and Royer-Collard. +To this renewed interest we owe his studies of men +<span class="sidenote">Literary studies.</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>332</span> +and women of note in France in the 17th century. As the results +of his work in this line, we have, besides the <i>Des Pensêes de +Pascal</i>, 1842, <i>Études sur les femmes et la société du +XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, 1853. He has sketched Jacqueline Pascal +(1844), Madame de Longueville (1853), the marquise de +Sablé (1854), the duchesse de Chevreuse (1856), Madame de +Hautefort (1856).</p> + +<p>When the reign of Louis Philippe came to a close through the +opposition of his ministry, with Guizot at its head, to the demand +for electoral reform and through the policy of the Spanish +marriages, Cousin, who was opposed to the government on these +points, lent his sympathy to Cavaignac and the Provisional +government. He published a pamphlet entitled <i>Justice et +charité</i>, the purport of which showed the moderation of his +political views. It was markedly anti-socialistic. But from this +period he passed almost entirely from public life, and ceased to +wield the personal influence which he had done during the +preceding years. After the <i>coup d’état</i> of the 2nd of December, +he was deprived of his position as permanent member of the +superior council of public instruction. From Napoleon and the +Empire he stood aloof. A decree of 1852 placed him along with +Guizot and Villemain in the rank of honorary professors. His +sympathies were apparently with the monarchy, under certain +constitutional safeguards. Speaking in 1853 of the political +issues of the spiritual philosophy which he had taught during his +lifetime, he says,—“It conducts human societies to the true +republic, that dream of all generous souls, which in our time can +be realized in Europe only by constitutional monarchy.”<a name="FnAnchor_2e" id="FnAnchor_2e" href="#Footnote_2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>During the last years of his life he occupied a suite of rooms in +the Sorbonne, where he lived simply and unostentatiously. The +chief feature of the rooms was his noble library, the cherished +collection of a lifetime. He died at Cannes on the 13th of +January 1867, in his sixty-fifth year. In the front of the +Sorbonne, below the lecture rooms of the faculty of letters, a +tablet records an extract from his will, in which he bequeaths +his noble and cherished library to the halls of his professorial +work and triumphs.</p> + +<p><i>Philosophy.</i>—There are three distinctive points in Cousin’s +philosophy. These are his method, the results of his method, +and the application of the method and its results to history,—especially +to the history of philosophy. It is usual to speak of his +philosophy as eclecticism. It is eclectic only in a secondary and +subordinate sense. All eclecticism that is not self-condemned +and inoperative implies a system of doctrine as its basis,—in fact, +a criterion of truth. Otherwise, as Cousin himself remarks, it +is simply a blind and useless syncretism. And Cousin saw and +proclaimed from an early period in his philosophical teaching the +necessity of a system on which to base his eclecticism. This is +indeed advanced as an illustration or confirmation of the truth of +his system,—as a proof that the facts of history correspond to his +analysis of consciousness. These three points—the method, the +results, and the philosophy of history—are with him intimately +connected; they are developments in a natural order of sequence. +They become in practice Psychology, Ontology and Eclecticism +in history.</p> + +<p>First, as to method. On no point has Cousin more strongly +insisted than the importance of method in philosophy. That +which he adopts, and the necessity of which he so +strongly proclaims, is the ordinary one of observation, +<span class="sidenote">Method.</span> +analysis and induction. This observational method Cousin +regards as that of the 18th century,—the method which Descartes +began and abandoned, and which Locke and Condillac applied, +though imperfectly, and which Reid and Kant used with more +success, yet not completely. He insists that this is the true +method of philosophy as applied to consciousness, in which +alone the facts of experience appear. But the proper condition +of the application of the method is that it shall not through +prejudice of system omit a single fact of consciousness. If the +authority of consciousness is good in one instance, it is good in all. +If not to be trusted in one, it is not to be trusted in any. Previous +systems have erred in not presenting the facts of consciousness, +<i>i.e.</i> consciousness itself, in their totality. The observational +method applied to consciousness gives us the science of psychology. +This is the basis and the only proper basis of ontology or +metaphysics—the science of being—and of the philosophy of +history. To the observation of consciousness Cousin adds +induction as the complement of his method, by which he means +inference as to reality necessitated by the data of consciousness, +and regulated by certain laws found in consciousness, viz. +those of reason. By his method of observation and induction as +thus explained, his philosophy will be found to be marked off +very clearly, on the one hand from the deductive construction of +notions of an absolute system, as represented either by Schelling +or Hegel, which Cousin regards as based simply on hypothesis +and abstraction, illegitimately obtained; and on the other, +from that of Kant, and in a sense, of Sir W. Hamilton, both of +which in the view of Cousin are limited to psychology, and +merely relative or phenomenal knowledge, and issue in scepticism +so far as the great realities of ontology are concerned. What +Cousin finds psychologically in the individual consciousness, he +finds also spontaneously expressed in the common sense or +universal experience of humanity. In fact, it is with him the +function of philosophy to classify and explain universal convictions +and beliefs; but common-sense is not with him +philosophy, nor is it the instrument of philosophy; it is +simply the material on which the philosophical method works, +and in harmony with which its results must ultimately be found.</p> + +<p>The three great results of psychological observation +<span class="sidenote">Results.</span> +are Sensibility, Activity or Liberty, and Reason.</p> + +<p>These three facts are different in character, but are not found +apart in consciousness. Sensations, or the facts of the sensibility, +are necessary; we do not impute them to ourselves. The facts of +reason are also necessary, and reason is not less independent of +the will than the sensibility. Voluntary facts alone are marked +in the eyes of consciousness with the characters of imputability +and personality. The will alone is the person or <i>Me</i>. The me +is the centre of the intellectual sphere without which consciousness +is impossible. We find ourselves in a strange world, between +two orders of phenomena which do not belong to us, which we +apprehend only on the condition of our distinguishing ourselves +from them. Further, we apprehend by means of a light which +does not come from ourselves. All light comes from the reason, +and it is the reason which apprehends both itself and the sensibility +which envelops it, and the will which it obliges but does not +constrain. Consciousness, then, is composed of these three +integrant and inseparable elements. But Reason is the immediate +ground of knowledge and of consciousness itself.</p> + +<p>But there is a peculiarity in Cousin’s doctrine of activity or +freedom, and in his doctrine of reason, which enters deeply into +his system. This is the element of spontaneity in +volition and in reason. This is the heart of what is +<span class="sidenote">Spontaneity in will.</span> +new alike in his doctrine of knowledge and being. +Liberty or freedom is a generic term which means a +cause or being endowed with self-activity. This is to itself and +its own development its own ultimate cause. Free-will is so, +although it is preceded by deliberation and determination, <i>i.e.</i> +reflection, for we are always conscious that even after determination +we are free to will or not to will. But there is a primary kind +of volition which has not reflection for its condition, which is yet +free and spontaneous. We must have willed thus spontaneously +first, otherwise we could not know, before our reflective volition, +that we could will and act. Spontaneous volition is free as +reflective, but it is the prior act of the two. This view of liberty +of will is the only one in accordance with the facts of humanity; +it excludes reflective volition, and explains the enthusiasm of the +poet and the artist in the act of creation; it explains also the +ordinary actions of mankind, which are done as a rule spontaneously +and not after reflective deliberation.</p> + +<p>But it is in his doctrine of the Reason that the distinctive +principle of the philosophy of Cousin lies. The reason given to +us by psychological observation, the reason of our consciousness, +is impersonal in its nature. We do not make it; its character +<span class="sidenote">Impersonality of reason.</span> +is precisely the opposite of individuality; it is universal and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>333</span> +necessary. The recognition of universal and necessary principles +in knowledge is the essential point in psychology; it ought to +be put first and emphasized to the last that these +exist, and that they are wholly impersonal or absolute. +The number of these principles, their enumeration +and classification, is an important point, but it is +secondary to that of the recognition of their true nature. This +was the point which Kant missed in his analysis, and this is the +fundamental truth which Cousin thinks he has restored to the +integrity of philosophy by the method of the observation of +consciousness. And how is this impersonality or absoluteness of +the conditions of knowledge to be established? The answer is in +substance that Kant went wrong in putting necessity first as the +criterion of those laws. This brought them within the sphere of +reflection, and gave as their guarantee the impossibility of +thinking them reversed; and led to their being regarded as +wholly relative to human intelligence, restricted to the sphere of +the phenomenal, incapable of revealing to us substantial reality—necessary, +yet subjective. But this test of necessity is a wholly +secondary one; these laws are not thus guaranteed to us; they +are each and all given to us, given to our consciousness, in an +act of spontaneous apperception or apprehension, immediately, +instantaneously, in a sphere above the reflective consciousness, +yet within the reach of knowledge. And “all subjectivity with +all reflection expires in the spontaneity of apperception. The +reason becomes subjective by relation to the voluntary and free +self; but in itself it is impersonal; it belongs not to this or to that +self in humanity; it belongs not even to humanity. We may say +with truth that nature and humanity belong to it, for without +its laws both would perish.”</p> + +<p>But what is the number of those laws? Kant reviewing the +enterprise of Aristotle in modern times has given a complete list +of the laws of thought, but it is arbitrary in classification +and may be legitimately reduced. According to +<span class="sidenote">Laws of reason.</span> +Cousin, there are but two primary laws of thought, that +of causality and that of substance. From these flow naturally +all the others. In the order of nature, that of substance is the +first and causality second. In the order of acquisition of our +knowledge, causality precedes substance, or rather both are given +us in each other, and are contemporaneous in consciousness.</p> + +<p>These principles of reason, cause and substance, given thus +psychologically, enable us to pass beyond the limits of the +relative and subjective to objective and absolute reality,—enable +us, in a word, to pass from psychology, or the science of knowledge, +to ontology or the science of being. These laws are +inextricably mixed in consciousness with the data of volition and +sensation, with free activity and fatal action or impression, and +they guide us in rising to a personal being, a self or free cause, +and to an impersonal reality, a not-me—nature, the world of +force—lying out of us, and modifying us. As I refer to myself +the act of attention and volition, so I cannot but refer the +sensation to some cause, necessarily other than myself, that is, +to an external cause, whose existence is as certain for me as my +own existence, since the phenomenon which suggests it to me is +as certain as the phenomenon which had suggested my reality, +and both are given in each other. I thus reach an objective +impersonal world of forces which corresponds to the variety of my +sensations. The relation of these forces or causes to each other +is the order of the universe.</p> + +<p>But these two forces, the me and the not-me, are reciprocally +limitative. As reason has apprehended these two simultaneous +phenomena, attention and sensation, and led us +immediately to conceive the two sorts of distinct +<span class="sidenote">The infinite or absolute.</span> +causes, correlative and reciprocally finite, to which +they are related, so, from the notion of this limitation, +we find it impossible under the same guide not to conceive a +supreme cause, absolute and infinite, itself the first and last +cause of all. This is relatively to self and not-self what these +are to their proper effects. This cause is self-sufficient, and +is sufficient for the reason. This is God; he must be conceived +under the notion of cause, related to humanity and the world. +He is absolute substance only in so far as he is absolute cause, +and his essence lies precisely in his creative power. He thus +creates, and he creates necessarily.</p> + +<p>This theodicy of Cousin laid him open obviously enough to +the charge of pantheism. This he repels, and his answer may be +summed up as follows. Pantheism is properly the +deification of the law of phenomena, the universe God. +<span class="sidenote">Charge of Pantheism.</span> +But I distinguish the two finite causes self and not-self +from each other and from the infinite cause. They +are not mere modifications of this cause or properties, as with +Spinoza,—they are free forces having their power or spring of +action in themselves, and this is sufficient for our idea of +independent finite reality. I hold this, and I hold the relation of +these as effects to the one supreme cause. The God I plead for +is neither the deity of Pantheism, nor the absolute unity of the +Eleatics, a being divorced from all possibility of creation or +plurality, a mere metaphysical abstraction. The deity I maintain +is creative, and necessarily creative. The deity of Spinoza and +the Eleatics is a mere substance, not a cause in any sense. As +to the necessity under which Deity exists of acting or creating, +this is the highest form of liberty, it is the freedom of spontaneity, +activity without deliberation. His action is not the result of a +struggle between passion and virtue. He is free in an unlimited +manner; the purest spontaneity in man is but the shadow of the +freedom of God. He acts freely but not arbitrarily, and with +the consciousness of being able to choose the opposite part. +He cannot deliberate or will as we do. His spontaneous action +excludes at once the efforts and the miseries of will and the +mechanical operation of necessity.</p> + +<p>The elements found in consciousness are also to be found in +the history of humanity and in the history of philosophy. In +external nature there are expansion and contraction +which correspond to spontaneity and reflection. External +<span class="sidenote">History of philosophy.</span> +nature again in contrast with humanity expresses +spontaneity; humanity expresses reflection. In +human history the East represents the spontaneous stage; +the Pagan and Christian world represent stages of reflection.</p> + +<p>This was afterwards modified, expanded and more fully +expressed by saying that humanity in its universal development +has three principal moments. First, in the spontaneous stage, +where reflection is not yet developed, and art is imperfect, +humanity has thought only of the immensity around it. It is +preoccupied by the infinite. Secondly, in the reflective stage, +mind has become an object to itself. It thus knows itself explicitly +or reflectively. Its own individuality is now the only +or at least the supreme thing. This is the moment of the finite. +Thirdly, there comes an epoch in which the self or me is subordinated. +Mind realizes another power in the universe. The +finite and the infinite become two real correlatives in the relation +of cause and product. This is the third and highest stage of +development, the relation of the finite and the infinite. As +philosophy is but the highest expression of humanity, these three +moments will be represented in its history. The East typifies +the infinite, Greece the finite or reflective epoch, the modern +era the stage of relation or correlation of infinite and finite. In +theology, the dominant philosophical idea of each of these epochs +results in pantheism, polytheism, theism. In politics we have +in correspondence also with the idea, monarchy, democracy, +constitutionalism.</p> + +<p>Eclecticism thus means the application of the psychological +method to the history of philosophy. Confronting the various +systems co-ordinated as sensualism, idealism, scepticism, +mysticism, with the facts of consciousness, the +<span class="sidenote">Eclecticism.</span> +result was reached “that each system expresses an +order of phenomena and ideas, which is in truth very real, but +which is not alone in consciousness, and which at the same time +holds an almost exclusive place in the system; whence it +follows that each system is not false but incomplete, and that +in re-uniting all incomplete systems, we should have a complete +philosophy, adequate to the totality of consciousness.” Philosophy, +as thus perfected, would not be a mere aggregation of +systems, as is ignorantly supposed, but an integration of the +truth in each system after the false or incomplete is discarded.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>334</span></p> + +<p>Such is the system in outline. The historical position of the +system lies in its relations to Kant, Schelling and Hegel. Cousin +was opposed to Kant in asserting that the unconditioned +in the form of infinite or absolute cause is but +<span class="sidenote">Relations to Kant, Schelling and Hegel.</span> +a mere unrealizable tentative or effort on the part of +the mind, something different from a mere negation, +yet not equivalent to a positive thought. With Cousin the +absolute as the ground of being is grasped positively by the +intelligence, and it renders all else intelligible; it is not as with +Kant a certain hypothetical or regulative need.</p> + +<p>With Schelling again Cousin agrees in regarding this supreme +ground of all as positively apprehended, and as a source of +development, but he utterly repudiates Schelling’s method. +The intellectual intuition either falls under the eye of consciousness, +or it does not. If not, how do you know it and its object +which are identical? If it does, it comes within the sphere of +psychology; and the objections to it as thus a relative, made +by Schelling himself, are to be dealt with. Schelling’s intellectual +intuition is the mere negation of knowledge.</p> + +<p>Again the pure being of Hegel is a mere abstraction,—a +hypothesis illegitimately assumed, which he has nowhere sought +to vindicate. The very point to be established is the possibility +of reaching being per se or pure being; yet in the Hegelian +system this is the very thing assumed as a starting-point. Besides +this, of course, objections might be made to the method of +development, as not only subverting the principle of contradiction, +but as galvanizing negation into a means of advancing or +developing the whole body of human knowledge and reality. +The intellectual intuition of Schelling, as above consciousness, +the pure being of Hegel, as an empty abstraction, unvindicated, +illegitimately assumed, and arbitrarily developed, are equally +useless as bases of metaphysics. This led Cousin, still holding +by essential knowledge of being, to ground it in an analysis of +consciousness,—in psychology.</p> + +<p>The absolute or infinite—the unconditioned ground and source +of all reality—is yet apprehended by us as an immediate datum +or reality; and it is apprehended in consciousness—under its +condition, that, to wit, of distinguishing subject and object, +knower and known. The doctrine of Cousin was criticized by +Sir W. Hamilton in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> of 1829, and it was +animadverted upon about the same time by Schelling. +Hamilton’s objections are as follows. The correlation of the +ideas of infinite and finite does not necessarily imply their +correality, as Cousin supposes; on the contrary, it is a presumption +that finite is simply positive and infinite negative of +the same—that the finite and infinite are simply contradictory +relatives. Of these “the positive alone is real, the negative is +only an abstraction of the other, and in the highest generality +even an abstraction of thought itself.” A study of the few +sentences under this head might have obviated the trifling +criticism of Hamilton’s objection which has been set afloat +recently, that the denial of a knowledge of the absolute or infinite +implies a foregone knowledge of it. How can you deny +the reality of that which you do not know? The answer to this +is that in the case of contradictory statements—A and not A—the +latter is a mere negation of the former, and posits nothing; +and the negation of a notion with positive attributes, as the +finite, does not extend beyond abolishing the given attributes as +an object of thought. The infinite or non-finite is not necessarily +known, ere the finite is negated, or in order to negate it; all that +needs be known is the finite itself; and the contradictory +negation of it implies no positive. Non-organized may or may +not correspond to a positive—<i>i.e.</i> an object or notion with +qualities contradictory of the organized; but the mere sublation +of the organized does not posit it, or suppose that it is known +beforehand, or that anything exists corresponding to it. This is +one among many flaws in the Hegelian dialectic, and it paralyzes +the whole of the <i>Logic</i>. Secondly, the conditions of intelligence, +which Cousin allows, necessarily exclude the possibility of knowledge +of the absolute—they are held to be incompatible with its +unity. Here Schelling and Hamilton argue that Cousin’s absolute +is a mere relative. Thirdly, it is objected that in order to deduce +the conditioned, Cousin makes his absolute a relative; for he +makes it an absolute cause, <i>i.e.</i> a cause existing absolutely under +relation. As such it is necessarily inferior to the sum total of its +effects, and dependent for reality on these—in a word, a mere +potence or becoming. Further, as a theory of creation, it makes +creation a necessity, and destroys the notion of the divine. +Cousin made no reply to Hamilton’s criticism beyond alleging +that Hamilton’s doctrine necessarily restricted human knowledge +and certainty to psychology and logic, and destroyed metaphysics +by introducing nescience and uncertainty into its highest +sphere—theodicy.</p> + +<p>The attempt to render the laws of reason or thought impersonal +by professing to find them in the sphere of spontaneous apperception, +and above reflective necessity, can hardly be +regarded as successful. It may be that we first of all +<span class="sidenote">Criticism of his philosophy. Impersonality of reason.</span> +primitively or spontaneously affirm cause, substance, +time, space, &c., in this way. But these are still in +each instance given us as realized in a particular form. +In no single act of affirmation of cause or substance, +much less in such a primitive act, do we affirm the universality +of their application. We might thus get particular instances or +cases of these laws, but we could never get the laws themselves +in their universality, far less absolute impersonality. And as +they are not supposed to be mere generalizations from experience, +no amount of individual instances of the application of any one +of them by us would give it a true universality. The only sure +test we have of their universality in our experience is the test +of their reflective necessity. We thus after all fall back on +reflection as our ground for their universal application; mere +spontaneity of apprehension is futile; their universality is +grounded in their necessity, not their necessity in their universality. +How far and in what sense this ground of necessity +renders them personal are of course questions still to be solved.</p> + +<p>But if these three correlative facts are immediately given, it +seems to be thought possible by Cousin to vindicate them in +reflective consciousness. He seeks to trace the steps which the +reason has spontaneously and consciously, but irreflectively, +followed. And here the question arises—Can we vindicate in a +reflective or mediate process this spontaneous apprehension of +reality?</p> + +<p>The self is found to be a cause of force, free in its action, on the +ground that we are obliged to relate the volition of consciousness +to the self as its cause, and its ultimate cause. It is not clear from +the analysis whether the self is immediately observed as an acting +or originating cause, or whether reflection working on the principle +of causality is compelled to infer its existence and character. If +self is actually so given, we do not need the principle of causality +to infer it; if it is not so given, causality could never give us +either the notion or the fact of self as a cause or force, far less +as an ultimate one. All that it could do would be to warrant +a cause of some sort, but not this or that reality as the cause. +And further, the principle of causality, if fairly carried out, as +universal and necessary, would not allow us to stop at personality +or will as the ultimate cause of its effect—volition. Once +applied to the facts at all, it would drive us beyond the first +antecedent or term of antecedents of volition to a still further +cause or ground—in fact, land us in an infinite regress of causes.</p> + +<p>The same criticism is even more emphatically applicable to +the influence of a not-self, or world of forces, corresponding to +our sensations, and the cause of them. Starting from sensation +as our basis, causality could never give us this, even though it +be allowed that sensation is impersonal to the extent of being +independent of our volition. Causality might tell us that a cause +there is of sensation somewhere and of some sort; but that this +cause is a force or sum of forces, existing in space, independently +of us, and corresponding to our sensations, it could never tell us, +for the simple reason that such a notion is not supposed to exist +in our consciousness. Causality cannot add to the number of +our notions,—cannot add to the number of realities we know. +All it can do is to necessitate us to think that a cause there is +of a given change, but <i>what</i> that cause is it cannot of itself inform +us, or even suggest to us, beyond implying that it must be adequate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335"></a>335</span> +to the effect. Sensation might arise, for aught we know, so far +as causality leads us, not from a world of forces at all, but from +a will like our own, though infinitely more powerful, acting upon +us, partly furthering and partly thwarting us. And indeed such +a supposition is, with the principle of causality at work, within +the limits of probability, as we are already supposed to know +such a reality—a will—in our own consciousness. When Cousin +thus set himself to vindicate those points by reflection, he gave up +the obvious advantage of his other position that the realities in +question are given us in immediate and spontaneous apprehension. +The same criticism applies equally to the inference of an absolute +cause from the two limited forces which he names self and not-self. +Immediate spontaneous apperception may seize this supreme +reality; but to vindicate it by reflection as an inference on the +principle of causality is impossible. This is a mere paralogism; +we can never infer either absolute or infinite from relative or +finite.</p> + +<p>The truth is that Cousin’s doctrine of the spontaneous apperception +of impersonal truth amounts to little more than a presentment +in philosophical language of the ordinary convictions +and beliefs of mankind. This is important as a preliminary +stage, but philosophy properly begins when it attempts to co-ordinate +or systematize those convictions in harmony, to conciliate +apparent contradiction and opposition, as between the correlative +notions of finite and infinite, the apparently conflicting notions +of personality and infinitude, self and not-self; in a word, to +reconcile the various sides of consciousness with each other. +And whether the laws of our reason are the laws of all intelligence +and being—whether and how we are to relate our fundamental, +intellectual and moral conceptions to what is beyond our +experience, or to an infinite being—are problems which Cousin +cannot be regarded as having solved. These are in truth the +outstanding problems of modern philosophy.</p> + +<p>Cousin’s doctrine of spontaneity in volition can hardly be said +to be more successful than his impersonality of the reason through +spontaneous apperception. Sudden, unpremeditated +volition may be the earliest and the most artistic, +<span class="sidenote">Volition.</span> +but it is not the best. Volition is essentially a free choice between +alternatives, and that is best which is most deliberate, because +it is most rational. Aristotle touched this point in his distinction +between <span class="grk" title="boulêsis">βούλησις</span> and <span class="grk" title="proairesis">προαίρεσις</span>. The sudden and unpremeditated +wish represented by the former is wholly inferior in +character to the free choice of the latter, guided and illumined +by intelligence. In this we can deliberately resolve upon what +is in our power; in that we are subject to the vain impulse of +wishing the impossible. Spontaneity is pleasing, sometimes +beautiful, but it is not in this instance the highest quality of +the thing to be obtained. That is to be found in a guiding and +illumining reflective activity.</p> + +<p>Eclecticism is not open to the superficial objection of proceeding +without a system or test in determining the complete +or incomplete. But it is open to the objection of +assuming that a particular analysis of consciousness has +<span class="sidenote">General estimate.</span> +reached all the possible elements in humanity and in +history, and all their combinations. It may be asked, Can +history have that which is not in the individual consciousness? +In a sense not; but our analysis may not give all that is there, +and we ought not at once to impose that analysis or any formula +on history. History is as likely to reveal to us in the first place +true and original elements, and combinations of elements in +man, as a study of consciousness. Besides, the tendency of +applying a formula of this sort to history is to assume that the +elements are developed in a certain regular or necessary order, +whereas this may not at all be the case; but we may find at +any epoch the whole mixed, either crossing or co-operative, +as in the consciousness of the individual himself. Further, the +question as to how these elements may possibly have grown up +in the general consciousness of mankind is assumed to be non-existent +or impossible.</p> + +<p>It was the tendency of the philosophy of Cousin to outline +things and to fill up the details in an artistic and imaginative +interest. This is necessarily the case, especially in the application +to history of all formulas supposed to be derived either from an +analysis of consciousness, or from an abstraction called pure +thought. Cousin was observational and generalizing rather than +analytic and discriminating. His search into principles was not +profound, and his power of rigorous consecutive development +was not remarkable. He left no distinctive permanent principle +of philosophy. But he left very interesting psychological +analyses, and several new, just, and true expositions of philosophical +systems, especially that of Locke and the philosophers +of Scotland. He was at the same time a man of impressive +power, of rare and wide culture, and of lofty aim,—far above +priestly conception and Philistine narrowness. He was familiar +with the broad lines of nearly every system of philosophy ancient +and modern. His eclecticism was the proof of a reverential +sympathy with the struggles of human thought to attain to +certainty in the highest problems of speculation. It was +eminently a doctrine of comprehension and of toleration. In +these respects it formed a marked and valuable contrast to the +arrogance of absolutism, to the dogmatism of sensationalism, +and to the doctrine of church authority, preached by the theological +school of his day. His spirit, while it influenced the youth +of France, saved them from these influences. As an educational +reformer, as a man of letters and learning, who trod “the large +and impartial ways of knowledge,” and who swayed others to the +same paths, as a thinker influential alike in the action and the +reaction to which he led, Cousin stands out conspicuously among +the memorable Frenchmen of the 19th century.</p> + +<p>Sir W. Hamilton (<i>Discussions</i>, p. 541), one of his most resolute +opponents, described Cousin as “A profound and original thinker, +a lucid and eloquent writer, a scholar equally at home in ancient +and in modern learning, a philosopher superior to all prejudices +of age or country, party or profession, and whose lofty eclecticism, +seeking truth under every form of opinion, traces its unity even +through the most hostile systems.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—J. Barthélemy St Hilaire, <i>V. Cousin, sa vie et sa +correspondence</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1895); H. Höffding, <i>Hist. of Mod. Phil.</i> +ii. 311 (Eng. trans., 1900); C. E. Fuchs, <i>Die Philosophie Victor +Cousins</i> (Berlin, 1847); J. Alaux, <i>La Philos. de M. Cousin</i> (Paris, +1864); P. Janet, <i>Victor Cousin et son œuvre</i> (Paris, 1885); Jules +Simon, <i>V. Cousin</i> (1887); Adolphe Franck, <i>Moralistes et philosophes</i> +(1872); J. P. Damiron, <i>Souvenirs de vingt ans d’enseignement</i> (Paris, +1859); H. Taine in <i>Les Philosophes</i> (Paris, 1868), pp. 79-202.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. V.; X.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1e" id="Footnote_1e" href="#FnAnchor_1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Fragmens philosophiques—préface deuxième.</i></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2e" id="Footnote_2e" href="#FnAnchor_2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Du vrai, du beau, et du bien</i> (preface).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUSIN<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (Fr. <i>cousin</i>, Ital. <i>cugino</i>, Late Lat. <i>cosinus</i>, perhaps +a popular and familiar abbreviation of <i>consobrinus</i>, which has the +same sense in classical Latin), a term of relationship. Children +of brothers and sisters are to each other first cousins, or cousins-german; +the children of first cousins are to each other second +cousins, and so on; the child of a first cousin is to the first cousin +of his father or mother a first cousin once removed.</p> + +<p>The word cousin has also, since the 16th century, been used +by sovereigns as an honorific style in addressing persons of +exalted, but not equal sovereign, rank, the term “brother” +being reserved as the style used by one sovereign in addressing +another. Thus, in Great Britain, dukes, marquesses and earls +are addressed by the sovereign in royal writs, &c., as “cousin.” +In France the kings thus addressed princes of the blood royal, +cardinals and archbishops, dukes and peers, the marshals of +France, the grand officers of the crown and certain foreign +princes. In Spain the right to be thus addressed is a privilege of +the grandees.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUSINS, SAMUEL<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1801-1887), English mezzotint engraver, +was born at Exeter on the 9th of May 1801. He was preeminently +the interpreter of Sir Thomas Lawrence, his contemporary. +During his apprenticeship to S. W. Reynolds he +engraved many of the best amongst the three hundred and sixty +little mezzotints illustrating the works of Sir Joshua Reynolds +which his master issued in his own name. In the finest of his +numerous transcripts of Lawrence, such as “Lady Acland and +her Sons,” “Pope Pius VII.” and “Master Lambton,” the +distinguishing characteristics of the engraver’s work, brilliancy +and force of effect in a high key, corresponded exactly with +similar qualities in the painter. After the introduction of steel +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span> +for engraving purposes about the year 1823, Cousins and his +contemporaries were compelled to work on it, because the soft +copper previously used for mezzotint plates did not yield a +sufficient number of fine impressions to enable the method to +compete commercially against line engraving, from which much +larger editions were obtainable. The painter-like quality which +distinguished the 18th-century mezzotints on copper was wanting +in his later works, because the hardness of the steel on which +they were engraved impaired freedom of execution and richness +of tone, and so enhanced the labour of scraping that he accelerated +the work by stipple, etching the details instead of scraping them +out of the “ground” in the manner of his predecessors. To +this “mixed style,” previously used by Richard Earlom on +copper, Cousins added heavy roulette and rocking-tool textures, +tending to fortify the darks, when he found that the “burr” +even on steel failed to yield enough fine impressions to meet the +demand. The effect of his prints in this method after Reynolds +and Millais was mechanical and out of harmony with the +picturesque technique of these painters, but the phenomenal +popularity which Cousins gained for his works at least kept alive +and in favour a form of mezzotint engraving during a critical +phase of its history. Abraham Raimbach, the line engraver, +dated the decline of his own art in England from the appearance +in 1837 of Cousins’s print (in the “mixed style”) after Landseer’s +“Bolton Abbey.” Such plates as “Miss Peel,” after Lawrence +(published in 1833); “A Midsummer Night’s Dream,” after +Landseer (1857); “The Order of Release” and “The First +Minuet,” after Millais (1856 and 1868); “The Strawberry Girl” +and “Lavinia, Countess Spencer,” after Reynolds; and “Miss +Rich,” after Hogarth (1873-1877), represent various stages +of Cousins’s mixed method. It reached its final development +in the plates after Millais’s “Cherry Ripe” and “Pomona,” +published in 1881 and 1882, when the invention of coating +copper-plates with a film of steel to make them yield larger +editions led to the revival of pure mezzotint on copper, which +has since rendered obsolete the steel plate and the mixed style +which it fostered. The fine draughtsmanship of Cousins was as +apparent in his prints as in his original lead-pencil portraits +exhibited in London in 1882. In 1885 he was elected a full +member of the Royal Academy, to which institution he later gave +in trust £15,000 to provide annuities for superannuated artists +who had not been so successful as himself. One of the most +important figures in the history of British engraving, he died in +London, unmarried, on the 7th of May 1887.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See George Pycroft, M.R.C.S.E., <i>Memoir of Samuel Cousins, R.A., +Member of the Legion of Honour</i> (published for private circulation by +E. E. Leggatt, London, 1899); Algernon Graves, <i>Catalogue of the +Works of Samuel Cousins, R.A.</i> (published by H. Graves and Co., +London, 1888); and Alfred Whitman, <i>Samuel Cousins</i> (published +by George Bell & Sons, London, 1904), which contains a catalogue, +good illustrations, and much detail useful to the collector and +dealer.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. P. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUSTOU,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> the name of a famous family of French sculptors.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Nicolas Coustou</span> (1658-1733) was the son of a wood-carver at +Lyons, where he was born. At eighteen he removed to Paris, +to study under C. A. Coysevox, his mother’s brother, who +presided over the recently-established Academy of Painting and +Sculpture; and at three-and-twenty he gained the Colbert +prize, which entitled him to four years’ education at the French +Academy at Rome. He afterwards became rector and chancellor +of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture. From the year 1700 +he was a most active collaborator with Coysevox at the palaces +of Marly and Versailles. He was remarkable for his facility; +and though he was specially influenced by Michelangelo and +Algardi, his numerous works are among the most typical specimens +of his age now extant. The most famous are “La Seine et +la Marne,” “La Saône,” the “Berger Chasseur” in the gardens +of the Tuileries, the bas-relief “Le Passage du Rhin” in the +Louvre, and the “Descent from the Cross” placed behind the +choir altar of Notre Dame at Paris.</p> + +<p>His younger brother, <span class="sc">Guillaume Coustou</span> (1677-1746), was +a sculptor of still greater merit. He also gained the Colbert +prize; but refusing to submit to the rules of the Academy, he +soon left it, and for some time wandered houseless through the +streets of Rome. At length he was befriended by the sculptor +Legros, under whom he studied for some time. Returning to Paris, +he was in 1704 admitted into the Academy of Painting and +Sculpture, of which he afterwards became director; and, like +his brother, he was employed by Louis XIV. His finest works +are the famous group of the “Horse Tamers,” originally at +Marly, now in the Champs Elysées at Paris, the colossal group +“The Ocean and the Mediterranean” at Marly, the bronze +“Rhône” which formed part of the statue of Louis XIV. at +Lyons, and the sculptures at the entrance of the Hôtel des +Invalides. Of these latter, the bas-relief representing Louis +XIV. mounted and accompanied by Justice and Prudence was +destroyed during the Revolution, but was restored in 1815 by +Pierre Cartellier from Coustou’s model; the bronze figures of +Mars and Minerva, on either side of the doorway, were not +interfered with.</p> + +<p>Another <span class="sc">Guillaume Coustou</span> (1716-1777), the son of Nicolas, +also studied at Rome, as winner of the Colbert prize. While +to a great extent a copyist of his predecessors, he was much +affected by the bad taste of his time, and produced little or +nothing of permanent value.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Louis Gougenot, <i>Éloge de M. Coustou le jeune</i> (1903); Arsène +Houssaye, <i>Histoire de l’art français au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1860); Lady +Dilke, <i>Gazette des beaux-arts</i>, vol. xxv. (1901) (2 articles).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUTANCES, WALTER OF<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (d. 1207), bishop of Lincoln and +archbishop of Rouen, commenced his career in the chancery of +Henry II., was elected bishop of Lincoln in 1182, and in 1184 +obtained, with the king’s help, the see of Rouen. Throughout +his career he was much employed in diplomatic and administrative +duties. He started with Richard I. for the Third Crusade, +but was sent back from Messina to investigate the charges which +the barons and the official class had brought against the chancellor, +William Longchamp. There was no love lost between +the two; and they were popularly supposed to be rivals for +the see of Canterbury. The archbishop of Rouen sided with the +barons and John, and sanctioned Longchamp’s deposition—a +step which was technically warranted by the powers which +Richard had given, but by no means calculated to protect the +interests of the crown. The Great Council now recognized the +archbishop as chief justiciar, and he remained at the head of the +government till 1193, when he was replaced by Hubert Walter. +The archbishop did good service in the negotiations for Richard’s +release, but subsequently quarrelled with his master and laid +Normandy under an interdict, because the border stronghold +of Château Gaillard in the Vexin had been built on his land +without his consent. After Richard’s death the archbishop +accepted John as the lawful heir of Normandy and consecrated +him as duke. But his personal inclinations leaned to Arthur +of Brittany, whom he was with difficulty dissuaded from supporting. +The archbishop accepted the French conquest of Normandy +with equanimity (1204), although he kept to his old allegiance +while the issue of the struggle was in doubt. He did not long +survive the conquest, and his later history is a blank.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Stubbs’s editions of <i>Benedictus Abbas</i>, <i>Hoveden</i> and <i>Diceto</i> +(Rolls series); R. Howlett’s edition of “William of Newburgh” and +“Richard of Devizes” in <i>Chronicles, &c., of the Reigns of Stephen, +Henry II. and Richard I.</i> (Rolls series). See also the preface to the +third volume of Stubbs’s <i>Hoveden</i>, pp. lix.-xcviii.; J. H. Round’s +<i>Commune of London</i>, and the French poem on <i>Guillaume le Maréchal</i> +(ed. P. Meyer, <i>Soc. de l’Histoire de France</i>).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUTANCES,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> a town of north-western France, capital of an +arrondissement of the department of Manche, 7 m. E. of the +English Channel and 58 m. S. of Cherbourg on the Western +railway. Pop. (1906) 6089. Coutances is beautifully situated +on the right bank of the Soulle on a granitic eminence crowned +by the celebrated cathedral of Notre-Dame. The date of this +church has been much disputed, but while traces of Romanesque +architecture survive, the building is, in the main, Gothic in +style and dates from the first half of the 13th century. The +slender turrets massed round the western towers and the octagonal +central tower, which forms a lantern within, are conspicuous +features of the church. In the interior, which comprises the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>337</span> +nave with aisles, transept and choir with ambulatory and side +chapels, there are fine rose-windows with stained glass of the +14th century, and other works of art. Of the other buildings of +Coutances the church of St Pierre, in which Renaissance architecture +is mingled with Gothic, and that of St Nicolas, of the +16th and 17th centuries, demand mention. There is an aqueduct +of the 14th century to the west of the town. Coutances is a quiet +town with winding streets and pleasant boulevards bordering +it on the east; on the western slope of the hill there is a public +garden. The town is the seat of a bishop, a court of assizes and +a sub-prefect; it has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, +a lycée for boys, a communal college and a training college for +girls, and an ecclesiastical seminary. Leather-dressing and +wool-spinning are carried on and there is trade in live-stock, in +agricultural produce, especially eggs, and in marble.</p> + +<p>Coutances is the ancient <i>Cosedia</i>, which before the Roman +conquest was one of the chief towns in the country of the Unelli. +Towards the end of the 3rd century its name was changed to +<i>Constantia</i>, in honour of the emperor Constantius Chlorus, who +fortified it. It became the capital of the <i>pagus Constantinus</i> +(Cotentin), and in the middle ages was the seat of a viscount. +It has been an episcopal see since the 5th century. In the 17th +century it was the centre of the revolt of the <i>Nu-pieds</i>, caused +by the imposition of the salt-tax (<i>gabelle</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A good bibliography of general works and monographs on the +archaeology and the history of the town and diocese of Coutances +is given in U. Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources, &c., Topo-Bibliographie</i> +(Montbéliard, 1894-1899), s.v.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUTHON, GEORGES<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1755-1794), French revolutionist, +was born at Orcet, a village in the district of Clermont in +Auvergne. He studied law, and was admitted advocate at +Clermont in 1785. At this period he was noted for his integrity, +gentle-heartedness and charitable disposition. His health was +feeble and both legs were paralysed. In 1787 he was a member +of the provincial assembly of Auvergne. On the outbreak of +the Revolution Couthon, who was now a member of the municipality +of Clermont-Ferrand, published his <i>L’Aristocrate converti</i>, +in which he revealed himself as a liberal and a champion of +constitutional monarchy. He became very popular, was appointed +president of the tribunal of the town of Clermont in +1791, and in September of the same year was elected deputy to +the Legislative Assembly. His views had meanwhile been +embittered by the attempted flight of Louis XVI., and he +distinguished himself now by his hostility to the king. A visit +to Flanders for the sake of his health brought him into close +intercourse and sympathy with Dumouriez. In September 1792 +Couthon was elected member of the National Convention, and +at the trial of the king voted for the sentence of death without +appeal. He hesitated for a time as to which party he should +join, but finally decided for that of Robespierre, with whom he +had many opinions in common, especially in matters of religion. +He was the first to demand the arrest of the proscribed Girondists. +On the 30th of May 1793 he became a member of the Committee of +Public Safety, and in August was sent as one of the commissioners +of the Convention attached to the army before Lyons. Impatient +at the slow progress made by the besieging force, he decreed +a <i>levée en masse</i> in the department of Puy-de-Dôme, collected +an army of 60,000 men, and himself led them to Lyons. When +the city was taken, on the 9th of October 1793, although the +Convention ordered its destruction, Couthon did not carry out +the decree, and showed moderation in the punishment of the +rebels. The Republican atrocities began only after Couthon +was replaced, on the 3rd of November 1793, by Collot d’Herbois. +Couthon returned to Paris, and on the 21st of December was +elected president of the Convention. He contributed to the +prosecution of the Hébertists, and was responsible for the law +of the 22nd Prairial, which in the case of trials before the Revolutionary +Tribunal deprived the accused of the aid of counsel or +of witnesses or their defence, on the pretext of shortening the +proceedings. During the crisis preceding the 9th Thermidor, +Couthon showed considerable courage, giving up a journey to +Auvergne in order, as he wrote, that he might either die or +triumph with Robespierre and liberty. Arrested with Robespierre +and Saint-Just, his colleagues in the triumvirate of the +Terror, and subjected to indescribable sufferings and insults, +he was taken to the scaffold on the same cart with Robespierre +on the 28th of July 1794 (10th Thermidor).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Fr. Mège, <i>Correspondance de Couthon ... suivie de “l’Aristocrate +converti,” comédie en deux actes de Couthon</i> (Paris, 1872); and +<i>Nouveaux Documents sur Georges Couthon</i> (Clermont-Ferrand, 1890); +also F. A. Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention</i> +(Paris, 1885-1886), ii. 425-443.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUTTS, THOMAS<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1735-1822), English banker and founder of +the banking house of Coutts & Co., was born on the 7th of +September 1735. He was the fourth son of John Coutts (1699-1751), +who carried on business in Edinburgh as a corn factor and +negotiator of bills of exchange, and who in 1742 was elected lord +provost of the city. The family was originally of Montrose, but +one of its members had settled at Edinburgh about 1696. Soon +after the death of John Coutts the business was divided into two +branches, one carried on in Edinburgh, the other in London. +The banking business in London was in the hands of James and +Thomas Coutts, sons of John Coutts. From the death of his +brother in 1778, Thomas, as surviving partner, became sole head +of the firm; and under his direction the banking house rose +to the highest distinction. His ambition was to establish his +character as a man of business and to make a fortune; and he +lived to succeed in this aim and long to enjoy his reputation and +wealth. A gentleman in manners, hospitable and benevolent, he +counted amongst his friends some of the literary men and the +best actors of his day. Of the enormous wealth which came into +his hands he made munificent use. His private life was not +without its romantic elements. Soon after his settlement in +London he married Elizabeth Starkey, a young woman of humble +origin, who was in attendance on the daughter of his brother +James. They lived happily together, and had three daughters—Susan, +married in 1796 to the 3rd earl of Guilford; Frances, +married in 1800 to John, 1st marquess of Bute; and Sophia, +married in 1793 to Sir Francis Burdett. Mrs Coutts dying in +1815, her husband soon after married the popular actress, +Harriet Mellon; and to her he left the whole of his immense +fortune. He died in London on the 24th of February 1822. +His widow married in 1827 the 9th duke of St Albans, and died +ten years later, having bequeathed her property to Angela, +youngest daughter of Sir Francis Burdett, who then assumed the +additional name and arms of Coutts. In 1871 this lady was +created Baroness Burdett-Coutts (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Rogers, <i>Genealogical Memoirs of the Families of Colt and +Coutts</i> (1879); and R. Richardson, <i>Coutts & Co.</i> (1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUTURE, THOMAS<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1815-1879), French painter, was born +at Senlis (Oise), and studied under Baron A. J. Gros and Paul +Delaroche, winning a Prix de Rome in 1837. He began exhibiting +historical and <i>genre</i> pictures at the Salon in 1840, and obtained +several medals. His masterpiece was his “Romans in the +Decadence of the Empire” (1847), now in the Luxembourg; +and his “Love of Money” (1844; at Toulouse), “Falconer” +(1855), and “Damocles” (1872), are also good examples.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COUVADE<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (literally a “brooding,” from Fr. <i>couver</i>, to hatch, +Lat. <i>cubare</i>, to lie down), a custom so called in Béarn, prevalent +among several peoples in different parts of the world, requiring +that the father, at and sometimes before the birth of his child, +shall retire to bed and fast or abstain from certain kinds of food, +receiving the attentions generally shown to women at their +confinements. The existence of the custom in ancient classical +times is testified to by Apollonius Rhodius, Diodorus (who refers +to its existence among the Corsicans), and Strabo (who noticed it +among the Spanish Basques, by whom, as well as by the Gascons, +it has been said to be still observed, though the most recent +researches entirely discredit this). Travellers, from the time of +Marco Polo, who relates its observance in Chinese Turkestan, +have found the custom to prevail in China, India, Borneo, Siam, +Africa and the Americas. Even in Europe it cannot be said to +have entirely disappeared. In certain of the Baltic provinces of +Russia the husband, on the lying-in of the wife, takes to his bed +and groans in mock pain. One writer believes he found traces of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>338</span> +it in the little island of Marken in the Zuyder Zee. Even in rural +England, notably in East Anglia, a curiously obstinate belief +survives (the prevalence of which in earlier times is proved by +references to it in Elizabethan drama) that the pregnancy of the +woman affects the man, and the young husband who complains +of a toothache is assailed by pleasantries as to his wife’s condition. +In Guiana the custom is observed in its most typical form. The +woman works to within a few hours of the birth, but some days +before her delivery the father leaves his occupations and abstains +from certain kinds of animal food lest the child should suffer. +Thus the flesh of the agouti is forbidden, lest the child should be +lean, and that of the capibara or water-cavy, for fear he should +inherit through his father’s gluttony that creature’s projecting +teeth. A few hours before delivery the woman goes alone, or +with one or two women-friends, into the forest, where the baby is +born. She returns as soon as she can stand, to her work, and the +man then takes to his hammock and becomes the invalid. He +must do no work, must touch no weapons, is forbidden all meat +and food, except at first a fermented liquor and after the twelfth +day a weak gruel of <i>cassava</i> meal. He must not even smoke, or +wash himself, but is waited on hand and foot by the women. +So far is the comedy carried that he whines and groans as if in +actual pain. Six weeks after the birth of the child he is taken in +hand by his relatives, who lacerate his skin and rub him with a +decoction of the pepper-plant. A banquet is then held from +which the patient is excluded, for he must not leave his bed till +several days later; and for six months he must eat the flesh +of neither fish nor bird. Almost identical ceremonies have been +noticed among the natives of California and New Mexico; while +in Greenland and Kamchatka the husband may not work for +some time before and after his wife’s confinement. Among the +Larkas of Bengal a period of isolation and uncleanness, synchronous +with that compulsory on the woman, is imperative for +the man, on the conclusion of which the child’s parentage is +publicly proclaimed.</p> + +<p>No certain explanation can be offered for the custom. The +most reasonable view is that adopted by E. B. Tylor, who traces +in it the transition from the earlier matriarchal to the later +patriarchal system of tribe-organization. Among primitive +tribes, and probably in all ages, the former order of society, in +which descent and inheritance are reckoned through the mother +alone, as being the earliest form of family life, is and was very +common, if not universal. The acknowledgment of a relationship +between father and son is characteristic of the progress of +society towards a true family life. It may well be that the +Couvade arose in the father’s desire to emphasize the bond of +blood between himself and his child. It is a fact that in some +countries the father has to purchase the child from its mother; +and in the Roman ceremony of the husband raising the baby from +the floor we may trace the savage idea that the male parent must +formally proclaim his adoption of and responsibility for the +offspring. Max Müller, in his <i>Chips from a German Workshop</i>, +endeavoured to find an explanation in primitive “henpecking,” +asserting that the unfortunate husband was tyrannized over by +“his female relatives and afterwards frightened into superstition,”—that, +in fact, the whole fabric of ceremony is reared on nothing +but masculine hysteria; but this theory can scarcely be taken +seriously. The missionary, Joseph François Lafitau, suspected a +psychological reason, assuming the custom to be a dim recollection +of original sin, the isolation and fast types of repentance. +The explanation of the American Indians is that if the father +engaged in any hard or hazardous work, <i>e.g.</i> hunting, or was +careless in his diet, the child would suffer and inherit the physical +faults and peculiarities of the animals eaten. This belief that a +person becomes possessed of the nature and form of the animal he +eats is widespread, being as prevalent in the Old World as in the +New, but it is insufficient to account for the minute ceremonial +details of La Couvade as practised in many lands. It is far more +likely that so universal a practice has no trivial beginnings, but is +to be considered as a mile-stone marking a great transitional +epoch in human progress.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—E. B. Tylor’s <i>Early History of Man</i> (1865; 2nd +ed. p. 301); F. Max Müller, <i>Chips from a German Workshop</i> (1868-1875), +ii. 281; Lord Avebury, <i>Origin of Civilisation</i> (1900); +Brett’s <i>Indian Tribes of Guiana</i>; Johann Baptist von Spix and +Karl F. P. von Martius, <i>Travels in Brazil</i> (1823-1831), ii. 281; +J. F. Lafitau, <i>Mœurs des sauvages américains</i> (1st ed., 1724); W. Z. +Ripley, <i>Races of Europe</i> (1900); A. H. Keane’s <i>Ethnology</i> (1896), +p. 368 and footnote; A. Giraud-Teulon, <i>Les Origines du mariage et +de la famille</i> (Paris, 1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COVE,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a word mostly used in the sense of a small inlet or +sheltered bay in a coast-line. In English dialect usage it is also +applied to a cave or to a recess in a mountain-side. The word +in O. Eng. is <i>cofa</i>, and cognate forms are found in the Ger. +<i>Koben</i>, Norwegian <i>kove</i>, and in various forms in other Teutonic +languages. It has no connexion with “alcove,” recess in a room +or building, which is derived through the Span. <i>alcoba</i> from Arab. +<i>al</i>, the, and <i>qubbah</i>, vault, arch, nor with “cup” or “coop,” +nor with “cave” (Lat. <i>cava</i>). The use of the word was first +confined to a small chamber or cell or inner recess in a room or +building. From this has come the particular application in +architecture to any kind of concave moulding, the term being +usually applied to the quadrantal curve rising from the cornice +of a lofty room to the moulded borders of the horizontal ceiling. +The term “coving” is given in half-timbered work to the curved +soffit under a projecting window, or in the 18th century to that +occasionally found carrying the gutter of a house. In the Musée +Plantin at Antwerp the hearth of the fireplace of the upper +floor is carved on coving, which forms part of the design of the +chimney-piece in the room below. The slang use of “cove” +for any male person, like a “fellow,” “chap,” &c., is found in +the form “cofe” in T. Harman’s <i>Caveat for Cursetors</i> (1587) +and other early quotations. This seems to be identical with the +Scots word “cofe,” a pedlar, hawker, which is formed from +“coff,” to sell, purchase, cognate with the Ger. <i>kaufen</i>, to +buy, and the native English “cheap.” The word “cove,” +therefore, is in ultimate origin the same as “chap,” short for +“chapman,” a pedlar.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COVELLITE,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a mineral species consisting of cupric sulphide, +CuS, crystallizing in the hexagonal system. It is of less frequent +occurrence in nature than copper-glance, the orthorhombic +cuprous sulphide. Crystals are very rare, the mineral being +usually found as compact and earthy masses or as a blue coating +on other copper sulphides. Hardness 1½-2; specific gravity 4.6. +The dark indigo-blue colour is a characteristic feature, and the +mineral was early known as indigo-copper (Ger. <i>Kupferindig</i>). +The name covellite is taken from N. Covelli, who in 1839 observed +crystals of cupric sulphide encrusting Vesuvian lava, the mineral +having been formed here by the interaction of hydrogen sulphide +and cupric chloride, both of which are volatile volcanic products. +Covellite is, however, more commonly found in copper-bearing +veins, where it has resulted by the alteration of other copper +sulphides, namely chalcopyrite, copper-glance and erubescite. +It is found in many copper mines; localities which may be +specially mentioned are Sangerhausen in Prussian Saxony, +Butte in Montana, and Chile; in the Medicine Bow Mountains +of Wyoming a platiniferous covellite is mined, the platinum +being present as sperrylite (platinum arsenide).</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COVENANT<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (an O. Fr. form, later <i>convenant</i>, from <i>convenir</i>, +to agree, Lat. <i>convenire</i>), a mutual agreement of two or more +parties, or an undertaking made by one of the parties. In the +Bible the Hebrew word הירב, <i>bĕrīth</i>, is used widely for many +kinds of agreements; it is then applied to a contract between +two persons or to a treaty between two nations, such as the +covenant made between Abimelech and Isaac, representing a +treaty between the Israelites and the Philistines (Gen. xxvi. +26, seq.); more particularly to an engagement made between +God and men, or such agreements as, by the observance of a +religious rite, regarded God as a party to the engagement. Two +suggestions have been made for the derivation of <i>bĕrīth</i>: (1) +tracing the word from a root “to cut,” and the reference is to +the primitive rite of cutting victims into parts, between which +the parties to an agreement passed, cf. the Greek <span class="grk" title="horkia temnein">ὅρκια τέμνειν</span>, +and the account (Gen. xv. 17) of the covenant between God and +Abraham, where “a smoking furnace and burning lamp passed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>339</span> +between the pieces” of the victims Abraham had sacrificed; +(2) connecting it with an Assyrio-Babylonian <i>biritu</i>, fetter, +alliance. <i>Bĕrīth</i> was translated in the Septuagint by <span class="grk" title="diathêkê">διαθήκη</span>, +which in classical Greek had the meaning of “will”; hence +the Vulgate, in the Psalms and the New Testament, translates +the word by <i>testamentum</i>, but elsewhere in the Old Testament +by <i>foedus</i> or <i>pactum</i>; similarly Wycliffe’s version gives “testament” +and “covenant” respectively. The books of Scripture +dealing with the old or Mosaic, and new or Christian dispensation +are sometimes known as the Books of the Old and the New +Covenant. The word appears in the system of theology developed +by Johannes Cocceius (<i>q.v.</i>), and known as the “Covenant” +or “Federal” Theology, based on the two Covenants of Works +or Life made by God with Adam, on condition of obedience, +and of grace or redemption, made with Christ. In Scottish +ecclesiastical history, covenant appears in the two agreements +signed by the members of the Scottish Church in defence of +their religious and ecclesiastical systems (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Covenanters</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COVENANT,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> in law, is the English equivalent of the Lat. +<i>conventio</i>, which, although not technical, was the most general +word in Roman law for “agreement.” It was frequently used +along with <i>pactum</i>, also a general term, but applied especially +to agreements to settle a question without carrying it before the +courts of law.</p> + +<p>The word “covenant” has been used in a variety of senses +in English law.</p> + +<p>1. In its strict sense, covenant means an agreement <i>under +seal</i>, that something has or has not already been done, or shall +or shall not be done hereafter (Shep. <i>Touchstone</i>, 160, 162). It +is most commonly used with reference to sales or leases of land, +but is sometimes applied to any promise or stipulation, whether +under seal or not. The person who makes, and is bound to +perform, the promise or stipulation is the covenantor: the +person in whose favour it is made is the covenantee.</p> + +<p>2. Covenants have been subdivided into numerous classes, +only a few of which need to be described. It is unnecessary +to do more than mention affirmative and negative covenants, +joint or several, alternative or disjunctive covenants, dependent +or independent covenants. As to collateral covenants, covenants +“running with the land,” and covenants in leases (including +“usual,” “proper” and “restrictive” covenants), see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Landlord +and Tenant</a></span>. But there are other classes as to which +something must be said.</p> + +<p>A covenant is said to be <i>express</i> when it is created by the +express words of the parties to the deed declaratory of their +intention. It is not indispensable that the word “covenant” +should be used. Any word which clearly indicates the intention +of the parties to covenant will suffice. An <i>implied</i> covenant, +or <i>covenant in law</i>, “depends for its existence on the intendment +and construction of law. There are some words which of themselves +do not import an express covenant, yet, being made use of +in certain contracts, have a similar operation and are called +covenants in law; and they are as effectually binding on the +parties as if expressed in the most unequivocal terms” (Platt on +<i>Covenants</i>, p. 40). Thus, the word “demise,” used in a lease +of deed, raises the implication of a covenant both for “quiet +enjoyment” and for title to let; and it has been judicially +suggested that a covenant for quiet enjoyment may be implied +from any word or words of like import (<i>Budd-Scott</i> v. <i>Daniell</i>, +1902, 2 K.B. p. 359). The Conveyancing Act 1881 provides +(§ 7) that in a conveyance for valuable consideration, other +than a mortgage, there shall be implied, as against the person +who conveys and is expressed to convey as “beneficial owner,” +certain <i>qualified</i> covenants—<i>i.e.</i> covenants extending only to +the acts or omissions of the vendor, persons through whom he +derives title otherwise than by purchase for value, and persons +claiming under them—for “right to convey,” “quiet enjoyment,” +“freedom from incumbrances” and “further assurance.” Of +these statutory covenants for title the only one which requires +explanation is the covenant for further assurance. It imports +an agreement on the part of the covenantor to do such reasonable +acts, in addition to those already performed, as may be necessary +for the completion of the transfer made (or intended to be made) +at the requirements of the covenantee (Platt on <i>Covenants</i>, p. 341). +All these statutory implied covenants “run with the land” +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Landlord and Tenant</a></span>). Where a mortgagor conveys, +and is expressed to convey, as “beneficial owner,” there are +implied <i>absolute</i> covenants—<i>i.e.</i> covenants amounting to a +warranty against and for the acts and omissions of the whole +world—that he has a right to convey, that the mortgagee shall +have quiet enjoyment of the property after default, free from +incumbrances and for further assurance. Special provisions as +to implied covenants by the lessor in leases are made in England +by § 7 (B) of the Conveyancing Act 1881 and in Ireland by the +Land Act (Ireland) 1860, § 41. The distinction between <i>real</i> +and <i>personal</i> covenants is that the former do, while the latter +do not, run with the land. An <i>inherent</i> covenant is another +name for a <i>real</i> covenant (Shep. <i>Touchstone</i>, 176; Platt, 60). +When a covenant relates to an act already done, it is usually +termed a covenant <i>executed</i>; where the performance is future, +the covenant is termed <i>executory</i>. The <i>covenant for seisin</i> was +an assurance to the grantee that the grantor had the estate +which he purported to convey. In England it is now included +in the covenant for right to convey; but is still in separate use +in several states in America. The <i>covenant to stand seised to +uses</i> was an assurance by means of which, under the Statute of +Uses [1536] (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Uses</a></span>), a conveyance of an estate might be +effected. When such a covenant is made, the legal estate in the +land passes at once to the covenantee under the statute. The +consideration for the covenant must be relationship by blood or +marriage. It is still occasionally though very rarely employed. +The <i>covenant not</i> to <i>sue</i> belongs to the law of contract and needs +no <span class="correction" title="amended from explantion">explanation</span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Most of the classes of covenants above mentioned are in use in +the United States. In New York, Michigan, Minnesota, Oregon, +Wisconsin and Wyoming the implication of covenants for title has +been, with certain exceptions, prohibited by statute. In Alabama, +Arkansas, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, +Nevada, New Mexico, Pennsylvania and Texas the words <i>grant</i>, <i>bargain</i> +and <i>sell</i>, in conveyances in fee, unless specially restricted, amount +to qualified covenants that the grantor was seised in fee, free from +incumbrances, and for quiet enjoyment (4 Kent, <i>Commentaries</i>, § 473; +Bouvier, <i>Law Dictionary</i>, s.v. Covenant). In some of the states +a <i>covenant of non-claim</i>, or of <i>warranty</i>, an assurance by the grantor +that neither he nor his heirs, nor any other person shall claim any +title in the premises conveyed, is in general use.</p> +</div> + +<p>3. An <i>action of covenant</i> lay for breaking covenant. As to the +history of this action see Pollock and Maitland, <i>History of +English Law</i>, ii. 106; and Holmes, <i>The Common Law</i>, p. 272. +There was also a <i>writ of covenant</i>. But this remedy had fallen +into disuse before 1830 (see Platt on <i>Covenants</i>, p. 543), and was +abolished by the Common Law Procedure Acts. Since the +Judicature Acts, an action on a covenant follows the same +course as, and is indistinguishable from, any ordinary action +for breach of contract. The remedy is by damages, decree of +specific performance or injunction to prevent the breach.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The term “covenant” is unknown to Scots law. But its place is +filled to some extent by the doctrine of “warrandice.” Many of the +British colonies have legislated, as to the implication of covenants +for title, on the lines of the English Conveyancing Act 1881; <i>e.g.</i> +Tasmania, Conveyancing and Law of Property Act 1884 (47 Vict. +No. 10).</p> + +<p>As to covenants in restraint of trade see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Restraint</a></span>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—In addition to the authorities cited in the text +see: <i>English Law</i>; Goodeve, <i>Law of Real Property</i> (5th ed., +London, 1906); C. Foa, <i>Landlord and Tenant</i> (3rd ed., London, 1901); +Hamilton, <i>Law of Covenants</i> (London); Fawcett, <i>Law of Landlord +and Tenant</i> (3rd ed., London, 1905). <i>American Law: Rawle, Law +of Covenants for Title</i> (Boston, 1887); <i>Encyclopaedia of American +Law</i> (3rd ed., 1890), vol. viii., tit. “Covenants.”</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COVENANTERS,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> the name given to a party which, originating +in the Reformation movement, played an important part in the +history of Scotland, and to a lesser extent in that of England, +during the 17th century. The Covenanters were thus named +because in a series of <i>bands</i> or <i>covenants</i> they bound themselves +to maintain the Presbyterian doctrine and polity as the sole +religion of their country. The first “godly band” is dated +December 1557; but more important is the covenant of 1581, +drawn up by John Craig in consequence of the strenuous efforts +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>340</span> +which the Roman Catholics were making to regain their hold +upon Scotland, and called the King’s Confession or National +Covenant. Based upon the Confession of Faith of 1560, this +document denounced the pope and the doctrines of the Roman +Catholic Church in no measured terms. It was adopted by the +General Assembly, signed by King James VI. and his household, +and enjoined on persons of all ranks and classes; and was again +subscribed in 1590 and 1596. In 1637 Scotland was in a state of +turmoil. Charles I. and Archbishop Laud had just met with a +reverse in their efforts to impose the English liturgy upon the +Scots; and fearing further measures on the part of the king, +it occurred to Archibald Johnston, Lord Warriston, to revive +the National Covenant of 1581. Additional matter intended +to suit the document to the special circumstances of the time +was added, and the covenant was adopted and signed by a large +gathering in Greyfriars’ churchyard, Edinburgh, on the 28th +of February 1638, after which copies were sent throughout the +country for additional signatures. The subscribers engaged by +oath to maintain religion in the state in which it existed in 1580, +and to reject all innovations introduced since that time, while +professed expressions of loyalty to the king were added. The +General Assembly of 1638 was composed of ardent Covenanters, +and in 1640 the covenant was adopted by the parliament, and +its subscription was required from all citizens. Before this date +the Covenanters were usually referred to as <i>Supplicants</i>, but from +about this time the former designation began to prevail.</p> + +<p>A further development took place in 1643. The leaders of +the English parliament, worsted in the Civil War, implored the +aid of the Scots, which was promised on condition that the +Scottish system of church government was adopted in England. +After some haggling a document called the Solemn League and +Covenant was drawn up. This was practically a treaty between +England and Scotland for the preservation of the reformed +religion in Scotland, the reformation of religion in England and +Ireland “according to the word of God and the example of the +best reformed churches,” and the extirpation of popery and +prelacy. It was subscribed by many in both kingdoms and also +in Ireland, and was approved by the English parliament, and +with some slight modifications by the Westminster Assembly of +Divines. Charles I. refused to accept it when he surrendered +himself to the Scots in 1646, but he made important concessions +in this direction in the “Engagement” made with the Scots in +December 1647. Charles II. before landing in Scotland in June +1650 declared by a solemn oath his approbation of both covenants, +and this was renewed on the occasion of his coronation at Scone +in the following January.</p> + +<p>From 1638 to 1651 the Covenanters were the dominant party +in Scotland, directing her policy both at home and abroad. +Their power, however, which had been seriously weakened by +Cromwell’s victory at Dunbar in September 1651, was practically +destroyed when Charles II. was restored nine years later. Firmly +seated upon the throne Charles renounced the covenants, which +in 1662 were declared unlawful oaths, and were to be abjured +by all persons holding public offices. Episcopacy was restored, +the court of high commission was revived, and ministers who +refused to recognize the authority of the bishops were expelled +from their livings. Gathering around them many of the +Covenanters who clung tenaciously to their standards of faith, +these ministers began to preach in the fields, and a period of +persecution marked by savage hatred and great brutality +began. Further oppressive measures were directed against the +Covenanters, who took up arms about 1665, and the struggle +soon assumed the proportions of a rebellion. The forces of the +crown under John Graham of Claverhouse and others were sent +against them, and although the insurgents gained isolated +successes, in general they were worsted and were treated with +great barbarity. They maintained, however, their cherished +covenants with a zeal which persecution only intensified; in +1680 the more extreme members of the party signed a document +known as the “Sanquhar Declaration,” and were afterwards +called Cameronians from the name of their leader, Richard +Cameron (<i>q.v.</i>). They renounced their allegiance to King James +and were greatly disappointed when their standards found no +place in the religious settlement of 1689, continuing to hold the +belief that the covenants should be made obligatory upon the +entire nation. The Covenanters had a martyrology of their own, +and the halo of romance has been cast around their exploits and +their sufferings. Their story, however, especially during the +time of their political predominance, is part of the general history +of Scotland (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The texts of the National Covenant and the Solemn League and +Covenant are printed in S. R. Gardiner’s <i>Constitutional Documents +of the Puritan Revolution</i> (Oxford, 1899). See also J. H. Burton, +<i>History of Scotland</i> (Edinburgh, 1905); A. Lang, <i>History of Scotland</i> +(Edinburgh, 1900); S. R. Gardiner, <i>History of England</i> (London, +1883-1884); G. Grub, <i>Ecclesiastical History of Scotland</i> (Edinburgh, +1861); J. Macpherson, <i>History of the Church in Scotland</i> (Paisley, +1901); and J. K. Hewison, <i>The Covenanters</i> (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COVENT GARDEN,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> formerly an open space north of the +Strand, London, England, now occupied by the principal flower, +fruit and vegetable market in the metropolis. This was originally +the so-called “convent garden” belonging to the abbey of St +Peter, Westminster. In the first half of the 17th century the +site of the garden was laid out as a square by Inigo Jones, with a +piazza on two sides; and as early as 1656 it was becoming a +market place for the same commodities as are now sold in it. +Covent Garden Theatre (1858) is the chief seat of grand opera +in London. The site has carried a theatre since 1733, but earlier +buildings were burnt in 1809 and 1856.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COVENTRY, SIR JOHN<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (d. 1682), son of John Coventry, the +second son of Thomas, Lord Keeper Coventry, was returned to +the Long Parliament in 1640 as member for Evesham. During +the Civil War he served for the king, and at the Restoration was +created a knight. In 1667, and in the following parliaments of +1678, 1679 and 1681, he was elected for Weymouth, and opposed +the government. On the 21st of December 1670, owing to a jest +made by Coventry in the House of Commons on the subject of +the king’s amours, Sir Thomas Sandys, an officer of the guards, +with other accomplices, by the order of Monmouth, and (it was +said) with the approval of the king himself, waylaid him as he +was returning home to Suffolk Street and slit his nose to the bone. +The outrage created an extraordinary sensation, and in consequence +a measure known as the “Coventry Act” was passed, +declaring assaults accompanied by personal mutilation a felony +without benefit of clergy. Sir John died in 1682. Sir William +Coventry, his uncle, speaks slightingly of him, ridicules his +vanity and wishes him out of the House of Commons to be “out +of harm’s way.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COVENTRY, THOMAS COVENTRY,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1578-1640), +lord keeper of England, eldest son of Sir Thomas Coventry, +judge of the common pleas (a descendant of John Coventry, +lord mayor of London in the reign of Henry VI.), and of Margaret +Jeffreys of Earls Croome, or Croome D’Abitot, in Worcestershire, +was born in 1578. He entered Balliol College, Oxford, in 1592, +and the Inner Temple in 1594, becoming bencher of the society +in 1614, reader in 1616, and holding the office of treasurer from +1617 till 1621. His exceptional legal abilities were rewarded +early with official promotion. On the 16th of November 1616 he +was made recorder of London in spite of Bacon’s opposition, who, +although allowing him to be “a well trained and an honest man,” +objected that he was “bred by my Lord Coke and seasoned in +his ways.”<a name="FnAnchor_1f" id="FnAnchor_1f" href="#Footnote_1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> On the 14th of March 1617 he was appointed +solicitor-general and was knighted; was returned for Droitwich +to the parliament of 1621; and on the 11th of January in that +year was made attorney-general. He took part in the proceedings +against Bacon for corruption, and was manager for the Commons +in the impeachment of Edward Floyd for insulting the elector +and electress palatine.</p> + +<p>On the 1st of November 1625 he was made lord keeper of the +great seal; in this capacity he delivered the king’s reprimand to +the Commons on the 29th of March 1626, when he declared that +“liberty of counsel” alone belonged to them and not “liberty of +control.” On the 10th of April 1628 he received the title of +Baron Coventry of Aylesborough in Worcestershire. At the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>341</span> +opening of parliament in 1628 he threatened that the king +would use his prerogative if further thwarted in the matter of +supplies. In the subsequent debates, however, while strongly +supporting the king’s prerogative against the claims of the +parliament to executive power, he favoured a policy of moderation +and compromise. He defended the right of the council to +commit to prison without showing cause, and to issue “general” +warrants; though he allowed it should only be employed in +special circumstances, disapproved of the king’s sudden dissolution +of parliament, and agreed to the liberation on bail of the +seven imprisoned members on condition of their giving security +for their good behaviour. He showed less subservience than +Bacon to Buckingham, and his resistance to the latter’s pretensions +to the office of lord high constable greatly incensed the duke. +Buckingham taunted Coventry with having gained his place by +his favour; to which the lord keeper replied, “Did I conceive I +had my place by your favour, I would presently unmake myself +by returning the seal to his Majesty.”<a name="FnAnchor_2f" id="FnAnchor_2f" href="#Footnote_2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> After this defiance +Buckingham’s sudden death alone probably prevented Coventry’s +displacement. He passed sentence of death on Lord Audley in +1631, drafted and enforced the proclamation of the 20th of June +1632 ordering the country gentlemen to leave London, and in +1634 joined in Laud’s attack on the earl of Portland for peculation. +The same year, in an address to the judges, he supported +the proposed levy of ship-money on the inland as well as the +maritime counties on the plea of the necessity of effectually +arming, “so that they might not be enforced to fight,” “the +wooden walls” being in his opinion “the best walls of this +kingdom.”<a name="FnAnchor_3f" id="FnAnchor_3f" href="#Footnote_3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In the Star Chamber Coventry was one of Lilburne’s +judges in 1637, but he generally showed conspicuous moderation, +inclining to leniency in the cases of Richard Chambers in 1629 for +seditious speeches, and of Henry Sherfield in 1632 for breaking +painted glass in a church. He prevented also the hanging of men +for resistance to impressment, and pointed out its illegality, since +the men were not subject to martial law. While contributing +thirty horse to the Scottish expedition in 1638, and lending the +king £10,000 in 1639, he gave no support to the forced loan +levied upon the city in the latter year. He died on the 14th of +January 1640.</p> + +<p>Lord Coventry held the great seal for nearly fifteen years, and +was enabled to collect a large fortune. He was an able judge, and +he issued some important orders in chancery, probably alluded to +by Wood, who ascribes to him a tract on “The Fees of all law +Officers.”<a name="FnAnchor_4f" id="FnAnchor_4f" href="#Footnote_4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Whitelocke accuses him of mediocrity,<a name="FnAnchor_5f" id="FnAnchor_5f" href="#Footnote_5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a> but his +contemporaries in general have united in extolling his judicial +ability, his quick despatch of business and his sound and sterling +character. Clarendon in particular praises his statesmanship, +and compares his capacity with Lord Strafford’s, adding, +however, that he seldom spoke in the council except on legal +business and had little influence in political affairs; to the latter +circumstance he owed his exceptional popularity. He describes +him as having “in the plain way of speaking and delivery a +strange power of making himself believed,” as a man of “not +only firm gravity but a severity and even some morosity,” as +“rather exceedingly liked than passionately loved.”</p> + +<p>Lord Coventry married (1) Sarah, daughter of Sir Edward +Sebright of Besford in Worcestershire, by whom besides a +daughter he had one son, Thomas, who succeeded him as 2nd +baron, and (2) Elizabeth, daughter of John Aldersley of Spurstow, +Cheshire, and widow of William Pitchford, by whom he had four +sons, John, Francis, Henry and Sir William Coventry, the +statesman.</p> + +<p>Thomas Coventry, 5th baron (d. 1699), was created an earl in +1697 with a special limitation, on failure of his own male issue, +to that of Walter, youngest brother of the lord keeper, from +whom the present earl of Coventry is descended.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1f" id="Footnote_1f" href="#FnAnchor_1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Spedding’s <i>Bacon</i>. vi. 97.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2f" id="Footnote_2f" href="#FnAnchor_2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Hacket’s <i>Life of Bishop Williams</i>, ii. 19.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3f" id="Footnote_3f" href="#FnAnchor_3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Rushworth (1680), part ii. vol. i. 294.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4f" id="Footnote_4f" href="#FnAnchor_4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Ath. Oxon.</i> ii. 650.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5f" id="Footnote_5f" href="#FnAnchor_5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> There is an adverse opinion also expressed in Pepys’s <i>Diary</i>, +August 26, 1666, probably based on little real knowledge.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COVENTRY, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (c. 1628-1686), English statesman, +son of the lord keeper, Thomas, Lord Coventry, by his second +wife Elizabeth Aldersley, was born about 1628. He matriculated +at Queen’s College, Oxford, at the age of fourteen. Owing to the +outbreak of the Civil War he was obliged to quit his studies, but +according to Sir John Bramston “he had a good tutor who made +him a scholar, and he travelled and got the French language in +good perfection.” “He was young whilst the war continued,” +wrote Clarendon, “yet he had put himself before the end of it +into the army and had the command of a foot company and +shortly after travelled into France.” Here he remained till all +hopes of obtaining foreign assistance and of raising a new army +had to be laid aside, when he returned to England and kept +aloof from the various royalist intrigues. When, however, a new +prospect of a restoration appeared in 1660, Coventry hastened to +Breda, was appointed secretary to James, duke of York, lord +high admiral of England, and headed the royal procession when +Charles entered London in triumph.</p> + +<p>He was returned to the Restoration parliament of 1661 for +Great Yarmouth, became commissioner for the navy in May 1662 +and in 1663 was made D.C.L. at Oxford. His great talents were +very soon recognized in parliament, and his influence as an +official was considerable. His appointment was rather that of +secretary to the admiralty than of personal assistant to the duke +of York,<a name="FnAnchor_1g" id="FnAnchor_1g" href="#Footnote_1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and was one of large gains. Wood states that he +collected a fortune of £60,000. Accusations of corruption in his +naval administration, and especially during the Dutch war, were +brought against him, but there is nothing to show that he ever +transgressed the limits sanctioned by usage and custom in +obtaining his emoluments. Pepys in his diary invariably testifies +to the excellence of his administration and to his zeal for reform +and economy. His ability and energy, however, did little to +avert the naval collapse, owing chiefly to financial mismanagement +and to the ill-advised appointments to command. Coventry +denied all responsibility for the Dutch War in 1665, which +Clarendon sought to place upon his shoulders, and his repudiation +is supported by Pepys; it was, moreover, contrary to his well-known +political opinion. The war greatly increased his influence, +and shortly after the victory off Lowestoft, on the 3rd of June +1665, he was knighted and made a privy councillor (26th of June) +and was subsequently admitted to the committee on foreign +affairs. In 1667 he was appointed to the board of treasury to +effect financial reforms. “I perceive,” writes Pepys on the 23rd +of August 1667, “Sir William Coventry is the man and nothing +done till he comes,” and on his removal in 1669 the duke of +Albemarle, no friendly or partial critic, declares that “nothing +now would be well done.” His appointment, however, came too +late to ward off the naval disaster at Chatham the same year and +the national bankruptcy in 1672.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Coventry’s rising influence had been from the first +the cause of increasing jealousy to the old chancellor Clarendon, +who especially disliked and discouraged the younger generation. +Coventry resented this repression and thought ill of the conduct +of the administration. He became the chief mover in the successful +attack made upon Clarendon, but refused to take any part in +his impeachment. Two days after Clarendon’s resignation (on +the 31st of August), Coventry announced his intention of leaving +the duke’s service and of terminating his connexion with the +navy.<a name="FnAnchor_2g" id="FnAnchor_2g" href="#Footnote_2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> As the principal agent in effecting Clarendon’s fall he +naturally acquired new power and influence, and the general +opinion pointed to him as his successor as first minister of the +crown. Personal merit, patriotism and conspicuous ability, +however, were poor passports to place and power in Charles II.’s +reign. Coventry retained merely his appointment at the +treasury, and the brilliant but unscrupulous and incapable duke +of Buckingham, a favourite of the king, succeeded to Lord +Clarendon. The relations between the two men soon became +unfriendly. Buckingham ridiculed Sir William’s steady attention +to business, and was annoyed at his opposition to Clarendon’s +impeachment. Coventry rapidly lost influence, was excluded +from the cabinet council, and six months after Clarendon’s fall +complains he has scarcely a friend at court. Finally, in March +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342"></a>342</span> +1669, Buckingham having written a play in which Sir William +was ridiculed, the latter sent him a challenge. Notice of the +challenge reached the authorities through the duke’s second, +and Sir William was imprisoned in the Tower on the 3rd of March +and subsequently expelled from the privy council. He was +superseded in the treasury on the 11th of March by Buckingham’s +favourite, Sir Thomas Osborne, afterwards earl of Danby and +duke of Leeds, and was at last released from the Tower on the +21st in disgrace. The real cause of his dismissal was clearly the +final adoption by Charles of the policy of subservience to France +and desertion of Holland and Protestant interests. Six weeks +before Coventry’s fall, the conference between Charles, James, +Arlington, Clifford and Arundel had taken place, which resulted +a year and a half later in the disgraceful treaty of Dover. To +such schemes Sir William, with his steady hostility to France +and active devotion to Protestantism, was doubtless a formidable +opponent. He now withdrew definitely from official life, still +retaining, however, his ascendancy in the House of Commons, and +leading the party which condemned and criticized the reactionary +and fatal policy of the government, his credit and reputation +being rather enhanced than diminished by his dismissal.<a name="FnAnchor_3g" id="FnAnchor_3g" href="#Footnote_3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>In 1673 was published a pamphlet which went through five +editions the same year, entitled <i>England’s appeal from the +Private Cabal at Whitehall to the Great Council of the Nation ... +by a true Lover of his Country</i>, an anonymous work universally +ascribed to Sir William, which forcibly reflects his opinions on +the French entanglement. In the great matter of the Indulgence, +while refusing to discuss the limits of prerogative and liberty, he +argued that the dispensing power of the crown could not be valid +during the session of parliament, and criticized the manner of +the declaration while approving its ostensible object. He supported +the Test Act, but maintained a statesmanlike moderation +amidst the tide of indignation rising against the government, and +refused to take part in the personal attacks upon ministers, +drawing upon himself the same unpopularity as his nephew +Halifax incurred later. In the same year he warmly denounced +the alliance with France. During the summer of 1674 he was +again received at court. In 1675 he supported the bill to exclude +Roman Catholics from both Houses, and also the measure +to close the House of Commons to placemen; and he showed +great activity in his opposition to the French connexion, especially +stigmatizing the encouragement given by the government to +the levying of troops for the French service. In May 1677 he +voted for the Dutch alliance. Like most of his contemporaries +he accepted the story of the popish plot in 1678. Coventry +several times refused the highest court appointments, and he was +not included in Sir W. Temple’s new-modelled council in April +1679. In the exclusion question he favoured at first a policy of +limitations, and on his nephew Halifax, who on his retirement +became the leader of the moderate party, he enjoined prudence +and patience, and greatly regretted the violence of the opposition +which eventually excited a reaction and ruined everything. He +refused to stand for the new parliament, and retired to his country +residence at Minster Lovell near Witney, in Oxfordshire. He +died unmarried on the 23rd of June 1686, at Somerhill near +Tunbridge Wells, where he had gone to take the waters, and +was buried at Penshurst, where a monument was erected to his +memory. In his will he ordered his funeral to be at small expense, +and left £2000 to the French Protestant refugees in England, +besides £3000 for the liberation of captives in Algiers. He had +shortly before his death already paid for the liberation of sixty +slaves. He was much beloved and respected in his family circle, +his nephew, Henry Savile, alluding to him in affectionate terms +as “our dearest uncle” and “incomparable friend.”</p> + +<p>Though Sir William Coventry never filled that place in the +national administration to which his merit and exceptional +ability clearly entitled him, his public life together with his +correspondence are sufficient to distinguish him from amongst +his contemporaries as a statesman of the first rank. Lord +Halifax obviously derived from his honoured mentor those +principles of government which, by means of his own brilliant +intellectual gifts, originality and imaginative insight, gained +further force and influence. Halifax owed to him his interest +in the navy and his grasp of the necessity to a country of a +powerful maritime force. He drew his antagonism to France, +his religious tolerance, wide religious views but firm Protestantism +doubtless from the same source. Sir William was the original +“Trimmer.” Writing to his nephew Viscount Weymouth, +while denying the authorship of <i>The Character of a Trimmer</i>, +he says:—“I have not been ashamed to own myself to be a +trimmer ... one who would sit upright and not overturn the +boat by swaying too much to either side.” He shared the +Trimmer’s dislike of party, urging Halifax in the exclusion +contest “not to be thrust by the opposition of his enemies into +another party, but that he keep upon a national bottom which +at length will prevail.” His prudence is expressed in his +“perpetual unwillingness to do things which I cannot undo.” +“A singular independence of spirit, a breadth of mind which +refused to be contracted by party formulas, a sanity which was +proof against the contagion of national delirium, were equally +characteristic of uncle and nephew.”<a name="FnAnchor_4g" id="FnAnchor_4g" href="#Footnote_4g"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Sir William Coventry’s +conceptions of statesmanship, under the guiding hand of his +nephew, largely inspired the future revolution settlement, and +continued to be an essential condition of English political +growth and progress.</p> + +<p>Besides the tract already mentioned Coventry was the author +of <i>A Letter to Dr Burnet giving an Account of Cardinal Pool’s +Secret Powers ...</i> (1685). <i>The Character of a Trimmer</i>, often +ascribed to him, is now known to have been written by Lord +Halifax. “Notes concerning the Poor,” and an essay “concerning +the decay of rents and the remedy,” are among the Malet +Papers (<i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> Ser. 5th Rep. app. 320 (a)) and +<i>Add. MSS.</i> Brit. Mus. (cal. 1882-1887); an “Essay concerning +France” (4th Rep. app. 229 (b)) and a “Discourse on the Management +of the Navy” (230b) are among the MSS. of the marquess +of Bath, also a catalogue of his library (233(a)).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—No adequate life of Sir William Coventry has +been written; the most satisfactory appreciation of his character +and abilities is to be found in the several passages relating to him +in the <i>Life of George Savile, Marquis of Halifax</i>, by Miss A. C. Foxcroft +(1898); see also <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> 3 and 4 Rep. (Longleat +Collection), 5 Rep. (<i>Malet Collection</i> and see Index) now in the Brit. +Mus. add. Cal. (1882-1887), Some of his papers being also at Devonshire +House; <i>MSS. of Marquis of Ormond</i>, iii. of <i>J. M. Heathcote +and Miscellaneous Collections</i>; Clarendon’s <i>Life and Continuation</i> +(Oxford, 1857); <i>Calendar of Clarendon Papers; Burnet’s Hist, of +His Own Times</i> (Oxford, 1823); <i>Hallam’s Constitutional Hist</i>. (1854), +chap. xi.; John Evelyn’s <i>Memoirs</i>; Pepys’s <i>Diary</i> and <i>Pepysiana</i> +(ed. H. B. Wheatley, 1903); <i>Calendar of State Papers, Domestic; +Savile Correspondence</i> (Camden Society, 1858, vol. lxxi.); A. Grey’s +<i>Debates</i>; Sir John Bramston’s <i>Autobiography</i> (Camden Soc., 1845); +Wood’s <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i>, iv. 190; <i>Saturday Review</i> (Oct. 11, +1873).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1g" id="Footnote_1g" href="#FnAnchor_1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Pepysiana</i>, by H. B. Wheatley (1903), 154.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2g" id="Footnote_2g" href="#FnAnchor_2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Foxcroft, <i>Life of Sir G. Savile</i>, i. 54.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3g" id="Footnote_3g" href="#FnAnchor_3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Savile Correspondence</i> (Camden Soc.), 295.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4g" id="Footnote_4g" href="#FnAnchor_4g"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Foxcroft’s <i>Life of Sir G. Savile</i>, i. 36.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COVENTRY,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a municipal, county and parliamentary borough +of Warwickshire, England; 94 m. N.W. from London by the +London & North Western railway. Pop. (1901) 69,978. The +Coventry canal communicates with the Trent and Mersey and +Birmingham canals, and the midland system generally. +Coventry stands on a gentle eminence, with higher ground lying +to the west, and is watered by the Sherbourne and the Radford +Brook, feeders of the Avon, which unite within the town. Of its +ancient fortifications two gates and some portions of the wall are +still extant, and several of the older streets are picturesque from +the number of half-timbered houses projecting over the footways.</p> + +<p>The most remarkable buildings are the churches; of these the +oldest are St Michael’s, one of the finest specimens of Perpendicular +architecture in England, with a beautiful steeple rising +to a height of 303 ft.; Holy Trinity church, a cruciform structure +with a lofty steeple at the intersection; and St John’s, or +Bablake church, which is nearly a parallelogram on the ground +plan, but cruciform in the clerestory with a central tower. +Christ church dates only from 1832, but it is attached to the +ancient spire of the Grey Friars’ church. Of secular buildings the +most interesting is St Mary’s hall, erected by the united gilds in +the early part of the 15th century. The principal chamber, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343"></a>343</span> +situated above a fine crypt, is 76 ft. long, 30 ft. wide and 34 ft. +high; its roof is of carved oak, and in the north end there is a +large window of old stained glass, with a curious piece of tapestry +beneath nearly as old as the building. In the treasury is preserved +a valuable collection of ancient muniments. A statue of Sir +Thomas White, lord mayor of London (1532-1533), founder of +St John’s College, Oxford, was erected in 1883. The cemetery, +laid out by Sir Joseph Paxton, the architect and landscape +gardener, and enlarged in 1887, is particularly beautiful. The +educational institutions include a well-endowed free grammar +school, founded in the reign of Elizabeth, in modern buildings +(1885), a technical school, school of art, endowed charity schools, +and a county reformatory for girls; and among the charitable +foundations, which are numerous and valuable, Bond’s hospital +for old men and Ford’s hospital for old women are remarkable as +fine specimens of ancient timber work. Swanswell and Spenser +Parks were opened in 1883, and a recreation ground in 1880.</p> + +<p>Coventry was formerly noted for its woollens, and subsequently +acquired such a reputation for its dyeing that the expression “as +true as Coventry blue” became proverbial. Existing industries +are the making of motor cars, cycles and their accessories, for +which Coventry is one of the chief centres in Great Britain; +sewing machines are also produced; and carpet-weaving and +dyeing, art metal working and watch making are carried on. +An ancient fair is held in Whit-week. A county of itself till 1843, +the town became a county borough in 1888. The corporation +consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. The +parliamentary borough returns one member. In 1894 a suffragan +bishopric of Coventry was established under the see of Worcester, +but no longer exists. Area, 4149 acres.</p> + +<p>The village which afterwards became important as Coventry +(<i>Coventreu</i>, <i>Coventre</i>) owed its existence to the foundation of a +Benedictine monastery by Earl Leofric and his wife Godgyfu, +the famous Lady Godiva (<i>q.v.</i>), in 1043. The manor, which in +1066 belonged to the latter, descended to the earls of Chester and +to Robert de Montalt, and from him passed to Isabella queen of +Edward II. and the crown. Ranulf, earl of Chester, granted the +earliest extant charter to the town in 1153, by which his burgesses +were to hold of him in free burgage as they held of his father, +and to have their portmote. This, with further privileges, was +confirmed by Henry II. in 1177, and by nearly every succeeding +sovereign until the 17th century. In 1345 Edward III. gave +Coventry a corporation, mayor and bailiffs empowered to hold +pleas and keep the town prison. Edward the Black Prince +granted the mayor and bailiffs the right to hold the town in fee +farm of £50 and to build a wall. In 1452 Henry VI. formed the +city and surrounding hamlets into a county, and James I. +incorporated Coventry in 1622. It first sent two representatives +to parliament in 1295, but the returns were irregular. The +prior’s market on Fridays was probably of Saxon origin; a +second market was granted in 1348, while fairs, still held, were +obtained in 1217 for the octave of Holy Trinity, and in 1348 and in +1442 for eight days from the Friday after Corpus Christi. As +early as 1216 Coventry was important for its trade in wool, cloth +and caps, its gilds later being particularly numerous and wealthy. +In 1568 Flemish weavers introduced new methods, but the trade +was destroyed in the wars of the 17th century. During the +middle of the 16th century there was a flourishing manufacture +of blue thread, but this decayed before 1581; in the 18th +century the manufacture of ribbon was introduced.</p> + +<p>The popular phrase “to send to Coventry” (<i>i.e.</i> to refuse to +associate with a person) is of uncertain derivation. The <i>New +English Dictionary</i> selects the period of the Civil War of the 17th +century as that in which the origin of the phrase is probably to be +found. Clarendon (<i>History of the Great Rebellion</i>, 1647) states +that the citizens of Birmingham rose against certain small +parties of the king’s supporters, and sent the prisoners they +captured to Coventry, which was then strongly parliamentarian.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Warwick</i>; William Dugdale, <i>The +Antiquities of Coventre, illustrated from records</i> (Coventry, 1765).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COVER<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>couvert</i>, from <i>couvrir</i>, to cover, Lat. +<i>cooperire</i>), that which hides, shuts in or conceals, a lid to a +box or vessel, &c., the binding of a book or wrapper of a parcel; +as a hunting term, the wood or undergrowth which shelters game. +As a commercial term, the word means in its widest sense a +security against loss, but is employed more particularly in +connexion with stock exchange transactions to signify a “deposit +made with a broker to secure him from being out of pocket in the +event of the stocks falling against his client and the client not +paying the difference” (<i>In re Cronmire</i>, 1898, 2 Q.B. 383). It is a +mode of speculation engaged in almost entirely by persons who +wish to limit their risk to a small amount, and, as a rule, the +transactions are largely carried out in England with “outside” +brokers, <i>i.e.</i> those dealers in securities who are not members of +the Stock Exchange. The deposit is so much per cent or per +share, usually 1% on the market value of the securities up to +about twice the amount of the turn of the market; the client +being able to close the transaction at any time during the currency +of the cover, but the broker only when the cover is exhausted or +has “run off.” Cover is not money deposited to abide the event +of a wager, but as security against a debt which may arise from +a gaming contract, and it may be recovered back, if unappropriated.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COVERDALE, MILES<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1488?-1569), English translator of the +Bible and bishop of Exeter, was born of Yorkshire parents about +1488, studied philosophy and theology at Cambridge, was +ordained priest at Norwich in 1514, and then entered the convent +of Austin friars at Cambridge. Here he came under the influence +of the prior, Robert Barnes, made the acquaintance of Sir Thomas +More and of Thomas Cromwell, and began a thorough study of +the Scriptures. He was one of those who met at the White +Horse tavern to discuss theological questions, and when Barnes +was arrested on a charge of heresy, Coverdale went up to London +to assist him in drawing up his defence. Soon afterwards he +left the convent, assumed the habit of a secular priest, and began +to preach against confession and the worship of images. In +1531 he graduated bachelor of canon law at Cambridge, but from +1528 to 1534 he prudently spent most of his time abroad. No +corroboration has, however, been found for Foxe’s statement +that in 1529 he was at Hamburg assisting Tyndale in his translation +of the Pentateuch. In 1534 he published two translations of +his own, the first Dulichius’s <i>Vom alten und newen Gott</i>, and the +second a <i>Paraphrase upon the Psalms</i>, and in 1535 he completed +his translation of the Bible. The venture seems to have been +projected by Jacob van Meteren, who apparently employed +Coverdale to do the translation, and Froschover of Zürich to +do the printing. No perfect copy is known to exist, and the five +or six which alone have title-pages give no name of publisher +or place of publication. The volume is dedicated to the king of +England, where Convocation at Cranmer’s instance had, in +December 1534, petitioned for an authorized English version of +the Scriptures. As a work of scholarship it does not rank +particularly high. Some of the title-pages state that it had been +translated out of “Douche” (<i>i.e.</i> German) “and Latyn”: and +Coverdale mentions that he used five interpreters, which are +supposed to have been the Vulgate, the Latin version of Pagninus, +Luther’s translation, the Zürich version, and Tyndale’s Pentateuch +and New Testament. There is no definite mention of the +original Greek and Hebrew texts; but it has considerable +literary merit, many of Coverdale’s phrases are retained in the +authorized version, and it was the first complete Bible to be +printed in English. Two fresh editions were issued in 1537, but +none of them received official sanction. Coverdale was, however, +employed by Cromwell to assist in the production of the Great +Bible of 1539, which was ordered to be placed in all English +churches. The work was done at Paris until the French government +stopped it, when Coverdale and his colleagues returned +to England early in 1539 to complete it. He was also employed +in the same year in assisting at the suppression of superstitious +usages, but the reaction of 1540 drove him once more abroad. +His Bible was prohibited by proclamation in 1542, while Coverdale +himself defied the Six Articles by marrying Elizabeth Macheson, +sister-in-law to Dr John MacAlpine.</p> + +<p>For a time Coverdale lived at Tübingen, where he was created +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span> +D.D. In 1545 he was pastor and schoolmaster at Bergzabern +in the duchy of Pfalz-Zweibrücken. In March 1548 he was at +Frankfort, when the new English Order of Communion reached +him; he at once translated it into German and Latin and sent +a copy to Calvin, whose wife had befriended Coverdale at Strassburg. +Calvin, however, does not seem to have approved of it +so highly as Coverdale.</p> + +<p>Coverdale was already on his way back to England, and in +October 1548 he was staying at Windsor Castle, where Cranmer +and some other divines, inaccurately called the Windsor Commission, +were preparing the First Book of Common Prayer. His +first appointment had been as almoner to Queen Catherine Parr, +then wife of Lord Seymour; and he preached her funeral sermon +in September 1548. He was also chaplain to the young king +and took an active part in the reforming measures of his reign. +He was one of the most effective preachers of the time. A sermon +by him at St Paul’s on the second Sunday in Lent, 1549, was +immediately followed by the pulling down of “the sacrament +at the high altar.” A few weeks later he preached at the penance +of some Anabaptists, and in January 1550 he was put on a +commission to prosecute Anabaptists and all who infringed the +Book of Common Prayer. In 1549 he wrote a dedication to +Edward for a translation of the second volume of Erasmus’s +<i>Paraphrases</i>; and in 1550 he translated Otto Wermueller’s +<i>Precious Pearl</i>, for which Protector Somerset, who had derived +spiritual comfort from the book while in the Tower, wrote a +preface. He was much in request at funerals: he preached +at Sir James Wilford’s in November 1550, and at Lord Wentworth’s +before a great concourse in Westminster Abbey in +March 1551.</p> + +<p>Perhaps it was his gift of oratory which suggested his appointment +as bishop of the refractory men of Devon and Cornwall. +He had already, in August 1549, at some risk, gone down with +Lord Russell to turn the hearts of the rebels by preaching and +persuasion, and two years later he was appointed bishop of Exeter +by letters patent, on the compulsory retirement of his predecessor, +Veysey, who had reached an almost mythical age. +He was an active prelate, and perhaps the vigorous Protestantism +of the West in Elizabeth’s reign was partly due to his persuasive +powers. He sat on the commission for the reform of the canon +law, and was in constant attendance during the parliaments of +1552 and 1553. On Mary’s accession he was at once deprived +on the score of his marriage, and Veysey in spite of his age was +restored. Coverdale was called before the privy council on the +1st of September, and required to find sureties; but he was not +further molested, and when Christian III. of Denmark at the +instance of Coverdale’s brother-in-law, MacAlpine, interceded +in his favour, he was in February 1555 permitted to leave for +Denmark with two servants, and his baggage unsearched; one +of these “servants” is said to have been his wife. He declined +Christian’s offer of a living in Denmark, and preferred to preach +at Wesel to the numerous English refugees there, until he was +invited by Duke Wolfgang to resume his labours at Bergzabern. +He was at Geneva in December 1558, and is said to have participated +in the preparation of the Geneva version of the Bible.</p> + +<p>In 1559 Coverdale returned to England and resumed his +preaching at St Paul’s and elsewhere. Clothed in a plain black +gown, he assisted at Parker’s consecration, in spite of the facts +that he had himself been deprived, and did not resume his +bishopric, and that his original appointment had been by the +uncanonical method of letters patent. Conscientious objections +were probably responsible for his non-restoration to the see of +Exeter, and his refusal of that of Llandaff in 1563. He objected +to vestments, and in his living of St Magnus close to London +Bridge, which he received in 1563, he took other liberties with +the Act of Uniformity. His bishop, Grindal, was his friend, and +his vagaries were overlooked until 1566, when he resigned his +living rather than conform. He still preached occasionally, and +always drew large audiences. He died in February 1568, and +was buried on the 19th in St Bartholomew’s behind the Exchange. +When this church was pulled down in 1840 to make room for +the new Exchange, his remains were removed to St Magnus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Coverdale’s works, most of them translations, number twenty-six +in all; nearly all, with his letters, were published in a collected +edition by the Parker Soc., 2 vols., 1846. An excellent account is +given in the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i> of his life, with authorities, to which +may be added R. W. Dixon’s <i>Church History</i>, Bishop and Gasquet’s +<i>Edward VI. and the Book of Common Prayer</i>; Acts of the Privy +Council; Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; <i>Lit. Rem. of +Edward VI.</i> (Roxburghe Club); Whittingham’s <i>Brief Discourse of +Troubles at Frankfort</i>; Pocock’s <i>Troubles connected with the Prayer-Book</i> +(Camden Soc.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COVERTURE<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (a covering, an old French form of the modern +<i>couverture</i>), a term in English law applied to the condition of a +woman during marriage, when she is supposed to be under the +cover, influence and protection of her husband, and so immune +in certain cases from punishment for crime committed in the +presence and on the presumed coercion of her husband. (See +further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Husband and Wife</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COVILHÃ,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> a town of Portugal, in the district of Castello +Branco, formerly included in the province of Beira; on the +eastern slope of the Serra da Estrella, and on the Abrantes-Guarda +railway. Pop. (1900) 15,469. Covilhã, which has been +often compared with a collection of swallows’ nests clinging to +the rugged granitic mountain side, is shaped like an amphitheatre +of closely crowded houses, overlooking the river Zezere +and its wild valley from a height of 2180 ft. Over 4000 operatives +are employed in the manufacture of <i>saragoça</i>, a coarse brown +cloth worn by the peasantry throughout Portugal. The village +of Unhaes da Serra (1507), 6 m. W.S.W., is noted for its sulphurous +springs and baths.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COVILHAM<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Covilhão, Covilhã</span>), <span class="bold">PERO</span> or <span class="sc">Pedro de</span>, +Portuguese explorer and diplomatist (fl. 1487-1525), was a native +of Covilhã in Beira. In early life he had gone to Castile and +entered the service of Alphonso, duke of Seville; later, when war +broke out between Castile and Portugal, he returned to his own +country, and attached himself, first as a “groom,” then as a +“squire,” to King Alphonso V. and his successor John II. +On the 7th of May 1487, he was despatched, in company with +Alphonso de Payva, on a mission of exploration in the Levant and +adjoining regions of Asia and Africa, with the special object of +learning where “cinnamon and other spices could be found,” as +well as of discovering the land of Prester John, by “overland” +routes. Bartholomeu Diaz, at this very time, went out to find +the Prester’s country, as well as the termination of the African +continent and the ocean route to India, by sea. Covilham and +Payva were provided with a “letter of credence for all the +countries of the world” and with a “map for navigating, taken +from the map of the world” and compiled by Bishop Calcadilha, +and doctors Rodrigo and Moyses. The first two of these were +prominent members of the commission which advised the +Portuguese government to reject the proposals of Columbus. +The explorers started from Santarem and travelled by Barcelona +to Naples, where their bills of exchange were paid by the sons of +Cosimo de’ Medici; thence they passed to Rhodes, where they +lodged with two other Portuguese, and so to Alexandria and +Cairo, where they posed as merchants. In company with certain +Moors from Fez and Tlemçen they now went by way of Tor to +Suakin and Aden, where (as it was now monsoon time) they +parted, Covilham proceeding to India and Payva to Ethiopia—the +two companions agreeing to meet again in Cairo. Covilham +thus arrived at Cannanore and Calicut, whence he retraced his +course to Goa and Ormuz, the Red Sea and Cairo, making an +excursion on his way down the East African coast to Sofala, +which he was probably the first European to visit. At Cairo he +heard of Payva’s death, and met with two Portuguese Jews—Rabbi +Abraham of Beja, and Joseph, a shoe-maker of Lamego—who +had been sent by King John with letters for Covilham +and Payva. By Joseph of Lamego Covilham replied with an +account of his Indian and African journeys, and of his observations +on the cinnamon, pepper and clove trade at Calicut, +together with advice as to the ocean way to India. This he truly +represented as quite practicable: “to this they (of Portugal) +could navigate by their coast and the seas of Guinea.” The +first objective in the eastern ocean, he added, was Sofala or the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345"></a>345</span> +Island of the Moon, our Madagascar—“from each of these lands +one can fetch the coast of Calicut.” With this information +Joseph returned to Portugal, while Covilham, with Abraham of +Beja, again visited Aden and Ormuz. At the latter he left the +rabbi; and himself came back to Jidda, the port of the Arabian +holy land, and penetrated (as he told Alvarez many years later) +even to Mecca and Medina. Finally, by Mount Sinai, Tor and +the Red Sea, he reached Zeila, whence he struck inland to the +court of Prester John (<i>i.e.</i> Abyssinia). Here he was honourably +received; lands and lordships were bestowed upon him; but he +was not permitted to leave. When the Portuguese embassy +under Rodrigo de Lima, including Father Francisco Alvarez, +entered Abyssinia in 1520, Covilham wept with joy at the sight +of his fellow-countrymen. It was then forty years since he had +left Portugal, and over thirty since he had been a prisoner of +state in “Ethiopia.” Alvarez, who professed to know him well, +and to have heard the story of his life, both “in confession and +out of it,” praises his power of vivid description “as if things +were present before him,” and his extraordinary knowledge of +“all spoken languages of Christians, Moors and Gentiles.” His +services as an interpreter were valuable to Rodrigo de Lima’s +embassy; but he never succeeded in escaping from Abyssinia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Francisco Alvarez, <i>Verdadera Informaçam das terras do +Preste Joam</i>, esp. chs. 73, 89, 98, 102-103, 105 (pp. 177, 224, 254, 264, +265-270, 275, of the Hakluyt Society’s English edition, <i>The Portuguese +Embassy to Abyssinia ... 1520-1727</i>, London, 1881); an +abstract of this, with some inaccuracies, is given in Major’s <i>Prince +Henry the Navigator</i> (London, 1868), pp. 339-340.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COVIN<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>covine</i>, or <i>couvine</i>, from Lat. <i>convenire</i>, to +come together), an association of persons, so used in the Statute of +Labourers of 1360, which, <i>inter alia</i>, declared void “all alliances +and covins of masons and carpenters.” The more common use of +the term in English law was for a secret agreement between +persons to cheat and defraud, but the word is now obsolete, and +has been superseded by “collusion” or “conspiracy to cheat +and defraud.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COVINGTON,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> a city and one of the two county-seats of Kenton +county, Kentucky, U.S.A., on the Ohio river opposite Cincinnati, +with which it is connected by bridges; and at the mouth of the +Licking river (also spanned by bridges), opposite Newport, Ky. +Pop. (1890) 37,371; (1900) 42,938, of whom 5223 were foreign-born +and 2478 were negroes; (1910) 53,270. In 1900 it ranked +second in population among the cities of Kentucky. The +city is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio, and the Louisville +& Nashville railways, by interurban electric railways, and by +steamboat lines to the Ohio river ports. It is built on a plain +commanding good views and partly shut in by neighbouring +hills. Its streets, mostly named from eminent Kentuckians, +are paved chiefly with asphalt, macadam and brick. There +are numerous fine residences and several attractive public +buildings, including that of the United States government—modern +Gothic in style—the court-house and city hall combined, +and the public library. Covington is the seat of a +Roman Catholic bishopric, and its cathedral, in the flamboyant +Gothic style, is one of the finest church buildings in the state. +In the city are the Academy of Notre Dame and St Joseph’s +high school for boys, both Roman Catholic. The principal +charitable institutions are the hospital of Saint Elizabeth, a +German orphan asylum, a Protestant children’s home, a home +for aged women and a Wayfarers’ Rest. Covington is the trade +centre of an extensive district engaged in agriculture and stock +raising, and as a manufacturing centre it ranked second in the +state in 1905 (value of factory products $6,099,715), its products +including tobacco, cotton goods, structural iron and steel, foundry +and machine shop products, liquors and cordage. A settlement +was established here in 1812, and three years later a town was laid +out and named in honour of Gen. Leonard Covington (1768-1813), +who was mortally wounded at Chrystler’s Field during the War +of 1812. In 1834 Covington was chartered as a city; and in +1908 it annexed Central Covington (pop. in 1900, 2155).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COWARD,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a term of contempt for one who, before danger, +pain or trouble, shows fear, whether physical or moral. The +derivation of the word has been obscured by a connexion in sense +with the verb “cow,” to instil fear into, which is derived from +old Norse <i>kuga</i>, a word of similar meaning, and with the verb +“cower,” to crouch, which is also Scandinavian in origin.<a name="FnAnchor_1h" id="FnAnchor_1h" href="#Footnote_1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The +true derivation is from the French <i>coe</i>, an old form of <i>queue</i>, a +tail, from Lat. <i>cauda</i>, hence <i>couart</i> or <i>couard</i>. The reference to +“tail” is either to the expression “turn tail” in flight, or to the +habit of animals dropping the tail between the legs when +frightened; in heraldry, a lion in this position is a “lion coward.” +In the fable of <i>Reynard the Fox</i> the name of the hare is Coart, +Kywart, Cuwaert or other variants.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COWBRIDGE,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a market town and a municipal and contributory +parliamentary borough of Glamorganshire, Wales, with +a station on the Taff Vale railway branch from Llantrisant to +Aberthaw on the coast, distant by rail 162½ m. from London, +12 m. W. of Cardiff, 7 m. S.E. of Bridgend, and 6 m. S. of Llantrisant +station. The population in 1901 was 1202, a decrease +of over 12% since 1891. Less than one-third of the number was +Welsh-speaking. The town mainly consists of one long street +running east and west, and is in a wide valley through which +runs the river Thaw (Welsh, <i>Ddawan</i>), here crossed by a stone +bridge.</p> + +<p>Cowbridge is probably situated on the Roman road from +Cardiff westwards, which seems to have kept nearly the course +of the present main road. Roman coins have been discovered +here. It has in fact been suggested, mainly on etymological +grounds, that the town occupies the site of the Roman <i>Bovium</i>: +the modern Welsh name, y Bontfaen (“stone bridge”) is +probably a corruption of the medieval, Pont y fôn, the precise +equivalent of “Cowbridge,” which is first found in documents +of the second half of the 13th century as Covbruge and Cubrigg. +Others place Bovium on a vicinal road, at Boverton near +Llantwit Major, about 6 m. to the south near the coast, though +the most likely site is near Ewenny, 5 m. to the west of Cowbridge. +After the Norman conquest of Glamorgan, the town +grew up as an appanage of the castle of St Quentin, which +occupies a commanding position half a mile south-west of the +town. It was walled round before the 13th century. A tower +is mentioned in 1487 when it was granted away by the burgesses. +Leland in his itinerary (c. 1535) describes the town wall as three-quarters +of a mile round and as having three gates. There was +even then a considerable suburb on the west bank of the river +and outside the walls. The south wall and gateway are still +standing.</p> + +<p>The town was a borough by prescription until 1682, when it +received a charter of incorporation from Charles II. confirming +its previous privileges. Under the Unreformed Corporations +Act of 1883 the corporation was dissolved, but on the petition +of the inhabitants a new charter was granted in March 1887. +During the Tudor and Stuart periods Cowbridge was almost +if not quite the chief town of Glamorgan, its importance being +largely due to its central and accessible position in a rich agricultural +district where a large number of the county gentry lived. +The great sessions were held here alternately with Cardiff and +Swansea from 1542 till their abolition in 1830, and the quarter +sessions were held here once a year down to 1850. From 1536 +to 1832 it was one of the eight contributory boroughs within the +county which returned a member to parliament, but since 1832 +it has been contributory with Cardiff and Llantrisant in returning +a member. It has a separate commission of the peace. Sir +Edward Stradling (1529-1609) established a grammar school +here, but died before endowing it; it was refounded in 1685 by +Sir Leoline Jenkins, who provided that it should be administered +by Jesus College, Oxford, which body erected the present +buildings in 1847. It has throughout its existence been one of +the leading schools in Wales. An intermediate school for girls +was established here by the county in 1896. The church of St +Mary (formerly chapelry to Llanblethian) is of early English +style and has a fine embattled tower, of the same military +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>346</span> +type as the towers of Llamblethian and Ewenny. There are +three Nonconformist chapels. There are a town hall and market +place. The town is now wholly dependent on agriculture, and +has good markets and cattle fairs, that on the 4th of May being +a charter fair.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1h" id="Footnote_1h" href="#FnAnchor_1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A connexion has also been imagined with cow (O. Eng. <i>cu</i>; common +in Scandinavian languages, and of similar root to Skr. <i>go</i>, whence +also Gr. <span class="grk" title="bous">βοῦς</span>, Lat. <i>bos</i>), the female bovine animal, on account of its +timidity.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COWDENBEATH,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a police burgh, Fifeshire, Scotland, 5¾ m. +N.E. of Dunfermline by the North British railway. Pop. (1891) +4249; (1901) 7908. The principal industry is coal-mining, +and the public buildings include churches, schools and a hall. +Meetings in connexion with the adoption and promulgation of +the Covenant were held in the old parish church of Beath.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COWELL, JOHN<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1554-1611), English jurist, was born at +Ernsborough, Devonshire. He was educated at Eton, and +King’s College, Cambridge, ultimately becoming professor of +civil law in that university, and master of Trinity Hall. In +1607 he compiled a law dictionary, <i>The Interpreter</i>, in which he +exalted the king’s prerogative so much that he was prosecuted +before the House of Commons by Sir Edward Coke, and saved +from imprisonment only by the interposition of James I. His +book was burnt by order of the House of Commons. Dr Cowell +also wrote a work entitled <i>Institutiones Juris Anglicani</i>. He +died at Oxford on the 11th of October 1611.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COWEN, FREDERIC HYMEN<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1852-  ), English musical +composer, was born at Kingston, Jamaica, on the 29th of January +1852. At four years old he was brought to England, where his +father became treasurer to the opera at Her Majesty’s theatre, +and private secretary to the earl of Dudley. His first teacher +was Henry Russell, and his first published composition appeared +when he was but six years old. He studied the piano with +Benedict, and composition with Goss; in 1865 he was at Leipzig +under Hauptmann, Moscheles, Reinecke and Plaidy. Returning +home on the outbreak of the Austro-Prussian War, he appeared +as a composer for the orchestra in an overture played at the +Promenade Concerts at Covent Garden in September 1866. In +the following autumn he went to Berlin, where he was under +Kiel, at Stern’s conservatorium. A symphony and a piano +concerto were given in St James’s Hall in 1869, and from that +time Cowen has been recognized as primarily a composer, his +talents as a pianist being subordinate, although his public +appearances were numerous for some time afterwards. His +cantata, <i>The Rose Maiden</i>, was given in London in 1870, his +second symphony by the Liverpool Philharmonic Society in 1872, +and his first festival work, <i>The Corsair</i>, in 1876 at Birmingham. +In that year his opera, <i>Pauline</i>, was given by the Carl Rosa +Company with moderate success. In 1884 he conducted five +concerts of the Philharmonic Society, and in 1888, on the +resignation of Arthur Sullivan, became the regular conductor +of the society, resigning the post in 1892. In the year of his +appointment, 1888, he went to Melbourne as the conductor of +the daily concerts given in connexion with the Exhibition there. +In 1896 Cowen was appointed conductor of the Liverpool +Philharmonic Society and of the Manchester orchestra, in succession +to Sir Charles Hallé. In 1899 he was reappointed conductor +of the Philharmonic Society. His works include:—Operettas: +<i>Garibaldi</i> (1860) and <i>One Too Many</i> (1874); operas: <i>Pauline</i> +(1876), <i>Thorgrim</i> (1890), <i>Signa</i> (Milan, 1893), and <i>Harold</i> (1895); +oratorios: <i>The Deluge</i> (1878), <i>St Ursula</i> (1881), <i>Ruth</i> (1887), +<i>Song of Thanksgiving</i> (1888), <i>The Transfiguration</i> (1895); +cantatas: <i>The Rose Maiden</i> (1870), <i>The Corsair</i> (1876), <i>The +Sleeping Beauty</i> (1885), <i>St John’s Eve</i> (1889), <i>The Water Lily</i> +(1893), <i>Ode to the Passions</i> (1898), besides short cantatas for +female voices; a large number of songs, ranging from the popular +“ballad” to more artistic lyrics, anthems, part-songs, duets, +&c.; six symphonies, among which No 3, the “Scandinavian,” +has had the greatest success; four overtures; suites, <i>The +Language of Flowers</i> (1880), <i>In the Olden Times</i> (1883), <i>In Fairyland</i> +(1896); four English dances (1896); a concerto for piano +and orchestra, and a fantasia for the same played by M. +Paderewski (1900); a quartet in C minor, and a trio in A minor, +both early works; pianoforte pieces, &c. Cowen is never so +happy as when treating of fantastic or fairy subjects; and +whether in his cantatas for female voices, his charming <i>Sleeping</i> +<i>Beauty</i>, his <i>Water Lily</i> or his pretty overture, <i>The Butterfly’s +Ball</i> (1901), he succeeds wonderfully in finding graceful expression +for the poetical idea. His dance music, such as is to be found +in various orchestral suites, is refined, original and admirably +instrumented; and if he is seldom as successful in portraying +the graver aspects of emotion, the vogue of his semi-sacred songs +has been widespread.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COWEN, JOSEPH<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1831-1900), English politician and +journalist, son of Sir Joseph Cowen, a prominent citizen and +mine-owner of Newcastle-on-Tyne, was born in 1831, and was +educated at Edinburgh University. In 1874 he was elected +member of parliament for the borough on the death of his father, +who had held the seat as a Liberal since 1865. Joseph Cowen was +at that time a strong Radical on domestic questions, an advocate +of co-operation, an admirer of Garibaldi, Mazzini and Kossuth, a +sympathizer with Irish Nationalism, and one who in speech, +dress and manner identified himself with the North-country +mining class. Short in stature and uncouth in appearance, his +individuality first shocked and then by its earnestness impressed +the House of Commons; and his sturdy independence of party +ties, combined with a gift of rough but genuine eloquence (of +which his speech on the Royal Title Bill of 1876 was an example), +rapidly made him one of the best-known public men in the +country. He was, moreover, an Imperialist and a Colonial +Federationist at a time when Liberalism was tied and bound to the +Manchester traditions; and, to the consternation of the official +wire-pullers, he vigorously supported Disraeli’s foreign policy, +and in 1881 opposed the Gladstonian settlement with the Boers. +His independence (which his detractors attributed in some +degree to his alleged susceptibility to Tory compliments) brought +him into collision both with the Liberal caucus and with the +party organization in Newcastle itself, but Cowen’s personal +popularity and his remarkable powers as an orator triumphed +in his own birthplace, and he was again elected in 1885 in spite of +Liberal opposition. Shortly afterwards, however, he retired +both from parliament and from public life, professing his disgust +at the party intrigues of politics, and devoted himself to conducting +his newspaper, the <i>Newcastle Daily Chronicle</i>, and to his +private business as a mine-owner. In this capacity he exercised +a wide influence on local opinion, and the revolt of the Newcastle +electorate in later years against doctrinaire Radicalism was +largely due to his constant preaching of a broader outlook on +national affairs. He continued behind the scenes to play a +powerful part in forming North-country opinion until his death +on the 18th of February 1900.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His letters were published by his daughter in 1909.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COWES,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a seaport and watering-place in the Isle of Wight, +England, 12 m. S.S.E. of Southampton. West Cowes is separated +from East Cowes by the picturesque estuary of the river +Medina, the two towns (each of which is an urban district) +lying on opposite sides of its mouth at the apex of the northern +coast of the island. Pop. (1901) West Cowes, 8652; East Cowes, +3196. The port between them is the chief on the island, and is +the headquarters of the Royal Yacht Squadron (founded in 1812); +it is in regular steamship communication with Southampton and +Portsmouth. West Cowes is served by the Isle of Wight Central +railway. A steam ferry and a floating bridge across the Medina, +here 600 yds. broad, unite the towns. Behind the harbour the +houses rise picturesquely on gentle wooded slopes, and numerous +villas adorn the vicinity. The towns owe their origin to two +forts or castles, built on each side of the mouth of the Medina by +Henry VIII. in 1540, for the defence of the coast; the eastern +one has disappeared, but the west castle remains and is used as +the club-house of the Yacht Squadron. The marine parade of +West Cowes, and the public promenade called the Green, are +close to the castle. The industrial population is chiefly employed +in the shipbuilding yards, in the manufacture of ships’ fittings, +and in engineering works. The harbour is under an elective +body of commissioners. On the opposite side of the Medina a +broad carriageway leads to East Cowes Castle, a handsome +edifice built by John Nash, the favourite architect of George IV., +in 1798, and immediately beyond it are the grounds surrounding +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>347</span> +Osborne House (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Osborne</a></span>), built in 1845 after the property +had been purchased by Queen Victoria, the church of St Mildred, +Whippingham, lying a mile to the south.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COWL<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (through Fr. <i>coule</i>, from Lat. <i>cucullus</i> or <i>cuculla</i>, a +covering; the word is found in various forms in most European +languages, cf. Ger. <i>Kugel</i> or <i>Kigel</i>, Dutch <i>kovel</i>, Irish <i>cochal</i> or +<i>cochull</i>; the ultimate origin may be the root <i>kal</i>, found in Lat. +<i>clam</i>, secretly, and Gr. <span class="grk" title="kalyptein">καλύπτειν</span>, to hide, cover up), an outer +garment worn by both sexes in the middle ages; a part of the +monastic dress, hence the phrase “to take the cowl,” signifying +entry upon the religious life. The <i>cucullus</i> worn by the early +Egyptian anchorites was a hood covering the head and neck. +Later generations lengthened the garment until it reached to the +heels, and St Benedict issued a rule restricting its length to two +cubits. Chapter 55 of his <i>Institute</i> prescribes the following dress +in temperate climates: a cowl and tunic, thick in winter and +thin in summer, with a scapular for working hours and shoes and +stockings, all of simple material and make. In the 14th century +the cowl and the frock were frequently confounded, but the +council of Vienne defined the former as “a habit long and full +without sleeves,” and the latter as “a long habit with long and +wide sleeves.” While the term thus seems strictly to imply a +hooded gown it is often applied to the hood alone. It is also +used to describe a loose vestment worn over the frock in the +winter season and during the night office.</p> + +<p>The word “cowl” is also applied to a hood-shaped covering +to a chimney or ventilating shaft, to help down-draught, and to +clear the up-current of foul air (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ventilation</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COWLEY, ABRAHAM<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1618-1667), English poet, was born in +the city of London late in 1618. His father, a wealthy citizen, +who died shortly before his birth, was a stationer. His mother +was wholly given to works of devotion, but it happened that +there lay in her parlour a copy of <i>The Faery Queen</i>. This became +the favourite reading of her son, and he had twice devoured it all +before he was sent to school. As early as 1628, that is, in his +tenth year, he composed his <i>Tragicall History of Piramus and +Thisbe</i>, an epical romance written in a six-line stanza, of his own +invention. It is not too much to say that this work is the most +astonishing feat of imaginative precocity on record; it is +marked by no great faults of immaturity, and possesses constructive +merits of a very high order. Two years later the child +wrote another and still more ambitious poem, <i>Constantia and +Philetus</i>, being sent about the same time to Westminster school. +Here he displayed the most extraordinary mental precocity and +versatility, and wrote in his thirteenth year yet another poem, +the <i>Elegy on the Death of Dudley, Lord Carlton</i>. These three +poems of considerable size, and some smaller ones, were collected +in 1633, and published in a volume entitled <i>Poetical Blossoms</i>, +dedicated to the head master of the school, and prefaced by +many laudatory verses by schoolfellows. The author at once +became famous, although he had not, even yet, completed his +fifteenth year. His next composition was a pastoral comedy, +entitled <i>Love’s Riddle</i>, a marvellous production for a boy of +sixteen, airy, correct and harmonious in language, and rapid in +movement. The style is not without resemblance to that of +Randolph, whose earliest works, however, were at that time only +just printed. In 1637 Cowley was elected into Trinity College, +Cambridge, where he betook himself with enthusiasm to the +study of all kinds of learning, and early distinguished himself as a +ripe scholar. It was about this time that he composed his +scriptural epic on the history of King David, one book of which +still exists in the Latin original, the rest being superseded in +favour of an English version in four books, called the <i>Davideis</i>, +which he published a long time after. This his most grave and +important work is remarkable as having suggested to Milton +several points which he afterwards made use of. The epic, +written in a very dreary and turgid manner, but in good rhymed +heroic verse, deals with the adventures of King David from his +boyhood to the smiting of Amalek by Saul, where it abruptly +closes. In 1638 <i>Love’s Riddle</i> and a Latin comedy, the <i>Naufragium +Joculare</i>, were printed, and in 1641 the passage of Prince +Charles through Cambridge gave occasion to the production of +another dramatic work, <i>The Guardian</i>, which was acted before +the royal visitor with much success. During the civil war this +play was privately performed at Dublin, but it was not printed +till 1650. It is bright and amusing, in the style common to the +“sons” of Ben Jonson, the university wits who wrote more +for the closet than the public stage.</p> + +<p>The learned quiet of the young poet’s life was broken up by +the Civil War; he warmly espoused the royalist side. He became +a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, but was ejected by the +Parliamentarians in 1643. He made his way to Oxford, where he +enjoyed the friendship of Lord Falkland, and was tossed, in the +tumult of affairs, into the personal confidence of the royal family +itself. After the battle of Marston Moor he followed the queen to +Paris, and the exile so commenced lasted twelve years. This +period was spent almost entirely in the royal service, “bearing +a share in the distresses of the royal family, or labouring in their +affairs. To this purpose he performed several dangerous journeys +into Jersey, Scotland, Flanders, Holland, or wherever else the +king’s troubles required his attendance. But the chief testimony +of his fidelity was the laborious service he underwent in maintaining +the constant correspondence between the late king and the +queen his wife. In that weighty trust he behaved himself with +indefatigable integrity and unsuspected secrecy; for he ciphered +and deciphered with his own hand the greatest part of all the +letters that passed between their majesties, and managed a vast +intelligence in many other parts, which for some years together +took up all his days, and two or three nights every week.” In +spite of these labours he did not refrain from literary industry. +During his exile he met with the works of Pindar, and determined +to reproduce their lofty lyric passion in English. At the same +time he occupied himself in writing a history of the Civil War, +which he completed as far as the battle of Newbury, but unfortunately +afterwards destroyed. In 1647 a collection of his love +verses, entitled <i>The Mistress</i>, was published, and in the next year +a volume of wretched satires, <i>The Four Ages of England</i>, was +brought out under his name, with the composition of which he +had nothing to do. In spite of the troubles of the times, so fatal +to poetic fame, his reputation steadily increased, and when, on +his return to England in 1656, he published a volume of his +collected poetical works, he found himself without a rival in +public esteem. This volume included the later works already +mentioned, the <i>Pindarique Odes</i>, the <i>Davideis</i>, the <i>Mistress</i> and +some <i>Miscellanies</i>. Among the latter are to be found Cowley’s +most vital pieces. This section of his works opens with the +famous aspiration—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“What shall I do to be for ever known,</p> +<p class="i05">And make the coming age my own?”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">It contains elegies on Wotton, Vandyck, Falkland, William +Hervey and Crashaw, the last two being among Cowley’s finest +poems, brilliant, sonorous and original; the amusing ballad of +<i>The Chronicle</i>, giving a fictitious catalogue of his supposed +amours; various gnomic pieces; and some charming paraphrases +from Anacreon. The <i>Pindarique Odes</i> contain weighty +lines and passages, buried in irregular and inharmonious masses +of moral verbiage. Not more than one or two are good throughout, +but a full posy of beauties may easily be culled from them. +The long cadences of the Alexandrines with which most of the +strophes close, continued to echo in English poetry from Dryden +down to Gray, but the <i>Odes</i> themselves, which were found to be +obscure by the poet’s contemporaries, immediately fell into +disesteem. <i>The Mistress</i> was the most popular poetic reading of +the age, and is now the least read of all Cowley’s works. It was +the last and most violent expression of the amatory affectation of +the 17th century, an affectation which had been endurable in +Donne and other early writers because it had been the vehicle of +sincere emotion, but was unendurable in Cowley because in him it +represented nothing but a perfunctory exercise, a mere exhibition +of literary calisthenics. He appears to have been of a cold, or at +least of a timid, disposition; in the face of these elaborately +erotic volumes, we are told that to the end of his days he never +summoned up courage to speak of love to a single woman in real +life. The “Leonora” of <i>The Chronicle</i> is said to have been the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>348</span> +only woman he ever loved, and she married the brother of his +biographer, Sprat.</p> + +<p>Soon after his return to England he was seized in mistake for +another person, and only obtained his liberty on a bail of £1000. +In 1658 he revised and altered his play of <i>The Guardian</i>, and +prepared it for the press under the title of <i>The Cutter of Coleman +Street</i>, but it did not appear until 1663. Late in 1658 Oliver +Cromwell died, and Cowley took advantage of the confusion of +affairs to escape to Paris, where he remained until the Restoration +brought him back in Charles’s train. He published in 1663 +<i>Verses upon several occasions</i>, in which <i>The Complaint</i> is +included.</p> + +<p>Wearied with the broils and fatigues of a political life, Cowley +obtained permission to retire into the country; through his +friend, Lord St Albans, he obtained a property near Chertsey, +and here, devoting himself to the study of botany, and buried in +his books, he lived in comparative solitude until his death. He +took a great and practical interest in experimental science, and he +was one of those who were most prominent in advocating the +foundation of an academy for the protection of scientific enterprise. +Cowley’s pamphlet on <i>The Advancement of Experimental +Philosophy</i>, 1661, led directly to the foundation of the Royal +Society, to which body Cowley, in March 1667, at the suggestion +of Evelyn, addressed an ode which is the latest and one of the +strongest of his poems. He died in the Porch House, in Chertsey, +on the 28th of July 1667, in consequence of having caught a cold +while superintending his farm-labourers in the meadows late on a +summer evening. On the 3rd of August Cowley was buried in +Westminster Abbey beside the ashes of Chaucer and Spenser, +where in 1675 the duke of Buckingham erected a monument to his +memory. His <i>Poëmata Latina</i>, including six books “Plantarum,” +were printed in 1668.</p> + +<p>Throughout their parallel lives the fame of Cowley completely +eclipsed that of Milton, but posterity instantly and finally reversed +the judgment of their contemporaries. The poetry of Cowley +rapidly fell into a neglect as unjust as the earlier popularity had +been. As a prose writer, especially as an essayist, he holds, and +will not lose, a high position in literature; as a poet it is hardly +possible that he can enjoy more than a very partial revival. +The want of nature, the obvious and awkward art, the defective +melody of his poems, destroy the interest that their ingenuity and +occasional majesty would otherwise excite. He had lofty views +of the mission of a poet and an insatiable ambition, but his chief +claim to poetic life is the dowry of sonorous lyric style which he +passed down to Dryden and his successors of the 18th century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The works of Cowley were collected in 1668, when Thomas Sprat, +afterwards bishop of Rochester, brought out a splendid edition +in folio, to which he prefixed a graceful and elegant life of the +poet. There were many reprints of this collection, which formed +the standard edition till 1881, when it was superseded by A. B. +Grosart’s privately printed edition in two volumes, for the Chertsey +Worthies library. The Essays have frequently been revived with +approval.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COWLEY, HANNAH<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1743-1809), English dramatist and poet, +daughter of Philip Parkhouse, a bookseller at Tiverton, Devonshire, +was born in 1743. When about twenty-five years old she +married Mr Cowley, of the East India Company’s service, who +died in 1797. Some years after her marriage, being at the theatre +with her husband, she expressed the opinion that she could +write as good a piece as the one being performed, and within a +fortnight she had written her first play, <i>The Runaway</i>. She sent +it to Garrick, who produced it at Drury Lane in 1776. Between +then and 1795 she wrote twelve more plays, all of which (with one +exception) were produced at Drury Lane or Covent Garden; and +<i>The Belle’s Stratagem</i> (1782), with one or two others, still survives +in the list of acting plays. Among other, pieces were <i>Albina</i>, +<i>Countess Raimond</i>, <i>A Bold Stroke for a Husband</i>, <i>More Ways +than One</i>, and <i>A School for Greybeards, or The Mourning Bride</i>. +Mrs Cowley was the author of a number of indifferent poems, +mainly historical, and under the name of “Anna Matilda,” +which has since become proverbial, she carried on a sentimental +correspondence in the <i>World</i> with Robert Merry. She died at +Tiverton on the 11th of March 1809.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COWLEY, HENRY RICHARD CHARLES WELLESLEY,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st +Earl</span> (1804-1884), British diplomatist, was the eldest son of +Henry Wellesley, 1st Baron Cowley (1773-1847), and Charlotte, +daughter of Charles, 1st Earl Cadogan, and was consequently a +nephew of the duke of Wellington and of the marquess Wellesley. +Born on the 17th of June 1804, he entered the diplomatic service +in 1824, receiving his first important appointment in 1848, when +he became minister plenipotentiary to the Swiss cantons; and +in the same year he was sent to Frankfort to watch the proceedings +of the German parliament. This was followed by his +appointment as envoy extraordinary to the new Germanic +confederation, a position which he only held for a short time, +as he was chosen in 1852 to succeed the 1st marquess of Normanby +as the British ambassador in Paris. Baron Cowley, as Wellesley +had been since his father’s death in 1847, held this important +post for fifteen years, and the story of his diplomatic life in Paris +cannot be separated from the general history of England and +France. As minister during the greater part of the reign of +Napoleon III., he conducted the delicate negotiations between +the two countries during the time of those eastern complications +which preceded and followed the Crimean War, and also during +the excitement and unrest produced by the attempt made in +1858 by Felice Orsini to assassinate the <span class="correction" title="amended from emporor">emperor</span> of the French; +while his diplomatic skill was no less in evidence during the war +between France and Austria and the subsequent course of events +in Italy. In 1857 he had been created Earl Cowley and Viscount +Dangan; in 1866 he was made a knight of the Garter; and +having assisted Richard Cobden to conclude the commercial +treaty between Great Britain and France in 1860, he retired in +1867 from a position which he had filled with distinction to +himself and with benefit to his country. In 1863 Cowley had +inherited the estate of Draycot in Wiltshire from his kinsman +the 5th earl of Mornington, and he lived in retirement until his +death on the 15th of July 1884. He had married in 1833 Olivia +Cecilia (d. 1885), daughter of Charlotte, baroness de Ros and +Lord Henry Fitzgerald, by whom he had three sons and two +daughters, and was succeeded in his titles by his eldest son, +William Henry, 2nd Earl Cowley (1834-1895), father of Henry +Arthur Mornington, 3rd earl (b. 1866).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COWLEY FATHERS,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> the name commonly given to the members +of the Society of Mission Priests of St John the Evangelist, an +Anglican religious community, the headquarters of which are +in England, at Cowley St John, close to Oxford. The society +was founded in 1865 by the Rev. R. M. Benson “for the cultivation +of a life dedicated to God according to the principles of +poverty, chastity and obedience.” The society, which is occupied +both with educational and missionary work, has a house in +London and branch houses at Bombay and Poona in India, at +Cape Town and at St Cuthbert’s, Kaffraria, in South Africa; and +at Boston in the United States of America. The costume of the +Cowley Fathers consists of a black frock or cassock confined by +a black cord and a long black cloak.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COWPENS,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> a town of Spartanburg county, South Carolina, +U.S.A., in the N. part of the state. Pop. (1900) 692; (1910) 1101. +It is served by the Southern railway. In colonial days cattle +were rounded up and branded here—whence the name. Seven +miles N. of the town is the field of the battle of Cowpens, fought +on the 17th of January 1781, during the War of American +Independence, between the Americans under Gen. Daniel +Morgan and the British under Gen. Banastre Tarleton, the +British being defeated. A monument was erected on the battlefield +in 1859, but was much defaced during the Civil War. The +town of Cowpens was founded in 1876, and was incorporated +in 1880.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COWPER, WILLIAM COWPER,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl</span> (c. 1665-1723), +lord chancellor of England, was the son of Sir William Cowper, +Bart., of Ratling Court, Kent, a Whig member of parliament +of some mark in the two last Stuart reigns. Educated at St +Albans school, Cowper was called to the bar in 1688; having +promptly given his allegiance to the prince of Orange on his +landing in England, he was made recorder of Colchester in 1694, +and in 1695 entered parliament as member for Hertford. He +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>349</span> +enjoyed a large practice at the bar, and had the reputation of +being one of the most effective parliamentary orators of his +generation. He lost his seat in parliament in 1702 owing to +the unpopularity caused by the trial of his brother Spencer on +a charge of murder. In 1705 he was appointed lord keeper of +the great seal, and took his seat on the woolsack without a peerage. +In the following year he conducted the negotiations between the +English and Scottish commissioners for arranging the union +with Scotland. In November of the same year (1706) he succeeded +to his father’s baronetcy; and on the 14th of December he was +raised to the peerage as Baron Cowper of Wingham, Kent.</p> + +<p>When the union with Scotland came into operation in May +1707 the queen in council named Cowper lord high chancellor +of Great Britain, he being the first to hold this office. He presided +at the trial of Dr Sacheverell in 1710, but resigned the seal when +Harley and Bolingbroke took office in the same year. On the +death of Queen Anne, George I. appointed Cowper one of the +lords justices for governing the country during the king’s +absence, and a few weeks later he again became lord chancellor. +A paper which he drew up for the guidance of the new king on +constitutional matters, entitled <i>An Impartial History of Parties</i>, +marks the advance of English opinion towards party government +in the modern sense. It was published by Lord Campbell in +his <i>Lives of the Lord Chancellors</i>. Cowper supported the impeachment +of Lord Oxford for high treason in 1715, and in 1716 +presided as lord high steward at the trials of the peers charged +with complicity in the Jacobite rising, his sentences on whom +have been censured as unnecessarily severe. He warmly supported +the septennial bill in the same year. On the 18th of +March 1718 he was created Viscount Fordwich and Earl Cowper, +and a month later he resigned office on the plea of ill-health, but +probably in reality because George I. accused him of espousing +the prince of Wales’s side in his quarrel with the king. Taking +the lead against his former colleagues, Cowper opposed the +proposal brought forward in 1719 to limit the number of peers, +and also the bill of pains and penalties against Atterbury in +1723. In his last years he was accused, but probably without +reason, of active sympathy with the Jacobites. He died at his +residence, Colne Green, built by himself on the site of the present +mansion of Panshanger on the 10th of October 1723.</p> + +<p>Cowper was not a great lawyer, but Burnet says that “he +managed the court of chancery with impartial justice and great +despatch”; the most eminent of his contemporaries agreed in +extolling his oratory and his virtues. He was twice married—first, +about 1686, to Judith, daughter and heiress of Sir Robert +Booth, a London merchant; and secondly, in 1706, to Mary, +daughter of John Clavering, of Chopwell, Durham. Swift +(<i>Examiner</i>, xvii., xxii.) alludes to an allegation that Cowper +had been guilty of bigamy, a slander for which there appears to +have been no solid foundation. His younger brother, Spencer +Cowper (1669-1728), was tried for the murder of Sarah Stout in +1699, but was acquitted; the lady, who had fallen in love with +Cowper, having in fact committed suicide on account of his +inattention. He was one of the managers of the impeachment +of Sacheverell; was attorney-general to the prince of Wales +(1714), chief justice of Chester (1717), and judge of the common +pleas (1727). He was grandfather of William Cowper, the poet.</p> + +<p>The 1st earl left two sons and two daughters by his second +wife. The eldest son, William (1709-1764), who succeeded to +the title, assumed the name of Clavering in addition to that of +Cowper on the death of his maternal uncle. His wife was a +daughter of the earl of Grantham, and grand-daughter of the +earl of Ossory. The son of this marriage, George Nassau, 3rd +Earl Cowper (1738-1789), inherited the estates of the earl of +Grantham; and in 1778 he was created by the emperor Joseph +II. a prince of the Holy Roman Empire. The 5th earl (1778-1837) +married a daughter of Lord Melbourne, the prime minister, +by whom he had two sons; and his widow married as her second +husband Lord Palmerston, who devised his property of Broadlands +to her second son, William Francis Cowper-Temple (1811-1888), +who was created Baron Mount Temple in 1880. The +elder son, George Augustus Frederick (1806-1856), 6th Earl +Cowper, married Anne Florence, daughter of Thomas Philip, +earl de Grey; and this lady at her father’s death became <i>suo +jure</i> baroness Lucas of Cradwell. Francis Thomas de Grey, +7th Earl Cowper (1834-1905), in addition to the other family +titles, became in 1871 10th Baron Dingwall in the peerage of +Scotland, and 8th Baron Butler of Moore Park in the peerage +of Ireland as heir-general of Thomas, earl of Ossory, son of the +1st duke of Ormonde; the attainder of 1715 affecting those +titles having been reversed in July 1871. On the death of his +mother he also inherited the barony of Lucas of Cradwell. On +the death without issue in 1905 of the 7th earl, who was lord +lieutenant of Ireland 1880-1882, the earldom and barony of +Cowper, together with the viscountcy of Fordwich, became +extinct; the barony of Butler fell into abeyance among his +sisters and their heirs, and the baronies of Lucas and Dingwall +devolved on his nephew, Auberon Thomas Herbert (b. 1876).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Private Diary of Earl Cowper</i>, edited by E. C. Hawtrey for the +Roxburghe Club (Eton, 1833); <i>The Diary of Mary, Countess Cowper</i>, +edited by the Hon. Spencer Cowper (London, 1864); Lord Campbell, +<i>Lives of the Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal</i> (8 vols., +London, 1845-1869); Edward Foss, <i>The Judges of England</i> (9 vols., +London, 1848-1864); Gilbert Burnet, <i>History of his Own Time</i> +(6 vols., Oxford, 1833); T. B. Howell, <i>State Trials</i>, vol. xii.-xv. +(33 vols., London, 1809-1828); G. E. C., <i>Complete Peerage</i> (London, +1889).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COWPER, WILLIAM<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1731-1800), English poet, was born in +the rectory (now rebuilt) of Great Berkhampstead, Hertfordshire, +on the 26th of November (O.S. 15th) 1731, his father the Rev. +John Cowper being rector of the parish as well as a chaplain to +George II. On both the father’s and the mother’s side he was +of ancient lineage. The father could trace his family back to +the time of Edward IV. when the Cowpers were Sussex landowners, +while his mother, Ann, daughter of Roger Donne of +Ludham Hall, Norfolk, was of the same race as the poet Donne, +and the family claimed to have Plantagenet blood in its veins. +Of more human interest were Cowper’s immediate predecessors. +His grandfather was that Spencer Cowper who, after being tried +for his life on a charge of murder, lived to be a judge of the court +of common pleas, while his elder brother became lord chancellor +and Earl Cowper, a title which became extinct in 1905. Here is +the poet’s genealogical tree.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:526px; height:321px" src="images/img349.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The Rev. John Cowper was twice married. Cowper’s mother, +to whom the memorable lines were written beginning “Oh that +these lips had language,” was his first wife. She died in 1737 +at the age of thirty-four, when the poet was but six years old, +and she is buried in Berkhampstead church. Cowper’s stepmother +is buried in Bath, and a tablet on the walls of the cathedral +commemorates her memory. The father, who appears to have +been a conscientious clergyman with no special interest in his +sons, died in 1756 and was buried in the Cowper tomb at Panshanger. +Only one other of his seven children grew to manhood—John, +who was born in 1737.</p> + +<p>The poet appears to have attended a dame’s school in earliest +infancy, but on his mother’s death, when he was six years old, +he was sent to boarding-school, to a Dr Pitman at Markyate, a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>350</span> +village 6 m. from Berkhampstead. From 1738 to 1741 he was +placed in the care of an oculist, as he suffered from inflammation +of the eyes. In the latter year he was sent to Westminster +school, where he had Warren Hastings, Impey, Lloyd, Churchill +and Colman for schoolfellows. It was at the Markyate school +that he suffered the tyranny that he commemorated in <i>Tirocinium</i>. +His days at Westminster, Southey thinks, were “probably the +happiest in his life,” but a boy of nervous temperament is always +unhappy at school. At the age of eighteen Cowper entered a +solicitor’s office in Ely Place, Holborn. Here he had Thurlow, +the future lord chancellor, as a fellow-clerk, and it is stated that +Thurlow promised to help his less pushful comrade in the days +of realized ambition. Three years in Ely Place were rendered +happy by frequent visits to his uncle Ashley’s house in Southampton +Row, where he fell deeply in love with his cousin +Theodora Cowper. At twenty-one years of age he took chambers +in the Middle Temple, where we first hear of the dejection of +spirits that accompanied him periodically through manhood. +He was called to the bar in 1754. In 1759 he removed to the +Inner Temple and was made a commissioner of bankrupts. His +devotion to his cousin, however, was a source of unhappiness. Her +father, possibly influenced by Cowper’s melancholy tendencies, +perhaps possessed by prejudices against the marriage of cousins, +interposed, and the lovers were separated—as it turned out for +ever. During three years he was a member of the Nonsense +Club with his two schoolfellows from Westminster, Churchill +and Lloyd, and he wrote sundry verses in magazines and translated +two books of Voltaire’s <i>Henriade</i>. A crisis occurred in +Cowper’s life when his cousin Major Cowper nominated him to +a clerkship in the House of Lords. It involved a preliminary +appearance at the bar of the house. The prospect drove him +insane, and he attempted suicide; he purchased poison, he placed +a penknife at his heart, but hesitated to apply either measure +of self-destruction. He has told, in dramatic manner, of his +more desperate endeavour to hang himself with a garter. Here +he all but succeeded. His friends were informed, and he was +sent to a private lunatic asylum at St Albans, where he remained +for eighteen months under the charge of Dr Nathaniel Cotton, +the author of <i>Visions</i>. Upon his recovery he removed to +Huntingdon in order to be near his brother John, who was a +fellow of St Benet’s College, Cambridge. John had visited his +brother at St Albans and arranged this. An attempt to secure +suitable lodgings nearer to Cambridge had been ineffectual. In +June 1765 he reached Huntingdon, and his life here was essentially +happy. His illness had broken him off from all his old friends +save only his cousin Lady Hesketh, Theodora’s sister, but new +acquaintances were made, the Unwins being the most valued. +This family consisted of Morley Unwin (a clergyman), his wife +Mary, and his son (William) and daughter (Susannah). The son +struck up a warm friendship which his family shared. Cowper +entered the circle as a boarder in November (1765). All went +serenely until in July 1767 Morley Unwin was thrown from his +horse and killed. A very short time before this event the Unwins +had received a visit from the Rev. John Newton (<i>q.v.</i>), the curate +of Olney in Buckinghamshire, with whom they became friends. +Newton suggested that the widow and her children with Cowper +should take up their abode in Olney. This was achieved in the +closing months of 1767. Here Cowper was to reside for nineteen +years, and he was to render the town and its neighbourhood +memorable by his presence and by his poetry. His residence +in the Market Place was converted into a Cowper Museum a +hundred years after his death, in 1900. Here his life went on its +placid course, interrupted only by the death of his brother in +1770, until 1773, when he became again deranged. It can scarcely +be doubted that this second attack interrupted the contemplated +marriage of Cowper with Mary Unwin, although Southey could +find no evidence of the circumstance and Newton was not informed +of it. J. C. Bailey brings final evidence of this (<i>The +Poems of Cowper</i>, page 15). The fact was kept secret in later +years in order to spare the feelings of Theodora Cowper, who +thought that her cousin had remained as faithful as she had done +to their early love.</p> + +<p>It was not until 1776 that the poet’s mind cleared again. In +1779 he made his first appearance as an author by the <i>Olney +Hymns</i>, written in conjunction with Newton, Cowper’s verses +being indicated by a “C.” Mrs Unwin suggested secular verse, +and Cowper wrote much, and in 1782 when he was fifty-one +years old there appeared <i>Poems of William Cowper of the Inner +Temple, Esq.: London, Printed for J. Johnson, No. 72 St Paul’s +Churchyard</i>. The volume contained “Table Talk,” “The +Progress of Error,” “Truth,” “Expostulation” and much else +that survives to be read in our day by virtue of the poet’s finer +work. This finer work was the outcome of his friendship with +Lady Austen, a widow who, on a visit to her sister, the wife of the +vicar of the neighbouring village of Clifton, made the acquaintance +of Cowper and Mrs Unwin. The three became great friends. +Lady Austen determined to give up her house in London and to +settle in Olney. She suggested <i>The Task</i> and inspired <i>John +Gilpin</i> and <i>The Royal George</i>. But in 1784 the friendship was at +an end, doubtless through Mrs Unwin’s jealousy of Lady Austen. +Cowper’s second volume appeared in 1785;—<i>The Task: A Poem +in Six Books. By William Cowper of the Inner Temple, Esq.; To +which are added by the same author An Epistle to Joseph Hill, Esq., +Tirocinium or a Review of Schools, and the History of John +Gilpin: London, Printed for J. Johnson, No. 72 St Paul’s Church +Yard; 1785.</i> His first book had been a failure, one critic even +declaring that “Mr Cowper was certainly a good, pious man, but +without one spark of poetic fire.” This second book was an +instantaneous success, and indeed marks an epoch in literary +history. But before its publication—in 1784—the poet had +commenced the translation of Homer. In 1786 his life at Olney +was cheered by Lady Hesketh taking up a temporary residence +there. The cousins met after an interval of twenty-three years, +and Lady Hesketh was to be Cowper’s good angel to the end, even +though her letters disclose a considerable impatience with Mrs +Unwin. At the end of 1786 a removal was made to Weston +Underwood, the neighbouring village which Cowper had +frequently visited as the guest of his Roman Catholic friends the +Throckmortons. This was to be his home for yet another ten +years. Here he completed his translation of Homer, materially +assisted by Mr Throckmorton’s chaplain Dr Gregson. There are +six more months of insanity to record in 1787. In 1790, a +year before the <i>Homer</i> was published, commenced his friendship +with his cousin John Johnson, known to all biographers of the +poet as “Johnny of Norfolk.” Johnson also aspired to be a +poet, and visited his cousin armed with a manuscript. Cowper +discouraged the poetry, but loved the writer, and the two +became great friends. New friends were wanted, for in 1792 Mrs +Unwin had a paralytic stroke, and henceforth she was a hopeless +invalid. A new and valued friend of this period was Hayley, +famous in his own day as a poet and in history for his association +with Romney and Cowper. He was drawn to Cowper by the fact +that both were contemplating an edition of “Milton,” Cowper +having received a commission to edit, writing notes and translating +the Latin and Italian poems. The work was never completed. +In 1794 Cowper was again insane and his lifework was +over. In the following year a removal took place into Norfolk +under the loving care of John Johnson. Johnson took Cowper and +Mary Unwin to North Tuddenham, thence to Mundesley, then to +Dunham Lodge, near Swaffham, and finally in October 1796 they +moved to East Dereham. In December of that year Mrs Unwin +died. Cowper lingered on, dying on the 25th of April 1800. The +poet is buried near Mrs Unwin in East Dereham church.</p> + +<p>Cowper is among the poets who are epoch-makers. He brought +a new spirit into English verse, and redeemed it from the artificiality +and the rhetoric of many of his predecessors. With him +began the “enthusiasm of humanity” that was afterwards to +become so marked in the poetry of Burns and Shelley, Wordsworth +and Byron. With him began the deep sympathy with +nature, and love of animal life, which was to characterize so +much of later poetry.</p> + +<p>Although Cowper cannot rank among the world’s greatest +poets or even among the most distinguished of poets of his own +country, his place is a very high one. He had what is a rare +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>351</span> +quality among English poets, the gift of humour, which was very +singularly absent from others who possessed many other of the +higher qualities of the intellect. Certain of his poems, moreover,—for +example, “To Mary,” “The Receipt of my Mother’s +Portrait,” and the ballad “On the Loss of the Royal George,”—will, +it may safely be affirmed, continue to be familiar to each +successive generation in a way that pertains to few things in +literature. Added to this, one may note Cowper’s distinction as a +letter-writer. He ranks among the half-dozen greatest letter-writers +in the English language, and he was perhaps the only +great letter-writer with whom the felicity was due to the power of +what he has seen rather than what he has read.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The first important life of Cowper was by Hayley +in 1803. In its complete form it appeared in 4 volumes in 1806 and +was reprinted in 1809 and 1812. It was reprinted again by the Rev. +T. S. Grimshawe with the Correspondence in 8 volumes in 1835. +Robert Southey’s much more valuable <i>Life and Letters</i> appeared +also in 15 volumes in 1834-1837. The <i>Private Correspondence</i>, edited +by John Johnson, appeared in 2 volumes in 1824 and again in 1835. +The <i>Complete Correspondence</i>, edited by Thomas Wright, was published +in 1904, but more correspondence appeared in <i>Notes and +Queries</i>, July, August and September 1904, and in <i>The Poems of +William Cowper</i>, edited by J. C. Bailey (1905). Edward Dowden +unearthed new correspondence with William Hayley in <i>The Atlantic +Monthly</i> (1907). Short lives of Cowper have appeared in many +quarters, from Thomas Taylor’s (1833) to Goldwin Smith’s in the +“English Men of Letters” series (1880). Another brief biography +of great merit is attached to the Globe edition of Cowper’s <i>Works</i>. +Essays by Leslie Stephen, Stopford Brooke, Whitwell Elwin, George +Eliot and Walter Bagehot deserve attention. See also St Beuve’s +<i>Causeries du Lundi</i> (1868), vol. xi.; <i>Letters of Lady Hesketh to John +Johnson</i> (1901); <i>John Newton</i>, by the Rev. Josiah Bull (1868); +<i>Cowper and Mary Unwin</i>, by Caroline Gearey (1900); and <i>A Concordance +to the Poetic Works of William Cowper</i>, by John Neave +(1887).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><span class="fn">1</span> Alderman Cooper thus spelt his name and all the family from +that day to this, including the poet, have so pronounced it.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COWRY,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> the popular name of the shells of the <i>Cypraeida</i>, a +family of mollusks. Upwards of 100 species are recognized, +and they are widely distributed over the world—their habitat +being the shallow water along the sea-shore. The best known +is the money cowry or <i>Cypraea moneta</i>, a small shell about half +an inch in length, white and straw-coloured without and blue +within, which derives its distinctive name from the fact that in +various countries it has been employed as a kind of currency. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shell-money</a></span>.) In Africa among those tribes, such as the +Niam-Niam, who do not recognize their monetary value, the +shells are in demand as fashionable decorations, just as in +Germany they were in use as an ornament for horses’ harness, and +were popular enough to acquire several native names, such as +<i>Brustharnisch</i> or breastplates, and <i>Otterköpfchen</i> or little adders’ +heads. Besides the <i>Cypraea moneta</i> various species are employed +in this decorative use. The <i>Cypraea aurora</i> is a mark of chieftainship +among the natives of the Friendly Islands; the <i>Cypraea +annulus</i> is a favourite with the Asiatic islanders; and several of +the larger kinds have been used in Europe for the carving of +cameos. The tiger cowry, <i>Cypraea tigris</i>, so well known as a +mantelpiece ornament in England and America, is commonly +used by the natives of the Sandwich Islands to sink their nets; +and they have also an ingenious plan of cementing portions of +several shells into a smooth oval ball which they then employ as a +bait to catch the cuttle-fish. While the species already mentioned +occur in myriads in their respective habitats, the <i>Cypraea princeps</i> +and the <i>Cypraea umbilicata</i> are extremely rare.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COW-TREE,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Milk-tree</span>, <i>Brosimum Galactodendron</i> (natural +order Moraceae), a native of Venezuela. As in other members of +the order, the stem contains a milky latex, which flows out in +considerable quantities when a notch is cut in it. The “milk” +is sweet and pleasant tasting. Another species, <i>B. Alicastrum</i>, +the bread-nut tree, a native of central America and Jamaica, +bears a fruit which is cooked and eaten. The bread-fruit +(<i>Artocarpus</i>) is an allied genus of the same natural order.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COX, DAVID<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1783-1859), English painter, was born on the +29th of April 1783, in a small house attached to the forge of his +father, a hardworking master smith, in a mean suburb of Birmingham. +Turning his hand to what he could get to do, Joseph Cox, +the father, was both blacksmith and whitesmith, and when the +war with France began took to the making of bayonets and horse +shoes, on wholesale commission, and immediately the boy David +was thought able to assist he was taken from the poor elementary +school in the neighbourhood, and set to the anvil. The attempt +to turn the boy to this kind of labour had, however, been made +too early; it was too heavy for his strength, and he was sent to +what was called by the cyclops of Birmingham a “toy trade,” +making lacquered buckles, painted lockets, tin snuff-boxes and +other “fancy” articles. Here David very soon acquired some +power of painting miniatures, and his talents might have been +misdirected had his master, Fieldler by name, not released him +from his apprenticeship by dying by his own hand; and David +found an opening as colour-grinder and scene-painter’s fag in the +theatre then leased, with several others, by the father of +Macready, the tragedian.</p> + +<p>This obscure step, not one of promotion at the time, was really +the most important incident in the uneventful career of Cox. +The boy, who had inherited a rather weakly body, and had been +trained with care by a pious mother, while intellectually negative +and unable to cope with any kind of learning whatever, had +endless perseverance, great strength of application, and all +through life remained genial, gentle, simple-minded and modest, +his penetration and self-reliance being wholly professional, +inspired by his love of nature and his knowledge of his subject. +Not very quick, and with little versatility, he went step by step +in one line of study from the time he began to get the smallest +remuneration for his pictures to the age of seventy-five, when he +painted large in oil very much the same class of subjects he had +of old produced small in water-colours, with the same impressive +and unaffectedly noble sentiment, only increased by the mastery +of almost infinite practice. He was never led astray by fictitious +splendour of any kind, except once indeed in 1825, when he +imitated Turner, and produced a classic subject he called +“Carthage, Aeneas, and Achates.” He never visited Venice or +Egypt, or crossed the Channel except for a week or two in +Belgium and Paris, and never even went to Scotland for painting +purposes. Bettws-y-Coed and its neighbourhood was everything +to him, and characteristics most truly English were beloved by +him with a sort of filial instinct. So completely did he love the +country, that even London, where it was his interest to live, had +few attractions, and did not retain him long.</p> + +<p>This residence in the metropolis which began in 1804 was, +however, of the most essential educational advantage to him. +The Water-Colour Society was established the year after he +arrived, and was mainly supported by landscape-painters. He +was not, of course, admitted at first into membership, not till 1813, +before which time an attempt to establish a rival exhibition had +been made. In this Cox joined, the result being very serious to +him, an entire failure entailing the seizure and forced sale of all +the pictures. At that time the tightest economy was the rule +with him, and to save the trifling cost of new strainers or stretching +boards, he covered up one picture by another. When these +works were prepared for re-sale, fifty years afterwards, some of +them yielded picture after picture, peeled off the boards like the +waistcoats from the body of the gravedigger in Hamlet!</p> + +<p>While lodging near Astley’s Circus he married his landlady’s +daughter, and then took a modest cottage at Dulwich, where he +gradually left off scene-painting and became teacher, giving +lessons at ten shillings a lesson. This entailed walking to the +pupils’ homes, and the gift of the paintings done before the pupils. +These have since been frequently sold for large sums, but his own +price, when lucky enough to sell his best works, was never over +a few pounds, and more frequently about fifteen shillings. +Sometimes, indeed, he sold them in quantities at two pounds a +dozen to be resold to country teachers. By and by he resisted the +leaving of the work done to the pupil, but with little advantage +to himself, as he saw no end to the accumulation of his own +productions, and actually tore them up, and threw them into +areas, or pushed them into drains during his trudge homeward. +A number of years after he pointed out a particular drain to a +friend, and said, “Many a work of mine has gone down that way +to the Thames!”</p> + +<p>Shortly after he had turned thirty, his stay in London suddenly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>352</span> +ended. He was offered the enormous sum of £100 per annum, +by a ladies’ college in Hereford, and thither he went. This sum he +supplemented by teaching in the Hereford grammar school for +many years, at six guineas a year, and in other schools at better +pay, but still, and up to his fortieth year, we find his prices for +pictures from eight to twenty-five shillings. Cox has no history +apart from his productions, and these particulars as to his +remuneration possess an interest almost dramatic when we +contrast them with the enormous sums realized by his later +works, and with the “honours and observance, troops of friends,” +that accompanied old age with him, when settled down in his own +home at Harborne, near his native town, where he died on the +7th of June 1859.</p> + +<p>Cox’s second short residence in London, dating from 1835 to +1840, marks the period of his highest powers. During those +years, and for twelve years after, his productiveness kept pace +with his mastery, and it would be difficult to overrate the +impressiveness of effect, and high feeling, within the narrow range +of subject displayed by many of these works. He was now +surrounded by dealers, and wealth flowed in upon him. Still he +remained the same, a man with few wants and scarcely any +enjoyments except those furnished by his brush and his colours. +The home at Harborne was a pleasant one, but the approach to +the front was useless as the door was kept fastened up, the only +entrance being through the garden at the back, and the principal +room appropriated as his studio he was content to reach by a +narrow stair from the kitchen. Neither in it nor elsewhere was +there any luxury or even taste visible:—no <i>bric-à-brac</i>, no +objects of interest, few or no books, no pictures except landscapes +by his friends. When in winter, after his wife’s death, the fire +went out, and the cold at last surprised him, he lifted his easel +into the little dining-room and began again. A union of his friends +was formed in 1855 to procure a portrait of him, which was +painted by Sir J. Watson Gordon; and an exhibition of his works +was opened in London in 1858 and again another in 1859. This +was actually open when the news of his death arrived.</p> + +<p>The number of David Cox’s works, great and small, is enormous. +He produced hundreds annually for perhaps forty-five years. +Before his death and for ten years thereafter, their prices were +remarkable, as witness the following obtained at auction—“Going +to the Mill,” £1575; “Old Mill at Bettws-y-Coed,” +£1575; “Outskirts of a Wood, with Gipsies,” £2305; “Peace +and War,” £3430.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hall, <i>Biography of David Cox</i> (1881).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. B. Sc.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COX, SIR GEORGE WILLIAM<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1827-1902), English divine +and scholar, was born on the 10th of January 1827, at Benares, +India, and was educated at Rugby and Trinity College, Oxford. +In 1850 he was ordained, and in 1860 took a mastership at +Cheltenham College, which he held for only a year. He had +already contributed to the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, and had published +in 1850 <i>Poems, Legendary and Historical</i> (with E. A. Freeman), +and in 1853 a <i>Life of St Boniface</i>. From 1861 he devoted himself +entirely to literary work, chiefly in connexion with history and +comparative mythology. Many of his works were avowedly +popular in character, and the most important, the <i>History of +Greece</i>, has been superseded and is now of little value. His +studies in mythology were inspired by Max Müller, but his +treatment of the subjects was his own. He was an extreme +supporter of the solar and nebular theory as the explanation of +myths. He also edited (with W. T. Brande) <i>A Dictionary of +Science, Literature and Art</i> (1875). Sir George Cox (who succeeded +to the baronetcy in 1877) was a Broad Churchman, and a +prominent supporter of Bishop Colenso in 1863-1865; and five +years after Colenso’s death he published (1888) his <i>Life</i> of the +bishop. He was himself nominated to the see of Natal, but was +refused consecration. In 1881 he was made vicar of Scrayingham, +York, but resigned the living in 1897. In 1896 he was given a +civil list pension. He died at Walmer on the 9th of February +1902.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Works.</span>—<i>Tales from Greek Mythology</i> (1861); <i>A Manual of +Mythology</i> (1867); <i>Latin and Teutonic Christendom</i> (1870); <i>The +Mythology of the Aryan Nations</i> (1870, new ed., 1882); <i>History +of Greece</i> (1874); <i>General History of Greece</i> (1876); <i>History of the +Establishment of British Rule in India</i>, and <i>An Introduction to the +Science of Comparative Mythology</i> (1881); <i>Lives of Greek Statesmen</i> +(1885); <i>Concise History of England</i> (1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COX, JACOB DOLSON<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1828-1900), American general, political +leader and educationalist, was born on the 27th of October 1828 +in Montreal, Canada. His father, a shipbuilder of German +descent (Koch), and his mother, a descendant of William Brewster, +were natives of New York City, where the boy grew up, studying +law in an office in 1842-1844, and working in a broker’s office in +1844-1846, and where, under the influence of Charles G. Finney +(1792-1875), whose daughter he afterwards married, he prepared +himself for the ministry. He graduated at Oberlin College in +1851, having in the meantime given up his theological studies in +rebellion at Finney’s dogmatism. In 1851-1853 he was superintendent +of schools at Warren, Ohio; in 1853 was admitted +to the Ohio bar, being at that time an anti-slavery Whig; and in +1859 was elected to the state senate, in which with Garfield and +James Monroe (1821-1898) he formed the “Radical Triumvirate,” +Cox himself presenting a petition for a personal liberty law and +urging woman’s rights, especially larger property rights to married +women. Appointed by Governor Dennison one of three brigadiers-general +of militia in 1860, he eagerly undertook the study of +tactics, strategy and military history. He rendered great +assistance in raising troops for the Union service in 1861, enlisted +himself in spite of poor health and a family of six small children, +and in April was commissioned a brigadier-general, U.S.V. He +took part in the West Virginia campaign of 1861, served in the +Kanawha region, in supreme command after Rosecrans’s relief +in the spring, until August 1862, when his troops were ordered to +join Burnside’s 9th Corps in Virginia. After the death at his +side of General Reno in the battle of South Mountain, and during +Antietam, Cox commanded the corps, and at the close of the +campaign (6th Oct. 1862) he was appointed major-general, +U.S.V., but the appointment was not confirmed. In April-December +1863 he was head of the department of Ohio. In +1864 he took part in the Atlanta campaign under Sherman, as a +divisional and subsequently corps-commander: at the battle +of Franklin he commanded the 23rd Corps, and he served at +Nashville also. He led an expedition following Sherman into +the Carolinas and fought two successful actions with Bragg at +Kinston, N.C. He was governor of Ohio in 1866-1867, and as +such advocated the colonization of the freedmen in a restricted +area, and sympathized with President Johnson’s programme of +Reconstruction and worked for a compromise between Johnson +and his opponents, although he finally deserted Johnson. In +1868 he was chairman of the Republican national convention +which nominated Grant. He was secretary of the interior in +1869-1870; opposed the confirmation of the treaty for the +annexation of Santo Domingo, negotiated by O. E. Babcock +and urged by President Grant; introduced the merit system +in his department, and resigned in October 1870 because of +pressure put on him by politicians piqued at his prohibition of +campaign levies on his clerks, and because of the interference +of Grant in favour of William McGarrahan’s attempt by legal +proceedings to obtain from Cox a patent to certain California +mining lands. He took up legal practice in Cincinnati, became +president in 1873, and until 1877 was receiver, of the Toledo +& Wabash & Western. In 1877-1879 he was a representative in +Congress. From 1881 to 1897 he was dean of the Cincinnati +law school, and from 1885 to 1889 president of the University of +Cincinnati. He died at Magnolia, Massachusetts, on the 4th +of August 1900. A successful lawyer, and in his later years a +prominent microscopist, who won a gold medal of honour for +microphotography at the Antwerp Exposition of 1891, he is +best known as one of the greatest “civilian” generals of the +Civil War, and, with the possible exception of J. C. Ropes, the +highest American authority of his time on military history, +particularly the history of the American Civil War. He wrote +<i>Atlanta</i> (New York, 1882) and <i>The March to the Sea, Franklin +and Nashville</i> (New York, 1882), both in the series <i>Campaigns +of the Civil War</i>; <i>The Second Battle of Bull Run, as Connected +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>353</span> +with the Fitz-John Porter Case</i> (Cincinnati, 1882); and the +valuable <i>Military Reminiscences of the Civil War</i> (2 vols., New +York, 1900) published posthumously.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. R. Ewing, <i>Public Services of Jacob Dolson Cox</i> (Washington, +1902), a Johns Hopkins University dissertation; and W. C. Cochran, +“Early Life and Military Services of General Jacob Dolson Cox,” +in <i>Bibliotheca Sacra</i>, vol. 58 (Oberlin, Ohio, 1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COX, KENYON<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1856-  ), American painter, was born at +Warren, Ohio, on the 27th of October 1856, being the son of +Gen. Jacob Dolson Cox. He was a pupil of Carolus-Duran and +of J. L. Gérôme in Paris from 1877 to 1882, when he opened a +studio in New York, subsequently teaching with much success +in the Art Students’ League. His earlier work was mainly of +the nude drawn with great academic correctness in somewhat +conventional colour. Receiving little encouragement for such +pictures, he turned to mural decorative work, in which he achieved +prominence. Among his better-known examples are the frieze +for the court room of the Appellate Court, New York, and decorations +for the Walker Art Gallery, Bowdoin College; for the +Capitol at Saint Paul, Minnesota, and for other public and private +buildings. He wrote with much authority on art topics, and is +the author of the critical reviews, <i>Old Masters and New</i> (1905) +and <i>Painters and Sculptors</i> (1907), besides some poems. He +became a National Academician in 1903. His wife, <i>née</i> Louise +H. King (b. 1865), whom he married in 1892, also became a +figure and portrait-painter of note.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COX, RICHARD<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1500?-1581), dean of Westminster and +bishop of Ely, was born of obscure parentage at Whaddon, +Buckinghamshire, in 1499 or 1500. He was educated at the +Benedictine priory of St Leonard Snelshall near Whaddon, at +Eton, and at King’s College, Cambridge, where he graduated +B.A. in 1524. At Wolsey’s invitation he became a member of +the cardinal’s new foundation at Oxford, was incorporated B.A. +in 1525, and created M.A. in 1526. In 1530 he was engaged in +persuading the more unruly members of the university to approve +of the king’s divorce. A premature expression of Lutheran +views is said to have caused his departure from Oxford and even +his imprisonment, but the records are silent on these sufferings +which do not harmonize with his appointment as master of the +royal foundation at Eton. In 1533 he appears as author of an +ode on the coronation of Anne Boleyn, in 1535 he graduated B.D. +at Cambridge, proceeding D.D. in 1537, and in the same year +subscribing the Institution of a Christian Man. In 1540 he was +one of the fifteen divines to whom were referred crucial questions +on the sacraments and the seat of authority in the Church; his +answers (printed in Pocock’s <i>Burnet</i>, iii. 443-496) indicate a +mind tending away from Catholicism, but susceptible to “the +king’s doctrine”; and, indeed, Cox was one of the divines by +whom Henry said the “King’s Book” had been drawn up when +he wished to impress upon the Regent Arran that it was not +exclusively his own doing. Moreover, he was present at the +examination of Barnes, subscribed the divorce of Anne of Cleves, +and in that year of reaction became archdeacon and prebendary +of Ely and canon of Westminster. He was employed on other +royal business in 1541, was nominated to the projected bishopric +of Southwell, and was made king’s chaplain in 1542. In 1543 +he was employed to ferret out the “Prebendaries’ Plot” against +Cranmer, and became the archbishop’s chancellor. In December +he was appointed dean of Oseney (afterwards Christ Church) +Oxford, and in July was made almoner to Prince Edward, in +whose education he took an active part. He was present at +Dr Crome’s recantation in 1546, denounced it as insincere and +insufficient, and severely handled him before the privy council.</p> + +<p>After Edward’s accession, Cox’s opinions took a more Protestant +turn, and he became one of the most active agents of +the Reformation. He was consulted on the compilation of the +Communion office in 1548, and the first and second books of +Common Prayer, and sat on the commission for the reform of the +canon law. As chancellor of the university of Oxford (1547-1552) +he promoted foreign divines such as Peter Martyr, and was +a moving spirit of the two commissions which sought with some +success to eradicate everything savouring of popery from the +books, MSS., ornaments and endowments of the university, and +earned Cox the sobriquet of its cancellor rather than its chancellor. +He received other rewards, a canonry of Windsor (1548), +the rectory of Harrow (1547) and the deanery of Westminster +(1549). He lost these preferments on Mary’s accession, and was for +a fortnight in August 1553 confined to the Marshalsea. He was +not of the stuff of which martyrs are made; he remained in +obscurity until after the failure of Wyatt’s rebellion, and then in +May 1554 escaped in the same ship as the future archbishop +Sandys, to Antwerp. Thence in March 1555 he made his way to +Frankfort, where he played an important part in the first struggle +between Anglicanism and Puritanism. The exiles had, under the +influence of Knox and Whittingham, adopted Calvinistic doctrine +and a form of service far more Puritanical than the Prayer-Book +of 1552. Cox stood up for that service, and the exiles were divided +into Knoxians and Coxians. Knox attacked Cox as a pluralist, +Cox accused Knox of treason to the emperor Charles V. This +proved the more dangerous charge: Knox and his followers +were expelled, and the Prayer-Book of 1552 was restored.</p> + +<p>In 1559 Cox returned to England, and was elected bishop of +Norwich, but the queen changed her mind and Cox’s destination +to Ely, where he remained twenty-one years. He was an honest, +but narrow-minded ecclesiastic, who held what views he did hold +intolerantly, and was always wanting more power to constrain +those who differed from him (see his letter in <i>Hatfield MSS.</i> i. +308). While he refused to minister in the queen’s chapel because +of the crucifix and lights there, and was a bitter enemy to the +Roman Catholics, he had little more patience with the Puritans. +He was grasping, or at least tenacious of his rights in money +matters, and was often brought into conflict with courtiers who +coveted episcopal lands. The queen herself intervened, when he +refused to grant Ely House to her favourite, Sir Christopher +Hatton; but the well-known letter beginning “Proud Prelate” +and threatening to unfrock him seems to be an impudent forgery +which first saw the light in the <i>Annual Register</i> for 1761. It +hardly, however, misrepresents the queen’s meaning, and Cox +was forced to give way. These and other trials led him to +resign his see in 1580, and it is significant that it remained vacant +for nineteen years. Cox died on the 22nd of July 1581: a +monument erected to his memory twenty years later in Ely +cathedral was defaced, owing, it was said, to his evil repute. +Strype (Whitgift, i. 2) gives Cox’s hot temper and marriage as +reasons why he was not made archbishop in 1583 in preference to +Whitgift, who had been his chaplain; but Cox had been dead two +years in 1583. His first wife’s name is unknown; she was the +mother of his five children, of whom Joanna married the eldest +son of Archbishop Parker. His second wife was the widow of +William Turner (d. 1568), the botanist and dean of Wells.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Voluminous details about Cox’s life are given in Strype’s Works, +Parker Soc. Publ., and Cooper’s <i>Athenae Cantab.</i> i. 437-445. See also +Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Acts of the Privy Council; Cal. +Dom. State Papers; Cal. Hatfield MSS.; Lit. Rem. of Edward VI.; +Whittingham’s <i>Troubles at Frankfort</i>; Machyn’s <i>Diary</i>; Pocock’s +<i>Burnet</i>; Bentham’s <i>Ely</i>; Willis’s <i>Cathedrals</i>; Le Neve’s <i>Fasti</i>; +R. W. Dixon’s <i>Church History</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COX, SAMUEL<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1826-1893), English nonconformist divine, +was born in London on the 19th of April 1826. For some years +he worked as an apprentice in the London docks, and then +entered the Baptist College at Stepney. In 1851 he became +pastor of a Baptist church at Southsea, removing in 1855 to Ryde, +and in 1863 to Nottingham. He was president of the Baptist +Association in 1873 and received the degree of D.D. from St +Andrews in 1882. Cox had distinct gifts as a biblical expositor +and was the founder and first editor of a monthly journal <i>The +Expositor</i> (1875-1884). Among the best known of his numerous +theological publications are <i>Salvator Mundi</i> (1877), <i>A Commentary +on the Book of Job</i> (1880), <i>The Larger Hope</i> (1883).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COX, SAMUEL HANSON<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1793-1880), American Presbyterian +divine, was born at Rahway, N.J., on the 25th of August 1793, +of Quaker stock. He was pastor of the Presbyterian church at +Mendham, N.J., in 1817-1821, and of two churches in New York +from 1821 to 1834. He helped to found the University of the +City of New York, and from 1834 to 1837 was professor of pastoral +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span> +theology at Auburn. The next seventeen years were passed in +active ministry at Brooklyn, whence in 1854, owing to a throat +affection, he removed to Owego, N.Y. He died at Bronxville, +N.Y., on the 2nd of October 1880. Cox was a fine orator, and a +speech made in Exeter Hall in 1833, in which he put the responsibility +for slavery in America on the British government, made +a great impression. It was he who described the appellation +D.D. as a couple of “semi-lunar fardels.”</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Arthur Cleveland Coxe</span> (1818-1896), who changed +the spelling of the family name, graduated at the University of +the City of New York in 1838 and at the General Theological +Seminary in 1841. He was rector of St John’s Church, Hartford, +in 1843-1854, of Grace Church, Baltimore, in 1854-1863, and of +Calvary Church, New York City, in 1863. In 1863 he became +assistant bishop and in 1865 bishop of western New York. He +was strongly influenced by the Oxford Movement. Bishop Coxe +wrote spirited defences of Anglican orders and published several +volumes of verse, notably <i>Christian Ballads</i> (1845).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COXCIE, MICHAEL<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1499-1592), Flemish painter, was born at +Malines, and studied under Bernard van Orley, who probably +induced him to visit Italy. At Rome in 1532 he painted the +chapel of Cardinal Enckenvoort in the church of Santa Maria +dell’ Anima; and Vasari, who knew him, says with truth “that he +fairly acquired the manner of an Italian.” But Coxcie’s principal +occupation was designing for engravers; and the fable of Psyche +in thirty-two sheets by Agostino Veneziano and the Master of the +Die are favourable specimens of his skill. During a subsequent +residence in the Netherlands Coxcie greatly extended his practice +in this branch of art. But his productions were till lately concealed +under an interlaced monogram M.C.O.K.X.I.N. Coxcie +returned in 1539 to Malines, where he matriculated, and painted +for the chapel of the gild of St Luke the wings of an altarpiece +now in Sanct Veit of Prague. The centre of this altarpiece, +by Mabuse, represents St Luke portraying the Virgin; +the side pieces contain the Martyrdom of St Vitus and the Vision +of St John in Patmos. At van Orley’s death in 1541 Coxcie +succeeded to the office of court painter to the regent Mary of +Hungary, for whom he decorated the castle of Binche. He was +subsequently patronized by Charles V., who often coupled his +works with those of Titian; by Philip II., who paid him royally +for a copy of van Eyck’s “Agnus Dei”; and by the duke of Alva, +who once protected him from the insults of Spanish soldiery at +Malines. There are large and capital works of his (1587-1588) in +St Rombaud of Malines, in Ste Gudule of Brussels, and in the +museums of Brussels and Antwerp. His style is Raphaelesque +grafted on the Flemish, but his imitation of Raphael, whilst it +distantly recalls Giulio Romano, is never free from affectation +and stiffness. He died at Malines on the 5th of March 1592.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COXE, HENRY OCTAVIUS<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1811-1881), English librarian and +scholar, was born at Bucklebury, in Berkshire, on the 20th of +September 1811. He was educated at Westminster school and +Worcester College, Oxford. Immediately on taking his degree in +1833, he began work in the manuscript department of the British +Museum, became in 1838 sub-librarian of the Bodleian, at Oxford, +and in 1860 succeeded Dr Bandinel as head librarian, an office he +held until his death in 1881. Having proved himself an able +palaeographer, he was sent out by the British government in +1857 to inspect the libraries in the monasteries of the Levant. +He discovered some valuable manuscripts, but the monks were +too wise to part with their treasures. One valuable result of his +travels was the detection of the forgery attempted by Constantine +Simonides. He was the author of various catalogues, and under +his direction that of the Bodleian, in more than 720 volumes, was +completed. He published <i>Rogeri de Wendover Chronica</i>, 5 vols. +(1841-1844); the <i>Black Prince, an historical poem written in +French by Chandos Herald</i> (1842); and <i>Report on the Greek +Manuscripts yet remaining in the Libraries of the Levant</i> (1858). +He was not only an accurate librarian but an active and hardworking +clergyman, and was for the last twenty-five years of his +life in charge of the parish of Wytham, near Oxford. He was +likewise honorary fellow of Worcester and Corpus Christi Colleges. +He died on the 8th of July 1881.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COXE, WILLIAM<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (1747-1828), English historian, son of Dr +William Coxe, physician to the royal household, was born in +London on the 7th of March 1747. Educated at Marylebone +grammar school and at Eton College, he proceeded to King’s +College, Cambridge, and was elected a fellow of this society in +1768. In 1771 he took holy orders, and afterwards visited many +parts of Europe as tutor and travelling companion to various +noblemen and gentlemen. In 1786 he was appointed vicar of +Kingston-on-Thames, and in 1788 rector of Bemerton, Wiltshire. +He also held the rectory of Stourton from 1801 to 1811 and that +of Fovant from 1811 until his death. In 1791 he was made +prebendary of Salisbury, and in 1804 archdeacon of Wiltshire. +He married in 1803 Eleanora, daughter of William Shairp, consul-general +for Russia, and widow of Thomas Yeldham of St Petersburg. +He died on the 8th of June 1828.</p> + +<p>During a long residence at Bemerton Coxe was mainly occupied +in literary work. His <i>Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole</i> (London, +1798), <i>Memoirs of Horatio, Lord Walpole</i> (London, 1802), <i>Memoirs +of John, duke of Marlborough</i> (London, 1818-1819), <i>Private and +Original Correspondence of Charles Talbot, duke of Shrewsbury</i> +(London, 1821), <i>Memoirs of the Administrations of Henry Pelham</i> +(London, 1829), are very valuable for the history of the 18th +century. His <i>History of the House of Austria</i> (London, 1807, +new ed. 1853 and 1873), and <i>Memoirs of the Bourbon Kings of +Spain</i> (London, 1813), give evidence of careful and painstaking +work on the part of the author. The style, however, as in all his +works, is remarkably dull. His other works are mainly accounts +of his travels: <i>Sketches of the Natural, Political and Civil State +of Switzerland</i> (London, 1779), <i>Account of the Russian Discoveries +between Asia and America</i> (London, 1780), <i>Account of Prisons +and Hospitals in Russia, Sweden and Denmark</i> (London, 1781), +<i>Travels into Poland, Russia, Sweden and Denmark</i> (London, 1784), +<i>Travels in Switzerland</i> (London, 1789), <i>Letter on Secret Tribunals +of Westphalia</i> (London, 1796), <i>Historical Tour in Monmouthshire</i> +(London, 1801). He also edited Gay’s <i>Fables</i>, and wrote a <i>Life +of John Gay</i> (Salisbury, 1797), <i>Anecdotes of G. F. Handel and +J. C. Smith</i> (London, 1798), and a few other works of minor +importance. Some of his books have been translated into +French, and several have gone through two or more editions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COXSWAIN<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (properly “cockswain,” and pronounced <i>cox’n</i>, +usually shortened to “cox”; from “cock,” a small boat, and +<i>swain</i>, a servant), in the navy, a petty officer in charge of a ship’s +boat and its crew, who steers; the coxswain of the captain’s +gig takes a special rank among petty officers. In the National +Lifeboat Institution of Great Britain the “coxswain” is a paid +permanent official on each station, who has charge of the lifeboat +and house, is responsible for its care, and steers and takes command +when afloat. The word is also used, generally, of any one +who steers a boat.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COXWELL, HENRY TRACEY<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1819-1900), English aeronaut, +was born at Wouldham, Kent, on the 2nd of March 1819, the +son of a naval officer. He was educated for the army, but +became a dentist. From a boy he had been greatly interested +in ballooning, then in its infancy, but his own first ascent was not +made until 1844. In 1848 he became a professional aeronaut, +making numerous public ascents in the chief continental cities. +Returning to London, he gave exhibitions from the Cremorne +and subsequently from the Surrey Gardens. By 1861 he had +made over 400 ascents. In 1862 in company with Dr James +Glaisher, he attained the greatest height on record, about +7 m. His companion became insensible, and he himself, +unable to use his frost-bitten hands, opened the gas-valve with +his teeth, and made an extremely rapid but safe descent. The +result of this and other aerial voyages by Coxwell and Glaisher +was the making of some important contributions to the science +of meteorology. Coxwell was most pertinacious in urging the +practical utility of employing balloons in time of war. He says: +“I had hammered away in <i>The Times</i> for little less than a decade +before there was a real military trial of ballooning for military +purposes at Aldershot.” His last ascent was made in 1885, and +he died on the 5th of January 1900.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his <i>My Life and Balloon Experiences</i> (1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>355</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">COYOTE,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> the Indian name for a North American member of +the dog family, also known as the prairie-wolf, and scientifically +as <i>Canis latrans</i>. Ranging from Canada in the north to Guatemala +in the south, and chiefly frequenting the open plains on both +sides of the chain of the Rocky Mountains, the coyote, under all +its various local phases, is a smaller animal than the true wolf, +and may apparently be regarded as the New World representative +of the jackals, or perhaps, like the Indian wolf (<i>C. +pallipes</i>), as a type intermediate between wolves and jackals. +In addition to its inferior size, the coyote is also shorter in the +leg than the wolf, and carries a more luxuriant coat of hair. +The average length is about 40 in., and the general tone of +colour tawny mingled with black and white above and whitish +below, the tail having a black tip and likewise a dark gland-patch +near the root of the upper surface. There is, however, +considerable local variation both in the matter of size and +of colour from the typical coyote of Iowa, which measures +about 50 in. in total length and is of a full rich tint. The +coyote of the deserts of eastern California, Nevada and Utah +is, for instance, a smaller and paler-coloured animal, whose +length is usually about 42 in. On this and other local variations +a number of nominal species have been founded; but +it is preferable to regard them in the light of geographical phases +or races, such as the above-mentioned <i>C. latrans estor</i> of Nevada +and Utah, <i>C. l. mearnsi</i> of Arizona and Sonora, and <i>C. l. frustor</i> +of Oklahoma and the Arkansas River district.</p> + +<p>It is to distinguish them from the grey, or timber, wolves that +coyotes have received the name of “prairie-wolves”; the two +titles indicating the nature of the respective habitats of the two +species. Coyotes are creatures of slinking and stealthy habits, +living in burrows in the plains, and hunting in packs at night, +when they utter yapping cries and blood-curdling yells as they +gallop. Hares (“jack-rabbits”), chipmunks or ground-squirrels, +and mice form a large portion of their food; but coyotes also +kill the fawns of deer and prongbuck, as well as sage-hens and +other kinds of game-birds. “In the flat lands,” write Messrs +Witmer Stone and W. E. Cram, in their <i>American Animals</i> +(1902), “they dig burrows for themselves or else take possession +of those already made by badgers and prairie-dogs. Here in the +spring the half-dozen or more coyote pups are brought forth; +and it is said that at this season the old ones systematically +drive any large game they may be chasing as near to their burrow, +where the young coyotes are waiting to be fed, as possible before +killing it, in order to save the labour of dragging it any great +distance. When out after jack-rabbits two coyotes usually +work together. When a jack-rabbit starts up before them, one +of the coyotes bounds away in pursuit while the other squats +on his haunches and waits his turn, knowing full well that the +hare prefers to run in a circle, and will soon come round again, +when the second wolf takes up the chase and the other rests in +his turn.... When hunting antelope (prongbuck) and deer +the coyotes spread out their pack into a wide circle, endeavouring +to surround their game and keep it running inside their ring +until exhausted. Sage-hens, grouse and small birds the coyote +hunts successfully alone, quartering over the ground like a trained +pointer until he succeeds in locating his bird, when he drops +flat in the grass and creeps forward like a cat until close enough +for the final spring.”</p> + +<p>When hard put to it for food, coyotes will, it is reported, eat +hips, juniper-berries and other wild fruits.</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COYPEL,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> the name of a French family of painters. Noel +Coypel (1628-1707), also called, from the fact that he was much +influenced by Poussin, <span class="sc">Coypel le Poussin</span>, was the son of an +unsuccessful artist. Having been employed by Charles Errard to +paint some of the pictures required for the Louvre, and having +afterwards gained considerable fame by other pictures produced +at the command of the king, in 1672 he was appointed director +of the French Academy at Rome. After four years he returned to +France; and not long after he became director of the Academy +of Painting. The Martyrdom of St James in Notre Dame is +perhaps his finest work.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Antoine Coypel</span> (1661-1772), was still more celebrated +than his father. Antoine studied under his father, with whom +he spent four years at Rome. At the age of eighteen he was +admitted into the Academy of Painting, of which he became +professor and rector in 1707, and director in 1714. In 1716 he +was appointed king’s painter, and he was ennobled in the following +year. Antoine Coypel received a careful literary education, +the effects of which appear in his works; but the graceful +imagination displayed by his pictures is marred by the fact that +he was not superior to the artificial taste of his age. He was a +clever etcher, and engraved several of his own works. His +<i>Discours prononcés dans les conférences de l’ Académie royale de +Peinture, &c.</i>; appeared in 1741.</p> + +<p>Antoine’s half-brother, <span class="sc">Noel Nicholas Coypel</span> (1692-1734), +was also an exceedingly popular artist; and his son, Charles +Antoine (1694-1752), was painter to the king and director +of the Academy of Painting. The latter published interesting +academical lectures in <i>Le Mercure</i> and wrote several plays which +were acted at court, but were never published.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COYPU,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> the native name of a large South American aquatic +rodent mammal, known very generally among European residents +in the country as nutria (the Spanish word for otter) and scientifically +as <i>Myocastor</i> (or <i>Myopotamus</i>) <i>coypu</i>. Its large size, +aquatic habits, partially webbed hind-toes, and the smooth, +broad, orange-coloured incisors, are sufficient to distinguish +this rodent from the other members of the family <i>Capromyidae</i>. +Coypu are abundant in the fresh waters of South America, even +small ponds being often tenanted by one or more pairs. Should +the water dry up, the coypu seek fresh homes. Although +subsisting to a considerable extent on aquatic plants, these +rodents frequently come ashore to feed, especially in the evening. +Several young are produced at a birth, which are carried on their +mother’s back when swimming. The fur is of some commercial +value, although rather stiff and harsh; its colour being reddish-brown. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rodentia</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COYSEVOX, CHARLES ANTOINE<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1640-1720), French +sculptor, was born at Lyons on the 29th of September 1640, and +belonged to a family which had emigrated from Spain. The +name should be pronounced Coëzevo. He was only seventeen +when he produced a statue of the Madonna of considerable +merit; and having studied under Lerambert and trained himself +by taking copies in marble from the Greek masterpieces (among +others from the Venus de Medici and the Castor and Pollux), he +was engaged by the bishop of Strassburg, Cardinal Fürstenberg, +to adorn with statuary his château at Saverne (Zabern). In +1666 he married Marguerite Quillerier, Lerambert’s niece, who +died a year after the marriage. In 1671, after four years spent +on Saverne, which was subsequently destroyed by fire in 1780, +he returned to Paris. In 1676 his bust of the painter Le Brun +obtained admission for him to the Académie Royale. A year +later he married Claude Bourdict.</p> + +<p>In consequence of the influence exercised by Le Brun between +the years 1677 and 1685, he was employed by Louis XIV. +in producing much of the decoration and a large number of +statues for Versailles; and he afterwards worked, between 1701 +and 1709, with no less facility and success, for the palace at +Marly, subsequently destroyed in the Revolution.</p> + +<p>Among his works are the “Mercury and Fame,” first at Marly +and afterwards in the gardens of the Tuileries; “Neptune and +Amphitrite,” in the gardens at Marly; “Justice and Force,” at +Versailles; and statues, in which the likenesses are said to have +been remarkably successful, of most of the celebrated men of his +age, including Louis XIV. and Louis XV. at Versailles, Colbert +(at Saint-Eustache), Mazarin (in the church des Quatre-Nations), +Condé the Great (in the Louvre), Maria Theresa of Austria, +Turenne, Vauban, Cardinals de Bouillon and de Polignac, +Fénelon, Racine, Bossuet (in the Louvre), the comte d’Harcourt, +Cardinal Fürstenberg and Charles Le Brun (in the Louvre). +Coysevox died in Paris on the 10th of October 1720.</p> + +<p>Besides the works given above he carved about a dozen +memorials, including those to Colbert (at Saint-Eustache), to +Cardinal Mazarin (in the Louvre), and to the painter Le Brun (in +the church of Saint Nicholas-du-Chardon).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>356</span></p> + +<p>Among the pupils of Coysevox were Nicolas and Guillaume +Coustou.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Henry Jouin, <i>A. Coysevox, sa vie, son œuvre</i> (1883); Jean du +Seigneur, <i>Revue universelle des arts</i>, vol. i. (1855), pp. 32 et seq.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAB<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Krabbe</i>, <i>Krebs</i>), a name applied to the Crustacea of +the order <i>Brachyura</i>, and to other forms, especially of the order +<i>Anomura</i>, which resemble them more or less closely in appearance +and habits.</p> + +<p>The <i>Brachyura</i>, or true crabs, are distinguished from the long-tailed +lobsters and shrimps which form the order <i>Macrura</i>, by +the fact that the abdomen or tail is of small size and is carried +folded up under the body. In most of them the body is transversely +oval or triangular in outline and more or less flattened, +and is covered by a hard shell, the carapace. There are five +pairs of legs. The first pair end in nippers or chelae and are +usually much more massive than the others which are used in +walking or swimming. The eyes are set on movable stalks and +can be withdrawn into sockets in the front part of the carapace. +There are six pairs of jaws and foot-jaws (maxillipeds) enclosed +within a “buccal cavern,” the opening of which is covered by the +broad and flattened third pair of foot-jaws. The abdomen is +usually narrow and triangular in the males, but in the females it +is broad and rounded and bears appendages to which the eggs are +attached after spawning (fig. 1).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:424px; height:283px" src="images/img356a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Side view of Crab (Morse), the abdomen extended and +carrying a mass of eggs beneath it; e, eggs.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:332px; height:397px" src="images/img356b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Zoëa of Common Shore-Crab in +its second stage. r, Rostral spine; s, Dorsal +spine; m, Maxillipeds; t, Buds of thoracic +feet; a, Abdomen. (Spence Bate.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>As in most Crustacea, the young of nearly all crabs, when +newly hatched, are very different from their parents. The first +larval stage is known +as a Zoëa, this name +having been given to it +when it was believed +by naturalists to be +a distinct and independent +species of +animal. The Zoëa is +a minute transparent +organism, swimming +at the surface of the +sea. It has a rounded +body, armed with +long spines, and a long +segmented tail. The +eyes are large but not +set on stalks, the legs +are not yet developed, +and the foot-jaws form +swimming paddles. +After casting its skin +several times as it +grows in size, the +young crab passes into +a stage known as the +<i>Megalopa</i> (fig. 2), also +formerly regarded as +an independent animal, in which the body and limbs are more +crab-like, but the abdomen is large and not filled up. After a +further moult the animal assumes a form very similar to that of +the adult. There are a few crabs, living on land or in fresh water, +which do not pass through a metamorphosis but leave the egg as +miniature adults.</p> + +<p>Most crabs live in the sea, and even the land-crabs, which are +abundant in tropical countries, nearly all visit the sea occasionally +and pass through their early stages in it. Many shore-crabs +living between tide-marks are more or less amphibious, and the +river-crab of southern Europe or Lenten crab (<i>Potamon edule</i>, +better known as <i>Thelphusa fluviatilis</i>) is an example of the freshwater +crabs which are abundant in most of the warmer regions of +the world. As a rule, crabs breathe by gills, which are lodged in +a pair of cavities at the sides of the carapace, but in the true +land-crabs the cavities become enlarged and modified so as to act +as lungs for breathing air.</p> + +<p>Walking or crawling is the usual mode of locomotion, and the +peculiar sidelong gait familiar to most people in the common +shore-crab, is characteristic of most members of the group. The +crabs of the family <i>Portunidae</i>, and some others, swim with +great dexterity by means of their flattened paddle-shaped +feet.</p> + +<p>Like many other Crustacea, crabs are often omnivorous and +act as the scavengers of the sea, but many are predatory in their +habits and some are content with a vegetable diet.</p> + +<p>Though no crab, perhaps, is truly parasitic, some live in +relations of “commensalism” with other animals. The best +known examples of this are the little “mussel-crabs” (<i>Pinnotheridae</i>) +which live within the shells of mussels and other bivalve +mollusca and probably share the food of their hosts. Some +crabs live among corals, and one species at least gives rise to +hollow swellings on the branches of a coral like the “galls” +which are formed on plants by certain insects. Another +crab (<i>Melia tesselata</i>) carries in each of its claws a living sea-anemone +which it uses as an animated weapon of defence and +an implement for the capture of prey. Many of the sluggish +spider-crabs (<i>Maiidae</i>) have their shells covered by a forest +of growing sea-weeds, zoophytes and sponges, which are +“planted” there by the crab itself, and which afford it a very +effective disguise.</p> + +<p>Many of the larger crabs are sought for as food by man. The +most important and valuable are the edible crab of British +and European coasts (<i>Cancer pagurus</i>) and the blue crab of the +Atlantic coast of the United States (<i>Callinectes sapidus</i>).</p> + +<p>Among the <i>Anomura</i>, the best known are the hermit-crabs, +which live in the empty shells of Gasteropod Mollusca, which +they carry about with them as portable dwellings. In these, +the abdomen is soft-skinned and spirally twisted so as to fit into +the shells which they inhabit. The common hermit-crab of the +British coasts (<i>Pagurus</i> or <i>Eupagurus Bernhardus</i>) is sometimes +called the soldier-crab from its pugnacity. Small specimens +are found between tide-marks inhabiting the shells of periwinkles +and other small molluscs, but the full-grown specimens live in +deeper water and are usually found in the shell of the whelk +(<i>Buccinum</i>). As the crab grows it changes its dwelling from +time to time, often having to fight with its fellows for the possession +of an empty shell. Sometimes an annelid worm lives +inside the shell along with the hermit and often the outside is +covered with zoophytes. In some species, as in the British +<i>Eupagurus prideauxi</i>, a sea-anemone is constantly found attached +to the shell, profiting by the active locomotion of the crab and +probably sharing the crumbs of its food, while it affords its host +protection by its stinging powers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>357</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:513px; height:379px" src="images/img357a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:497px; height:320px" src="images/img357b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—<i>Gecarcinus ruricola</i> +(Violet Land Crab).</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—<i>Portunus puber</i> +(Velvet Swimming Crab).</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:182px; height:222px" src="images/img357c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:478px; height:385px" src="images/img357d.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:148px; height:110px" src="images/img357e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—<i>Eupagurus Bernhardus</i> +(Soldier Crab).</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span> +<i>Podophthalmus vigil</i> (Sentinel +Spinous Crab).</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—<i>Pinnotheres +pisum</i> (Pea Crab).</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:316px; height:495px" src="images/img357f.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:517px; height:415px" src="images/img357g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—<i>Corystes +Cassivelaunus</i> (Masked +Crab).</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—<i>Eupagurus angulatus</i> (a Hermit Crab).</td></tr></table> + +<p>In tropical countries the hermit-crabs of the family <i>Coenobitidae</i> +live on land, often at considerable distances from the +sea, to which, however, they return for the purpose of hatching +out their spawn. The large robber-crab or cocoa-nut crab of +the Indo-Pacific islands (<i>Birgus latro</i>), which belongs to this +family, has given up the habit of carrying a portable dwelling, +and the upper surface of its abdomen has become covered by +shelly plates. The stories of its climbing palm-trees to get the +fruit were long doubted, but it has been seen, and even photographed +in the act.</p> +<div class="author">(W. T. Ca.)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358"></a>358</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRABBE, GEORGE<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1754-1832), English poet, was born at +Aldeburgh in Suffolk on the 24th of December 1754. His family +was partly of Norfolk, partly of Suffolk origin, and the name +was doubtless originally derived from “crab.” His grandfather, +Robert Crabbe, was the first of the family to settle at Aldeburgh, +where he held the appointment of collector of customs. He died +in 1734, leaving one son, George, who practised many occupations, +including that of a schoolmaster, in the adjoining village of +Orford. Finally the poet’s father obtained a small post in the +customs of Aldeburgh, married Mary Lodwick, the widow of a +publican, and had six children, of whom George was the eldest.</p> + +<p>The sea has swept away the small cottage that was George +Crabbe’s birthplace, but one may still visit the quay at Slaughden, +some half-mile from the town, where the father worked and the +son was at a later date to work with him. At first attending +a dame’s school in Aldeburgh, when nine or ten years of age he +was sent to a boarding-school at Bungay, and at twelve to a school +at Stowmarket, where he remained two years. His father dreamt +of the medical profession for his clever boy, and so in 1768 he +went to Wickham Brook near Newmarket as an apothecary’s +assistant. In 1771 we find him assisting a surgeon at Woodbridge, +and it was while here that he met Sarah Elmy. Crabbe was now +only eighteen years of age, but he became “engaged” to this +lady in 1772. It was not until 1783 that the pair were married. +The intervening years were made up of painful struggle, in which, +however, not only the affection but the purse of his betrothed +assisted him. About the time of Crabbe’s return from Woodbridge +to Aldeburgh he published at Ipswich his first work, a +poem entitled <i>Inebriety</i> (1775). He found his father fallen on +evil days. There was no money to assist him to a partnership, +and surgery for the moment seemed out of the question. For +a few weeks Crabbe worked as a common labourer, rolling butter +casks on Slaughden quay. Before the year was out, however, +the young man bought on credit “the shattered furniture of an +apothecary’s shop and the drugs that stocked it.” This was at +Aldeburgh. A year later Crabbe installed a deputy in the +surgery and paid his first visit to London. He lodged in Whitechapel, +took lessons in midwifery and walked the hospitals. +Returning to Aldeburgh after nine months—in 1777—he found +his practice gone. Even as a doctor for the poor he was an utter +failure, poetry having probably taken too firm a hold upon his +mind. At times he suffered hunger, so utterly unable was he +to earn a livelihood. After three years of this, in 1780 Crabbe +paid his second visit to London, enabled thereto by the loan of +five pounds from Dudley Lang, a local magnate. This visit +to London, which was undertaken by sea on board the “Unity” +smack, made for Crabbe a successful career. His poem <i>The +Candidate</i>, issued soon after his arrival, helped not at all. For +a time he almost starved, and was only saved, it is clear, by gifts +of money from his sweetheart Sarah Elmy. He importuned +the great, and the publishers also. Everywhere he was refused, +but at length a letter which reached Edmund Burke in March +1781 led to the careful consideration on the part of that great +man of Crabbe’s many manuscripts. Burke advised the publication +of <i>The Library</i>, which appeared in 1781. He invited him +to Beaconsfield, and made interest in the right quarters to secure +Crabbe’s entry into the church. He was ordained in December +1781 and was appointed curate to the rector of Aldeburgh.</p> + +<p>Crabbe was not happy in his new post. The Aldeburgh folk +could not reverence as priest a man they had known as a day +labourer. Crabbe again appealed to Burke, who persuaded the +duke of Rutland to make him his chaplain (1782), and Crabbe +took up his residence in Belvoir Castle, accompanying his new +patron to London, when Lord Chancellor Thurlow (who told +him he was “as like Parson Adams as twelve to the dozen”) +gave him the two livings of Frome St Quentin and Evershot in +Dorsetshire, worth together about £200 a year. In May 1783 +Crabbe’s poem <i>The Village</i> was published by Dodsley, and in +December of this year he married Sarah Elmy. Crabbe continued +his duties as ducal chaplain, being in the main a non-resident +priest so far as his Dorsetshire parishes were concerned. In +1785 he published <i>The Newspaper</i>. Shortly after this he moved +with his wife from Belvoir Castle to the parsonage of Stathern, +where he took the duties of the non-resident vicar Thomas Parke, +archdeacon of Stamford. Crabbe was at Stathern for four years. +In 1789, through the persuasion of the duchess of Rutland (now +a widow, the duke having died in Dublin as lord-lieutenant of +Ireland in 1787), Thurlow gave Crabbe the two livings of Muston +in Leicestershire and West Allington in Lincolnshire. At +Muston parsonage Crabbe resided for twelve years, divided by +a long interval. He had been four years at Muston when his +wife inherited certain interests in a property of her uncle’s that +placed her and her husband in possession of Ducking Hall, +Parham, Suffolk. Here he took up his residence from 1793 to +1796, leaving curates in charge of his two livings. In 1796 the +loss of their son Edmund led the Crabbes to remove from Parham +to Great Glemham Hall, Suffolk, where they lived until 1801. +In that year Crabbe went to live at Rendham, a village in the +same neighbourhood. In 1805 he returned to Muston. In 1807 +he broke a silence of more than twenty years by the publication +of <i>The Parish Register</i>, in 1810 of <i>The Borough</i>, and in 1812 of +<i>Tales in Verse</i>. In 1813 Crabbe’s wife died, and in 1814 he was +given the living of Trowbridge, Wiltshire, by the duke of Rutland, +a son of his early patron, who, it is interesting to recall, wanted +the living of Muston for a cousin of Lord Byron. From 1814 +to his death in 1832 Crabbe resided at Trowbridge.</p> + +<p>These last years were the most prosperous of his life. He was +a constant visitor to London, and in friendship with all the +literary celebrities of the time. “Crabbe seemed to grow young +again,” remarks his biographer, M. René Huchon. He certainly +carried on a succession of mild flirtations, and one of his +parishioners, Charlotte Ridout, would have married him. The +elderly widower had proposed to her and had been accepted in +1814, but he drew out of the engagement in 1816. He proposed +to yet another friend, Elizabeth Charter, somewhat later. In +his visits to London Crabbe was the guest of Samuel Rogers, in +St James’s Place, and was a frequent visitor to Holland House, +where he met his brother poets Moore and Campbell. In 1817 +his <i>Tales of the Hall</i> were completed, and John Murray offered +£3000 for the copyright, Crabbe’s previous works being included. +The offer after much negotiation was accepted, but Crabbe’s +popularity was now on the wane.</p> + +<p>In 1822 Crabbe went to Edinburgh on a visit to Sir Walter +Scott. The adventure, complicated as it was by the visit of +George IV. about the same time, is most amusingly described in +Lockhart’s biography of Scott, although one episode—that of the +broken wine-glass—is discredited by Crabbe’s biographer, M. +Huchon. Crabbe died at Trowbridge on the 3rd of February +1832, and was buried in Trowbridge church, where an ornate +monument was placed over his tomb in August 1833.</p> + +<p>Never was any poet at the same time so great and continuous +a favourite with the critics, and yet so conspicuously allowed to +fall into oblivion by the public. All the poets of his earlier and +his later years, Cowper, Scott, Byron, Shelley in particular, have +been reprinted again and again. With Crabbe it was long quite +otherwise. His works were collected into eight volumes, the +first containing his life by his son, in 1832. The edition was +intended to continue with some of his prose writings, but the +reception of the eight volumes was not sufficiently encouraging. +A reprint, however, in one volume was made in 1847, and it has +been reproduced since in 1854, 1867 and 1901. The exhaustion of +the copyright, however, did no good for Crabbe’s reputation, and +it was not until the end of the century that sundry volumes of +“selections” from his poems appeared; Edward FitzGerald, of +Omar Khayyám fame, always a loyal admirer, made a +“Selection,” privately printed by Quaritch, in 1879. A “Selection” +by Bernard Holland appeared in 1899, another by C. H. +Herford in 1902 and a third by Deane in 1903. The <i>Complete +Works</i> were published by the Cambridge University Press in +three volumes, edited by A. W. Ward, in 1906.</p> + +<p>Crabbe’s poems have been praised by many competent pens, by +Edward FitzGerald in his <i>Letters</i>, by Cardinal Newman in his +<i>Apologia</i>, and by Sir Leslie Stephen in his <i>Hours in a Library</i>, +most notably. His verses comforted the last hours of Charles +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>359</span> +James Fox and of Sir Walter Scott, while Thomas Hardy has +acknowledged their influence on the realism of his novels. But +his works have ceased to command a wide public interest. He +just failed of being the artist in words who is able to make the +same appeal in all ages. Yet to-day his poems will well repay +perusal. His stories are profoundly poignant and when once +read are never forgotten. He is one of the great realists of +English fiction, for even considered as a novelist he makes +fascinating reading. He is more than this: for there is true +poetry in Crabbe, although his most distinctively lyric note was +attained when he wrote under the influence of opium, to which he +became much addicted in his later years.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—<i>The Works of Crabbe</i> (8 vols., Murray, 1834; +1 vol., Murray, 1901), and the <i>Works</i> in the Cambridge Press Classics, +edited by A. W. Ward (1906), have already been referred to. The +life by Crabbe’s son in one volume, <i>The Life of the Rev. George Crabbe, +LL.B., by his son the Rev. George Crabbe, A.M.</i> (1834), has not been +separately reprinted as it deserves to be. A recent biography is +<i>George Crabbe and His Times, 1754-1832; A Critical and Biographical +Study</i>, by René Huchon, translated from the French by +Frederick Clarke (1907). Brief biographies by T. H. Kebbel +(“Great Writers” series) and by Canon Ainger (“English Men of +Letters” series) also deserve attention.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. K. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRACKER<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (from “crack,” a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. +<i>krachen</i>, Dutch <i>kraken</i>, meaning to break with a sharp sound), +that which “cracks”; it is, therefore, applied (1) to a firework +so constructed that it explodes with several reports and jumps at +each explosion, when placed on the ground (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fireworks</a></span>); +(2) to a roll of coloured and ornamented paper containing sweets, +small articles of cheap jewelry, paper caps and other trifles, +together with a strip of card with a fulminant which explodes +with a “crack” on being pulled; (3) to a thin crisp biscuit +(<i>q.v.</i>); in America the general name for a biscuit. In the +southern states of America, “cracker” is a term of contempt for +the “poor” or “mean whites,” particularly of Georgia and +Florida; the term is an old one and dates back to the Revolution, +and is supposed to be derived from the “cracked corn” which +formed the staple food of the class to whom the term refers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRACOW<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (Pol. <i>Krakov</i>; Ger. <i>Krakau</i>), a town and episcopal +see of Austria, in Galicia, 212 m. W. by N. of Lemberg by rail. +Pop. (1900) 91,310, of which 21,000 were Jews, 5000 Germans +and the remainder Poles. Although in regard to its population +it is only the second place in Galicia, Cracow is the most interesting +town in the whole of Poland. No other Polish town possesses +so many old and historic buildings, none of them contains so +many national relics, or has been so closely associated with +the development and destinies of Poland as Cracow. And the +ancient capital is still the intellectual centre of the Polish nation.</p> + +<p>Cracow is situated in a fertile plain on the left bank of the +Vistula (which becomes navigable here) and occupies a position of +great strategical importance. It consists of the old inner town +and seven suburbs. The only relics of the fortifications of the +old town, whose place is now occupied by shady promenades, is +the Florian’s Gate and the Rondell, a circular structure, built in +1498. Cracow has 39 churches—about half the number it +formerly had—and 25 convents for monks and nuns. Of these +the most important is the Stanislaus cathedral, in Gothic style, +consecrated in 1359, and built on the Wawel, the rocky eminence +to the S.W. of the old town. Here the kings of Poland were +crowned, and this church is also the Pantheon of the Polish +nation, the burial place of its kings and its great men. Here +lie the remains of John Sobieski, of Thaddaeus Kosciuszko, of +Joseph Poniatowski and of Adam Mickiewicz. Here also are +conserved the remains of St Stanislaus, the patron saint of the +Poles, who, as bishop of Cracow, was slain before the altar by +King Boleslaus in 1079. The cathedral is adorned with many +valuable objects of art, paintings and sculptures, by such artists +as Veit Stoss, Guido Reni, Peter Vischer, Thorwaldsen, &c. +Part of the ancient Polish regalia is also kept here. The Gothic +church of St Mary, founded in 1223, rebuilt in the 14th century +with several chapels added in the 15th and 16th centuries, was +restored in 1889-1893, and decorated with paintings from the +designs by Matejko. It contains a huge high altar, the masterpiece +of Veit Stoss, who was a native of Cracow, executed in +1477-1489; a colossal stone crucifix, dating from the end of the +15th century, and several sumptuous tombs of noble families +from the 16th and 17th centuries. The Dominican church, a +Gothic building of the 13th century, but practically rebuilt after a +fire in 1850; the Franciscan church, also of the 13th century, also +much modernized; the church of St Florian of the 12th century, +rebuilt in 1768, which contains the late-Gothic altar by Veit +Stoss, executed in 1518, during his last sojourn in Cracow; the +church of St Peter, with a colossal dome, built in 1597, after the +model of that of St Peter at Rome, and the beautiful Augustinian +church in the suburb of Kazimierz, are all worth mentioning. +Of the principal secular buildings, the royal castle (<i>Zamek +Królowsk</i>), a huge building, begun in the 13th century, and +successively enlarged by Casimir the Great and by Sigismund I. +Jagiello (1510-1533), is situated on the Wawel, and was until +1610 the residence of the Polish kings. It suffered much from +fires and other disasters, and from 1846 onward was used as a +barracks and a military hospital; it has now, however, been +cleared out and restored. The Jagellonian university, now +housed in a magnificent Gothic building erected in 1881-1887, +was attended in 1901 by 1255 students, and had 175 professors +and lecturers. The language of instruction is Polish. It is the +second oldest university in Europe—the oldest being that of +Prague—and was famous during the 15th and 16th centuries. +It was founded by Casimir the Great in 1364, and completed by +Ladislaus Jagiello in 1400. Its rich library is now housed in the +old university buildings, erected in the 15th century, in the +beautiful Gothic court of which a bronze statue of Copernicus was +placed in 1900. The Polish Academy of Science, founded in 1872, +is housed in the new university buildings. In the Ring-Platz, +or the principal square, opposite the church of St Mary, is the +<i>Tuchhaus</i> (cloth-hall, Pol. <i>Sukiennice</i>), a building erected in 1257, +several times renovated and enlarged, most recently in 1879, +which contains the Polish national museum of art. Behind it is a +Gothic tower, the only relic of the old town hall, demolished in +1820. The Czartoryski museum contains a large collection of +objects of art, a rich library and a precious collection of manuscripts, +relating to the history of Poland.</p> + +<p>Among the manufactures of the town are machinery, agricultural +implements, chemicals, soap, tobacco, &c. But Cracow +is more important as a trading than as an industrial centre. +Its position on the Vistula and at the junction of several railways +makes it the natural mart for the exchange of the products of +Silesia, Hungary and Russian and Austrian Poland. Its trade +in timber, salt, textiles, cattle, wine and agricultural produce of +all kinds is very considerable. In the neighbourhood of Cracow +there are mines of coal and zinc, and not far away lies the village +of Krzeszowice with sulphur baths. About 2½ m. N.W. lies the +Kosciuszko Hill, a mound of earth 100 ft. high, thrown up in +1820-1823 on the Borislava hill (1093 ft.), in honour of Thaddaeus +Kosciuszko, the hero of Poland. On the opposite bank of the +Vistula, united to Cracow by a bridge, lies the town of Podgorze +(pop. 18,142); near it is the Krakus Hill, smaller than the +Kosciuszko Hill, and a thousand years older than it, erected in +honour of Krakus, the founder of Cracow. About 8 m. S.E. of +Cracow is situated Wieliczka (<i>q.v.</i>), with its famous salt mines.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Tradition assigns the foundation of Cracow to the +mythical Krak, a Polish prince who is said to have built a stronghold +here about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 700. Its early history is, however, entirely +obscure. In the latter part of the 10th century it was annexed to +the Bohemian principality, but was recaptured by Boleslaus +Chrobry, who made it the seat of a bishopric, and it became the +capital of one of the most important of the principalities into +which Poland was divided from the 12th century onwards. The +city was practically ruined during the first Tatar invasion in +1241, but the introduction of German colonists restored its +prosperity, and in 1257 it received “Magdeburg rights,” <i>i.e.</i> a +civic constitution modelled on that of Magdeburg. In this year +the <i>Tuchhalle</i> was built. The town, however, had yet to pass +through many vicissitudes. It suffered again from Tatar invasions; +in 1290 it was captured by Wenceslaus II. of Bohemia +and was held by the Bohemians until, in 1305, the Polish king +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>360</span> +Ladislaus Lokietek recovered it from Wenceslaus III. Ladislaus +made it his capital, and from this time until 1764 it remained +the coronation and burial place of the Polish kings, even after +the royal residence had been removed by Siegmund III. (1587-1632) +to Warsaw. On the third partition of Poland in 1795 +Austria took possession of Cracow; but in 1809 Napoleon +wrested it from that power, and incorporated it with the duchy +of Warsaw, which was placed under the rule of the king of +Saxony. In the campaign of 1812 the emperor Alexander made +himself master of this and the other territory which formed the +duchy of Warsaw. At the general settlement of the affairs of +Europe by the great powers in 1815, it was agreed that Cracow +and the adjoining territory should be formed into a free state; +and, by the Final Act of the congress signed at Vienna in 1815, +“the town of Cracow, with its territory, is declared to be for +ever a free, independent and strictly neutral city, under the +protection of Russia, Austria and Prussia.” In February 1846, +however, an insurrection broke out in Cracow, apparently a +ramification of a widely spread conspiracy throughout Poland. +The senate and the other authorities of Cracow were unable to +subdue the rebels or to maintain order, and, at their request, the +city was occupied by a corps of Austrian troops for the protection +of the inhabitants. The three powers, Russia, Austria and +Prussia, made this a pretext for extinguishing this independent +state; and as the outcome of a conference at Vienna (November +1846) the three courts, contrary to the assurance previously +given, and in opposition to the expressed views of the British and +French governments, decided to extinguish the state of Cracow +and to incorporate it with the dominions of Austria.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRADDOCK, CHARLES EGBERT<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1850-  ), the pen-name +of <span class="sc">Mary Noailles Murfree</span>, American author, who was born +near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, on the 24th of January 1850, the +great-granddaughter of Col. Hardy Murfree. She was crippled +in childhood by paralysis. She attended school in Nashville and +Philadelphia. Spending her summers in the mountains of eastern +Tennessee, she came to know the primitive people there with +whose life her writings deal. She contributed to <i>Appleton’s +Journal</i>, and, first in 1878, to <i>The Atlantic Monthly</i>. No one, +apparently, suspected that the author of these stories was a +woman, and her identity was not disclosed until 1885, a year +after the publication of her first volume of short stories, <i>In the +Tennessee Mountains</i>. She deals mainly with the narrow, stern +life of the Tennessee mountaineers, who, left behind in the advance +of civilization, live amid traditions and customs, and speak a +dialect, peculiarly their own; and her work abounds in exquisite +descriptions of scenery. Among her other books are: <i>Where +the Battle was Fought</i> (1884), a novel dealing with the old aristocratic +southern life; <i>Down the Ravine</i> (1885) and <i>The Story of +Keedon Bluffs</i> (1887) for young people; <i>The Prophet of the Great +Smoky Mountains</i> (1885), a novel; <i>In the Clouds</i> (1886), a novel; +<i>The Despot of Broomsedge Cove</i> (1888), a novel; <i>In the “Stranger-People’s” +Country</i> (1891); <i>His Vanished Star</i> (1894), a novel; +<i>The Mystery of Witch-Face Mountain and Other Stories</i> (1895); +<i>The Phantoms of the Footbridge and Other Stories</i> (1895); <i>The +Young Mountaineers</i> (1897), short stories; <i>The Juggler</i> (1897); +<i>The Story of Old Fort Loudon</i> (1899); <i>The Bushwhackers and +Other Stories</i> (1899); <i>The Champion</i> (1902); <i>A Spectre of Power</i> +(1903); <i>The Frontiersman</i> (1904); <i>The Storm Centre</i> (1905); +<i>The Amulet</i> (1906); <i>The Windfall</i> (1907); and <i>Fair Mississippian</i> +(1908).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRADLE<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (of uncertain etymology, possibly connected with +“crate” and “creel,” <i>i.e.</i> basket; the derivation from a Celtic +word, with a sense of rocking, is scouted by the <i>New English +Dictionary</i>), a child’s bed of wood, wicker or iron, with enclosed +sides, slung upon pivots or mounted on rockers. It is a very +ancient piece of furniture, but the date when it first assumed +its characteristic swinging or rocking form is by no means clear. +A miniature in an illuminated <i>Histoire de la belle Hélaine</i> in the +Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris (end of the 14th or beginning of +the 15th century) shows an infant sleeping in a tiny four-post +bed slung upon rockers. In its oldest forms the cradle is an +oblong oak box without a lid—originally the rockers appear to +have been detachable—but, like all other household appliances, +it has been subject to changes of fashion alike in shape and +adornment. It has been panelled and carved, supported on +Renaissance pillars, inlaid with marqueterie or mounted in +gilded bronze. The original simple shape persisted for two or +three centuries—even the hood made its appearance very early. +In the 18th century, however, cradles were often very elaborate—indeed +in France they had begun to be so much earlier, but the +richly carved and upholstered examples were used chiefly for +purposes of state, being in fact miniature <i>lits de parade</i>. In +modern times they have become lighter and simpler, the old hood +being very often replaced by a draped curtain dependent from a +carved or shaped upright. About the middle of the 19th century +iron cradles were introduced, along with iron bedsteads. A +number of undoubted historic cradles have been preserved, +together with many others with doubtful attributions. Two +alleged cradles of Henry V. exist; one which claims to have been +used by the unhappy earl of Derwentwater is in the Victoria +and Albert Museum in London; the other is at Windsor Castle. +That of Henry IV. of France, now in the Château de Pau, is +mounted upon a large tortoiseshell. That of the king of Rome +(“Napoleon II.”) was designed by Prud’hon, and along with that +of the comte de Chambord is preserved in the Garde Meuble. +In England a cradle is now often called a “bassinet” (<i>i.e.</i> +little basket), and the “cot” has to some extent taken its place. +By analogy, the word “cradle” is also applied to various +sorts of framework in engineering, and to a rocking-tool +used in engraving.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRADOCK<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span>, a town of South Africa, capital of a division of the +Cape province, in the upper valley of the Great Fish river, 181 m. +by rail N. by E. of Port Elizabeth. Pop. (1904) 7762. It is one +of the chief centres of the wool industry of the Cape, and does also +a large trade in ostrich feathers, mohair, &c. The town enjoys +a reputation as one of the best health resorts in the province. +It stands at an altitude of 2856 ft.; the climate is very dry, +the average annual rainfall being 14.50 in. The mean maximum +temperature is 77.6° F. Three miles N. of the town are sulphur +baths (temp. 100° F.) used for the treatment of rheumatism. In +the neighbouring district survive a few herds of zebras, now +protected by the game laws. The town dates from the beginning +of the 19th century and is named after Sir John Cradock, +governor of the Cape 1811-1813. The division has an area of +3048 sq. m. and a pop. (1904) of 18,803, of whom 41% are white.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAFT<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, +or power; cf. Ger. <i>Kraft</i>), a word confined in English only, of +the Teutonic languages in which it occurs, to intellectual power, +and used as a synonym of “art.” It then means skill or ingenuity, +especially in the manual arts, hence its use in the +expression “Arts and Crafts” (<i>q.v.</i>), and it is thus applied to +the trade or profession in which such skill is displayed, to an +association of workmen of a particular trade, a trade gild, and +in particular to Freemasons, “the craft”; the word appears +also in words such as “handicraft” or “craftsman.” Skill +applied to outwit or deceive gives the common sense of cunning +or trickery, and it is this meaning which is implied in such +combined words as “priestcraft,” “witchcraft” and the like. +A more particular use of the word is in the nautical sense of +vessels of transport by water; this is probably a colloquially +shortened form either of “vessels of a fisherman’s, lighterman’s +&c., craft,” <i>i.e.</i> “art,” or of “vessels of a heavier or lighter +craft,” <i>i.e.</i> burden or capacity; in both cases the qualifying +words are dropped and the word comes to be used of vessels in +general.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAG<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (a Celtic word, cf. Gael. <i>creag</i>, Manx <i>creg</i>, and Welsh and +modern Scots <i>craig</i>), a steep rock. The word appears in many +place-names in the north of England and in Scotland, and is also +connected with “carrick,” a word of similar meaning, also +found in place-names. In geology, the term is applied to the +strata in which a shelly sand deposit is found, and, in the expression +“crag and tail,” to a formation of hills, in which one side is +precipitous and lofty and the other slopes or “tails” gradually +away, as in the Castle Rock in Edinburgh.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>361</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAGGS, JAMES<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1657-1721), English politician, was a son of +Anthony Craggs of Holbeck, Durham, and was baptized on the +10th of June 1657. After following various callings in London, +Craggs, who was a person of considerable financial ability, +entered the service of the duchess of Marlborough, and through +her influence became in 1702 member of parliament for Grampound, +retaining his seat until 1713. He was in business as an +army clothier and held several official positions, becoming joint +postmaster-general in 1715; and, making the most of his +opportunities in all these capacities, he amassed a great deal of +money. Craggs also increased his wealth by mixing in the +affairs of the South Sea Company, but after his death an act of +parliament confiscated all the property which he had acquired +since December 1719. He left an enormous fortune when he +died on the 16th of March 1721. It is possible that Craggs +committed suicide.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">James Craggs</span> the younger (1686-1721), was born at +Westminster on the 9th of April 1686. Part of his early life was +spent abroad, where he made the acquaintance of George +Louis, elector of Hanover, afterwards King George I. In 1713 +he became member of parliament for Tregoney, in 1717 secretary-at-war, +and in the following year one of the principal secretaries +of state. Craggs was implicated in the South Sea Bubble, but +not so deeply as his father, whom he predeceased, dying on the +16th of February 1721. Among Craggs’s friends were Pope, who +wrote the epitaph on his monument in Westminster Abbey, +Addison and Gay.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAIG, JOHN<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1512?-1600), Scottish reformer, born about +1512, was the son of Craig of Craigston, Aberdeenshire, who was +killed at Flodden in 1513. After an education at St Andrews, +and acting as tutor to the children of Lord Darcy, the English +warden of the North, he became a Dominican, but was soon in +trouble as a heretic. In 1536 he made his way to England, but +failing to obtain the preferment he desired at Cambridge, he +went on to Italy, where the influence of Cardinal Pole, who was +himself accused of heresy, secured him the post of master of the +novices in the Dominican convent at Bologna. For some years he +was busy travelling in the Levant in the interests of his order, but +a perusal of Calvin’s <i>Institutes</i> revived his heretical tendencies, +and he was condemned to be burnt. Like the English scholar and +statesman, Thomas Wilson, he owed his escape to the riot which +broke out on the death of Paul IV. on the 18th of August 1559, +when the mob burst open the prison of the Inquisition. After +various adventures he reached Vienna, where he preached, and +was protected by the semi-Lutheran archduke (afterwards the +emperor) Maximilian II.</p> + +<p>In 1560 he returned to Scotland, where in 1561 he was ordained +minister of Holyrood, and in 1562 Knox’s colleague in the High +Church. His defence of church property and privilege against the +predatory instincts of the nobles and the pretensions of the state +brought him into conflict with Lethington and others; but he +seems to have condoned, if he was not privy to, Riccio’s murder. +At first he refused to publish the banns of marriage between +Mary and Bothwell, though in the end he yielded with a protest +that he “abhorred and detested the marriage.” He had been +associated with Knox in various commissions for the organization +of the church, but he wished to compromise between the two +extreme parties. From 1571-1579 Craig was in the north, +whither he had been sent to “illuminate those dark places in Mar, +Buchan and Aberdeen.” In 1579 he was appointed chaplain to +the young James VI., and returned to Edinburgh. In 1581 +episcopacy was abolished as a result of the report of a commission +on which Craig had sat; he also assisted at the composition of +the <i>Second Book of Discipline</i> and the National Covenant of 1580, +and in 1581 compiled “Ane Shorte and Generale Confession” +called the “King’s Confession,” which was imposed on all parish +ministers and graduates and became the basis of the Covenant of +1638. He approved of the Ruthven raid, and admonished James +in terms which made him weep, but produced no alteration in his +conduct, and before long Craig was denouncing the supremacy of +Arran. But he was averse from the violence of Melville, and was +willing to admit the royal supremacy “as far as the word of God +allows.” James VI., <span class="correction" title="amended from Like">like</span> Henry VIII., accepted this compromise, +and the oath in this form was taken by Craig, the royal chaplains +and some others. In 1592 was published Craig’s <i>Catechism</i>. +He died on the 12th of December 1600.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See T. G. Law’s Pref. to Craig’s <i>Catechism</i> (1885); Bain’s <i>Cal. +Scottish State Papers</i>; Reg. P. C. Scotl.; Hew Scott’s <i>Fasti Eccles.</i> +Scot.; Knox’s, Calderwood’s and Grub’s <i>Eccles. Histories</i>; McCrie’s +<i>Life of Melville</i>; Hay Fleming’s <i>Mary, Queen of Scots</i>; Bannatyne’s +<i>Memorials</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAIG, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (c. 1538-1608), Scottish jurist and poet, +was born about 1538. It is probable that he was the eldest son of +William Craig of Craigfintray, or Craigston, in Aberdeenshire, but +beyond the fact that he was in some way related to the Craigfintray +family nothing regarding his birth is known with certainty. +He was educated at St Andrews, where he took the B.A. degree in +1555. From St Andrews he went to France, to study the canon +and the civil law. He returned to Scotland about 1561, and was +admitted advocate in February 1563. In 1564 he was appointed +justice-depute by the justice-general, Archibald, earl of Argyll; +and in this capacity he presided at many of the criminal trials +of the period. In 1573 he was appointed sheriff-depute of +Edinburgh, and in 1606 procurator for the church. He never +became a lord of session, a circumstance that was unquestionably +due to his own choice. It is said that he refused the honour of +knighthood which the king wished to confer on him in 1604, +when he came to London as one of the Scottish commissioners +regarding the union between the kingdoms—the only political +object he seems to have cared about; but in accordance with +James’s commands he has always been styled and reputed a +knight. Craig was married to Helen, daughter of Heriot of +Lumphoy in Midlothian, by whom he had four sons and three +daughters. His eldest son, Sir Lewis Craig (1569-1622), was +raised to the bench in 1604, and among his other descendants are +several well-known names in the list of Scottish lawyers. He died +on the 26th of February 1608.</p> + +<p>Except his poems, the only one of Craig’s works which appeared +during his lifetime was his <i>Jus feudale</i> (1603; ed. R. Burnet, +1655; Leipzig, 1716; ed. J. Baillie 1732). The object of this +treatise was to assimilate the laws of England and Scotland, but, +instead of this, it was an important factor in building up and +solidifying the law of Scotland into a separate system. Other +works were <i>De unione regnorum Britanniae tractatus, De jure +successionis regni Angliae</i> and <i>De hominio disputatio</i>. Translations +of the last two have been published, and in 1910 an edition of the +<i>De Unione</i> appeared, with translation and notes by C. S. Terry. +Craig’s first poem, an <i>Epithalamium</i> in honour of the marriage of +Mary queen of Scots and Darnley, appeared in 1565. Most of his +poems have been reprinted in the <i>Delitiae poëtarum Scotorum</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See P. F. Tytler, <i>Life of Craig</i> (1823); Life prefixed to Baillie’s +edition of the <i>Jus feudale</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAIGIE, PEARL MARY TERESA<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1867-1906), Anglo-American +novelist and dramatist, who wrote under the pen-name +of “<span class="sc">John Oliver Hobbes</span>,” was born at Boston, U.S.A., on the +3rd of November 1867. She was the elder daughter of John +Morgan Richards, and was educated in London and Paris. +When she was nineteen she married Reginald Walpole Craigie, +by whom she had one son, John Churchill Craigie: but the +marriage proved an unhappy one, and was dissolved on her +petition in July 1895. She was brought up as a Nonconformist, +but in 1892 was received into the Roman Catholic +Church, of which she remained a devout and serious member. +Her first little book, the brilliant and epigrammatic <i>Some +Emotions and a Moral</i>, was published in 1891 in Mr Fisher Unwin’s +“Pseudonym Library,” and was followed by <i>The Sinner’s +Comedy</i> (1892), <i>A Study in Temptations</i> (1893), <i>A Bundle of Life</i> +(1894), <i>The Gods, Some Mortals, and Lord Wickenham</i>. <i>The Herb +Moon</i> (1896), a country love story, was followed by <i>The School for +Saints</i> (1897), with a sequel, <i>Robert Orange</i> (1900). Mrs Craigie +had already written a one-act “proverb,” <i>Journeys end in Lovers +Meeting</i>, produced by Ellen Terry in 1894, and a three-act +tragedy, “Osbern and Ursyne,” printed in the <i>Anglo-Saxon +Review</i> (1899), when her successful piece, <i>The Ambassador</i>, was +produced at the St James’s Theatre in 1898. <i>A Repentance</i> (one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>362</span> +act, 1899) and <i>The Wisdom of the Wise</i> (1900) were produced at +the same theatre, and <i>The Flute of Pan</i> (1904) first at +Manchester and then at the Shaftesbury theatre; she was also +part author of <i>The Bishop’s Move</i> (Garrick Theatre, 1902). +Later books are <i>The Serious Wooing</i> (1901), <i>Love and the Soul +Hunters</i> (1902), <i>Tales about Temperament</i> (1902), <i>The Vineyard</i> +(1904). Mrs Craigie died suddenly of heart failure in London on +the 13th of August 1906.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAIK, DINAH MARIA<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (1826-1887), English novelist, +better known by her maiden name of Mulock, and still better +as “the author of <i>John Halifax, Gentleman</i>,” was the daughter +of Thomas Mulock, an eccentric religious enthusiast of Irish +extraction, and was born on the 20th of April 1826 at Stoke-upon-Trent, +in Staffordshire, where her father was the minister of a +small congregation. She settled in London about 1846, determined +to obtain a livelihood by her pen, and, beginning with +fiction for children, advanced steadily until <i>John Halifax, +Gentleman</i> (1857), placed her in the front rank of the women +novelists of her day. <i>A Life for a Life</i> (1859), though inferior, +maintained a high position, but she afterwards wrote little of +importance except some very charming tales for children. Her +most remarkable novels, after those mentioned above, were <i>The +Ogilvies</i> (1849), <i>Olive</i> (1850), <i>The Head of the Family</i> (1851), +<i>Agatha’s Husband</i> (1853). There is much passion and power in +these early works, and all that Mrs Craik wrote was characterized +by high principle and deep feeling. Some of the short stories in +<i>Avillion and other Tales</i> also exhibit a fine imagination. She +published some poems distinguished by genuine lyrical spirit, +narratives of tours in Ireland and Cornwall, and <i>A Woman’s +Thoughts about Women</i>. She married Mr G. L. Craik, a partner in +the house of Macmillan & Company, in 1864, and died at Shortlands, +near Bromley, Kent, on the 12th of October 1887.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (1798-1866), English man of letters, +the son of a schoolmaster, was born at Kennoway, Fifeshire, in +1798. He studied at the university of St Andrews with the +intention of entering the church, but, altering his plans, became +the editor of a local newspaper, and went to London in 1824 to +devote himself to literature. He became connected with a short-lived +literary paper called the <i>Verulam</i>; in 1831 he published his +<i>Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties</i> among the works of the +Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge; he contributed a +considerable number of biographical and historical articles to +the <i>Penny Cyclopaedia</i>; and he edited the <i>Pictorial History of +England</i>, himself writing much of the work. In 1844 he published +his <i>History of Literature and Learning in England from the Norman +Conquest to the Present Time</i>, illustrated by extracts. Craik is +best known for his abridged version of this work, <i>The History of +English Literature and the English Language</i> (1861), which passed +through several editions. In the next year appeared his <i>Spenser +and his Poetry</i>, an abstract of Spenser’s poems, with historical +and biographical notes and frequent quotations; and in 1847 his +<i>Bacon, his Writings and his Philosophy</i>, a work of a similar kind. +The two last-mentioned works appeared among <i>Knight’s Weekly +Volumes</i>. Two years later Craik obtained the chair of history and +English literature at Queen’s College, Belfast, a position which he +held till his death, which took place on the 25th of June 1866. +He had married Miss Jeannette Dempster (d. 1856) in 1826, and +his daughter, Georgiana Marion Craik (Mrs A. W. May), wrote +over thirty novels, of which <i>Lost and Won</i> (1859) was the best. +Besides the works already noticed, Craik published the <i>History of +British Commerce from the Earliest Times</i> (1844), <i>Romance of the +Peerage</i> (1848-1850) and <i>The English of Shakespeare</i> (1856).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAIL<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (formerly <span class="sc">Karel</span>), a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire, +Scotland, 2 m. from Fife Ness, the most easterly point of the +county, and 11 m. S.E. of St Andrews by the North British +railway, but 2 m. nearer by road. Pop. (1901) 1077. It is said +to have been a town of some note as early as the 9th century; +and its castle, of which there are hardly any remains, was the +residence of David I. and other Scottish kings. It was constituted +a royal burgh by a charter of Robert Bruce in 1306, and +had its privileges confirmed by Robert II. in 1371, by Mary in +1553, and by Charles I. in 1635. Of its priory, dedicated to +St Rufus, a few ruins still exist. The church of Maelrubha, the +patron saint of Crail, is an edifice of great antiquity. Many of the +ordinary houses are massive and quaint. The public buildings +include a library and reading-room and town hall. The chief +industries comprise fisheries, especially for crabs, shipping and +brewing. It is growing in favour as a summer resort. It unites +with St Andrews, the two Anstruthers, Kilrenny, Pittenweem +and Cupar in returning one member to parliament.</p> + +<p>Balcomie Castle, about 2 m. to the N.E., dates from the 14th +century. Here Mary of Guise landed in 1538, a few days before +her marriage to James V. in St Andrews cathedral. In the 18th +century it passed through the hands of various proprietors and +was ultimately shorn of much of its original size and grandeur. +The East Neuk is a term applied more particularly to the +country round Fife Ness, and more generally to all of the peninsula +east of an imaginary line drawn from St Andrews to Elie. For +fully half the year the cottages of its villages are damp with the +haar, or dense mist, borne on the east wind from the North Sea.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAILSHEIM<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Krailsheim</span>, a town of Germany, in the +kingdom of Württemberg, on the Jagst, a tributary of the +Neckar, at the junction of railways to Heilbronn and Fürth. +Pop. (1900) 5251. There are two Evangelical churches and a +Roman Catholic church, and a handsome town hall, with a tower +225 ft. high. The industrial establishments include extensive +tanneries and machine workshops, and there is a brisk trade in +cattle and agricultural produce.</p> + +<p>Crailsheim was incorporated as a town in 1338, successfully +withstood a siege by the forces of several Swabian imperial cities +(1379-1380), a feat which is annually celebrated, passed later +into the possession of the burgraves of Nuremberg, and came +in 1791 to Prussia, in 1806 to Bavaria and 1810 to Württemberg.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAIOVA,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Krajova</span>, the capital of the department of +Doljiu, Rumania, situated near the left bank of the river Jiu, and +on the main Walachian railway from Verciorova to Bucharest. +Pop. (1900) 45,438. A branch railway to Calafat facilitates the +export trade with Bulgaria. Craiova is the chief commercial +town west of Bucharest; the surrounding uplands are very rich +in grain, pasturage and vegetable products, and contain extensive +forests. The town has rope and carriage factories, and close by +is a large tannery, worked by convict labour, and supplying the +army. The principal trade is in cattle, cereals, fish, linen, +pottery, glue and leather. In the town, which is the headquarters +of the First Army Corps, there are military and commercial +academies, an appeal court and a chamber of commerce, +besides many churches, Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and +Protestant, with synagogues for the Jews.</p> + +<p>Craiova, which occupied the site of the Roman Castra Nova, +was formerly the capital of Little Walachia. Its ancient <i>bans</i> or +military governors were, next to the princes, the chief dignitaries +of Walachia, and the district is still styled the banat of Craiova. +Among the holders of this office were Michael the Brave (1593-1601), +and several members of the celebrated Bassarab family +(<i>q.v.</i>). The bans had the right of coining money stamped with +their own effigies, and hence arose the name of <i>bani</i> (centimes). +The Rumanian franc, or <i>leu</i> (“lion”), so called from the image it +bore, came likewise from Craiova. In 1397 Craiova was the +scene of a victory won by Prince Mircea over Bayezid I. sultan +of the Turks; and in October 1853, of an engagement between +Turks and Russians.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAMBO,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> an old rhyming game which, according to Strutt +(<i>Sports and Pastimes</i>), was played as early as the 14th century +under the name of the <i>ABC of Aristotle</i>. In the days of the +Stuarts it was very popular, and is frequently mentioned in the +writings of the time. Thus Congreve’s <i>Love for Love</i>, i. 1, contains +the passage, “Get the Maids to Crambo in an Evening, and +learn the knack of Rhiming.” Crambo, or capping the rhyme, +is now played by one player thinking of a word and telling the +others what it rhymes with, the others not naming the actual +word they guess but its meaning. Thus one says “I know a word +that rhymes with <i>bird</i>.” A second asks “Is it ridiculous?” +“No, it is not absurd.” “Is it a part of speech?” “No, it is not +a word.” This proceeds until the right word is guessed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>363</span></p> + +<p>In <i>Dumb Crambo</i> the guessers, instead of naming the word, +express its meaning by dumb show, a rhyme being given them as +a clue.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAMER, JOHANN BAPTIST<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (1771-1858), English musician, +of German extraction, was born in Mannheim, on the 24th of +February 1771. He was the son of Wilhelm Cramer (1743-1799). +a famous London violinist and musical conductor, one of a +numerous family who were identified with the progress of music +during the 18th and 19th centuries. Johann Baptist was brought +to London as a child, and it was in London that the greater part +of his musical efforts was exercised. From 1782 to 1784 he +studied the pianoforte under Muzio Clementi, and soon became +known as a professional pianist both in London and on the +continent; he enjoyed a world-wide reputation, and was +particularly appreciated by Beethoven. He died in London +on the 16th of April 1858. Apart from his pianoforte-playing +Cramer is important as a composer, and as principal founder +in 1824 of the London music-publishing house of Cramer & Co. +He wrote a number of sonatas, &c., for pianoforte, and other +compositions; but his <i>Études</i> is the work by which he lives as +a composer. These “studies” have appeared in numerous +editions, from 1810 onwards, and became the staple pieces in the +training of pianists.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAMER, JOHN ANTONY<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1793-1848), English classical +scholar and geographer, was born at Mitlödi in Switzerland. +He was educated at Westminster and Christ Church, Oxford. +He resided in Oxford till 1844, during which time he held many +important offices, being public orator, principal of New Inn Hall +(which he rebuilt at his own expense), and professor of modern +history. In 1844 he was appointed to the deanery of Carlisle, +which he held until his death at Scarborough on the 24th of +August 1848. His works are of considerable importance: <i>A +Dissertation on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps</i>, published +anonymously with H. L. Wickham (2nd ed., 1828), “a scholar-like +work of first-rate ability”; geographical and historical +descriptions of <i>Ancient Italy</i> (1826), <i>Ancient Greece</i> (1828), <i>Asia +Minor</i> (1832); <i>Travels of Nicander Nucius of Corcyra</i> [Greek +traveller of the 16th century] <i>in England</i> (1841); <i>Catenae +Graecorum Patrum in Novum Testamentum</i> (1838-1844); +<i>Anecdota Graeca</i> (from the MSS. of the royal library in Paris, +1839-1841).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRÄMER, KARL VON<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1818-1902), Bavarian politician, had +a very remarkable career, rising gradually from a mere workman +in a factory at Doos near Nuremberg to the post of manager, +and finally becoming part proprietor of the establishment. Leaving +business in 1870 he devoted his time entirely to politics. +From 1848 he had been a member of the Bavarian second chamber, +at first representing the district of Erlangen-Fürth, and afterwards +Nuremberg, which city also sent him after the war of +1866 as its deputy to the German customs parliament, and from +1871 to 1874 to the first German <i>Reichstag</i>. He sat in these +bodies as a member of the Progressive party (<i>Fortschrittspartei</i>), +and in Bavaria was one of the leaders of the Liberal (<i>Freisinnige</i>) +party. His eloquence had a great hold upon the masses. As a +parliamentarian he was very clear-headed, and thoroughly +understood how to lead a party. For many years he was the +reporter of the finance committee of the chamber. In 1882, on +account of his great services in connexion with the Bavarian +National Exhibition of Nuremberg, the order of the crown of +Bavaria was conferred upon him, carrying with it the honour of +nobility. He died at Nuremberg on the 31st of December 1902.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAMP, CHARLES HENRY<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (1828-  ), American shipbuilder, +was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 9th +of May 1828, of German descent, his family name having been +Krampf. He was the eldest of eleven children of William +Cramp (1807-1869), a pioneer American shipbuilder, who in 1830 +established shipyards on the Delaware river near Philadelphia. +The son was educated at the Philadelphia Central high school, +after which he was employed in his father’s shipyards and made +himself master of every detail of ship construction. He showed +especial aptitude as a naval architect and designer, and after +becoming his father’s partner in 1849 it was to that branch of +the work that he devoted himself. His inventive capacity and +resourcefulness, together with the complete success of his +innovations in naval construction, soon gave him high rank +as an authority on shipbuilding, and made his influence in that +industry widely felt. In the Mexican War he designed surf +boats for the landing of troops at Vera Cruz; during the Civil +War he designed and built several ironclads for the United +States navy, notably the “New Ironsides” in 1862, and the +light-draught monitors used in the Carolina sounds; and after +1887 constructed wholly or in part from his own designs many +of the most powerful ships in the “new” navy, including +the cruisers “Columbia,” “Minneapolis” and “Brooklyn,” +and the battleships “Indiana,” “Iowa,” “Massachusetts,” +“Alabama” and “Maine.” In every progressive step in ocean +shipbuilding, in the transformation from sail to steam, and +from wood to iron and steel, Cramp had a prominent part. His +fame as a shipbuilder extended to Europe, and he built warships +for several foreign navies, among others the “Retvizan” +and the “Variag” for the Russian government. He also constructed +a number of freight and passenger steamships for several +trans-Atlantic lines.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. C. Buel, <i>Memoirs of C. H. Cramp</i> (Philadelphia, 1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAMP,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> a painful spasmodic contraction of muscles, most +frequently occurring in the limbs, but also apt to affect certain +internal organs. This disorder belongs to the class of diseases +known as local spasms, of which other varieties exist in such +affections as spasmodic asthma and colic. The cause of these +painful seizures resides in the nervous system, and operates +either directly from the great nerve centres, or, as is generally +the case, indirectly by reflex action, as, for example, when attacks +are brought on by some derangement of the digestive organs.</p> + +<p>In its most common form, that of cramp in the limbs, this +disorder comes on suddenly, often during sleep, the patient +being aroused by an agonizing feeling of pain in the calf of the +leg or back of the thigh, accompanied in many instances with a +sensation of sickness or faintness from the intensity of the suffering. +During the paroxysm the muscular fibres affected can often +be felt gathered up into a hard knot. The attack in general +lasts but a few seconds, and then suddenly departs, the spasmodic +contraction of the muscles ceasing entirely, or, on the other +hand, relief may come more gradually during a period of minutes +or even hours. A liability to cramp is often associated with a +rheumatic or gouty tendency, but occasional attacks are common +enough apart from this, and are often induced by some peculiar +posture which a limb has assumed during sleep. Exposure of the +limbs to cold will also bring on cramp, and to this is probably to +be ascribed its frequent occurrence in swimmers. Cramp of the +extremities is also well known as one of the most distressing +accompaniments of cholera. It is likewise of frequent occurrence +in the process of parturition, just before delivery.</p> + +<p>This painful disorder can be greatly relieved and often entirely +removed by firmly grasping or briskly rubbing the affected part +with the hand, or by anything which makes an impression on the +nerves, such as warm applications. Even a sudden and vigorous +movement of the limb will often succeed in terminating the attack.</p> + +<p>What is termed cramp of the stomach, or gastralgia, usually +occurs as a symptom in connexion with some form of gastric +disorder, such as aggravated dyspepsia, or actual organic disease +of the mucous membrane of the stomach.</p> + +<p>The disease known as <i>Writer’s Cramp</i>, or <i>Scrivener’s Palsy</i>, is +a spasm which affects certain muscles when engaged in the performance +of acts, the result of education and long usage, and +which does not occur when the same muscles are employed in +acts of a different kind. This disorder owes its name to the +relative frequency with which it is met in persons who write +much, although it is by no means confined to them, but is liable +to occur in individuals of almost any handicraft. It was termed +by Dr Duchenne <i>Functional Spasm</i>.</p> + +<p>The symptoms are in the first instance a gradually increasing +difficulty experienced in conducting the movements required +for executing the work in hand. Taking, for example, the case +of writers, there is a feeling that the pen cannot be moved with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364"></a>364</span> +the same freedom as before, and the handwriting is more or less +altered in consequence. At an early stage of the disease the +difficulty may be to a large extent overcome by persevering +efforts, but ultimately, when the attempt is persisted in, the +muscles of the fingers, and occasionally also those of the forearm, +are seized with spasm or cramp, so that the act of writing is +rendered impossible. Sometimes the fingers, instead of being +cramped, move in a disorderly manner and the pen cannot be +grasped, while in other rare instances a kind of paralysis affects +the muscles of the fingers, and they are powerless to make the +movements necessary for holding the pen. It is to be noted that +it is only in the act of writing that these phenomena present +themselves, and that for all other movements the fingers and +arms possess their natural power. The same symptoms are +observed and the same remarks apply <i>mutatis mutandis</i> in the +case of musicians, artists, compositors, seamstresses, tailors and +many mechanics in whom this affection may occur. Indeed, +although actually a rare disease, no muscle or group of muscles +in the body which is specially called into action in any particular +occupation is exempt from liability to this functional spasm.</p> + +<p>The exact pathology of writer’s cramp has not been worked +out, but it is now generally accepted that the disease is not a local +one of muscles or nerves, but that it is an affection of the central +nervous system. The complaint never occurs under thirty years +of age, and is more frequent in males than females. Occasionally +there is an inherited tendency to the disease, but more usually +there is a history of alcoholism in the parents, or some neuropathic +heredity. In its treatment the first requisite is absolute +cessation from the employment which caused it. Usually, +however, complete rest of the arm is undesirable, and recovery +takes place more speedily if other actions of a different kind are +regularly practised. If a return to the same work is a necessity, +then Sir W. R. Gowers insists on some modification of method in +performing the act, as writing from the shoulder instead of the +wrist.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAMP-RINGS,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> rings anciently worn as a cure for cramp and +“falling-sickness” or epilepsy. The legend is that the first one +was presented to Edward the Confessor by a pilgrim on his +return from Jerusalem, its miraculous properties being explained +to the king. At his death it passed into the keeping of the abbot +of Westminster, by whom it was used medically and was known +as St Edward’s Ring. From that time the belief grew that the +successors of Edward inherited his powers, and that the rings +blessed by them worked cures. Hence arose the custom for the +successive sovereigns of England each year on Good Friday +formally to bless a number of cramp-rings. A service was held; +prayers and psalms were said; and water “in the name of the +Father, Son and Holy Ghost” was poured over the rings, which +were always of gold or silver, and made from the metal that the +king offered to the Cross on Good Friday. The ceremony +survived to the reign of Queen Mary, but the belief in the curative +powers of similar circlets of sacred metal has lingered on even to +the present day.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For an account of the ceremony see F. G. Waldron, <i>The Literary +Museum</i> (London, 1792); see also <i>Notes and Queries</i>, vol. vii., 1853; +vol. ix., 1878.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANACH, LUCAS<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1472-1553), German painter, was born at +Cronach in upper Franconia, and learnt the art of drawing from +his father. It has not been possible to trace his descent or the +name of his parents. We are not informed as to the school in +which he was taught, and it is a mere guess that he took lessons +from the south German masters to whom Mathew Grunewald +owed his education. But Grunewald practised at Bamberg and +Aschaffenburg, and Bamberg is the capital of the diocese in +which Cronach lies. According to Gunderam, the tutor of +Cranach’s children, Cranach signalized his talents as a painter +before the close of the 15th century. He then drew upon himself +the attention of the elector of Saxony, who attached him to his +person in 1504. The records of Wittenberg confirm Gunderam’s +statement to this extent that Cranach’s name appears for the +first time in the public accounts on the 24th of June 1504, when +he drew 50 gulden for the salary of half a year, as <i>pictor ducalis</i>. +The only clue to Cranach’s settlement previous to his Wittenberg +appointment is afforded by the knowledge that he owned a +house at Gotha, and that Barbara Brengbier, his wife, was the +daughter of a burgher of that city.</p> + +<p>Of his skill as an artist we have sufficient evidence in a picture +dated 1504. But as to the development of his manner prior to +that date we are altogether in ignorance. In contrast with this +obscurity is the light thrown upon Cranach after 1504. We find +him active in several branches of his profession,—sometimes a +mere house-painter, more frequently producing portraits and +altar-pieces, a designer on wood, an engraver of copper-plates, +and draughtsman for the dies of the electoral mint. Early in the +days of his official employment he startled his master’s courtiers +by the realism with which he painted still life, game and antlers +on the walls of the country palaces at Coburg and Lochau; his +pictures of deer and wild boar were considered striking, and the +duke fostered his passion for this form of art by taking him out to +the hunting field, where he sketched “his grace” running the +stag, or Duke John sticking a boar. Before 1508 he had painted +several altar-pieces for the Schlosskirche at Wittenberg in +competition with Dürer, Burgkmair and others; the duke and his +brother John were portrayed in various attitudes and a number +of the best woodcuts and copper-plates were published. Great +honour accrued to Cranach when he went in 1509 to the Netherlands, +and took sittings from the emperor Maximilian and the boy +who afterwards became Charles V. Till 1508 Cranach signed his +works with the initials of his name. In that year the elector gave +him the winged snake as a motto, and this motto or <i>Kleinod</i>, as it +was called, superseded the initials on all his pictures after that +date. Somewhat later the duke conferred on him the monopoly +of the sale of medicines at Wittenberg, and a printer’s patent with +exclusive privileges as to copyright in Bibles. The presses of +Cranach were used by Luther. His chemist’s shop was open for +centuries, and only perished by fire in 1871. Relations of friendship +united the painter with the Reformers at a very early period; +yet it is difficult to fix the time of his first acquaintance with +Luther. The oldest notice of Cranach in the Reformer’s correspondence +dates from 1520. In a letter written from Worms in +1521, Luther calls him his gossip, warmly alluding to his +“Gevatterin,” the artist’s wife. His first engraved portrait by +Cranach represents an Augustinian friar, and is dated 1520. +Five years later the friar dropped the cowl, and Cranach was +present as “one of the council” at the betrothal festival of +Luther and Catherine Bora. The death at short intervals of the +electors Frederick and John (1525 and 1532) brought no change +in the prosperous situation of the painter; he remained a +favourite with John Frederick I., under whose administration he +twice (1537 and 1540) filled the office of burgomaster of Wittenberg. +But 1547 witnessed a remarkable change in these relations. +John Frederick was taken prisoner at the battle of Mühlberg, +and Wittenberg was subjected to stress of siege. As Cranach +wrote from his house at the corner of the market-place to the +grand-master Albert of Brandenburg at Königsberg to tell him +of John Frederick’s capture, he showed his attachment by +saying, “I cannot conceal from your Grace that we have been +robbed of our dear prince, who from his youth upwards has been a +true prince to us, but God will help him out of prison, for the +Kaiser is bold enough to revive the Papacy, which God will +certainly not allow.” During the siege Charles bethought him of +Cranach, whom he remembered from his childhood and summoned +him to his camp at Pistritz. Cranach came, reminded his majesty +of his early sittings as a boy, and begged on his knees for kind +treatment to the elector. Three years afterwards, when all the +dignitaries of the Empire met at Augsburg to receive commands +from the emperor, and when Titian at Charles’s bidding came to +take the likeness of Philip of Spain, John Frederick asked +Cranach to visit the Swabian capital; and here for a few months +he was numbered amongst the household of the captive elector, +whom he afterwards accompanied home in 1552. He died +on the 16th of October 1553 at Weimar, where the house in +which he lived still stands in the market-place.</p> + +<p>The oldest extant picture of Cranach, the “Rest of the Virgin +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>365</span> +during the Flight into Egypt,” marked with the initials L.C., and +the date of 1504, is by far the most graceful creation of his pencil. +The scene is laid on the margin of a forest of pines, and discloses +the habits of a painter familiar with the mountain scenery of +Thuringia. There is more of gloom in landscapes of a later time; +and this would point to a defect in the taste of Cranach, whose +stag hunts are otherwise not unpleasing. Cranach’s art in its +prime was doubtless influenced by causes which but slightly +affected the art of the Italians, but weighed with potent consequence +on that of the Netherlands and Germany. The business +of booksellers who sold woodcuts and engravings at fairs and +markets in Germany naturally satisfied a craving which arose +out of the paucity of wall-paintings in churches and secular +edifices. Drawing for woodcuts and engraving of copper-plates +became the occupation of artists of note, and the talents devoted +in Italy to productions of the brush were here monopolized for +designs on wood or on copper. We have thus to account for +the comparative unproductiveness as painters of Dürer and +Holbein, and at the same time to explain the shallowness apparent +in many of the later works of Cranach; but we attribute to the +same cause also the tendency in Cranach to neglect effective +colour and light and shade for strong contrasts of flat tint. +Constant attention to mere contour and to black and white +appears to have affected his sight, and caused those curious +transitions of pallid light into inky grey which often characterize +his studies of flesh; whilst the mere outlining of form in black +became a natural substitute for modelling and chiaroscuro. +There are, no doubt, some few pictures by Cranach in which +the flesh-tints display brightness and enamelled surface, but +they are quite exceptional. As a composer Cranach was not +greatly gifted. His ideal of the human shape was low; but he +showed some freshness in the delineation of incident, though he +not unfrequently bordered on coarseness. His copper-plates +and woodcuts are certainly the best outcome of his art; and +the earlier they are in date the more conspicuous is their power. +Striking evidence of this is the “St Christopher” of 1506, or the +plate of “Elector Frederick praying before the Madonna” (1509). +It is curious to watch the changes which mark the development +of his instincts as an artist during the struggles of the Reformation. +At first we find him painting Madonnas. His first woodcut +(1505) represents the Virgin and three saints in prayer before +a crucifix. Later on he composes the marriage of St Catherine, +a series of martyrdoms, and scenes from the Passion. After 1517 +he illustrates occasionally the old gospel themes, but he also +gives expression to some of the thoughts of the Reformers. +In a picture of 1518 at Leipzig, where a dying man offers “his +soul to God, his body to earth, and his worldly goods to his +relations,” the soul rises to meet the Trinity in heaven, and +salvation is clearly shown to depend on faith and not on good +works. Again sin and grace become a familiar subject of pictorial +delineation. Adam is observed sitting between John the Baptist +and a prophet at the foot of a tree. To the left God produces +the tables of the law, Adam and Eve partake of the forbidden +fruit, the brazen serpent is reared aloft, and punishment supervenes +in the shape of death and the realm of Satan. To the +right, the Conception, Crucifixion and Resurrection symbolize +redemption, and this is duly impressed on Adam by John the +Baptist, who points to the sacrifice of the crucified Saviour. +There are two examples of this composition in the galleries of +Gotha and Prague, both of them dated 1529. One of the latest +pictures with which the name of Cranach is connected is the altarpiece +which Cranach’s son completed in 1555, and which is now +in the <i>Stadtkirche</i> (city church) at Weimar. It represents Christ +in two forms, to the left trampling on Death and Satan, to the +right crucified, with blood flowing from the lance wound. John +the Baptist points to the suffering Christ, whilst the blood-stream +falls on the head of Cranach, and Luther reads from his book +the words, “The blood of Christ cleanseth from all sin.” Cranach +sometimes composed gospel subjects with feeling and dignity. +“The Woman taken in Adultery” at Munich is a favourable specimen +of his skill, and various repetitions of Christ receiving little +children show the kindliness of his disposition. But he was not +exclusively a religious painter. He was equally successful, and +often comically naïve, in mythological scenes, as where Cupid, +who has stolen a honeycomb, complains to Venus that he has been +stung by a bee (Weimar, 1530; Berlin, 1534), or where Hercules +sits at the spinning-wheel mocked by Omphale and her maids. +Humour and pathos are combined at times with strong effect in +pictures such as the “Jealousy” (Augsburg, 1527; Vienna, 1530), +where women and children are huddled into telling groups as +they watch the strife of men wildly fighting around them. Very +realistic must have been a lost canvas of 1545, in which hares +were catching and roasting sportsmen. In 1546, possibly under +Italian influence, Cranach composed the “Fons Juventutis” +of the Berlin Gallery, executed by his son, a picture in which +hags are seen entering a Renaissance fountain, and are received +as they issue from it with all the charms of youth by knights +and pages.</p> + +<p>Cranach’s chief occupation was that of portrait-painting, and +we are indebted to him chiefly for the preservation of the features +of all the German Reformers and their princely adherents. But +he sometimes condescended to depict such noted followers of the +papacy as Albert of Brandenburg, archbishop elector of Mainz, +Anthony Granvelle and the duke of Alva. A dozen likenesses +of Frederick III. and his brother John are found to bear the date +of 1532. It is characteristic of Cranach’s readiness, and a proof +that he possessed ample material for mechanical reproduction, +that he received payment at Wittenberg in 1533. for “sixty +pairs of portraits of the elector and his brother” in one day. +Amongst existing likenesses we should notice as the best that of +Albert, elector of Mainz, in the Berlin museum, and that of John, +elector of Saxony, at Dresden.</p> + +<p>Cranach had three sons, all artists:—John Lucas, who died +at Bologna in 1536; Hans Cranach, whose life is obscure; and +Lucas, born in 1515, who died in 1586.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Heller, <i>Leben und Werke Lukas Cranachs</i> (2nd ed., Bamberg, +1844); Chr. Schuchard, <i>Lukas Cranachs des älteren Leben und Werke</i> +(3 vols., Leipzig, 1851-1871); Warnecke, <i>Cranach der ältere</i> (Görlitz, +1879); M. B. Lindau, <i>Lucas Cranach</i> (1883); Lippmann, <i>Lukas +Cranach, Sammlung, &c.</i> (Berlin, 1895), reproductions of his most +notable woodcuts and engravings; Woermann, <i>Verzeichnis der +Dresdener Cranach-Ausstellung von 1899</i> (Dresden, 1899); Flechsig, +<i>Tafelbilder Cranach’s des ältern und seiner Werkstatt</i> (Leipzig, 1900); +Muther, <i>Lukas Cranach</i> (Berlin, 1902); Michaelson, <i>L. Cranach der +ältere</i> (Leipzig, 1902).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANBERRY,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> the fruit of plants of the genus <i>Oxycoccus</i>, +(natural order Vacciniaceae), often considered part of the genus +<i>Vaccinium. O. palustris</i> (or <i>Vaccinium Oxycoccus</i>), the common +cranberry plant, is found in marshy land in northern and central +Europe and North America. Its stems are wiry, creeping and +of varying length; the leaves are evergreen, dark and shining +above, glaucous below, revolute at the margin, ovate, lanceolate +or elliptical in shape, and not more than half an inch long; the +flowers, which appear in May or June, are small and stalked, and +have a four-lobed, rose-tinted corolla, purplish filaments, and +anther-cells forming two long tubes. The berries ripen in August +and September; they are pear-shaped and about the size of +currants, are crimson in colour and often spotted, and have +an acid and astringent taste. The American species, <i>O. macrocarpus</i>, +is found wild from Maine to the Carolinas. It attains a +greater size than <i>O. palustris</i>, and bears bigger and finer berries, +which are of three principal sorts, the <i>cherry</i> or round, the <i>bugle</i> +or oblong, and the <i>pear</i> or bell-shaped, and vary in hue from +light pink to dark purple, or may be mottled red and white. +<i>O. erythrocarpus</i> is a species indigenous in the mountains from +Virginia to Georgia, and is remarkable for the excellent flavour +of its berry.</p> + +<p>Air and moisture are the chief requisites for the thriving of the +cranberry plant. It is cultivated in America on a soil of peat or +vegetable mould, free from loam and clay, and cleared of turf, +and having a surface layer of clean sand. The sand, which needs +renewal every two or three years, is necessary for the vigorous +existence of the plants, and serves both to keep the underlying +soil cool and damp, and to check the growth of grass and weeds. +The ground must be thoroughly drained, and should be provided +with a supply of water and a dam for flooding the plants during +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>366</span> +winter to protect them from frost, and occasionally at other +seasons to destroy insect pests; but the use of spring water +should be avoided. The flavour of the fruit is found to be +improved by growing the plants in a soil enriched with well-rotted +dung, and by supplying them with less moisture than they +obtain in their natural habitats. Propagation is effected by +means of cuttings, of which the wood should be wiry in texture, +and the leaves of a greenish-brown colour. In America, where, +in the vicinity of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, the cultivation of the +cranberry commenced early in the last century, wide tracts of +waste land have been utilized for that purpose—low, easily +flooded, marshy ground, worth originally not more than from +$10 to $20 an acre, having been made to yield annually $200 or +$300 worth of the fruit per acre. The yield varies between 50 +and 400 bushels an acre, but 100 bushels, or about 35 barrels, +is estimated to be the average production when the plants +have begun to bear well. The approximate cranberry crop of +the United States from 1890 to 1899 varied from 410,000 to +1,000,000 bushels.</p> + +<p>Cranberries should be gathered when ripe and dry, otherwise +they do not keep well. The darkest-coloured berries are those +which are most esteemed. The picking of the fruit begins in New +Jersey in October, at the close of the blackberry and whortleberry +season, and often lasts until the coming in of cold weather. +From 3 to 4 bushels a day may be collected by good workers. +New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Baltimore are the leading +American markets for cranberries, whence they are exported to +the West Indies, England and France in great quantities. +England was formerly supplied by Lincolnshire and Norfolk +with abundance of the common cranberry, which it now largely +imports from Sweden and Russia. The fruit is much used for +pies and tarts, and also for making an acid summer beverage. +The cowberry, or red whortleberry, <i>Vaccinium Vitis-Idaea</i>, is +sometimes sold for the cranberry. The Tasmanian and the +Australian cranberries are the produce respectively of <i>Astroloma +humifusum</i> and <i>Lissanthe sapida</i>, plants of the order <i>Epacridaceae</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For literature of the subject see the <i>Proceedings of the American +Cranberry Growers’ Association</i> (Trenton, N. J.). There is a good +article on the American cranberry in L. H. Bailey’s <i>Cyclopaedia of +American Horticulture</i> (1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANBROOK, GATHORNE GATHORNE-HARDY,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl +of</span> (1814-1906), British statesman, was born at Bradford on +the 1st of October 1814, the son of John Hardy, and belonged to +a Yorkshire family. Entering upon active political life in 1847, +eleven years after his graduation at Oxford, and nine years after +his call to the bar, he offered himself as a candidate for Bradford, +but was unsuccessful. In 1856 he was returned for Leominster, and +in 1865 defeated Mr Gladstone at Oxford. In 1866 he became +president of the Poor Law Board in Lord Derby’s new administration. +When in 1867 Mr Walpole resigned, from dissatisfaction +with Mr Disraeli’s Reform Bill, Mr Hardy succeeded him at +the home office. In 1874 he was secretary for war; and when in +1878 Lord Salisbury took the foreign office upon the resignation +of Lord Derby, Viscount Cranbrook (as Mr Hardy became +within a month afterwards) succeeded him at the India office. +At the same time he had assumed the additional family surname +of Gathorne, which had been that of his mother. In Lord +Salisbury’s administrations of 1885 and 1886 Lord Cranbrook +was president of the council, and upon his retirement from +public life concurrently with the resignation of the cabinet in +1892 he was raised to an earldom. He died on the 30th of +October 1906, being succeeded as 2nd earl by his son John +Stewart Gathorne-Hardy, previously known as Lord Medway +(b. 1839), who from 1868 to 1880 sat in parliament as a conservative +for Rye, and from 1884 to 1892 for a division of Kent.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Gathorne Hardy, 1st earl of Cranbrook, a memoir with extracts +from his correspondence</i>, edited by the Hon. A. E. Gathorne-Hardy +(1910).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANBROOK,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> a market-town in the southern parliamentary +division of Kent, England, 45 m. S.E. of London on a branch of +the South-Eastern & Chatham railway from Paddock Wood. +Pop. (1901) 3949. It lies on the Crane brook, a feeder of the +river Beult, in a pleasant district, hilly and well wooded. It has +a fine church (mainly Perpendicular) dedicated to St Dunstan, +which is remarkable for a baptistery, built in the early part of the +18th century, and some ancient stained glass. As the centre of +the agricultural district of the Kentish Weald, it carries on an +extensive trade in malt, hops and general goods; but its present +condition is in striking contrast to the activity it displayed from +the 14th to the 17th century, when it was one of the principal +seats of the broadcloth manufacture. Remains of some of the +old factories still exist. The town has a grammar school of +Elizabethan foundation, which now ranks as one of the +smaller public schools. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of +the old mansion house of Sissinghurst, or Saxenhurst, built in the +time of Edward VI.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANDALL, PRUDENCE<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1803-1889), American school-teacher, +was born, of Quaker parentage, at Hopkinton, Rhode +Island, on the 3rd of September 1803. She was educated in the +Friends’ school at Providence, R. I., taught school at Plainfield, +Conn., and in 1831 established a private academy for girls at +Canterbury, Windham county, Connecticut. By admitting a +negro girl she lost her white patrons, and in March 1833, on the +advice of William Lloyd Garrison and Samuel J. May (1797-1871), +she opened a school for “young ladies and little misses of +colour.” For this she was bitterly denounced, not only in Canterbury +but throughout Connecticut, and was persecuted, boycotted +and socially ostracized; measures were taken in the Canterbury +town-meeting to break up the school, and finally in May 1833 the +state legislature passed the notorious Connecticut “Black Law,” +prohibiting the establishment of schools for non-resident negroes +in any city or township of Connecticut, without the consent of the +local authorities. Miss Crandall, refusing to submit, was arrested, +tried and convicted in the lower courts, whose verdict, however, +was reversed on a technicality by the court of appeals in July 1834. +Thereupon the local opposition to her redoubled, and she was +finally in September 1834 forced to close her school. Soon +afterward she married the Rev. Calvin Philleo. She died at Elk +Falls, Kansas, on the 28th of January 1889. The Connecticut +Black Law was repealed in 1838. Miss Crandall’s attempt to +educate negro girls at Canterbury attracted the attention of the +whole country; and the episode is of considerable significance as +showing the attitude of a New England community toward the +negro at that time.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. C. Kimball’s <i>Connecticut Canterbury Tale</i> (Hartford, Conn., +1889), and Samuel J. May’s <i>Recollections of Our Anti-Slavery Conflict</i> +(Boston, 1869).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANE, STEPHEN<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1870-1900), American writer, was born +at Newark, New Jersey, on the 1st of November 1870, and was +educated at Lafayette College and Syracuse University. His +first story, <i>Maggie, a Girl of the Streets</i>, was published in 1891, +but his greatest success was made with <i>The Red Badge of Courage</i> +(1896), a brilliant and highly realistic, though of course imaginary, +description of the experiences of a private in the Civil War. He +was also the author of various other stories, and acted as a war +correspondent in the Greco-Turkish War (1897) and the Spanish +American War (1898). His health became seriously affected in +Cuba, and on his return he settled down in England. He died +at Badenweiler, Germany, on the 5th of June 1900.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANE, WALTER<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1845-  ), English artist, second son +of Thomas Crane, portrait painter and miniaturist, was born +in Liverpool on the 15th of August 1845. The family soon +removed to Torquay, where the boy gained his early artistic +impressions, and, when he was twelve years old, to London. He +early came under the influence of the Pre-Raphaelites, and was +a diligent student of Ruskin. A set of coloured page designs +to illustrate Tennyson’s “Lady of Shalott” gained the approval +of William James Linton, the wood-engraver, to whom Walter +Crane was apprenticed for three years (1859-1862). As a wood-engraver +he had abundant opportunity for the minute study of +the contemporary artists whose work passed through his hands, +of Rossetti, Millais, Tenniel and F. Sandys, and of the masters +of the Italian Renaissance, but he was more influenced by the +Elgin marbles in the British Museum. A further and important +element in the development of his talent, was the study of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>367</span> +Japanese colour-prints, the methods of which he imitated in a +series of toy-books, which started a new fashion. In 1862 a +picture of his, “The Lady of Shalott,” was exhibited at the +Royal Academy, but the Academy steadily refused his maturer +work; and after the opening of the Grosvenor Gallery in 1877 +he ceased to send pictures to Burlington House. In 1864 he +began to illustrate for Mr Edmund Evans, the colour printer, a +series of sixpenny toy-books of nursery rhymes, displaying +admirable fancy and beauty of design, though he was limited +to the use of three colours. He was allowed more freedom in a +delightful series begun in 1873, <i>The Frog Prince, &c.</i>, which showed +markedly the influence of Japanese art, and of a long visit to +Italy following on his marriage in 1871. <i>The Baby’s Opera</i> was +a book of English nursery songs planned in 1877 with Mr Evans, +and a third series of children’s books with the collective title, +<i>A Romance of the Three R’s</i>, provided a regular course of instruction +in art for the nursery. In his early “Lady of Shalott” the +artist had shown his preoccupation with unity of design in book +illustration by printing in the words of the poem himself, in the +view that this union of the calligrapher’s and the decorator’s art +was one secret of the beauty of the old illuminated books. He +followed the same course in <i>The First of May: A Fairy Masque</i> +by his friend John R. Wise, text and decoration being in this +case reproduced by photogravure. The “Goose Girl” illustration +taken from his beautiful <i>Household Stories from Grimm</i> +(1882) was reproduced in tapestry by William Morris, and is +now in the South Kensington Museum. <i>Flora’s Feast, A Masque +of Flowers</i> had lithographic reproductions of Mr Crane’s line +drawings washed in with water colour; he also decorated in +colour <i>The Wonder Book</i> of Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Margaret +Deland’s <i>Old Garden</i>; in 1894 he collaborated with William +Morris in the page decoration of <i>The Story of the Glittering Plain</i>, +published at the Kelmscott press, which was executed in the +style of 16th-century Italian and German woodcuts; but in +purely decorative interest the finest of his works in book illustration +is Spenser’s <i>Faerie Queene</i> (12 pts., 1894-1896) and the +<i>Shepheard’s Calendar</i>. The poems which form the text of <i>Queen +Summer</i> (1891), <i>Renascence</i> (1891), and <i>The Sirens Three</i> (1886) +are by the artist himself.</p> + +<p>In the early ’eighties under Morris’s influence he was closely +associated with the Socialist movement. He did as much as +Morris himself to bring art into the daily life of all classes. With +this object in view he devoted much attention to designs for +textile stuffs, for wall-papers, and to house decoration; but he +also used his art for the direct advancement of the Socialist +cause. For a long time he provided the weekly cartoons for the +Socialist organs, <i>Justice</i> and <i>The Commonweal</i>. Many of these +were collected as <i>Cartoons for the Cause</i>. He devoted much time +and energy to the work of the Art Workers’ Guild, and to the +Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, founded by him in 1888. +His own easel pictures, chiefly allegorical in subject, among them +“The Bridge of Life” (1884) and “The Mower” (1891), were +exhibited regularly at the Grosvenor Gallery and later at the +New Gallery. “Neptune’s Horses,” which, with many other of +Mr Crane’s pictures, came into the possession of Herr Ernst +Seeger of Berlin, was exhibited at the New Gallery in 1893, and +with it may be classed his “The Rainbow and the Wave.”</p> + +<p>His varied work includes examples of plaster relief, tiles, +stained glass, pottery, wall-paper and textile designs, in all of +which he applied the principle that in purely decorative design +“the artist works freest and best without direct reference to +nature, and should have learned the forms he makes use of by +heart.” An exhibition of his work of different kinds was held +at the Fine Art Society’s galleries in Bond Street in 1891, and +taken over to the United States in the same year by the artist +himself. It was afterwards exhibited in the chief German, +Austrian and Scandinavian towns, arousing great interest +throughout the continent.</p> + +<p>Mr Crane became an associate of the Water Colour Society +in 1888; he was an examiner of the science and art department +at South Kensington; director of design at the Manchester +Municipal school (1894); art director of Reading College (1896); +and in 1898 for a short time principal of the Royal College of Art. +His lectures at Manchester were published with illustrated +drawings as <i>The Bases of Design</i> (1898) and <i>Line and Form</i> (1900). +<i>The Decorative Illustration of Books, Old and New</i> (2nd ed., +London and New York, 1900) is a further contribution to theory.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A well-known portrait of Mr Crane by G. F. Watts, R.A., was +exhibited at the New Gallery in 1893. There is a comprehensive +and sumptuously illustrated book on <i>The Art of Walter Crane</i>, by +P. G. Konody; a monograph (1902) by Otto von Schleinitz in the +<i>Künstler Monographien</i> series (Bielefeld and Leipzig); and an +account of himself by the artist in the Easter number of 1898 of the +<i>Art Journal</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANE, WILLIAM HENRY<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1845-  ), American actor, +was born on the 30th of April 1845, in Leicester, Massachusetts, +and made his first appearance at Utica, New York, in Donizetti’s +<i>Daughter of the Regiment</i> in 1863. Later he had a great success +as Le Blanc the Notary, in the burlesque <i>Evangeline</i> (1873). He +made his first hit in the legitimate drama with Stuart Robson +(1836-1903), in <i>The Comedy of Errors</i> and other Shakespearian +plays, and in <i>The Henrietta</i> (1881) by Bronson Howard (1842-1908). +This partnership lasted for twelve years, and subsequently +Crane appeared in various eccentric character parts in +such plays as <i>The Senator</i> and <i>David Harum</i>. In 1904 he turned +to more serious work and played Isidore Izard in <i>Business is +Business</i>, an adaptation from Octave Mirbeau’s <i>Les Affaires +sont les affaires</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANE<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (in Dutch, <i>Kraan</i>; O. Ger. <i>Kraen</i>; cognate, as also +the Lat. <i>grus</i>, and consequently the Fr. <i>grue</i> and Span. <i>grulla</i>, +with the Gr. <span class="grk" title="geranos">γέρανος</span>), the <i>Grus communis</i> or <i>G. cinerea</i> of +ornithologists, one of the largest wading-birds, and formerly a +native of England, where William Turner, in 1544, said that he +had very often seen its young (“<i>earum pipiones saepissime vidi</i>”). +Notwithstanding the protection afforded it by sundry acts of +parliament, it has long since ceased from breeding in England. +Sir T. Browne (ob. 1682) speaks of it as being found in the open +parts of Norfolk in winter. In Ray’s time it was only known as +occurring at the same season in large flocks in the fens of Lincolnshire +and Cambridgeshire; and though mention is made of cranes’ +eggs and young in the fen-laws passed at a court held at Revesby +in 1780, this was most likely but the formal repetition of an +older edict; for in 1768 Pennant wrote that after the strictest +inquiry he found the inhabitants of those counties to be wholly +unacquainted with the bird. The crane, however, no doubt +then appeared in Britain, as it does now, at uncertain intervals +and in unwonted places, having strayed from the migrating +bands whose movements have been remarked from almost the +earliest ages. Indeed, the crane’s aerial journeys are of a very +extended kind; and on its way from beyond the borders of the +Tropic of Cancer to within the Arctic Circle, or on the return +voyage, its flocks may be descried passing overhead at a +marvellous height, or halting for rest and refreshment on the +wide meadows that border some great river, while the seeming +order with which its ranks are marshalled during flight has long +attracted attention. The crane takes up its winter quarters +under the burning sun of Central Africa and India, but early in +spring returns northward. Not a few examples reach the chill +polar soils of Lapland and Siberia, but some tarry in the south +of Europe and breed in Spain, and, it is supposed, in Turkey. +The greater number, however, occupy the intermediate zone and +pass the summer in Russia, north Germany, and Scandinavia. +Soon after their arrival in these countries the flocks break up into +pairs, whose nuptial ceremonies are accompanied by loud and +frequent trumpetings, and the respective breeding-places of each +are chosen.</p> + +<p>The nest is formed with little art on the ground in large open +marshes, where the herbage is not very high—a tolerably dry +spot being selected and used apparently year after year. Here +the eggs, which are of a rich brown colour with dark spots, and +always two in number, are laid. The young are able to run soon +after they are hatched, and are at first clothed with tawny down. +In the course of the summer they assume nearly the same grey +plumage that their parents wear, except that the elongated +plumes, which in the adults form a graceful covering of the hinder +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>368</span> +parts of the body, are comparatively undeveloped, and the clear +black, white and red (the last being due to a patch of papillose +skin of that colour) of the head and neck are as yet indistinct. +During this time they keep in the marshes, but as autumn +approaches the different families unite by the rivers and lakes, +and ultimately form the enormous bands which after much more +trumpeting set out on their southward journey.</p> + +<p>The crane’s power of uttering its sonorous and peculiar +trumpet-like notes is commonly ascribed to the formation of its +trachea, which on quitting the lower end of the neck passes +backward between the branches of the furcula and is received +into a hollow space formed by the bony walls of the carina or +keel of the sternum. Herein it makes three turns, and then runs +upwards and backwards to the lungs. The apparatus on the +whole much resembles that found in the whooping swans (<i>Cygnus +musicus</i>, <i>C. buccinator</i> and others), though differing in some not +unimportant details; but at the same time somewhat similar +convolutions of the trachea occur in other birds which do not +possess, so far as is known, the faculty of trumpeting. The +crane emits its notes both during flight and while on the ground. +In the latter case the neck and bill are uplifted and the mouth +kept open during the utterance of the blast, which may be often +heard from birds in confinement, especially at the beginning of +the year.</p> + +<p>As usually happens in similar cases, the name of the once +familiar British species is now used in a general sense, and applied +to all others which are allied to it. Though by former systematists +placed near or even among the herons, there is no doubt that the +cranes have only a superficial resemblance and no real affinity to +the <i>Ardeidae</i>. In fact the <i>Gruidae</i> form a somewhat isolated +group. Huxley included them together with the <i>Rallidae</i> in his +<i>Geranomorphae</i>; but a more extended view of their various +characters would probably assign them rather as relatives of the +Bustards—not that it must be thought that the two families have +not been for a very long time distinct. <i>Grus</i>, indeed, is a very +ancient form, its remains appearing in the Miocene of France and +Greece, as well as in the Pliocene and Post-pliocene of North +America. In France, too, during the “Reindeer Period” +there existed a huge species—the <i>G. primigenia</i> of Alphonse +Milne-Edwards—which has doubtless been long extinct. At the +present time cranes inhabit all the great zoogeographical regions +of the earth, except the Neotropical, and some sixteen or seventeen +species are discriminated. In Europe, besides the <i>G. communis</i> +already mentioned, the Numidian or demoiselle-crane (<i>G. virgo</i>) is +distinguished from every other by its long white ear-tufts. This +bird is also widely distributed throughout Asia and Africa, and is +said to have occurred in Orkney as a straggler. The eastern part +of the Palaearctic Region is inhabited by four other species that +do not frequent Europe (<i>G. antigone</i>, <i>G. japonensis</i>, <i>G. monachus</i>, +and <i>G. leucogeranus</i>), of which the last is perhaps the finest of the +family, with nearly the whole plumage of a snowy white. The +Indian Region, besides being visited in winter by four of the +species already named, has two that are peculiar to it (<i>G. torquata</i> +and <i>G. indica</i>, both commonly confounded under the name of +<i>G. antigone</i>). The Australian Region possesses a large species +known to the colonists as the “native companion” (<i>G. australis</i>), +while the Nearctic is tenanted by three species (<i>G. americana</i>, +<i>G. canadensis</i> and <i>G. fraterculus</i>), to say nothing of the possibility +of a fourth (<i>G. schlegeli</i>), a little-known and somewhat obscure +bird, finding its habitat here. In the Ethiopian Region are two +species (<i>G. paradisea</i> and <i>G. carunculata</i>), which do not occur out +of Africa, as well as three others forming the group known as +“crowned cranes”—differing much from other members of the +family, and justifiably placed in a separate genus, <i>Balearica</i>. +One of these (<i>B. pavonina</i>) inhabits northern and western Africa, +while another (<i>B. regulorum</i>) is confined to the eastern and +southern parts of that continent. The third (<i>B. ceciliae</i>), from +the White Nile, has been described by Dr P. Chalmers Mitchell +(<i>P.Z.S.</i>, 1904).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>With regard to the literature of this species, a paper “On the +Breeding of the Crane in Lapland” (<i>Ibis</i>, 1859, p. 191), by John +Wolley, is one of the most pleasing contributions to natural history +ever written, and an admirably succinct account of all the different +species was communicated by Blyth to <i>The Field</i> in 1873 (vol. xl. +p. 631, vol. xli. pp. 7, 61, 136, 189, 248, 384, 408, 418). A beautiful +picture representing a flock of cranes resting by the Rhine during +one of their annual migrations is to be found in Wolf’s <i>Zoological +Sketches</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANES<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (so called from the resemblance to the long neck of the +bird, cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="geranos">γέρανος</span>, Fr. <i>grue</i>), machines by means of which +heavy bodies may be lifted, and also displaced horizontally, within +certain defined limits. Strictly speaking, the name alludes to the +arm or jib from which the load to be moved is suspended, but +it is now used in a wider sense to include the whole mechanism +by which a load is raised vertically and moved horizontally. +Machines used for lifting only are not called cranes, but winches, +lifts or hoists, while the term elevator or conveyor is commonly +given to appliances which continuously, not in separate loads, +move materials like grain or coal in a vertical, horizontal or +diagonal direction (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conveyors</a></span>). The use of cranes is of great +antiquity, but it is only since the great industrial development of +the 19th century, and the introduction of other motive powers +than hand labour, that the crane has acquired the important +and indispensable position it now occupies. In all places where +finished goods are handled, or manufactured goods are made, +cranes of various forms are in universal use.</p> + +<p>Cranes may be divided into two main classes—revolving and +non-revolving. In the first the load can be lifted vertically, and +then moved round a central pivot, so as to be deposited +at any convenient point within the range. The type of +<span class="sidenote">Classification.</span> +this class is the ordinary jib crane. In the second +class there are, in addition to the lifting motion, two horizontal +movements at right angles to one another. The type of this +class is the overhead traveller. The two classes obviously +represent respectively systems of polar and rectangular coordinates. +Jib cranes can be subdivided into fixed cranes and +portable cranes; in the former the central-post or pivot is +firmly fixed in a permanent position, while in the latter the +whole crane is mounted on wheels, so that it may be transported +from place to place.</p> + +<p>The different kinds of motive power used to actuate cranes—manual, +steam, hydraulic, electric—give a further classification. +Hand cranes are extremely useful where the load is not +excessive, and the quantities to be dealt with are not +<span class="sidenote">Motive powers.</span> +great; also where speed is not important, and first cost +is an essential consideration. The net effective work of lifting +that can be performed by a man turning a handle may be taken, +for intermittent work, as being on an average about 5000 foot-lb +per minute; this is equivalent to 1 ton lifted about 2¼ ft. per +minute, so that four men can by a crane raise 1 ton 9 ft. in a +minute or 9 tons 1 ft. per minute. It is at once evident that +hand power is only suitable for cranes of moderate power, or in +cases where heavy loads have to be lifted only very occasionally. +This point is dwelt upon, because the speed limitations of the +hand-crane are often overlooked by engineers. Steam is an +extremely useful motive power for all cranes that are not worked +off a central power station. The steam crane has the immense +advantage of being completely self-contained. It can be moved +(by its own locomotive power, if desired) long distances without +requiring any complicated means of conveying power to it; and +it is rapid in work, fairly economical, and can be adapted to the +most varying circumstances. Where, however, there are a +number of cranes all belonging to the same installation, and +these are placed so as to be conveniently worked from a central +power station, and where the work is rapid, heavy and continuous, +as is the case at large ports, docks and railway or other +warehouses, experience has shown that it is best to produce the +power in a generating station and distribute it to the cranes. +Down to the closing decades of the 19th century hydraulic +power was practically the only system available for working +cranes from a power station. The hydraulic crane is rapid in +action, very smooth and silent in working, easy to handle, and +not excessive in cost or upkeep,—advantages which have secured +its adoption in every part of the world. Electricity as a motive +power for cranes is of more recent introduction. The electric +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>369</span> +transmission of energy can be performed with an efficiency not +reached by any other method, and the electric motor readily +adapts itself to cranes. When they are worked from a power +station the great advantage is gained that the same plant which +drives them can be used for many other purposes, such as +working machine tools and supplying current for lighting. For +dock-side jib cranes the use of electric power is making rapid +strides. For overhead travellers in workshops, and for most of +the cranes which fall into our second class, electricity as a +motive power has already displaced nearly every other method. +Cranes driven by shafting, or by mechanical power, have been +largely superseded by electric cranes, principally on account of +the much greater economy of transmission. For many years the +best workshop travellers were those driven by quick running +ropes; these performed admirable service, but they have given +place to the more modern electric traveller.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:482px; height:209px" src="images/img369.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> <span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The principal motion in a crane is naturally the hoisting or +lifting motion. This is effected by slinging the load to an eye or +hook, and elevating the hook vertically. There are three +typical methods: (1) A direct pull may be applied to +<span class="sidenote">Lifting mechanisms.</span> +the hook, either by screws, or by a cylinder fitted with +piston and rod and actuated by direct hydraulic or other +pressure, as shown diagrammatically in fig. 1. These methods are +used in exceptional cases, but present the obvious difficulty of giving +a very short range of lift. (2) The hook may be attached to a rope +or chain, and the pulling cylinder connected with a system of pulleys +around which the rope is led; by these means the lift can be very +largely increased. Various arrangements are adopted; the one +indicated in fig. 2 gives a lift of load four times the stroke of the +cylinder. This second method forms the basis of the lifting gear in +all hydraulic cranes. (3) The lifting rope or chain is led over pulley +to a lifting barrel, upon which it is coiled as the barrel is rotated by +the source of power (fig. 3). Sometimes, especially in the case of +overhead travelling cranes for very heavy loads, the chain is a special +pitch chain, formed of flat links pinned together, and the barrel is +reduced to a wheel provided with teeth, or “sprockets,” which +engage in the links. In this case the chain is not coiled, but simply +passes over the lifting wheel, the free end hanging loose. All the +methods in this third category require a rotating lifting or barrel +shaft, and this is the important difference between them and the +hydraulic cranes mentioned above. Cranes fitted with rotating +hydraulic engines may be considered as coming under the third +category.</p> + +<p>When the loads are heavy the above mechanisms are supplemented +by systems of purchase blocks suspended from the jib or the +traveller crab; and in barrel cranes trains of rotating gearing are +interposed between the motor, or manual handle, and the barrel +(fig. 3).</p> + +<p>When a load is lifted, work has to be done in overcoming the +action of gravity and the friction of the mechanism; when it is +lowered, energy is given out. To control the speed and +absorb this energy, brakes have to be provided. The +<span class="sidenote">Brakes.</span> +hydraulic crane has a great advantage in possessing an almost ideal +brake, for by simply throttling the exhaust from the lifting cylinder +the speed of descent can be regulated within very wide limits and +with perfect safety. Barrel cranes are usually fitted with band +brakes, consisting of a brake rim with a friction band placed round +it, the band being tightened as required. In ordinary cases conduction +and convection suffice to dissipate the heat generated by the +brake, but when a great deal of lowering has to be rapidly performed, +or heavy loads have to be lowered to a great depth, special arrangements +have to be provided. An excellent brake for very large cranes +is Matthew’s hydraulic brake, in which water is passed from end to +end of cylinders fitted with reciprocating pistons, cooling jackets +being provided. In electric cranes a useful method is to arrange +the connexions so that the lifting motor acts as a dynamo, and, +driven by the energy of the falling load, generates a current which +is converted into heat by being passed through resistances. That +the quantity of heat to be got rid of may become very considerable +is seen when it is considered that the energy of a load of 60 tons +descending through 50 ft. is equivalent to an amount of heat sufficient +to raise nearly 6 gallons of water from 60° F. to boiling point. Crane +brakes are usually under the direct control of the driver, and they are +generally arranged in one of two ways. In the first, the pressure +is applied by a handle or treadle, and is removed by a spring or +weight; this is called “braking on.” In the second, or “braking +off” method, the brake is automatically applied by a spring or +weight, and is released either mechanically or, in the case of electric +cranes, by the pull of a solenoid or magnet which is energized by the +current passing through the motor. When the motor starts the +brake is released; when it stops, or the current ceases, the brake +goes on. The first method is in general use for steam cranes; it +allows for a far greater range of power in the brake, but is not +automatic, as is the second.</p> + +<p>In free-barrel cranes the lifting barrel is connected to the revolving +shaft by a powerful friction clutch; this, when interlocked with +the brake and controller, renders electric cranes exceedingly rapid +in working, as the barrel can be detached and lowering performed +at a very high speed, without waiting for the lifting motor to come +to rest in order to be reversed. This method of working is very +suitable for electric dock-side cranes of capacities up to about 5 or +7 tons, and for overhead travellers where the height of lift is +moderate. Where high speed lowering is not required it is usual to +employ a reversing motor and keep it always in gear.</p> + +<p>In steam cranes it is usual to work all the motions from one double +cylinder engine. In order to enable two or more motions to be +worked together, or independently as required, reversing friction +cones are used for the subsidiary motions, especially the slewing +motion. With the exception of a few special cranes in which friction +wheels are employed, it is universally the practice, in steam cranes, +to connect the engine shaft with the barrel shaft by spur toothed +gearing, the gear being connected or disconnected by sliding pinions. +In electric cranes the motor is connected to the barrel, either in a +similar manner by spur gear or by worm gear. The toothed wheels +give a slightly better efficiency, but the worm gear is somewhat +smoother in its action and entirely silent; the noise of gearing can, +however, be considerably reduced by careful machining of the teeth, +as is now always done, and also by the use of pinions made of rawhide +leather or other non-resonant material. When quick-running +metal pinions are used they are arranged to run in closed oil-baths. +Leather pinions must be protected from rats, which eat them freely. +Worm wheel gearing is of very high efficiency if made very quick in +pitch, with properly formed teeth perfectly lubricated, and with +the end thrust of the worm taken on ball bearings. Much attention +has been paid to the improvement of the mechanical details of the +lifting and other motions of cranes, and in important installations +the gearing is now usually made of cast steel. In revolving cranes +ease of slewing can be greatly increased by the use of a live ring of +conical rollers.</p> + +<p>Electric motors for barrel cranes are not essentially different from +those used for other purposes, but in proportioning the sizes the +intermittent output has to be taken into consideration. +This fact has led to the introduction of the “crane rated” +<span class="sidenote">Power required.</span> +motor, with a given “load factor.” This latter gives the +ratio of the length of the working periods to the whole time; <i>e.g.</i> +a motor rated for a quarter load factor means that the motor is +capable of exerting its full normal horse-power for three minutes +out of every twelve, the pause being nine minutes, or one minute +out of every four, the pause being three minutes. The actual load +factor to be chosen depends on the nature of the work and the kind +of crane. A dock-side crane unloading cargo with high lifts following +one another in rapid succession will require a higher load factor +than a workshop traveller with a very short lift and only a very +occasional maximum load; and a traveller with a very long longitudinal +travel will require a higher load factor for the travelling +motor than for the lifting motor. In practice, the load factor for +electric crane motors varies from <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> to <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span>. In steam cranes much the +same principle obtains in proportioning the boiler; <i>e.g.</i> the engines +of a 10-ton steam crane have cylinders capable of indicating about +60 horse-power when working at full speed, but it is found that, in +consequence of the intermittent working, sufficient steam can be +supplied with a boiler whose heating surface is only <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> to ¼ of that +necessary for the above power, when developed continuously by a +stationary engine.</p> + +<p>In well-designed, quick-running cranes the mechanical efficiency +of the lifting gear may be taken as about 85%; a good electric jib +crane will give an efficiency of 72%, <i>i.e.</i> when actually lifting at +full speed the mechanical work of lifting represents about 72% of +the electric energy put into the lifting motor. A very convenient +rule is to allow one brake horse-power of motor for every 10 foot-tons +of work done at the hook: this is equivalent to an efficiency +of 66<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>%, and is well on the safe side.</p> + +<p>The motor in most common use for electric cranes is the series +wound, continuous current motor, which has many advantages. +It has a very large starting torque, which enables it to overcome the +inertia of getting the load into motion, and it lifts heavy loads at a +slower speed and lighter loads at a quicker one, behaving, under the +action of the controller in a somewhat similar manner to that in +which the cylinders of the steam crane respond to the action of +the stop-valve. Three-phase motors are also much used for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span> +crane-driving, and it is probable that improvements in single and +two-phase motors will eventually largely increase their use for this +class of work.</p> + +<p>Tests of the comparative efficiencies of hydraulic and electric +cranes tend to show that, although they do not vary to any very +considerable extent with full load, yet the efficiency of the hydraulic +crane falls away very much more rapidly than that of the electric +crane when working on smaller loads. This drawback can be +corrected to a slight extent by furnishing the hydraulic crane with +more than one cylinder, and thus compounding it, but the arrangement +does not give the same economical range of load as in an +electric crane. In first cost the hydraulic crane has the advantage, +but the power mains are much less expensive and more convenient +to arrange in the electric crane.</p> + +<p>The limit of speed of lift of hand cranes has already been mentioned; +for steam jib cranes average practice is represented by the +formula V = 30 + 200/T, where V is the speed of lift in +feet per minute, and T the load in tons. Where electric +<span class="sidenote">Speed.</span> +or hydraulic cranes are worked from a central station the speed is +greater, and may be roughly represented by V = 5 + 300/T; <i>e.g.</i> a +30-cwt. crane would lift with a speed of about 200 ft. per minute, +and 100-ton crane with a speed of about 8 ft. per minute, but these +speeds vary with local circumstances. The lifting speed of electric +travellers is generally less, because the lift is generally much shorter, +and may in ordinary cases be taken as V = 3 + 85/T. The cross-traversing +speed of travellers varies from 60 to 120 ft. per minute, +and the longitudinal from 100 to 300 ft. per minute. The speed of +these two motions depends much on the length of the span and of the +longitudinal run, and on the nature of the work to be done; in +certain cases, <i>e.g.</i> foundries, it is desirable to be able to lift, on +occasions, at an extremely slow speed. In addition to the brakes +on the lifting gear of cranes it is found necessary, especially in quick-running +electric cranes, to provide a brake on the subsidiary +motions, and also devices to stop the motor at the end of the lift +or travel, so as to prevent over-running.</p> + +<p>There are many other important points of crane construction too +numerous to mention here, but it may be said generally that the +advent of electricity has tended to increase speeds, and in consequence +great attention is paid to all details that reduce friction and +wear, such as roller and ball bearings and improved methods of +lubrication; and, as in all other quick-running machinery, great +stress has to be laid on accuracy of workmanship. The machinery, +thus being of a higher class, requires more protection, and cranes +that work in the open are now fitted with elaborate crane-houses or +cabins, furnished with weather-tight doors and windows, and more +care is taken to provide proper platforms, hand-rails and ladders +of access, and also guards for the revolving parts of gearing.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:529px; height:184px" src="images/img370a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Typical Forms of Cranes.</i>—Fig. 4 is a diagram of a fixed hand +revolving jib crane, of moderate size, as used in railway goods yards +and similar places. It consists of a heavy base, which is +securely bolted to the foundation, and which carries the +<span class="sidenote">Fixed Cranes.</span> +strong crane-post, or pillar, around which the crane revolves. +The revolving part is made with two side frames of cast +iron or steel plates, and to these the lifting gear is attached. The +load is suspended from the crane jib; this jib is attached at the +lower end to the side frames, and the upper end is supported by tie-rods, +connected to the framework, the whole revolving together. +This simple form of crane thus embodies the essential elements of +foundation, post, framework, jib, tie-rods and gearing.</p> + +<p>Fig. 5 shows another type of fixed crane, known as a derrick crane. +Here the crane-post is extended into a long mast and is furnished +with pivots at the top and bottom; the mast is supported by two +“back ties,” and these are connected to the socket of the bottom +pivot by the “sleepers.” This is a very good and comparatively +cheap form of crane, where a long and variable radius is required, +but it cannot slew through a complete circle. Derrick cranes are +made of all powers, from the timber 1-ton hand derrick to the steel +150-ton derrick used in shipbuilding yards. The derrick crane +introduces a problem for which many solutions have been sought, +that of preventing the load from being lifted or lowered when the +jib is pivoted up or down to alter the radius. To keep the load +level, there are various devices for automatically coupling the jib-raising +and the load-lowering motions.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:290px; height:213px" src="images/img370b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Somewhat allied to the derrick are the sheer legs (fig. 6). Here +the place of the jib is taken by two inclined legs joined together +at the top and pivoted at the bottom; a third back-leg is connected +at the top to the other two, and at the bottom is coupled to a nut +which runs on a long horizontal screw. This horizontal movement +of the lower end of the back +leg allows the whole arrangement +to assume the position +shown in fig. 7, so that a +load can be taken out of a +vessel and deposited on a +quay wall. The same effect +can be produced by shortening +the back leg by a screw +placed in the direction of its +length. Sheer legs are generally +built in very large sizes, +and their use is practically +confined to marine work.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:521px; height:252px" src="images/img370c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Another type of fixed crane +is the “Fairbairn” crane, +shown in fig. 8. Here the jib, superstructure and post are all united +in one piece, which revolves in a foundation well, being supported at +the bottom by a toe-step and near the ground level by horizontal +rollers. This type of crane used to be in great favour, in consequence +of the great clearance it gives under the jib, but it is expensive and +requires very heavy foundations.</p> + +<p>The so-called “hammer-headed” crane (fig. 9) consists of a steel +braced tower, on which revolves a large horizontal double cantilever; +the forward part of this cantilever or jib carries the lifting +crab, and the jib is extended backwards in order to form a support +for the machinery and counter-balance. Besides the motions of +lifting and revolving, there is provided a so-called “racking” +motion, by which the lifting crab, with the load suspended, can be +moved in and out along the jib without altering the level of the load. +Such horizontal movement of the load is a marked feature of later +crane design; it first became prominent in the so-called “Titan” +cranes, mentioned below (fig. 14). Hammer-headed cranes are +generally constructed in large sizes, up to 200 tons.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:488px; height:219px" src="images/img370d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Another type of fixed revolving crane is the foundry or smithy +crane (fig. 10). It has the horizontal racking motion mentioned +above, and revolves either on upper and lower pivots supported by +the structure of the workshop, or on a fixed pillar secured to a heavy +foundation. The type is often used in foundries, or to serve heavy +hammers in a smithy, whence the name.</p> + +<p>Portable cranes are of many kinds. Obviously, nearly every +kind of crane can be made portable by mounting it on a carriage, +fitted with wheels; it is even not unusual to make the +<span class="sidenote">Portable cranes.</span> +Scottish derrick portable by using three trucks, one under +the mast, and the others under the two back legs.</p> + +<p>Fig. 11 represents a portable steam jib crane; it contains the +same elements as the fixed crane (fig. 4), but the foundation bed +is mounted on a truck which is carried on railway or road wheels. +With portable cranes means must be provided to ensure the requisite +stability against overturning; this is done by weighting the tail of +the revolving part with heavy weights, and in steam cranes the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page371" id="page371"></a>371</span> +boiler is so placed as also to form part of the counterbalance. Where +the rail-gauge is narrow and great weight is not desired, blocking +girders are provided across the under side of the truck; these are +arranged so that, by means of wedges or screws, they can be made +to increase the base. In connexion with the stability of portable +cranes, it may be mentioned that accidents more often arise from +overturning backwards than forwards. In the latter case the overturning +tendency begins as soon as the load leaves the ground, but +ceases as soon as the load again touches the ground and thus relieves +the crane of the extra weight, whereas overturning backwards is +caused either by the reaction of a chain breaking or by excessive +counterweight. When portable cranes are fitted with springs and +axle-boxes, drawgear and +buffers, so that they can be +coupled to an ordinary railway +train, they are called “breakdown” +or “wrecking” cranes.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:522px; height:340px" src="images/img371a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:278px; height:319px" src="images/img371b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:279px; height:171px" src="images/img371c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Dock-side jib cranes for +working general cargo are +almost always made portable, +in order to enable them to be +placed in correct position in +regard to the hatchways of +the vessels which they serve. +Fig. 12 shows an ordinary +hydraulic dock-side jib crane. +This type is usually fitted with +a very high jib, so as to lift +goods in and out of high-sided +vessels. The hydraulic lifting +cylinders are placed inside the +revolving steel mast or post, +and the cabin for the driver +is arranged high up in the front +of the post, so as to give a good +view of the work. The pressure is conveyed to the crane by means of +jointed “walking” pipes, or flexible hose, connected to hydrants +placed at regular intervals along the quay. It is often very desirable +to have the quay space as little obstructed by the cranes as possible, +so as not to interfere with railway traffic; this has led to the introduction +of cranes mounted on high trucks or gantries, sometimes +also called “portal” cranes. Where warehouses or station buildings +run parallel to the quay line, the high truck is often extended, so +as to span the whole quay; on one side the “long leg” runs on a +rail at the quay edge, and on the other the “short leg” runs on a +runway placed on the building. Cranes of this type are called +“half-portal” cranes. Fig. 13 shows an electric crane of this class. +They give the minimum of +interference with quay space +and have rapidly come into +favour. Where the face of the +warehouse is sufficiently close +to the water to permit of the +crane rope plumbing the hatches +without requiring a jib of excessive +radius, it is a very +convenient plan to place the +whole crane on the warehouse +roof.</p> + +<p>A special form of jib crane, +designed to meet a particular +purpose, is the “Titan” (fig. 14) largely used in the construction of +piers and breakwaters. It contains all the essential elements of the +hammer-headed crane, of which it may be considered to be the parent; +in fact, the only essential difference is that the Titan is portable and +the hammer-head crane fixed. The Titan was the first type of large +portable crane in which full use was made of a truly horizontal +movement of the load; for the purpose for which the type is designed, +viz. setting concrete blocks in courses, this motion is almost +a necessity.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:526px; height:188px" src="images/img371d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>As types of non-revolving cranes, fig. 15 shows an overhead +traveller worked by hand, and fig. 16 a somewhat similar machine +worked by electric power. The principal component +parts of a traveller are the main cross girders forming the +<span class="sidenote">Non-revolving cranes.</span> +<i>bridge</i>, the two <i>end carriages</i> on which the bridge rests, the +<i>running wheels</i> which enable the end carriages to travel +on the longitudinal gantry girders or <i>runway</i>, and the <i>crab</i> or <i>jenny</i>, +which carries the hoisting mechanism, and moves across the span on +rails placed on the bridge girders. There are numerous and important +variations of these two types, but the above contain the elements +out of which most cranes of the class are built.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:522px; height:191px" src="images/img371e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:266px; height:216px" src="images/img371f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:291px; height:205px" src="images/img371g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>One variation is illustrated in fig. 17, and is called a “Goliath” +or “Wellington.” It is practically a traveller mounted on high +legs, so as to permit of its being travelled on rails placed on the +ground level, instead of on an elevated gantry. Of other variations +and combinations of types, fig. +18 shows a modern design of +crane intended to command the +maximum of yard space, and +having some of the characteristics +both of the Goliath and +of the revolving jib crane, and +fig. 19 depicts a combination of +a traveller and a hanging jib +crane.</p> + +<p>When the cross traverse +motion of a traveller crab is +suppressed, and the longitudinal +travelling motion is increased +in importance we come to a +type of crane, the use of which +is rapidly increasing; it goes by the name of “transporter.” +Transporters can only move the load to any point on a vertical +<span class="sidenote">Transporters.</span> +surface (generally a plane surface); they have a lifting +motion and a movement of translation. They are of two +kinds: (1) those in which the motive power and lifting +gear are self-contained on the crab; and (2) those in which the motive +power is placed in a fixed position. A transporter of the first class is +shown in fig. 20. From the +lower flange of a suspended +runway, made of a single I +section, run wheels, from the +axles of which the transporter +is suspended. The +latter consists of a framework +carrying the hoisting +barrel, with its driving motor +and gearing, and a travelling +motor, which is geared to the +running wheels in such a +manner as to be able to +propel the whole machine; +a seat is provided for the +driver who manipulates the controllers. A transporter of this kind, +when fitted with a grab, is a very efficient machine for taking coal +from barges and depositing it in a coal store.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 335px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:285px; height:191px" src="images/img372a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>In the other class of transporter the load is not usually moved +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372"></a>372</span> +through such long distances. It consists essentially of a jib made +of single I-sections, and supported by tie-rods (fig. 21), the load to be +lifted being suspended from a small travelling carriage which runs +on the lower flange. The lifting gear is located in any convenient +fixed position. In order that +only one motor may be used, +and also that the load may be +lifted by a single part of rope, +various devices have been invented. +The jib is usually inclined, +so as to enable the +travel to be performed by +gravity in one direction, and +the object of the transporter +mechanism is to ensure that +pulling in or slacking out the +lifting rope shall perform the +cycle of operations in the +following order:—Supposing the load is ready to be lifted out of +a vessel on to a quay, the pull of the lifting rope raises the load, the +travelling jenny being meanwhile locked in position. On arriving +at a certain height the lift ceases and the jenny is released, and by +the continued pull of the rope, it runs up the jib; on arriving at an +adjustable stop, the jenny is again locked, and the load can be +lowered out; the hook can then be raised, when the jenny is automatically +unlocked, and on paying out the rope the jenny gravitates +to its first position, when the load is lowered and the cycle repeated. +The jibs of transporters are often made to slide forward, or lift up, +so as to be out of the way when not in use. Transporters are largely +used for dealing with general cargo between vessels and warehouses, +and also for coaling vessels; they have a great advantage in not +interfering with the rigging of vessels.</p> + +<p>Nearly all recent advances in crane design are the result of the +introduction of the electric motor. It is now possible to apply +motive power exactly where it is wanted, and to do so economically, +so that the crane designer has a perfectly free hand in adding the +various motions required by the special circumstances of each case.</p> + +<p>The literature which deals specially with cranes is not a large one, +but there are some good German text-books on the subject, amongst +which may be mentioned <i>Die Hebezeuge</i> by Ernst (4th ed., Berlin, +1903), and <i>Cranes</i>, by Anton Böttcher, translated with additions by +A. Tolhausen (London, 1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. P.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANIOMETRY.<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> The application of precise methods of +measurement marks a definite phase in the development of most +branches of modern science, and thus craniometry, a comprehensive +expression for all methods of measuring the skull +(cranium), provides a striking landmark in the progress of +anthropological studies. The origin of craniometry appears to be +twofold. Certain artists made measurements of heads and skulls +with a view to attaining greater accuracy in their representation +of those parts of the human frame. Bernard de Palissy and +A. Dürer may be mentioned as pioneers in such researches. +Again, it is clearly shown in the literature of this subject, that +anatomists were led to employ methods of measurement in their +study of the human skull. The determining cause of this +improvement in method is curious, for it appeared at the end of a +famous anatomical controversy of the later middle ages, namely +the dispute as to whether the Galenic anatomy was based on the +study of the human body or upon those of apes. In the description +of the dissection of a chimpanzee (in 1680) Tyson explains +that the measurements he made of the skull of that animal were +devised with a view to exhibiting the difference between this and +the human skull.</p> + +<p>The artists did not carry their researches very far. The +anatomists on the contrary continued to make measurements, and +in 1764 Daubenton published a noteworthy contribution to +craniometry. Six years later, Pieter Camper, distinguished both +as an artist and as an anatomist, published some lectures containing +an account of his craniometrical methods, and these may be +fairly claimed as having laid the foundation of all subsequent +work. That work has been described above as anthropological, +but as the studies thus defined are very varied in extent, it is +necessary to consider the subdivisions into which they naturally +fall.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:520px; height:542px" src="images/img372b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—The Skull and head of a young orang-utan, and of a negro, +showing the lines including the facial angle (MGND) devised by +Pieter Camper.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the first place (and omitting further reference to the contributions +of artists), it has been explained that the measurements +were first made with a view to elucidating the comparison of the +skulls of men with those of other animals. This wide comparison +constitutes the first subdivision of craniometric studies. And +craniometric methods have rendered the results of comparison +much more clear and comprehensible than was formerly the case. +It is further remarkable that among the first measurements +employed angular determinations occur, and indeed the name of +Camper is chiefly perpetuated in anthropological literature by the +“facial angle” invented by that artist-anatomist (fig. 1). It +appears impossible to improve on the simple terms in which +Camper describes the general results of the employment of this +angle for comparative purposes, as will appear from the following +brief extract from the translation of the original work: “The +two extremities of the facial line are from 70 to 80 degrees from +the negro to the Grecian antique: make it under 70, and you +describe an ourang or an ape: lessen it still more, and you have +the head of a dog. Increase the minimum, and you form a fowl, +a snipe for example, the facial line of which is nearly parallel +with the horizon.” (Camper’s Works, p. 42, translated by +Cogan, 1821.)</p> + +<p>In the 19th century the names of notable contributors to the +literature of craniometry quickly increase in number; while it +is impossible to analyse each contribution, or even record a +complete list of the names of the authors, it must be added that +for the purposes of far-reaching comparisons of the lower animals +with mankind, craniometric methods were used by P. P. Broca in +France and by T. H. Huxley (figs. 2 and 3) in England, with such +genius and success as have not yet been surpassed.</p> + +<p>The second division of craniometric studies includes those in +which the skulls of the higher and lower races of mankind are +compared. And in this domain, the advent of accurate numerical +methods of recording observations brought about great advances. +In describing the facial angle, it will be seen that the modern +European, the Greek of classical antiquity and the Negro are +compared. Thus it is that Camper’s name appears as that of a +pioneer in this second main division of the subject. Broca and +Huxley cultivated similar comparative racial fields of research, +but to these names that of Anders Retzius of Stockholm must be +added here. The chief claim of Retzius to distinction rests on the +merits of his system of comparing various dimensions of the +skull, and of a classification based on such comparisons. These +indices will be further defined below. It is convenient to mention +here that the first aim of all these investigators was to obtain +from the skull reliable data having reference to the conformation +or size of the brain once contained within it. Only in later days +did the tendency to overlook this, the fundamental aim and end +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>373</span> +of craniometry, make its appearance; such nevertheless was the +case, much to the detriment of craniometric science, which for a +time seems to have become purely empirical.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:768px; height:210px" src="images/img373a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—The spheno-ethmoidal, spheno-maxillary and foramino-basal angles are shown in the +crania of:—A, a New Britain native (male); B, a gorilla (male) C, a dog. <i>N.Pr.B</i>, Spheno- +ethmoidal angle; <i>P.Pr.B</i>, Spheno-maxillary angle; <i>Pr.B.Op</i>, Foramino-basal angle. The spheno- +ethmoidal and spheno-maxillary angles were first employed by Huxley.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:523px; height:200px" src="images/img373b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption2"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—The spheno-ethmoidal, spheno-maxillary and foramino-basal +angles are shown in the crania of:—A, a New Guinea native +(male); B, a European woman. <i>N.Pr.B</i>, Spheno-ethmoidal angle; +<i>P.Pr.B</i>, Spheno-maxillary angle; <i>Pr.B.Op</i>, Foramina-basal angle.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The third subdivision of craniometric researches is one in which +the field of comparison is still further narrowed. For herein the +various sub-racial types such as the dark and fair Europeans are +brought together for the purposes of comparison or contrast. +But although the range of research is thus narrowed and restricted, +the guiding principles and the methods remain unchanged. +In this department of craniometry, Anders Retzius +has gained the foremost place among the pioneers of research. +Retzius’s name is, as already mentioned, associated not with any +particular angle or angular measurement, but rather with a +method of expressing as a formula two cranial dimensions +which have been measured and which are to be compared. Thus +for instance one skull may be so proportioned that its greatest +width measures 75% of its greatest length (<i>i.e.</i> its width is to its +length as three to four).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:446px; height:207px" src="images/img373c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption2 f80">From Tylor's <i>Anthropology</i>, by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption2"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Top view of skulls. (A) Negro, index 70, dolichocephalic; +(B) European, index 80, mesaticephalic; (C) Samoyed, index 85, +brachycephalic.</td></tr></table> + +<p>This ratio (of 75%) is termed the cephalic or breadth-index, +which in such an instance would be described as equal to 75. +A skull providing a breadth-index of 75 will naturally possess +very different proportions from another which provides a corresponding +index equal to 85. And in fact this particular index in +human skulls varies from about 58 to 90 in undistorted examples +(fig. 4). Such is the general scheme of Retzius’s system of +classification of skulls by means of indices, and one of his earliest +applications of the method was to the inhabitants of Sweden. +One striking result was to exhibit a most marked contrast in +respect of the breadth-index of the skull, between the Lapps and +their Scandinavian neighbours, and thus a craniometric difference +was added to the list of characters (such as stature, hair-colour +and complexion) whereby these two types were already distinguished. +Since the publication +of Retzius’s studies, the cephalic or +breadth-index of the skull has +retained a premier position among +its almost innumerable successors, +though it is of historical interest to +note that, while Retzius had undoubtedly +devised the method of +comparing “breadth-indices,” he +always qualified the results of its +use by reference to other data. +These qualifications were overlooked +by the immediate successors +of Retzius, much to the disadvantage +of craniometry. In addition +to the researches on the skull +forms of Lapps and Swedes, others dealing with the comparison +of Finns and Swedes (by Retzius) as well as the investigation of +the form of skull in Basques and Guanches (by Broca) possess +historic interest.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:248px; height:316px" src="images/img373d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Callipers used in +Craniometry, Professor Martin’s +(P. Hermann, Zürich) model.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:318px; height:130px" src="images/img373e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Flower’s Craniometer as modified +by Dr W. L. H. Duckworth.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Thus far little or nothing has been said with regard to instruments. +Camper devised a four-sided open frame with cross-wires, +through which skulls were +viewed and by means of which +accurate drawings could be projected +on to paper. The methods +of Retzius as here described +require the aid of callipers of +various sorts, and such instruments +were quickly devised and +applied to the special needs of +the case. Such instruments are +still in use, and two forms of +simple craniometer are shown in +the accompanying illustrations +(figs. 5 and 6). For the more +accurate comparison required in +the study of various European +types, delicate instruments for +measuring angles were invented +by Anthelme in Paris (1836) and +John Grattan in Belfast (1853). +These instruments enabled the observer to transmit to the plane +surface of a sheet of drawing paper a correct tracing of the contour +of the specimen under investigation. A further modification was +devised by the talented Dr Busk in the year 1861, and since that +date the number and forms of these instruments have been +greatly multiplied. With reference to contributors to the advance +of knowledge in this particular department of craniometry, +there should be added to the foregoing names those of Huxley, +Sir W. H. Flower and Sir W. Turner in England, J. L. A. de +Quatrefages in France, J. C. G. Lucae and H. Welcker in Germany. +Moreover, the methods +have also been multiplied, +so that in addition +to angular and linear +measurements, those of +the capacity or cubical +contents of the cranium +and those of the curvature +of its surface demand +reference. The masterly +work of Cleland claims special mention in this connexion. +And finally while two dimensions are combined in the +cephalic index of Retzius, the combination of three dimensions +(in a formula called a modulus) distinguishes some +recent work, although the employment of the modulus is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>374</span> +actually a return to a system devised in 1859 by Karl E. +von Baer.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:765px; height:239px" src="images/img374a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption2"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—The facial angle of the Frankfort Agreement is shown in the crania of:—A, a New Britain +native (male) 62°; B, a gorilla (male) 50°; C, a dog 42°. This angle has now replaced the facial +angle of Camper (cf. fig. 1).</td></tr></table> + +<p>The fourth subdivision of craniometry is closely allied to that +which has just been described, and it deals with the comparison +of the prehistoric and the recent types of mankind. The methods +are exactly similar to those employed in the comparison of +living races; but in some particular instances where the prehistoric +individual is represented only by a comparatively minute +portion of the skull, some special modifications of the usual +procedures have been necessitated. In this field the works of +W. His and L. Rütimeyer on the prehistoric races of Switzerland, +those of Ecker (South Germany), of Broca in France, of Thurnam +and Davis in England, must be cited. G. Schwalbe, Kramberger, +W. J. Sollas and H. Klaatsch are the most recent contributors to +this department of craniometry.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:755px; height:206px" src="images/img374b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption2"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—The facial angle of the Frankfort Agreement is shown in the crania of:—A, a +Guinea native (male) 75°; B, a European (woman) 93°; C, a new-born infant (93°).</td></tr></table> + +<p>Thus the complexity of craniometric studies has inevitably +increased. In the hands of von Török of Budapest, as in those of +M. Benedikt of Vienna at an earlier date, the number of measurements +regarded as necessary for the complete “diagnosis” of a +skull has reached a colossal total. Of the trend and progress of +craniometry at the present day, three particular developments +are noteworthy. First come the attempts made at various times +to co-ordinate the systems of measurements so as to ensure +uniformity among all observers; of these attempts two, viz. that +of the German anthropologists at Frankfort in 1882 (figs. 7 and +8), and that of the Anthropometric Committee of the British +Association (1906) seem to require at least a record. In the +second place, the application of the methods of statistical +science in dealing with large numbers of craniometric data has +been richly rewarded in Prof. Karl Pearson’s hands. Thirdly, +and in connexion with such methods, there may be mentioned +the extension of these systems of measurement, and of the +methods of dealing with them on statistical principles, to the +study of large numbers of the skulls of domestic and feral +animals, such as white rats or the varieties of the horse. And +lastly no account of craniometry would be complete without +mention of the revolt, headed by the Italian anthropologist +Sergi, against metrical methods of all kinds. It cannot, however, +be alleged that the substitutes offered by the adherents of +Sergi’s principles encourage others to forsake the more orthodox +numerical methods.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—Tyson, <i>The Anatomy of a Pygmie</i> (London, 1699); +Daubenton, “Sur la différence de la situation du tron occipital dans +l’homme et dans les animaux,” <i>Comptes rendus de l’académie des +sciences</i> (Paris, 1764); Camper, <i>Works</i> (1770, translated by Cogan, +1821); Broca, <i>Mémoires</i> (1862 and following years); Huxley, +<i>Journal of Anatomy and Physiology</i>, vol. 1 (1867); Retzius, <i>Über +die Schädelformen der Nordbewohner</i> (Stockholm, 1842); Anthelme, +<i>Physiologie de la pensée</i> (Paris, 1836); Grattan, <i>Ulster Journal of +Archaeology</i>, vol. 1 (1853); Busk, “A System of Craniometry,” +<i>Transactions of the Ethnological Society</i> (1861); Flower, Catalogue +of the Hunterian Museum, <i>Osteology</i>, part 1 (London, 1879); Turner, +“’Challenger’ Reports,” <i>Zoology</i>, vol. x. pt. 29, “Human Crania” +(1884); de Quatrefages, <i>Crania ethnica</i> (Paris, 1873); Lucae, +<i>Architectur des menschlichen Schädels</i> (Frankfort, 1855); Welcker, +<i>Bau und Wachsthum des menschlichen Schädels</i> (1862); Cleland, +“An Inquiry into the Variations of the Human Skull,” <i>Phil. Trans. +Roy. Society</i> (1870), vol. 160, pp. 117 et seq.; von Baer, “Crania +selecta,” Académie impériale des sciences de S. Pétersbourg (1859); +His and Rütimeyer, <i>Crania Helvetica</i> +(Basel, 1866); Ecker, <i>Crania Germaniae +meridionalis</i> (1865); Thurnam +and Davis, <i>Crania Britannica</i>; von +Török, <i>Craniometrie</i> (Stuttgart, 1890); +Benedikt, <i>Manuel technique et pratique +d’anthropométrie cranio-céphalique</i> +(Paris, 1889); Pearson, <i>Biometrika</i>, +from vol. 1 (in 1902) onwards; +Sergi, “The Varieties of the Human +Species,” English translation, Smithsonian +Institution (Washington, +1894); Schwalbe, “Der Neanderthalschädel,” +<i>Bonner Jahrbücher</i>, Heft +106; also <i>Sonderheft der Zeitschrift +für Morphologie und Anthropologie</i>; +Kramberger, <i>Der paläolithische +Mensch von Krapina</i> (Nägele, Stuttgart, +1901); Sollas, “The Cranial +Characters of the Neanderthal Race,” +<i>Phil. Transactions of the Royal Society</i>, vol. 199, Series B, p. 298, 1908; +Klaatsch, “Bericht über einen anthropologischen Streifzug nach +London,” <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, Heft 6, 1903, p. 875.</p> + +<p><i>Handbooks.</i>—Topinard, <i>Éléments d’anthropologie générale</i> (Paris, +1885); Schmidt, <i>Anthropologische Methoden</i> (Leipzig, 1888); Duckworth, +<i>Morphology and Anthropology</i> (Cambridge, 1904).</p> + +<p><i>Journals.</i>—<i>Bulletins de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris</i>, <i>Journal +of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland</i>, +<i>Archiv für Anthropologie</i>, <i>Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. L. H. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANK,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> a word of somewhat obscure etymology, probably +connected with a root meaning “crooked,” and appearing in the +Ger. <i>krank</i>, ill, a figurative use of the original word; among +other words in English containing the same original meaning are +“cringe” and “crinkle.” In mechanics, a crank is a device by +which reciprocating motion is converted +into circular motion or +vice versa, consisting of a <i>crank-arm</i>, +one end of which is fastened +rigidly at right angles to the +rotating shaft or axis, while the +other end bears a <i>crank-pin</i>, projecting +from it at right angles and +parallel to the shaft. When the +reciprocating part of a machine, as +the piston and piston-rod of a +steam engine, is linked to this +crank by a <i>crank-rod</i> or <i>connecting +rod</i>, one end of which works on the crank-pin and the other +on a pin in the end of the reciprocating part, the to-and-fro +motion of the latter imparts a circular motion to the shaft +and vice versa. The crank, instead of being made up as described +above, may be formed by bending the shaft to the +required shape, as sometimes in the handle of a winch. A +<i>bell-crank</i>, so called because of its use in bell-hanging to change +the direction of motion of the wires from horizontal to vertical +or vice versa, consists of two arms rigidly connected at an angle, +say of 90°, to each other and pivoted on a pin placed at the point +of junction.</p> + +<p>Crank is also the name given to a labour machine used in +prisons as a means of punishment (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tread-mill</a></span>). Other uses +of the word, connected with the primary meaning, are for a +crooked path, a crevice or chink; and a freakish turn of thought +or speech, as in Milton’s phrase “quips and cranks.” It is also +used as a slang expression, American in origin, for a harmless +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page375" id="page375"></a>375</span> +lunatic, or a faddist, whose enthusiasm for some one idea or +hobby becomes a monomania. “Crank” or “crank-sided” is a +nautical term used of a ship which by reason of her build or from +want of balance is liable to overturn. This strictly nautical +sense is often confused with “crank” or “cranky,” that is, +rickety or shaky, probably derived direct from the German +<i>krank</i>, weak or ill.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANMER, THOMAS<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (1489-1556), archbishop of Canterbury, +born at Aslacton or Aslockton in Nottinghamshire on the 2nd of +July 1489, was the second son of Thomas Cranmer and of his +wife Anne Hatfield. He received his early education, according +to Morice his secretary, from “a marvellous severe and cruel +schoolmaster,” whose discipline must have been severe indeed to +deserve this special mention in an age when no schoolmaster +bore the rod in vain. The same authority tells us that he was +initiated by his father in those field sports, such as hunting and +hawking, which formed one of his recreations in after life. To +early training he also owed the skilful horsemanship for which +he was conspicuous. At the age of fourteen he was sent by his +mother, who had in 1501 become a widow, to Cambridge. +Little is known with certainty of his university career beyond the +facts that he became a fellow of Jesus College in 1510 or 1511, +that he had soon after to vacate his fellowship, owing to his +marriage to “Black Joan,” a relative of the landlady of the +Dolphin Inn, and that he was reinstated in it on the death of his +wife, which occurred in childbirth before the lapse of the year of +grace allowed by the statutes. During the brief period of his +married life he held the appointment of lecturer at Buckingham +Hall, now Magdalene College. The fact of his marrying would +seem to show that he did not at the time intend to enter the +church; possibly the death of his wife caused him to qualify +for holy orders. He was ordained in 1523, and soon after he took +his doctor’s degree in divinity. According to Strype, he was +invited about this time to become a fellow of the college founded +by Cardinal Wolsey at Oxford; but Dean Hook shows that +there is some reason to doubt this. If the offer was made, it was +declined, and Cranmer continued at Cambridge filling the +offices of lecturer in divinity at his own college and of public +examiner in divinity to the university. It is interesting, in view +of his later efforts to spread the knowledge of the Bible among +the people, to know that in the capacity of examiner he insisted +on a thorough acquaintance with the Holy Scriptures, and rejected +several candidates who were deficient in this qualification.</p> + +<p>It was a somewhat curious concurrence of circumstances that +transferred Cranmer, almost at one step, from the quiet seclusion +of the university to the din and bustle of the court. In August +1529 the plague known as the sweating sickness, which prevailed +throughout the country, was specially severe at Cambridge, and +all who had it in their power forsook the town for the country. +Cranmer went with two of his pupils named Cressy, related to +him through their mother, to their father’s house at Waltham in +Essex. The king (Henry VIII.) happened at the time to be +visiting in the immediate neighbourhood, and two of his chief +counsellors, Gardiner, secretary of state, afterwards bishop of +Winchester, and Edward Fox, the lord high almoner, afterwards +bishop of Hereford, were lodged at Cressy’s house. Meeting +with Cranmer, they were naturally led to discuss the king’s +meditated divorce from Catherine of Aragon. Cranmer suggested +that if the canonists and the universities should decide that +marriage with a deceased brother’s widow was illegal, and if it +were proved that Catherine had been married to Prince Arthur, +her marriage to Henry could be declared null and void by the +ordinary ecclesiastical courts. The necessity of an appeal to +Rome was thus dispensed with, and this point was at once seen +by the king, who, when Cranmer’s opinion was reported to him, +is said to have ordered him to be summoned in these terms: +“I will speak to him. Let him be sent for out of hand. This +man, I trow, has got the right sow by the ear.”</p> + +<p>At their first interview Cranmer was commanded by the king +to lay aside all other pursuits and to devote himself to the +question of the divorce. He was to draw up a written treatise, +stating the course he proposed, and defending it by arguments +from scripture, the fathers and the decrees of general councils. +His material interests certainly did not suffer by compliance. +He was commended to the hospitality of Anne Boleyn’s father, +the earl of Wiltshire, in whose house at Durham Place he resided +for some time; the king appointed him archdeacon of Taunton +and one of his chaplains; and he also held a parochial benefice, +the name of which is unknown. When the treatise was finished +Cranmer was called upon to defend its argument before the +universities of Oxford and Cambridge, which he visited, accompanied +by Fox and Gardiner. Immediately afterwards he was +sent to plead the cause before a more powerful if not a higher +tribunal. An embassy, with the earl of Wiltshire at its head, +was despatched to Rome in 1530, that “the matter of the divorce +should be disputed and ventilated,” and Cranmer was an important +member of it. He was received by the Pope with +marked courtesy, and was appointed “Grand Penitentiary of +England,” but his argument, if he ever had the opportunity of +stating it, did not lead to any practical decision of the question.</p> + +<p>Cranmer returned in September 1530, but in January 1531 he +received a second commission from the king appointing him +“Conciliarius Regius et ad Caesarem Orator.” In the summer +of 1531 he accordingly proceeded to Germany as sole ambassador +to the emperor. He was also to sound the Lutheran princes +with a view to an alliance, and to obtain the removal of some +restrictions on English trade. At Nuremberg he became acquainted +with Osiander, whose somewhat isolated theological +position he probably found to be in many points analogous to his +own. Both were convinced that the old order must change; +neither saw clearly what the new order should be to which it was +to give place. They had frequent interviews, which had doubtless +an important influence on Cranmer’s opinions. But Osiander’s +house had another attraction of a different kind from theological +sympathy. His niece Margaret won the heart of Cranmer, and in +1532 they were married. Hook finds in the fact of the marriage +corroboration of Cranmer’s statement that he never expected or +desired the primacy; and it seems probable enough that, if he +had foreseen how soon the primacy was to be forced upon him, +he would have avoided a disqualification which it was difficult to +conceal and dangerous to disclose.</p> + +<p>Expected or not, the primacy was forced upon him within a +very few months of his marriage. In August 1532 Archbishop +Warham died, and the king almost immediately afterwards +intimated to Cranmer, who had accompanied the emperor in his +campaign against the Turks, his nomination to the vacant see. +Cranmer’s conduct was certainly consistent with his profession +that he did not desire, as he had not expected, the dangerous +promotion. He sent his wife to England, but delayed his own +return in the vain hope that another appointment might be made. +The papal bulls of confirmation were dated February and March +1533, and the consecration took place on the 30th March. One +peculiarity of the ceremony had occasioned considerable discussion. +It was the custom for the archbishop elect to take two +oaths, the first of episcopal allegiance to the pope, and the second +in recognition of the royal supremacy. The latter was so wide +in its scope that it might fairly be held to supersede the former in +so far as the two were inconsistent. Cranmer, however, was not +satisfied with this. He had a special protest recorded, in which +he formally declared that he swore allegiance to the pope only in +so far as that was consistent with his supreme duty to the king. +The morality of this course has been much canvassed, though it +seems really to involve nothing more than an express declaration +of what the two oaths implied. It was the course that would +readily suggest itself to a man of timid nature who wished to +secure himself against such a fate as Wolsey’s. It showed +weakness, but it added nothing to whatever immorality there +might be in successively taking two incompatible oaths.</p> + +<p>In the last as in the first step of Cranmer’s promotion Henry +had been actuated by one and the same motive. The business of +the divorce—or rather, of the legitimation of Anne Boleyn’s +expected issue—had now become very urgent, and in the new +archbishop he had an agent who might be expected to forward it +with the needful haste. The celerity and skill with which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376"></a>376</span> +Cranmer did the work intrusted to him must have fully satisfied +his master. During the first week of April Convocation sat almost +from day to day to determine questions of fact and law in relation +to Catherine’s marriage with Henry as affected by her previous +marriage with his brother Arthur. Decisions favourable to the +object of the king were given on these questions, though even +the despotism of the most despotic of the Tudors failed to secure +absolute unanimity. The next step was taken by Cranmer, who +wrote a letter to the king, praying to be allowed to remove the +anxiety of loyal subjects as to a possible case of disputed succession, +by finally determining the validity of the marriage in his +archiepiscopal court. There is evidence that the request was +prompted by the king, and his consent was given as a matter of +course. Queen Catherine was residing at Ampthill in Bedfordshire, +and to suit her convenience the court was held at the priory +of Dunstable in the immediate neighbourhood. Declining to +appear, she was declared contumacious, and on the 23rd of May +the archbishop gave judgment declaring the marriage null and +void from the first, and so leaving the king free to marry whom he +pleased. The Act of Appeals had already prohibited any appeal +from the archbishop’s court. Five days later he pronounced +the marriage between Henry and Anne—which had been secretly +celebrated about the 25th of January 1533—to be valid. On the +1st of June he crowned Anne as queen, and on the 10th of September +stood godfather to her child, the future Queen Elizabeth.</p> + +<p>The breach with Rome and the subjection of the church in +England to the royal supremacy had been practically achieved +before Cranmer’s appointment as archbishop: and he had little +to do with the other constitutional changes of Henry’s reign. +But his position as chief minister of Henry’s ecclesiastical +jurisdiction forced him into unpleasant prominence in connexion +with the king’s matrimonial experiences. In 1536 he was +required to revise his own sentence in favour of the validity of +Henry’s marriage with Anne Boleyn; and on the 17th of May +the marriage was declared invalid. The ground on which this +sentence is pronounced is fairly clear. Anne’s sister, Mary +Boleyn, had been Henry VIII.’s mistress; this by canon law was +a bar to his marriage with Anne—a bar which had been removed +by papal dispensation in 1527, but now the papal power to +dispense in such cases had been repudiated, and the original objection +revived. The sentence was grotesquely legal and unjust. +With Anne’s condemnation by the House of Lords Cranmer +had nothing to do. He interceded for her in vain with the +king, as he had done in the cases of Fisher, More and the monks +of Christchurch. His share in the divorce of Anne of Cleves was +less prominent than that of Gardiner, though he did preside over +the Convocation in which nearly all the dignitaries of the church +signified their approval of that measure. To his next and last +interposition in the matrimonial affairs of the king no discredit +attaches itself. When he was made cognizant of the charges +against Catherine Howard, his duty to communicate them to the +king was obvious, though painful.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Cranmer was actively carrying out the policy +which has associated his name more closely, perhaps, than that +of any other ecclesiastic with the Reformation in England. Its +most important feature on the theological as distinct from the +political side was the endeavour to promote the circulation of the +Bible in the vernacular, by encouraging translation and procuring +an order in 1538 that a copy of the Bible in English should be +set up in every church in a convenient place for reading. Only +second in importance to this was the re-adjustment of the creed +and liturgy of the church, which formed Cranmer’s principal work +during the latter half of his life. The progress of the archbishop’s +opinion towards that middle Protestantism, if it may be so +called, which he did so much to impress on the formularies of the +Church of England, was gradual, as a brief enumeration of the +successive steps in that progress will show. In 1538 an embassy +of German divines visited England with the design, among other +things, of forming a common confession for the two countries. +This proved impracticable, but the frequent conferences Cranmer +had with the theologians composing the embassy had doubtless a +great influence in modifying his views. Both in parliament and +in Convocation he opposed the Six Articles of 1539, but he stood +almost alone. During the period between 1540 and 1543 the +archbishop was engaged at the head of a commission in the +revision of the “Bishop’s Book” (1537) or <i>Institutions of a +Christian Man</i>, and the preparation of the <i>Necessary Erudition</i> +(1543) known as the “King’s Book,” which was a modification +of the former work in the direction of Roman Catholic doctrine. +In June 1545 was issued his Litany, which was substantially the +same as that now in use, and shows his mastery of a rhythmical +English style.</p> + +<p>The course taken by Cranmer in promoting the Reformation +exposed him to the bitter hostility of the reactionary party or +“men of the old learning,” of whom Gardiner and Bonner were +leaders, and on various occasions—notably in 1543 and 1545—conspiracies +were formed in the council or elsewhere to effect his +overthrow. The king, however, remained true to him, and all the +conspiracies signally failed. It illustrates a favourable trait in +the archbishop’s character that he forgave all the conspirators. +He was, as his secretary Morice testifies, “a man that delighted +not in revenging.”</p> + +<p>Cranmer was present with Henry VIII. when he died (1547). +By the will of the king he was nominated one of a council of +regency composed of sixteen persons, but he acquiesced in the +arrangement by which Somerset became lord protector. He +officiated at the coronation of the boy king Edward VI., and is +supposed to have instituted a sinister change in the order of the +ceremony, by which the right of the monarch to reign was made to +appear to depend upon inheritance alone, without the concurrent +consent of the people. But Edward’s title had been expressly +sanctioned by act of parliament, so that there was no more room +for election in his case than in that of George I., and the real +motive of the changes was to shorten the weary ceremony for the +frail child.</p> + +<p>During this reign the work of the Reformation made rapid +progress, the sympathies both of the Protector and of the young +king being decidedly Protestant. Cranmer was therefore enabled +without let or hindrance to complete the preparation of the church +formularies, on which he had been for some time engaged. In +1547 appeared the <i>Homilies</i> prepared under his direction. +Four of them are attributed to the archbishop himself—those on +Salvation, Faith, Good Works and the Reading of Scripture. +His translation of the German Catechism of Justus Jonas, known +as Cranmer’s Catechism, appeared in the following year. Important, +as showing his views on a cardinal doctrine, was the +<i>Defence of the True and Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrament</i>, +which he published in 1550. It was immediately answered from +the side of the “old learning” by Gardiner. The first prayer-book +of Edward VI. was finished in November 1548, and received +legal sanction in March 1549; the second was completed and +sanctioned in April 1552. The archbishop did much of the work +of compilation personally. The forty-two articles of Edward +VI. published in 1553 owe their form and style almost entirely +to the hand of Cranmer. The last great undertaking in which he +was employed was the revision of his codification of the canon +law, which had been all but completed before the death of Henry. +The task was one eminently well suited to his powers, and the +execution of it was marked by great skill in definition and arrangement. +It never received any authoritative sanction, Edward VI. +dying before the proclamation establishing it could be made, and +it remained unpublished until 1571, when a Latin translation by +Dr Walter Haddon and Sir John Cheke appeared under the title +<i>Reformatio legum ecclesiasticarum</i>. It laid down the lawfulness +and necessity of persecution to the death for heresy in the most +absolute terms; and Cranmer himself condemned Joan Bocher +to the flames. But he naturally loathed persecution, and was as +tolerant as any in that age.</p> + +<p>Cranmer stood by the dying bed of Edward as he had stood by +that of his father, and he there suffered himself to be persuaded to +take a step against his own convictions. He had pledged himself +to respect the testamentary disposition of Henry VIII. by which +the succession devolved upon Mary, and now he violated his oath +by signing Edward’s “device” of the crown to Lady Jane Grey. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span> +On grounds of policy and morality alike the act was quite +indefensible; but it is perhaps some palliation of his perjury +that it was committed to satisfy the last urgent wish of a dying +man, and that he alone remained true to the nine days’ queen +when the others who had with him signed Edward’s device +deserted her. On the accession of Mary he was summoned to the +council—most of whom had signed the same device—reprimanded +for his conduct, and ordered to confine himself to his palace at +Lambeth until the queen’s pleasure was known. He refused to +follow the advice of his friends and avoid the fate that was +clearly impending over him by flight to the continent. Any +chance of safety that lay in the friendliness of a strong party in +the council was more than nullified by the bitter personal enmity +of the queen, who could not forgive his share in her mother’s +divorce and her own disgrace. On the 14th of September 1553 he +was sent to the Tower, where Ridley and Latimer were also +confined. The immediate occasion of his imprisonment was a +strongly worded declaration he had written a few days previously +against the mass, the celebration of which, he heard, had been +re-established at Canterbury. He had not taken steps to +publish this, but by some unknown channel a copy reached the +council, and it could not be ignored. In November, with Lady +Jane Grey, her husband, and two other Dudleys, Cranmer was +condemned for treason. Renard thought he would be executed, +but so true a Romanist as Mary could scarcely have an ecclesiastic +put to death in consequence of a sentence by a secular court, and +Cranmer was reserved for treatment as a heretic by the highest of +clerical tribunals, which could not act until parliament had +restored the papal jurisdiction. Accordingly in March 1554 he +and his two illustrious fellow-prisoners, Ridley and Latimer, were +removed to Oxford, where they were confined in the Bocardo or +common prison. Ridley and Latimer were unflinching, and +suffered bravely at the stake on the 16th of October 1555. +Cranmer had been tried by a papal commission, over which +Bishop Brooks of Gloucester presided, in September 1555. +Brooks had no power to give sentence, but reported to Rome, +where Cranmer was summoned, but not permitted, to attend. +On the 25th of November he was pronounced contumacious by +the pope and excommunicated, and a commission was sent to +England to degrade him from his office of archbishop. This was +done with the usual humiliating ceremonies in Christ Church, +Oxford, on the 14th of February 1556, and he was then handed +over to the secular power. About the same time Cranmer +subscribed the first two of his “recantations.” His difficulty +consisted in the fact that, like all Anglicans of the 16th century, he +recognized no right of private judgment, but believed that the +state, as represented by monarchy, parliament and Convocation, +had an absolute right to determine the national faith and to +impose it on every Englishman. All these authorities had now +legally established Roman Catholicism as the national faith, and +Cranmer had no logical ground on which to resist. His early +“recantations” are merely recognitions of his lifelong conviction +of this right of the state. But his dilemma on this point led him +into further doubts, and he was eventually induced to revile his +whole career and the Reformation. This is what the government +wanted. Northumberland’s recantation had done much +to discredit the Reformation, Cranmer’s, it was hoped, would +complete the work. Hence the enormous effect of Cranmer’s +recovery at the final scene. On the 21st of March he was taken +to St Mary’s church, and asked to repeat his recantation in the +hearing of the people as he had promised. To the surprise of all +he declared with dignity and emphasis that what he had recently +done troubled him more than anything he ever did or said in his +whole life; that he renounced and refused all his recantations as +things written with his hand, contrary to the truth which he +thought in his heart; and that as his hand had offended, his +hand should be first burned when he came to the fire. As he had +said, his right hand was steadfastly exposed to the flames. The +calm cheerfulness and resolution with which he met his fate show +that he felt that he had cleared his conscience, and that his +recantation of his recantations was a repentance that needed not +to be repented of.</p> + +<p>It was a noble end to what, in spite of its besetting sin of +infirmity of moral purpose, was a not ignoble life. The key to his +character is well given in what Hooper said of him in a letter to +Bullinger, that he was “too fearful about what might happen to +him.” This weakness was the worst blot on Cranmer’s character, +but it was due in some measure to his painful capacity for seeing +both sides of a question at the same time, a temperament fatal to +martyrdom. As a theologian it is difficult to class him. As early +as 1538 he had repudiated the doctrine of Transubstantiation; +by 1550 he had rejected also the Real Presence (Pref. to his +<i>Answer to Dr Richard Smith</i>). But here he used the term “real” +somewhat unguardedly, for in his <i>Defence</i> he asserts a real presence, +but defines it as exclusively a spiritual presence; and he repudiates +the idea that the bread and wine were “bare tokens.” +His views on church polity were dominated by his implicit +belief in the divine right of kings (not of course the divine +<i>hereditary</i> right of kings) which the Anglicans felt it necessary to +set up against the divine right of popes. He set practically no +limits to the ecclesiastical authority of kings; they were as fully +the representatives of the church as the state, and Cranmer hardly +distinguished between the two. Church and state to him were +one.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<i>Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.</i> vols. iv.-xx.: +<i>Acts of the Privy Council, 1542-1556</i>; <i>Cal. of State Papers, Dom. +and Foreign</i>; Foxe’s <i>Acts and Monuments</i>; Strype’s <i>Memorials of +Cranmer</i> (1694); <i>Anecdotes and Character of Archbishop Cranmer</i>, +by Ralph Morice, and two contemporary biographies (Camden +Society’s publications); <i>Remains of Thomas Cranmer</i>, by Jenkyns +(1833); <i>Lives of Cranmer</i>, by Gilpin (1784), Todd (1831), Le Bas, in +Hook’s <i>Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury</i>, vols. vi. and vii. (1868), +by Canon Mason (1897), A. D. Innes (1900) and A. F. Pollard (1904); +Froude’s <i>History</i>; R. W. Dixon’s <i>History</i>; J. Gairdner’s <i>History +of the Church, 1485-1558</i>; Bishop Cranmer’s <i>Recantacyons</i>, ed. +Gairdner (1885). R. E. Chester Waters’s <i>Chesters of Chicheley</i> (1877) +contains a vast amount of genealogical information about Cranmer +which has only been used by one of his biographers.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANNOG<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (Celt. <i>crann</i>, a tree), the term applied in Scotland +and Ireland to the stockaded islands so numerous in ancient +times in the lochs of both countries. The existence of these lake-dwellings +in Scotland was first made known by John Mackinlay, a +fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, in a letter sent to +George Chalmers, the author of <i>Caledonia</i>, in 1813, describing two +crannogs, or fortified islands in Bute. The crannog of Lagore, the +first discovered in Ireland, was examined and described by Sir +William Wilde in 1840. But it was not until after the discovery +of the pile-villages of the Swiss lakes, in 1853, had drawn public +attention to the subject of lake-dwellings, that the crannogs of +Scotland and Ireland were systematically investigated.</p> + +<p>The results of these investigations show that they have little +in common with the Swiss lake-dwellings, except that they are +placed in lakes. Few examples are known in England, although +over a hundred and fifty have been examined in Ireland, and more +than half that number in Scotland. As a rule they have been +constructed on islets or shallows in the lochs, which have been +adapted for occupation, and fortified by single or double lines of +stockaded defences drawn round the margin. To enlarge the +area, or raise the surface-level where that was necessary, +layers of logs, brushwood, heather and ferns were piled on +the shallow, and consolidated with gravel and stones. Over all +there was laid a layer of earth, a floor of logs or a pavement of +flagstones. In rare instances the body of the work is entirely of +stones, the stockaded defence and the huts within its enclosure +being the only parts constructed of timber. Occasionally a +bridge of logs, or a causeway of stones, formed a communication +with the shore, but often the only means of getting to and from +the island was by canoes hollowed out of a single tree. Remains +of huts of logs, or of wattled work, are often found within the +enclosure. Three crannogs in Dowalton Loch, Wigtownshire, +examined by Lord Lovaine in 1863, were found to be constructed +of layers of fern and birch and hazel branches, mixed with +boulders and penetrated by oak piles, while above all there was a +surface layer of stones and soil. The remains of the stockade +round the margin were of vertical piles mortised into horizontal +bars, and secured by pegs in the mortised holes. The crannog of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378"></a>378</span> +Lochlee, near Tarbolton, Ayrshire, explored by Dr R. Munro in +1878, was 100 ft. in diameter, and had a double row of piles, bound +by horizontal stretchers with square mortise-holes, enclosing an +area 60 ft. in diameter. In the centre was a space 40 ft. square, +bounded by the remains of a wooden wall and paved inside with +split logs. A partition divided it into two equal parts, one of +which had a doorway opening to the south, and close by it an +extensive refuse-heap. In the middle of the other part was a +stone-paved hearth, with remains of three former hearths +underneath. The substructure was built up from the bottom of +the loch, partly of brushwood but chiefly of logs and trunks of +trees with the branches lopped off, placed in layers, each disposed +transversely or obliquely across the one below it. A crannog in +Loch-an-Dhugael, Balinakill, Argyllshire, described by the same +explorer in 1893, revealed a substructure similar to that at +Lochlee, with a double row of piles enclosing an area 45 to 50 ft. +in diameter, within which was a circular construction 32 ft. in +diameter, which had been supported by a large central post and +about twenty uprights ranged round the circumference.</p> + +<p>From their common feature of a substructure of brushwood and +logs built up from the bottom, the crannogs have been classed as +fascine-dwellings, to distinguish them from the typical pile-dwellings +of the earlier periods in Switzerland, whose platforms +are supported by piles driven into the bed of the lake. The +crannog of Cloonfinlough in Connaught had a triple stockade of +oak piles, connected by horizontal stretchers and enclosing an +area 130 ft. in diameter, laid with trunks of oak trees. In the +crannog of Lagore, county Meath, there were about 150 cartloads +of bones, chiefly of oxen, deer, sheep and swine, the refuse of the +food of the occupants. In the crannog of Lisnacroghera, county +Antrim, iron swords, with sheaths of thin bronze ornamented with +scrolls characteristic of the Late Celtic style, iron daggers, an iron +spear-head 16½ in. in length, and pieces of what are called large +caldrons of iron, were found. Among the few remains of +lacustrine settlements in England and Wales, some are suggestive +of the typical crannog structure. The most important of these is +the Glastonbury lake village, excavated by Mr A. Bulleid and +Mr St George Gray. It consists of more than sixty separate +dwellings, grouped within a triangular palisaded defence, formed +in the midst of a marsh now partially reclaimed. The dwellings +were circular, from 18 to 35 ft. in diameter, the substructure +formed of logs and brushwood mingled with stones and clay, and +outlined by piles driven into the bottom of the shallow lake. +The walls of the houses seem to have been made of wattle-work, +supported by posts sometimes not more than a single foot apart. +The floors are of clay, with a hearth of stones in the centre, often +showing several renewals over the original. The relics recovered +show unmistakably that the occupation must be dated within +the Iron Age, but probably pre-Roman, as no evidence of contact +with Roman civilization has been discovered. The stage of +civilization indicated is nevertheless not a low one. Besides the +implements and weapons of iron there are fibulae and brooches of +bronze, weaving combs and spindle-whorls, a bronze mirror and +tweezers, wheel-made pottery as well as hand-made, ornamented +with Late Celtic patterns, a bowl of thin bronze decorated with +bosses, the nave of a wooden wheel with holes for twelve spokes, +and a dug-out canoe. Another site in Holderness, Yorkshire, +examined by Mr Boynton in 1881, yielded evidence of fascine +construction, with suggestions of occupation in the latter part of +the Bronze Age. Similar indications are adduced by Professor +Boyd Dawkins from the site on Barton Mere. On the other +hand, the implements and weapons found in the Scottish and +Irish crannogs are usually of iron, or, if objects of bronze and +stone are found, they are commonly such as were in use in the +Iron Age. Crannogs are frequently referred to in the Irish +annals. Under the year 848 the <i>Annals of the Four Masters</i> +record the burning of the island of Lough Gabhor (the crannog +of Lagore), and the same stronghold is noticed as again destroyed +by the Danes in 933. Under the year 1246 it is recorded that +Turlough O’Connor made his escape from the crannog of Lough +Leisi, and drowned his keepers. Many other entries occur in the +succeeding centuries. In the register of the privy council of +Scotland, April 14, 1608, it is ordered that “the haill houssis of +defence, strongholds, and <i>crannokis</i> in the Yllis (the western +isles) pertaining to Angus M’Conneill of Dunnyvaig and Hector +M’Cloyne of Dowart sal be delyverit to His Majestie.” Judging +from the historical evidence of their late continuance, and from +the character of the relics found in them, the crannogs may be +included among the latest prehistoric strongholds, reaching their +greatest development in early historic times, and surviving +through the middle ages. In Ireland, Sir William Wilde has +assigned their range approximately to the period between the +9th and 16th centuries; while Dr Munro holds that the vast +majority of them, both in Ireland and in Scotland, were not only +inhabited, but constructed during the Iron Age, and that their +period of greatest development was as far posterior to Roman +civilization as that of the Swiss <i>Pfahlbauten</i> was anterior to it. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lake Dwellings</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Dr R. Munro, <i>The Lake Dwellings of Europe: +being the Rhind Lectures in Archaeology for 1888</i> (with a bibliography +of the subject) (London, 1890); <i>Ancient Scottish Lake-Dwellings +or Crannogs</i> (Edinburgh, 1882); Col. W. G. Wood-Martin, <i>The +Lake-Dwellings of Ireland, or Ancient Lacustrine Habitations of Erin, +commonly called Crannogs</i> (Dublin, 1886); Sir W. Wilde, <i>Descriptive +Catalogue of the Antiquities in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy</i>, +article “Crannogs,” pp. 220-233 (Dublin, 1857); John Stuart, +“Scottish Artificial Islands or Crannogs,” in the <i>Proceedings of the +Society of Antiquaries of Scotland</i>, vol. vi. (Edinburgh, 1865); A. +Bulleid, “The Lake Village near Glastonbury,” in <i>Proceedings of +the Somersetshire Archaeological Society</i>, vol. xl. (1894).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. An.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANSAC,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> a town of southern France, in the department of +Aveyron, 28m. N.W. of Rodez by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 4988; +commune, 6953. The town is a coal-mining centre and has cold +mineral springs, known in the middle ages. There are iron-mines +in the neighbourhood. Hills to the north of the town +contain disused coal-mines which have been on fire for centuries. +About 5 m. to the south is the fine Renaissance château of +Bournazel, built for the most part by Jean de Buisson, baron of +Bournazel, about 1545. The barony of Bournazel became a +marquisate in 1624.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANSTON,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> a city of Providence county, Rhode Island, +U.S.A., adjoining the city of Providence on the S. Pop. (1890) +8099; (1900) 13,343; (1910) 21,107; area, 30 sq. m. It is +served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. +The surface of the E. part is level, that of the W. part is somewhat +rolling. Within the city are several villages, including +Arlington, Auburn, Edgewood, Fiskeville and Oaklawn. The +inhabitants of the country districts are engaged largely in the +growing of hay, Indian corn, rye, oats and market-garden +produce; in the several villages cotton and print goods, fuses for +electrical machinery, and automatic fire-protection sprinklers are +manufactured. The value of Cranston’s factory product +increased from $1,402,359 in 1900 to $2,130,969 in 1905, or 52%. +The state has a farm of 667 acres in the S. part of the city; +on this are the state prison, the Providence county jail, the +state workhouse and the house of correction, the state almshouse, +the state hospital for the insane, the Sockanosset school for +boys, and the Oaklawn school for girls—the last two being +departments of the state reform school. The post-office address +of all these state institutions is Howard. Cranston was settled +as a part of Providence about 1640 by associates of Roger Williams, +and in 1754 was incorporated as a separate township, but in 1868, +in 1873 and in 1892 portions of it were reannexed to Providence. +The township is said to have been named in honour of Samuel +Cranston (1659-1727), governor of Rhode Island from 1698 until +his death. It was incorporated as a city in 1910.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANTOR,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> a Greek philosopher of the Old Academy, was born, +probably about the middle of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, at Soli in +Cilicia. He was a fellow-pupil of Polemo in the school of Xenocrates +at Athens, and was the first commentator on Plato. He +is said to have written some poems which he sealed up and +deposited in the temple of Athens at Soli (Diog. Laërtius +iv. 5. 25). Of his celebrated work <i>On Grief</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri penthous">Περὶ πένθους</span>), a +letter of condolence to his friend Hippocles on the death of his +children, numerous extracts have been preserved in Plutarch’s +<i>Consolatio ad Apollonium</i> and in the <i>De consolatione</i> of Cicero, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>379</span> +who speaks of it (<i>Acad.</i> ii. 44. 135) in the highest terms (<i>aureolus +et ad verbum ediscendus</i>). Crantor paid especial attention to +ethics, and arranged “good” things in the following order—virtue, +health, pleasure, riches.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Kayser, <i>De Crantore Academico</i> (1841); M. H. E. Meier, +<i>Opuscula academica</i>, ii. (1863); F. Susemihl, <i>Geschichte der griechischen +Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit</i>, i. (1891), p. 118.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRANWORTH, ROBERT MONSEY ROLFE,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1790-1868), +lord chancellor of England, elder son of the Rev. E. +Rolfe, was born at Cranworth, Norfolk, on the 18th of December +1790. Educated at Bury St Edmunds, Winchester, and Trinity +College, Cambridge, he was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in +1816, and attached himself to the chancery courts. He represented +Penryn and Falmouth in parliament from 1832 till his +promotion to the bench as baron of the exchequer in 1839. In +1850 he was appointed a vice-chancellor and created Baron +Cranworth, and in 1852 he became lord chancellor in Aberdeen’s +ministry. He continued to hold the chancellorship in the +administration of Palmerston until the latter’s resignation in +1857. He was not reappointed when Palmerston returned to +office in 1859, but on the retirement of Lord Westbury in 1865 he +accepted the great seal for a second time, and held it till the fall +of the Russell administration in 1866. Cranworth died in London +on the 26th of July 1868. Never a very zealous law reformer, +Cranworth’s name is associated in the statute book with only one +small measure on conveyancing. But as a judge he will continue +to hold first rank. His judgments were marked by sound common +sense, while he himself was remarkably free from the prejudices +of his profession. Few men of his day enjoyed greater personal +popularity than Cranworth. He left no issue and the title +became extinct on his death.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Times</i>, 27th of July 1868; E. Manson, <i>The Builders of +our Law</i> (1904); E. Foss, <i>The Judges of England</i> (1848-1864); +J. B. Atlay, <i>Lives of the Chancellors</i>, vol. ii. (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAPE<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (an anglicized version of the Fr. <i>crêpe</i>), a silk fabric of +a gauzy texture, having a peculiar crisp or crimpy appearance. +It is woven of hard spun silk yarn “in the gum” or natural +condition. There are two distinct varieties of the textile—soft, +Canton or Oriental crape, and hard or crisped crape. The wavy +appearance of Canton crape results from the peculiar manner in +which the weft is prepared, the yarn from two bobbins being +twisted together in the reverse way. The fabric when woven is +smooth and even, having no <i>crêpé</i> appearance, but when the gum +is subsequently extracted by boiling it at once becomes soft, and +the weft, losing its twist, gives the fabric the waved structure +which constitutes its distinguishing feature. Canton crapes are +used, either white or coloured, for ladies’ scarves and shawls, +bonnet trimmings, &c. The Chinese and Japanese excel in the +manufacture of soft crapes. The crisp and elastic structure of +hard crape is not produced either in the spinning or in the weaving, +but is due to processes through which the gauze passes after it is +woven. What the details of these processes are is known to only +a few manufacturers, who so jealously guard their secret that, in +some cases, the different stages in the manufacture are conducted +in towns far removed from each other. Commercially they are +distinguished as single, double, three-ply and four-ply crapes, +according to the nature of the yarn used in their manufacture. +They are almost exclusively dyed black and used in mourning +dress, and among Roman Catholic communities for nuns’ veils, +&c. In Great Britain hard crapes are made at Braintree in Essex, +Norwich, Yarmouth, Manchester and Glasgow. The crape +formerly made at Norwich was made with a silk warp and +worsted weft, and is said to have afterwards degenerated into +bombazine. A very successful imitation of real crape is made in +Manchester of cotton yarn, and sold under the name of Victoria +crape.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRASH,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a technical textile term applied to a species of narrow +towels, from 14 to 20 in. wide. The name is probably of Russian +origin, the simplest and coarsest type of the cloth being known as +“Russia crash.” The latter is made from grey flax or tow yarns, +and sometimes from boiled yarns. The simple term “crash” is +given to all these narrow cloths, but the above distinction is +very convenient, as also are the following: grey, boiled, bleached, +plain, twilled and fancy crash. A large variety obtains with and +without fancy borders, while of late years cotton has been +introduced as warp, as well as mixed and jute yarns for weft. +After the cloth has passed through all the finishing operations, +it is cut up into lengths of about 3 yds., the two ends sewn +together and it is then ready to be placed over a suspended roller; +for this reason it is often termed “roller towelling.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRASHAW, RICHARD<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1613-1650), English poet, styled +“the divine,” was born in London about 1613. He was the son +of a strongly anti-papistical divine, Dr William Crashaw (1572-1626), +who distinguished himself, even in those times, by the +excessive acerbity of his writings against the Catholics. In spite +of these opinions, however, he was attracted by Catholic devotion, +for he translated several Latin hymns of the Jesuits. Richard +Crashaw was originally put to school at Charterhouse, but in +July 1631 he was admitted to Pembroke College, Cambridge, +where he took the degree of B.A. in 1634. The publication of +Herbert’s <i>Temple</i> in 1633 seems to have finally determined the +bias of his genius in favour of religious poetry, and next year he +published his first book, <i>Epigrammatum sacrorum liber</i>, a +volume of Latin verses. In March 1636 he removed to Peterhouse, +was made a fellow of that college in 1637, and proceeded +M.A. in 1638. It was about this time that he made the acquaintance +and secured the lasting friendship of Abraham Cowley. +He was also on terms of intimacy with the Anglican monk +Nicholas Ferrar, and frequently visited him at his religious +house at Little Gidding. In 1641 he is said to have gone to +Oxford, but only for a short time; for when in 1643 Cowley left +Cambridge to seek a refuge at Oxford, Crashaw remained behind, +and was forcibly ejected from his fellowship in 1644. In the +confusion of the civil wars he escaped to France, where he +finally embraced the Catholic religion, towards which he had +long been tending.</p> + +<p>During his exile his religious and secular poems were collected +by an anonymous friend, and published under the title of <i>Steps to +the Temple</i> and <i>The Delights of the Muses</i>, in one volume, in 1646. +The first part includes the hymn to St Teresa and the version of +Marini’s <i>Sospetto d’ Herode</i>. This same year Cowley found him in +great destitution at Paris, and induced Queen Henrietta Maria to +extend towards him what influence she still possessed. At her +introduction he proceeded to Italy, where he became attendant +to Cardinal Palotta at Rome. In 1648 he published two Latin +hymns at Paris. He remained until 1649 in the service of the +cardinal, to whom he had a great personal attachment; but his +retinue contained persons whose violent and licentious behaviour +was a source of ceaseless vexation to the sensitive English +mystic. At last his denunciation of their excesses became so +public that the animosity of those persons was excited against +him, and in order to shield him from their revenge he was sent by +the cardinal in 1650 to Loretto, where he was made a canon of the +Holy House. In less than three weeks, however, he sickened of +fever, and died on the 25th of August, not without grave suspicion +of having been poisoned. He was buried in the Lady chapel at +Loretto. A collection of his religious poems, entitled <i>Carmen +Deo nostro</i>, was brought out in Paris in 1652, dedicated at +the dead poet’s desire to the faithful friend of his sufferings, +the countess of Denbigh. The book is illustrated by thirteen +engravings after Crashaw’s own designs.</p> + +<p>Crashaw excelled in all manner of graceful accomplishments; +besides being an excellent Latinist and Hellenist, he had an +intimate knowledge of Italian and Spanish; and his skill in music, +painting and engraving was no less admired in his lifetime than +his skill in poetry. Cowley embalmed his memory in an elegy +that ranks among the very finest in our language, in which he, +a Protestant, well expressed the feeling left on the minds of +contemporaries by the character of the young Catholic poet:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“His faith, perhaps, in some nice tenets might</p> +<p class="i05">Be wrong; his life, I’m sure, was in the right:</p> +<p class="i05">And I, myself, a Catholic will be,</p> +<p class="i05">So far at least, dear saint, to pray to thee!”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">The poetry of Crashaw will be best appreciated by those who can +with most success free themselves from the bondage of a traditional +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page380" id="page380"></a>380</span> +sense of the dignity of language. The custom of his age permitted +the use of images and phrases which we now justly condemn as +incongruous and unseemly, and the fervent fancy of Crashaw +carried this licence to excess. At the same time his verse is +studded with fiery beauties and sudden felicities of language, +unsurpassed by any lyrist between his own time and Shelley’s. +There is no religious poetry in English so full at once of gross and +awkward images and imaginative touches of the most ethereal +beauty. The temper of his intellect seems to have been delicate +and weak, fiery and uncertain; he has a morbid, almost +hysterical, passion about him, even when his ardour is most +exquisitely expressed, and his adoring addresses to the saints have +an effeminate falsetto that makes their ecstasy almost repulsive. +The faults and beauties of his very peculiar style can be studied +nowhere to more advantage than in the <i>Hymn to Saint Teresa</i>. +Among the secular poems of Crashaw the best are <i>Music’s Duel</i>, +which deals with that strife between the musician and the nightingale +which has inspired so many poets, and <i>Wishes to his +supposed Mistress</i>. In his latest sacred poems, included in the +<i>Carmen Deo nostro</i>, sudden and eminent beauties are not wanting, +but the mysticism has become more pronounced, and the ecclesiastical +mannerism more harsh and repellent. The themes of +Crashaw’s verses are as distinct as possible from those of Shelley’s, +but it may, on the whole, be said that at his best moments he +reminds the reader more closely of the author of <i>Epipsychidion</i> +than of any earlier or later poet.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Crashaw’s works were first collected, in one volume, in 1858 by +W. B. Turnbull. In 1872 an edition, in 2 volumes, was printed for +private subscription by the Rev. A. B. Grosart. A complete edition +was edited (1904) for the Cambridge University Press by Mr A. R. +Waller.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRASSULACEAE,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> in botany, a natural order of dicotyledons, +containing 13 genera and nearly 500 species; of cosmopolitan +distribution, but most strongly developed in South Africa. The +plants are herbs or small shrubs, generally with thick fleshy stems +and leaves, adapted for life in dry, especially rocky places. The +fleshy leaves are often reduced to a more or less cylindrical +structure, as in the stonecrops (<i>Sedum</i>), or form closely crowded +rosettes as in the house-leek (<i>Sempervivum</i>). Correlated with +their life in dry situations, the bulk of the tissue is succulent, +forming a water-store, which is protected from loss by evaporation +by a thickly cuticularized epidermis covered with a waxy +secretion which gives a glaucous appearance to the plant. The +flowers are generally arranged in terminal or axillary clusters, and +are markedly regular with the same number of parts in each +series. This number is, however, very variable, and often not +constant in one and the same species. The sepals and petals are +free or more or less united, the stamens as many or twice as many +as the petals; the carpels, usually free, are equal to the petals in +number, and form in the fruit follicles with two or more seeds. +Opposite each carpel is a small scale which functions as a nectary. +Means of vegetative propagation are general. Many species +spread by means of a creeping much-branched rootstock, or as in +house-leek, by runners which perish after producing a terminal +leaf-rosette. In other cases small portions of the stem or leaves +give rise to new plants by budding, as in <i>Bryophyllum</i>, where +buds develop at the edges of the leaf and form new plants.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:520px; height:404px" src="images/img380.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Stonecrop (<i>Sedum acre</i>) slightly reduced. 1, Horizontal plan of +arrangement of flower of stonecrop; 2, flower of <i>Sedum rubens</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The order is almost absent from Australia and Polynesia, and +has but few representatives in South America; it is otherwise very +generally distributed. The largest genus, <i>Sedum</i>, contains about +140 species in the temperate and colder parts of the northern +hemisphere; eight occur wild in Britain, including <i>S. Telephium</i> +(orpine) and <i>S. acre</i> (common stonecrop) (see fig.). The species +are easily cultivated and will thrive in almost any soil. They +are readily propagated by seeds, cuttings or divisions. <i>Crassula</i> +has about 100 species, chiefly at the Cape. <i>Cotyledon</i>, a widely +distributed genus with about 90 species, is represented in the +British Isles by <i>C. Umbilicus</i>, pennywort, or navelwort, which +takes its name from the succulent peltate leaves. It grows +profusely on dry rocks and walls, especially on the western +coasts, and bears a spike of drooping greenish cup-shaped flowers. +The <i>Echeveria</i> of gardens is now included in this genus. <i>Sempervivum</i> +has about 50 species in the mountains of central and +southern Europe, in the Himalayas, Abyssinia, and the Canaries +and Madeira; <i>S. tectorum</i>, common house-leek, is seen often +growing on tops of walls and house-roofs. The hardy species will +grow well in dry sandy soil, and are suitable for rockeries, old walls +or edgings. They are readily propagated by offsets or by seed.</p> + +<p>The order is closely allied to Saxifragaceae, from which it is +distinguished by its fleshy habit and the larger number of carpels.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRASSUS<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (literally “dense,” “thick,” “fat”), a family name +in the Roman gens Licinia (plebeian). The most important of +the name are the following:</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Publius Licinius Crassus</span>, surnamed <i>Dives Mucianus</i>, +Roman statesman, orator and jurist, consul, 131 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He was +the son of P. Mucius Scaevola (consul 175) and was adopted by +a P. Licinius Crassus Dives. An intimate friend of Tiberius +Gracchus, he was chosen after his death to take his place on the +agrarian commission (see <span class="sc">Gracchus</span>). In 131 when Crassus was +consul with L. Valerius Flaccus, Aristonicus, an illegitimate son +of Eumenes II. of Pergamum, laid claim to the kingdom, which +had been bequeathed by Attalus III. to Rome. Both consuls +were anxious to obtain the command against him; Crassus +was pontifex maximus, and Flaccus a flamen of Mars. Crassus +declared that Flaccus could not neglect his sacred office, and imposed +a conditional fine on him in the event of his leaving Rome. +The popular assembly remitted the fine, but Flaccus was ordered +to obey the pontifex maximus. Crassus accordingly proceeded +to Asia, although in doing so he violated the rule which forbade +the pontifex maximus to leave Italy. Nothing is known of his +military operations. But in the following year, when he was +making preparations to return, he was surprised near Leucae. +He was himself taken prisoner by a Thracian band, and provoked +his captors, who were ignorant of his identity, to put him to +death. Crassus does not seem to have possessed much military +ability, but he was greatly distinguished for his knowledge of law +and his accomplished oratory. He had acquired such a mastery +of the Greek language that, when he presided over the courts in +Asia, he was able to answer each suitor in ordinary Greek or any +of the dialects in use.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Cicero, <i>De oratore</i>, i. 50; <i>Philippics</i>, xi. 8; Plutarch, <i>Tib. +Gracchus</i>, 21; Livy, <i>Epit.</i> 59; Val. Max. iii. 2. 12, viii. 7. 6; Vell. +Pat. ii. 4; Justin xxxvi. 4; Orosius v. 10.</p> +</div> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Lucius Licinius Crassus</span> (140-91 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the orator, of +unknown parentage. At the age of nineteen (or twenty-one) he +made his reputation by a speech against C. Papirius Carbo, the +friend of the Gracchi. The law passed by him and his colleague +Q. Mucius Scaevola during their consulship (95), to prevent those +passing as Roman citizens who had no right to the title, was one of +the prime causes of the Social War (Cicero, <i>Pro Balbo</i>, xxi., <i>De +officiis</i>, iii. 11). During his censorship Crassus suppressed the +newly founded schools of Latin rhetoricians (Aulus Gellius +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>381</span> +xv. 11). He died from excitement caused by his passionate +speech against the consul L. Marcius Philippus, who had insulted +the Senate. Crassus is one of the chief speakers in the <i>De oratore</i> +of Cicero, who has also preserved a few fragments of his speeches.</p> + +<p>3. <span class="sc">Publius Licinius Crassus</span>, called <i>Dives</i>, father of the +triumvir. Little is known of him before he became consul in 97, +except that he proposed a law regulating the expenses of the table, +which met with general approval. During his consulship the +practice of magic arts was condemned by a decree of the senate, +and human sacrifice was abolished. He was subsequently +governor of Spain for some years, during which he gained several +successes over the Lusitanians, and on his return in 93 was +honoured with a triumph. After the Social War, as censor with +L. Julius Caesar, he had the task of enrolling in new tribes certain +of the Latins and Italians as a reward for their loyalty to the +Romans, but the proceedings seem to have been interrupted +by certain irregularities. They also forbade the introduction of +foreign wines and unguents. Crassus committed suicide in 87, to +avoid falling into the hands of the Marian party.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Plutarch, Crassus, 4; Aulus Gellius ii. 24; Macrobius, <i>Saturnalia</i>, +ii. 13; Livy, <i>Epit.</i> 80; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxx. 3; Appian, <i>Bell. Civ.</i> +i. 72; Festus, under <i>Referri</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>4. <span class="sc">Marcus Licinius Crassus</span> (c. 115-53 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the Triumvir, +surnamed <i>Dives</i> (rich) on account of his great wealth. His +wealth was acquired by traffic in slaves, the working of silver +mines, and judicious purchases of lands and houses, especially +those of proscribed citizens. The proscription of Cinna obliged +him to flee to Spain; but after Cinna’s death he passed into +Africa, and thence to Italy, where he ingratiated himself with +Sulla. Having been sent against Spartacus, he gained a decisive +victory, and was honoured with a minor triumph. Soon afterwards +he was elected consul with Pompey, and (70) displayed his +wealth by entertaining the populace at 10,000 tables, and +distributing sufficient corn to last each family three months. In +65 he was censor, and in 60 he joined Pompey and Caesar in the +coalition known as the first triumvirate. In 55 he was again +consul with Pompey, and a law was passed, assigning the provinces +of the two Spains and Syria to the two consuls for five years. +Crassus was satisfied with Syria, which promised to be an +inexhaustible source of wealth. Having crossed the Euphrates +he hastened to make himself master of Parthia; but he was +defeated at Carrhae (53 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and taken prisoner by Surenas, the +Parthian general, who put him to death by pouring molten gold +down his throat. His head was cut off and sent to Orodes, the +Parthian king. Crassus was a man of only moderate abilities, +and owed his importance to his great wealth.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Plutarch’s <i>Life</i>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caesar, Gaius Julius</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pompey</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>History</i>, II. “The Republic.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRATER,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> the cavity at the mouth of a volcanic duct, usually +funnel-shaped or presenting the form of a bowl, whence the name, +from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kratêr">κρατήρ</span>, a bowl. A volcanic hill may have a single +crater at, or near, its summit, or it may have several minor craters +on its flanks: the latter are sometimes called “adventitious +craters” or “craterlets.” Much of the loose ejected material, +falling in the neighbourhood of the vent, rolls down the inner +wall of the crater, and thus produces a stratification with an +inward dip. The crater in an active volcano is kept open by +intermittent explosions, but in a volcano which has become +dormant or extinct the vent may become plugged, and the bowl-shaped +cavity may subsequently be filled with water, forming a +crater-lake, or as it is called in the Eifel a <i>Maar</i>. In some +basaltic cones, like those of the Sandwich Islands, the crater may +be a broad shallow pit, having almost perpendicular walls, with +horizontal stratification. Such hollows are consequently called +pit-craters. The name <i>caldera</i> (Sp. for cauldron) was suggested +for such pits by Capt. C. E. Dutton, who regarded them as +having been formed by subsidence of the walls. The term +caldera is often applied to bowl-shaped craters in Spanish-speaking +countries. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Volcano</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRATES<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span>, Athenian actor and author of comedies, flourished +about 470 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He was regarded as the founder of Greek comedy +proper, since he abandoned political lampoons on individuals, +and introduced more general subjects and a well-developed plot +(Aristotle, <i>Poëtica</i>, 5). He is stated to have been the first to +represent the drunkard on the stage (Aristophanes, <i>Knights</i>, +37 ff.).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fragments in Meineke, <i>Poëtarum Comicorum Graecorum fragmenta</i>, +i.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRATES,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> the name of two Greek philosophers.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Crates</span>, of Athens, successor of Polemo as leader of the +Old Academy.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Crates</span>, of Thebes, a Cynic philosopher of the latter half of +the 4th century. He was the famous pupil of Diogenes, and the +last great representative of Cynicism. It is said that he lost his +ample fortune owing to the Macedonian invasion, but a more +probable story is that he sacrificed it in accordance with his +principles, directing the banker, to whom he entrusted it, to give +it to his sons if they should prove fools, but to the poor if his sons +should prove philosophers. He gave up his life to the attainment +of virtue and the propagation of ascetic self-control. His habit of +entering houses for this purpose, uninvited, earned him the +nickname <span class="grk" title="Thyrepanoiktês">Θυρεπανοίκτης</span> (“Door-opener”). His marriage with +Hipparchia, daughter of a wealthy Thracian family, was in +curious contrast to the prosaic character of his life. Attracted by +the nobility of his character and undeterred by his poverty and +ugliness, she insisted on becoming his wife in defiance of her +father’s commands. The date of his death is unknown, though he +seems to have lived into the 3rd century. His writings were few. +According to Diogenes Laërtius, he was the author of a number +of letters on philosophical subjects; but those extant under the +name of Crates (R. Hercher, <i>Epistolographi Graeci</i>, 1873) are, +spurious, the work of later rhetoricians. Diogenes Laërtius +credits him with a short poem, <span class="grk" title="Paignia">Παίγνια</span>, and several philosophic +tragedies. Plutarch’s life of Crates is lost. The great importance +of Crates’ work is that he formed the link between Cynicism and +the Stoics, Zeno of Citium being his pupil.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See N. Postumus, <i>De Cratete Cynico</i> (1823); F. Mullach, <i>Frag. +Philosophorum Graecorum</i>, ii. (1867); E. Wellmann in Ersch and +Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie</i>; Diog. Laërt. vi. 85-93, 96-98.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRATES,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> of Mallus in Cilicia, a Greek grammarian and Stoic +philosopher of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, leader of the literary school +and head of the library of Pergamum. His principles were +opposed to those of Aristarchus, the leader of the Alexandrian +school. He was the chief representative of the allegorical theory +of exegesis, and maintained that Homer intended to express +scientific or philosophical truths in the form of poetry. About +170 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he visited Rome as ambassador of Attalus II., king of +Pergamum; and having broken his leg and been compelled to +stay there for some time, he delivered lectures which gave the +first impulse to the study of grammar and criticism among the +Romans (Suetonius, <i>De grammaticis</i>, 2). His chief work was a +critical and exegetical commentary on Homer.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Wachsmuth, <i>De Cratete Mallota</i> (1860), containing an +account of the life, pupils and writings of Crates; J. E. Sandys, +<i>Hist. of Class. Schol.</i> i. 156 (ed. 2, 1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRATINUS<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (c. 520-423 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Athenian comic poet, chief +representative of the old, and founder of political, comedy. +Hardly anything is known of his life, and only fragments of his +works have been preserved. But a good idea of their character +can be gained from the opinions of his contemporaries, especially +Aristophanes. His comedies were chiefly distinguished by their +direct and vigorous political satire, a marked exception being the +burlesque <span class="grk" title="Odysseis">Ὀδυσσεῖς</span>, dealing with the story of Odysseus in the +cave of Polyphemus, probably written while a law was in force +forbidding all political references on the stage. They were also +remarkable for the absence of the parabasis and chorus. Persius +calls the author “the bold,” and even Pericles at the height of his +power did not escape his vehement attacks, as in the <i>Nemesis</i> and +<i>Archilochi</i>, the last-named a lament for the loss of the recently +deceased Cimon, with whose conservative sentiments Cratinus +was in sympathy. The <i>Panoptae</i> was a satire on the sophists +and omniscient speculative philosophers of the day. Of his last +comedy the plot has come down to us. It was occasioned by the +sneers of Aristophanes and others, who declared that he was no +better than a doting drunkard. Roused by the taunt, Cratinus +put forth all his strength, and in 423 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> produced the <span class="grk" title="Pytinê">Πυτίνη</span>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>382</span> +or <i>Bottle</i>, which gained the first prize over the <i>Clouds</i> of Aristophanes. +In this comedy, good-humouredly making fun of his +own weakness, Cratinus represents the comic muse as the +faithful wife of his youth. His guilty fondness for a rival—the +bottle—has aroused her jealousy. She demands a divorce from +the archon; but her husband’s love is not dead and he returns +penitent to her side. In Grenfell and Hunt’s <i>Oxyrhynchus +Papyri</i>, iv. (1904), containing a further instalment of their +edition of the Behnesa papyri discovered by them in 1896-1897, +one of the greatest curiosities is a scrap of paper bearing the +argument of a play by Cratinus,—the <i>Dionysalexandros</i> (<i>i.e.</i> +Dionysus in the part of Paris), aimed against Pericles; and the +epitome reveals something of its wit and point. The style of +Cratinus has been likened to that of Aeschylus; and Aristophanes, +in the <i>Knights</i>, compares him to a rushing torrent. He appears to +have been fond of lofty diction and bold figures, and was most +successful in the lyrical parts of his dramas, his choruses being the +popular festal songs of his day. According to the statement of a +doubtful authority, which is not borne out by Aristotle, Cratinus +increased the number of actors in comedy to three. He wrote +21 comedies and gained the prize nine times.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fragments in Meineke, <i>Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum</i>, or +Kock, <i>Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta</i>. A younger Cratinus +flourished in the time of Alexander the Great. It is considered that +some of the comedies ascribed to the elder Cratinus were really the +work of the younger.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRATIPPUS<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (fl. c. 375 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek historian. There are only +three or four references to him in ancient literature, and his +importance is due to the fact that he has been identified by several +scholars (<i>e.g.</i> Blass) with the author of the historical fragment +discovered by Grenfell and Hunt, and published by them in +<i>Oxyrhynchus Papyri</i>, vol. v. It may be regarded as a fairly +certain inference from a passage in Plutarch (<i>De Gloria Atheniensium</i>, +p. 345 E, ed. Bernardakis, ii. p. 455) that he was an +Athenian writer, intermediate in date between Thucydides and +Xenophon, and that his work continued the narrative of Thucydides, +from the point at which the latter historian stopped (410 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>) down to the battle of Cnidus (394 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The fragments are published in C. Müller’s <i>Fragmenta Historicorum +Graecorum</i>. For authorities see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theopompus</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRATIPPUS,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> of Mitylene (1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Peripatetic +philosopher, contemporary with Cicero, whose son he taught at +Athens, and by whom he is praised in the <i>De officiis</i> as the +greatest of his school. He was the friend of Pompey also and +shared his flight after the battle of Pharsalia, for the purpose, it +is said, of convincing him of the justice of providence. Brutus, +while at Athens after the assassination of Caesar, attended his +lectures. The freedom of Rome was conferred upon him by +Caesar, at the request of Cicero. The only work attributed to +him is a treatise on divination, but his reputation may be +gauged by the fact that in 44 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Areopagus invited him to +succeed Andronicus of Rhodes as scholarch. He seems to have +held that, while motion, sense and appetite cannot exist apart +from the body, thought reaches its greatest power when most free +from bodily influence, and that divination is due to the direct +action of the divine mind on that faculty of the human soul +which is not dependent on the body.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Cicero, <i>De divinatione</i>, i. 3, 32, 50, ii. 48, 52; <i>De officiis</i>, i. 1, iii. 2; +Plutarch, <i>Cicero</i>, 24.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAU<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (from a Celtic root meaning “stone”), a region of +southern France, comprised in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, +and bounded W. by the canal from Arles to Port du +Bouc and the Rhone, N. by the chain of the Alpines separating it +from an analogous region, the Petite Crau, E. by the hills around +Salon and Istres, S. by the gulf of Fos, an inlet of the Mediterranean +Sea. Covering an area of about 200 sq. m., the Crau is a +low-lying, waterless plain, owing its formation to a sudden +inundation, according to some authorities, of the Rhone and the +Durance, according to others of the Durance alone. Its surface +is formed chiefly of stones varying in size from an egg to a man’s +head; these, mixed with a proportion of fine soil, overlie a +subsoil formed of stones cemented into a hard mass by deposits of +calcareous mud, beneath which lies a bed of loose stones, once the +sea-bed. Naturally sterile and poor in lime, the Crau is adapted +for agriculture by the process of warping, carried out by means of +the Canal de Craponne, which dates from the middle of the 16th +century; about one-quarter of the region in the north and east +has thus been covered by the rich deposits of the waters of the +Durance. The soil also responds in places to deep cultivation +and the application of artificial manures. By these aids, uncultivated +land, which before supplied only rough and scanty +pasture for a few sheep, has been fitted for the growth of the vine, +olive and other fruits; where irrigation is practicable, water-meadows +have been formed. The dryness of the climate is +unfavourable to the production of cereals.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAUCK, GUSTAVE<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1827-1905), French sculptor, was born +and died at Valenciennes, where a special museum for his works +was erected in his honour. Though little known to the world +at large during his long life, he ranks among the best modern +sculptors of France. At Paris his “Coligny” monument is in the +rue de Rivoli; his “Victory” in the Place des Arts et Métiers; +and “Twilight” in the Avenue de l’Observatoire. Among his +finest works is his “Combat du Centaure,” on which he was +engaged for thirty years, the figure of the Lapith having been +modelled after the athlete, Eugene Sandow. In 1907 an exhibition +of his works was held in the École des Beaux-Arts.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAUFURD, QUINTIN<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (1743-1819), British author, was born +at Kilwinnock on the 22nd of September 1743. In early life he +went to India, where he entered the service of the East India +Company. Returning to Europe before the age of forty with a +handsome fortune, he settled in Paris, where he gave himself to +the cultivation of literature and art, and formed a good library +and collection of paintings, coins and other objects of antiquarian +interest. Craufurd was on intimate terms with the French court, +especially with Marie Antoinette, and was one of those who +arranged the flight to Varennes. He escaped to Brussels, but in +1792 he returned to Paris in the hope of rescuing the royal +prisoners. He lived among the French <i>émigrés</i> until the peace of +Amiens made it possible to return to Paris. Through Talleyrand’s +influence he was able to remain in Paris after the war was +renewed, and he died there on the 23rd of November 1819.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He wrote, among other works, <i>The History, Religion, Learning +and Manners of the Hindus</i> (1790), <i>Secret History of the King of France +and his Escape from Paris</i> (first published in 1885), <i>Researches concerning +the Laws, Theology, Learning and Commerce of Ancient and +Modern India</i> (1817), <i>History of the Bastille</i> (1798), <i>On Pericles and +the Arts in Greece</i> (1815), <i>Essay on Swift and his Influence on the +British Government</i> (1808), <i>Notice sur Marie Antoinette</i> (1809), +<i>Mémoires de Mme du Hausset</i> (1808).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAUFURD, ROBERT<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (1764-1812), British major-general, +was born at Newark, Ayrshire, on the 5th of May 1764, and +entered the 25th Foot in 1779. As captain in the 75th regiment +he first saw active service against Tippoo Sahib in 1790-92. The +next year he was employed, under his brother Charles, with the +Austrian armies operating against the French. Returning to +England in 1797, he soon saw further service, as a lieutenant-colonel, +on Lake’s staff in the Irish rebellion. A year later he was +British commissioner on Suvarov’s staff when the Russians invaded +Switzerland, and at the end of 1799 was in the Helder expedition. +From 1801 to 1805 Lieutenant-Colonel Craufurd sat in parliament +for East Retford, but in 1807 he resumed active service with +Whitelock in the unfortunate Buenos Aires expedition. He was +almost the only one of the senior officers who added to his +reputation in this affair, and in 1808 he received a brigade +command under Sir John Moore. His regiments were heavily +engaged in the earlier part of the famous retreat, but were not +present at Corunna, having been detached to Vigo, whence they +returned to England. Later in 1809, once more in the Peninsula, +Brigadier-General Craufurd was three marches or more in rear +of Wellesley’s army when a report came in that a great battle was +in progress. The march which followed is one almost unparalleled +in military annals. The three battalions of the +“Light Brigade” (43rd, 52nd and 95th) started in full marching +order, and arrived at the front on the day after the battle of +Talavera, having covered 62 m. in twenty-six hours. Beginning +their career with this famous march, these regiments and their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>383</span> +chief, under whom served such men as Charles and William +Napier, Shaw and Colborne, soon became celebrated as one of the +best corps of troops in Europe, and every engagement added to +their laurels. Craufurd’s operations on the Coa and Agueda in +1810 were daring to the point of rashness, but he knew the +quality of the men he led better than his critics did, and though +Wellington censured him for his conduct, he at the same time +increased his force to a division by the addition of two picked +regiments of Portuguese <i>Caçadores</i>. The conduct of the renowned +“Light Division” at Busaco is described by Napier in one of his +most vivid passages. The winter of 1810-1811 Craufurd spent in +England, and his division was commanded in the interim by +another officer, who did not display much ability. He reappeared +on the field of the battle of Fuentes d’Onoro amidst the cheers of +his men, and nothing could show his genius for war better than his +conduct on this day, in covering the strange readjustment of his +line which Wellington was compelled to make in the face of the +enemy. A little later he obtained major-general’s rank; and on +the 19th of January 1812, as he stood on the glacis of Ciudad +Rodrigo, directing the stormers of the Light Division, he fell +mortally wounded. His body was carried out of action by his +staff officer, Lieutenant Shaw of the 43rd (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shaw Kennedy</a></span>), +and, after lingering four days, he died. He was buried in the +breach of the fortress where he had met his death, and a +monument in St Paul’s cathedral commemorates Craufurd and +Mackinnon, the two generals killed at the storming of Ciudad +Rodrigo. The exploits of Craufurd and the Light Division are +amongst the most cherished traditions of the British and +Portuguese armies. One of the quickest and most brilliant, if not +the very first, of Wellington’s generals, he had a fiery temper, +which rendered him a difficult man to deal with, but to the day of +his death he possessed the confidence and affection of his men in +an extraordinary degree.</p> + +<p>His elder brother, Lieutenant-General Sir <span class="sc">Charles Craufurd</span> +(1761-1821), entered the 1st Dragoon Guards in 1778. Made +captain in the Queen’s Bays in 1785, he became the equerry and +intimate friend of the duke of York. He studied in Germany for +some time, and, with his brother Robert’s assistance, translated +Tielcke’s book on the Seven Years’ War (<i>The Remarkable Events +of the War between Prussia, Austria and Russia from 1756 to 1763</i>). +As aide-de-camp he accompanied the duke of York to the French +War in 1793, and was at once sent as commissioner to the +Austrian headquarters, with which he was present at Neerwinden, +Caesar’s Camp, Famars, Landrecies, &c. Major in 1793, and +lieutenant-colonel in 1794, he returned to the English army in the +latter year, and on one occasion distinguished himself at the +head of two squadrons, taking 3 guns and 1000 prisoners. When +the British army left the continent Craufurd was again attached +to the Austrian army, and was present at the actions on the +Lahn, the combat of Neumarkt, and the battle of Amberg. At +the last battle a severe wound rendered him incapable of further +service, and cut short a promising career. He succeeded his +brother Robert as member of parliament for East Retford (1806-1812). +He died in 1821, having become a lieutenant-general and +a G.C.B.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAVAT<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>cravate</i>, a corruption of “Croat”), +the name given by the French in the reign of Louis XIV. to the +scarf worn by the Croatian soldiers enlisted in the royal Croatian +regiment. Made of linen or muslin with broad edges of lace, it +became fashionable, and the name was applied both in England +and France to various forms of neckerchief worn at different +times, from the loosely tied lace cravat with long flowing ends, +called a “Steinkirk” from the battle of 1692 of that name, to the +elaborately folded and lightly starched linen or cambric neckcloth +worn during the period of Beau Brummell.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAVEN, PAULINE MARIE ARMANDE AGLAÉ<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1808-1891), +French author, the daughter of an <i>émigré</i> Breton nobleman, +was born in London on the 12th of April 1808. Her father, the +comte Auguste de la Ferronays, was a close friend of the duc de +Berri, whom he accompanied on his return to France in 1814. +He and his wife were attached to the court of Charles X. at the +Tuileries, but a momentary quarrel with the duc de Berri made +retirement imperative to the count’s sense of honour. He was +appointed ambassador at St Petersburg, and in 1827 became +foreign minister in Paris. Pauline was thus brought up in +brilliant surroundings, but her strongest impressions were those +which she derived from the group of Catholic thinkers gathered +round Lamennais, and her ardent piety furnishes the key of her +life. In 1828 her father was sent to Rome, and Pauline, at the +suggestion of Alexis Rio, the art critic, made her first literary +essay with a description of the emotions she experienced on a +visit to the catacombs. At the revolution of July, M. de la +Ferronays resigned his position, and retired with his family to +Naples. Here Pauline met her future husband, Augustus +Craven, who was then attaché to the British embassy. His +father, Keppel Richard Craven, the well-known supporter of +Queen Caroline, objected to his son’s marriage with a Catholic; +but his scruples were overcome, and immediately after the +marriage (1834) Augustus Craven was received into the Roman +Catholic Church. Mrs Craven, whose family life as revealed in +the <i>Récit d’une sœur</i> was especially tender and intimate, suffered +several severe bereavements in the years following on her +marriage. The Cravens lived abroad until 1851, when the death +of Keppel Craven made his son practically independent of his +diplomatic career, in which he had not been conspicuously +successful. He stood unsuccessfully for election to parliament +for Dublin in 1852, and from that time retired into private life. +They went to live at Naples in 1853, and Mrs Craven began to +write the history of the family life of the la Ferronays between +1830 and 1836, its incidents being grouped round the love story +of her brother Albert and his wife Alexandrine. This book, the +<i>Récit d’une sœur</i> (1866, Eng. trans. 1868), was enthusiastically +received and was awarded a prize by the French Academy. +Straitened circumstances made it desirable for Mrs Craven to earn +money by her pen. <i>Anne Sévérin</i> appeared in 1868, <i>Fleurange</i> in +1871, <i>Le Mot d’énigme</i> in 1874, <i>Le Valbriant</i> (Eng. trans., <i>Lucia</i>) +in 1886. Among her miscellaneous works may be mentioned +<i>La Sœur Natalie Narischkin</i> (1876), <i>Deux Incidents de la question +catholique en Angleterre</i> (1875), <i>Lady Georgiana Fullerton, sa +vie et ses œuvres</i> (1888). Mrs Craven’s charming personality won +her many friends. She was a frequent guest with Lord +Palmerston, Lord Ellesmere and Lord Granville. She died in +Paris on the 1st of April 1891. Her husband, who died in 1884, +translated the correspondence of Lord Palmerston and of the +Prince Consort into French.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Memoir of Mrs Augustus Craven</i> (1894), by her friend Mrs +Mary Catherine Bishop; also <i>Paolina Craven</i>, by T. F. Ravaschieri +Fieschi (1892). There is a biography of Mrs Craven’s father, “En +Emigration,” in Étienne Lamy’s <i>Témoins des jours passés</i> (1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAVEN, WILLIAM CRAVEN,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (1608-1697), eldest +son of Sir William Craven, lord mayor of London, and of +Elizabeth, daughter of Alderman William Whitmore, was born in +June 1608, matriculated at Trinity College, Oxford, in 1623, and +joined the society of the Middle Temple in 1624. He had already +inherited his father’s vast fortune by the latter’s death in 1618, +and before he came of age he had distinguished himself in the +military service of the princes of Orange. Returning home he was +knighted and created Baron Craven of Hampstead Marshall in +Berkshire in 1627. He early showed enthusiasm for the cause of +the unfortunate king and queen of Bohemia, driven from their +dominions, and in 1632 joined Frederick in a military expedition +to recover the Palatinate, meeting Gustavus Adolphus at +Höchst, whose praise he gained by being the first, though +wounded, to mount the breach at the capture of Kreuznach on +the 22nd of February. The Swedish king, however, refused to +allow the elector an independent command for the defence of the +Palatinate, and Craven returned to England. In May 1633 he +was placed on the council of Wales. In 1637 he took part in a +second expedition in aid of the palatine family on the Lower +Rhine, with the young elector Charles Louis and his brother +Rupert, and offered as a contribution the sum of £30,000, but +their forces were defeated near Wessel and Craven wounded and +taken prisoner together with Rupert. He purchased his freedom +in 1639, and then joined the small court of the exiled queen +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>384</span> +Elizabeth at the Hague and at Rhenen, supplying her generously +with funds on the cessation of her English pension owing to the +outbreak of the Civil War. He contributed also large sums in aid +of Charles I., and, after his execution, of Charles II., the amount +bestowed upon the latter being alone computed at £50,000,<a name="FnAnchor_1j" id="FnAnchor_1j" href="#Footnote_1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +notwithstanding that since 1651 the greater part of his estates had +been confiscated by the parliament and his house at Caversham +reduced to ruins.<a name="FnAnchor_2j" id="FnAnchor_2j" href="#Footnote_2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> At the Restoration he accompanied Charles to +England, regained his estates, and was rewarded with offices and +honours. He was made colonel of several regiments including +the Coldstream, and in 1667 lieutenant-general and also high +steward of Cambridge University. In 1666 he became a privy +councillor, but was not included later in 1679 in Sir William +Temple’s remodelled council.<a name="FnAnchor_3j" id="FnAnchor_3j" href="#Footnote_3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In 1668 he became a governor of +the Charterhouse, was appointed lord-lieutenant of Middlesex, and +master of the Trinity House in 1670; and in 1673 a commissioner +for Tangier. He was one of the lords proprietors of Carolina and +a member of the Fishery Committee.</p> + +<p>In March 1664 he was created viscount and earl of Craven. +Meanwhile his devotion to the interests of the queen of Bohemia +was unceasing, and on her return to England he offered her +hospitality at his house in Drury Lane, where she remained till +February 1662. At her death, within a fortnight afterwards, she +bequeathed to Craven her papers and her valuable collection of +portraits, but there is no foundation for the belief entertained +later that she had married him. In 1682 he became the guardian +of Ruperta, the natural daughter of his old comrade in arms, +Prince Rupert. He was again made a privy councillor and +lieutenant-general of the forces by James on his accession, and at +the age of eighty was in command of the Coldstreams at Whitehall +on the 17th of December 1688 when the Dutch troops arrived. +He refused to withdraw them at the bidding of Count Solms, the +Dutch commander, but obeyed later James’s own orders to +retire. His public career now closed and he filled no office after +the revolution. Although his claims upon the gratitude of the +Stuart royal family were immense, Craven had never been +considered a possible candidate for high political place. His +ability was probably small, and he is spoken of with little respect +in the <i>Verney Papers</i> and by the electress Sophia in her <i>Memoirs</i>. +The latter retails some foolish observations made by Craven, and +Pepys was disgusted at his coarse and stupid jests at the Fishery +Board, where his “very confused and very ridiculous proceedings” +are also censured.<a name="FnAnchor_4j" id="FnAnchor_4j" href="#Footnote_4j"><span class="sp">4</span></a> His military prowess, however, his generosity +and his public spirit are undoubted. He showed great activity +during the plague and fire of London. He was a patron of +letters and a member of the Royal Society. He inherited Combe +Abbey near Coventry from his father, and purchased Hampstead +Marshall in Berkshire, where he built a house on the model of +Heidelberg Castle.</p> + +<p>He died unmarried on the 9th of April 1697, when the earldom +became extinct, the barony passing by special remainder to his +cousin William, 2nd Baron Craven; the present earl of Craven +(the earldom being revived in 1801) is descended from John, a +younger brother of the latter. The first Lord Craven’s brother +John, who was created Baron Craven of Ryton in Shropshire and +who died in 1648, was the founder of the Craven scholarships +at Oxford and Cambridge universities, of which the first was +awarded in 1649.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—See the article in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biography</i> +(and Errata); <i>Lives of the Princesses of England (Elizabeth, eldest +daughter of James I.)</i>, vol. vi., by M. A. E. Green (1854); <i>Memoirs +of Elizabeth Stuart</i>, by Miss Benger (1825); <i>Memoiren der Herzogin +Sophie</i>, ed. by A. Köcher in <i>Publ. aus den k. preussischen Staatsarchiven</i>, +Bd. iv. (1879); “Briefe der Elisabeth Stuart” in <i>Bibliothek +des litterarischen Vereins</i> (Stuttgart, 1903), 155, 157; G. E. C.’s +<i>Complete Peerage</i> (1889), ii. 404; <i>Lives and Characters of the Most +Illustrious Persons</i> (1713), p. 546; Macaulay’s <i>Hist. of England</i>, ii. +584 (1858); <i>Verney Papers</i> (Camden Soc., 1853); <i>Cal. of St. Pap. +Dom.</i>; Tracts relating to the confiscation of his estate in Cat. of the +British Museum. Much information also doubtless exists in the +Craven MSS. at Combe Abbey.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1j" id="Footnote_1j" href="#FnAnchor_1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Verney Papers</i>, 189 note.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2j" id="Footnote_2j" href="#FnAnchor_2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Evelyn’s <i>Diary</i>, June 8th, 1654.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3j" id="Footnote_3j" href="#FnAnchor_3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Com.; Various Collections</i>, ii. 394.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4j" id="Footnote_4j" href="#FnAnchor_4j"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Diary</i>, Oct. 18th and Nov. 18th, 1664, and March 10th, 1665.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAWFORD, EARLS OF.<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> The house of Lindsay, of which the +earl of Crawford is the head, traces its descent back to the barons +of Crawford who flourished in the 12th century, and has included +a number of men who have played leading parts in the history of +Scotland. It is said that “though other families in Scotland may +have been of more historic, none can in genealogical importance +equal that of Lindsay,” and the Lindsays claim that “the predecessors +of the 1st earl of Crawford were barons at the period of +the earliest parliamentary records, and that, in fact, they were +never enrolled in the modern sense of the term, but were among +the <i>pares</i>, of which kings are <i>primi</i>, from the commencement of +recorded history.” Again we are told, “the earldom of Crawford, +therefore, like those of Douglas, of Moray, Ross, March and others +of the earlier times of feudalism, formed a petty principality, an +<i>imperium in imperio</i>.” Moreover, the earls “had also a <i>concilium</i>, +or petty parliament, consisting of the great vassals of the earldom, +with whose advice they acted on great and important occasions.”</p> + +<p>Sir James Lindsay (d. 1396), 9th lord of Crawford in Lanarkshire, +was the only son of Sir James Lindsay, the 8th lord (d. c. +1357), and was related to King Robert II.; he was descended +from Sir Alexander Lindsay of Luffness (d. 1309), who obtained +Crawford and other estates in 1297 and who was high chamberlain +of Scotland. The 9th lord fought at Otterburn, and Froissart +tells of his wanderings after the fight. He was succeeded by his +cousin, Sir David Lindsay (c. 1360-1407), son of Sir Alexander +Lindsay of Glenesk (d. 1382), and in 1398 Sir David, who married +a daughter of Robert II., was made earl of Crawford.</p> + +<p>The most important of the early earls of Crawford are the 4th +and the 5th earls. Alexander Lindsay, the 4th earl (d. 1454), +called the “tiger earl,” was, like his father David the 3rd earl, +who was killed in 1446, one of the most powerful of the Scottish +nobles; for some time he was in arms against King James II., but +he submitted in 1452. His son David, the 5th earl (c. 1440-1495), +was lord high admiral and lord chamberlain; he went +frequently as an ambassador to England and was created duke of +Montrose in 1488, but the title did not descend to his son. +Montrose fought for James III. at the battle of Sauchieburn, and +his son John, the 6th earl (d. 1513), was slain at Flodden.</p> + +<p>David Lindsay, 8th earl of Crawford (d. 1542), son of +Alexander, the 7th earl (d. 1517), had a son Alexander, master of +Crawford (d. 1542), called the “wicked master,” who quarrelled +with his father and tried to kill him. Consequently he was +sentenced to death, and the 8th earl conveyed the earldom to his +kinsman, David Lindsay of Edzell (d. 1558), a descendant of the +3rd earl of Crawford, thus excluding Alexander and his descendants, +and in 1542 David became 9th earl of Crawford. But the +9th earl, although he had at least two sons, named the wicked +master’s son David as his heir, and consequently in 1558 the +earldom came back to the elder line of the Lindsays, the 9th earl +being called the “interpolated earl.”</p> + +<p>David Lindsay, 10th earl of Crawford (d. 1574), was a supporter +of Mary Queen of Scots; he was succeeded by his son David +(c. 1547-1607) as 11th earl. This David, a grandson of Cardinal +Beaton, was concerned in some of the risings under James VI.; +he was converted to Roman Catholicism and was in communication +with the Spaniards about an invasion of England. After his +death the earldom passed to his son David (d. 1621), a lawless +ruffian, and then to his brother, Sir Henry Lindsay or Charteris +(d. 1623), who became 13th earl of Crawford. Sir Henry’s three +sons became in turn earls of Crawford, the youngest, Ludovic, +succeeding in 1639.</p> + +<p>Ludovic Lindsay, 16th earl of Crawford (1600-1652), took part +in the strange plot of 1641 called the “incident.” Having +joined Charles I. at Nottingham in 1642, he fought at Edgehill, at +Newbury and elsewhere during the Civil War; in 1644, just after +Marston Moor, the Scottish parliament declared he had forfeited +his earldom, and, following the lines laid down when this was +regranted in 1642, it was given to John Lindsay, 1st earl of +Lindsay. Ludovic was taken prisoner at Newcastle in 1644 and +was condemned to death, but the sentence was not carried out, +and in 1645 he was released by Montrose, under whom he served +until the surrender of the king at Newark. Later he was in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>385</span> +Ireland and in Spain and he died probably in France in 1652. +He left no issue.</p> + +<p>The earl of Lindsay, who thus supplanted his kinsman, +belonged to the family of Lindsay of the Byres, a branch of the +Lindsays descended from Sir David Lindsay of Crawford (d. c. +1355), the grandfather of the 1st earl of Crawford. Sir David’s +descendant, Sir John Lindsay of the Byres (d. 1482), was created +a lord of parliament as Lord Lindsay of the Byres in 1445, and +his son David, the 2nd lord (d. 1490), fought for James III. at the +battle of Sauchieburn. The most prominent member of this line +was Patrick, 6th Lord Lindsay of the Byres (d. 1589), a son of +John the 5th lord (d. 1563), who was a temperate member of the +reforming party. Patrick was one of the first of the Scottish +nobles to join the reformers, and he was also one of the most +violent. He fought against the regent, Mary of Lorraine, and the +French; then during a temporary reconciliation he assisted +Mary, queen of Scots, to crush the northern rebels at Corrichie in +1562, but again among the enemies of the queen he took part in +the murder of David Rizzio and signed the bond against Bothwell, +whom he wished to meet in single combat after the affair at +Carberry Hill in 1565. Lindsay, who was a brother-in-law and +ally of the regent Murray, carried Mary to Lochleven castle and +obtained her signature to the deed of abdication; he fought +against her at Langside, and after Murray’s murder he was one +of the chiefs of the party which supported the throne of James +VI. In 1578, however, he was among those who tried to drive +Morton from power, and in 1582 he helped to seize the person of +the king in the plot called the “raid of Ruthven,” afterwards +escaping to England. Lindsay had returned to Scotland when +he died on the 11th of December 1589. His successor was his son, +James the 7th lord (d. 1601).</p> + +<p>Patrick’s great-grandson, John Lindsay, 17th earl of Crawford +and 1st earl of Lindsay (c. 1598-1678), was the son of Robert +Lindsay, 9th Lord Lindsay of the Byres, whom he succeeded as +10th lord in 1616. In 1633 he was created earl of Lindsay, and +having become a leader of the Covenanters he marched with the +Scottish army into England in 1644 and was present at Marston +Moor; in 1644 also he obtained the earldom of Crawford in the +manner already mentioned. In the same year he became lord +high treasurer of Scotland, and in 1645 president of the parliament. +Having fought against Montrose at Kilsyth, the earl of +Crawford-Lindsay, as he was called, changed sides, and in 1647 +he signed the “engagement” for the release of Charles I., +losing all his offices by the act of classes when his enemy, the +marquess of Argyll, obtained the upper hand. After the defeat +of the Scots at Dunbar, however, Crawford regained his influence +in Scottish politics, but from 1651 to 1660 he was a prisoner in +England. In 1661 he was restored to his former dignities, but his +refusal to abjure the covenant compelled him to resign them two +years later. His son, William, 18th earl of Crawford and 2nd +earl of Lindsay (1644-1698), was, like his father, an ardent +covenanter; in 1690 he was president of the Convention parliament. +Mr Andrew Lang says this earl was “very poor, very +presbyterian, and his letters, almost alone among those of the +statesmen of the period, are rich in the texts and unctuous style +of an older generation.”</p> + +<p>William’s grandson, John Lindsay, 20th earl of Crawford and +4th earl of Lindsay (1702-1749), won a high reputation as a +soldier. He held a command in the Russian army, seeing service +against the Turk, and he also served against the same foe under +Prince Eugene. Having returned to the English army he led the +life-guards at Dettingen and distinguished himself at Fontenoy; +later he served against France in the Netherlands. He left no +sons when he died in December 1749, and his kinsman, George +Crawford-Lindsay, 4th Viscount Garnock (c. 1723-1781), a +descendant of the 17th earl, became 21st earl of Crawford and +5th earl of Lindsay. When George’s son, George, the 22nd earl +(1758-1808), died unmarried in January 1808, the earldoms of +Crawford and Lindsay were separated, George’s kinsman, David +Lindsay (d. 1809), a descendant of the 4th Lord Lindsay of +the Byres, becoming 7th earl of Lindsay. Both David and his +successor Patrick (d. 1839) died without sons, and in 1878 the +House of Lords decided that Sir John Trotter Bethune, Bart. +(1827-1894), also a descendant of the 4th Lord Lindsay of the +Byres, was entitled to the earldom. In 1894 John’s cousin, +David Clark Bethune (b. 1832), became 11th earl of Lindsay.</p> + +<p>The earldom of Crawford remained dormant from 1808, when +this separation took place, until 1848, when the House of Lords +adjudged it to James Lindsay, 7th earl of Balcarres.</p> + +<p>The earls of Balcarres are descended from John Lindsay, Lord +Menmuir (1552-1598), a younger son of David Lindsay, 9th +earl of Crawford. John, who bought the estate of Balcarres in +Fifeshire, became a lord of session as Lord Menmuir in 1581; he +was a member of the Scottish privy council and one of the commissioners +of the treasury called the Octavians. He had great +influence with James VI., helping the king to restore episcopacy +after he had become, in 1595, keeper of the privy seal and a +secretary of state. Menmuir, a man of great intellectual attainments, +left two sons, the younger, David, succeeding to the +family estates on his brother’s death in 1601. David (c. 1586-1641), +a notable alchemist, was created Lord Lindsay of Balcarres +in 1633, and in 1651 his son Alexander was made earl of Balcarres.</p> + +<p>Alexander Lindsay, 1st earl of Balcarres (1618-1659), the +“Rupert of the Covenant,” fought against Charles I. at Marston +Moor, at Alford and at Kilsyth, but later he joined the royalists, +signing the “engagement” for the release of the king in 1647, +and having been created earl of Balcarres took part in Glencairn’s +rising in 1653. Richard Baxter speaks very highly of the earl, +who died at Breda in August 1659. His son Charles (d. 1662) +became 2nd earl of Balcarres, and another son, Colin (c. 1654-1722), +became 3rd earl. Colin, who was perhaps the most +trusted of the advisers of James II., wrote some valuable <i>Memoirs +touching the Revolution in Scotland, 1688-1690</i>; these were first +published in 1714, and were edited for the Bannatyne Club by the +25th earl of Crawford in 1841. Having been allowed to return to +Scotland after an exile in France, the earl joined the Jacobite +rising in 1715. His successor was his son Alexander, the 4th +earl (d. 1736), who was followed by another son, James, the 5th +earl (1691-1768), who fought for the Stuarts at Sheriffmuir. +Afterwards James was pardoned and entered the English army, +serving under George II. at Dettingen. This earl wrote some +<i>Memoirs of the Lindsays</i>, which were completed by his son +Alexander, the 6th earl (1752-1825). Alexander was with the +English troops in America during the struggle for independence, +and was governor of Jamaica from 1794 to 1801, filling a difficult +position with great credit to himself. He became a general in +1803, and died at Haigh Hall, near Wigan, which he had received +through his wife, Elizabeth Dalrymple (1759-1816), on the 27th +of May 1825. This earl did not claim the earldom of Crawford, +although he became earl <i>de jure</i> in 1808, but in 1843 his son James +Lindsay (1783-1869) did so, and in 1848 the claim was allowed by +the House of Lords. James was thus 24th earl of Crawford and +7th earl of Balcarres; in 1826 he had been created a peer of the +United Kingdom as Baron Wigan of Haigh Hall.</p> + +<p>His son, Alexander William Crawford Lindsay, 25th earl of +Crawford (1812-1880), was born at Muncaster Castle, Cumberland, +on the 16th of October 1812, and educated at Eton and Cambridge. +He travelled much in Europe and the East, and was +most learned in genealogy and history. His more important +works include <i>Lives of the Lindsays</i> (3 vols., 1849), <i>Letters on +Egypt, Edom and the Holy Land</i> (1838), <i>Sketches of the History of +Christian Art</i> (1847 and 1882), <i>Etruscan Inscriptions Analysed</i> +(1872), and <i>The Earldom of Mar during 500 years</i> (1882). He +succeeded to the title in September 1869, and died at Florence +on the 13th of December 1880. A year later it was discovered +that the family vault at Dunecht had been broken into and the +body stolen. It was not until the 18th of July 1882 that the +police, acting on the confession of an eye-witness of the desecration, +found the remains, which were then reinterred at Haigh +Hall, Wigan.</p> + +<p>His only son, James Ludovic Lindsay, 26th earl of Crawford +(1847-  ), British astronomer and orientalist, was born at St +Germain-en-Laye, France, on the 28th of July 1847. Educated +at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, he devoted himself to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>386</span> +astronomy, in which he early achieved distinction. In 1870 he +went to Cadiz to observe the eclipse of the sun, and, in 1874, to +Mauritius to observe the transit of Venus. In the interval, +with the assistance of his father, he had built an observatory +at Dunecht, Aberdeenshire, which in 1888 he presented, +together with his unique library of astronomical and mathematical +works, to the New Royal Observatory on Blackford Hill, +Edinburgh, where they were installed in 1895. His services to +science were recognized by his election to the presidentship of +the Royal Astronomical Society in 1878 and 1879 in succession +to Sir William Huggins, and to the fellowship of the Royal +Society in 1878. He also received the degree of LL.D. from +Edinburgh University in 1882, and in the following year was +nominated honorary associate of the Royal Prussian Academy of +Sciences. An enthusiastic bibliophile, he became a trustee of the +British Museum, and acted for a term as president of the Library +Association. To the free library of Wigan, Lancashire, he gave a +series of oriental and English MSS. of the 9th to the 19th centuries +in illustration of the progress of handwriting, while for the use of +specialists and students he issued the invaluable <i>Bibliotheca +Lindesiana</i>. He represented Wigan in the House of Commons +from 1874 till his succession to the title in 1880.</p> + +<p>Another title held by the Lindsays was that of Spynie, Sir +Alexander Lindsay (c. 1555-1607), created Baron Spynie in +1590, being a younger son of the 10th earl of Crawford. The 2nd +Lord Spynie was Alexander’s son, Alexander (d. 1646), who +served in Germany under Gustavus Adolphus and assisted +Charles I. in Scotland during the Civil War; and the 3rd lord +was the latter’s son, George. When George, a royalist who was +taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester, died in 1671 this title +became extinct.</p> + +<p>The dukedom of Montrose, which had lapsed on the death of +the 5th earl of Crawford in 1495 and had been revived in 1707 in +the Graham family, was claimed in 1848 by the 24th earl of +Crawford, but in 1853 the House of Lords gave judgment +against the earl.</p> + +<p>The Lindsays have furnished the Scottish church with several +prelates. John Lindsay (d. 1335) was bishop of Glasgow; +Alexander Lindsay (d. 1639) was bishop of Dunkeld until he +was deposed in 1638; David Lindsay (d. c. 1641) was bishop +of Brechin and then of Edinburgh until he, too, was deposed in +1638; and a similar fate attended Patrick Lindsay (1566-1644), +bishop of Ross from 1613 to 1633 and archbishop of Glasgow +from 1633 to 1638. Perhaps the most famous of the Lindsay +prelates was David Lindsay (c. 1531-1613), a nephew of the +9th earl of Crawford. David, who married James VI. to Anne of +Denmark at Upsala, was one of the leaders of the Kirk party; he +became bishop of Ross under the new scheme for establishing +episcopacy in 1600.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lord Lindsay (25th earl of Crawford), <i>Lives of the Lindsays</i> +(1849); A. Jervise, <i>History and Traditions of the Land of the Lindsays</i> +(1882); G. E. C(okayne), <i>Complete Peerage</i> (1887-1898); H. T. +Folkard, <i>A Lindsay Record</i> (1899); and Sir J. B. Paul’s edition of +the <i>Scots Peerage</i> of Sir R. Douglas, vol. iii. (1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> (1854-1909), American +author, was born at Bagni di Lucca, Italy, on the 2nd of August +1854, being the son of the American sculptor Thomas Crawford +(<i>q.v.</i>), and the nephew of Julia Ward Howe, the American poet. +He studied successively at St Paul’s school, Concord, New +Hampshire; Cambridge University; Heidelberg; and Rome. +In 1879 he went to India, where he studied Sanskrit and edited +the Allahabad <i>Indian Herald</i>. Returning to America he continued +to study Sanskrit at Harvard University for a year, +contributed to various periodicals, and in 1882 produced his first +novel, <i>Mr Isaacs</i>, a brilliant sketch of modern Anglo-Indian life +mingled with a touch of Oriental mystery. This book had an +immediate success, and its author’s promise was confirmed by the +publication of <i>Dr Claudius</i> (1883). After a brief residence in +New York and Boston, in 1883 he returned to Italy, where he +made his permanent home. This accounts perhaps for the fact +that, in spite of his nationality, Marion Crawford’s books stand +apart from any distinctively American current in literature. +Year by year he published a number of successful novels: <i>A +Roman Singer</i> (1884), <i>An American Politician</i> (1884), <i>To Leeward</i> +(1884), <i>Zoroaster</i> (1885), <i>A Tale of a Lonely Parish</i> (1886), +<i>Marzio’s Crucifix</i> (1887), <i>Saracinesca</i> (1887), <i>Paul Patoff</i> (1887), +<i>With the Immortals</i> (1888), <i>Greifenstein</i> (1889), <i>Sant’ Ilario</i> (1889), +<i>A Cigarette-maker’s Romance</i> (1890), <i>Khaled</i> (1891), <i>The Witch of +Prague</i> (1891), <i>The Three Fates</i> (1892), <i>The Children of the King</i> +(1892), <i>Don Orsino</i> (1892), <i>Marion Darche</i> (1893), <i>Pietro Ghisleri</i> +(1893), <i>Katharine Lauderdale</i> (1894), <i>Love in Idleness</i> (1894), <i>The +Ralstons</i>, (1894), <i>Casa Braccio</i> (1895), <i>Adam Johnston’s Son</i> +(1895), <i>Taquisara</i> (1896), <i>A Rose of Yesterday</i> (1897), <i>Corleone</i> +(1897), <i>Via Crucis</i> (1899), <i>In the Palace of the King</i> (1900), +<i>Marietta</i> (1901), <i>Cecilia</i> (1902), <i>Whosoever Shall Offend</i> (1904), +<i>Soprano</i> (1905), <i>A Lady of Rome</i> (1906). He also published the +historical works, <i>Ave Roma Immortalis</i> (1898), <i>Rulers of the +South</i> (1900)—renamed <i>Sicily, Calabria and Malta</i> in 1904,—and +<i>Gleanings from Venetian History</i> (1905). In these his intimate +knowledge of local Italian history combines with the romancist’s +imaginative faculty to excellent effect. But his place in contemporary +literature depends on his novels. He was a gifted +narrator, and his books of fiction, full of historic vitality and +dramatic characterization, became widely popular among +readers to whom the realism of “problems” or the eccentricities +of subjective analysis were repellent, for he could unfold a +romantic story in an attractive way, setting his plot amid +picturesque surroundings, and gratifying the reader’s intelligence +by a style at once straightforward and accomplished. The +<i>Saracinesca</i> series shows him perhaps at his best. <i>A Cigarette-maker’s +Romance</i> was dramatized, and had considerable popularity +on the stage as well as in its novel form; and in 1902 an +original play from his pen, <i>Francesco da Rimini</i>, was produced in +Paris by Sarah Bernhardt. He died at Sorrento on the 9th of +April 1909.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAWFORD, THOMAS<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (1814-1857), American sculptor, was +born of Irish parents in New York on the 22nd of March 1814. +He showed at an early age great taste for art, and learnt to draw +and to carve in wood. In his nineteenth year he entered the +studio of a firm of monumental sculptors in his native city; and +in the summer of 1835 he went to Rome and became a pupil of +Thorwaldsen. The first work which made him generally known +as a man of genius was his group of “Orpheus entering Hades +in Search of Eurydice,” executed in 1839. This was followed by +other poetical sculptures, among which were the “Babes in the +Wood,” “Flora,” “Hebe and Ganymede,” “Sappho,” “Vesta,” +the “Dancers,” and the “Hunter.” Among his statues and busts +are especially noteworthy the bust of Josiah Quincy, executed +for Harvard University (now in the Boston Athenaeum), the +equestrian statue of Washington at Richmond, Virginia, the +statue of Beethoven in the Boston music hall, statues of Channing +and Henry Clay, and the colossal figure of “Armed Liberty” for +the Capitol at Washington. For this building he executed also +the figures for the pediment and began the bas-reliefs for the +bronze doors, which were afterwards completed by W. H. +Rinehart. The groups of the pediment symbolize the progress +of civilization in America. Crawford’s works include a large +number of bas-reliefs of Scriptural subjects taken from both the +Old and the New Testaments. He made Rome his home, but he +visited several times his native land—first in 1844 (in which year +he married Louisa Ward), next in 1849, and lastly in 1856. He +died in London on the 10th of October 1857.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Das Lincoln Monument, eine Rede des Senator Charles Sumner</i>, +to which are appended the biographies of several sculptors, including +that of Thomas Crawford (Frankfort a. M., 1868); Thomas +Hicks, <i>Eulogy on Thomas Crawford</i> (New York, 1865).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAWFORD, WILLIAM HARRIS<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (1772-1834), American +statesman, was born in Amherst county, Virginia, on the 24th of +February 1772. When he was seven his parents moved into +Edgefield district, South Carolina, and four years later into +Columbus county, Georgia. The death of his father in 1788 left +the family in reduced circumstances, and William made what he +could by teaching school for six years. He then studied at +Carmel Academy for two years, was principal, for a time, of one +of the largest schools in Augusta, and in 1798 was admitted to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>387</span> +bar. From 1800 to 1802, with Horatio Marbury, he prepared a +digest of the laws of Georgia from 1755 to 1800. From 1803 to +1807 he was a member of the State House of Representatives, +becoming during this period the leader of one of two personal-political +factions in the state that long continued in bitter +strife, occasioning his fighting two duels, in one of which he +killed his antagonist, and in the other was wounded in his wrist. +From 1807 to 1813 he was a member of the United States Senate, +of which he was president <i>pro tempore</i> from March 1812 to March +1813. In 1813 he declined the offer of the post of secretary of +war, but from that year until 1815 was minister to the court +of France. He was then secretary of war in 1815-1816, and +secretary of the treasury from 1816 to 1825. In 1816 in the +congressional caucus which nominated James Monroe for the +presidency Crawford was a strong opposing candidate, a +majority being at first in his favour, but when the vote was +finally cast 65 were for Monroe and 54 for Crawford. In 1824, +when the congressional caucus was fast becoming extinct, +Crawford, being prepared to control it, insisted that it should +be held, but of 216 Republicans only 66 attended; of these, 64 +voted for Crawford. Three other candidates, however, Andrew +Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and Henry Clay, were otherwise +put in the field. During the campaign Crawford was stricken +with paralysis, and when the electoral vote was cast Jackson +received 99, Adams 84, Crawford 41, and Clay 37. It remained +for the house of representatives to choose from Jackson, Adams +and Crawford, and through Clay’s influence Adams became +president. Crawford was invited by Adams to continue as +secretary of the treasury, but declined. He recovered his health +sufficiently to become (in 1827) a circuit judge in his own state, +but died while on circuit, in Elberton, Georgia, on the 15th of +September 1834. In his day he was undoubtedly one of the +foremost political leaders of the country, but his reputation has +not stood the test of time. He was of imposing presence and had +great conversational powers; but his inflexible integrity was not +sufficiently tempered by tact and civility to admit of his winning +general popularity. Consequently, although a skilful political +organizer, he incurred the bitter enmity of other leaders of his +time—Jackson, Adams and Calhoun. He won the admiration of +Albert Gallatin and others by his powerful support of the movement +in 1811 to recharter the Bank of the United States; he +earned the condemnation of posterity by his authorship in 1820 of +the four-years-term law, which limited the term of service of +thousands of public officials to four years, and did much to +develop the “spoils system.” He was a Liberal Democrat, and +advised the calling of a constitutional convention as preferable to +nullification or secession.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAWFORDSVILLE,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Montgomery +county, Indiana, U.S.A., situated about 40 m. N.W. of +Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 6089; (1900) 6649, including 230 +negroes and 221 foreign-born; (1910) 9371. It is served by the +Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, +Chicago & St Louis, and the Vandalia railways, and by interurban +electric lines. Wabash College, founded here in 1832 by Presbyterian +missionaries but now non-sectarian, had in 1908 27 +instructors, 345 students, and a library of 43,000 volumes. +Among manufactures are flour, iron, wagons and carriages, +acetylene lights, wire and nails, matches, brick paving blocks, and +electrical machinery. North-east of the city there are valuable +mineral springs, from which the city obtains its water-supply. +Crawfordsville, named in honour of W. H. Crawford, was first +settled about 1820, was laid out as a town in 1823, and was +chartered as a city in 1863. It was for many years the home of +Gen. Lew Wallace.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAWFURD, JOHN<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (1783-1868), Scottish orientalist, was +born in the island of Islay, Scotland, on the 13th of August 1783. +After studying at Edinburgh he became surgeon in the East India +Company’s service. He afterwards resided for some time at +Penang, and during the British occupation of Java from 1811 to +1817 his local knowledge made him invaluable to the government. +In 1821 he served as envoy to Siam and Cochin-China, and in +1823 became governor of Singapore. His last political service in +the East was a difficult mission to Burma in 1827. In 1861 he was +elected president of the Ethnological Society. He died at South +Kensington on the 11th of May 1868.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Crawfurd wrote a <i>History of the Indian Archipelago</i> (1820), <i>Descriptive +Dictionary of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries</i> +(1856), <i>Journal of an Embassy to the Court of Ava in 1827</i> (1829), +<i>Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochin-China, exhibiting +a view of the actual State of these Kingdoms</i> (1830), <i>Inquiry into +the System of Taxation in India, Letters on the Interior of India</i>, an +attack on the newspaper stamp-tax and the duty on paper entitled +<i>Taxes on Knowledge</i> (1836), and a valuable Malay grammar and +dictionary (1852).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAYER, GASPARD DE<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1582-1669), Flemish painter, was +born at Antwerp, and learnt the art of painting from Raphael +Coxcie. He matriculated in the guild of St Luke at Brussels in +1607, resided in the capital of Brabant till after 1660, and finally +settled at Ghent. Amongst the numerous pictures which he +painted in Ghent, one in the town museum represents the +martyrdom of St Blaise, and bears the inscription A° 1668 aet. +86. Crayer was one of the most productive yet one of the most +conscientious artists of the later Flemish school, second to +Rubens in vigour and below Vandyck in refinement, but nearly +equalling both in most of the essentials of painting. He was well +known and always well treated by Albert and Isabella, governors +of the Netherlands. The cardinal-infant Ferdinand made him a +court-painter. His pictures abound in the churches and museums +of Brussels and Ghent; and there is scarcely a country chapel in +Flanders or Brabant that cannot boast of one or more of his +canvases. But he was equally respected beyond his native +country; and some important pictures of his composition are to +be found as far south as Aix in Provence and as far east as +Amberg in the Upper Palatinate. His skill as a decorative artist +is shown in the panels executed for a triumphal arch at the entry +of Cardinal Ferdinand into the Flemish capital, some of which +are publicly exhibited in the museum of Ghent. Crayer died at +Ghent. His best works are the “Miraculous Draught of Fishes” +in the gallery of Brussels, the “Judgment of Solomon” in the +gallery of Ghent, and “Madonnas with Saints” in the Louvre, +the Munich Pinakothek, and the Belvedere at Vienna. His +portrait by Vandyck was engraved by P. Pontius.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAYFISH<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (Fr. <i>écrevisse</i>), the name of freshwater crustaceans +closely allied to and resembling the lobsters, and, like them, +belonging to the order Macrura. They are divided into two +families, the <i>Astacidae</i> and <i>Parastacidae</i>, inhabiting respectively +the northern and the southern hemispheres.</p> + +<p>The crayfishes of England and Ireland (<i>Astacus</i>, or <i>Potamobius</i>, +<i>pallipes</i>) are generally about 3 or 4 in. long, of a dull green or +brownish colour above and paler brown or yellowish below. They +are abundant in some rivers, especially where the rocks are of a +calcareous nature, sheltering under stones or in burrows which +they dig for themselves in the banks and coming out at night in +search of food. They are omnivorous feeders, killing and eating +insects, snails, frogs and other animals, and devouring any carrion +that comes in their way. It is stated that they sometimes come +on land in search of vegetable food.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:445px; height:292px" src="images/img387.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Crayfish (<i>Cambarus</i> sp.) from the Mississippi River. (After Morse.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>On the continent of Europe, <i>Astacus pallipes</i> occurs chiefly in +the west and south, being found in France, Spain, Italy and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388"></a>388</span> +Balkan Peninsula. It is known in France as <i>écrevisse à pattes +blanches</i> and in Germany as <i>Steinkrebs</i>, and is little used as food. +The larger <i>Astacus fluviatilis</i> (<i>écrevisse à pattes rouges</i>, <i>Edelkrebs</i>) +is not found in Britain, but occurs in France and Germany, +southern Sweden, Russia, &c. It is distinguished, among other +characters, by the red colour of the under side of the large claws. +It is the species most highly esteemed for the table. Other +species of the genus are found in central and eastern Europe and +as far east as Turkestan. Farther east a gap occurs in the +distribution and no crayfishes are met with till the basin of the +Amur is reached, where a group of species occurs, extending +into northern Japan. In North America, west of the Rocky +Mountains, the genus <i>Astacus</i> again appears, but east of the +watershed it is replaced by the genus <i>Cambarus</i>, which is represented +by very numerous species, ranging from the Great Lakes +to Mexico. Several blind species inhabit the subterranean +waters of caves. The best known is <i>Cambarus pellucidus</i>, +found in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky.</p> + +<p>The area of distribution occupied by the southern crayfishes or +<i>Parastacidae</i> is separated by a broad equatorial zone from that of +the northern group, unless, as has been asserted, the two come +into contact or overlap in Central America. None is found in any +part of Africa, though a species occurs in Madagascar. They are +absent also from the oriental region of zoologists, but reappear +in Australia and New Zealand. Some of the Australian species, +such as the “Murray River lobster” (<i>Astacopsis spinifer</i>), are of +large size and are used for food. In South America crayfishes +are found in southern Brazil, Argentina and Chile.</p> +<div class="author">(W. T. Ca.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRAYON<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (Fr. <i>craie</i>, chalk, from Lat. <i>creta</i>), a coloured material +for drawing, employed generally in the form of pencils, but +sometimes also as a powder, and consisting of native earthy and +stony friable substances, or of artificially prepared mixtures of a +base of pipe or china clay with Prussian blue, orpiment, vermilion, +umber and other pigments. Calcined gypsum, talc and compounds +of magnesium, bismuth and lead are occasionally used as +bases. The required shades of tints are obtained by adding +varying amounts of colouring matter to equal quantities of the +base. Crayons are used by the artist to make groupings of +colours and to secure landscape and other effects with ease and +rapidity. The outline as well as the rest of the picture is drawn in +crayon. The colours are softened off and blended by the finger, +with the assistance of a stump of leather or paper; and shading is +produced by cross-hatching and stippling. The art of painting in +crayon or pastel is supposed to have originated in Germany in the +17th century. By Johann Alexander Thiele (1685-1752) it was +carried to great perfection, and in France it was early practised +with much success. Amongst the earlier pastellists may be +mentioned Rosalba Carriera (1675-1757), W. Hoare (1707-1792), +F. Cotes (1726-1770), and J. Russell (1744-1806); and in recent +years the art has been successfully revived. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pastel</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREASY, SIR EDWARD SHEPHERD<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (1812-1878), English +historian, was born at Bexley in Kent, and educated at Eton +and King’s College, Cambridge. He became a fellow of King’s +College in 1834, and having been called to the bar at Lincoln’s +Inn three years later, was made assistant judge at the Westminster +sessions court. In 1840 he was appointed professor of +modern and ancient history in the university of London, and in +1860 became chief justice of Ceylon and a knight. Broken down +in health he returned to England in 1870, and after a further but +short stay in Ceylon died in London on the 27th of January 1878. +Creasy’s most popular work is his <i>Fifteen decisive Battles of the +World</i>, which, first published in 1851, has passed through many +editions. He also wrote <i>The History of the Ottoman Turks</i> +(London, 1854-1856); <i>History of England</i> (London, 1869-1870); +<i>Rise and Progress of the English Constitution</i> (London, 1853, and +other editions); <i>Historical and Critical Account of the several +Invasions of England</i> (London, 1852); a novel entitled <i>Old Love +and the New</i> (London, 1870); and various other works.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREATIANISM AND TRADUCIANISM.<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> Traducianism is the +doctrine about the origin of the soul which was taught by +Tertullian in his <i>De anima</i>—that souls are generated from souls +in the same way and at the same time as bodies from bodies: +creatianism is the doctrine that God creates a soul for each +body that is generated. The Pelagians taunted the upholders of +original sin with holding Tertullian’s opinion, and called them +Traduciani (from <i>tradux</i>: vid. Du Cange s. vv.), a name which was +perhaps suggested by a metaphor in <i>De an.</i> 19, where the soul is +described “velut surculus quidam ex matrice Adam in propaginem +deducta.” Hence we have formed “traducianist,” “traducianism,” +and by analogy “creatianist,” “creatianism.” Augustine +denied that traducianism was necessarily connected with the +doctrine of original sin, and to the end of his life was unable to +decide for or against it. His letter to Jerome (<i>Epist. Clas.</i> iii. +166) is a most valuable statement of his difficulties. Jerome +condemned it, and said that creatianism was the opinion of the +Church, though he admitted that most of the Western Christians +held traducianism. The question has never been authoritatively +determined, but creatianism, which had always prevailed in the +East, became the general opinion of the medieval theologians, +and Peter Lombard’s <i>creando infundit animas Deus et infundendo +creat</i> was an accepted formula. Luther, like Augustine, was +undecided, but Lutherans have as a rule been traducianists. +Calvin favoured creatianism.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Peter Lombard’s phrase perhaps shows that even in his time it +was felt that some union of the two opinions was needed, and +Augustine’s toleration pointed in the same direction, for the traducianism +he thought possible was one in which God <i>operatur institutas +administrando non novas instituendo naturas</i> (<i>Ep.</i> 166. 5. 11). +Modern psychologists teach that while “personality” can be discerned +in its “becoming,” nothing is known of its origin. Lotze, +however, who may be taken as representing the believers in the +immanence of the divine Being, puts forth—but as a “dim conjecture”—something +very like creatianism (<i>Microcosmus</i>, bk. iii. +chap. v. ad fin.). It is still, as in the days of Augustine, a question +whether a more exact division of man into body, soul <i>and spirit</i> may +help to throw light on this subject.</p> + +<p>See indices to <i>Augustine</i>, vol. xi., and <i>Jerome</i>, vol. xi. in Migne’s +<i>Patrologia</i>, s.v. “Anima”; Franz Delitzsch, <i>Biblical Psychology</i>, +ii. § 7; G. P. Fisher, <i>History of Chr. Doct.</i> pp. 187 ff.; A. Harnack, +<i>History of Dogma</i> (passim; see Index); Liddon, <i>Elements of +Religion</i>, Lect. iii.; Mason, <i>Faith of the Gospel</i>, iv. §§ 3, 4, 9, 10.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. N.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRÉBILLON, PROSPER JOLYOT DE<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (1674-1762), French +tragic poet, was born on the 13th of January 1674 at Dijon, +where his father, Melchior Jolyot, was notary-royal. Having +been educated at the Jesuits’ school of the town, and at the +Collège Mazarin, he became an advocate, and was placed in the +office of a lawyer named Prieur at Paris. With the encouragement +of his master, son of an old friend of Scarron’s, he produced +a <i>Mort des enfants de Brutus</i>, which, however, he failed to bring +upon the stage. But in 1705 he succeeded with <i>Idoménée</i>; in +1707 his <i>Atrée et Thyeste</i> was repeatedly acted at court; <i>Électre</i> +appeared in 1709; and in 1711 he produced his finest play, the +<i>Rhadamiste et Zénobie</i>, which is his masterpiece and held the +stage for a long period, although the plot is so complicated as +to be almost incomprehensible. But his <i>Xerxes</i> (1714) was only +once played, and his <i>Sémiramis</i> (1717) was an absolute failure. +In 1707 Crébillon had married a girl without fortune, who had +since died, leaving him two young children. His father also had +died, insolvent. His three years’ attendance at court had been +fruitless. Envy had circulated innumerable slanders against him. +Oppressed with melancholy, he removed to a garret, where he +surrounded himself with a number of dogs, cats and ravens, +which he had befriended; he became utterly careless of cleanliness +or food, and solaced himself with constant smoking. But in +1731, in spite of his long seclusion, he was elected member of the +French Academy; in 1735 he was appointed royal censor; and in +1745 Mme de Pompadour presented him with a pension of 1000 +francs and a post in the royal library. He returned to the stage +in 1726 with a successful play, <i>Pyrrhus</i>; in 1748 his <i>Catilina</i> was +played with great success before the court; and in 1754, when he +was eighty years old, appeared his last tragedy, <i>Le Triumvirat</i>. +Crébillon died on the 17th of June 1754. The enemies of Voltaire +maintained that Crébillon was his superior as a tragic poet. +The spirit of rivalry thus provoked induced Voltaire to take the +subjects of no less than five of Crébillon’s tragedies—<i>Sémiramis</i>, +<i>Électre</i>, <i>Catilina</i>, <i>Le Triumvirat</i>, <i>Atrée</i>—as subjects for tragedies +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>389</span> +of his own. The so-called <i>Éloge de Crébillon</i> (1762), really a +depreciation, which appeared in the year of the poet’s death, is +generally attributed to Voltaire, though he strenuously denied +the authorship. Crébillon’s drama is marked by a force too often +gained at the expense of scenes of unnatural horror; his pieces +show lack of culture and a want of care which displays itself even +in the mechanism of his verse, though fine isolated passages are +not infrequent.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are numerous editions of his works, among which may be +noticed: <i>Œuvres</i> (1772), with preface and “éloge,” by Joseph de la +Porte; <i>Œuvres</i> (1828), containing D’Alembert’s <i>Éloge de Crébillon</i> +(1775); and <i>Théâtre complet</i> (1885) with a notice by Auguste Vitu. +A complete bibliography is given by Maurice Dutrait, in his <i>Étude +sur la vie et le théâtre de Crébillon</i> (1895).</p> +</div> + +<p>His only son, <span class="sc">Claude Prosper Jolyot Crébillon</span> (1707-1777), +French novelist, was born at Paris on the 14th of February +1707. His life was spent almost entirely in Paris, but the +publication of <i>L’Écumoire, ou Tanzaï et Neadarné, histoire +japonaise</i> (1734), which contained veiled attacks on the bull +<i>Unigenitus</i>, the cardinal de Rohan and the duchesse du Maine, +brought Crébillon into disgrace. He was first imprisoned and +afterwards forced to live in exile for five years at Sens and +elsewhere. With Alexis Piron and Charles Collé he founded in +1752 the gay society which met regularly to dine at the famous +“Caveau,” where many good stories were elaborated. From +1759 onwards he was to be found at the Wednesday dinners of the +Pelletier, at which Garrick, Sterne and Wilkes were sometimes +guests. He married in 1748 an English lady of noble family, +Lady Henrietta Maria Stafford, who had been his mistress from +1744. Their life is said to have been passed in much affection +and mutual fidelity; and there could be no greater contrast than +that between Crébillon’s private life and the tone of his novels, +the immorality of which lent irony to the author’s tenure of the +office of censor, bestowed on him in 1759 through the favour of +Mme de Pompadour. He died in Paris on the 12th of April 1777. +The most famous of his numerous novels are: <i>Les Amours de +Zéokinizul, roi des Kofirans</i> (1740), in which “Zéokinizul” and +“Kofirans” may be translated Louis XIV. and the French +respectively; and <i>Le Sopha, conte moral</i> (1740), where the moral +is supplied in the title only. This last novel is given by some +authorities as the reason for his imprisonment.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Œuvres</i> were collected and printed in 1772. See a notice of +Crébillon prefixed to O. Uzanne’s edition of his <i>Contes dialogués</i> in +the series of <i>Conteurs du XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>. Crébillon’s novels might +be pronounced immoral to the last degree if it were not that two +writers slightly later in date surpassed even his achievements in this +particular. André Robert de Nerciat (1739-1800) produced under +a false name a number of licentious tales, and was followed by +Donatien, marquis de Sade.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRÈCHE<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (Fr. for a “crib” or cradle), the name given to a +day-nursery, a public institution for the feeding and care of +infants while the mothers are engaged in work outside their +homes, or are otherwise prevented from giving them proper +attention. Infants are usually admitted when over a month old, +and are kept till they are capable of looking after themselves. +The advantages of such institutions are that the attention of +skilled and trained nurses is given to the children, the food is +better and more adapted to their needs than that given in their +homes, the surroundings are cleaner and healthier, and habits of +discipline and cleanliness are instilled, which, in many cases, +react on the mothers. The nurseries are usually under medical +supervision, and the small fees charged, which average in London +from 3d. to 4d. a day, and on the continent of Europe about 2d., +are much less than the cost to the mother who places her young +children under the care of neighbours when at work or away from +home. Institutions of this kind were started in France in 1844, +and have been established in the majority of the large towns on +the continent of Europe. In the industrial centres of France and +Germany they have helped to check infantile mortality. The +state or municipality in nearly every case grants subsidies, but +few are maintained entirely by public authorities; voluntary +contributions are depended upon for the main support, and the +organization and management are left in the hands of private +societies and charitable institutions, although some outside +official supervision with regard to the number of infants +admitted to each institution, air-space, and ventilation and +general hygienic conditions is considered useful. In Great +Britain the establishment of such institutions has been left +almost entirely to private initiative; and in comparison with the +continent the provision is inadequate and unsatisfactory, Paris +having nearly double the proportion of accommodation for +infants to the population that is provided in London. The +National Society of Day Nurseries was founded in 1901 for the +purpose of providing a bureau where information may be found of +good methods of founding and managing a crèche.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Report of the Consultative Committee upon the School +Attendance of Children below the Age of Five</i>, issued by the Board of +Education (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRÉCY<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (Cressy), a town of northern France, in the department +of Somme, on the Maye, 12 m. N. by E. of Abbeville by road. +It is famous in history for the great victory gained here on the +26th of August 1346 by the English under Edward III. over the +French of King Philip of Valois. After its campaign in northern +France, the English army retired into Ponthieu, and encamped +on the 25th of August at Crécy, the French king in the meantime +marching from Abbeville on Braye. Early on the 26th Edward’s +army took up its position for battle, and Philip’s, hearing of this, +moved to attack him, though the French army marched in much +disorder, and on arrival formed only an imperfect line of battle. +The English lay on the forward slope of a hillside, with their +right in front of the village of Crécy, their left resting on +Wadicourt. Two of the three divisions or “battles” were in first +line, that of the young prince of Wales (the Black Prince) on the +right, that of the earls of Northampton and Arundel on the left; +the third, under the king’s own command, in reserve, and the +baggage was packed to the rear. Each battle consisted of a +centre of dismounted knights and men-at-arms, and two wings of +archers. The total force was 3900 men-at-arms, 11,000 English +archers, and 5000 Welsh light troops (Froissart, first edition, the +second gives a different estimate). The French were far stronger, +having at least 12,000 men-at-arms, 6000 mercenary crossbowmen +(Genoese), perhaps 20,000 of the <i>milice des communes</i>, besides a +certain number of foot of the feudal levy. Along with these +served a Luxemburg contingent of horse under John, king of +Bohemia, and other feudatories of the Holy Roman Empire, and +the whole force was probably about 60,000 strong.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:620px; height:470px" src="images/img389.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The day was far advanced when the French came upon the +English position. Philip, near Estrées, decided to halt and +bivouac, deferring the battle until the army was better closed up, +but the indiscipline of his army committed him to an immediate +action, and he ordered forward the Genoese crossbowmen, while a +line of men-at-arms deployed for battle behind them; the rest of +the army was still marching in an irregular column of route along +the road from Abbeville. A sudden thunderstorm caused a short +delay, then the archers and the crossbowmen opened the battle. +Here, for the first time in continental warfare, the English +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>390</span> +long-bow proved its worth. After a brief contest the crossbowmen, +completely outmatched, were driven back with enormous +loss. Thereupon the first line of French knights behind them +charged down upon the “faint-hearted rabble” of their own +fugitives, and soon the first two lines of the French were a mere +mob of horse and foot struggling with each other. The archers +did not neglect the opportunity, and shot coolly and rapidly into +the helpless target in front of them. The second attack was +made by another large body of knights which had arrived, and +served but to increase the number of the casualties, though here +and there a few charged up to the English line and fell near it, +among them the blind king of Bohemia, who with a party of +devoted knights penetrated, and was killed amongst, the ranks of +the prince of Wales’s men-at-arms. The battle was now one long +series of desperate but ill-conducted charges, a fresh onslaught +being made as each new corps of troops appeared on the scene. +The English archers on the flanks of the two first line battles had +been wheeled up, the centres of dismounted men-at-arms held +back, so that the whole line resembled a “herse” or harrow with +three points formed by the archers (see sketch). Each successive +body of the French sought to come to close quarters with the men-at-arms, +and exposed themselves therefore at short range to the +arrows on either flank. Under these circumstances there could +be but one issue of the battle. Though sixteen distinct attacks +were made, and the fighting lasted until long after dark, no +impression was made on the English line. At one moment the +prince was so far in danger that his barons sent to the king for +aid. Even then Edward was not disquieted and he sent a mere +handful of knights to the prince’s battle, saying, “Let the boy +win his spurs.” The left battle of the English, hitherto somewhat +to the rear, moved up into line with the prince, and the French +attack slackened. By midnight the army of France was practically +annihilated; 1542 men of gentle blood were left dead on +the field and counted by Edward’s heralds, the losses of the +remainder are unknown. Some fifty of the victors fell in the +battle. The story that the Black Prince adopted from the fallen +king of Bohemia the crest and motto now borne by the princes +of Wales lacks foundation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">John, King of Bohemia</a></span>). A +memorial to the French and their allies was erected, by public +subscription in France, Luxemburg and Bohemia, in 1905.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. B. George, <i>Battles of English History</i> (London, 1895), and +C. W. C. Oman, <i>A History of the Art of War; The Middle Ages</i> +(London, 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREDENCE,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Credence Table</span>, a small side-table, originally +an article of furniture placed near the high table in royal or noble +houses, at which the ceremony of the <i>praegustatio</i>, Italian +<i>credenziare</i>, the “assay” or tasting of food and drink for poisons +was performed by an official of the household, the <i>praegustator</i> +or <i>credentiarius</i> as he was called in Medieval Latin. Both the +ceremony and the table were known as <i>credentia</i> (Lat. <i>credere</i>, to +believe, trust), Ital. <i>credenza</i>, Fr. <i>crédence</i>. After the need for the +ceremony had disappeared the name still survived, and the table +developed a back and several shelves for the display of plate, and +gradually merged into the buffet (<i>q.v.</i>). It is, however, as an +article of ecclesiastical furniture that the credence table is most +familiar. It takes the form of a small table of wood or stone, +sometimes fixed and sometimes merely a shelf above or near the +piscina. It usually stands on the south or Epistle side of the +altar, and on it are placed, in the Roman Catholic Church, the +cruets containing the wine and water, the chalice, the candlesticks +to be carried by the acolytes, and other objects to be used in the +ceremony of the Mass. The use of such a table, to which earlier +the name of <i>paratorium</i> or <i>oblationarium</i> was given, appears to +have come into use when the personal presentation of the oblations +at the Mass became obsolete. When the pope celebrates +Mass a special credence table on the Gospel side of the altar is +used, and the ceremony of tasting for poison in the unconsecrated +elements is still observed. In some churches in England the old +credence tables still exist, as at the church of St Cross near +Winchester, where there is a fine stone 15th-century example; +more frequent are examples of the stone shelf near the piscina. +There are some carved wooden ones surviving, one type being +with a semicircular top and three legs placed in a triangle with a +lower shelf. The formal use of the credence table for the unconsecrated +elements and the holy vessels before the celebration +has been revived in the English Church.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREDENTIALS<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (<i>lettres de créance</i>), a document which +ambassadors, ministers plenipotentiary, and chargés d’affaires +hand to the government to which they are accredited, for the +purpose, chiefly, of communicating to the latter the envoy’s +diplomatic rank. It also contains a request that full credence be +accorded to his official statements. Until his credentials have +been presented and found in proper order, an envoy receives +no official recognition. The credentials of an ambassador or +minister plenipotentiary are signed by the chief of the state, those +of a chargé d’affaires by the foreign minister.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREDI, LORENZO DI<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1459-1537), Italian artist, whose +surname was Barducci, was born at Florence. He was the least +gifted of three artists who began life as journeymen with Andrea +del Verrocchio. Though he was the companion and friend of +Leonardo da Vinci and Perugino, and closely allied in style to +both, he had neither the genius of the one nor the facility of the +other. We admire in Da Vinci’s heads a heavenly contentment +and smile, in his technical execution great gloss and smoothness of +finish. Credi’s faces disclose a smiling beatitude; his pigments +have the polish of enamel. But Da Vinci imparted life to his +creations and modulation to his colours, and these are qualities +which hardly existed in Credi. Perugino displayed a well-known +form of tenderness in heads, moulded on the models of +the old Umbrian school. Peculiarities of movement and attitude +become stereotyped in his compositions; but when put on his +mettle, he could still exhibit power, passion, pathos. Credi often +repeated himself in Perugino’s way; but being of a pious and +resigned spirit, he generally embodied in his pictures a feeling +which is yielding and gentle to the verge of coldness. Credi had a +respectable local practice at Florence. He was consulted on most +occasions when the opinion of his profession was required on +public grounds, <i>e.g.</i> in 1491 as to the fronting, and in 1498 as to +the lantern of the Florentine cathedral, in 1504 as to the place +due to Michelangelo’s “David.” He never painted frescoes; at +rare intervals only he produced large ecclesiastical pictures. The +greater part of his time was spent on easel pieces, upon which he +expended minute and patient labour. But he worked with such +industry that numbers of his Madonnas exist in European +galleries. The best of his altar-pieces is that which represents the +Virgin and Child with Saints in the cathedral of Pistoia. A fine +example of his easel rounds is in the gallery of Mainz. Credi +rivalled Fra Bartolommeo in his attachment to Savonarola; but +he felt no inclination for the retirement of a monastery. Still, in +his old age, and after he had outlived the perils of the siege of +Florence (1527), he withdrew on an annuity into the hospital +of Santa Maria Nuova, where he died. The National Gallery, +London, has two pictures of the Virgin and Child by him.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREDIT<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (Lat. <i>credere</i>, to believe), in a general sense, belief or +trust. The word is used also to express the repute which a person +has, or the estimation in which he is held. In a commercial sense +credit is the promise to pay at a future time for valuable consideration +in the present: hence, a reputation of solvency and +ability to make such payments is also termed credit. In bookkeeping +credit is the side of the account on which payments are +entered; hence, sometimes, the payments themselves.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The part which credit plays in the production and exchange of +wealth is discussed in all economic text-books, but special reference +may be made to K. Knies, <i>Geld und Kredit</i> (1873-1879), and H. D. +Macleod, <i>Theory of Credit</i> (1889-1891). See also Hartley Withers, +<i>The Meaning of Money</i> (1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRÉDIT FONCIER,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> in France, an institution for advancing +money on mortgage of real securities. Due to a great extent to +the initiative of the economist L. Wolowski, it was created by +virtue of a governmental decree of the 28th of February 1852. +This decree empowered the issue of loans at a low rate of interest, +secured by mortgage bonds, extending over a long period, and +repayable by annuities, including instalments of capital. On its +inception it had a capital of 25,000,000 francs and took the title +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>391</span> +of Banque Foncière de Paris. The parent institution in Paris +was followed by similar institutions in Nevers and Marseilles. +These two were afterwards amalgamated with the first under the +title of Crédit Foncier de France. The capital was increased +to 60,000,000 francs, the government giving a subvention of +10,000,000 francs, and exercising control over the bank by +directly appointing the governor and two deputy-governors. The +administration was vested in a council chosen by the shareholders, +but its decisions have no validity without the approval of the +governor. The Crédit Foncier has the right to issue bonds, +repayable in fifty or sixty years, and bearing a fixed rate of +interest. A certain number of the bonds carry prizes. The +loans must not exceed half the estimated value of the property +mortgaged, upon which the bank has the first mortgage. The +bank also makes advances to local bodies, departmental and +communal, for short or long periods, and with or without +mortgage. Its capital amounts to £13,500,000. Its charter was +renewed in 1881 for a period of ninety-nine years.</p> + +<p>In 1860 the Crédit Foncier lent its support to the foundation of +an organization for supplying capital and credit for agricultural +and allied industries. This Crédit Agricole rendered but trifling +services to agriculture, however, and soon threw itself into +speculation. Between 1873 and 1876 it lent enormous sums to +the Egyptian government, obtaining the money by opening +credit with the Crédit Foncier and depositing with it the securities +of the Egyptian government. On the failure of the Egyptian +government to meet its payments the Crédit Agricole went into +liquidation, and the Crédit Foncier suffered severely in consequence. +The impracticability of the credit system to aid agriculture +as worked by the Crédit Agricole was very marked, and, +as a consequence, the financing of agricultural associations is +now entirely in the hands of the Banque de France.</p> + +<p>The <i>Crédit Mobilier</i> is an institution for advancing loans on +personal or movable estate. It was constituted in 1871, on the +liquidation of the Société Générale de Crédit Mobilier, founded in +1852, which it absorbed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRÉDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA,<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> a construction company +whose operations in connexion with the building of the Union +Pacific Railroad gave rise to the most serious political scandal in +the history of the United States Congress. The company was +originally chartered as the Pennsylvania Fiscal Agency in 1859. +In March 1864 a controlling interest in the stock was secured by +Thomas Durant, vice-president of the Union Pacific Railroad +Company, and the Pennsylvania legislature authorized the +adoption of the name Crédit Mobilier of America. Durant +proposed to utilize it as a construction company, pay it an +extravagant sum for the work, and thus secure for the stockholders +of the Union Pacific, who now controlled the Crédit +Mobilier, the bonds loaned by the United States government. +The net proceeds from the government and the first mortgage +bonds issued to the construction company were $50,863,172.05, +slightly more than enough to pay the entire cost of construction. +According to the report of the Wilson Congressional Committee, +the Crédit Mobilier received in addition, in the form of stock, +income bonds, and land grant bonds, $23,000,000—a profit of +about 48%. The defenders of the company assert that several +items of expense were not included in this report, and that the +real net profit was considerably smaller, although they admit +that it was still unusually large. The work extended over the +years 1865-1867. During the winter of 1867-1868, when adverse +legislation by Congress was feared, it is alleged that Oakes Ames +(<i>q.v.</i>), a representative from Massachusetts and principal promoter +of the Crédit Mobilier, distributed a number of shares among +congressmen and senators to influence their attitude. Shares +were sold at par when a few dividends repaid a purchaser at this +price. Some in fact received dividends without any initial outlay +at all. As the result of a lawsuit between Ames and H. S. +McComb, some private letters were brought out in September +1872 which gave publicity to the entire proceedings. The House +appointed two investigating committees, the Poland and the +Wilson committees, and on the report of the former (1873) Ames +and James Brooks of New York were formally censured by the +House, the former for disposing of the stock and the latter for +improperly using his official position to secure part of it. Charges +were also made against Schuyler Colfax, then vice-president but +Speaker of the House at the time of the transaction, James A. +Garfield, William D. Kelley (1814-1880), John A. Logan, and +several other members either of the House or of the Senate. The +Senate later appointed a special committee to investigate the +charges against its members. This committee, on the 27th of +February 1873, recommended the expulsion from the Senate of +James W. Patterson, of New Hampshire; but as his term expired +within five days no action was taken. The evidence was exaggerated +by the Democrats for partisan purposes, but the investigation +showed clearly that many of those accused were at least +indiscreet if not dishonest. The company itself was merely a +type of the construction companies by which it was the custom +to build railways between 1860 and about 1880.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. B. Crawford, <i>The Crédit Mobilier of America</i> (Boston, 1880), +and R. Hazard, <i>The Crédit Mobilier of America</i> (Providence, 1881), +both of which defend Ames; also the histories of the Union Pacific +Railroad Company by J. P. Davis (Chicago, 1894) and H. K. White +(Chicago, 1895); and for a succinct and impartial account, James +Ford Rhodes, <i>History of the United States</i>, vol. vii. (New York, 1906). +The Poland and Wilson reports are to be found in <i>House of Representatives +Reports</i>, 42nd Congress, 3rd session, Nos. 77 and 78, and the +report of the Senate Committee in <i>Senate Reports</i>, 42nd Congress, +3rd session, No. 519.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREDITON,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> a market town in the South Molton parliamentary +division of Devonshire, England, 8 m. N.W. of Exeter +by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district +(1901) 3974. It is situated in the narrow vale of the river +Creedy near its junction with the Exe, between two steep hills, +and is divided into two parts, the east or old town and the west +or new town. The church of Holy Cross, formerly collegiate, is +a noble Perpendicular building with Early English and other +early portions, and a fine central tower. The grammar school, +founded by Edward VI. and refounded by Elizabeth, has +exhibitions to Oxford and Cambridge universities. Shoe-making, +tanning, agricultural trade, tin-plating, and the manufacture +of confectionery and cider have superseded the former large +woollen and serge industries. In 1897 Crediton was made the +seat of a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Exeter.</p> + +<p>The first indication of settlement at Crediton (<i>Credington</i>, +<i>Cryditon</i>, <i>Kirton</i>) is the tradition that Winfrith or Boniface was +born there in 680. Perhaps in his memory (for the great extent +of the parish shows that it was thinly populated) it became in 909 +the seat of the first bishopric in Devonshire. It was probably +only a village in 1049, when Leofric, bishop of Crediton, requested +Leo IX. to transfer the see to Exeter, as Crediton was “an open +town and much exposed to the incursions of pirates.” At the +Domesday Survey much of the land was still uncultivated, but +its prosperity increased, and in 1269 each of the twelve prebends +of the collegiate church had a house and farmland within the +parish. The bishops, to whom the manor belonged until the +Reformation, had difficulty in enforcing their warren and other +rights; in 1351 Bishop Grandison obtained an exemplification of +judgments of 1282 declaring that he had pleas of withernam, +view of frank pledge, the gallows and assize of bread and ale. +Two years later there was a serious riot against the increase of +copyhold. Perhaps it was at this time that the prescriptive +borough of Crediton arose. The jury of the borough are +mentioned in 1275, and Crediton returned two members to +parliament in 1306-1307, though never afterwards represented. +A borough seal dated 1469 is extant, but the corporation is not +mentioned in the grant made by Edward VI. of the church to +twelve principal inhabitants. The borough and manor were +granted by Elizabeth to William Killigrew in 1595, but there is no +indication of town organization then or in 1630, and in the 18th +century Crediton was governed by commissioners. In 1231 the +bishop obtained a fair, still held, on the vigil, feast and morrow +of St Lawrence. This was important as the wool trade was +established by 1249 and certainly continued until 1630, when the +market for kersies is mentioned in conjunction with a saying “as +fine as Kirton spinning.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>392</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Rev. Preb. Smith, “Early History of Credition,” in <i>Devonshire +Association for the Advancement of Science, Literature and Art, +Transactions</i>, vol. xiv. (Plymouth, 1882); Richard J. King, “The +Church of St Mary and of the Holy Cross, Credition,” in <i>Exeter +Diocesan Architectural Society, Transactions</i>, vol. iv. (Exeter, 1878).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREDNER, CARL FRIEDRICH HEINRICH<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (1809-1876), +German geologist, was born at Waltershausen near Gotha, on +the 13th of March 1809. He investigated the geology of the +Thüringer Waldes, of which he published a map in 1846. He +was author of a work entitled <i>Über die Gliederung der oberen +Juraformation und der Wealden-Bildung im nordwestlichen +Deutschland</i> (Prague, 1863), also of a geological map of Hanover +(1865). He died at Halle on the 28th of September 1876.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Carl Hermann Credner</span> (1841-  ), was born at +Gotha on the 1st of October 1841, educated at Breslau and +Göttingen, and took the degree of Ph.D. at Breslau in 1864. In +1870 he was appointed professor of geology in the university of +Leipzig, and in 1872 director of the Geological Survey of Saxony. +He is author of numerous publications on the geology of Saxony, +and of an important work, <i>Elemente der Geologie</i> (2 vols., 1872; +7th ed., 1891), regarded as the standard manual in Germany. +He has also written memoirs on Saurians and Labyrinthodonts.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREE,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. +They are still a considerable tribe, numbering some 15,000, and +living chiefly in Manitoba and Assiniboia, about Lake Winnipeg +and the Saskatchewan river. They gave trouble by their +constant attacks upon the Sioux and Blackfeet, but are now +peaceable and orderly.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Handbook of American Indians</i> (Washington, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREECH, THOMAS<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (1659-1700), English classical scholar, +was born at Blandford, Dorsetshire, in 1659. He received his +early education from Thomas Curgenven, master of Sherborne +school. In 1675 he entered Wadham College, Oxford, and +obtained a fellowship in 1683 at All Souls’. He was headmaster +of Sherborne school from 1694 to 1696, and in 1699 he received +a college living, but in June 1700 he hanged himself. The +immediate cause of the act was said to be a money difficulty, +though according to some it was a love disappointment; both +of these circumstances no doubt had their share in a catastrophe +primarily due to an already pronounced melancholia. Creech’s +fame rests on his translation of Lucretius (1682) in rhymed +heroic couplets, in which, according to Otway, the pure ore of the +original “somewhat seems refined.” He also published a version +of Horace (1684), and translated the <i>Idylls of Theocritus</i> (1684), +the <i>Thirteenth Satire</i> of Juvenal (1693), the <i>Astronomicon</i> of +Manilius (1697), and parts of Plutarch, Virgil and Ovid.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREEDS<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (Lat. <i>credo</i>, I believe), or <span class="sc">Confessions of Faith</span>. We +are accustomed to regard the whole conception of creeds, <i>i.e.</i> +reasoned statements of religious belief, as inseparably connected +with the history of Christianity. But the new study of comparative +religion has something to teach us even here. The +saying <i>lex orandi lex credendi</i> is true of all times and of all peoples. +And since we must reckon praise as the highest form of prayer, +such an early Christian hymn as is found in 1 Tim. iii. 16 must be +acknowledged to be of the nature of a creed: “He who was +manifested in the flesh, justified in the spirit, seen of angels, +preached among the nations, believed on in the world, received up +in glory.” It justifies the expansion of the second article of the +developed Christian creed from the standpoint of the earliest +Christian tradition. It also supplies a reason for including in our +survey of creeds some reference to pre-Christian hymns and +beliefs. The pendulum has swung back. Rather than despise +the faulty presentation of truth which we find in heathen religions +and their more or less degraded rites, we follow the apostle +Paul in his endeavour to trace in them attempts “to feel after +God” (Acts vii. 27). Augustine, the great teacher of the West, +was true to the spirit of the great Alexandrians, when he wrote +(<i>Ep.</i> 166): “Let every good and true Christian understand that +truth, wherever he finds it, belongs to <i>his</i> Lord.”</p> + +<p>We are not concerned with the question whether the earliest +forms of recorded religious consciousness such as animism, or +totemism, or fetishism, were themselves degradations of a +primitive revelation or not.<a name="FnAnchor_1k" id="FnAnchor_1k" href="#Footnote_1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> We are only concerned with the +fact of experience that the human soul yearns to express its +belief. The hymn to the rising and setting sun in the <i>Book of the +Dead</i> (ch. 15), which is said by Egyptologists to be the oldest +poem in the world, carries us back at once to the dawn of +history.</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Hail to thee, Ra, the self-existent.... Glorious is</p> +<p class="i05">thine uprising from the horizon. Both worlds are</p> +<p class="i05">illumined by thy rays.... Hail to thee, Ra, when thou</p> +<p class="i05">returnest home in renewed beauty, crowned and almighty.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>In a later hymn Amen-Ra is confessed as “the good god +beloved, maker of men, creator of beasts, maker of things below +and above, lord of mercy most loving.” A similar note is struck +in the Indian Vedas. In the more ethical religion of the Avesta +the creator is more clearly distinguished from the creature: “I +desire to approach Ahura and Mithra with my praise, the lofty +eternal, and the holy two.”<a name="FnAnchor_2k" id="FnAnchor_2k" href="#Footnote_2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The Persian poet is not far from +the kingdom into which Hebrew psalmists and prophets entered.</p> + +<p>The whole history of the Jewish religion is centred in the +gradual purification of the idea of God. The morality of the Jews +did not outgrow their religion, but their interest was always +ethical and not speculative. The highest strains of the psalmists +and the most fervent appeals of the prophets were progressively +directed to the great end of praising and preaching the One true +God, everlasting, with sincere and pure devotion. The creed of +the Jew, to this day, is summed up in the well-remembered words, +which have been ever on his lips, living or dying: “Hear, O +Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord” (Deut. vi. 4).</p> + +<p>The definiteness and persistence of this creed, which of course +is the strength also of Mahommedanism, presents a contrast to +the fluid character of the statements in the Vedas, and to the +chaos of conflicting opinions of philosophers among the Greeks +and Romans. As Dr J. R. Illingworth has said very concisely: +“The physical speculations of the Ionians and Atomists rendered +a God superfluous, and the metaphysical and logical reasoning of +the Eleatics declared Him to be unknowable.”<a name="FnAnchor_3k" id="FnAnchor_3k" href="#Footnote_3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Plato regarding +the world as an embodiment of eternal, archetypal ideas, which he +groups under the central idea of Good, identified with the divine +reason, at the same time uses the ordinary language of the day, +and speaks of God and the gods, feeling his way towards the +conception of a personal God, which, to quote Dr Illingworth +again, neither he nor Aristotle could reach because they had not +“a clear conception of human personality.” They were followed +by an age of philosophizing which did little to advance speculation. +The Stoics, for example, were more successful in criticizing +the current creed than in explaining the underlying truth which +they recognized in polytheism. The final goal of Greek philosophy +was only reached when the great thinkers of the early Christian +Church, who had been trained in the schools of Alexandria and +Athens, used its modes of thought in their analysis of the Christian +idea of God. “In this sense the doctrine of the Trinity was the +synthesis, and summary, of all that was highest in the Hebrew +and Hellenic conceptions of God, fused into union by the electric +touch of the Incarnation.”<a name="FnAnchor_4k" id="FnAnchor_4k" href="#Footnote_4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>Space does not permit enlargement on this theme, but enough +has been said to introduce the direct study of the ancient creeds +of Christendom.</p> + +<p>I. <span class="sc">The Ancient Creeds of Christendom.</span>—The three creeds +which may be called oecumenical, although the measure of +their acceptance by the universal church has not been uniform, +represent three distinct types provided for the use of the catechumen, +the communicant, and the church teacher respectively. +The Apostles’ Creed is the ancient baptismal creed, held in +common both by East and West, in its final western form. +The Nicene Creed is the baptismal creed of an eastern church +enlarged in order to combine theological interpretation with +the facts of the historic faith. Its use in the Eucharist of the +undivided Church has been continued since the great schism, +although the Eastern Church protests against the interpolation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>393</span> +of the words “And the Son” in clause 9. The Athanasian Creed +is an instruction designed to confute heresies which were current +in the 5th century.</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Apostles’ Creed.</i>—The increased interest which has been +shown in the history of all creed-forms since the latter part of the +19th century is due in a great measure to the work of +the veteran pioneer, Professor P. Caspari of Christiania, +<span class="sidenote">Apostles’ Creed.</span> +who began the herculean task of classifying the +enormous number of creed-forms which have been recovered +from obscure pages of early Christian literature. In England +we owe much to Professors C. A. Heurtley and Swainson. In +Germany the monumental work of Professor Kattenbusch has +overshadowed all other books on the subject, providing even his +most ardent critics with an indispensable record of the literature +of the subject.</p> + +<p>The majority of critics agree that the only trace of a formal +creed in the New Testament is the simple confession of Jesus as +the Lord, <i>or</i> the Son of God (Rom. x. 9; 1 Cor. xii. 3). While the +apostles were agreed on an outline of teaching (Rom. vi. 17) +which included the doctrine of God, the person and work of +Christ, and the person and work of the Holy Spirit, it does not +appear that they provided any summary, which would cover +this ground, as an authoritative statement of their belief. The +tradition which St Paul received included, so to speak, the +germ of the central prayer in the Eucharist (1 Cor. xi. 23 ff.), and +no doubt included also teaching on conduct, “the way of a +Christian life” (1 Thess. iv. 1; Gal. v. 21). The creed in all its +forms lies behind worship, which it preserves from idolatry, and +behind ethics, to which it supplies a motive power which the +pre-Christian system so manifestly lacked. Whether the first +creed of the primitive Church was of the simple Christological +character which confession of Jesus as the Lord expresses, or of +an enlarged type based on the baptismal formula (Matt. xxviii. +19), makes no difference to the statement that the faith which +overcame the world derived its energy from convictions which +strove for utterance. “With the heart man believeth unto +righteousness, and with the mouth confession is made unto +salvation” (Rom. x. 10).</p> + +<p>When St Paul reminds Timothy (1 Tim. vi. 13) of his confession +before many witnesses he does not seem to imply more than +confession of Christ as king. He calls it “the beautiful confession” +to which Christ Jesus had borne witness before Pontius +Pilate, and charges Timothy before God, who quickeneth all +things, to keep this commandment. Some writers, notably +Professor Zahn,<a name="FnAnchor_5k" id="FnAnchor_5k" href="#Footnote_5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> piecing together this text with 2 Tim. i. 13, ii. 8, +iv. 1, 2, reconstructs a primitive Apostles’ Creed of Antioch, the +city from which St Paul started on his missionary journeys. But +there is no mention of a third article in the creed, beyond a +reference to the Holy Ghost in the context of 2 Tim. i. 14, which +would prove the apostolic use of a Trinitarian confession imaginable +as the parent of the later Eastern and Western forms. The +eunuch’s creed interpolated in Acts viii. 57, “I believe that +Jesus is the Son of God,” since the reading was known to +Irenaeus, probably represents the form of baptismal confession +used in some church of Asia Minor, and supplies us with the type +of a primitive creed. This theory is confirmed by the evidence +of the Johannine epistles (1 John iv. 15, v. 5; cf. Heb. iv. 14).</p> + +<p>From this point of view it is easy to explain the occurrence of +creed-like phrases in the New Testament as fragments of early +hymns (1 Tim. iii. 16) or reminiscences of oral teaching (1 Cor. xv. +1 ff.). The following form which Seeberg gives as the creed of St +Paul is an artificial combination of fragments of oral teaching, +which naturally reappear in the teaching of St Peter, but finds no +attestation in the later creeds of particular churches which +would prove its claim to be their parent form:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The living God who created all things sent His Son Jesus Christ, +born of the seed of David, who died for our sins according to the +scriptures, and was buried, who was raised on the third day according +to the scriptures, and appeared to Cephas and the XII., who sat at the +right hand of God in the heavens, all rule and authority and power +being made subject unto Him, and is coming on the clouds of heaven +with power and great glory.”</p> +</div> + +<p class="noind">The evidence of the apostolic fathers is disappointing. Clement +(<i>Cor.</i> lviii. 2) supplies only parallels to the baptismal formula +(Matt. xxviii. 19). Polycarp (<i>Ep.</i> 7) echoes St John. But +Ignatius might seem to offer in the following passage some +confirmation of Zahn’s theory of a primitive creed of Antioch +(<i>Trall.</i> 9): “Be ye deaf, therefore, when any man speaketh to you +apart from Jesus Christ, who was of the race of David, who was +the Son of Mary, who was truly born and ate and drank, was +truly persecuted under Pontius Pilate, was truly crucified and +died in the sight of those in heaven and those on earth and those +under the earth; who, moreover, was truly raised from the dead, +His Father having raised Him, who in the like fashion will so +raise us also who believe on Him—His Father, I say, will raise us—in +Christ Jesus, apart from whom we have not true life.”</p> + +<p>The differences, however, which divide this from the later +creed forms are scarcely less noticeable than their agreement, +and the evidence of the Ignatian epistles generally (<i>Eph</i>. xviii.; +<i>Smyrn.</i> i.), while it confirms the conclusion that instruction was +given in Antioch on all points characteristic of the developed +creed, <i>e.g.</i> the Miraculous Birth, Crucifixion, Resurrection, the +Catholic Church, forgiveness of sins, the hope of resurrection, +does not prove that this teaching was as yet combined in a +Trinitarian form which classified the latter clauses under the +work of the Holy Ghost.</p> + +<p>At this point a word must be said on the important question of +interpretation. While we may hope for eventual agreement on +the history of the different types of creed forms, there can be no +hope of agreement on the interpretation of the words Holy Spirit +between Unitarian and Trinitarian critics. Writers who follow +Harnack explain “holy spirit” as the gift of impersonal influence, +and between wide limits of difference agree in regarding Christ as +Son of God by adoption and not by nature. Amid the chaos of +conflicting opinions as to the original teaching of Jesus, the +Gospel within the Gospel, the central question “What think ye +of Christ?” emerges as the test of all theories. “No man can +say that Jesus is the Lord save in the Holy Ghost” (1 Cor. xii. 3). +Belief in the fact of the Incarnation of the eternal Word, as it is +stated in the words of Ignatius quoted above, or in any of the +later creeds, stands or falls with belief in the Holy Ghost as the +guide alike of their convictions and destinies, no mere impersonal +influence, but a living voice.</p> + +<p>If the essence of Christianity is winnowed down to a bare +imitation of the Man Jesus, and his religion is accepted as +Buddhists accept the religion of Buddha, still it cannot be +denied that the early Christians put their trust in Christ rather +than his religion. “I am the life,” not “I teach the life,” “I am +the truth,” not merely “I teach the truth,” are not additions of +Johannine theology but the central aspect of the presentation of +Christ as the good physician, healer of souls and bodies, which the +most rigid scrutiny of the Synoptic Gospels leaves as the residuum +of accepted fact about Jesus of Nazareth. To say more would be +out of place in this article, but enough has been said to introduce +the exhaustive discussion by Kattenbusch (ii. 471-728) of the +meaning of the theological teaching both of the New Testament +and of the earliest creeds.</p> + +<p>To return within our proper limits. Kattenbusch, with whom +Harnack is in general agreement, regards the Old Roman Creed, +which comes to light in the 4th century, as the parent of all +developed forms, whether Eastern or Western. Marcellus, the +exiled bishop of Ancyra, is quoted by Epiphanius as presenting +it to Bishop Julius of Rome c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 340. Ussher’s recognition of +the fact that this profession of faith by Marcellus was the creed of +Rome, not of Ancyra, is the starting-point of modern discussions +of the history of the creeds. Some sixty years later Rufinus, a +priest of Aquileia, wrote a commentary on the creed of his native +city and compared it with the Roman Creed. His Latin text is +probably as ancient as the Greek text of Marcellus, because the +Roman Church must always have been bilingual in its early days. +It was as follows:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>394</span></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">I.</td> <td class="tcl"> 1. I believe in God (the) Father almighty;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">II.</td> <td class="tcl"> 2. And in Christ Jesus His only Son our Lord,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl"> 3. who was born of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl"> 4. crucified under Pontius Pilate and buried</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl"> 5. the third day He rose from the dead,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl"> 6. He ascended into heaven,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl"> 7. sitteth at the right hand of the Father,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl"> 8. thence He shall come to judge living and dead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">III.</td> <td class="tcl"> 9. And in the Holy Ghost,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl">10. (the) holy Church,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl">11. (the) remission of sins,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl">12. (the) resurrection of the flesh.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>This Old Roman Creed may be traced back in the writings of +Bishops Felix and Dionysus (3rd century), and in the writings of +Tertullian in the 2nd century.</p> + +<p>Tertullian calls the creed the “token” which the African +Church shares with the Roman (<i>de Praescr.</i> 36): “The Roman +Church has made a common token with the African Churches, has +recognized one God, creator of the universe, and Christ Jesus, of +the Virgin Mary, Son of God the Creator, and the resurrection of +the flesh.” The reference is to the earthenware token which two +friends broke in order that they might commend a stranger for +hospitality by sending with him the broken half. Their creed +became the passport by which Christians in strange cities could +obtain admission to assemblies for worship and to common meals. +The passage quoted is obviously a condensed quotation of the +Roman Creed, which reappears also in the following (<i>de Virg. +vel.</i> i.):</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The rule of faith is one altogether ... of believing in one God +Almighty, maker of the world, and in His Son Jesus Christ, born of +Mary the Virgin, crucified under Pontius Pilate; the third day +raised from the dead, received in the heavens, sitting now at the +right hand of the Father, about to come and judge quick and dead +through the resurrection also of the flesh.”</p> +</div> + +<p>There are many references in Tertullian to the teaching of the +Gnostic Marcion, whose breach with the Roman Church may be +dated <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 145. He seems to have still held to the Roman +creed interpreted in his own way. An ingenious conjecture by +Zahn enables us to add the words “holy Church” to our reconstruction +of the creed from the writings of Tertullian. In his +revised New Testament Marcion speaks of “the covenant which +is the mother of us all, which begets us in the holy Church, to +which we have vowed allegiance.” He uses a word used by +Ignatius of the oath taken on confession of the Christian faith. +It follows that the words “holy Church” were contained in the +Roman Creed.<a name="FnAnchor_6k" id="FnAnchor_6k" href="#Footnote_6k"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p> + +<p>While all critics agree in tracing back this form to the earliest +years of the 2nd century, and regard it as the archetype of all +similar Western creeds, there is great diversity of opinion on its +relation to Eastern forms. Kattenbusch maintains that the +Roman Creed reached Gaul and Africa in the course of the 2nd +century, and perhaps all districts of the West that possessed +Christian congregations, also the western end of Asia Minor +possibly in connexion with Polycarp’s visit to Rome <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 154. +He finds that materials fail for Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, +Syria, Palestine, Egypt. Further, he holds that all the Eastern +creeds which are known to us as existing in the 4th century, or +may be traced back to the 3rd, lead to Antioch as their starting-point. +He concludes that the Roman Creed was accepted at +Antioch after the fall of Paul of Samosata in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 272, and was +adapted to the dogmatic requirements of the time, all the later +creeds of Palestine, Asia Minor and Egypt being dependent on it.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, Kunze, Loofs, Sanday, and Zahn find +evidence of the existence of an Eastern type of creed of equal +or greater antiquity and distinguished from the Roman by such +phrases as “One” (God), “Maker of heaven and earth,” +“suffered,” “shall come again in glory.” Thus Kunze reconstructs +a creed of Antioch for the 3rd century, and argues that it +is independent of the Roman Creed.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Creed of Antioch.</i></p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">I.</td> <td class="tcl2"> 1. I believe in one and one only true God, Father Almighty, + maker of all things, visible and invisible.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">II.</td> <td class="tcl2"> 2. And in our Lord Jesus Christ, His Son, the only-begotten and + first born of all creation, begotten of Him before all the + ages, through whom also the ages were established, and all + things came into existence;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl2"> 3. Who for our sakes, came down, and was born of Mary the Virgin.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl2"> 4. And crucified under Pontius Pilate, and buried,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl2"> 5. And the third day rose according to the scriptures,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl2"> 6. and ascended into heaven.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl2"> 7.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl2"> 8. And is coming again to judge quick and dead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl2"> 9. [The beginning of the third article has not been recorded.]</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl2">10.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl2">11. Remission of sins.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl2">12. Resurrection of the dead, life everlasting.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Along similar lines Loofs selects phrases as typical of creeds +which go back to a date preceding the Nicene Council.</p> + +<p>A. Creed of Eusebius of Caesarea, presented to the Nicene Council.</p> +<p>B. Revised Creed of Cyril of Jerusalem.</p> +<p>C. Creed of Antioch quoted by Cassian.</p> +<p>D. Creed of Antioch quoted in the Apostolic Constitutions.</p> +<p>E. Creed of Lucian the Martyr (Antioch).</p> +<p>F. Creed of Arius (Alexandria).</p> + +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<table class="reg f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr"> 1.</td> <td class="tcl">One (God), A, B, C, D, E, F.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl">Maker of heaven and earth and of all things visible and + invisible (or a like phrase), A, B, C, D, E.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> 2.</td> <td class="tcl">Lord Jesus Christ, His Son, the only begotten (or a like + phrase), A, B, C, D, E, F.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> 3.</td> <td class="tcl">Crucified under Pontius Pilate, B, C, D (A, E, F omit because + they are theological creeds. Loofs thinks that the baptismal + creeds on which they are based may have contained the words).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> 5.</td> <td class="tcl">Rose the third day, A, B, D, E (F omits “the third day” being + a theological creed; the translation of C is uncertain).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> 6.</td> <td class="tcl">Went up, A, B, D, E, F.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl">+ and ... and ... and, A, B, C, D, E, F.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> 8.</td> <td class="tcl">And is coming, B, C, D, E, F; and is about to come, A;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl">+ again, A, C, D, E, F(B?); + in glory, A, B; with glory, D, E.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">10.</td> <td class="tcl">+ Catholic, B, D, F (A, C, E?)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">12.</td> <td class="tcl">+ life eternal, B, C; + life of the age to come, D, F.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="noind">Sanday (<i>Journal Theol. Studies</i>, iii. 1) does not attempt a reconstruction +on this elaborate scale, but contents himself with +pointing out evidence, which Kattenbusch seems to him to have +missed, for the existence of creeds of Egypt, Cappadocia and +Palestine before the time of Aurelian. He criticizes Harnack’s +theory that there existed in the East, that is, in Asia Minor, or in +Asia Minor and Syria as far back as the beginning of the 2nd +century, a Christological instruction (<span class="grk" title="mathêma">μάθημα</span>) organically related +to the second article of the Roman Creed, and formulas which +taught that the “One God” was “Creator of heaven and earth,” +and referred to the holy prophetic spirit, and lasted on till they +influenced the course of creed-development in the 4th century. +He asks, is it not simpler to believe that there was a definite type +in the background?</p> + +<p>Another English student, the Rev. T. Barns, engaged specially +in work upon the history of the creed of Cappadocia, points out +the importance of the extraordinary influence of Firmilian of +Caesarea in the affairs of the church of Antioch in the early part +of the 3rd century. He is led to argue that the creed of Antioch +came rather from Cappadocia than Rome. Whether his conclusion +is justified or not, it helps to show how strongly the trend +of contemporary research is setting against the theory of Kattenbusch +that the Roman Creed when adopted at Antioch became +the parent of all Eastern forms. It does not, however, militate +against the possibility that the Roman Creed was carried from +Rome to Asia Minor and to Palestine in the 2nd century. It is +evidently impossible to arrive at a final decision until much more +spade work has been done in the investigation of early Eastern +creeds. Connolly’s study of the early Syrian creed (<i>Zeitschrift +für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft</i>, 1906, p. 202) deserves +careful consideration. His reconstruction of the creed of +Aphraates is interesting in relation to the other traces of a +Syriac creed form existing prior to the 4th century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>[I believe] in God the Lord of all, that made the heavens and the +earth and the seas and all that in them is; [And in our Lord Jesus +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>395</span> +Christ] [the Son of God,] God, Son of God, King, Son of the King, +Light from Light, (Son and Counsellor, and Guide, and Way, and +Saviour, and Shepherd, and Gatherer, and Door, and Pearl, and +Lamb,) and first-born of all creatures, who came and put on a body +from Mary the Virgin (of the seed of the house of David, from the +Holy Spirit), and put on our manhood, and suffered, <i>or</i> and was +crucified, went down to the place of the dead, <i>or</i> to Sheol, and lived +again, and rose the third day, and ascended to the height, <i>or</i> to +heaven, and sat on the right hand of His Father, and He is the Judge +of the dead and of the living, who sitteth on the throne; [And in the +Holy Spirit;] [And I believe] in the coming to life of the dead; +[and] in the mystery of Baptism (of the remission of sins).</p> +</div> + +<p>The probable battle-ground of the future between the opposing +theories lies in the writings of Irenaeus. He has most of +the characteristic expressions of the Eastern creeds. He inserts +“one” in clause 1 and 2. He has the phrases “Maker of heaven +and earth,” “suffered,” and “crucified,” with “under Pontius +Pilate” after instead of before it. Probably also he had “in +glory” in clause 8. But there is always the possibility to be faced +that Irenaeus drew his creed from Rome rather than Asia Minor. +Kattenbusch does not shrink from suggesting that he shows +acquaintance with the Roman Creed, and that Justin Martyr +also knew it, in which case all the so-called Eastern characteristics +have been imprinted on the original Roman form, and are not +derived from an Eastern archetype. But the ordinary reader need +not feel concern about the future victory of either theory. The +plain fact is that the same facts were taught in Palestine, Asia +Minor and Gaul, whether gathered up in a parallel creed form +or not. The contrast which Rufinus draws between the Roman +Creed and others, both of the East and the West, is justified. +In comparison with them it was guarded more carefully from +change.<a name="FnAnchor_7k" id="FnAnchor_7k" href="#Footnote_7k"><span class="sp">7</span></a> We have yet to inquire how it received the additions +which distinguish the derived form now in use as the baptismal +creed of all Western Christendom. Some had already found an +entrance into Western creeds. We find “suffered” in the creed +of Milan, “descended into hell” in the creed of Aquileia, the +Danubian lands and Syria; the words “God” and “almighty” +were shortly added to clause 7 in the Spanish creed; “life +everlasting” had stood from an early date in the African creed. +The creed of Caesarius of Arles (d. 543) proves that these variations +had all been united in one Gallican creed together with +“catholic” and “communion of saints,” but this Gallican form +still lacked “Maker of heaven and earth” and the additions in +clause 7.</p> + +<p>Two newly-discovered creeds help us greatly to narrow down +the limits of the problem. The creed of Niceta of Remesiana in +Dacia proves that c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400 the Dacian church had added to the +Roman Creed “maker of heaven and earth,” “suffered,” “dead,” +“Catholic,” “communion of saints” and “life everlasting.” +Parallel to it is the Faith of St Jerome discovered in 1903 by +Dom. Morin.<a name="FnAnchor_8k" id="FnAnchor_8k" href="#Footnote_8k"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="center pt2"><i>The Faith of St Jerome</i>.</p> + +<p>“I believe in one God the Father almighty, maker of things +visible and invisible. I believe in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son +of God, born of God, God of God, Light of Light, almighty of +almighty, true God of true God, born before the ages, not made, +by whom all things were made in heaven and in earth. Who +for our salvation descended from heaven, was conceived of the +Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered by suffering under +Pontius Pilate, under Herod the King, crucified, buried, descended +into hell, trod down the sting of death, rose again the third day, +appeared to the apostles. After this He ascended into heaven, +sitteth at the right of God the Father, thence shall come to judge +the quick and the dead. And I believe in the Holy Ghost, God not +unbegotten nor begotten, not created nor made, but +co-eternal with +the Father and the Son. I believe (that there is) remission of sins +in the holy catholic church, communion of saints, resurrection of +the flesh unto eternal life. Amen.”</p> +</div> + +<p class="noind">This creed may be the form which Jerome mentions in one of his +letters (<i>Ep.</i> 17, n. 4) as sent to Cyril of Jerusalem. It is important +as connecting the creeds of East and West. Since Jerome was +born in Pannonia we may conjecture that he is inserting Nicene +phrases from the Jerusalem creed into his baptismal creed, and +that this form added to Niceta’s creed proves that the creed of +the Danube lands possessed the clauses “maker of heaven and +earth” and “communion of saints.”</p> + +<p>The first occurrence of the completed form is in a treatise +(<i>Scarapsus</i>) of the Benedictine missionary Pirminius, abbot of +Reichenau (c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 730). The difficulty hitherto has been to +trace the source from which the clause “maker of heaven and +earth” has come into it. It has been known that the forms in use +in the south of France approximated to it but without those +words. In the 6th century we find creed forms in use in Gaul +which include them, but include also other variations distinguishing +them from the form which we seek. The missing link which +has hitherto been lacking in the evidence has been found by +Barns in the influence of Celtic missionaries who streamed +across from Europe until they came in touch with the remnants +of the Old Latin Christianity of the Danube. The chief documents +of the date <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 700, which contain forms almost identical with +the received text, are connected with monasteries founded by +Columban and his friends: Bobbio, Luxeuil, S. Gallen, Reichenau. +From one of these monasteries the received text seems to have +been taken to Rome. Certainly it was from Rome that it was +spread. We can trace the use of the received text along the line +of the journeys both of Pirminius and Boniface, and there is +little doubt that they received it from the Roman Church, with +which Boniface was in frequent communication. Pope Gregory +II. sent him instructions to use what seems to have been an +official Roman order of Baptism, which would doubtless include a +Roman form of creed. Pirminius, who was far from being an +original writer, made great use of a treatise by Martin of Braga, +but substituted a Roman form of Renunciation, and refers to the +Roman rite of Unction in a way which leads us to suppose that the +form of creed which he substituted for Martin’s form was also +Roman. It seems clear, therefore, that the received text was +either made or accepted in Rome, c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 700, and disseminated +through the Benedictine missionaries. At the end of the 8th +century Charlemagne inquired of the bishops of his empire as to +current forms. The reply of Amalarius of Trier is important +because it shows that he not only used the received text, but also +connected it with the Roman order of Baptism. The emperor’s +wish for uniformity doubtless led in a measure to its eventual +triumph over all other forms.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Nicene Creed</i> of the liturgies, often called the Constantinopolitan +creed, is the old baptismal creed of Jerusalem revised +by the insertion of Nicene terms. The idea that the +council merely added to the last section has been +<span class="sidenote">Nicene Creed.</span> +disproved by Hort’s famous dissertation in 1876.<a name="FnAnchor_9k" id="FnAnchor_9k" href="#Footnote_9k"><span class="sp">9</span></a> +The text of the creed of the Nicene Council was based on the +creed of Eusebius of Caesarea, and a comparison of the four +creeds side by side proves to demonstration their distinctness, in +spite of the tendency of copyists to confuse and assimilate the +forms.<a name="FnAnchor_10k" id="FnAnchor_10k" href="#Footnote_10k"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p> + +<table class="reg" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm rb" style="width: 50%;" colspan="2"><i>Creed of Eusebius, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 325</i> (<i>Caesarea</i>).</td> +<td class="tccm" colspan="2"><i>Revision by the Council of Nicaea, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 325.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm rb" colspan="2">We believe</td> <td class="tccm" colspan="2">We believe</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">I. 1.</td> <td class="tcl rb">In one God the Father Almighty, the maker of all things visible and invisible.</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">I. 1.</td> <td class="tcl">In one God the Father Almighty the maker of all things visible and invisible.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">II. 2.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And in one Lord Jesus Christ,the Word of God.<br /><br /> +God of God, Light of Light, (Life of Life,) only begotten Son (first-born of all +creation, before all worlds begotten of God the Father), by whom all things were made;</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">II. 2.</td> <td class="tcl">And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father, only begotten, that is +of the substance of the Father, God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten not +made, of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made, both those in heaven and +those on earth.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>396</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">3.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Who for our Salvation was incarnate (and lived as a citizen amongst men),</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">3.</td> <td class="tcl">Who for us men and for our salvation came down and was incarnate, was made man,</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">4.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And Suffered,</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">4.</td> <td class="tcl">And suffered,</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">5.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And rose the third day,</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">5.</td> <td class="tcl">And rose the third day,</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">6.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And ascended (to the Father),</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">6.</td> <td class="tcl">Ascended into Heaven,</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">7.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And shall come again (in glory) to judge quick and dead.</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">7.</td> <td class="tcl">Is coming to judge quick and dead.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">III. 8.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And (we believe) in (one) Holy Ghost.</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">III. 8.</td> <td class="tcl">And in the Holy Ghost.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm rb" colspan="2"><i>Creed of Jerusalem, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 348.</i></td> +<td class="tccm" colspan="2"><i>Revision by Cyril, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 362. Council of Constantinople, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 381. Council of Chalcedon, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 451.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm rb" colspan="2">I (or We) believe</td> +<td class="tccm" colspan="2">We believe</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">I. 1.</td> <td class="tcl rb">In one God the Father, Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible.</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">I. 1.</td> <td class="tcl">In one God the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">II. 2.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten of His Father, <br /><br /> +very God before all worlds,<br /><br /> +by whom all things were made;</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">II. 2.</td> <td class="tcl">And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten of His Father before +all worlds, [God of God,] Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of +one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made;</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">3.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><br />was incarnate, +<br /><br />and was made Man,</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">3.</td> <td class="tcl">Who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven and incarnate of the +Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary, and was made Man.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">4.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Crucified and buried.</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">4.</td> <td class="tcl">And was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered and</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">5.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Rose again the third day,</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">5.</td> <td class="tcl">He rose again the third day, according to the Scriptures,</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">6.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And ascended into heaven and <i>sat</i> on the right hand of the Father,</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">6.</td> <td class="tcl">And ascended into heaven and sitteth on the right hand of the Father,</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">7.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And shall come <i>in glory</i> to judge the quick and the dead, whose kingdom shall have no end.</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">7.</td> <td class="tcl">And He shall come again to judge the quick and the dead, whose kingdom shall have no end.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">III. 8.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And in <i>One</i> Holy Ghost, <i>the Paraclete</i>,<br /><br /><br /> +who spake <i>in</i> the Prophets,</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">III. 8.</td> <td class="tcl">And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of Life. who proceedeth from the Father +[<i>and the Son</i>], who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified,<br /> +who spake by the Prophets,</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">9.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And in one baptism of repentance for remission of sins,</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">9.</td> <td class="tcl">In the Catholic and Apostolic Church.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">10.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And in one holy Catholic Church,</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">10.</td> <td class="tcl">We acknowledge one baptism for remission of sins.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">11.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And in resurrection <i>of the flesh</i>,</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">11.</td> <td class="tcl">We look for the resurrection of the dead,</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">12.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And in life eternal.</td> +<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">12.</td> <td class="tcl">And in the life of the world to come.</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p class="noind">The revised Jerusalem Creed was quoted by Epiphanius in his +treatise <i>The Anchored One</i>, c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 374, some years before the +council of Constantinople (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 381). We gather that it had +already been introduced into Cyprus as a baptismal creed. Hort’s +identification of it as the work of Cyril of Jerusalem is now +generally accepted. On his return from exile in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 362 Cyril +would find “a natural occasion for the revision of the public +creed by the skilful insertion of some of the conciliar language, +including the term which proclaimed the restoration of full +communion with the champions of Nicaea, and other phrases and +clauses adapted for impressing on the people positive truth.” +Some of Cyril’s personal preferences expressed in his catechetical +lectures find expression, <i>e.g.</i> “resurrection of the <i>dead</i>” for +“flesh.”</p> + +<p>The weak point in Hort’s theory was the suggestion that the +creed was brought before the council by Cyril in self justification. +The election of Meletius of Antioch as the first president of the +council carried with it the vindication of his old ally Cyril. +Kunze’s suggestion is far more probable that it was used at the +baptism of Nektarius, praetor of the city, who was elected third +president of the council while yet unbaptized. Unfortunately +the acts of the council have been lost, but they were quoted at +the council of Chalcedon in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 451, and the revised Jerusalem +Creed was quoted as “the faith of the 150 Fathers,” that is, as +confirmed in some way by the council of Constantinople, while at +the time it was distinguished from “the faith of the 318 Fathers” +of Nicaea. One of the signatories of the Definition of Faith made +at Chalcedon, in which both creeds were quoted in full, +Kalemikus, bishop of Apamea in Bithynia, refers to the council of +Constantinople as having been held at the ordination of the most +pious Nektarius the bishop. Obviously there was some connexion +in his mind between the creed and the ordination.</p> + +<p>The reasons which brought the revised creed into prominence +at Chalcedon are still obscure. It is possible that Leo’s letter +to Flavian gave the impulse to put it forward because it contained +a parallel to words which Leo quoted from the Old Roman Creed, +“born of the Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary,” “crucified and +buried,” which do not occur in the first Nicene Creed. If, as +is probable, it was from the election of Nektarius the baptismal +creed of Constantinople, we may even ask whether the pope did +not refer to it when he wrote emphatically of the “common and +indistinguishable confession” of all the faithful. Kattenbusch +supposes that Anatolius, bishop of Constantinople, or his archdeacon +Aetius, who read the creed at the 2nd session of the +council, took up the idea that through its likeness to the Roman +Creed it would be a useful weapon against Eutyches and others +who were held to interpret the Nicene Creed in an Apollinarian +sense. But Kunze thinks that it was not used as a base of operations +against Eutyches because there is some evidence that +Monophysites were willing to accept it. Certainly it won its +way to general acceptance in the East as the creed of the church +of the imperial city; regarded as an improved recension of the +Nicene Faith. The history of the introduction of the creed into +liturgies is still obscure. Peter Fullo, bishop of Antioch, was the +first to use it in the East, and in the West a council held by King +Reccared at Toledo in 589. The theory of Probst that it had been +used in Rome before this time has not been confirmed. King +Reccared’s council is usually credited with the introduction of +the words “And the Son” into clause 9 of the creed. But some +MSS.<a name="FnAnchor_11k" id="FnAnchor_11k" href="#Footnote_11k"><span class="sp">11</span></a> omit them in the creed-text while inserting them in a canon +of the faith drawn up at the time. Probably they were interpolated +in the creed by mistake of copyists. When attention +was called to the interpolation in the 9th century it became one +cause of the schism between East and West. Charlemagne was +unable to persuade Pope Leo III. to alter the text used in Rome +by including the words. But it was so altered by the pope’s +successor.</p> + +<p>The interpolation really witnessed to a deep-lying difference +between Eastern and Western theology. Eastern theologians +expressed the mysterious relationship of the Holy Spirit to the +Father and the Son in such phrases as “Who proceedeth from +the Father and receiveth from the Son,” rightly making the +Godhead of the Father the foundation and primary source of +the eternally derived Godhead of the Son and the Spirit. Western +theologians approached the problem from another point of view. +Hilary, starting from the thought of Divine self-consciousness +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>397</span> +as the explanation of the coinherence of the Father in the Son +and the Son in the Father, says that the Spirit receives of both. +Augustine teaches that the Father and the Son are the one +principle of the Being of the Spirit. From this it is a short step +to say with the <i>Quicumque vult</i> that the Spirit proceeds from the +Son, while guarding the idea that the Father is the one fountain of +Deity. Since Eastern theologians would be willing to say “proceeds +from the Father through the Son,” it is clear that the two +views are not irreconcilable.</p> + +<p>3. <i>The Athanasian Creed</i>, so called because in many MSS. +it bears the title “The Faith of S. Athanasius,” is more accurately +designated by its first words <i>Quicumque vult</i>.<a name="FnAnchor_12k" id="FnAnchor_12k" href="#Footnote_12k"><span class="sp">12</span></a> Its +history has been the subject of much controversy for +<span class="sidenote">Athanasian Creed.</span> +years past, but no longer presents an insoluble problem. +Critics indeed agree on the main outline. Until 1870 +the standard work on the subject was Waterland’s <i>Critical +History of the Athanasian Creed</i>, first published in 1723. Having +traced “the opinions of the learned moderns” from Gerard +Vossius, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1642, “who led the way to a more strict and critical +inquiry,” Waterland passed in review all the known MSS. and +commentaries, and after a searching investigation concluded that +the creed was written in Gaul between 420 and 430, probably +by Hilary of Arles.</p> + +<p>In 1870 the controversy on the use of the creed in the Book of +Common Prayer led to fresh investigation of the MSS., and a +theory known as the “Two-portion theory” was started by +C. A. Swainson, developed by J. R. Lumby, and adopted by +Harnack. Swainson thought that the <i>Quicumque</i> was brought +into its present shape in the 9th century. The so-called profession +of Denebert, bishop-elect of Worcester, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 798 presented to +the archbishop of Canterbury (which includes clauses 1, 3-6, +20-22, 24, 25), and the Trèves fragment (a portion of a sermon +in <i>Paris bibl. nat. Lat.</i> 3836, <i>saec.</i> viii., which quoted clauses +27-34, 36-40), seemed to him to represent the component parts +of the creed as they existed separately. He conjectured that they +were brought together in the province of Rheims c. 860.</p> + +<p>This theory, however, depended upon unverified assumptions, +such as the supposed silence of theologians about the creed at +the beginning of the 9th century; the suggestion that the +completed creed would have been useful to them if they had +known it as a weapon against the heresy of Adoptianism; +the assertion that no MS. containing the complete text was of +earlier date than c. 813. This was Lumby’s revised date, but +the progress of palaeographical studies has made it possible +to demonstrate that MSS. of the 8th century do exist which +contain the complete creed.</p> + +<p>The two-portion theory was vigorously attacked by G. D. W. +Ommanney, who was successful in the discovery of new documents, +notably early commentaries, which contained the text +of the creed embedded in them, and thus supplied independent +testimony to the fact that the creed was becoming fairly widely +known at the end of the 8th century. Other new MSS. and +commentaries were found and collated by the Rev. A. E. Burn +and Dom Morin. In 1897 Loofs, summing up the researches of +25 years in his article <i>Athanasianum</i> (<i>Realencyclopädie f. prot. +Theol. u. Kirche</i>, 3rd ed. ii. p. 177), declared that the two-portion +theory was dead.</p> + +<p>This conclusion has never been seriously challenged. It has +been greatly strengthened by the discovery of a MS. which was +presented by Bishop Leidrad of Lyons with an autograph inscription +to the altar of St Stephen in that town, some time before +814. As M. Delisle at once pointed out (<i>Notices et extraits des +manuscrits</i>, 1898), this MS. supplies a fixed date from which +palaeographers can work in dating MSS. The <i>Quicumque</i> occurs +in a collection of materials forming an introduction to the psalter. +The suggestion has been made that Leidrad intended to use the +<i>Quicumque</i> in his campaign against the Adoptianists in 798. +But the phrases of the creed seem to have needed sharpening +against the Nestorian tendency of the Adoptianists. It is more +probable that Leidrad was interested in the growing use of the +creed as a canticle, and was consulted in the preparation of the +famous Golden Psalter, now at Vienna, which contains the same +collection of documents as an introduction. This MS. may now +without hesitation be assigned to the date 772-788. The earliest +known MS. is at Milan (<i>Cod. Ambros.</i> O, 212, <i>sup.</i>), and is dated +by Traube as early as c. 700.</p> + +<p>There is a reference to the <i>Quicumque</i> in the first canon of the +fourth council of Toledo of the year 633, which quotes part or +the whole of clauses 4, 20-22, 28 f., 31, 33, 35 f., 40. The council +also quoted phrases from the so-called <i>Creed of Damasus</i>, a document +of the 4th century, which in some cases they preferred to +the phrases of the <i>Quicumque</i>. Their quotations form a connecting +link in the chain of evidence by which the use of the creed +may be traced back to the writings of Caesarius, bishop of Arles +(503-543). Dom Morin has now demonstrated (“Le Symbole +d’Athanase et son premier témoin S. Césaire d’Arles,” <i>Rev. +Bénédictine</i>, Oct. 1901) that Caesarius used the creed continually +as a sort of elementary catechism. The fact that it exactly +reproduces both the qualities and the literary defects of Caesarius +is a strong argument in favour of Morin’s suggestion that he may +have been the author. Further, Caesarius was in the habit of +putting some words of a distinguished writer at the head of his +compositions, which would account for the fact that the name +of Athanasius was subsequently attached to the creed.</p> + +<p>The use, however, of the <i>Quicumque</i> by Caesarius as a catechism +may be explained by the suggestion that it had been taught him +in his youth, so that his style had been moulded by it. He was +not an original thinker. Moreover, the creed is quoted by his +rival Avitus, bishop of Vienne 490-523, who quotes clause 22, +as from the Rule of Catholic Faith, but was not likely to value +a composition of Caesarius so highly. Morin does not deal fully +with the arguments from internal evidence which point back +to the beginning of the 5th century as the date of the creed. If +the creed-phrases needed sharpening against the revived +Nestorian error of the Adoptianists, it is scarcely likely to have +been written during the generation following the condemnation +of Nestorius in 431. Burn suggests that it was written to meet +the Sabellian and Apollinarian errors of the Spanish heretic +Priscillian, possibly by Honoratus, bishop of Arles (d. 429). +He suggests further that the <i>Creed of Damasus</i> was the reply +of that pope to Priscillian’s appeal. This would explain the +quotation of the two documents together by the council of Toledo, +since the heresy lasted on for a long time in Spain. But the +theory has been carried to extravagant lengths by Künstle, who +thinks that the creed was written in Spain in the 5th century, +and soon taken to the monastery of Lerins. There are phrases in +the writings of Vincentius of Lerins and of Faustus, bishop of +Riez, which are parallel to the teaching of the creed, though they +cannot with any confidence be called quotations. They tend in +any case to prove that the <i>Quicumque</i> comes to us from the school +of Lerins, of which Honoratus was the first abbot, and to which +Caesarius also belonged.</p> + +<p>The earliest use of the <i>Quicumque</i> was in sermons, in which +the clauses were quoted, as by the council of Toledo without +reference to the creed as a whole. From the 8th century, if +not from earlier times, commentaries were written on it. The +writer of the Oratorian Commentary (Theodulf of Orleans?) +addressing a synod which instructed him to provide an exposition +of this work on the faith, writes of it, as “here and +there recited in our churches, and continually made the subject +of meditation by our priests.” It was soon used as a canticle. +Angilbert, abbot of St Riquier (c. 814), records that it was sung +by his school in procession on rogation days. It passed into the +office of Prime, apparently first at Fleury. In the first Prayer +Book of Edward VI. it was “sung or said” after the Benedictus +on the greater feasts, and this use was extended in the second +Prayer Book. In 1662 the rubric was altered and it was substituted +for the Apostles’ Creed. It has no place in the offices of +the Eastern Orthodox Church, but is found, without the words +“And the Son” of clause 22, in the appendix of many modern +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>398</span> +editions. In the Russian service books it appears at the beginning +of the psalter.</p> + +<p>The controversy on its use in modern times has turned mainly +on the interpretation of the warning clauses. No new translation +can put an end to the difficulty. While it is true that the Church +has never condemned individuals, and that the warnings refer +only to those who have received the faith, and do not touch +the question of the unbaptized, there is a growing feeling that +they go beyond the teaching of Holy Scripture on the responsibility +of intellect in matters of faith.<a name="FnAnchor_13k" id="FnAnchor_13k" href="#Footnote_13k"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p> + +<p>On the other hand the creed is a valuable statement of Catholic +faith on the Trinity and the Incarnation, and its use for students +and teachers at least is by no means obsolete. The special +characteristic of its theology is in the first part where it owes +most to the teaching of Augustine, who in his striving after +self-knowledge analysed the mystery of his own triune personality +and illustrated it with psychological images, “I exist +and I am conscious that I exist, and I love the existence and +the consciousness; and all this independently of any external +influence.” Such a riper analysis of the mystery of his own +personality enabled him to arrive at a clearer conception of +the idea of divine personality, “whose triunity has nothing +potential or unrealized about it; whose triune elements are +eternally actualized, by no outward influence, but from within; +a Trinity in Unity.”<a name="FnAnchor_14k" id="FnAnchor_14k" href="#Footnote_14k"><span class="sp">14</span></a></p> + +<p>II. <span class="sc">Modern Confessions of Faith.</span>—The second great +creed-making epoch of Church history opens in the 16th century +with the Confession of Augsburg. The famous theses which +Luther nailed to the door of the church at Wittenberg in 1517 +cannot be called a confession, but they expressed a protest which +could not rest there. Some reconstruction of popular beliefs +was needed by many consciences. There is a striking contrast +between the crudeness of much and widely accepted medieval +theology and the decrees of the council of Trent. Even from the +Roman Catholic standpoint such a need was felt. Luther himself +had a gift of words which through his catechisms made the reformed +theology popular in Germany. In 1530 it became necessary +to define his position against both Romanists and Zwinglians.</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Confession of Augsburg</i> was drawn up by Melanchthon, +revised by Luther, and presented to the emperor Charles V. at +the diet of Augsburg. Some 21 of its articles dealt +with doctrine, 7 with ecclesiastical abuses. It expounded +<span class="sidenote">Augsburg confession.</span> +in terse and significant teaching the doctrine +(1) of God, (2) of original sin, (3) of the Son of God, (4) of justification +..., (21) of the worship of saints. The abuses which +it was maintained had been corrected by Lutheranism were +discussed in articles (1) on Communion in both kinds, (2) on +the marriage of clergy, (3) on the Mass, &c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Augsburg, +Confession of</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The main difference between these, the first of a long series +of articles of religion and the ancient creeds, lies in the fact that +they are manifestoes embodying creeds and answering more +than one purpose. This is the reason of their frequent failure +to convey any sense of proportion in the expression of truth. +The disciplinary question of clerical marriage is not of the same +primary importance as the doctrinal questions involved in the +restoration of the cup to the laity, or discussed in the subsequent +article on the mass. As has been well said by a learned Baptist +theologian, Dr Green: “It was by a true divine instinct that the +early theologians made Christ Himself, in His divine-human personality, +their centre of the creeds.”<a name="FnAnchor_15k" id="FnAnchor_15k" href="#Footnote_15k"><span class="sp">15</span></a> The fundamental questions +of Christianity, exhibited in the Apostles’ Creed, should be marked +off as standing on a higher plane than others. In this respect +catechisms of modern times, from Luther’s down to the recent +Evangelical catechism of the Free Churches, and including +from their respective points of view both the catechism of the +Church of England and the catechism of the council of Trent, are +markedly superior to articles and synodical decrees. The failure +of the latter was really inevitable. In the 16th century a spirit +of universal questioning was rife, and it is this utter unsettlement +of opinion which is reflected in the discussions of doubts on +matters only remotely connected with “the faith once for all +delivered unto the saints” (Jude 3). Moreover, fresh complications +arose from the confusion in which the question of the duties +and rights of the civil power was entangled. In an age when the +foundations of the system on which society had rested for centuries +were seriously shaken, such subjects as the right of the +magistrate to interfere with the belief of the individual, and the +limits of his authority over conscience, naturally assumed a +prominence hitherto unknown.<a name="FnAnchor_16k" id="FnAnchor_16k" href="#Footnote_16k"><span class="sp">16</span></a></p> + +<p>2. <i>Other Lutheran Formularies.</i>—For the purpose of classification +it will be convenient to discuss Lutheran, Zwinglian and +Calvinistic confessions separately.</p> + +<p>An elaborate <i>Apology</i> for the confession of Augsburg was drawn +up by Melanchthon in reply to Roman Catholic criticisms. +This, together with the confession, the articles of +Schmalkalden, drawn up by Luther in 1536, Luther’s +<span class="sidenote">Lutheran.</span> +catechisms, and the Formula of Concord which was an attempt +to settle doctrinal divisions promulgated in 1580, sum up what +is called “the confessional theology of Lutheranism.” Of less +influence in the subsequent history of Lutheranism, but of +interest as used by Archbishop Parker in the preparation of the +Elizabethan articles of 1563, is the confession of Württemberg. +It was presented to the council of Trent by the ambassador of the +state of Württemberg in 1552. Its thirty-five articles contain a +moderate statement of Lutheran teaching.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Zwinglian and Calvinistic Confessions.</i>—The confession of +the Four Cities, Strassburg, Constance, Memmingen and London, +was drawn up by M. Bucer and was presented to Charles +V. at <span class="correction" title="amended from Ausburg">Augsburg</span> in 1530. These cities were inclined to +<span class="sidenote">Zwinglian and Calvinist.</span> +follow Zwingli in his sacramental teaching which was +more fully expressed in the Confession of Basel (1534) +and the First Helvetic Confession (1536). Calvin’s views were +expressed in the Gallican Confession, containing forty articles, +which was drawn up in 1559, and was presented both to Francis II. +of France and to Charles IX. On the same lines the Belgian +Confession of 1561, written by Guido de Brès in French, and +translated into Dutch was widely accepted in the Netherlands +and confirmed by the synod of Dort (1619). The second Helvetic +Confession was the work of Bullinger, published at the request +of the Elector Palatine Frederick III. in 1566, and was held in +repute in Switzerland, Poland and France as well as the Palatinate. +It was sanctioned in Scotland and was well received +in England.</p> + +<p>These confessions teach the root idea of Calvin’s theology, +the immeasurable awfulness of God, His eternity, and the +immutability of His decrees. Such strict Calvinism was the +strength also of the Westminster Confession (see below), but was +soon weakened in Germany. This same Elector Frederick invited +two young divines, Zacharias Ursinus and Caspar Olevianus, +to prepare the afterwards celebrated Heidelberg catechism, +which in 1563 superseded Calvin’s catechism in the Palatinate. +While Calvin began sternly with the question: “What is the +chief end of human life?” Ans.: “That men may know God +by whom they were created,”—the Heidelberg catechism has: +“What is thy only comfort in life and death?” Ans.: “That I +with body and soul, both in life and death, am not my own, but +belong to my faithful Saviour Jesus Christ.” This catechism +has been called the charter of the German Reformed Church. +It contains three divisions dealing with (1) man’s sin, misery, +redemption, (2) the Trinity, (3) thankfulness, under which is +included all practical Christian life lived in gratitude for mercies +received.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>399</span></p> + +<p>4. <i>English Articles of Religion.</i>—The ten articles of 1536 +were drawn up by Convocation at the bidding of Henry VIII. +“to stablysh Christian Quietnes and Unitie.” They +exhibit a traditional character, a compromise between +<span class="sidenote">Articles of religion.</span> +the old and the new learning. Thus the +doctrine of the Real Presence is asserted, but no mention is +made of Transubstantiation. Medieval ceremonies are described +as useful but without power to remit sins. Two years later, after +negotiations with the Lutheran princes, a conference on theological +matters was held at Lambeth with Lutheran envoys. Thirteen +articles were drawn up, which, though never published (they were +found among Cranmer’s papers at the beginning of the 19th +century), had some influence on the forty-two articles. Some +of them were taken from the confession of Augsburg, but the +sections on Baptism, the Eucharist and penance, show that the +English theologians desired to lay more emphasis on the character +of sacraments as channels of grace. The Statute of the Six Articles +(1539), “the whip with six strings,” was the outcome of the retrograde +policy which distinguished the latter years of Henry VIII.</p> + +<p>With the accession of Edward VI. liturgical reforms were +set on foot before an attempt was made to systematize doctrinal +teaching. But as early as 1549 Cranmer had in hand “Articles +of Religion” to which he required all preachers and lecturers +to subscribe. In 1552 they were revised by other bishops and +were laid before the council and the royal chaplains. They were +then published as “Articles agreed on by the bishops and other +learned men in the Synod of London.” But there is considerable +doubt whether they really received the sanction of Convocation +(Gibson, p. 15). They were not devised as a complete scheme +of doctrine, but only as a guide in dealing with current errors of +(i.) the Medievalists and (ii.) the Anabaptists. Under (i.) they +condemned the doctrine of the school authors on congruous +merit (Art. xii.), the doctrine of grace <i>ex opere operato</i> (xxvi.). +Transubstantiation (xxix.). Under (ii.) they laid stress on the +fundamental articles of the faith (Art. i.-iv.), affirmed the Three +Creeds (vii.), since many Anabaptists held Arian and Socinian +opinions which were rife in Switzerland, Italy and Poland, +condemning also their views on original sin (viii.), community +of goods (xxxvii.), and on other subjects in articles which do not +mention them by name.</p> + +<p>The revision undertaken in 1563 by Archbishop Parker, +aided by Edm. Guest, bishop of Rochester, shows “an attempt to +give greater completeness to the formulary,” and to make +clearer the Catholic position of the Church of England. For +the clause (Art. xxviii.) which denied the Real Presence was +substituted one by Guest with the desire “not to deny the +reality of the presence of the Body of Christ in the Supper, but +only the grossness and sensibleness in the receiving thereof.” +At the same time the substitution of “Romish doctrine” for +“doctrine of School authors” (Art. xxii.) marks an effort to define +the line of the Church of England sharply against current Roman +teaching. The revision was passed by Convocation and again +revised in 1571, when the queen had been excommunicated by +papal bull, and an act was passed ordering all clergy to subscribe +to them. They have remained unchanged ever since, though +the terms of subscription have been modified.</p> + +<p>An attempt was made to add nine articles of a strong Calvinistic +tone, which were drawn up by Dr Whitaker, regius professor +of divinity at Cambridge, and submitted to Archbishop Whitgift. +They were rejected both by Queen Elizabeth, and, after the Hampton +Court Conference petitioned about them, by King James I.</p> + +<p>The first Scottish confession dates from 1560. It is a memorial +of the intellectual power and enthusiasm of John Knox. It +exhibits the leading features of the Reformed theology, but +“disclaims Divine authority for any fixed form of church government +or worship.” It also asks that “if anyone shall note in +this our confession any articles or sentence repugnant of God’s +Holy Word, that it would please him of his gentleness and for +Christian charity’s sake, to admonish of the same in writing,” +promising that if the teaching cannot be proved, to reform it. +Between this and the Westminster Confession must be noted +the first Baptist confession, published in Amsterdam in 1611. +It shows the influence of Arminian theology against Calvinism, +which was vigorously upheld in the <i>Quin-particular</i> formula, put +forward by the synod of Dort in 1619 to uphold the five points of +Calvinism, after heated discussion, in which English delegates took +part, of the problems of divine omniscience and human free-will.</p> + +<p>5. <i>The Westminster Confession</i> (1648), with its two catechisms, +is perhaps the ablest of the reformed confessions from the standpoint +of Calvinism. Its keynote is sovereignty. +“The Decrees of God are His eternal Purpose according +<span class="sidenote">Westminster Confession.</span> +to the Counsel of His Will, whereby for His Own Glory +He hath foreordained whatsoever comes to pass.” +Man’s part is to accept them with submission. As the Anglican +divines soon ceased to attend the assembly, and the Independents +were few in number, it was the work of Presbyterians only, the +Scottish members carrying their proposal to make it an independent +document and not a mere revision of the Thirty-nine Articles. +After discussions lasting for two years it was debated in parliament, +finished on the 22nd of March 1648, and was adopted by +the Scottish parliament in the following year. It is the only +confession which has been imposed by authority of parliament +on the whole of the United Kingdom. This lasted in England for +ten years. In Scotland its influence has continued to the present +day, contributing not a little to mould the high qualities of +religious insight and courage and perseverance which have honourably +distinguished Scottish Presbyterians all the world over. +This was the last great effort in constructive theology of the +Reformation period. When Cromwell before his death in 1658 +allowed a conference to prepare a new confession of faith for the +whole commonwealth, the Westminster Confession was accepted +as a whole with an added statement on church order and discipline. +We must note, however, that the Baptist divines who +were excluded from the Westminster Assembly issued a declaration +of their principles under the title, “A Confession of Faith of +seven Congregations or Churches in London which are commonly +but unjustly called Anabaptists, for the Vindication of the Truth +and Information of the Ignorant.”</p> + +<p>Two other declarations may be quoted to show how necessary +such confessions are even to religious societies which refuse to be +bound by them. In 1675 Robert Barclay published an “Apology +for the Society of Friends,” in which he declared what they held +concerning revelation, scripture, the fall, redemption, the inward +light, freedom of conscience.</p> + +<p>In 1833 the Congregational Union published a Declaration or +Confession of Faith, Church Order and Discipline. It was prepared +by Dr George Redford <span class="correction" title="amended from or">of</span> Worcester, and was presented, not as a +scholastic or critical confession of faith, but merely such a statement +as any intelligent member of the body might offer as containing +its leading principles. It deals with the Bible as the final +appeal in controversy, the doctrines of God, man, sin, the Incarnation, +the Resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ, “both the +Son of man and the Son of God,” the work of the Holy Spirit, justification +by faith, the perpetual obligation of Baptism and the +Lord’s Supper, final judgment, the law of Christian fellowship. +The same principles have been lucidly stated in the Evangelical +Free Church catechism.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Confessions in the Eastern Orthodox Church.</i>—The Eastern +Church has no general doctrinal tests beyond the Nicene Creed, +but from time to time synods have approved expositions +of the faith such as the Athanasian Creed +<span class="sidenote">Greek church.</span> +(without the words “And the Son”), and the +Orthodox Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic Eastern +Church. This was the work of Petrus Mogilas, metropolitan +of Kiev, and other theologians. It was written in 1640 +in Russian, was translated into Greek, and approved by the +council of Jassy and the patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, +Antioch and Jerusalem. It was affirmed by the council +of Jerusalem in 1672, which also affirmed the Confession of +Dositheus, patriarch of Jerusalem. Both of these confessions +were drawn up to confute the teaching of a remarkable man who +had been patriarch of Constantinople, Cyril Lucar. He was a +student of Western theology, a correspondent of Archbishop +Laud, and had travelled in Germany and Switzerland. In 1629 he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>400</span> +published a confession in which he attempted to incorporate ideas +of the reformers while preserving the leading ideas of Eastern +traditional theology. The controversy chiefly turned on the +question of the necessity of episcopacy. Dositheus taught that +the existence of bishops is as necessary to the Church as “breath +to a man and the sun to the world.” Christ is the universal +and perpetual Head of the Church, but he exercises his rule by +means of “the holy Fathers,” that is, the bishops whom the +Holy Ghost has appointed to be in charge of local churches.</p> + +<p>Mention may also be made of the longer catechism of the +Orthodox Catholic Church compiled by Philaret, metropolitan +of Moscow, revised and adopted by the Russian Holy Synod in +1839. The Church is defined as “a divinely-instituted community +of men, united by the orthodox faith, the law of God, the hierarchy +and the sacraments.”</p> + +<p>7. <i>Roman Catholic Formularies.</i>—For our present purpose the +distinctive features of Roman Catholicism may be said to be +summed up in the decrees of the council of Trent and +the creed of Pope Pius IV. The council sat at intervals +<span class="sidenote">Roman Catholic.</span> +from 1545-1563, but there was a marked divergence +between the opinions advocated by prominent members of the +council and its final decrees. Cardinal Pole had to leave the +council because he advocated the doctrine of justification by +faith. Even at the later sessions the cardinal of Lorraine with +the French prelates supported the German representatives in +requests for the cup for the laity, the permission of the marriage of +priests, and the revision of the breviary. Finally the decisions +of the council were promulgated in a declaration of XII. articles, +usually called the Creed of Pius IV., which reaffirmed the Nicene +Creed, and dealt with the preservation of the apostolic and +ecclesiastical traditions, the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures +“according to the sense which our Holy Mother Church has held,” +the seven sacraments, the offering of the mass, transubstantiation, +purgatory, the veneration of saints, relics, images, the efficacy +of indulgences, the supremacy of the Roman Church and of the +bishop of Rome as vicar of Christ. To this summary of doctrine +should be added the dogmas of the immaculate conception of +the Blessed Virgin declared in 1854, and of papal infallibility +decreed by the Vatican council of 1870.</p> + +<p><i>Conclusion.</i>—In this survey of Christian confessions it has +been impossible to do more than barely name many which +deserve discussion. This is a subject which has grown in importance +and is likely to grow further. The very intensity of that +phase of modern thought which declaims fervently against all +creeds, and would maintain what George Eliot called “the right +of the individual to general haziness,” is likely to draw all +Christian thinkers nearer to one another in sympathy through +acceptance of the Apostles’ Creed as the common basis of Christian +thought. In the words of Hilary of Poitiers, “Faith gathers +strength through opposition.”</p> + +<p>The question at once arises. Can the simple historic faith be +maintained without adding theological interpretations, those +arid wastes of dogma in which the springs of faith and reverence +run dry? The answer is No. We cannot ask to be as if through +nineteen centuries no one had ever asked a question about the +relation of the Lord Jesus Christ to the Father and the Holy +Spirit. If we could come back to the Bible and use biblical terms +only, as Cyril of Jerusalem wished in his early days, we know +from experience that the old errors would reappear in the form +of new questions, and that we should have to pass through the +dreary wilderness of controversy from implicit to explicit dogma, +from “I believe that Jesus is the Lord” to the confession that +the Only Begotten Son is “of one substance with the Father.” +In the words of Hilary again:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Faithful souls would be contented with the word of God which +bids us: ‘Go teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the +Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost.’ But also we are +drawn by the faults of our heretical opponents to do things unlawful, +to scale heights inaccessible, to speak out what is unspeakable, to +presume where we ought not. And whereas it is by faith alone +that we should worship the Father and reverence the Son, and be +filled with the Spirit, we are now obliged to strain our weak human +language in the utterance of things beyond its scope; forced into +this evil procedure by the evil procedure of our foes. Hence what +should be matter of silent religious meditation must now needs be +imperilled by exposition in words.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The province of reverent theology is to aid accurate thinking +by the use of metaphysical or psychological terms. Its definitions +are no more an end in themselves than an analysis of good +drinking water, which by itself leaves us thirsty but encourages +us to drink. So the Nicene Creed is the analysis of the river of +the water of life of which the Sermon on the Mount is a description, +flowing on from age to age, freely offered to the thirsty souls +of men.</p> + +<p>This justification of the ancient creeds carries with it the +justification of later confessions so far as they answered questions +which would be fatal to religion if they were not answered. +As Principal Stewart puts it very clearly: “The answer given is +based on the philosophy or science of the period. It does not +necessarily form part of the religion itself, but is the best which +with the materials at its command, in its own defence and in +its love for truth, the religion (and its advocates) can give. But +the answers may be superseded by better answers, or they may +be rendered unnecessary because the questions are no longer +asked. Thus the Calvinism of the 16th and 17th centuries +elaborated answers to questions, which if no attempt had been +made to answer them, would have perplexed earnest souls and +condemned the system; but many parts of the system are now +obsolete, because the conditions which suggested the questions +which they sought to answer no longer exist or have no longer +any interest or importance.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—See J. Pearson, <i>Exposition of the Creed</i> (new ed., +1849); A. E. Burn, <i>Introduction to the Creeds</i> (1899), and <i>The +Athanasian Creed</i> in vol. iv. of <i>Texts and Studies</i> (1896); H. B. Swete, +<i>The Apostles’ Creed</i> (1899); F. Kattenbusch, <i>Das apostolische +Symbol</i> (1894-1900); C. A. Heurtley, <i>Harmonia Symbolica</i> (1858): +C. P. Caspari, <i>Quellen zur Geschichte des Taufsymbols und der Glaubensregel</i> +(Christiania, 1866); and <i>Alte und neue Quellen</i> (1879). T. Zahn, +<i>Das apostolische Symbolum</i> (1893); C. A. Swainson, <i>The Nicene and +Apostles’ Creed</i> (1875); G. D. W. Ommanney, <i>The Athanasian Creed</i> +(1897); B. F. Westcott, <i>The Historic Faith</i> (1882); J. Jayne, <i>The +Athanasian Creed</i> (1905); J. A. Robinson, <i>The Athanasian Creed</i> +(1905); E. C. S. Gibson, <i>The Three Creeds</i> (1908); F. J. A. Hort, +<i>Two Dissertations</i> (1876); D. Waterland, <i>Crit. Hist.</i> edited by E. +King (Oxford, 1870); F. Loofs and A. Harnack articles in Herzog-Hauck’s +<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (“Athanasianum” and “Konstantino-politanisches +Symbol”) (1896), &c.; K. Künstle, <i>Antipriscilliana</i> +(Freiburg i. B., 1905); A. Stewart, <i>Croall Lectures</i> (in the press); +S. G. Green, <i>The Christian Creed</i> (1898); P. Hall, <i>Harmony of +Protestant Confessions</i> (London, 1842); F. Kattenbusch, <i>Confessionskunde</i> +(Freiburg i. B., 1890); Winex’s <i>Confessions of +Christendom</i> (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1865); A. Seeberg, <i>Der +Katechismus der Urchristenheit</i> (Leipzig, 1903); F. Wiegand, <i>Die +Stellung des apostolischen Symbols</i> (Leipzig, 1899); H. Goodwin, <i>The +Foundations of the Creed</i> (London, 1889); T. H. Bindley, <i>The +Oecumenical Documents of the Faith</i> (London, 1906); J. Kunze, +<i>Das nicänisch-konstantinopolitanische Symbol</i>; S. Baeumer, <i>Das +apostolische Glaubensbekenntnis</i> (Mainz, 1893); B. Döxholt, <i>Das +Taufsymbol. der alten Kirche</i> (Paderborn, 1898); L. Hahn, +<i>Bibliothek der Symbole u. Glaubensregeln</i> (Breslau, 1897); A. C. +McGiffert, <i>The Apostles’ Creed</i> (Edinburgh, 1902); and F. Loofs, +<i>Symbolik</i> (Leipzig, 1902).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. E. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1k" id="Footnote_1k" href="#FnAnchor_1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Jevons, <i>Introd. to the History of Religion</i>, p. 394.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2k" id="Footnote_2k" href="#FnAnchor_2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Sacred Books of the East</i>, xxxi.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3k" id="Footnote_3k" href="#FnAnchor_3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Personality, Human and Divine</i> (cheap edition), p. 36.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4k" id="Footnote_4k" href="#FnAnchor_4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Ib. p. 38.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5k" id="Footnote_5k" href="#FnAnchor_5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Der Katechismus der Urchristenheit</i>, p. 85. Zahn’s reasoned argument +stands in contrast to the blind reliance on tradition shown by +Macdonald, <i>The Symbol of the Apostles</i>, and the fanciful reconstruction +of the primitive creed by Baeumer, Harnack or Seeberg.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6k" id="Footnote_6k" href="#FnAnchor_6k"><span class="fn">6</span></a> McGiffert, on the other hand, argues that the Roman Creed was +composed to meet the errors of Marcion, p. 58 ff. He omits, however, +to mention this, which is Zahn’s strongest argument.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7k" id="Footnote_7k" href="#FnAnchor_7k"><span class="fn">7</span></a> It is probable that “one” has dropped out of the first clause. +Zahn acutely suggests that it was omitted in the time of Zephyrinus +to counteract Monarchian teaching such as the formula: “believe +in one God, Jesus Christ.”</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8k" id="Footnote_8k" href="#FnAnchor_8k"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Anecdota Maredsolana</i>, iii. iii. p. 199.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9k" id="Footnote_9k" href="#FnAnchor_9k"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Dörholt has shown that Petavius (d. 1652) was the first to remark +that the so-called Constantinopolitan form was quoted by Epiphanius +before the Council met, but was not able to explain the fact.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10k" id="Footnote_10k" href="#FnAnchor_10k"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Burn, “Note on the Old Latin text,” <i>Journal of Theol. Studies.</i></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11k" id="Footnote_11k" href="#FnAnchor_11k"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> Cod. Escurial J.c. 12, <i>saec.</i> x. xi. In Cod. Matritensis, p. 21 +(1872), <i>saec.</i> x. xi., and Cod. Matritensis 10041 (begun in the year <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +948), the words are omitted under the heading council of Constantinople +but inserted under the heading council of Toledo, in the +former MS., above the line and in a later hand, which shows conclusively +how the interpolation crept in.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12k" id="Footnote_12k" href="#FnAnchor_12k"><span class="fn">12</span></a> The first person who doubted the authorship seems to have +been Joachim Camerarius, 1551, who was so fiercely attacked in +consequence that he omitted the passage from his Latin edition. +<i>Zeitschrift für K.G.</i> x. (1889), p. 497.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13k" id="Footnote_13k" href="#FnAnchor_13k"><span class="fn">13</span></a> In response to an invitation issued by the archbishop of Canterbury, +acting on a resolution of the Lambeth Conference of 1908, a +committee of eminent scholars met in April and May 1909 for the +purpose of preparing a new translation. Their report, issued on the +18th of October, stated that they had “endeavoured to represent the +Latin original more exactly in a large number of cases.” The general +effect of the new version is to make the creed more comprehensible, +<i>e.g.</i> by the substitution of “infinite” and “reasoning” for such +archaisms as “incomprehensible” and “reasonable.” The sense of +the damnatory clauses has, however, not been weakened. [Ed.]</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_14k" id="Footnote_14k" href="#FnAnchor_14k"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Illingworth, <i>Personality, Human and Divine</i>, p. 40.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15k" id="Footnote_15k" href="#FnAnchor_15k"><span class="fn">15</span></a> <i>The Christian Creed and the Creeds of Christendom</i>, p. 181.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_16k" id="Footnote_16k" href="#FnAnchor_16k"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Gibson, <i>The Thirty-nine Articles</i>, p. 2.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREEK<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (Mid. Eng. <i>crike</i> or <i>creke</i>, common to many N. +European languages), a small inlet on a low coast, an inlet in +a river formed by the mouth of a small stream, a shallow narrow +harbour for small <span class="correction" title="amended from vessles">vessels</span>. In America and Australia especially +there are many long streams which can be everywhere forded and +sometimes dry up, and are navigable only at their tidal estuaries, +mere brooks in width which are of great economic importance. +They form complete river-systems, and are the only supply of +surface water over many thousand square miles. They are at +some seasons a mere chain of “water-holes,” but occasionally +they are strongly flooded. Since exploration began at the coast +and advanced inland, it is probable that the explorers, advancing +up the narrow inlets or “creeks,” used the same word for the +streams which flowed into these as they followed their courses +upward into the country. The early settlers would use the same +word for that portion of the stream which flowed through their +own land, and in Australia particularly the word has the same +local meaning as brook in England. On a map the whole system +is called a river, <i>e.g.</i> the river Wakefield in South Australia gives +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>401</span> +its name to Port Wakefield, but the stream is always locally +called “the creek.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREEK<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> or <span class="bold">MUSKOGEE</span> (<span class="sc">Muscogee</span>) <span class="bold">INDIANS</span> (Algonquin +<i>maskoki</i>, “creeks,” in reference to the many creeks and rivulets +running through their country), a confederacy of North American +Indians, who formerly occupied most of Alabama and Georgia. +The confederacy seems to have been in existence in 1540, and then +included the Muskogee, the ruling tribe, whose language was +generally spoken, the Alabama, the Hichiti, Koasati and others +of the Muskogean stock, with the Yuchi and the Natchez, +a large number of Shawano and the Seminoles of Florida as a +branch. The Creeks were agriculturists living in villages of log +houses. They were brave fighters, but during the 18th century +only had one struggle, of little importance, with the settlers. +The Creek War of 1813-14 was, however, serious. The confederacy +was completely defeated in three hard-fought battles, +and the peace treaty which followed involved the cession to the +United States government of most of the Creek country. In the +Civil War the Creeks were divided in their allegiance and suffered +heavily in the campaigns. The so-called Creek nation is now +settled in Oklahoma, but independent government virtually +ceased in 1906. In 1904 they numbered some 16,000, some +two-thirds being of pure or mixed Creek blood.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREETOWN,<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> a seaport of Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. +Pop. (1901) 991. It is situated near the head of Wigtown Bay, +18 m. W. of Castle Douglas, but 23½ m. by the Portpatrick and +Wigtownshire Railway. The granite quarries in the vicinity +constitute the leading industry, the stone for the Liverpool docks +and other public works having been obtained from them. The +village dates from 1785, and it became a burgh of barony in +1792. Sir Walter Scott laid part of the scene of <i>Guy Mannering</i> +in this neighbourhood. Dr Thomas Brown, the metaphysician +(1778-1820), was a native of the parish (Kirkmabreck) in which +Creetown lies.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREEVEY, THOMAS<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> (1768-1838), English politician, son of +William Creevey, a Liverpool merchant, was born in that city +in March 1768. He went to Queen’s College, Cambridge, and +graduated as seventh wrangler in 1789. The same year he became +a student at the Inner Temple, and was called to the bar +in 1794. In 1802 he entered parliament through the duke of +Norfolk’s nomination as member for Thetford, and married +a widow with six children, Mrs Ord, who had a life interest in a +comfortable income. Creevey was a Whig and a follower of Fox, +and his active intellect and social qualities procured him a considerable +intimacy with the leaders of this political circle. In +1806, when the brief “All the Talents” ministry was formed, he +was given the office of secretary to the Board of Control; in +1830, when next his party came into power, Creevey, who had +lost his seat in parliament, was appointed by Lord Grey treasurer +of the ordnance; and subsequently Lord Melbourne made him +treasurer of Greenwich hospital. After 1818, when his wife died, +he had very slender means of his own, but he was popular with +his friends and was well looked after by them; Greville, writing +of him in 1829, remarks that “old Creevey is a living proof that +a man may be perfectly happy and exceedingly poor. I think +he is the only man I know in society who possesses nothing.” +He died in February 1838. He is remembered through the +<i>Creevey Papers</i>, published in 1903 under the editorship of Sir +Herbert Maxwell, which, consisting partly of Creevey’s own +journals and partly of correspondence, give a lively and valuable +picture of the political and social life of the late Georgian era, +and are characterized by an almost Pepysian outspokenness. +They are a useful addition and correction to the <i>Croker Papers</i>, +written from a Tory point of view. For thirty-six years Creevey +had kept a “copious diary,” and had preserved a vast miscellaneous +correspondence with such people as Lord Brougham, and +his step-daughter, Elizabeth Ord, had assisted him, by keeping +his letters to her, in compiling material avowedly for a collection +of Creevey Papers in the future. At his death it was found that +he had left his mistress, with whom he had lived for four years, +his sole executrix and legatee, and Greville notes in his <i>Memoirs</i> +the anxiety of Brougham and others to get the papers into their +hands and suppress them. The diary, mentioned above, did not +survive, perhaps through Brougham’s success, and the papers +from which Sir Herbert Maxwell made his selection came into +his hands from Mrs Blackett Ord, whose husband was the grandson +of Creevey’s eldest step-daughter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREFELD,<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Krefeld</span>, a town of Germany, in the Prussian +Rhine province, on the left side of and 3 m. distant from the +Rhine, 32 m. N.W. from Cologne, and 15 m. N.W. from Düsseldorf, +with which it is connected by a light electric railway. Pop. (1875) +62,905; (1905) 110,410. The town is one of the finest in the +Rhine provinces, being well and regularly built, and possessing +several handsome squares and attractive public gardens. A +striking point about the inner town is that it forms a large rectangle, +enclosed by four wide boulevards or “walls.” This feature, +rare in German towns, is due to the fact that Crefeld was always +an “open place,” and that therefore the circular form of a +fortress town could be dispensed with. It has six Roman Catholic +and four Evangelical churches (of which the Gothic Friedenskirche +with a lofty spire, and the modern church of St Joseph, in +the Romanesque style, are alone worth special mention); there +are also a Mennonite and an Old Catholic church. The town hall, +decorated with frescoes by P. Janssen (b. 1844), and the Kaiser +Wilhelm Museum are the most noteworthy secular buildings. +In the promenades are monuments to Moltke, Bismarck and +Karl Wilhelm, the composer of the <i>Wacht am Rhein</i>. Among the +schools and scientific institutions of the town the most important +is the higher grade technical school for the study of the textile +industries, which is attended by students from all parts of the +world. Connected with this are subsidiary schools, notably one +for dyeing and finishing.</p> + +<p>Crefeld is the most important seat of the silk and velvet +manufactures in Germany, and in this industry the larger part +of the population of town and neighbourhood is employed. +There are upwards of 12,000 silk power-looms in operation, and +the value of the annual output in this branch alone is estimated +at £3,000,000. A special feature is the manufacture of silk for +covering umbrellas; while of its velvet manufacture that of velvet +ribbon is the chief. The other industries of the town, notably +dyeing, stuff-printing and stamping, are very considerable, +and there are also engineering and machine shops, chemical, +cellulose, soap, and other factories, breweries, distilleries and +tanneries. The surrounding fertile district is almost entirely +laid out in market gardens. Crefeld is an important railway +centre, and has direct communication with Cologne, Rheydt, +München-Gladbach and Holland (via Zevenaar).</p> + +<p>Crefeld is first mentioned in records of the 12th century. +From the emperor Charles IV. it received market rights in 1361 +and the status of a town in 1373. It belonged to the counts of +Mörs, and was annexed to Prussia, with the countship, in 1702. +It remained a place of little importance until the 17th century, +when religious persecution drove to it a number of Calvinists and +Separatists from Jülich and Berg (followed later by Mennonites), +who introduced the manufacture of linen. The number of such +immigrants still further increased in the 18th century, when, +the silk industry having been introduced from Holland, the town +rapidly developed. The French occupation in 1795 and the +resulting restriction of trade weighed for a while heavily upon +the new industry; but with the termination of the war and the +re-establishment of Prussian rule the old prosperity returned.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREIGHTON, MANDELL<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (1843-1901), English historian and +bishop of London, was born at Carlisle on the 5th of July 1843, +being the eldest son of Robert Creighton, a well-to-do upholsterer +of that city. He was educated at Durham grammar school and +at Merton College, Oxford, where he was elected to a postmastership +in 1862. He obtained a first-class in <i>literae humaniores</i>, and +a second in law and modern history in 1866. In the same year he +became tutor and fellow of Merton. He was ordained deacon, on +his fellowship, in 1870, and priest in 1873; in 1872 he had +married Louise, daughter of Robert von Glehn, a London +merchant (herself a writer of several successful books of history). +Meanwhile he had published several small historical works; +but his college and university duties left little time for writing, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>402</span> +and in 1875 he accepted the vicarage of Embleton, a parish on +the coast of Northumberland, near Dunstanburgh, with an +ancient and beautiful church and a fortified parsonage house, +and within reach of the fine library in Bamburgh Keep. Here +he remained for nearly ten years, acquiring that experience of +parochial work which afterwards stood him in good stead, taking +private pupils, studying and writing, as well as taking +an active part in diocesan business. Here too he planned and +wrote the first two volumes of his chief historical work, the +<i>History of the Papacy</i>; and it was in part this which led to his +being elected in 1884 to the newly-founded Dixie professorship +of ecclesiastical history at Cambridge, where he went into +residence early in 1885. At Cambridge his influence at once +made itself felt, especially in the reorganization of the historical +school. His lectures and conversation classes were extraordinarily +good, possessing as he did the rare gift of kindling the +enthusiasm without curbing the individuality of his pupils. +In 1886 he combined with other leading historians to found the +<i>English Historical Review</i>, of which he was editor for five years. +Meanwhile the vacations were spent at Worcester, where he had +been nominated a canon residentiary in 1885. In 1891 he was +made canon of Windsor; but he never went into residence, +being appointed in the same year to the see of Peterborough. +He threw himself with characteristic energy into his new work, +visiting, preaching and lecturing in every part of his diocese. +He also found time to preach and lecture elsewhere, and to deliver +remarkable speeches at social functions; he worked hard with +Archbishop Benson on the Parish Councils Bill (1894); he became +the first president of the Church Historical Society (1894), and +continued in that office till his death; he took part in the Laud +Commemoration (1895); he represented the English Church at +the coronation of the tsar (1896). He even found time for +academical work, delivering the Hulsean lectures (1893-1894) +and the Rede lecture (1894) at Cambridge, and the Romanes +lecture at Oxford (1896).</p> + +<p>In 1897, on the translation of Dr Temple to Canterbury, Bishop +Creighton was transferred to London. During Dr Temple’s +episcopate ritual irregularities of all kinds had grown up, which +left a very difficult task to his successor, more especially in view +of the growing public agitation on the subject, of which he had +to bear the brunt. As was only natural, his studied fairness +did not satisfy partisans on either side; and his efforts towards +conciliation laid him open to much misunderstanding. His +administration, none the less, did much to preserve peace. He +strained every nerve to induce his clergy to accept his ruling +on the questions of the reservation of the Sacrament and of the +ceremonial use of incense in accordance with the archbishop’s +judgment in the Lincoln case; but when, during his last illness, +a prosecutor brought proceedings against the clergy of five +recalcitrant churches, the bishop, on the advice of his archdeacons, +interposed his veto. One other effort on behalf of +peace may be mentioned. In accordance with a vote of the +diocesan conference, the bishop arranged the “Round Table +Conference” between representative members of various +parties, held at Fulham in October 1900, on “the doctrine of the +Holy Eucharist and its expression in ritual,” and a report of +its proceedings was published with a preface by him. The true +work of his episcopate was, however, positive, not negative. +He was an excellent administrator; and his wide knowledge, +broad sympathies, and sound common sense, though they placed +him outside the point of view common to most of his clergy, +made him an invaluable guide in correcting their too often indiscreet +zeal. He fully realized the special position of the +English Church in Christendom, and firmly maintained its +essential teaching. Yet he was no narrow Anglican. His love +for the English Church never blinded him to its faults, and no +man was less insular than he. As he was a historian before he +became a bishop, so it was his historical sense which determined +his general attitude as a bishop. It was this, together with a +certain native taste for ecclesiastical pomp, which made him—while +condemning the unhistorical extravagances of the ultra-ritualists—himself +a ritualist. He was the first bishop of London, +since the Reformation, to “pontificate” in a mitre as well as the +cope, and though no man could have been less essentially +“sacerdotal” he was always careful of correct ceremonial +usage. His interests and his sympathies, however, extended +far beyond the limits of the church. He took a foremost part +in almost every good work in his diocese, social or educational, +political or religious; while he found time also to cultivate +friendly relations with thinking men and women of all schools, +and to help all and sundry who came to him for advice and +assistance. It was this multiplicity of activities and interests +that proved fatal to him. By degrees the work, and especially +the routine work, began to tell on him. He fell seriously ill +in the late summer of 1900, and died on the 14th of January 1901. +He was buried in St Paul’s cathedral, where a statue surmounts +his tomb.</p> + +<p>He was a man of striking presence and distinguished by a fine +courtesy of manner. His <span class="correction" title="amended from irrespressible">irrepressible</span> and often daring humour, +together with his frank distaste for much conventional religious +phraseology, was a stumbling-block to some pious people. But +beneath it all lay a deep seriousness of purpose and a firm faith +in what to him were the fundamental truths of religion.</p> + +<p>Bishop Creighton’s principal published works are: <i>History of +the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation</i> (5 vols., 1882-1897, +new ed.); <i>History of the Papacy from the Great Schism +to the Sack of Rome</i> (6 vols., 1897); <i>The Early Renaissance in +England</i> (1895); <i>Cardinal Wolsey</i> (1895); <i>Life of Simon de +Montfort</i> (1876, new ed. 1895); <i>Queen Elizabeth</i> (1896). He also +edited the series of <i>Epochs of English History</i>, for which he +wrote “The Age of Elizabeth” (13th ed., 1897); <i>Historical +Lectures and Addresses by Mandell Creighton, &c.</i>, edited by +Mrs Creighton, were published in 1903.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life and Letters of Mandell Creighton, &c.</i>, by his wife (2 vols., +1904); and the article “Creighton and Stubbs” in <i>Church Quarterly +Review</i> for Oct. 1905.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREIL,<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the department of Oise, +32 m. N. of Paris on the Northern railway, on which it is an +important junction. Pop. (1906) 9234. The town is situated on +the Oise, on which it has a busy port. The manufacture of +machinery, heavy iron goods and nails, and copper and iron +founding, are important industries, and there are important +metallurgical and engineering works at Montataire, about 2 m. +distant; bricks and tiles and glass are also manufactured, and +the Northern railway has workshops here. The church (12th +to 15th centuries) is in the Gothic style. There are some traces +of a castle in which Charles VI. resided during the period of his +madness. Creil played a part of some importance in the wars of +the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRELL<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Krell</span>), <span class="bold">NICHOLAS</span> (c. 1551-1601), chancellor of +the elector of Saxony, was born at Leipzig, and educated at the +university of his native town. About 1580 he entered the service +of Christian, the eldest son of Augustus I., elector of Saxony, +and when Christian succeeded his father as elector in 1586, became +his most influential counsellor. Crell’s religious views were +Calvinistic or Crypto-Calvinistic, and both before and after his +appointment as chancellor in 1589 he sought to substitute his +own form of faith for the Lutheranism which was the accepted +religion of electoral Saxony. Calvinists were appointed to many +important ecclesiastical and educational offices; a translation of +the Bible with Calvinistic annotations was brought out; and +other measures were taken by Crell to attain his end. In foreign +politics, also, he sought to change the traditional policy of +Saxony, acting in unison with John Casimir, administrator +of the Rhenish Palatinate, and promising assistance to Henry IV. +of France. These proceedings, coupled with the jealousy felt +at Crell’s high position and autocratic conduct, made the chancellor +very unpopular, and when the elector died in October +1591 he was deprived of his offices and thrown into prison by +order of Frederick William, duke of Saxe-Altenburg, the regent +for the young elector Christian II. His trial was delayed until +1595, and then, owing partly to the interference of the imperial +court of justice (<i>Reichskammergericht</i>), dragged on for six years. +At length it was referred by the emperor Rudolph II. to a court +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>403</span> +of appeal at Prague, and sentence of death was passed. This +was carried out at Dresden on the 9th of October 1601.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. V. Richard, <i>Der kurfürstliche sächsische Kanzler Dr +Nicolaus Krell</i> (Frankfort, 1860); B. Bohnenstädt, <i>Das Prozessverfahren +gegen den kursächsischen Kanzler Dr Nikolaus Krell</i> (Halle, +1901); F. Brandes, <i>Der Kanzler Krell, ein Opfer des Orthodoxismus</i> +(Leipzig, 1873); and E. L. T. Henke, <i>Caspar Peucer und Nicolaus +Krell</i> (Marburg, 1865).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREMA,<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, in the +province of Cremona, 26 m. N.E. by rail from the town of +Cremona. Pop. (1901) town, 8027; commune, 9609. It is +situated on the right bank of the Serio, 240 ft. above sea-level, +in the centre of a rich agricultural district. The cathedral has a +fine Lombard Gothic façade of the second half of the 14th century; +the campanile belongs to the same period; the rest of the church +has been restored in the baroque style. The clock tower opposite +dates from the period of Venetian dominion in the 16th and 17th +centuries. The castle, which was one of the strongest in Italy, +was demolished in 1809. The church of S. Maria, ¾ m. E. of the +town, was begun in 1490 by Giov. Batt. Battaggio; it is in the +form of a Greek cross, with a central dome, and the exterior is +a fine specimen of polychrome Lombard work (E. Gussalli in +<i>Rassegna d’ arte</i>, 1905, p. 17).</p> + +<p>The date of the foundation of Crema is uncertain. In the +10th century it appears to have been the principal place of the +territory known as Isola Fulcheria. In the 12th century it +was allied with Milan and attacked by Cremona, but was taken +and sacked by Barbarossa in 1160. It was rebuilt in 1185. +It fell under the Visconti in 1338, and joined the Lombard +republic in 1447; but was taken by the Venetians in 1449, and, +except from 1509 to 1529, remained under their dominion +until 1797.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREMATION<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (Lat. <i>cremare</i>, to burn), the burning of human +corpses. This method of disposal of the dead may be said to have +been the general practice of the ancient world, with the important +exceptions of Egypt, where bodies were embalmed, Judaea, +where they were buried in sepulchres, and China, where they were +buried in the earth. In Greece, for instance, so well ascertained +was the law that only suicides, unteethed children, and persons +struck by lightning were denied the right to be burned. At +Rome, one of the XII. Tables said, “Hominem mortuum in urbe +ne sepelito, neve urito”; and in fact, from the close of the +republic to the end of the 4th Christian century, burning on the +pyre or rogus was the general rule.<a name="FnAnchor_1l" id="FnAnchor_1l" href="#Footnote_1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Whether in any of these +cases cremation was adopted or rejected for sanitary or for +superstitious reasons, it is difficult to say. Embalming would +probably not succeed in climates less warm and dry than the +Egyptian. The scarcity of fuel might also be a consideration. +The Chinese are influenced by the doctrine of Feng-Shui, or +incomprehensible wind water; they must have a properly placed +grave in their own land, and with this view their corpses are sent +home from long distances abroad. Even the Jews used cremation +in the vale of Tophet when a plague came; and the modern +Jews of Berlin and the Spanish and Portuguese Jews at Mile +End cemetery were among the first to welcome the lately revived +process. Probably also, some nations had religious objections +to the pollution of the sacred principle of fire, and therefore +practised exposure, suspension, throwing into the sea, cave-burial, +desiccation or envelopment.<a name="FnAnchor_2l" id="FnAnchor_2l" href="#Footnote_2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Some at least of these +methods must obviously have been suggested simply by the +readiest means at hand. Cremation is still practised over a great +part of Asia and America, but not always in the same form. +Thus, the ashes may be stored in urns, or buried in the earth, +or thrown to the wind, or (as among the Digger Indians) smeared +with gum on the heads of the mourners. In one case the three +processes of embalming, burning and burying are gone through; +and in another, if a member of the tribe die at a great distance +from home, some of his money and clothes are nevertheless +burned by the family. As food, weapons, &c., are sometimes +buried with the body, so they are sometimes burned with the +body, the whole ashes being collected.<a name="FnAnchor_3l" id="FnAnchor_3l" href="#Footnote_3l"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The Siamese have a +singular institution, according to which, before burning, the +embalmed body lies in a temple for a period determined by the +rank of the dead man,—the king for six months, and so downwards. +If the poor relatives cannot afford fuel and the other +necessary preparations, they bury the body, but exhume it for +burning when an opportunity occurs.</p> + +<p>There can be little doubt that the practice of cremation in +modern Europe was at first stopped, and has since been prevented +in great measure, by the Christian doctrine of the resurrection +of the body; partly also by the notion that the Christian’s body +was redeemed and purified.<a name="FnAnchor_4l" id="FnAnchor_4l" href="#Footnote_4l"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Some clergymen, however, as the +late Mr Haweis in his <i>Ashes to Ashes, a Cremation Prelude</i> +(London, 1874), have been prominent in favour of cremation. +The objection of the clergy was disposed of by the philanthropist +Lord Shaftesbury when he asked, “What would in such a case +become of the blessed martyrs?” The very general practice of +burying bodies in the precincts of a church in order that the +dead might take benefit from the prayers of persons resorting to +the church, and the religious ceremony which precedes both European +burials and Asiatic cremations, have given the question a +religious aspect. It is, however, in the ultimate resort, really a +sanitary one. The disgusting results of pit-burial made cemeteries +necessary. But cemeteries are equally liable to overcrowding, +and are often nearer to inhabited houses than the old +churchyards. It is possible, no doubt, to make a cemetery safe +approximately by selecting a soil which is dry, close and porous, +by careful drainage, and by rigid enforcement of the rules +prescribing a certain depth (8 to 10 ft.) and a certain superficies +(4 yds.) for graves. But a great mass of sanitary objections may +be brought against even recent cemeteries in various countries. +A dense clay, the best soil for preventing the levitation of gas, +is the worst for the process of decomposition. The danger is +strikingly illustrated in the careful planting of trees and shrubs +to absorb the carbonic acid. Vault-burial in metallic coffins, +even when sawdust charcoal is used, is still more dangerous +than ordinary burial. It must also be remembered that the +cemetery system can only be temporary. The soil is gradually +filled with bones; houses crowd round; the law itself permits +the reopening of graves at the expiry of fourteen years. We +shall not, indeed, as Browne says, “be knaved out of our graves +to have our skulls made drinking bowls and our bones turned +into pipes!” But on this ground of sentiment cremation would +certainly prevent any interruption of that “sweet sleep and +calm rest” which the old prayer that the earth might lie lightly +has associated with the grave. And in the meantime we should +escape the horror of putrefaction and of the “small cold worm +that fretteth the enshrouded form.”</p> + +<p>In Europe Christian burial was long associated entirely with the +ordinary practice of committing the corpse to the grave. But +in the middle of the 19th century many distinguished physicians +and chemists, especially in Italy, began prominently to advocate +cremation. In 1874, a congress called to consider the matter at +Milan resolved to petition the Chamber of Deputies for a clause +in the new sanitary code, permitting cremation under the supervision +of the syndics of the commune. In Switzerland Dr +Vegmann Ercolani was the champion of the cause (see his +<i>Cremation the most Rational Method of Disposing of the Dead</i>, +4th ed., Zurich, 1874). So long ago as 1797 cremation was +seriously discussed by the French Assembly under the Directory, +and the events of the Franco-Prussian War again brought the +subject under the notice of the medical press and the sanitary +authorities. The military experiments at Sédan, Chalons and +Metz, of burying large numbers of bodies with quicklime, or +pitch and straw, were not successful, but very dangerous. The +matter was considered by the municipal council of Paris in connexion +with the new cemetery at Méry-sur-Oise; and the prefect +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>404</span> +of the Seine in 1874 sent a circular asking information to all the +cremation societies in Europe. In Britain the subject had +slumbered for two centuries, since in 1658 Sir Thomas Browne +published his quaint <i>Hydriotaphia, or Urn-burial</i>, which was +mainly founded on the <i>De funere Romanorum</i> of the learned +Kirchmannus. In 1817 Dr J. Jamieson gave a sketch of the +“Origin of Cremation” (<i>Proc. Royal Soc. Edin.</i>, 1817), and for +many years prior to 1874 Dr Lord, medical officer of health for +Hampstead, continued to urge the practical necessity for the +introduction of the system.</p> + +<p>It was Sir Henry Thompson, however, who first brought the +question prominently before the public. Thompson’s problem +was—“Given a dead body, to resolve it into carbonic acid, water +and ammonia, rapidly, safely and not unpleasantly.” To solve +this problem, experiments were made by Dr Polli at the Milan +gas works, fully described in Dr Pietra Santa’s book, <i>La Crémation +des morts en France et à l’étranger</i>, and by Professor Brunetti, +who exhibited an apparatus at the Vienna Exhibition of 1873, +and who stated his results in <i>La Cremazione dei cadaveri</i> (Padua, +1873). Polli obtained complete incineration or calcination of +dogs by the use of coal-gas mixed with atmospheric air, applied +to a cylindrical retort of refracting clay, so as to consume the +gaseous products of combustion. The process was complete +in two hours, and the ashes weighed about 5% of the weight +before cremation. Brunetti used an oblong furnace of refracting +brick with side-doors to regulate the draught, and above a cast-iron +dome with movable shutters. The body was placed on +a metallic plate suspended on iron wire. The gas generated +escaped by the shutters, and in two hours carbonization was +complete. The heat was then raised and concentrated, and at the +end of four hours the operation was over; 180 ℔ of wood costing +2s. 4d. sterling was burned. In a reverberating furnace used by +Sir Henry Thompson a body, weighing 144 ℔, was reduced in +fifty minutes to about 4 ℔ of lime dust. The noxious gases, +which were undoubtedly produced during the first five minutes +of combustion, passed through a flue into a second furnace and +were entirely consumed. In the ordinary Siemens regenerative +furnace (which was adapted by Reclam in Germany for cremation, +and also by Sir Henry Thompson) only the hot-blast was +used, the body supplying hydrogen and carbon; or a stream +of heated hydrocarbon mixed with heated air was sent from a +gasometer supplied with coal, charcoal, peat or wood,—the brick +or iron-cased chamber being thus heated to a high degree before +cremation begins.</p> + +<p>Steps were at once taken to form an English society to promote +the practice of cremation. A declaration of its objects was +drawn up and signed on the 13th January 1874 by the following +persons—Shirley Brooks, William Eassie, Ernest Hart, the +Rev. H. R. Haweis, G. H. Hawkins, John Cordy Jeaffreson, F. +Lehmann, C. F. Lord, W. Shaen, A. Strahan, (Sir) Henry Thompson, +Major Vaughan, Rev. C. Voysey and (Sir) T. Spencer Wells; +and they frequently met to consider the necessary steps in order +to attain their object. The laws and regulations having been +thoroughly discussed, the membership of the society was constituted +by an annual contribution for expenses, and a subscription +to the following declaration:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“We disapprove the present custom of burying the dead, and +desire to substitute some mode which shall rapidly resolve the +body into its component elements by a process which cannot offend +the living, and shall render the remains absolutely innocuous. +Until some better method is devised, we desire to adopt that usually +known as cremation.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Finally, on 29th April a meeting was held, a council was +formed, and Sir H. Thompson was elected president and chairman. +Mr Eassie (who in 1875 published a valuable work on +<i>Cremation of the Dead</i>) was at the same time appointed honorary +secretary.<a name="FnAnchor_5l" id="FnAnchor_5l" href="#Footnote_5l"><span class="sp">5</span></a> In 1875 the following were added:—Mrs Rose Mary +Crawshay, Mr Higford Burr, Rev. J. Long, Mr W. Robinson +and the Rev. Brooke Lambert. Subsequently followed Lord +Bramwell, Sir Chas. Cameron, Dr Farquharson, Sir Douglas +Galton, Lord Playfair, Mr Martin Ridley Smith, Mr James A. +Budgett, Mr Edmund Yates, Mr J. S. Fletcher, Mr J. C. Swinburne-Hanham, +the duke of Westminster (on Lord Bramwell’s +death), and Sir Arthur Arnold. These may be considered the +pioneers of the movement for reform.</p> + +<p>On account of difficulties and prejudices<a name="FnAnchor_6l" id="FnAnchor_6l" href="#Footnote_6l"><span class="sp">6</span></a> the council was unable +to purchase a freehold until 1878, when an acre was obtained +at Woking, not far distant from the cemetery. At this time the +furnace employed by Professor Gorini of Lodi, Italy, appeared +to be the best for working with on a small scale; and he was +invited to visit England to superintend its erection. This was +completed in 1879, and the body of a horse was cremated +rapidly and completely without any smoke or effluvia from the +chimney. No sooner was this successful step taken than the +president received a communication from the Home Office, +which resulted in a personal interview with the home secretary; +the issue of which was that if the society desired to avoid direct +hostile action, an assurance must be given that no cremation +should be attempted without leave first obtained from the +minister. This of course was given, no further building took +place, and the society’s labours were confined to employing +means to diffuse information on the subject. Sir Spencer Wells +brought it before the annual meeting of the British Medical +Association in 1880, when a petition to the home secretary for +permission to adopt cremation was largely signed by the leading +men in town and country, but without any immediate result. +The next important development was an application to the +council in 1882, by Captain Hanham in Dorsetshire, to undertake +the cremation of two deceased relatives who had left express instructions +to that effect. The home secretary was applied to, and +refused. The bodies were preserved, and Captain Hanham erected +a crematorium on his estate, and the cremation took place there. +He himself, dying a year later, was cremated also; in both cases +the result was attained under the supervision of Mr J. C. Swinburne-Hanham, +who succeeded Mr Eassie in 1888 as honorary +secretary to the society. The government took no notice. But +in 1883 a cremation was performed in Wales by a man on the body +of his child, and legal proceedings were taken against him. Mr +Justice Stephen, in February 1884, delivered his well-known +judgment at the Assizes there, declaring cremation to be a +legal procedure, provided no nuisance were caused thereby to +others. The council of the society at once declared themselves +absolved from their promise to the Home Office, and publicly +offered to perform cremation, laying down strict rules for careful +inquiry into the cause of death in every case. They stated that +they were fully aware that the chief practical objection to cremation +was that it removed traces of poison or violence which +might have caused death. Declining to trust the very imperfect +statement generally made respecting the cause of death in the +ordinary death certificate (unless a coroner’s inquest had been +held), they adopted a system of very stringent inquiry, the result +of which in each case was to be submitted to the president, to +be investigated and approved by him before cremation could take +place, with the right to decline or require an inquest if he thought +proper; and this course has been followed ever since the first +cremation.</p> + +<p>It was on 26th March 1885 that the first cremation at +Woking took place, the subject being a lady.<a name="FnAnchor_7l" id="FnAnchor_7l" href="#Footnote_7l"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In 1888 it became +necessary, nearly 100 bodies having been by this date cremated, +to build a large hall for religious service, as well as waiting-rooms, +in connexion with the crematorium there. The dukes of Bedford +and Westminster headed the appeal for funds, each with £105. +The former (the 9th duke of Bedford) especially took great +interest in the progress of the society, and offered to furnish +further donations to any extent necessary. During the next +two years he generously defrayed costs to the amount of £3500, +and built a smaller crematorium adjacent for himself and family. +The latter building was first used on the 18th of January 1891, +a few days after the duke’s own death. The number of cremations +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>405</span> +slowly increased year by year, and the total at the end of +1900 was 1824. Many of these were persons of distinction—by +rank, or by attainments in art, literature and science, or in +public life.</p> + +<p>The council next turned their attention to the need for a +national system of death certification, to be enforced by law +as an essential and much-needed reform in connexion +with cremation. On the 6th of January 1893 the duke +<span class="sidenote">Death certification.</span> +of Westminster introduced a deputation to the secretary +of state for the home department, Mr Asquith, and the +president of the Cremation Society opened the case, showing that +no less than 7% of the burials in England took place without any +certificate, while in some districts it was far greater. In consequence +of this the home secretary appointed a select committee +of the House of Commons, which was presided over by Sir Walter +Foster, of the Local Government Board, to “inquire into the +sufficiency of the existing law as to the disposal of the dead ... +and especially for detecting the causes of death due to poison, +violence, and criminal neglect.” After a prolonged inquiry +and careful consideration of the evidence, a full report and +conclusions drawn therefrom were unanimously agreed to, and +published as a blue-book in the autumn of 1893.<a name="FnAnchor_8l" id="FnAnchor_8l" href="#Footnote_8l"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following conclusions are quoted from this volume:—Page iii. +“So far as affording a record of the true cause of death and the +detection of it in cases where death may have been due to violence, +poison, or where criminal neglect is concerned, the class of certified +deaths leaves much to be desired.” Page iv. Certification is extremely +important as a deterrent of crime, and numerous proofs are +given at length in support of the statement.... “Contrast this +class with that of uncertified deaths, when the result is such as to +force upon your Committee the conviction that vastly more deaths +occur annually from foul play and criminal neglect than the law +recognizes.” Page vii. Great uncertainty in resorting to the coroner’s +court, and want of system in connexion with the practice of it, are +affirmed to exist. Page x. It is stated that the opportunity for +perpetrating crime is great in the considerable class of uncertified +cases ... “in short, the existing procedure plays into the hands of +the criminal classes.” “Your Committee are much impressed with +the serious possibilities implied in a system which permits death +and burial to take place without the production of satisfactory +medical evidence of the cause of death.” Page xii. “Your Committee +have arrived at the conclusion that the appointment of medical +officials, who should investigate all cases of death which are not +certified by a medical practitioner in attendance, is a proposal which +deserves their support.”</p> + +<p>In considering cremation, the committee reported as follows:—Page +xxii. “Your Committee are of opinion that there is only one +question in connexion with this method of disposing of a dead body +to which it is necessary for them to refer. That question is the supposed +danger to the community arising from the fact that with the +destruction of the body the possibility of obtaining evidence of the +cause of death by <i>post-mortem</i> examination also disappears.” The +mode of proceeding adopted by the Cremation Society of England +having been described, “your Committee are of opinion that with the +precautions adopted in connexion with cremation, as carried out by +the Cremation Society, there is little probability that cases of crime +would escape detection, but inasmuch as these precautions are +purely voluntary, your Committee consider that in the interests of +public safety such regulations should be enforced by law.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The Cremation Society felt that this report much strengthened +the case for legislation amending the law of death certification. +In August 1894 the president of the society laid the results of the +select committee before the British Medical Association at +Bristol, and a unanimous vote was obtained in favour of the +suggestions made by it. In November a second deputation +waited on Mr Asquith, in which the president of the society +begged him to carry out the system recommended. The home +secretary replied that the business belonged to the department +of the Local Government Board, and that it was already dealing +with the question and bringing it to a satisfactory solution. Soon +afterwards, however, the government changed, other questions +became pressing and further consideration of the subject was +postponed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>With reference to the recommendations of the select committee +before mentioned, the regulations necessary for registration of +death and the disposal of the dead may be outlined as follows:— +(1) That no body should be buried, cremated, or otherwise disposed +of without a medical certificate of death signed, after personal +knowledge and observation, or by information obtained after investigation +made by a qualified medical officer appointed for the +purpose. (2) A qualified medical man should be appointed as official +certifier in every parish, or district of neighbouring parishes, his duty +being to inquire into all cases of death and report the cause in +writing, together with such other details as may be deemed necessary. +This would naturally fall within the duties of the medical +officer of health for the district, and registration should be made +at his office. (3) If the circumstances of death obviously demand +a coroner’s inquest, the case should be transferred to his court and +the cause determined, with or without autopsy. If there appears +to be no ground for holding an inquest, and autopsy be necessary +to the furnishing of a certificate, the official certifier should make it, +and state the result in his report. (4) No person or company should +be henceforth permitted to construct or use an apparatus for cremating +human bodies without license from the Local Government Board +or other authority. (5) No crematory should be so employed unless +the site, construction, and system of management have been approved +after survey by an officer appointed by government for the +purpose. But the licence to construct or use a crematory should +not be withheld if guarantees are given that the conditions required +are or will be complied with. All such crematories to be subject at +all times to inspection by an officer appointed by the government. +(6) The burning of a human body, otherwise than in an officially +recognized crematory, should be illegal, and punishable by penalty. +(7) No human body should be cremated unless the official examiner +added the words “Cremation permitted.” This he should be bound +to do if, after due inquiry, he can certify that the deceased has died +from natural causes, and not from ill-treatment, poison or violence.</p> +</div> + +<p>The Cremation Act 1902 (2 Ed. VII. ch. 8), and the regulations<a name="FnAnchor_9l" id="FnAnchor_9l" href="#Footnote_9l"><span class="sp">9</span></a> +made thereunder by the home secretary, have since +given legislative effect to some of the foregoing recommendations +and have laid down a code of laws applicable and binding where +cremation is resorted to. But the amendments in the law of +death certification generally, so long pressed for by the Cremation +Society of England and recommended by the select committee, +are none the less necessary.</p> + +<p>Undoubtedly in populous communities and in crowded +districts the burial of dead bodies is liable to be a source of +danger to the living. As early as 1840 a commission had been +appointed, including some of the earliest authorities on sanitary +science,—namely, Drs Southwood Smith, Chadwick, Milroy, +Sutherland, Waller Lewis and others,—to conduct a searching +inquiry into the state of the burial-grounds of London and large +provincial towns. By the report<a name="FnAnchor_10l" id="FnAnchor_10l" href="#Footnote_10l"><span class="sp">10</span></a> the existence of such a danger +was strikingly demonstrated, and intramural interments were in +consequence made illegal. The advocates of burial then declared +that interment in certain light soils would safely and efficiently +decompose the putrefying elements which begin to be developed +the moment death takes place, and which rapidly become +dangerous to the living, still more so in the case of deaths from +contagious disease. But these light dry soils and elevated spots +are precisely those best adapted for human habitation; to say +nothing of their value for food-production. Granted the +efficiency of such burial, it only effects in the course of a few +years what exposure to a high temperature accomplishes with +absolute safety in an hour. In a densely populated country +the struggle between the claims of the dead and the living to +occupy the choicest sites becomes a serious matter. All decaying +animal remains give off effluvia—gases—which are transferred +through the medium of the atmosphere to become converted into +vegetable growth of some kind—trees, crops, garden produce, +grass, &c. Every plant absorbs these gases by its leaves, each +one of which is provided with hundreds of stomata—open mouths—by +which they fix or utilize the carbon to form woody fibre, +and give off free oxygen to the atmosphere. Thus it is that the +air we breathe is kept pure by the constant interaction between +the animal and vegetable kingdoms. It may be taken as certain +that the gaseous products arising from a cremated body—amounting, +although invisible, to no less than 97% of its weight, +3% only remaining as solids, in the form of a pure white ash—become +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>406</span> +in the course of a few hours integral and active elements +in some form of vegetable life. The result of this reasoning has +been that, by slow degrees, crematoria have been constructed +at many of the populous cities in Great Britain and abroad +(see <i>Statistics</i> below).</p> + +<p>The subject of employing cremation for the bodies of those +who die of contagious disease is a most important one. Sir H. +Thompson advocated this course in a paper read before the +International Congress of Hygiene held in London in 1891; and +a resolution strongly approving the practice was carried unanimously +at a large meeting of experts and medical officers of health. +Such diseases are small-pox, scarlet fever, diphtheria, consumption, +malignant cholera, enteric, relapsing and puerperal fevers, +the annual number of deaths from which in the United Kingdom +is upwards of 80,000. Complete disinfection takes place by +means of the high temperature to which the body is exposed. +At the present day it is compulsory to report any case in the +foregoing list, whenever it occurs, to the medical officer of health +for the district; and it is customary to disinfect the rooms +themselves, as well as the clothes and furniture used by the +patient if the case be fatal; but the body, which is the source +and origin of the evil, and is itself loaded with the germs of a +specific poison, is left to the chances which attach to its preservation +in that condition, when buried in a fit or unfit soil or +situation.</p> + +<p>The process of preparing a body for cremation requires a brief +notice. The plan generally adopted is to place it (in the usual +shroud) in a light pine shell, discarding all heavy oak or other +coffin, and to introduce it into the furnace in that manner. +Thus there is no handling or exposure of the body after it reaches +the crematorium. The type of furnace in general use is on the +reverberatory principle, the body being consumed in a separate +chamber heated to over 2000° Fahr. by a coke fire. In a few +instances a furnace burning ordinary illuminating gas instead of +coke is in use.</p> +<div class="author">(H. Th.)</div> + +<p><i>Statistics.</i>—The following statistics show the history of modern +cremation and its progress at home and abroad:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Foreign Countries.</i>—The first experiment in Italy was made by +Brunetti in 1869, his second and third in 1870. Gorini and Polli +published their first cases in 1872. Brunetti exhibited his at Vienna +in 1873. All were performed in the open air. The next in Europe +was a single case at Breslau in 1874. Soon after, an English lady +was cremated in a closed apparatus (Siemens) at Dresden. The next +cremation in a closed receptacle took place at Milan in 1876. In +the same year a Cremation Society was formed, a handsome building +was erected, and two Gorini furnaces were at work in 1880. In +1899 the total number of cremations was 1355. In Italy 28 crematoria +exist, viz. at Alessandria, Asti, Bologna, Bra, Brescia, Como, +Cremona, Florence, Genoa, Leghorn, Lodi, Mantua, Milan, Modena, +Novara, Padua, Perugia, Pisa, Pistoia, Rome, San Remo, Siena, +Spezia, Turin, Udine, Verona and Venice. The total number of +cremations in Italy in 1906 was 440.</p> + +<p>In Germany the first crematorium was erected at Gotha; it was +opened in 1878, and the total cremations down to September 1st, 1907, +numbered 4584. At Ohlsdorf, Hamburg, the crematorium was +opened in November 1892, and the total cremations down to +September 1st, 1907, numbered 2521. At Heidelberg the crematorium +was opened in 1891, and the total cremations down to +September 1st, 1907, numbered 1741. Throughout the German +empire there are, in addition to the above, crematoria at Bremen, +Eisenach, Jena, Karlsruhe, Mannheim, Mainz, Offenbach, Heilbronn, +Ulm, Chemnitz and Stuttgart, besides over eighty societies for promoting +cremation. The total number of cremations which took +place in Germany in 1906 was 2057, making a total of 13,614 down +to September 1st, 1907.</p> + +<p>Other societies exist in Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Sweden, +Norway and Switzerland. At the crematorium at Copenhagen +77 bodies were cremated in 1906, the total being 500. The Stockholm +crematorium was opened in October 1887, and the cremations +in 1906 numbered 56. The Gothenburg crematorium (also in +Sweden) was opened in January 1890, and the cremations there +in 1906 were 14. Switzerland has four crematoria, viz. at Basel, +Geneva, Zurich and St Gallen—524 cremations took place in that +country in 1906.</p> + +<p>In Paris a cremation society was founded in 1880, and in 1886-1887 +a large crematorium was constructed by the municipal council +at Père Lachaise, containing three Gorini furnaces. It was first +used in October 1887 for two men who died of small-pox. The +demand became large; an improved furnace was soon devised, the +unclaimed bodies at the hospitals and the remains at the dissecting +rooms being cremated there, besides a large number of embryos. +In 1906 the number, including the last-named class, was 6906. +The total number of incinerations at Père Lachaise down to +December 31st, 1906 (including both classes) was 86,962; but the +employment of cremation for the purposes named has deterred a +resort to it by many. Had a separate establishment been organized +for the public, its success would have been greater. A magnificent +edifice has been constructed by the municipality of Paris for the +conservation of the ashes of persons who have been cremated. +Crematoria have been established also at Rouen, Rheims and +Marseilles, and the construction of crematoria in other of the great +provincial centres of France was in contemplation.</p> + +<p>In Buenos Aires, since 1844, the bodies of all persons dying of +contagious disease are cremated, and there is also a separate establishment +for the use of the public.</p> + +<p>At Tokio in Japan no fewer than 22 crematoria exist, and about +an equal number of cremations and burials in earth take place.</p> + +<p>At Calcutta a crematorium was opened in 1906.</p> + +<p>At Montreal, Canada, there is a crematorium which began operations +in 1902, and completed 44 cremations up to the 31st of +December 1905.</p> + +<p><i>United States.</i>—There were 33 crematoria in the United States on +September 1st, 1907. At Fresh Pond, New York, erected in 1885, +the total number of cremations to December 31st, 1906, being 8514. +At Buffalo, N.Y., the first cremation taking place in 1885, and the +total number down to December 31st, 1905, being 787. At Troy +(Earl Crematorium), N. Y., the first cremation taking place in 1890, and +the total number down to December 31st, 1905, 249. At Swinburne +Island, N.Y., cremations beginning in 1890, total to December 31st, +1905, 123. At Waterville, N.Y., cremations beginning in 1893, total +to December 31st, 1906, 62. At St Louis, Missouri, cremations beginning +in 1888, total to September 1st, 1907, 2151. At Philadelphia, +Penn., cremations beginning in 1888, total to September 1st, 1907, +1685. At San Francisco, Cal., “Odd Fellows,” opened in 1895, +total to December 31st, 1906, 6151. Also at San Francisco, Cal., +“Cypress Lawn,” opened in 1893, total to December 31st, 1905, +1492. At Los Angeles, Cal., No. 1, Rosedale, opened in 1887, total +to December 31st, 1905, 866; No. 2, Evergreen, opened in 1902, +total to December 31st, 1905, 413; No. 3, Gower Street, opened in +1907 with 54 down to September 1st. At Boston, Mass., opened in +1893, total to September 1st, 1907, 2493. At Cincinnati, Ohio, +opened in 1887, total to September 1st, 1907, 1245. At Chicago, +opened in 1893, total to September 1st, 1907, 2188. At Detroit, +Michigan, opened in 1887, total to December 31st, 1905, 689. At +Pittsburg, Penn., opened in 1886, total to September 1st, 1907, 377. +At Baltimore, opened in 1889, total to December 31st, 1905, 263. +At Lancaster, Penn., opened in 1884, total to December 31st, 1906, +106. At Davenport, Iowa, opened in 1891, total to September 1st, +1907, 331. At Milwaukee, opened in 1896, total to October 1905, 442. +At Washington, opened in 1897, total to December 31st, 1905, 275. +The Le Moyne (Washington, Pa.) crematory, the first in the United +States, was erected by Dr F. Julius le Moyne in 1876, for private +use. The first cremation was that of the baron de Palin, of New York, +December 6th, 1876. Dr F. Julius le Moyne died October 1879, and +his remains were cremated in his own crematory. Total number +of cremations (to 1907) 41. At Pasadena, Cal., opened in 1895, total +to September 1st, 1907, 491. At St. Paul, Minn., opened in 1897, +total to December 31st, 1905, 145. At Fort Wayne, Ind., opened in +1897, total to September 1st, 1907, 41. At Cambridge, Mass., +opened in 1900, total to September 1st, 1907, 1090. At Cleveland, +Ohio, opened in 1901, total to December 31st, 1905, 283. At Denver, +Col., opened in 1904, total to December 31st, 1905, 109. At Indianapolis, +opened in 1904, total to December 31st, 1905, 32. At Oakland, +Cal., opened in 1902, total to September 1st, 1907, 2196. At Portland, +Ore., opened in 1901, total to December 31st, 1905, 327. At +Seattle, Washington, opened in 1905, with 21 to the end of that +year.</p> + +<p><i>United Kingdom.</i>—There were 13 crematoria in operation in the +United Kingdom on September 1st, 1907. The oldest is that at +Woking, Surrey, which was first used for the cremation of human +remains in 1885. In that year three cremations took place there, +the number gradually increasing each year until in 1901 301 bodies +were cremated. Up to September 1st, 1907, the total number of +cremations at Woking was 2939. Then followed the crematorium +at Manchester, opened in 1892 with 90 in 1906 and a total of 1085; +at Glasgow, opened in 1895 with 45 in 1906 and a total of 252; at +Liverpool, opened in 1896, with 46 in 1906 and a total of 374; at +Hull, opened in 1901 (the first municipal crematorium), with 17 in +1906 and a total of 116; at Darlington, also opened in 1901, with 13 +in 1906 and a total of 33. The Leicester Corporation crematorium +was opened in 1902, with 12 in 1906 and a total of 50. Next in order +came the Golder’s Green crematorium, Hampstead, London, which +was opened in December 1902. In 1906 298 cremations took place +there, making a total of 1091. After this followed the Birmingham +crematorium, opened in 1903, with 21 in 1906 and a total of 84; the +City of London crematorium at Little Ilford, opened in 1905, with +23 for 1906 and a total of 46; the Leeds crematorium, opened in +1905, with 15 in 1906 and a total of 42; the Bradford Corporation +crematorium, opened in 1905, with 13 in 1906, and a total of 20; +and the Sheffield Corporation crematorium, opened in 1905, with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>407</span> +6 in 1906 and a total of 26. Thus there were 739 cremations in the +United Kingdom in 1906, making a total at the above crematoria +down to September 1st, 1907, of 6158. The Golder’s Green crematorium, +situated on the northern boundary of Hampstead Heath, +stands in its own grounds of 12 acres, and is but 35 minutes’ drive +from Oxford Circus. London thus has two crematoria within +driving distance of its centre, and the Woking crematorium within +easy reach of the south-west suburbs.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. C. S.-H.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1l" id="Footnote_1l" href="#FnAnchor_1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Macrobius says it was disused in the reign of the younger Theodosius +(Gibbon v. 411).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2l" id="Footnote_2l" href="#FnAnchor_2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The Colchians, says Sir Thos. Browne, made their graves in the +air, <i>i.e.</i> on trees.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3l" id="Footnote_3l" href="#FnAnchor_3l"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In the case of a great man there was often a burnt offering of +animals and even of slaves (see Caesar, <i>De bell. Gall.</i> iv.).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4l" id="Footnote_4l" href="#FnAnchor_4l"><span class="fn">4</span></a> A temple of the Holy Ghost (see Tertullian, <i>De anima</i>, c. 51, cited +in Müller, <i>Lex. des Kirchenrechts</i>, s.v. “Begräbniss”).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5l" id="Footnote_5l" href="#FnAnchor_5l"><span class="fn">5</span></a> This was the first society formed in Europe for the promotion of +cremation.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6l" id="Footnote_6l" href="#FnAnchor_6l"><span class="fn">6</span></a> For a full account of these, see <i>Modern Cremation: Its History +and Practice to the Present Date</i>, by Sir H. Thompson, Bart., F.R.C.S., +&c. (4th ed., Smith, Elder, Waterloo Place, 1901).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7l" id="Footnote_7l" href="#FnAnchor_7l"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>The Times</i>, 27th March 1885.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8l" id="Footnote_8l" href="#FnAnchor_8l"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Reports on Death Certification</i> (1893), Eyre & Spottiswoode, +London (373,472).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9l" id="Footnote_9l" href="#FnAnchor_9l"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>Statutory Rules and Orders</i>, 1903, No. 286, Eyre & Spottiswoode.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10l" id="Footnote_10l" href="#FnAnchor_10l"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>A Special Inquiry into the Practice of Interment in Towns</i>, by +Edwin Chadwick (London, 1843), is replete with evidence, and should +be read by those who desire to pursue the inquiry further.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREMER, JAKOBUS JAN<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (1837-1880), Dutch novelist, born +at Arnhem in September 1837, started life as a painter, but soon +exchanged the brush for the pen. The great success of his first +novelettes (<i>Betuwsche Novellen</i> and <i>Overbetuwsche Novellen</i>), +published about 1855—reprinted many times since, and translated +into German and French—showed Cremer the wisdom of +his new departure. These short stories of Dutch provincial life +are written in the quaint dialect of the Betuwe, the large flat +Gelderland island, formed by the Rhine, the name recalling the +presumed earliest inhabitants, the Batavi. Cremer is strongest +in his delineation of character. His picturesque humour, coming +out, perhaps, most forcibly in his numerous readings of the +Betuwe novelettes, soon procured him the name of the “Dutch +Fritz Reuter.” In his later novels Cremer abandons both the +language and the slight love-stories of the Betuwe, depicting +the Dutch life of other centres in the national tongue. The +principal are: <i>Anna Rooze</i> (1867), <i>Dokter Helmond en zijn Vrouw</i> +(1870), <i>Hanna de Freule</i> (1873), <i>Daniel Sils</i>, &c. Cremer was +less successful as a playwright, and his two comedies, <i>Peasant +and Nobleman</i> and <i>Emma Bertholt</i>, did not enhance his fame; +nor did a volume of poems, published in 1873. He died at the +Hague in June 1880. His collected novels have appeared at +Leiden. An English novel, founded by Albert Vandam upon +<i>Anna Rooze</i>, considered by many his best work, was published +in London (1877, 3 vols.) under the title of <i>An Everyday Heroine</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREMERA<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> (mod. <i>Fosso della Valchetta</i>), a small stream in +Etruria which falls into the Tiber about 6 m. N. of Rome. The +identification with the Fosso della Valchetta is fixed as correct +by the account in Livy ii. 49, which shows that the Saxa Rubra +were not far off, and this we know to be the Roman name of the +post station of Prima Porta, about 7 m. from Rome on the Via +Flaminia. It is famous for the defeat of the three hundred Fabii, +who had established a fortified post on its banks.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRÉMIEUX, ISAAC MOÏSE<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> [known as <span class="sc">Adolphe</span>] (1796-1880), +French statesman, was born at Nîmes, of a rich Jewish family. +He began life as an advocate in his native town. After the revolution +of 1830 he came to Paris, formed connexions with numerous +political personages, even with King Louis Philippe, and became +a brilliant defender of Liberal ideas in the law courts and in the +press,—witness his <i>Éloge funèbre</i> of the bishop Grégoire (1830), +his <i>Mémoire</i> for the political rehabilitation of Marshal Ney (1833), +and his plea for the accused of April (1835). Elected deputy in +1842, he was one of the leaders in the campaign against the +Guizot ministry, and his eloquence contributed greatly to the +success of his party. On the 24th of February 1848 he was chosen +by the Republicans as a member of the provisional government, +and as minister of justice he secured the decrees abolishing +the death penalty for political offences, and making the office +of judge immovable. When the conflict between the Republicans +and Socialists broke out he resigned office, but continued to sit +in the constituent assembly. At first he supported Louis +Napoleon, but when he discovered the prince’s imperial ambitions +he broke with him. Arrested and imprisoned on the 2nd of +December 1851, he remained in private life until November 1869, +when he was elected as a Republican deputy by Paris. On the 4th +of September 1870 he was again chosen member of the government +of national defence, and resumed the ministry of justice. +He then formed part of the Delegation of Tours, but took no +part in the completion of the organization of defence. He +resigned with his colleagues on the 14th of February 1871. +Eight months later he was elected deputy, then life senator in +1875. He died on the 10th of February 1880. Crémieux did +much to better the condition of the Jews. He was president of +the Universal Israelite Alliance, and while in the government +of the national defence he secured the franchise for the Jews in +Algeria. This famous <i>Décret Crémieux</i> was the origin of the anti-Semitic +movement in Algiers. Crémieux published a <i>Recueil</i> +of his political cases (1869), and the <i>Actes de la délégation de Tours +et de Bordeaux</i> (2 vols., 1871).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREMONA, LUIGI<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> (1830-1903), Italian mathematician, was +born at Pavia on the 7th of December 1830. In 1848, when +Milan and Venice rose against Austria, Cremona, then only a +lad of seventeen, joined the ranks of the Italian volunteers, and +remained with them, fighting on behalf of his country’s freedom, +till, in 1849, the capitulation of Venice put an end to the hopeless +campaign. He then returned to Pavia, where he pursued his +studies at the university under Francesco Brioschi, and determined +to seek a career as teacher of mathematics. His first +appointment was as elementary mathematical master at the +gymnasium and lyceum of Cremona, and he afterwards obtained +a similar post at Milan. In 1860 he was appointed to the professorship +of higher geometry at the university of Bologna, and in +1866 to that of higher geometry and graphical statics at the +higher technical college of Milan. In this same year he competed +for the Steiner prize of the Berlin Academy, with a treatise +entitled “Memoria sulle superficie de terzo ordine,” and shared +the award with J. C. F. Sturm. Two years later the same prize +was conferred on him without competition. In 1873 he was +called to Rome to organize the college of engineering, and was +also appointed professor of higher mathematics at the university. +Cremona’s reputation had now become European, and in 1879 he +was elected a corresponding member of the Royal Society. In +the same year he was made a senator of the kingdom of Italy. +He died on the 10th of June 1903.</p> + +<p>As early as 1856 Cremona had begun to contribute to the +<i>Annali di scienze matematiche e fisiche</i>, and to the <i>Annali di +matematica</i>, of which he became afterwards joint editor. Papers +by him have appeared in the mathematical journals of Italy, +France, Germany and England, and he has published several +important works, many of which have been translated into other +languages. His manual on <i>Graphical Statics</i> and his <i>Elements +of Projective Geometry</i> (translated by C. Leudesdorf), have been +published in English by the Clarendon Press. His life was +devoted to the study of higher geometry and reforming the more +advanced mathematical teaching of Italy. His reputation mainly +rests on his <i>Introduzione ad una teoria geometrica delle curve piane</i>, +which proclaims him as a follower of the Steinerian or synthetical +school of geometricians. He notably enriched our knowledge of +curves and surfaces.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREMONA,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> a city and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, +the capital of the province of Cremona, situated on the N. bank +of the Po, 155 ft. above sea-level, 60 m. by rail S.E. of Milan. +Pop. (1901) town, 31,655; commune, 39,344. It is oval in shape, +and retains its medieval fortifications. The line of the streets +is as a rule irregular, but the town as a whole is not very +picturesque.</p> + +<p>The finest building is the cathedral, in the Lombard Romanesque +style, begun in 1107 and consecrated in 1190. The wheel +window of the main façade dates from 1274. The transepts, +added in the 13th and 14th centuries (before 1370), have picturesque +brick façades, with fine terra-cotta ornamentation. The +great Torrazzo, a tower 397 ft. high, which stands by the cathedral, +and is connected with it by a series of galleries, dates from 1267-1291. +It is square below, with an octagonal summit of a slightly +later period. The main façade of the cathedral was largely +altered in 1491, to which date the statues upon it belong; the +portico in front was added in 1497. The building would be +much improved by isolation, which it is hoped may be effected. +The interior is fine, and is covered with frescoes by Cremonese +masters of the 16th century (Boccaccio Boccaccino, Romanino, +Pordenone, the Campi, &c.), which are not of first-rate importance. +The choir has fine stalls of 1489-1490, upon one of which +there is a view of the façade of the cathedral before its alteration +in 1491. The treasury contains a richly worked silver crucifix +9 ft. high, of 1478, the base of which was added in 1774-1775. +It contains 408 statues and busts altogether, the central three +of which belong to an earlier cross of 1231. Adjacent to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>408</span> +cathedral is the octagonal baptistery of 1167, 92 ft. in height +and 75 ft. in external diameter, also in the Lombard Romanesque +style. The so-called Campo Santo, close to the baptistery, +contains a mosaic pavement with emblematic figures belonging +probably to the 8th and 9th centuries, and running under the +cathedral. Of the other churches, S. Michele has a simple and +good Lombard Romanesque 13th-century façade, and a plain +interior of the 10th century; and S. Agata a good campanile in +the former style. Many of them contain paintings by the later +Cremonese masters, especially Galeazzo Campi (d. 1536) and his +sons Giulio and Antonio. The latter are especially well represented +in S. Sigismondo, 1½ m. outside the town to the E. On the +side of the Piazza del Comune opposite to the cathedral are two +13th-century Gothic palaces in brick, the Palazzo Comunale and +the former Palazzo dei Giureconsulti, now the seat of the commissioners +for the water regulation of the district. Another +palace of the same period is now occupied by the Archivio +Notarile. The modern Palazzo Ponzoni contains a museum +and a technical institute. In front of it is a statue of the composer +Amilcare Ponchielli, who was a native of Cremona. The +Palazzo Fodri, now the Monte di Pietà, has a beautiful 15th-century +frieze of terra-cotta bas-reliefs, as have some other +palaces in private hands.</p> + +<p>Cremona was founded by the Romans in 218 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (the same +year as Placentia) as an outpost against the Gallic tribes. It +was strengthened in 190 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the sending of 6000 new settlers +and soon became one of the most flourishing towns of upper +Italy. It probably acquired municipal rights in 90 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but +Augustus, owing to the fact that it did not support him, assigned +a part of its territory to his veterans in 41 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and henceforth it +is once more called <i>colonia</i>. It remained prosperous (we may note +that Virgil came here to school from Mantua) until it was taken +and destroyed by the troops of Vespasian after the second battle +of Betriacum (Bedriacum) in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 69; the temple of Mefitis +alone being left standing (see Tacitus, <i>Hist.</i> iii. 15 seq.). One of +the bronze plates which decorated the exterior of the war-chest +of the <i>legio III. Macedonica</i>, one of the legions which had been +defeated at Betriacum, has been found near Cremona itself +(F. Barnabei in <i>Notiz. scavi</i>, 1887, p. 210). Vespasian ordered +its immediate reconstruction, but it never recovered its former +prosperity, though its position on the N. bank of the Po, at the +meeting-point of roads from Placentia, Mantua (the Via Postumia +in both cases), Brixellum (where the roads from Cremona and +Mantua to Parma met and crossed the river), Laus Pompeia +and Brixia, still gave it considerable importance. It was +destroyed once more by the Lombards under Agilulf in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 605, +and rebuilt in 615, and was ruled by dukes; but in the 9th +century the bishops of Cremona began to acquire considerable +temporal power. Landulf, a German to whom the see was +granted by Henry II., was driven out in 1022, and his palace +destroyed, but other Germans were invested with the see afterwards. +The commune of Cremona is first mentioned in a document +of 1098, recording its investiture by the countess Matilda +with the territory known as Isola Fulcheria. It had to sustain +many wars with its neighbours in order to maintain itself in its +new possessions. In the war of the Lombard League against +Barbarossa, Cremona, after having shared in the destruction of +Crema in 1160 and Milan in 1162, finally joined the league, but +took no part in the battle of Legnano, and thus procured itself +the odium of both sides. In the Guelph and Ghibelline struggles +Cremona took the latter side, and defeated Parma decisively in +1250. It was during this period that Cremona erected its finest +buildings. There was, however, a Guelph reaction in 1264; the +city was taken and sacked by Henry VII. in 1311, and was a prey +to struggles between the two parties, until Galeazzo Visconti +took possession of it in 1322. In 1406 it fell under the sway +of Cabrino Fondulo, who received with great festivities both the +emperor Sigismund and Pope John XXIII., the latter on his way +to the council at Constance; he, however, handed it over to +Filippo Maria Visconti in 1419. In 1499 it was occupied by +Venetians, but in 1512 it came under Massimiliano Sforza. +In 1535, like the rest of Lombardy, it fell under Spanish domination, +and was compelled to furnish large money contributions. +The population fell to 10,000 in 1668. The surprise of the +French garrison on the 2nd of February 1702, by the Imperialists +under Prince Eugene, was a celebrated incident of the War of the +Spanish Succession. The Imperialists were driven from Cremona +after a sharp struggle, but captured Marshal Villeroi, the French +commander. Hence the celebrated verse:</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Français, rendons grâce à Bellone;</p> +<p class="i05">Notre bonheur est sans égal;</p> +<p class="i05">Nous avons conservé Cremoneé,</p> +<p class="i05">Et perdu notre général.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">In the 18th century the prosperity of Cremona revived. In the +Italian republic it was the capital of the department of the upper +Po. Like the rest of Lombardy it fell under Austria in 1814, +and became Italian in 1859.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Guida di Cremona</i> (Cremona, 1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREMORNE GARDENS,<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> formerly a popular resort by the +side of the Thames in Chelsea, London, England. Originally the +property of the earl of Huntingdon (c. 1750), father of Steele’s +“Aspasia,” who built a mansion here, the property passed +through various hands into those of Thomas Dawson, Baron +Dartrey and Viscount Cremorne (1725-1813), who greatly +beautified it. It was subsequently sold and converted into a +proprietary place of entertainment, being popular as such from +1845 to 1877. It never, however, acquired the fashionable fame +of Vauxhall, and finally became so great an annoyance to +residents in the neighbourhood that a renewal of its licence was +refused; and the site of the gardens was soon built over. The +name survives in Cremorne Road.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRENELLE<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> (an O. Fr. word for “notch,” mod. <i>créneau</i>; the +origin is obscure; cf. “cranny”), a term generally considered +to mean an embrasure of a battlement, but really applying to +the whole system of defence by battlements. In medieval times +no one could “crenellate” a building without special licence +from his supreme lord.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREODONTA,<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> a group of primitive early Tertiary Carnivora, +characterized by their small brains, the non-union in most cases +of the scaphoid and lunar bones of the carpus, and the general +absence of a distinct pair of “sectorial” teeth (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carnivora</a></span>). +In many respects the Lower Eocene creodonts come very close +to the primitive ungulates, or Condylarthra (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Phenacodus</a></span>), +from which, however, they are distinguished by the approximation +in the form of the skull to the carnivorous type, the more +trenchant teeth (at least in most cases) and the more claw-like +character of the terminal joints of the toes. The general character +of the dentition in the more typical forms, such as <i>Hyaenodon</i> +(see fig.), recalls that of the carnivorous marsupials, this being +especially the case with the Patagonian species, which have been +separated as a distinct group under the name of Sparassodonta +(<i>q.v.</i>). The skull, however, is not of the marsupial type, and in +the European forms at any rate there is a complete replacement +of the milk-molars by pre-molars, while the minute structure of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>409</span> +the enamel of the teeth is of the carnivorous as distinct from +the marsupial type. The head is large in proportion to the body, +the lumbar region is unusually rigid, owing to the complexity of +the articulations, and the tail and hind-limbs are relatively long +and powerful. In life the tail probably passed almost imperceptibly +into the body, as in the Tasmanian thylacine.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:448px; height:334px" src="images/img408.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption2">Dentition of <i>Hyaenodon leptorhynchus</i>, from the Lower Oligocene +of France. The last upper molar is concealed by the penultimate +tooth.</td></tr></table> + +<p>That the Creodonta are the ancestors of the modern Carnivora +is now generally admitted. They are apparently the most +generalized and primitive of all (placental?) mammals, and +probably the direct descendants of the mammal-like anomodont +or theromorphous reptiles of the Triassic epoch; the evolution +from that group having perhaps taken place in Africa or in the +lost area connecting that continent with India. The relationship +of the creodonts to the carnivorous marsupials is not yet determined, +but it seems scarcely probable that the remarkable +resemblance existing between the teeth of the two groups can be +solely due to parallelism; and it has been suggested by Dr L. +Wortman that both creodonts and marsupials are descended +from a common non-placental stock. In other words, the latter +are a side-branch from the anomodont-creodont line of descent. +Dr C. W. Andrews has pointed out that certain of the Egyptian +creodonts appear to have been aquatic or subaquatic in their +habits; and it is possible that from such types are derived the +true seals, or <i>Phocidae</i>.</p> + +<p>With the exception of Australasia, and perhaps South Africa, +creodonts (on the supposition that the Patagonian forms are +rightly included) appear to have had a nearly world-wide distribution. +In Europe and North America they date from the +Lowest Eocene and lived till the early Oligocene, while in India +they apparently survived till a much later epoch. Some of the +Oligocene forms, alike as regards dentition, the union of the +scaphoid and lunar of the carpus, and the complexity of the +brain, approximated to modern Carnivora.</p> + +<p>As regards classification Mr W. D. Matthew includes in the +typical family <i>Hyaenodontidae</i> not only the widely spread genera +<i>Hyaenodon</i> and <i>Pterodon</i>, but likewise <i>Sinopa</i> (<i>Stypolophus</i>), +<i>Cynohyaenodon</i> and <i>Proviverra</i>; but <i>Viverravus</i> (<i>Didymictis</i>) +and <i>Vulpavus</i> (<i>Miacis</i>) are assigned to a separate family (<i>Viverravidae</i>). +It is these latter forms which come nearest to modern +Carnivora, most of them being of Oligocene age. The American +and European <i>Oxyaena</i> apparently represents a family by itself, +as does the American <i>Oxyclaena</i>; and <i>Palaeonictis</i> and <i>Patriofelis</i> +are assigned to yet another family; while the North American +Lower Eocene and Eocene <i>Arctocyon</i> typifies a family characterized +by the somewhat bear-like type of dentition. <i>Mesonyx</i> +is also a very distinct type, from the North American Eocene +and Oligocene. Some of the species of <i>Patriofelis</i> and <i>Hyaenodon</i> +attained the size of a tiger, although with long civet-like skulls. +In the earlier forms the claws often retained somewhat of a hoof-like +character.</p> + +<p>The South American <i>Borhyaenidae</i> include <i>Borhyaena</i>, <i>Prothylacinus</i>, +<i>Amphiproviverra</i>, and allied forms from the Santa Cruz +beds of Patagonia, and have been referred to a distinct group, +the Sparassodonta, mainly on account of the alleged replacement +of some only of the milk-molars by premolars. By their first +describer, Dr F. Ameghino, they were regarded as nearly related +to the marsupials, to which group they were definitely referred +in 1905 by Mr W. J. Sinclair, by whom they are considered +near akin to <i>Thylacinus</i>, but this view seems to be disproved by +the investigations of Mr C. S. Tomes into the structure of the +dental enamel.</p> + +<p>It should be added that Dr J. L. Wortman transfers <i>Viverravus</i> +and its allies, together with <i>Palaeonictis</i>, to the true Carnivora, +the latter genus being regarded as the ancestral type of the sabre-toothed +cats (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Machaerodus</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—J. L. Wortman, “Eocene Mammalia in the Peabody +Museum, pt. i. Carnivora,” <i>Amer. J. Sci.</i> vols. xi.-xiv. (1901-1902); +W. D. Matthew, “Additional Observations on the Creodonta,” +<i>Bull. Amer. Mus.</i> vol. xiv. p. i. (1901); C. W. Andrews, +<i>Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of the Fayum</i>, British +Museum (1906); W. J. Sinclair, “The Marsupial Fauna of the +Santa Cruz Beds,” <i>Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc.</i> vol. xlix. p. 73 (1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREOLE<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> (the Fr. form of <i>criollo</i>, a West Indian, probably a +negro corruption of the Span, <i>criadillo</i>, the dim. of <i>criado</i>, one +bred or reared, from <i>criar</i>, to breed, a derivative of the Lat. +<i>creare</i>, to create), a word used originally (16th century) to denote +persons born in the West Indies of Spanish parents, as distinguished +from immigrants direct from Spain, aboriginals, +negroes or mulattos. It is now used of the descendants of non-aboriginal +races born and settled in the West Indies, in various +parts of the American mainland and in Mauritius, Reunion and +some other places colonized by Spain, Portugal, France, or (in +the case of the West Indies) by England. In a similar sense the +name is used of animals and plants. The use of the word by +some writers as necessarily implying a person of mixed blood is +totally erroneous; in itself “creole” has no distinction of colour; +a Creole may be a person of European, negro, or mixed extraction—or +even a horse.</p> + +<p>Local variations occur in the use of the word as applied to +people. In the West Indies it designates the descendants of any +European race; in the United States the French-speaking native +portion of the white race in Louisiana, whether of French or +Spanish origin. The French Canadians are never termed creoles, +nor is the word now used of the South Americans of Spanish or +Portuguese descent, but in Mexico whites of pure Spanish extraction +are still called creoles. In all the countries named, +when a non-white creole is indicated the word negro is added. +In Mauritius, Reunion, &c., on the other hand, creole is commonly +used to designate the black population, but is also occasionally +used of the inhabitants of European descent. The difference in +type between the white creoles and the European races from +whom they have sprung, a difference often considerable, is due +principally to changed environment—especially to the tropical +or semi-tropical climate of the lands they inhabit. The many +patois founded on French and Spanish, and used chiefly by creole +negroes, are spoken of as creole languages, a term extended by +some writers to include similar dialects spoken in countries +where the word creole is rarely used.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. W. Cable, <i>The Creoles of Louisiana</i> (1884); A. Coelho, “Os +Dialetos romanicos on neo latinos na Africa, Asia e America,” <i>Bol. +Soc. Geo. Lisboa</i> (1884-1886), with bibliography. For the Creole +French of Haiti see an article by Sir H. H. Johnston in <i>The Times</i>, +April 10th, 1909.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREON,<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> in Greek legend, son of Lycaethus, king of Corinth +and father of Glauce or Creusa, the second wife of Jason.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREON,<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> in Greek legend, son of Menoeceus, king of Thebes +after the death of Laius, the husband of his sister Jocasta. +Thebes was then suffering from the visitation of the Sphinx, and +Creon offered his crown and the hand of the widowed queen to +whoever should solve the fatal riddle. Oedipus, the son of Laius, +ignorant of his parentage, successfully accomplished the task +and married Jocasta, his mother. By her he had two sons, +Eteocles and Polyneices, who agreed after their father’s death +to reign in alternative years. Eteocles first ascended the throne, +being the elder, but at the end of the year refused to resign, +whereupon his brother attacked him at the head of an army +of Argives. The war was to be decided by a single combat +between the brothers, but both fell. Creon, who had resumed +the government during the minority of Leodamas, the son of +Eteocles, commanded that the Argives, and above all Polyneices, +the cause of all the bloodshed, should not receive the rites of +sepulture, and that any one who infringed this decree should be +buried alive. Antigone, the sister of Polyneices, refused to obey, +and sprinkled dust upon her brother’s corpse. The threatened +penalty was inflicted; but Creon’s crime did not escape unpunished. +His son, Haemon, the lover of Antigone, killed +himself on her grave; and he himself was slain by Theseus. +According to another account he was put to death by Lycus, +the son or descendant of a former ruler of Thebes (Euripides, +<i>Herc. Fur.</i> 31; Apollodorus iii. 5, 7; Pausanias ix. 5).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREOPHYLUS<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> of Samos, one of the earliest Greek epic +poets. According to an epigram of Callimachus (quoted in +Strabo xiv. p. 638) he was the author of a poem called <span class="grk" title="Oichalias halôsis"> +Οἰχαλίας ἅλωσις</span> , which told the story of the conquest of Oechalia by +Heracles. Creophylus was said to have been a friend or relative +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>410</span> +of Homer, who, according to another tradition, was himself the +author of the <span class="grk" title="Halôsis">῞Αλωσις</span>, and presented it to Creophylus in return +for the latter’s hospitality.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. G. Welcker, <i>Der epische Cyclus</i> (1865-1882).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREOSOTE,<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> <span class="sc">Creasote</span> or <span class="sc">Kreasote</span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="kreas">κρέας</span>, flesh, +and <span class="grk" title="sôzein">σώζειν</span>, to preserve), a product of the distillation of coal, +bone oil, shale oil, and wood-tar (more especially that made +from beech-wood). The creosote is extracted from the distillate +by means of alkali, separated from the filtered alkaline solution +by sulphuric acid, and then distilled with dilute alkali; the +distillate is again treated with alkali and acid, till its purification +is effected; it is then redistilled at 200° C., and dried by means +of calcium chloride. It is a highly refractive, colourless, oily +liquid, and was first obtained in 1832 by K. Reichenbach from +beech-wood tar. It consists mainly of a mixture of phenol, +cresol, guaiacol, creosol, xylenol, dimethyl guaiacol, ethyl +guaiacol, and various methyl ethers of pyrogallol. Creosote has +a strong odour and hot taste, and burns with a smoky flame. +It dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, resins, and many acids and +colouring matters; and is soluble in alcohol, ether, and carbon +disulphide, and in 80 parts by volume of water. It is distinguished +from carbolic acid by the following properties:—it +rotates the plane of polarized light to the right, forms with +collodion a transparent fluid, and is nearly insoluble in glycerin; +whereas carbolic acid has no effect on polarized light, gives with +about two-thirds of its volume of collodion a gelatinous mass, +and is soluble in all proportions in glycerin; further, alcohol and +ferric chloride produce with creosote a green solution, turned +brown by water, with carbolic acid a brown, and on the addition +of water a blue solution. Creosote, like carbolic acid, is a +powerful antiseptic, and readily coagulates albuminous matter; +wood-smoke and pyroligneous acid or wood-vinegar owe to its +presence their efficacy in preserving animal and vegetable substances +from putrefaction.</p> + +<p><i>Creosote oil</i> is the name generally applied to the fraction of the +coal tar distillate which boils between 200° and 300° C. (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coal Tar</a></span>). It is a greenish-yellow fluorescent liquid, usually +containing phenol, cresol, naphthalene, anthracene, pyridine, +quinoline, acridine and other substances. Its chief use is for the +preservation of timber.</p> + +<p><i>Pharmacology and Therapeutics.</i>—Creosote derived from wood-tar +is given medicinally in doses of from one to five minims, either +suspended in mucilage, or in capsules. It should always be +administered after a meal, when the gastric contents dilute it +and prevent irritation. Creosote and carbolic acid (<i>q.v.</i>) have a +very similar pharmacology; but there is one conspicuous exception. +Beech-wood creosote alone should be used in medicine, +as its composition renders it much more valuable than other +creosotes. Its constituents circulate unchanged in the blood +and are excreted by the lungs. Although carbolic acid has no +value in phthisis (pulmonary tuberculosis) or in any other +bacterial condition of the lungs, creosote, having volatile constituents +which are excreted in the expired air and which are +powerfully antiseptic, may well be of much value in these conditions. +In phthisis creosote is now superseded by both its +carbonate (creosotal)—given in the same doses—which causes +less gastric disturbance, and by guaiacol itself, which may be +given in doses up to thirty minims in capsules. The phosphate +(phosote or phosphote), phosphite (phosphotal), and valerianate +(eosote) also find application. Similarly the carbonate of guaiacol +may be given in doses even as large as a drachm. Creosote may +also be used as an inhalation with a steam atomizer. It is applicable +not only in phthisis but in bronchiectasis, bronchitis, +broncho-pneumonia, lobar pneumonia and all other bacterial +lung diseases. Like carbolic acid, creosote may be used in +toothache, and the local antiseptic and anaesthetic action which +it shares with that substance is often of value in relieving gastric +pain due to simple ulcer or cancer, and in those forms of vomiting +which are due to gastric irritation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the determination and separation of the various constituents +of creosote see F. Tiemann, <i>Ber.</i> (1881), 14, p. 2005; A. Béhal and C. +Choay, <i>Comptes rendus</i> (1893), 116, p. 197; and L. F. Kebler, <i>Amer. +Jour. Pharm.</i> (1899), p. 409.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREPUSCULAR<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>crepusculum</i>, twilight), of or +belonging to the twilight, hence indistinct or glimmering; in +zoology the word is used of animals that appear before sunrise +or nightfall.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRÉQUY,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> a French family which originated in Picardy, and +took its name from a small lordship in the present Pas-de-Calais. +Its genealogy goes back to the 10th century, and from it originated +the noble houses of Blécourt, Canaples, Heilly and Royon. +Henri de Créquy was killed at the siege of Damietta in 1240; +Jacques de Créquy, marshal of Guienne, was killed at Agincourt +with his brothers Jean and Raoul; Jean de Créquy, lord of +Canaples, was in the Burgundian service, and took part in the +defence of Paris against Joan of Arc in 1429, received the order +of the Golden Fleece in 1431, and was ambassador to Aragon +and France; Antoine de Créquy was one of the boldest captains +of Francis I., and died in consequence of an accident at the siege +of Hesdin in 1523. Jean VIII., sire de Créquy, prince de Poix, +seigneur de Canaples (d. 1555), left three sons, the eldest of whom, +Antoine de Créquy (1535-1574), inherited the family estates on +the death of his brothers at St Quentin in 1557. He was raised +to the cardinalate, and his nephew and heir, Antoine de Blanchefort, +assumed the name and arms of Créquy.</p> + +<p>Charles I. de Blanchefort, marquis de Créquy, prince de Poix, +duc de Lesdiguières (1578-1638), marshal of France, son of the +last-named, saw his first fighting before Laon in 1594, and was +wounded at the capture of Saint Jean d’Angély in 1621. In +the next year he became a marshal of France. He served through +the Piedmontese campaign in aid of Savoy in 1624 as second in +command to the constable, François de Bonne, duc de Lesdiguières, +whose daughter Madeleine he had married in 1595. He +inherited in 1626 the estates and title of his father-in-law, who +had induced him, after the death of his first wife, to marry +her half-sister Françoise. He was also lieutenant-general of +Dauphiné. In 1633 he was ambassador to Rome, and in 1636 +to Venice. He fought in the Italian campaigns of 1630, 1635, +1636 and 1637, when he helped to defeat the Spaniards at +Monte Baldo. He was killed on the 17th of March 1638 in an +attempt to raise the siege of Crema, a fortress in the Milanese. +He had a quarrel extending over years with Philip, the bastard of +Savoy, which ended in a duel fatal to Philip in 1599; and in 1620 +he defended Saint-Aignan, who was his prisoner of war, against +a prosecution threatened by Louis XIII. Some of his letters +are preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, and his +life was written by N. Chorier (Grenoble, 1683).</p> + +<p>His eldest son, François, comte de Sault, due de Lesdiguières +(1600-1677), governor and lieutenant-general of Dauphiné, +took the name and arms of Bonne. The younger, Charles II. +de Créquy, seigneur de Canaples, was killed at the siege of +Chambéry in 1630, leaving three sons—Charles III., sieur de +Blanchefort, prince de Poix, duc de Créquy (1623?-1687); +Alphonse de Créquy, comte de Canaples (d. 1711), who became +on the extinction of the elder branch of the family in 1702 +duc de Lesdiguières, and eventually succeeded also to his younger +brother’s honours; and François, chevalier de Créquy and +marquis de Marines, marshal of France (1625-1687).</p> + +<p>The last-named was born in 1625, and as a boy took part in +the Thirty Years’ War, distinguishing himself so greatly that +at the age of twenty-six he was made a <i>maréchal de camp</i>, and +a lieutenant-general before he was thirty. He was regarded +as the most brilliant of the younger officers, and won the favour +of Louis XIV. by his fidelity to the court during the second +Fronde. In 1667 he served on the Rhine, and in 1668 he commanded +the covering army during Louis XIV.’s siege of Lille, +after the surrender of which the king rewarded him with the +marshalate. In 1670 he overran the duchy of Lorraine. Shortly +after this Turenne, his old commander, was made marshal-general, +and all the marshals were placed under his orders. Many resented +this, and Créquy, in particular, whose career of uninterrupted +success had made him over-confident, went into exile +rather than serve under Turenne. After the death of Turenne +and the retirement of Condé, he became the most important +general officer in the army, but his over-confidence was punished +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>411</span> +by the severe defeat of Conzer Brück (1675) and the surrender of +Trier and his own captivity which followed. But in the later +campaigns of this war (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dutch Wars</a></span>) he showed himself +again a cool, daring and successful commander, and, carrying on +the tradition of Turenne and Condé, he was in his turn the +pattern of the younger generals of the stamp of Luxembourg +and Villars. He died in Paris on the 3rd of February 1687.</p> + +<p>Alphonse de Créquy had not the talent of his brothers, and +lost his various appointments in France. He went to London in +1672, where he became closely allied with Saint Évremond, +and was one of the intimates of King Charles II.</p> + +<p>Charles III. de Créquy served in the campaigns of 1642 and +1645 in the Thirty Years’ War, and in Catalonia in 1649. In 1646, +after the siege of Orbitello, he was made lieutenant-general by +Louis. By faithful service during the king’s minority he had won +the gratitude of Anne of Austria and of Mazarin, and in 1652 he +became duc de Créquy and a peer of France. The latter half of +his life was spent at court, where he held the office of first gentleman +of the royal chamber, which had been bought for him by +his grandfather. In 1659 he was sent to Spain with gifts for the +infanta Maria Theresa, and on a similar errand to Bavaria in +1680 before the marriage of the dauphin. He was ambassador +to Rome from 1662 to 1665, and to England in 1677; and became +governor of Paris in 1675. He died in Paris on the 13th of +February 1687. His only daughter, Madeleine, married Charles +de la Trémoille (1655-1709).</p> + +<p>The marshal François de Créquy had two sons, whose brilliant +military abilities bade fair to rival his own. The elder, François +Joseph, marquis de Créquy (1662-1702), already held the grade +of lieutenant-general when he was killed at Luzzara on the +13th of August 1702; and Nicolas Charles, sire de Créquy, was +killed before Tournai in 1696 at the age of twenty-seven.</p> + +<p>A younger branch of the Créquy family, that of Hémont, was +represented by Louis Marie, marquis de Créquy (1705-1741), +author of the <i>Principes philosophiques des saints solitaires +d’Égypte</i> (1779), and husband of the marquise separately noticed +below, and became extinct with the death in 1801 of his son, +Charles Marie, who had some military reputation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a detailed genealogy of the family and its alliances see Moreri, +<i>Dictionnaire historique; Annuaire de la noblesse française</i> (1856 and +1867). There is much information about the Créquys in the <i>Mémoires</i> +of Saint-Simon.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRÉQUY, RENÉE CAROLINE DE FROULLAY,<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquise de</span> +(1714-1803), was born on the 19th of October 1714, at the château +of Monfleaux (Mayenne), the daughter of Lieutenant-General +Charles François de Froullay. She was educated by her maternal +grandmother, and married in 1737 Louis Marie, marquis de +Créquy (see above), who died four years after the marriage. +Madame de Créquy devoted herself to the care of her only son, +who rewarded her with an ingratitude which was the chief +sorrow of her life. In 1755 she began to receive in Paris, among +her intimates being D’Alembert and J. J. Rousseau. She had +none of the frivolity generally associated with the women of her +time and class, and presently became extremely religious with +inclinations to Jansenism. D’Alembert’s visits ceased when she +adopted religion, and she was nearly seventy when she formed +the great friendship of her life with Sénac de Meilhan, whom she +met in 1781, and with whom she carried on a correspondence +(edited by Édouard Fournier, with a preface by Sainte-Beuve +in 1856). She commented on and criticized Meilhan’s works and +helped his reputation. She was arrested in 1793 and imprisoned +in the convent of Les Oiseaux until the fall of Robespierre +(July 1794). The well-known <i>Souvenirs de la marquise de +Créquy</i> (1710-1803), printed in 7 volumes, 1834-1835, and +purporting to be addressed to her grandson, Tancrède de Créquy, +was the production of a Breton adventurer, Cousin de Courchamps. +The first two volumes appeared in English in 1834 and +were severely criticized in the <i>Quarterly Review</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the notice prefixed by Sainte-Beuve to the <i>Lettres</i>; P. L. +Jacob, <i>Énigmes et découvertes bibliographiques</i> (Paris, 1866); Quérard, +<i>Superchéries littéraires</i>, s.v. “Créquy”; <i>L’Ombre de la marquise de +Créquy aux lecteurs des souvenirs</i> (1836) exposes the forgery of the +<i>Mémoires</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRESCAS, HASDAI BEN ABRAHAM<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> (1340-1410), Spanish +philosopher. His work, <i>The Light of the Lord</i> (<i>’Or ’Adonai</i>), +deeply affected Spinoza, and thus his philosophy became of +wide importance. Maimonides (<i>q.v.</i>) had brought Jewish thought +entirely under the domination of Aristotle. The work of Crescas, +though it had no immediate success, ended in effecting its liberation. +He refused to base Judaism on speculative philosophy +alone; there was a deep emotional side to his thought. Thus he +based Judaism on love, not on knowledge; love was the bond +between God and man, and man’s fundamental duty was love as +expressed in obedience to God’s will. Spinoza derived from +Crescas his distinction between attributes and properties; he +shared Crescas’s views on creation and free will, and in the whole +trend of his thought the influence of Crescas is strongly marked.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. G. Hirsch, <i>Jewish Encyclopaedia</i>, iv. 350.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRESCENT<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (Lat. <i>crescens</i>, growing), originally the waxing +moon, hence a name applied to the shape of the moon in its first +quarter. The crescent is employed as a charge in heraldry, with +its horns vertical; when they are turned to the dexter side of the +shield, it is called increscent, when to the sinister, decrescent. +A crescent is used as a difference to denote the second son of a +house; thus the earls of Harrington place a crescent upon a +crescent, as descending from the second son of a second son. +An order of the crescent was instituted by Charles I. of Naples +and Sicily in 1268, and revived by René of Anjou in 1464. A +Turkish order or decoration of the crescent was instituted by +Sultan Selim III. in 1799, in memory of the diamond crescent +which he had presented to Nelson after the battle of the Nile, and +which Nelson wore on his coat as if it were an order.</p> + +<p>The crescent is the military and religious symbol of the +Ottoman Turks. According to the story told by Hesychius +of Miletus, during the siege of Byzantium by Philip of Macedon +the moon suddenly appeared, the dogs began to bark and +aroused the inhabitants, who were thus enabled to frustrate +the enemy’s scheme of undermining the walls. The grateful +Byzantines erected a statue to “torch-bearing” Hecate, and +adopted the lunar crescent as the badge of the city. It is generally +supposed that it was in turn adopted by the Turks after the +capture of Constantinople in 1453, either as a badge of triumph, +or to commemorate a partial eclipse of the moon on the night of +the final attack. In reality, it seems to have been used by them +long before that event. Ala ud-din, the Seljuk sultan of Iconium +(1245-1254), and Ertoghrul, his lieutenant and the founder of +the Ottoman branch of the Turkish race, assumed it as a device, +and it appeared on the standard of the janissaries of Sultan +Orkhan (1326-1360). Since the new moon is associated with +special acts of devotion in Turkey—where, as in England, there +is a popular superstition that it is unlucky to see it through glass—it +may originally have been adopted in consequence of its religious +significance. According to Professor Ridgeway, however, +the Turkish crescent, like that seen on modern horse-trappings, +has nothing to do with the new moon, but is the result of the base-to-base +conjunction of two claw or tusk amulets, an example of +which has been brought to light during the excavations of the +site of the temple of Artemis Orthia at Sparta (see <i>Athenaeum</i>, +March 21, 1908). There is nothing distinctively Turkish in +the combination of crescent and star which appears on the +Turkish national standard; the latter is shown by coins and +inscriptions to have been an ancient Illyrian symbol, and is of +course common in knightly and decorative orders. It is doubtful +whether any opposition between crescent and cross, as symbols +of Islam and Christianity, was ever intended by the Turks; and +it is an historical error to attribute the crescent to the Saracens +of crusading times or the Moors in Spain.</p> + +<p>Crescent is also the name of a Turkish musical instrument. +In architecture, a crescent is a street following the arc of a circle; +the name in this sense was first used in the Royal Crescent at +Bath.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRESCIMBENI, GIOVANNI MARIO<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> (1663-1728), Italian +critic and poet, was born at Macerata in 1663. Having been +educated by a French priest at Rome, he entered the Jesuits’ +college of his native town, where he produced a tragedy on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>412</span> +story of Darius, and versified the <i>Pharsalia</i>. In 1679 he received +the degree of doctor of laws, and in 1680 he removed again to +Rome. The study of Filicaja and Leonico having convinced +him that he and all his contemporaries were working in a wrong +direction, he resolved to attempt a general reform. In 1690, +in conjunction with fourteen others, he founded the celebrated +academy of the Arcadians, and began the contest against false +taste and its adherents. The academy was most successful; +branch societies were opened in all the principal cities of Italy; +and the influence of Marini, opposed by the simplicity and elegance +of such models as Costanzo, soon died away. Crescimbeni +officiated as secretary to the Arcadians for thirty-eight years. +In 1705 he was made canon of Santa Maria; in 1715 he obtained +the chief curacy attached to the same church; and about two +months before he died (1728) he was admitted a member of the +order of Jesus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal work is the <i>Istoria della volgar poesia</i> (Rome, 1698), +an estimate of all the poets of Italy, past and contemporary, which +may yet be consulted with advantage. The most important of his +numerous other publications are the <i>Commentarij</i> (5 vols., Rome, +1702-1711), and <i>La Bellezza della volgar poezia</i> (Rome, 1700).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRESILAS,<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> a Cretan sculptor of Cydonia. He was a contemporary +of Pheidias, and one of the sculptors who vied in +producing statues of amazons at Ephesus (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>) +about 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> As his amazon was wounded (<i>volnerata</i>; Pliny, +<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxxiv. 75), we may safely identify it with the figure, +of which several copies are extant, who is carefully removing +her blood-stained garment from a wound under the right breast. +Another work of Cresilas of which copies survive is the portrait +of Pericles, the earliest Greek portrait which has been with +certainty identified, and which fully confirms the statement +of ancient critics that Cresilas was an artist who idealized and +added nobility to men of noble type. An extant portrait of +Anacreon is also derived from Cresilas.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRESOLS<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Methyl Phenols</span>, C<span class="su">7</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O or C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·CH<span class="su">3</span>·OH. +The three isomeric cresols are found in the tar obtained in the +destructive distillation of coal, beech-wood and pine. The crude +cresol obtained from tar cannot be separated into its different +constituents by fractional distillation, since the boiling points of +the three isomers are very close together. The pure substances +are best obtained by fusion of the corresponding toluene sulphonic +acids with potash.</p> + +<p>Ortho-cresol, CH<span class="su">3</span>(1)·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·OH(2), occurs as sulphate in the +urine of the horse. It may be prepared by fusion of ortho-toluene +sulphonic acid with potash; by the action of phosphorus pentoxide +on carvacrol; or by the action of zinc chloride on camphor. +It is a crystalline solid, which melts at 30° C. and boils at 190.8° +C. Fusion with alkalis converts it into salicylic acid.</p> + +<p>Meta-cresol, CH<span class="su">3</span>(1)·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·OH(3), is formed when thymol +(para-isopropyl-meta-cresol) +is heated with phosphorus pentoxide. +Propylene is liberated during the reaction, and the phosphoric +acid ester of meta-cresol which is formed is then fused with +potash. It can also be prepared by distilling meta-oxyuvitic acid +with lime, or by the action of air on boiling toluene in the presence +of aluminium chloride (C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts, <i>Ann. Chim. +Phys.</i>, 1888 [6], 14, p. 436). It solidifies in a freezing mixture, on +the addition of a crystal of phenol, and then melts at 3°-4° C. +It boils at 202°.8 C. Its aqueous solution is coloured bluish-violet +by ferric chloride.</p> + +<p>Para-cresol, CH<span class="su">3</span>(1)·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·OH(4), occurs as sulphate in the +urine of the horse. It is also found in horse’s liver, being one of +the putrefaction products of tyrosine. It may be prepared by the +fusion of para-toluene sulphonic acid with potash; by the action +of nitrous acid on para-toluidine; or by heating para-oxyphenyl +acetic acid with lime. It crystallizes in prisms which melt at +36° C. and boil at 201°.8 C. It is soluble in water, and the aqueous +solution gives a blue coloration with ferric chloride. When +treated with hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate, no +chlorinated quinones are obtained (M. S. Southworth, <i>Ann.</i> +(1873), 168, p. 271), a behaviour which distinguishes it from +ortho- and meta-cresol.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>On the composition of commercial cresylic acid see A. H. Allen, +<i>Jour. Soc. Chem. Industry</i> (1890), 9, p. 141. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Creosote</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRESPI, DANIELE<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> (1590-1630), Italian historical painter, +was born near Milan, and studied under Giovanni Battista Crespi +and Giulio Procaccini. He was an excellent colourist; his +drawing was correct and vigorous, and he grouped his compositions +with much ability. His best work, a series of pictures from +the life of Saint Bruno, is in the monastery of the Carthusians +at Milan. Among the most famous of his paintings is a “Stoning +of St Stephen” at Brera, and there are several excellent examples +of his work in the city of his birth and at Pavia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRESPI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> (1557-1663), called Il Cerano, +Italian painter, sculptor, and architect, was born at Cerano in +the Milanese. He was a scholar of considerable attainments, +and held a position of dignity in his native city. He was head of +the Milanese Academy founded by Cardinal Frederigo Borromeo, +and he was the teacher of Guercino. He is most famous as a +painter; and, though his figures are neither natural nor graceful, +his colouring is good, and his designs full of ideal beauty.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRESPI, GIUSEPPE MARIA<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> (1665-1747), Italian painter, +called “Lo Spagnuolo” from his fondness for rich apparel, +was born at Bologna, and was trained under Angelo Toni, +Domenico Canuti and Carlo Cignani. He then went through +a course of copying from Correggio and Barocci; this he followed +up with a journey to Venice for the sake of Titian and Paul +Veronese; and late in life he proclaimed himself a follower of +Guercino and Pietro da Cortona. He was a good colourist and +a facile executant, and was wont to employ the camera obscura +with great success in the treatment of light and shadow; but +he was careless and unconscientious. He was a clever portrait-painter +and a brilliant caricaturist; and his etchings after +Rembrandt and Salvator are in some demand. His greatest +work, a “Massacre of the Innocents,” is at Bologna; but the +Dresden gallery possesses twelve examples of him, among which +is his celebrated series of the Seven Sacraments.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRESS,<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> in botany. “Garden Cress” (<i>Lepidium sativum</i>) is +an annual plant (nat. ord. Cruciferae), known as a cultivated +plant at the present day in Europe, North Africa, western Asia +and India, but its origin is obscure. Alphonse de Candolle +(<i>L’Origine des plantes cultivées</i>) says its cultivation must date from +ancient times and be widely diffused, for very different names +for it exist in the Arab, Persian, Albanian, Hindustani and +Bengali tongues. He considered the plant to be of Persian +origin, whence it may have spread after the Sanskrit epoch +(there is no Sanskrit name for it) into the gardens of India, +Syria, Greece and North Africa. It is used in salads, the young +plants being cut and eaten while still in the seed-leaf, forming, +along with plants of the white mustard in the same stage of +growth, what is commonly called “small salad.” The seeds +should be sown thickly broadcast or in rows in succession every +ten or fourteen days, according to the demand. The sowings +may be made in the open ground from March till October, the +earliest under hand-glasses, and the summer ones in a cool +moist situation, where water from trees, shrubs, walls, &c., +cannot fall on or near them. The grit thrown up by falling +water pierces the tender tissues of the cress, and cannot be +thoroughly removed by washing. During winter they must be +raised on a slight hotbed, or in shallow boxes or pans placed +in any of the glass-houses where there is a temperature of 60° +or 65°. Cress is subject to the attack of a fungus (<i>Pythium debaryanum</i>) +if kept too close and moist. The pest very quickly +infects a whole sowing. There is no cure for it; preventive +measures should therefore be taken by keeping the sowings +fairly dry and well ventilated. The seed should be sown on new +soil, and should not be covered.</p> + +<p>The “Golden” or “Australian” cress is a dwarf, yellowish-green, +mild-flavoured sort, which is cut and eaten when a little +more advanced in growth but while still young and tender. It +should be sown at intervals of a month from March onwards, the +autumn sowing, for winter and spring use, being made in a +sheltered situation.</p> + +<p>The “curled” or “Normandy” cress is a very hardy sort, +of good flavour. In this, which is allowed to grow like parsley, +the leaves are picked for use while young; and, being finely cut +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>413</span> +and curled, they are well adapted for garnishing. It should be +sown thinly, in drills, in good soil in the open borders, in March, +April and May, and for winter and spring use at the foot of a south +wall early in September, and about the middle of October.</p> + +<p><i>Water-cress.</i>—“Water-cress” (<i>Nasturtium officinale</i>) is a +member of the same natural order, and a native of Great Britain. +Although now so largely used, it does not appear to have been +cultivated in England prior to the 19th century, though in +Germany, especially near Erfurt, it had been grown long previously. +Its flavour is due to an essential oil containing sulphur. +Water-cress is largely cultivated in shallow ditches, prepared +in wet, low-lying meadows, means being provided for flooding +the ditches at will. Where the amount of water available is +limited, the ditches are arranged at successively higher levels, +so as to allow of the volume admitted to the upper ditch being +passed successively to the others. The ditches are usually +puddled with clay, which is covered to the depth of 9 to 12 in. +with well-manured soil.</p> + +<p>A stock of plants may be raised in two ways—by cuttings, and +by seeds. If a stock is to be raised from cuttings, the desired +quantity of young shoots is gathered—those sold in bunches for +salad serve the purpose well—and reduced where necessary to +about 3 in. in length, the basal and frequently rooted portion +being rejected. They are dibbled thickly into one of the ditches, +and only enough water admitted to just cover the soil. If the +start is made in late spring, the cuttings will be rooted in a week. +They are allowed to remain for another week or two, and are then +taken up and dropped about 9 in. apart into the other ditches, +which have been slightly flooded to receive them. There is no +need to plant them—the young roots will very soon be securely +anchored. The volume of water is increased as the plants grow. +If raised from seed, the seed-bed is prepared as for cuttings, and +seed sown either in drills or broadcast. No flooding is done until +the seedlings are up. Water is then admitted, the level being +raised as the plants grow. When 5 or 6 in. high, they are taken +up and dropped into their permanent quarters precisely like +those raised from cuttings.</p> + +<p>Cultivated as above described, the plants afford frequent +cuttings of large clean cress of excellent flavour for market +purposes. Sooner or later growth will become less vigorous and +flowering shoots will be produced. This will be accompanied by +a pronounced deterioration of the remaining vegetative shoots. +These signs will be interpreted by the grower to mean that his +plants, as a market crop, are worn out. He will therefore take +steps to repeat the routine of culture above described. In the +winter the ditches are flooded to protect the cress from frost.</p> + +<p>The best-flavoured water-cress is produced in the pure water of +running streams over chalk or gravel soil. Should the water be +contaminated by sewage or other undesirable matter, the plants +not only absorb some of the impurities but also serve to anchor +much of the solid particles washed as scum among them. This is +extremely difficult to dislodge by washing, and renders the cress a +source of danger as food.</p> + +<p>Water-cress for domestic use may be raised as a kitchen-garden +crop if frequently watered overhead. Beds to afford cress during +the summer should be made in broad trenches on a border facing +north. It may also be raised in pots or pans stood in saucers of +water and frequently watered overhead.</p> + +<p>In recent years in America attention has been paid to the +injury done to water-cress beds by the “water-cress sow-bug” +(<i>Mancasellus brachyurus</i>), and the “water-cress leaf-beetle” +(<i>Phaedon aeruginosa</i>). Another species of <i>Phaedon</i> is known in +England as “blue beetle” or “mustard beetle,” and is a pest +also of mustard, cabbage and kohlrabi (see F. H. Chittenden, in +<i>Bulletin</i> 66, part ii. of Bureau of Entomology, United States +Department of Agriculture, 1907).</p> + +<p>The name “nasturtium” is applied in gardens, but incorrectly, +to species of <i>Tropaeolum</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRESSENT, CHARLES<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span> (1685-1768), French furniture-maker, +sculptor and <i>fondeur-ciseleur</i>. As the second son of François +Cressent, <i>sculpteur du roi</i>, and grandson of Charles Cressent, a +furniture-maker of Amiens, who also became a sculptor, he +inherited the tastes and aptitudes which were likely to make a +finished designer and craftsman. Even more important perhaps +was the fact that he was a pupil of André Charles Boulle. +Trained in such surroundings, it is not surprising that he should +have reached a degree of achievement which has to a great +extent justified the claim that he was the best decorative artist +of the 18th century. Cressent’s distinction is closely connected +with the regency, but his earlier work had affinities with the +school of Boulle, while his later pieces were full of originality. +He was an artist in the widest sense of the word. He not +only designed and made furniture, but created the magnificent +gilded enrichments which are so characteristic of his work. He +was likewise a sculptor, and among his plastic work is known +to have been a bronze bust of Louis, duc d’Orléans, the son +of the regent, for whom Cressent had made one of the finest +examples of French furniture of the 18th century—the famous +<i>médaillier</i> now in the Bibliothèque Nationale. Cressent’s bronze +mounts were executed with a sharpness of finish and a grace and +vigour of outline which were hardly excelled by his great contemporary +Jacques Caffieri. His female figures placed at the +corners of tables are indeed among the most delicious achievements +of the great days of the French metal worker. Much of +Cressent’s work survives, and can be identified; the Louvre and +the Wallace collection are especially rich in it, and his commode +at Hertford House with gilt handles representing Chinese dragons +is perhaps the most elaborate piece he ever produced. The work +of identification is rendered comparatively easy in his case by the +fact that he published catalogues of three sales of his work. These +catalogues are highly characteristic of the man, who shared in no +small degree the personal <i>bravoura</i> of Cellini, and could sometimes +execute almost as well. He did not hesitate to describe himself +as the author of “a clock worthy to be placed in the very finest +cabinets,” “the most distinguished bronzes,” or pieces of “the +most elegant form adorned with bronzes of extra richness.” He +worked much in marqueterie, both in tortoiseshell and in brilliant +coloured woods. He was indeed an artist to whom colour +appealed with especial force. The very type and exemplar of +the “feeling” of the regency, he is worthy to have given his own +name to some of the fashions which he deduced from it.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRESSWELL, SIR CRESSWELL<a name="ar235" id="ar235"></a></span> (1794-1863), English judge, +was a descendant of an old Northumberland family, and was born +at Newcastle in 1794. He was educated at the Charterhouse and +at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He graduated B.A. in 1814, +and M.A. four years later. Having chosen the profession of the +law he studied at the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in +1819. He joined the northern circuit, and was not long in earning +a distinguished position among his professional brethren. In 1837 +he entered parliament as Conservative member for Liverpool, +and he soon gained a reputation as an acute and learned debater +on all constitutional questions. In January 1842 he was made a +judge of the court of common pleas, being knighted at the same +time; and this post he occupied for sixteen years. When the +new court for probate, divorce and matrimonial causes was +established (1858), Sir Cresswell Cresswell was requested by the +Liberal government to become its first judge and undertake the +arduous task of its organization. Although he had already +earned a right to retire, and possessed large private wealth, +he accepted this new task, and during the rest of his life devoted +himself to it most assiduously and conscientiously, with complete +satisfaction to the public. In one case only, out of the very large +number on which he pronounced judgment, was his decision +reversed. His death was sudden. By a fall from his horse on the +11th of July 1863 his knee-cap was injured. He was recovering +from this when on the 29th of the same month he died of disease +of the heart.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Foss’s <i>Lives of the Judges</i>; E. Manson, <i>Builders of our Law</i> +(1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRESSY, HUGH PAULINUS DE<a name="ar236" id="ar236"></a></span> (c. 1605-1674), English Benedictine +monk, whose religious name was Serenus, was born at +Wakefield, Yorkshire, about 1605. He went to Oxford at the +age of fourteen, and in 1626 became a fellow of Merton College. +Having taken orders, he rose to the dignity of dean of Leighlin, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414"></a>414</span> +Ireland, and canon of Windsor. He also acted as chaplain to Lord +Wentworth, afterwards the celebrated earl of Strafford. For some +time he travelled abroad as tutor to Lord Falmouth, and in 1646, +during a visit to Rome, joined the Roman Catholic Church. In +the following year he published his <i>Exomologesis</i> (Paris, 1647), or +account of his conversion, which was highly valued by Roman +Catholics as an answer to William Chillingworth’s attacks. +Cressy entered the Benedictine Order in 1649, and for four years +resided at Somerset House as chaplain to Catherine of Braganza, +wife of Charles II. He died at West Grinstead on the 10th +of August 1674. Cressy’s chief work, <i>The Church History of +Brittanny or England, from the beginning of Christianity to the +Norman Conquest</i> (1st vol. only published, Rouen, 1668), gives an +exhaustive account of the foundation of monasteries during the +Saxon heptarchy, and asserts that they followed the Benedictine +rule, differing in this respect from many historians. The work +was much criticized by Lord Clarendon, but defended by Antony +à Wood in his <i>Athenae Oxoniensis</i>, who supports Cressy’s statement +that it was compiled from original MSS. and from the +<i>Annales Ecclesiae Britannicae</i> of Michael Alford, <i>Dugdale’s +Monasticon</i>, and the <i>Decem Scriptores Historiae Anglicanae</i>. The +second part of the history, which has never been printed, was +discovered at Douai in 1856. To Roman Catholics Cressy’s name +is familiar as the editor of Walter Hilton’s <i>Scale of Perfection</i> +(London, 1659); of Father A. Baker’s <i>Sancta Sophia</i> (2 vols., +Douai, 1657); and of Juliana of Norwich’s <i>Sixteen Revelations +on the Love of God</i> (1670). These books, which would have been +lost but for Cressy’s zeal, have been frequently reprinted, and +have been favourably regarded by a section of the Anglican +Church.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a complete list of Cressy’s works see J. Gillow’s <i>Bibl. Dict. +of Eng. Catholics</i>, vol. i.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREST,<a name="ar237" id="ar237"></a></span> a town of south-eastern France, in the department of +Drôme, on the right bank of the Drôme, 20 m. S.S.E. of Valence +by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 3971; commune, 5660. It carries +on silk-worm breeding, silk-spinning, and the manufacture of +woollens, paper, leather and cement. There is trade in truffles. +On the rock which commands the town stands a huge keep, the +sole survival of a castle (12th century) to which Crest was indebted +for its importance in the middle ages and the Religious +Wars. The rest of the castle was destroyed in the first half of +the 17th century, after which the keep was used as a state prison. +Crest ranked for a time as the capital of the duchy of Valentinois, +and in that capacity belonged before the Revolution to the +prince of Monaco. The communal charter, graven on stone and +dating from the 12th century, is preserved in the public archives. +Ten miles south-east of Crest lies the picturesque Forest of +Saon.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREST<a name="ar238" id="ar238"></a></span> (Lat. <i>crista</i>, a plume or tuft), the “comb” on an +animal’s head, and so any feathery tuft or excrescence, the +“cone” of a helmet (by transference, the helmet itself), and the +top or summit of anything. In heraldry (<i>q.v.</i>) a crest is a device, +originally borne as a cognizance on a knight’s helmet, placed on +a wreath above helmet and shield in armorial bearings, and used +separately on a seal or on articles of property.</p> + +<p><i>Cresting</i>, in architecture, is an ornamental finish in the wall +or ridge of a building, which is common on the continent of +Europe. An example occurs at Exeter cathedral, the ridge of +which is ornamented with a range of small <i>fleurs-de-lis</i> in lead.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRESTON,<a name="ar239" id="ar239"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Union county, Iowa, +U.S.A., about 60 m. S.W. of Des Moines, at the crossing of the +main line and two branches of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy +railway. Pop. (1890) 7200; (1900) 7752; (1905, state census) +8382 (753 foreign-born); (1910) 6924. The city is on the crest +of the divide between the Mississippi and the Missouri basins +at an altitude of about 1310 ft.—whence its name. It is situated +in a fine farming and stock-raising region, for which it is a +shipping point. The site was chosen in 1869 by the Burlington +& Missouri River Railroad Company (subsequently merged in +the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Company) for the +location of its shops. Creston was incorporated as a town in +1869, and was chartered as a city in 1871.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRESWICK, THOMAS<a name="ar240" id="ar240"></a></span> (1811-1869), English landscape-painter, +was born at Sheffield, and educated at Hazelwood, near Birmingham. +At Birmingham he first began to paint. His earliest +appearance as an exhibitor was in 1827, at the Society of British +Artists in London; in the ensuing year he sent to the Royal +Academy the two pictures named “Llyn Gwynant, Morning,” +and “Carnarvon Castle.” About the same time he settled in +London; and in 1836 he took a house in Bayswater. He soon +attracted some attention as a landscape-painter, and had a +career of uniform and encouraging, though not signal success. +In 1842 he was elected an associate, and in 1850 a full member +of the Royal Academy, which, for several years before his death, +numbered hardly any other full members representing this branch +of art. In his early practice he set an example, then too much +needed, of diligent study of nature out of doors, painting on the +spot all the substantial part of several of his pictures. English +and Welsh streams may be said to have formed his favourite +subjects, and generally British rural scenery, mostly under its +cheerful, calm and pleasurable aspects, in open daylight. This +he rendered with elegant and equable skill, colour rather grey in +tint, especially in his later years, and more than average technical +accomplishment; his works have little to excite, but would, in +most conditions of public taste, retain their power to attract. +Creswick was industrious and extremely prolific; he produced, +besides a steady outpouring of paintings, numerous illustrations +for books. He was personally genial—a dark, bulky man, +somewhat heavy and graceless in aspect in his later years. He +died at his house in Bayswater, Linden Grove, on the 28th of +December 1869, after a few years of declining health. Among +his principal works may be named “England” (1847); “Home +by the Sands, and a Squally Day” (1848); “Passing +Showers” (1849); “The Wind on Shore, a First Glimpse of the +Sea, and Old Trees” (1850); “A Mountain Lake, Moonrise” +(1852); “Changeable Weather” (1865); also the “London +Road, a Hundred Years ago”; “The Weald of Kent”; the +“Valley Mill” (a Cornish subject); a “Shady Glen”; the +“Windings of a River”; the “Shade of the Beech Trees”; +the “Course of the Greta”; the “Wharfe”; “Glendalough,” +and other Irish subjects, 1836 to 1840; the “Forest Farm.” +Frith for figures, and Ansdell for animals, occasionally worked in +collaboration with Creswick.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1873 T. O. Barlow, the engraver, published a catalogue of +Creswick’s works.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRESWICK,<a name="ar241" id="ar241"></a></span> a borough of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia. +85½ m. by rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 3060. It is the +centre of a mining, pastoral and agricultural district. Gold is +found both in alluvial and quartz formations, the quartz being +especially rich. The surrounding country is fertile and well-timbered, +and there is a government plantation and nursery in +connexion with the forests department.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRETACEOUS SYSTEM,<a name="ar242" id="ar242"></a></span> in geology, the group of stratified +rocks which normally occupy a position above the Jurassic +system and below the oldest Tertiary deposits; therefore it is +in this system that the closing records of the great Mesozoic era +are to be found. The name furnishes an excellent illustration of +the inconvenience of employing a local lithological feature in +the descriptive title of a wide-ranging rock-system. The white +chalk (Lat. <i>creta</i>), which gives its name to the system, was first +studied in the Anglo-Parisian basin, where it takes a prominent +place; but even in this limited area there is a considerable +thickness and variety of rocks which are not chalky, and the +Cretaceous system as a whole contains a remarkable diversity +of types of sediment.</p> + +<p><i>Classification.</i>—The earlier subdivisions of the Cretaceous rocks +were founded upon the uncertain ground of similarity in lithological +characters, assisted by observed stratigraphical sequence. +This method yielded poor results even in a circumscribed area like +Great Britain, and it breaks down utterly when applied to the +correlation of rocks of similar age in Europe and elsewhere. +Study of the fossils, however, has elicited the fact that certain +forms characterize certain “zones,” which are preceded and +succeeded by other zones each bearing a peculiar species or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415"></a>415</span> +distinctive assemblage of species. By these means the Cretaceous +rocks of the world have now been correlated zone with zone, +with a degree of exactitude proportional to the palaeontological +information gained in the several areas of occurrence.</p> + +<p>The Cretaceous system falls naturally into two divisions, +an upper and a lower, in all but a few limited regions. In the +table on page 288 the names of the principal stages are +enumerated; these are capable of world-wide application. +The sub-stages are of more local value, and too much importance +must not be attached to them for the correlation of distant +deposits. The general table is designed to show the relative +position in the system of some of the more important and better-known +formations; but it must be remembered that the Cretaceous +rocks of Europe can now be classified in considerable detail +by their fossils, the most accurate group for this purpose being +the cephalopods. The smaller table was compiled by T. C. +Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury to show the main subdivisions +of the North American Cretaceous rocks. The correlation of the +minor subdivisions of Europe and America are only approximate.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:600px; height:473px" src="images/img415.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Relation of the Cretaceous Strata to the Systems above and below.</i>—In +central and northern Europe the boundary between the +Cretaceous and Tertiary strata is sharply defined by a fairly +general unconformity, except in the Danian and Montian beds, +where there is a certain commingling of Tertiary with Cretaceous +fossils. The relations with the underlying Jurassic rocks are not +so clearly defined, partly because the earliest Cretaceous rocks are +obscured by too great a thickness of younger strata, and partly +because the lowest observable rocks of the system are not the +oldest, but are higher members of the system that have overlapped +on to much older rocks. However, in the south of England, +in the Alpine area, and in part of N.W. Germany the passage from +Jurassic to Cretaceous is so gradual that there is some divergence +of opinion as to the best position for the line of separation. +In the Alpine region this passage is formed by marine beds, in +the other two by brackish-water deposits. In a like manner +the Potomac beds of N. America grade downwards into the +Jurassic; while in the Laramie formation an upward passage is +observed into the Eocene deposits. There is a very general +unconformity and break between the Lower and Upper Cretaceous; +this has led Chamberlin and Salisbury to suggest that the +Lower Cretaceous should be regarded as a separate period with +the title “Comanchean.”</p> + +<p><i>Physiographical Conditions and Types of Deposit.</i>—With the +opening of the Cretaceous in Europe there commenced a period +of marine transgression; in the central and western European +region this took place from the S. towards the N., slow at first and +local in effect, but becoming more decided at the beginning of +the upper division. During the earlier portion of the period, S. +England, Belgium and Hanover were covered by a great series of +estuarine sands and clays, termed the Wealden formation (<i>q.v.</i>), +the delta of a large river or rivers flowing probably from the N.W. +Meanwhile, in the rest of Europe alternations of marine and +estuarine deposits were being laid down; but over the Alpine +region lay the open sea, where there flourished coral reefs and +great banks of clam-like molluscs. The sea gradually encroached +upon the estuarine Wealden area, and at the time of the Aptian +deposits uniform marine conditions prevailed from western +Europe through Russia into Asia. This extension of the sea is +illustrated in England by the overlap of the Gault over the +Lower Greens and on to the older rocks, and by similar occurrences +in N. France and Germany.</p> + +<p>Almost throughout the Upper Cretaceous period the marine +invasion continued, varied here and there by slight movements +in the opposite sense which did not, however, interfere with the +quiet general advance of the sea. This marine extension made +itself felt over the old central plateau of France, the N. of Great +Britain, the Spanish peninsula, the Armorican peninsula, and +also in the Bavarian Jura and Bohemia; it affected the northern +part of Africa and East Africa; in N. America the sea spread +over the entire length of the Rocky Mountain region; and in +Brazil, eastern Asia and western Australia, Upper Cretaceous +deposits are found resting directly upon much older rocks. +Indeed, at this time there happened one of the greatest changes +in the distribution of land and water that have been recorded +in geological history.</p> + +<p>We have seen that in early Cretaceous times marine limestones +were being formed in southern Europe, while estuarine sands and +muds were being laid down in the Anglo-German delta, and that +beds of intermediate character were being made in parts of N. +France and Germany. During later Cretaceous times this striking +difference between the northern and southern facies was maintained, +notwithstanding the fact that the later deposits were of +marine origin in both regions. In the northern region the gradual +deepening and accompanying extension of the sea caused the +sandy deposits to become finer grained in N.W. Europe. The +sandy beds and clays then gave way to marly deposits, and in +these early stages glauconitic grains are very characteristically +present both in the sand and in the marls. In their turn these +marly deposits in the Anglo-Parisian basin were succeeded +gradually and somewhat intermittently by the purer, soft limestone +of the chalk sea, and by limestones, similar in character, in +N. France, extra-Alpine Germany, S. Scandinavia, Denmark and +Russia. Meanwhile, the S. European deposits maintained the +characters already indicated; limestones (not chalk) prevailed, +except in certain Alpine and Carpathian tracts where detrital +sandstones were being laid down.</p> + +<p>The great difference between the lithological characters of the +northern and southern deposits is accompanied by an equally +striking difference between their respective organic contents. In +the north, the genera <i>Inoceramus</i> and <i>Belemnitella</i> are particularly +abundant. In the south, the remarkable, large, clam-like, +aberrant pelecypods, the <i>Hippuritidae</i>, <i>Rudistes</i>, <i>Caprotina</i>, &c., +attained an extraordinary development; they form great +lenticular banks, like the clam banks of warm seas, or like our +modern oyster-beds; they appear in successive species in the +different stages of the Cretaceous system of the south, and can be +used for marking palaeontological horizons as the cephalopods +are used elsewhere. Certain genera of ammonites, <i>Haploceras</i>, +<i>Lytoceras</i>, <i>Phylloceras</i>, rare in the north, are common in the +south; and the southern facies is further characterized by the +peculiar group of swollen belemnites (<i>Dumontia</i>), by the gasteropods +<i>Actionella</i>, <i>Nerinea</i>, &c., and by reef-building corals. The +southern facies is far more widespread and typical of the period +than is the chalk; it not only covers all southern Europe, but +spreads eastwards far into Asia and round the Mediterranean +basin into Africa. It is found again in Texas, Alabama, Mexico, +the West Indies and Colombia; though limestones of the chalk +type are found in Texas, New Zealand, and locally in one or two +other places. The marine deposits are organically formed +limestones, in which foraminifera and large bivalve mollusca +play a leading part, marls and sandstones; dolomite and oolitic +and pisolitic limestones are also known.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>416</span></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">European Classification.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Britain.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Germany, &c., several<br /> + other parts of Europe.</td> <td class="tccm" rowspan="4"> + Hippurite<br />limestones<br />of<br />Southern<br />France<br />and<br />Mediterranean<br />Region</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="allb tcc">Stages.</td> <td class="allb tcc">Sub-stages.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Upper<br />Cretaceous.</td> + <td class="tcl allb"><br />Montian. <br /><br /><br />Danian.<br /><br /><br />Aturian.<br /><br /> +   Senonian.<br /><br />Emscherian.<br /><br /><br /><br />Turonian.<br /><br /><br /><br /> + Cenomanian.<br /><br /><br /></td> + <td class="tcl allb"><br />(placed by some<br />in the Tertiary).<br /><br /><br /> + Maestrichtian<br /> (Dordonian).<br /><br />Campanian.<br /><br />Santonian. + <br /><br />Coniacian.<br /><br />Angoumian.<br /><br />Ligerian.<br /><br />Carentonian. + <br /><br />Rothomagian.<br /><br /></td> + <td class="tcl allb"><br /><br /><br /><br />Chalk of Trimingham.<br /><br />Upper Chalk with<br /> +  Flints.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Middle Chalk without<br /> Flints. + <br /><br /><br /><br />Grey Chalk.<br />Chalk marl.<br />Cambridge Greensand.</td> + <td class="tcl allb"><br />Marls and pisolitic<br /> Limestone of Meudon.<br /><br /> + Limestone of Saltholm<br /> and Faxö (Denmark).<br /><br />Upper Quader Sandstone. + <br /><br /><br />Quader Marls and<br /> Pläner Marls.<br /><br /><br />Upper Pläner. + <br /><br /><br /><br />Lr. Pläner and Lr.<br /> Quader.<br /><br />Tourtia of Mons, &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Lower<br />Cretaceous.</td> + <td class="tcl allb"><br /><br /><br />Albian.<br /><br /><br />Aptian.<br /><br /><br />Barremian. + <br /><br />Neocomian.<br /><br /><br /><br /></td> + <td class="tcl allb"><br /><br /><br />Gault.<br /><br />Gargasian.<br /><br />Bedoulian.<br /><br /><br /> + Hauterivian.<br /><br />Valangian.<br /><br />Berriasian.<br /></td> + <td class="tcl allb">Selbornian.<br /><br />  Gault and Upper<br />   Greensand. + <br />__________________<br /><br />Lower Greensand.<br /><br /><br /> + Weald Clay<br />  and<br />Hastings sands.<br /><br />   Marine<br /> +    Beds of<br />   Specton.</td> + <td class="tcl allb"><br /><br /><br />Flammen mergel. Clay<br /> of N. Germany.<br /> + Urgonian<br />Requienia<br /> (caprotina) Kalk<br /> or Schrattenkalk.<br /><br /><br /> +   North<br />  German<br />  Hills<br />  formation<br /></td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="pt2"> </div> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="allb"> </td> <td class="tccm tb bb rbd">Upper Cretaceous.</td> + <td class="tccm tb bb rb">Lower Cretaceous.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Alpine Region.</td> + <td class="tcl bb rbd">Aptychenkalk in E. Alps ... Cretaceous Flysch...<br />Biancone of S. Alps.</td> + <td class="tcl bb rb">... Cretaceous Flysch ...<br />Carpathian and Vienna Sandstones,<br />  + Gosau formation of E. Alps.<br />Seewan beds of N. Alps.<br />Scaglia of S. Alps.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Africa.</td> + <td class="tcl bb rbd"><span style="padding-left: 11em;">Nubian Sandstone of ...</span><br /> + Uitenhage Beds S. Africa.</td> + <td class="tcl bb rb">... N. Africa and Syria.<br /><span style="padding-left: 4em;"> + Pondoland Beds S. Africa.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">India.</td> + <td class="tcl bb rbd">Oomia and Utatur Group.</td> + <td class="tcl bb rb"><span style="padding-left: 3em;">Arialoor Beds (Deccan Trap).</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Australia.</td> + <td class="tcl bb rbd">Rolling Down Formation.</td> + <td class="tcl bb rb"><span style="padding-left: 8em;">Desert Sandstone.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">New Zealand.</td> + <td class="tcl bb rbd">Thick conglomeratic Series with Bitumous coals.</td> + <td class="tcl bb rb">Waipara Beds and Limestones, Chalk,<br />  + with Flints, Marls and Greensand.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">S. America.</td> + <td class="tcl bb rbd">Puegiredon Series.        Belgrano ...</td> + <td class="tcl bb rb">... Series. San Martin Series.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Japan.</td> + <td class="tcl bb rbd">Torinosa Limestone and Ryoseki Series.</td> + <td class="tcl bb rb">Izumi Sandstone and Hokkaido Series.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Greenland.</td> + <td class="tcl bb rbd">Kome Group.</td> + <td class="tcl bb rb">Atani Group. Patoot Group (part).</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pt1"><i>Note to Table.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Montian</td> <td class="tcc">from</td> <td class="tcl">Mons in Belgium.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Danian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Denmark = <i>Garumnien</i> of Leymerie.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Aturian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Adour.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Maestrichtian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Maestricht.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Campanian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Champagne.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Emscherian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Emscher river in Westphalia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Santonian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Saintonge.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Coniacian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Cognac.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Senonian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Sens in department of Yonne.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Turonian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Touraine.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Angoumian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Angoumois.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ligerian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">the Loire.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cenomanian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Le Mans (Cenomanum).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carentonian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Charente.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Rothomagian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Rouen (<i>Rothomagus</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Albian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">dept. of Aube.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Selbornian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Selborne in Hampshire.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Aptian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Apt in Vaucluse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Gargasian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Gargas near Apt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bedoulian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">la Bedoule (Var) = <i>Rhodanien</i> of Renevie</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Barremian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Barrême in Basses Alpes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hauterivian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Hauterive on Lake of Neuchâtel.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Valangian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Château de Valangin near Neuchâtel.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Neocomian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Neuchâtel (<i>Neocomum</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Berriasian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Berrias (<i>Ardéche</i>) near Besseges.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Urgonian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Orgon near Arles.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The Cretaceous seas were probably comparatively shallow; +this was certainly the case where the deposits are sandy, and in +the regions occupied by the hippuritic fauna. Much discussion +has taken place as to the depth of the chalk sea. Stress has been +laid upon the resemblance of this deposit to the modern deep-sea +globigerina-ooze; but on the whole the evidence is in favour of +moderate depth, perhaps not more than 1000 fathoms; the +freedom of the deposit from detrital matter being regarded as due +to the low elevation of the surrounding land, and the main lines of +drainage being in other directions. Sandy and shore deposits are +common throughout the system in every region. Besides the +Weald, there were great lacustrine and terrestrial deposits in +N. America (the Potomac, Kootenay, Morrison, Dakota and +Laramie formations) as well as in N. Spain, and in parts of +Germany, &c. The general distribution of land and sea is indicated +in the map.</p> + +<p><i>Earth Movements and Vulcanicity.</i>—During the greater part of +the Cretaceous period crustal movements had been small and +local in effect, but towards the close a series of great deformative +movements was inaugurated and continued into the next period. +These movements make it possible to discriminate between the +Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks, because the conditions of sedimentation +were profoundly modified by them, and in most +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417"></a>417</span> +parts of the world there resulted a distinct break in the sequence +of fossil remains. Great tracts of our modern continental land +areas gradually emerged, and several mountainous tracts began +to be elevated, such as the Appalachians, parts of the Cordilleras, +and the Rocky Mountains, and their northern continuation, and +indeed the greater part of the western N. American continent was +intensely affected; the uplifting was associated with extensive +faulting. Volcanic activity was in abeyance in Europe and in +much of Asia, but in America there were many eruptions and +intrusions of igneous rock towards the close of the period. +Diabases and peridotites had been formed during the Lower +Cretaceous in the San Luis Obispo region. Great masses of ash +and conglomerate occur in the Crow’s Nest Pass in Canada; +porphyries and porphyritic tuffs of later Cretaceous age are +important in the Andes; while similar rocks are found in the +Lower Cretaceous of New Zealand. It is, however, in the Deccan +lava flows of India that we find eruptions on a scale more vast +than any that have been recorded either before or since. These +outpourings of lava cover 200,000 sq. m. and are from 4000 to +6000 ft. thick. They lie upon an eroded Cenomanian surface and +are to some extent interbedded with Upper Cretaceous sediments.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Atlantic Coast.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Eastern Gulf<br />Region.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Western Gulf<br />Region.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Western Interior.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Pacific Coast.</td> <td class="tccm allb">European.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm lb rb bbd" rowspan="4">CRETACEOUS<br /><br />Upper<br />Cretaceous.</td> + <td class="tcl allb">Manasquan.<br /><br />Rancocas.</td> <td class="tccm allb">......</td> + <td class="tccm allb">......</td> <td class="tcl allb">Denver, Livingstone,<br /> (possibly Eocene). &c.<br /><br />Laramie.</td> + <td class="tcl allb"><br />Not differentiated<br /> or wanting.</td> + <td class="tcl allb"><br /><br /><br />Danian.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl allb"><br />Monmouth.<br /><br />Matawan.</td> + <td class="tcl allb">Ripley.<br /><br />Selma.<br /><br />Eutaw.<br /><br /></td> + <td class="tcl allb"><br />Montana Series<br />Navarro.<br /><br />Colorado Series<br /> 2. Austin<br /> 1. Eagle Ford</td> + <td class="tcl allb">Montana Series<br /> 2. Fox Hills.<br /> 1. Fort Pierre and<br /> Belly River. + <br />Colorado Series.<br /> 2. Niobrara.<br /> 1. Benton.</td> + <td class="tcl"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Chico.</td> + <td class="tcl allb"><br />Senonian.<br /><br /><br /><br />Turonian.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm rb bbd" rowspan="2">......</td> <td class="tccm rb">......</td> + <td class="tcl rb">Dakota.<br />Woodbine.</td> <td class="tcl rb bbd" rowspan="2">Dakota.</td> + <td class="tcl rb bbd" rowspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb bbd" rowspan="2">Cenomanian.<br />Albian.<br />Unconformity<br /> in places.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm rb bbd" colspan="2">U n c o n f o r m i t y.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm lb rb bb">COMANCHEAN<br /><br />Lower<br />Cretaceous.</td> + <td class="tcl rb bb"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Potomac Series.<br /> 4. Raritan.<br /> 3. Patapsco. + <br /><br />   Jurassic?<br /> 2. Arundel<br /> 1. Patuxent</td> + <td class="tcl rb bb"><br /><br /><br />Tuskaloosa<br /> Series.</td> + <td class="tcl rb bb"><br />Washita.<br /><br />Fredericksburg.<br /><br /><br /><br />Trinity.</td> + <td class="tcl rb bb"><br /><br /><br />Kootenay and<br /> Morrison (or Como).</td> + <td class="tcl rb bb">Horsetown.<br /><br />Knoxville.<br /><br />  Shastan.</td> + <td class="tcl rb bb">Aptian.<br /><br />Urgonian.<br /><br />Neocomian.<br />Wealden.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Economic Products of Cretaceous Rocks.</i>—Coal is one of the +most important products of the rocks of this system. The +principal Cretaceous coal-bearing area is in the western interior +of N. America, where an enormous amount of coal—mostly +lignitic, but in places converted into anthracite—lies in the rocks +at the foot of the Rocky Mountains; most of this is of Laramie +age. Similar beds occur locally in Montana. Coal seams of Lower +Cretaceous age are found in the Black Hills (S. Dakota), Alaska, +Greenland, and in New Zealand; and the “Upper Quader” of +Löwenberg in Silesia also contains coal seams. Coals also occur +in the brackish and fresh-water deposits of Carinthia, Dalmatia +and Istria, while unimportant lignitic beds are known in many +other regions. The Fort Pierre beds are oil-bearing at Boulder, +Colorado; and the Trinity formation bears asphalt and bitumen. +Important clay deposits are worked in the Raritan formation of +New Jersey, &c., and pottery clays are found in the Löwenberg +district in Germany. The Washita beds yield the well-known +hone stone. Great beds of gypsum exist in the Cretaceous rocks +of S. America. Near Salzburg a variety of the hippuritic limestone +is quarried for marble. Lithographic stone occurs in the +Pyrenees. The economic products peculiar to the chalk are +mentioned in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chalk</a></span>. Beds of iron ore are found in the +Lower Cretaceous of Germany and England.</p> + +<p><i>The Life of the Cretaceous Period.</i>—The fossils from the +Cretaceous series comprise marine, fresh-water and terrestrial +animals and plants. Foremost in interest and importance is the +appearance in the Lower Potomac (Lower Cretaceous) of eastern +and central N. America of the earliest representatives of angiospermous +dicotyledons, and undoubted monocotyledons, the +progenitors of our modern flowering plants. The angiosperms +spread outward from the Atlantic coast region of N. America, and +first appeared in Europe in the Aptian of Portugal; towards the +close of the Lower Cretaceous period they occupied parts of +Greenland, the remaining land areas of N. America, and were +steadily advancing in every quarter of the globe. At first the +Jurassic plants, the Cycads, ferns and conifers, lived on and +were the dominant plant forms. Gradually, however, they took a +subordinate place, and by the close of the Cretaceous period the +angiosperms had gained the upper hand. The earliest of these +fossil angiosperms is not in a true sense a primitive form, and no +records of such types have yet been discovered. Some of the +early forms of the Lower Cretaceous are distinctly similar to +modern genera, such as <i>Ficus</i>, <i>Sassafras</i> and <i>Aralia</i>; others +bore leaves closely resembling our elm, maple, willow, oak, +eucalyptus, &c. Before the close of the period many other +representatives of living genera had appeared, beech, walnut, +tamarisk, plane, laurel (<i>Laurus</i>), cinnamon, ivy, ilex, viburnum, +buckthorn, breadfruit, oleander and others; there were also +junipers, thujas, pines and sequoias and monocotyledons such +as <i>Potamogeton</i> and <i>Arundo</i>. This flora was widely spread and +uniform; there was great similarity between that of Europe and +N. America, and in parts of the United States (Virginia and +Maryland) the plants were very like those in Greenland. The +general aspect of the flora was sub-tropical; the eucalyptus and +other plants then common in Europe and N. America are now +confined to the southern hemisphere.</p> + +<p>The marine fauna comprised foraminifera which must have +swarmed in the Chalk and some of the limestone seas; their +shells have formed great thickness of rock. Common forms are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418"></a>418</span> +the genera <i>Alveolina</i>, <i>Cristellaria</i>, <i>Rotalia</i>, <i>Textularia</i>, <i>Orbitolina</i>, +<i>Globigerina</i>. Radiolarians were doubtless abundant, but +their remains are rare. Sponges with calcareous (<i>Peronidilla</i>, +<i>Barroisia</i>) and siliceous skeletons (<i>Siphonia</i>, <i>Coeloptychium</i>, +<i>Ventriculites</i>) were very numerous in certain of the Cretaceous +waters. Corals were comparatively rare, <i>Trochosmilia</i>, <i>Parasmilia</i>, +<i>Holocystis</i> being typical genera; reefs were formed in the +Maestricht beds of Denmark and Faxoe, in the Neocomian and +Turonian of France, in the Turonian of the Alps and Pyrenees, +and also in the Gosau beds and in the Utatur group of India. +Sea-urchins were a conspicuous feature, and many nearly allied +forms are still living; <i>Cidaris</i>, <i>Micraster</i>, <i>Discoidea</i> are examples. +Crinoids were represented by <i>Marsupites</i>, <i>Uintacrinus</i> and +<i>Bourgueticrinus</i>; starfish (<i>Calliderma</i> and <i>Pentagonaster</i>) were +not uncommon. Polyzoa were abundant; brachiopods were +fairly common, though subordinate to the pelecypods; they were +mostly rhynchonellids and terebratulids, which lived side by +side with the ancient forms, like <i>Crania</i> and <i>Discina</i>. The +bivalve mollusca were very important during this period, +<i>Inoceramus</i>, <i>Ostrea</i>, <i>Spondylus</i>, <i>Gervillia</i>, <i>Exogyra</i>, <i>Pecten</i>, +<i>Trigonia</i> being particularly abundant in the northern seas, +while in the southern waters the remarkable <i>Hippurites</i>, <i>Radiolites</i>, +<i>Caprotina</i>, <i>Caprina</i>, <i>Monopleura</i> and <i>Requienia</i> prevailed. +Gasteropods were well represented and included many modern +genera. Cephalopods were important as a group, but the +ammonites, so vigorous in the foregoing period, were declining +and were assuming curious degenerate forms, often with a +tendency to uncoil the shell; <i>Baculites</i>, <i>Hoplites</i>, <i>Turrilites</i>, +<i>Ptychoceras</i>, <i>Hamites</i> are some of the typical genera, while +<i>Belemnites</i> and <i>Belemnitella</i> were abundant in the northern seas.</p> + +<p>The vertebrate fauna of the Cretaceous period differed in many +features from that of the present day; mammals appear to have +been only poorly represented by puny forms, related to Triassic +and Jurassic types; they were mainly marsupials (<i>Batodon</i>, +<i>Cimolestes</i>) with a few monotreme-like forms; carnivores, +rodents and ungulates were still unknown. As in Jurassic times, +reptiles were the dominant forms, and not a few genera lived +on from the former period into the Cretaceous; but, on the whole, +the reptilian assemblage was no longer so varied, and most of the +distinctive mesozoic types had passed away +before the close of this period. Dinosaurs +were represented by herbivorous and carnivorous +genera as in the Jurassic period, but the +latter were less abundant than before. The +<i>Iguanodon</i> of the Sussex-Weald and Bernissart +in Belgium is perhaps the best-known genus; +but there were many others, their remains +being particularly abundant and well-preserved +in the Cretaceous deposits of N. America. +<i>Titanosaurus</i>, <i>Acanthopholis</i>, <i>Megalosaurus</i> +and <i>Hypsilophodon</i> may be mentioned, some +of these being of great size, while <i>Diclonius</i> +was a curious duck-billed creature; but most +remarkable in appearance must have been the +horned Dinosaurs, <i>Ceratops</i> and <i>Triceratops</i>, +gross, unwieldy creatures, 25 to 30 ft. long, +whose huge heads were grotesquely armed +with horns and bony frills.</p> + +<p>Coincident, perhaps, with the widespread extension of the +sea was the development of aquatic habits and structures suitable +thereto amongst all the reptilian groups including also the birds. +The foremost place was undoubtedly taken by the pythonomorphs +or sea-serpents, including <i>Mosasaurus</i> and many others; +these were enormously elongated creatures, reaching up to 75 ft., +with swimming flappers and powerful swimming tails, and they +lived a predatory life in the open sea. Ichthyosaurians soon +disappeared from Cretaceous waters; but the plesiosaurians +(<i>Cimoliosaurus</i> and others) reached their maximum development +in this period. The remarkable flying lizards, pterosaurs, +likewise attained their great development and then passed away; +they ranged in size from that of a pigeon to creatures with a +wing-spread of 25 ft.; notable genera are <i>Pteranodon</i>, <i>Ornithocheirus</i>, +<i>Nyctiosaurus</i>. Ordinary lizard-like forms were represented +by <i>Coniosaurus</i>, <i>Dolichosaurus</i>, &c.; and true crocodiles, +<i>Goniopholis</i>, <i>Suchosaurus</i>, appeared in this period, and continued +to approximate to modern genera. The earliest known river +turtles are found in the Belly River deposits of Canada; marine +turtles also made their first appearance and were widely represented, +some of them, <i>Archelon</i> and <i>Protostega</i>, being of great +size. True snakes appeared later in the period.</p> + +<p>The birds, as far as existing evidence goes, were aquatic; +some, like <i>Ichthyornis</i>, were built for powerful flight; others, like +<i>Hesperornis</i>, were flightless. <i>Enaliornis</i> is a form well known +from the Cambridge Greensand. They were toothed birds having +structural affinities with the Dinosaurs and Pterodactyles.</p> + +<p>Fish remains of this period show that a marked change was +taking place; teleosteans (with bony internal skeleton) were +taking a more prominent place, and although ganoids were still +represented (<i>Macropoma</i>, <i>Lepidotus</i>, <i>Amiopris</i>, &c.) they had +quite ceased to be the dominant types before the close of Cretaceous +times. Sharks and rays were of the modern types, though +distinct in species. Amongst the early forms of Cretaceous +teleosteans may be mentioned <i>Elopopsis</i>, <i>Ichthyodectes</i>, <i>Diplomystus</i> +(herring), <i>Haplopteryx</i> and <i>Urenchelys</i> (eel).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further information see the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chalk</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greensand</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wealden</a></span>. Sir A. Geikie’s <i>Text-book of Geology</i>, vol. ii. (4th ed., +1903), contains in addition to a full general account of the system +very full references to the literature.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRETE<a name="ar243" id="ar243"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Krêtê">Κρήτη</span>; Turk. <i>Kirid</i>, Ital. <i>Candia</i>), after Sicily, Sardinia +and Cyprus the largest island in the Mediterranean, situated +between 34° 50′ and 35° 40′ N. lat. and between 23° 30′ and 26° 20′ E. +long. Its north-eastern extremity, Cape Sidero, is distant about +110 m. from Cape Krio in Asia Minor, the interval being partly +filled by the islands of Carpathos and Rhodes; its north-western, +Cape Grabusa, is within 60 m. of Cape Malea in the Morea. +Crete thus forms the natural limit between the Mediterranean +and the Archipelago. The island is of elongated form; its length +from E. to W. is 160 m., its breadth from N. to S. varies from +35 to 7½ m., its area is 3330 sq. m. The northern coast-line is +much indented. On the W. two narrow mountainous promontories, +the western terminating in Cape Grabusa or Busa +(ancient Corycus), the eastern in Cape Spada, shut in the Bay +of Kisamos; beyond the Bay of Canea, to the E., the rocky +peninsula of Akrotiri shelters the magnificent natural harbour +of Suda (8½ sq. m.), the only completely protected anchorage +for large vessels which the island affords. Farther E. are the bays +of Candia and Malea, the deep Mirabello Bay and the Bay of +Sitia. The south coast is less broken, and possesses no natural +harbours, the mountains in many parts rising almost like a wall +from the sea; in the centre is Cape Lithinos, the southernmost +point of the island, partly sheltering the Bay of Messará on the +W. Immediately to the E. of Cape Lithinos is the small bay of +Kali Liménes or Fair Havens, where the ship conveying St Paul +took refuge (Acts xxvii. 8). Of the islands in the neighbourhood +of the Cretan coast the largest is Gavdo (ancient Clauda, Acts +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419"></a>419</span> +xxvii. 16), about 25 m. from the south coast at Sphakia, in the +middle ages the see of a bishop. On the N. side the small island +of Dia, or Standia, about 8 m. from Candia, offers a convenient +shelter against northerly gales. Three small islands on the +northern coast—Grabusa at the N.W. extremity, Suda, at the +entrance to Suda harbour, and Spinalonga, in Mirabello Bay—remained +for some time in the possession of Venice after the +conquest of Crete by the Turks. Grabusa, long regarded as an +impregnable fortress, was surrendered in 1692, Suda (where the +flags of Turkey and the four protecting powers are now hoisted) +and Spinalonga in 1715.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:720px; height:394px" src="images/img418.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Natural Features.</i>—The greater part of the island is occupied +by ranges of mountains which form four principal groups. In +the western portion rises the massive range of the White +Mountains (<i>Aspra Vouna</i>), directly overhanging the southern +coast with spurs projecting towards the W. and N.W. (highest +summit, Hagios Theodoros, 7882 ft.). In the centre is the smaller, +almost detached mass of Psiloriti (<span class="grk" title="Hypsiloreition">Ὑψιλορειτίον</span>, ancient Ida), +culminating in Stavros (8193 ft.), the highest summit in the +island. To the E. are the Lassithi mountains with Aphenti Christos +(7165 ft.), and farther E. the mountains of Sitia with Aphenti +Kavousi (4850 ft.). The Kophino mountains (3888 ft.) separate +the central plain of Messará from the southern coast. The +isolated peak of Iuktas (about 2700 ft.), nearly due S. of Candia, +was regarded with veneration in antiquity as the burial-place of +Zeus. The principal groups are for the greater part of the year +covered with snow, which remains in the deeper clefts throughout +the summer; the intervals between them are filled by connecting +chains which sometimes reach the height of 3000 ft. The largest +plain is that of Monofatsi and Messará, a fertile tract extending +between Mt. Psiloriti and the Kophino range, about 37 m. in +length and 10 m. in breadth. The smaller plain, or rather slope, +adjoining Canea and the valley of Alikianú, through which the +Platanos (ancient Iardanos) flows, are of great beauty and +fertility. A peculiar feature is presented by the level upland +basins which furnish abundant pasturage during the summer +months; the more remarkable are the Omalo in the White +Mountains (about 4000 ft.) drained by subterranean outlets +(<span class="grk" title="katábothra">κατάβοθρα</span>), Nida (<span class="grk" title="eis tên Idan">εἰς τὴν Ἴδαν</span>) in Psiloriti (between 5000 and +6000 ft.), and the Lassithi plain (about 3000 ft.), a more extensive +area, on which are several villages. Another remarkable +characteristic is found in the deep narrow ravines (<span class="grk" title="pharángia">φαράγγια</span>), +bordered by precipitous cliffs, which traverse the mountainous +districts; into some of these the daylight scarcely penetrates. +Numerous large caves exist in the mountains; among the most +remarkable are the famous Idaean cave in Psiloriti, the caves of +Melidoni, in Mylopotamo, and Sarchu, in Malevisi, which sheltered +hundreds of refugees after the insurrection of 1866, and the +Dictaean cave in Lassithi, the birth-place of Zeus. The so-called +Labyrinth, near the ruins of Gortyna, was a subterranean quarry +from which the city was built. The principal rivers are the +Metropoli Potamos and the Anapothiari, which drain the plain of +Monofatsi and enter the southern sea E. and W. respectively +of the Kophino range; the Platanos, which flows northwards +from the White Mountains into the Bay of Canea; and the +Mylopotamo (ancient Oaxes) flowing northwards from Psiloriti +to the sea E. of Retimo.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i><a name="FnAnchor_1m" id="FnAnchor_1m" href="#Footnote_1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a>—The metamorphic rocks of western Crete form a series +some 9000 to 10,000 ft. in thickness, of very varied composition. +They include gypsum, dolomite, conglomerates, phyllites, and a +basic series of eruptive rocks (gabbros, peridotites, serpentines). +Glaucophane rocks are widely spread. In the centre of the folds +fossiliferous beds with crinoids have been found, and the black slates +at the top of the series contain <i>Myophoria</i> and other fossils, indicating +that the rocks are of Triassic age. It is, however, not impossible +that the metamorphic series includes also some of the Lias. The later +beds of the island belong to the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary +systems. At the western foot of the Ida massif calcareous beds with +corals, brachiopods (<i>Rhynchonella inconstans</i>, &c.) have been found, +the fossils indicating the horizon of the Kimmeridge clay. Lower +Cretaceous limestones and schists, with radiolarian cherts, arc extensively +developed; and in many parts of the island Upper Cretaceous +limestones with <i>Rudistes</i> and Eocene beds with nummulites +have been found. All these are involved in the earth movements +to which the mountains of the island owe their formation, but the +Miocene beds (with <i>Clypeaster</i>) and later deposits lie almost undisturbed +upon the coasts and the low-lying ground. With the +Jurassic beds is associated an extensive series of eruptive rocks +(gabbro, peridotite, serpentine, diorite, granite, &c.); they are +chiefly of Jurassic age, but the eruptions may have continued into +the Lower Cretaceous.</p> + +<p>The structure of the island is complex. In the west the folds run +from north to south, curving gradually westward towards the +southern and western coasts; but in the east the folds appear to +run from west to east, and to be the continuation of the Dinaric +folds of the Balkan peninsula. The structure is further complicated +by a great thrust-plane which has brought the Jurassic and Lower +Cretaceous beds upon the Upper Cretaceous and Eocene beds.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Vegetation.</i>—The forests which once covered the mountains +have for the most part disappeared and the slopes are now +desolate wastes. The cypress still grows wild in the higher +regions; the lower hills and the valleys, which are extremely +fertile, are covered with olive woods. Oranges and lemons also +abound, and are of excellent quality, furnishing almost the whole +supply of continental Greece and Constantinople. Chestnut +woods are found in the Selino district, and forests of the valonia +oak in that of Retimo; in some parts the carob tree is abundant +and supplies an important article of consumption. Pears, apples, +quinces, mulberries and other fruit-trees flourish, as well as vines; +the Cretan wines, however, no longer enjoy the reputation which +they possessed in the time of the Venetians. Tobacco and cotton +succeed well in the plains and low grounds, though not at present +cultivated to any great extent.</p> + +<p><i>Animals.</i>—Of the wild animals of Crete, the wild goat or +<i>agrimi (Capra aegagrus)</i> alone need be mentioned; it is still found +in considerable numbers on the higher summits of Psiloriti and +the White Mountains. The same species is found in the Caucasus +and Mount Taurus, and is distinct from the ibex or bouquetin of +the Alps. Crete, like several other large islands, enjoys immunity +from dangerous serpents—a privilege ascribed by popular belief +to the intercession of Titus, the companion of St Paul, who according +to tradition was the first bishop of the island, and became in +consequence its patron saint. Wolves also are not found in the +island, though common in Greece and Asia Minor. The native +breed of mules is remarkably fine.</p> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The population of Crete under the Venetians was +estimated at about 250,000. After the Turkish conquest it +greatly diminished, but afterwards gradually rose, till it was +supposed to have attained to about 260,000, of whom about half +were Mahommedans, at the time of the outbreak of the Greek +revolution in 1821. The ravages of the war from 1821 to 1830, +and the emigration that followed, caused a great diminution, and +the population was estimated by Pashley in 1836 at only about +130,000. In the next generation it again materially increased; +it was calculated by Spratt in 1865 as amounting to 210,000. +According to the census taken in 1881, the complete publication +of which was interdicted by the Turkish authorities, the population +of the island was 279,165, or 35.78 to the square kilometre. +Of this total, 141,602 were males, 137,563 females; 33,173 were +literate, 242,114 illiterate; 205,010 were orthodox Christians, +73,234 Moslems, and 921 of other religious persuasions. The +Moslem element predominated in the principal towns, of which +the population was—Candia, 21,368; Canea, 13,812; Retimo, +9274. According to the census taken in June 1900, the population +of the island was 301,273, the Christians having increased +to 267,266, while the Moslems had diminished to 33,281. The +Moslems, as well as the Christians, are of Greek origin and speak +Greek.</p> + +<p><i>Towns.</i>—The three principal towns are on the northern coast +and possess small harbours suitable for vessels of light draught. +Candia, the former capital and the see of the archbishop of Crete +(pop. in 1900, 22,501), is officially styled Herákleion; it is +surrounded by remarkable Venetian fortifications and possesses +a museum with a valuable collection of objects found at Cnossus, +Phaestus, the Idaean cave and elsewhere. It has been occupied +since 1897 by British troops. Canea (Xaviá), the seat of government +since 1840 (pop. 20,972), is built in the Italian style; its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420"></a>420</span> +walls and interesting galley-slips recall the Venetian period. +The residence of the high commissioner and the consulates of +the powers are in the suburb of Halepa. Retimo <span class="grk" title="Rethumnos">Ρέθυμνος</span> is, +like Canea, the see of a bishop (pop. 9311). The other towns, +Hierapetra, Sitia, Kisamos, Selino and Sphakia, are unimportant.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Production and Industries.</i>—Owing to the volcanic nature of +its soil, Crete is probably rich in minerals. Recent experiments +lead to the conclusion that iron, lead, manganese, lignite and +sulphur exist in considerable abundance. Copper and zinc have +also been found. A large number of applications for mining concessions +have been received since the establishment of the autonomous +government. The principal wealth of the island is derived from +its olive groves; notwithstanding the destruction of many thousands +of trees during each successive insurrection, the production +is apparently undiminished, and will probably increase very considerably +owing to the planting of young trees and the improved +methods of cultivation which the Government is endeavouring to +promote. The orange and lemon groves have also suffered considerably, +but new varieties of the orange tree are now being introduced, +and an impulse will be given to the export trade in this fruit +by the removal of the restriction on its importation into Greece. +Agriculture is still in a primitive condition; notwithstanding the +fertility of the arable land the supply of cereals is far below the +requirements of the population. A great portion of the central plain +of Monofatsi, the principal grain-producing district, is lying fallow +owing to the exodus of the Moslem peasantry. The cultivation of +silk cocoons, formerly a flourishing industry, has greatly declined in +recent years, but efforts are now being made to revive it. There +are few manufactures. Soap is produced at fifteen factories in the +principal towns, and there are two distilleries of cognac at Candia.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce.</i>—The expansion of Cretan commerce has been retarded +by many drawbacks, such as the unsatisfactory condition of the +harbours, the want of direct steamship lines to England and other +countries, and the deficiency of internal communications. The total +value of imports in the four years 1901-1904 was £1,756,888, of +exports £1,386,777; excess of imports over exports, £370,111. +Exports in 1904 were valued at £419,642, the principal items being +agricultural products (oranges, lemons, carobs, almonds, grapes, +valonia, &c.), value £153,858, olives and products of olives (oil, soap, +&c.), £134,788, and wines and liquors, £48,544. The countries which +accept the largest share of Cretan produce are Turkey, England, +Egypt, Austria and Russia. Imports in 1904 were valued at +£549,665, including agricultural products (mainly flour and corn), +value £162,535, and textiles, £129,349. Cereals are imported from +the Black Sea and Danube ports, ready-made clothing from Austria +and Germany, articles of luxury from Austria and France, and +cotton textiles from England. Imports are charged 8%, exports +1% <i>ad valorem</i> duty. According to a law published in 1899, Turkish +merchandise became subjected to the same rates as that of foreign +nations.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Constitution and Government.</i>—During the past half-century +the affairs of Crete have repeatedly occupied the attention of +Europe. Owing to the existence of a strong Mussulman minority +among its inhabitants, the warlike character of the natives, and +the mountainous configuration of the country, which enabled a +portion of the Christian population to maintain itself in a state +of partial independence, the island has constantly been the scene +of prolonged and sanguinary struggles in which the numerical +superiority of the Christians was counterbalanced by the aid +rendered to the Moslems by the Ottoman troops. This unhappy +state of affairs was aggravated and perpetuated by the intrigues +set on foot at Constantinople against successive governors of the +island, the conflicts between the Palace and the Porte, the +duplicity of the Turkish authorities, the dissensions of the +representatives of the great powers, the machinations of Greek +agitators, the rivalry of Cretan politicians, and prolonged financial +mismanagement. A long series of insurrections—those of 1821, +1833, 1841, 1858, 1866-1868, 1878, 1889 and 1896 may be +especially mentioned—culminated in the general rebellion of +1897, which led to the interference of Greece, the intervention of +the great powers, the expulsion of the Turkish authorities, and +the establishment of an autonomous Cretan government under +the suzerainty of the sultan. According to the autonomous +constitution of 1899 the supreme power was vested in Prince +George of Greece, acting as high commissioner of the protecting +powers. The authority thus conferred was confided exclusively +to the prince, and was declared liable to modification by law in the +case of his successor. The modified constitution of February 1907 +curtailed the large exceptional legislative and administrative +powers then accorded. The high commissioner is irresponsible, +but his decrees, except in certain specified cases, must be countersigned +by a member of his council. He convokes, prorogues and +dissolves the chamber, sanctions laws, exercises the right of +pardon in case of political offences, represents the island in its +foreign relations and is chief of its military forces. The chamber +(<span class="grk" title="boulê">βουλή</span>), which is elected in the proportion of one deputy to every +5000 inhabitants, meets annually for a session of two months. +New elections are held every two years. The chamber exercises +a complete financial control, and no taxes can be imposed without +its consent. The high commissioner is aided in the administration +by a cabinet of three members, styled “councillors” +(<span class="grk" title="symbouloi">σύμβουλοι</span>), who superintend the departments of justice, +finance, education, public security and the interior. The +councillors, who are nominated and dismissed by the high commissioner, +are responsible to the chamber, which may impeach +them before a special tribunal for any illegal act or neglect of duty.</p> + +<p>In general the Cretan constitution is characterized by a conservative +spirit, and contrasts with the ultra-democratic systems +established in Greece and the Balkan States. A further point of +difference is the more liberal payment of public functionaries in +Crete. For administrative purposes the departmental divisions +existing under the Turkish government have been retained. +There are 5 <i>nomoi</i> or prefectures (formerly <i>sanjaks</i>) each under a +prefect (<span class="grk" title="nomárchos">νομάρχος</span>), and 23 eparchies (formerly <i>kazas</i>) each under +a sub-prefect (<span class="grk" title="éparchos">ἔπαρχος</span>). All these functionaries are nominated +by the high commissioner. The prefects are assisted by departmental +councils. The system of municipal and communal +government remains practically unchanged. The island is +divided into 86 communes, each with a mayor, an assistant-mayor, +and a communal council elected by the people. The +councils assess within certain limits the communal taxes, +maintain roads, bridges, &c., and generally superintend local +affairs. Public order is maintained by a force of gendarmerie +(<span class="grk" title=" chôrophulakê">χωροφυλακή</span>) organized and at first commanded by Italian +officers, who were replaced by Greek officers in December +1906. The constitution authorizes the formation of a militia +(<span class="grk" title="politophulakê">πολιτοφυλακή</span>) to be enrolled by conscription, but in existing +circumstances the embodiment of this force seems unnecessary.</p> + +<p><i>Justice.</i>—The administration of justice is on the French model. +A supreme court of appeal, which also discharges the functions of +a court of cassation, sits at Canea. There are two assize courts at +Canea and Candia respectively with jurisdiction in regard to +serious offences (<span class="grk" title="kakourgêmata ">κακουργήματα</span>). Minor offences (<span class="grk" title="plêmmelêmata">πλημμελήματα</span>) +and civil causes are tried by courts of first instance in each of the +five departments. There are 26 justices of peace, to whose +decision are referred slight contraventions of the law (<span class="grk" title="ptaismata">πταίσματα</span>) +and civil causes in which the amount claimed is below 600 francs. +These functionaries also hold monthly sessions in the various +communes. The judges are chosen without regard to religious +belief, and precautions have been taken to render them +independent of political parties. They are appointed, promoted, +transferred or removed by order of the council of justice, a body +composed of the five highest judicial dignitaries, sitting at Canea. +An order for the removal of a judge must be based upon a conviction +for some specified offence before a court of law. The +jury system has not been introduced. The Greek penal code +has been adopted with some modifications. The Ottoman civil +code is maintained for the present, but it is proposed to establish +a code recently drawn up by Greek jurists which is mainly based +on Italian and Saxon law. The Mussulman cadis retain their +jurisdiction in regard to religious affairs, marriage, divorce, +the wardship of minors and inheritance.</p> + +<p><i>Religion and Education.</i>—The vast majority of the Christian +population belongs to the Orthodox (Greek) Church, which is +governed by a synod of seven bishops under the presidency of +the metropolitan of Candia. The Cretan Church is not, strictly +speaking, autocephalous, being dependent on the patriarchate +of Constantinople. There were in 1907 3500 Greek churches +in the island with 53 monasteries and 3 nunneries; 55 mosques, +4 Roman Catholic churches and 4 synagogues. Education is +nominally compulsory. In 1907 there were 547 primary schools +(527 Christian and 20 Mahommedan), and 31 secondary schools +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421"></a>421</span> +(all Christian). About £20,000 is granted annually by the state +for the purposes of education.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Finance.</i>—Owing to the havoc wrought during repeated insurrections, +the impoverishment of the peasants, the desolation of the +districts formerly inhabited by the Moslem agricultural population, +and the drain of gold resulting from the sale of Moslem lands and +emigration of the former proprietors, together with other causes, +the financial situation has been unsatisfactory. Notwithstanding +the advance of £160,000 made by the four protecting powers after +the institution of autonomous government and the profits (£61,937) +derived from the issue of a new currency in 1900, there was at the +beginning of 1906 an accumulated deficit of £23,470, which represents +the floating debt. In addition to the above-mentioned debt to the +powers, the state contracted a loan of £60,000 in 1901 to acquire +the rights and privileges of the Ottoman Debt, to which the salt +monopoly has been conceded for 20 years. In the budgets for 1905 +and 1906 considerable economies were effected by the curtailment +of salaries, the abolition of various posts, and the reduction of the +estimates for education and public works. The estimated revenue +and expenditure for 1906 were as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">Revenue.</td> <td class="tcc" colspan="2">Expenditure.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcc">Drachmae (gold).</td> <td> </td> <td class="tcc">Drachmae (gold).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Direct taxes</td> <td class="tcr">1,494,000</td> <td class="tcl">High Commissioner</td> <td class="tcr">200,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Indirect taxes</td> <td class="tcr">1,715,000</td> <td class="tcl">Financial administration</td> <td class="tcr">694,670</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Stamp dues</td> <td class="tcr">351,700</td> <td class="tcl">Interior (including gendarmerie)</td> <td class="tcr">1,678,566</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Other sources</td> <td class="tcr">780,967</td> <td class="tcl">Education and Justice</td> <td class="tcr">1,453,500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">4,341,667</td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">4,026,736</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The salary of the high commissioner was reduced in 1907 to 100,000 +drachmae.</p> + +<p>Improved communications are much needed for the transport of +agricultural produce, but the state of the treasury does not admit of +more than a nominal expenditure on road-making and other public +works. On these the average yearly expenditure between 1898 and +1905 was £13,404. The prosperity of the island depends on the +development of agriculture, the acquirement of industrious habits +by the people, and the abandonment of political agitation. The +Cretans were in 1906 more lightly taxed than any other people in +Europe. The tithe had been replaced by an export tax on exported +agricultural produce levied at the custom-houses, and the smaller +peasant proprietors and shepherds of the mountainous districts +were practically exempt from any contribution to the state. The +communal tax did not exceed on the average two francs annually +for each family. The poorer communes are aided by a state +subvention.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Archaeology.</i></p> + +<p>The recent exploration and excavation of early sites +in Crete have entirely revolutionized our knowledge of its +remote past, and afforded the most astonishing +evidence of the existence of a highly advanced +<span class="sidenote">Early, Middle and Late “Minoan” periods.</span> +civilization going far back behind the historic period. +Great “Minoan” palaces have been brought to +light at Cnossus and Phaestus, together with a minor +but highly interesting royal abode at Hagia Triada near +Phaestus. “Minoan” towns, some of considerable extent, +have been discovered at Cnossus itself, at Gournia, Palaikastro, +and at Zakro. The cave sanctuary of the Dictaean Zeus +has been explored, and throughout the whole length and +breadth of the island a mass of early materials has now +been collected. The comparative evidence afforded by the discovery +of Egyptian relics shows that the Great Age of the Cretan +palaces covers the close of the third and the first half of the +second millennium before our era. But the contents of early tombs +and dwellings and indications supplied by such objects as stone +vases and seal-stones show that the Cretans had already attained +to a considerable degree of culture, and had opened out communication +with the Nile valley in the time of the earliest +Egyptian dynasties. This more primitive phase of the indigenous +culture, of which several distinct stages are traceable, is known +as the Early Minoan, and roughly corresponds with the first +half of the third millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The succeeding period, to +which the first palaces are due and to which the name of +Middle Minoan is appropriately given, roughly coincides with the +Middle Empire of Egypt. An extraordinary perfection was at +this time attained in many branches of art, notably in the painted +pottery, often with polychrome decoration, of a class known as +“Kamares” from its first discovery in a cave of that name on +Mount Ida. Imported specimens of this ware were found by +Flinders Petrie among XIIth Dynasty remains at Kahun. +The beginnings of a school of wall painting also go back to the +Middle Minoan period, and metal technique and such arts as +gem engraving show great advance. By the close of this period +a manufactory of fine faience was attached to the palace of +Cnossus. The succeeding Late Minoan period, best illustrated +by the later palace at Cnossus and that at Hagia Triada, corresponds +in Egypt with the Hyksos period and the earlier part of +the New Empire. In the first phase of this the Minoan civilization +attains its acme, and the succeeding style already shows +much that may be described as rococo. The later phase, which +follows on the destruction of the Cnossian palace, and corresponds +with the diffused Mycenaean style of mainland Greece and elsewhere, +is already partly decadent. Late Minoan art in its finest +aspect is best illustrated by the animated ivory figures, wall +paintings, and <i>gesso duro</i> reliefs at Cnossus, by the painted stucco +designs at Hagia Triada, and the steatite vases found on the same +site with zones in reliefs exhibiting life-like scenes of warriors, +toreadors, gladiators, wrestlers and pugilists, and of a festal +throng perhaps representing a kind of “harvest home.” Of +the more conventional side of Late Minoan life a graphic illustration +is supplied by the remains of miniature wall paintings found +in the palace of Cnossus, showing groups of court ladies in +curiously modern costumes, seated on the terraces and balustrades +of a sanctuary. A grand “palace style” of vase painting was +at the same time evolved, in harmony with the general decoration +of the royal halls.</p> + +<p>It had been held till lately that the great civilization of prehistoric +Greece, as first revealed to us by Schliemann’s discoveries +at Mycenae, was not possessed of the art of writing. +In 1893, however, Arthur Evans observed some signs on +<span class="sidenote">Minoan script.</span> +seal-stones from Crete which led him to believe that a +hieroglyphic system of writing had existed in Minoan times. +Explorations carried out by him in Crete from 1894 onwards, for +the purpose of investigating the prehistoric civilization of the +island, fully corroborated this belief, and showed that a linear +as well as a semi-pictorial form of writing was diffused in the +island at a very early period (“Cretan Pictographs and Prae-Phoenician +Script,” <i>Journ. of Hellenic Studies</i>, xiv. pt. 11). +In 1895 he obtained a libation-table from the Dictaean cave with +a linear dedication in the prehistoric writing (“Further Discoveries,” +&c., <i>J.H.S.</i> xvii.). Finally in 1900 all scepticism in +the learned world was set at rest by his discovery in the palace of +Cnossus of whole archives consisting of clay tablets inscribed both +in the pictographic (hieroglyphic) and linear forms of the Minoan +script (Evans, “Palace of Knossos,” <i>Reports of Excavation, +1900-1905</i>; <i>Scripta Minoa</i>, vol. i., 1909). Supplementary +finds of inscribed tablets have since been found at Hagia Triada +(F. Halbherr, <i>Rapporto, &c., Monumenti antichi</i>, 1903) and +elsewhere (Palaikastro, Zakro and Gournia). It thus appears +that a highly developed system of writing existed in Minoan +Crete some two thousand years earlier than the first introduction +under Phoenician influence of Greek letters. In this, as in so +many other respects, the old Cretan tradition receives striking +confirmation. According to the Cretan version preserved by +Diodorus (v. 74), the Phoenicians did not invent letters but +simply altered their forms.</p> + +<p>There is evidence that the use in Crete of both linear and +pictorial signs existed in the Early Minoan period, contemporary +with the first Egyptian dynasties. It is, however, +during the Middle Minoan age, the centre point of which +<span class="sidenote">Earlier pictographic script.</span> +corresponds with the XIIth Egyptian dynasty, according +to the Sothic system of dating, c. 2000-1850 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +that a systematized pictographic or hieroglyphic script makes +its appearance which is common both to signets and clay tablets. +During the Third Middle Minoan period, the lower limits of +which approach 1600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, this pictographic script finally gives +way to a still more developed linear system—which is itself +divided into an earlier and a later class. The earlier class (A) +is already found in the temple repositories of Cnossus belonging +to the age immediately preceding the great remodelling of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422"></a>422</span> +palace, and this class is specially well represented in the +tablets of Hagia Triada (M.M. iii. and L.M. i.). The later class +(B) of the linear script is that used on the great bulk of the +clay tablets of the Cnossian palace, amounting in number to +nearly 2000.</p> + +<p>These clay archives are almost exclusively inventories and +business documents. Their general purport is shown in many +cases by pictorial figures relating to various objects which appear +on them—such as chariots and horses, ingots and metal vases, +arms and implements, stores of corn, &c., flocks and herds. Many +showing human figures apparently contain lists of personal names. +A decimal system of numeration was used, with numbers going +up to 10,000. But the script itself is as yet undeciphered, though +it is clear that certain words have changing suffixes, and that +there were many compound words. The script also recurs on +walls in the shape of graffiti, and on vases, sometimes ink-written; +and from the number of seals originally attached to perishable +documents it is probable that parchment or some similar material +was also used. In the easternmost district of Crete, where the +aboriginal “Eteocretan” element survived to historic times +(Praesus, Palaikastro), later inscriptions have been discovered +belonging to the 5th and succeeding centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, written in +Greek letters but in the indigenous language (Comparetti, <i>Mon. +Ant.</i> iii. 451 sqq.; R. S. Conway, <i>British School Annual</i>, viii. +125 sqq. and ib. xl.). In 1908 a remarkable discovery was made +by the Italian Mission at Phaestus of a clay disk with imprinted +hieroglyphic characters belonging to a non-Cretan system and +probably from W. Anatolia.</p> + +<p>The remains of several shrines within the building, and the +religious element perceptible in the frescoes, show that a considerable +part of the Palace of Cnossus was devoted +to purposes of cult. It is clear that the rulers, as so +<span class="sidenote">Character of Minoan religion.</span> +commonly in ancient states, fulfilled priestly as well as +royal functions. The evidence supplied by this and +other Cretan sites shows that the principal Minoan divinity was a +kind of <i>Magna Mater</i>, a Great Mother or nature goddess, with +whom was associated a male satellite. The cult in fact corresponds +in its main outlines with the early religious conceptions of +Syria and a large part of Anatolia—a correspondence probably +explained by a considerable amount of ethnic affinity existing +between a large section of the primitive Cretan population and +that of southern Asia Minor. The Minoan goddess is sometimes +seen in her chthonic form with serpents, sometimes in a more +celestial aspect with doves, at times with lions. One part of her +religious being survives in that of the later Rhea, another in that +of Aphrodite, one of whose epithets, <i>Ariadne</i> ( = the exceeding +holy), takes us back to the earliest Cnossian tradition. Under her +native name, Britomartis ( = the sweet maiden) or Dictynna, she +approaches Artemis and Leto, again associated with an infant +god, and this Cretan virgin goddess was worshipped in Aegina +under the name of Aphaea. It is noteworthy that whereas, in +Greece proper, Zeus attains a supreme position, the old superiority +of the Mother Goddess is still visible in the Cretan traditions +of Rhea and Dictynna and the infant Zeus.</p> + +<p>Although images of the divinities were certainly known, the +principal objects of cult in the Minoan age were of the aniconic +class; in many cases these were natural objects, such as rocks and +mountain peaks, with their cave sanctuaries, like those of Ida +or of Dicte. Trees and curiously shaped stones were also +worshipped, and artificial pillars of wood or stone. These latter, +as in the well-known case of the Lion’s Gate at Mycenae, often +appear with guardian animals as their supporters. The essential +feature of this cult is the bringing down of the celestial spirit by +proper incantations and ritual into these fetish objects, the dove +perched on a column sometimes indicating its descent. It is a +primitive cult similar to that of Early Canaan, illustrated by the +pillow stone set up by Jacob, which was literally “Bethel” or the +“House of God.” The story of the <i>baetylus</i>, or stone swallowed +by Saturn under the belief that it was his son, the Cretan Zeus, +seems to cover the same idea and has been derived from the same +Semitic word.</p> + +<p>A special form of this “baetylic” cult in Minoan Crete was the +representation of the two principal divinities in their fetish form +by double axes. Shrines of the Double Axes have been found in +the palace of Cnossus itself, at Hagia Triada, and in a small +palace at Gournia, and many specimens of the sacred emblem +occurred in the Cave Sanctuary of Dicte, the mythical birthplace +of the Cretan Zeus. Complete scenes of worship in which libations +are poured before the Sacred Axes are, moreover, given on a fine +painted sarcophagus found at Hagia Triada.</p> + +<p>The same cult survived to later times in Caria in the case of +Zeus Labrandeus, whose name is derived from <i>labrys</i>, the native +name for the double axe, and it had already been +suggested on philological grounds that the Cretan +<span class="sidenote">Labyrinth and Minotaur.</span> +“labyrinthos” was formed from a kindred form of +the same word. The discovery that the great Minoan +foundation at Cnossus was at once a palace and a sanctuary of +the Double Axe and its associated divinities has now supplied a +striking and it may well be thought an overwhelming confirmation +of this view. We can hardly any longer hesitate to recognize +in this vast building, with its winding corridors and subterranean +ducts, the Labyrinth of later tradition; and as a matter of fact a +maze pattern recalling the conventional representation of the +Labyrinth in Greek art actually formed the decoration of one of +the corridors of the palace. It is difficult, moreover, not to +connect the repeated wall-paintings and reliefs of the palace +illustrating the cruel bull sports of the Minoan arena, in which +girls as well as youths took part, with the legend of the Minotaur, +or bull of Minos, for whose grisly meals Athens was forced to pay +annual tribute of her sons and daughters. It appears certain +from the associations in which they are found at Cnossus, that +these Minoan bull sports formed part of a religious ceremony. +Actual figures of a monster with a bull’s head and man’s body +occurred on seals of Minoan fabric found on this and other +Cretan sites.</p> + +<p>It is abundantly evident that whatever mythic element may +have been interwoven with the old traditions of the spot, they +have a solid substratum of reality. With such remains +before us it is no longer sufficient to relegate Minos to +<span class="sidenote">Historic substratum of Cretan myths.</span> +the regions of sun-myths. His legendary presentation +as the “Friend of God,” like Abraham, to whom as to +Moses the law was revealed on the holy mountain, calls +up indeed just such a priest-king of antiquity as the palace-sanctuary +of Cnossus itself presupposes. It seems possible even that +the ancient tradition which recorded an earlier or later king of the +name of Minos may, as suggested above, cover a dynastic title. +The earlier and later palaces at Cnossus and Phaestus, and the +interrupted phases of each, seem to point to a succession of +dynasties, to which, as to its civilization as a whole, it is certainly +convenient to apply the name “Minoan.” It is interesting, as +bringing out the personal element in the traditional royal seat, +that an inscribed sealing belonging to the earliest period of the +later palace of Cnossus bears on it the impression of two official +signets with portrait heads of a man and of a boy, recalling the +“associations” on the coinage of imperial Rome. It is clear that +the later traditions in many respects accurately summed up the +performances of the “Minoan” dynast who carried out the great +buildings now brought to light. The palace, with its wonderful +works of art, executed for Minos by the craftsman Daedalus, +has ceased to belong to the realms of fancy. The extraordinary +architectural skill, the sanitary and hydraulic science revealed in +details of the building, bring us at the same time face to face +with the power of mechanical invention with which Daedalus +was credited. The elaborate method and bureaucratic control +visible in the clay documents of the palace point to a highly +developed legal organization. The powerful fleet and maritime +empire which Minos was said to have established will no doubt +receive fuller illustration when the sea-town of Cnossus comes to +be explored. The appearance of ships on some of the most +important seal-impressions is not needed, however, to show how +widely Minoan influence made itself felt in the neighbouring +Mediterranean regions.</p> + +<p>The Nilotic influence visible in the vases, seals and other +fabrics of the Early Minoan age, seems to imply a maritime +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423"></a>423</span> +activity on the part of the islanders going back to the days of the +<span class="sidenote">Early relations with Egypt.</span> +first Egyptian dynasties. In a deposit at Kahun, belonging to +the XIIth Dynasty, c. 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, were already found +imported polychrome vases of “Middle Minoan” +fabric. In the same way the important part played by +Cretan enterprise in the days of the New Egyptian +empire is illustrated by repeated finds of Late Minoan pottery +on Egyptian sites. A series of monuments, moreover, belonging +to the early part of the XVIIIth Dynasty show the representatives +<span class="sidenote">The Kefts and Philistines.</span> +of the Kefts or peoples of “The Ring” and of the +“Lands to the West” in the fashionable costume of +the Cnossian court, bearing precious vessels and other +objects of typical Minoan forms. Farther to the east +the recent excavations on the old Philistine sites like Gezer have +brought to light swords and vases of Cretan manufacture in the +later palace style. The principal Philistine tribe is indeed known +in the biblical records as the Cherethims or Cretans, and the +Minoan name and the cult of the Cretan Zeus were preserved at +<span class="sidenote">Early relations with Cyprus and N. Aegean.</span> +Gaza to the latest classical days. Similar evidence +of Minoan contact, and indeed of wholesale colonization +from the Aegean side, recurs in Cyprus. The culture of +the more northerly Aegean islands, best revealed to us +by the excavations of the British School at Phylakopi +in Melos, also attest a growing influence from the +Cretan side, which, about the time of the later palace at +Cnossus, becomes finally predominant.</p> + +<p>Turning to the mainland of Greece we see that the astonishing +remains of a highly developed prehistoric civilization, which +Schliemann first brought to light in 1876 at Mycenae, +and which from those discoveries received the general +<span class="sidenote">Minoan influence on mainland of Greece.</span> +name of “Mycenaean,” in the main represent a transmarine +offshoot from the Minoan stock. The earlier +remains both at Mycenae and Tiryns, still imperfectly +investigated, show that this Cretan influence goes back to the +Middle Minoan age, with its characteristic style of polychrome +vase decoration. The contents of the royal tombs, on the other +hand, reveal a wholesale correspondence with the fabrics of the +first, and, to a less degree, the second Late Minoan age, as +illustrated by the relics belonging to the Middle Period of the later +palace at Cnossus and by those of the royal villa at Hagia Triada. +The chronological centre of the great beehive tombs seems to +be slightly lower. The ceiling of that of Orchomenos, and the +painted vases and gold cups from the Vaphio tomb by Sparta, +with their marvellous reliefs showing scenes of bull-hunting, +represent the late palace style at Cnossus in its final development.</p> + +<p>The leading characteristics of this mainland civilization are +thus indistinguishable from the Minoan. The funeral rites are +similar, and the religious representations show an identical form +of worship. At the same time the local traditions and conditions +differentiate the continental from the insular branch. In Crete, +in the later period, when the rulers could trust to the “wooden +walls” of the Minoan navy, there is no parallel for the massive +fortifications that we see at Tiryns or Mycenae. The colder winter +climate of mainland Greece dictated the use of fixed hearths, +whereas in the Cretan palaces these seem to have been of a portable +kind, and the different usage in this respect again reacted +on the respective forms of the principal hall or “Megaron.”</p> + +<p>Minoan culture under its mainland aspect left its traces on the +Acropolis at Athens,—a corroboration of the tradition which +made the Athenians send their tribute children to +Minos. Similar traces extend through a large part of +<span class="sidenote">Minoan influences in N. Greece.</span> +northern Greece from Cephallenia and Leucadia to +Thessaly, and are specially well marked at Iolcus (near +mod. Volo), the legendary embarking place of the Argonauts. +This circumstance deserves attention owing to the special connexion +traditionally existing between the Minyans of Iolcus and +those of Orchomenus, the point of all others on this side where +the early Cretan influence seems most to have taken root. The +Minoan remains at Orchomenus which are traceable to the latest +period go far to substantiate the philological comparison between +the name of Minyas, the traditional ancestor of this ancient race, +and that of Minos.</p> + +<p>Still farther to the north-west a distinct Minoan influence is +perceptible in the old Illyrian lands east of the Adriatic, and its +traces reappear in the neighbourhood of Venice. It is +well marked throughout southern Italy from Taranto +<span class="sidenote">Adriatic and Italian extension.</span> +to Naples. It was with Sicily, however, that the later +history of Minos and his great craftsman Daedalus was +in a special way connected by ancient tradition. Here, as in +Crete, Daedalus executed great works like the temple of Eryx, +and it was on Sicilian soil that Minos, engaged in a western +campaign, was said to have met with a violent death at the +hands of the native king Kokalos (Cocalus) and his daughters. +His name is preserved in the Sicilian Minoa, and his tomb was +pointed out in the neighbourhood of Agrigentum, with a shrine +above dedicated to his native Aphrodite, the lady of the dove; +and in this connexion it must be observed that the cult of Eryx +perpetuates to much later times the characteristic features of +the worship of the Cretan Nature goddess, as now revealed +to us in the palace of Cnossus and elsewhere. These ancient +indications of a Minoan connexion with Sicily have now received +interesting confirmation in the numerous discoveries, principally +due to the recent excavations of P. Orsi, of arms and painted vases +of Late Minoan fabric in Bronze Age tombs of the provinces of +Syracuse and Girgenti (Agrigentum) belonging to the late Bronze +Age. Some of these objects, such as certain forms of swords and +vases, seem to be of local fabric, but derived from originals going +back to the beginning of the Late Minoan age.</p> + +<p>The abiding tradition of the Cretan aborigines, as preserved +by Herodotus (vii. 171), ascribes the eventual settlement of the +Greeks in Crete to a widespread desolation that had +fallen on the central regions. It is certain that by +<span class="sidenote">Minoan crisis: c. 1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></span> +the beginning of the 14th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when the signs +of already decadent Minoan art are perceptible in the +imported pottery found in the palace of Akhenaton at Tell el-Amarna, +some heavy blows had fallen on the island power. +Shortly before this date the palaces both of Cnossus and Phaestus +had undergone a great destruction, and though during the ensuing +period both these royal residences were partially reoccupied +it was for the most part at any rate by poorer denizens, and their +great days as palaces were over for ever. Elsewhere at Cnossus, +in the smaller palace to the west, the royal villa and the town +houses, we find the evidence of a similar catastrophe followed +by an imperfect recovery, and the phenomenon meets us again +at Palaikastro and other early settlements in the east of Crete. +At the same time, to whatever cause this serious setback of +Minoan civilization was owing, it would be very unsafe to infer +as yet any large displacement of the original inhabitants by the +invading swarms from the mainland or elsewhere. The evidence +of a partial restoration of the domestic quarter of the palace of +Cnossus tends to show a certain measure of dynastic continuity. +There is evidence, moreover, that the script and with it the +indigenous language did not die out during this period, and that +therefore the days of Hellenic settlement at Cnossus were not +yet. The recent exploration of a cemetery belonging to the +close of the great palace period, and in a greater degree to the +age succeeding the catastrophe, has now conclusively shown +that there was no real break in the continuity of Minoan culture. +This third Late Minoan period—the beginning of which may be +fixed about 1400—is an age of stagnation and decline, but the +point of departure continued to be the models supplied by the +age that had preceded it. Art was still by no means extinct, and +its forms and decorative elements are simply later derivatives +of the great palace style. Not only the native form of writing, +but the household arrangements, sepulchral usages, and religious +rites remain substantially the same. The third Late Minoan age +corresponds generally with the Late Mycenaean stage in the +Aegean world (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean Civilization</a></span>). It is an age indeed +in which the culture as a whole, though following a lower level, +attains the greatest amount of uniformity. From Sicily and even +the Spanish coast to the Troad, southern Asia Minor, Cyprus and +Palestine,—from the Nile valley to the mouth of the Po, very +similar forms were now diffused. Here and there, as in Cyprus, +we watch the development of some local schools. How far Crete +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424"></a>424</span> +itself continued to preserve the hegemony which may reasonably +be ascribed to it at an earlier age must remain doubtful. It is +certain that towards the close of this third and concluding +Late Minoan period in the island certain mainland types of swords +and safety-pins make their appearance, which are symptomatic +of the great invasion from that side that was now impending or +had already begun.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Principal Minoan Sites.</i></p> + +<p>It will be convenient here to give a general view of the more +important Minoan remains recently excavated on various Cretan +sites.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Cnossus.</i>—The palace of Cnossus is on the hill of Kephala about +4 m. inland from Candia. As a scene of human settlement this site +is of immense antiquity. The successive “Minoan” strata, which +go well back into the fourth millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, reach down to a depth +of about 17 ft. But below this again is a human deposit, from +20 to 26 ft. in thickness, representing a long and gradual course of +Neolithic or Later Stone-Age development. Assuming that the lower +strata were formed at approximately the same rate as the upper, +we have an antiquity of from 12,000 to 14,000 years indicated for the +first Neolithic settlement on this spot. The hill itself, like a Tell of +Babylonia, is mainly formed of the debris of human settlements. +The palace was approached from the west by a paved Minoan Way +communicating with a considerable building on the opposite hill. +This road was flanked by magazines, some belonging to the royal +armoury, and abutted on a paved area with stepped seats on two +sides (theatral area). The palace itself approximately formed a +square with a large paved court in the centre. It had a N.S. orientation. +The principal entrance was to the north, but what appears to +have been the royal entrance opened on a paved court on the west +side. This entrance communicated with a corridor showing frescoes +of a processional character. The west side of the palace contained +a series of 18 magazines with great store jars and cists and large +hoards of clay documents. A remarkable feature of this quarter is +a small council chamber with a gypsum throne of curiously Gothic +aspect and lower stone benches round. The walls of the throne room +show frescoes with sacred griffins confronting each other in a Nile +landscape, and a small bath chamber—perhaps of ritual use—is +attached. This quarter of the palace shows the double axe sign +constantly repeated on its walls and pillars, and remains of miniature +wall-paintings showing pillar shrines, in some cases with double axes +stuck into the wooden columns. Here too were found the repositories +of an early shrine containing exquisite faience figures and reliefs, +including a snake goddess—another aspect of the native divinity—and +her votaries. The central object of cult in this shrine was +apparently a marble cross. Near the north-west angle of the palace +was a larger bath chamber, and by the N. entrance were remains of +great reliefs of bull-hunting scenes in painted <i>gesso duro</i>. South of +the central court were found parts of a relief in the same material, +showing a personage with a fleur-de-lis crown and collar. The east +wing of the palace was the really residential part. Here was what +seems to have been the basement of a very large hall or “Megaron,” +approached directly from the central court, and near this were found +further reliefs, fresco representations of scenes of the bull-ring with +female as well as male toreadors, and remains of a magnificent +gaming-board of gold-plated ivory with intarsia work of crystal +plaques set on silver plates and blue enamel (<i>cyanus</i>). The true +domestic quarter lay to the south of the great hall, and was approached +from the central court by a descending staircase, of which three +flights and traces of a fourth are preserved. This gives access to +a whole series of halls and private rooms (halls “of the Colonnades,” +“of the Double Axes,” “Queen’s Megaron” with bath-room attached +and remains of the fish fresco, “Treasury” with ivory figures and +other objects of art), together with extensive remains of an upper +storey. The drainage system here, including a water-closet, is of the +most complete and modern kind. Near this domestic quarter was +found a small shrine of the Double Axes, with cult objects and +offertory vessels in their places. The traces of an earlier “Middle +Minoan” palace beneath the later floor-levels are most visible on +the east side, with splendid ceramic remains. Here also are early +magazines with huge store jars. At the foot of the slope on this side, +forming the eastern boundary of the palace, are massive supporting +walls and a bastion with descending flights of steps, and a water-channel +devised with extraordinary hydraulic science (Evans, +“Palace of Knossos,” “Reports of Excavations 1900-1905,” in +<i>Annual of British School at Athens</i>, vi. sqq.; <i>Journ. R.I.B.A.</i> +(1902), pt. iv. For the palace pottery see D. Mackenzie, <i>Journ. of +Hellenic Studies</i>, xxiii.). The palace site occupies nearly six acres. +To the N.E. of it came to light a “royal villa” with staircase, and a +basilica-like hall (Evans, <i>B.S. Annual</i>, ix. 130 seq.). To the N.W. +was a dependency containing an important hoard of bronze vessels +(ib. p. 112 sqq.). The building on the hill to the W. approached +by the Minoan paved way has the appearance of a smaller palace +(<i>B.S. Annual</i>, xii., 1906). Many remains of private houses belonging +to the prehistoric town have also come to light (Hogarth, <i>B.S.A.</i> vi. +[1900], p. 70 sqq.). A little N. of the town, at a spot called Zafer +Papoura, an extensive Late Minoan cemetery was excavated in +1904 (Evans, <i>The Prehistoric Tombs of Knossus</i>, 1906), and on a height +about 2 m. N. of this, a royal tomb consisting of a square chamber, +which originally had a pointed vault of “Cyclopaean” structure +approached by a forehall or rock-cut passage. This monumental +work seems to date from the close of the Middle Minoan age, but has +been re-used for interments at successive periods (Evans, <i>Archaeologia</i>, +1906, p. 136 sqq.). It is possibly the traditional tomb of +Idomeneus. (For later discoveries see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cnossus</a></span>.)</p> + +<p><i>Phaestus.</i>—The acropolis of this historic city looks on the Libyan +Sea and commands the extensive plain of Messara. On the eastern +hill of the acropolis, excavations initiated by F. Halbherr on behalf +of the Italian Archaeological Mission and subsequently carried out +by L. Pernier have brought to light another Minoan palace, much +resembling on a somewhat smaller scale that of Cnossus. The plan +here too was roughly quadrangular with a central court, but owing +to the erosion of the hillside a good deal of the eastern quarter has +disappeared. The Phaestian palace belongs to two distinct periods, +and the earlier or “Middle Minoan” part is better preserved than +at Cnossus. The west court and entrance belonging to the earlier +building show many analogies with those of Cnossus, and the court +was commanded to the north by tiers of stone benches like those of +the “theatral area” at Cnossus on a larger scale. Magazines with +fine painted store jars came to light beneath the floor of the later +“propylaeum.” The most imposing block of the later building is +formed by a group of structures rising from the terrace formed by +the old west wall. A fine paved corridor running east from this gives +access to a line of the later magazines, and through a columnar hall +to the central court beyond, while to the left of this a broad and +stately flight of steps leads up to a kind of entrance hall on an upper +terrace. North of the central court is a domestic quarter presenting +analogies with that of Cnossus, but throughout the later building +there was a great dearth of the frescoes and other remains such as +invest the Cnossian palace with so much interest. There are also +few remaining traces here of upper storeys. It is evident that in this +case also the palace was overtaken by a great catastrophe, followed +by a partial reoccupation towards the close of the Late Minoan age +(L. Pernier, <i>Scavi della missione italiana a Phaestos; Monumenti +antichi</i>, xii. and xiv.).</p> + +<p>About a kilometre distant from the palace of Phaestus near +the village of Kalyvia a Late Minoan cemetery was brought to light +in 1901, belonging to the same period as that of Cnossus (Savignoni, +<i>Necropoli di Phaestos</i>, 1905).</p> + +<p><i>Hagia Triada.</i>—On a low hill crowned by a small church of the +above name, about 3 m. nearer the Libyan Sea than Phaestus, a +small palace or royal villa was discovered by Halbherr and excavated +by the Italian Mission. In its structure and general arrangements +it bears a general resemblance to the palace of Phaestus and Cnossus +on a smaller scale. The buildings themselves, with the usual halls, +bath-rooms and magazines, together with a shrine of the Mother +Goddess, occupy two sides of a rectangle, enclosing a court at a +higher level approached by flights of stairs. Repositories also came +to light containing treasure in the shape of bronze ingots. In contrast +to the palace of Phaestus, the contents of the royal villa proved +exceptionally rich, and derive a special interest from the fact that +the catastrophe which overwhelmed the building belongs to a +somewhat earlier part of the Late Minoan age than that which +overwhelmed Cnossus and Phaestus. Clay tablets were here found +belonging to the earlier type of the linear script (Class A), together +with a great number of clay sealings with religious and other devices +and incised countermarks. Both the signet types and the other +objects of art here discovered display the fresh naturalism that +characterizes in a special way the first Late Minoan period. A +remarkable wall-painting depicts a cat creeping over ivy-covered +rocks and about to spring on a pheasant. The steatite vases with +reliefs are of great importance. One of these shows a ritual procession, +apparently of reapers singing and dancing to the sound of +a sistrum. On another a Minoan warrior prince appears before his +retainers. A tall funnel-shaped vase of this class, of which a considerable +part has been preserved, is divided into zones showing +bull-hunting scenes, wrestlers and pugilists in gladiatorial costume, +the whole executed in a most masterly manner. The small palace +was reconstructed at a later period, and at a somewhat higher level. +To a period contemporary with the concluding age of the Cnossian +palace must be referred a remarkable sarcophagus belonging to a +neighbouring cemetery. The chest is of limestone coated with stucco, +adorned with life-like paintings of offertory scenes in connexion with +the sacred Double Axes of Minoan cult. There have also come to +light remains of a great domed mortuary chamber of primitive construction +containing relics of the Early Minoan period (Halbherr, +<i>Monumenti Antichi</i>, xiii. (1903), p. 6 sqq., and <i>Memorie del +instituto lombardo</i>, 1905; Paribeni, <i>Lavori eseguiti della missione +italiana nel Palazzo e nella necropoli di Haghia Triada; Rendiconti</i>, +&c., xi. and xii.; Savignoni, <i>Il Vaso di Haghia Triada</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Palaikastro.</i>—Near this village, lying on the easternmost coast of +Crete, the British School at Athens has excavated a section of a +considerable Minoan town. The buildings here show a stratification +analogous to that of the palace of Cnossus. The town was traversed +by a well-paved street with a stone sewer, and contained several +important private houses and a larger one which seems to have been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425"></a>425</span> +a small palace. Among the more interesting relics found were ivory +figures of Egyptian or strongly Egyptianizing fabric. On an adjacent +hill were the remains of what seems to have been in later times +a temple of the Dictaean Zeus, and from the occurrence of rich +deposits of Minoan vases and sacrificial remains at a lower level, the +religious tradition represented by the later temple seems to go back +to prehistoric times. On the neighbouring height of Petsofà, by a +rock-shelter, remains of another interesting shrine were brought to +light dating from the Middle Minoan period, and containing interesting +votive offerings of terra-cotta, many of them apparently relating +to cures or to the warding off of diseases (R. C. Bosanquet, <i>British +School Annual</i>, viii. 286 sqq., ix. 274 sqq.; R. M. Dawkins, ibid. +ix. 290 sqq., x.; J. L. Myres, ibid. ix. 356 sqq.).</p> +</div> + +<p class="sc f80 noind pt2">Plate I.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:495px" src="images/img424a1.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—PALACE OF CNOSSUS. GENERAL VIEW OF THE SITE FROM THE EAST.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:501px" src="images/img424a2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—VIEW OF PART OF GRAND STAIRCASE AND HALL OF COLONNADES +(WOODEN COLUMNS RESTORED) (CNOSSUS).<br /> +<span class="f80">(<i>By permission of Dr A. J. Evans.</i>)</span></td></tr></table> + + +<p class="sc f80 noind pt2">Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:700px; height:464px" src="images/img424b1.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—LARGE OIL-JARS IN EAST MAGAZINES (CNOSSUS).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:320px; height:438px" src="images/img424b2.jpg" alt="" /></td> + <td class="figcenter"><img style="width:320px; height:439px" src="images/img424b3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—GYPSUM THRONE (FRESCO PAINTING VISIBLE +ON WALL) (CNOSSUS).</td> + <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—BASE OF WEST WALL NEAR ROYAL ENTRANCE (CNOSSUS).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="f80">(<i>By permission of Dr A. J. Evans.</i>)</span></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Gournia.</i>—Near this hamlet on the coast of the Gulf of Mirabello in +east Crete, the American archaeologist Miss Harriet Boyd has excavated +a great part of another Minoan town. It covers the sides of a long +hill, its main avenue being a winding roadway leading to a small +palace. It contained a shrine of the Cretan snake goddess, and was +rich in minor relics, chiefly in the shape of bronze implements and +pottery for household use. The bulk of the remains belong here, as +at Hagia Triada, to the beginning of the Late Minoan period, but +there are signs of reoccupation in the decadent Minoan age. The +remains supply detailed information as to the everyday life of a +Cretan country town about the middle of the second millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +(H. Boyd, <i>Excavations at Gournia</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Zakro.</i>—Near the lower hamlet of that name on the S.E. coast +important remains of a settlement contemporary with that of Gournia +were explored by D. G. Hogarth, consisting of houses and pits +containing painted pottery of exceptional beauty and a great variety +of seal impressions. The deep bay in which Zakro lies is a well-known +port of call for the fishing fleets on their way to the sponge grounds +of the Libyan coast, and doubtless stood in the same stead to the +Minoan shipping (D. G. Hogarth, <i>Annual of the British School</i>, vii. 121 +sqq., and <i>Journ. of Hellenic Studies</i>, xxii. 76 sqq. and 333 sqq.).</p> + +<p><i>Dictaean Cave.</i>—Near the village of Psychro on the Lassithi range, +answering to the western Dicte, opens a large cave, identified with +the legendary birthplace of the Cretan Zeus. This cavern also shared +with that of Ida the claim to have been that in which Minos, Moses-like, +received the law from Zeus. The exploration begun by the +Italian Mission under Halbherr and continued by Evans, who found +here the inscribed libation table (see above), was completed by +Hogarth in 1900. Besides the great entrance hall of the cavern, +which served as the upper shrine, were descending vaults forming a +lower sanctuary going down deep into the bowels of the earth. Great +quantities of votive figures and objects of cult, such as the fetish +double axes and stone tables of offering, were found both above and +below. In the lower sanctuary the natural pillars of stalagmite +had been used as objects of worship, and bronze votive objects +thrust into their crevices (Halbherr, <i>Museo di antichità classica</i>, ii. +pp. 906-910; Evans, <i>Further Discoveries</i>, &c., p. 350 sqq., <i>Myc. Tree +and Pillar Cult</i>, p. 14 sqq.; Hogarth, “The Dictaean Cave,” +<i>Annual of British School at Athens</i>, vi. 94 sqq.).</p> + +<p><i>Pseira and Mochlos.</i>—On these two islets on the northern coast +of E. Crete, R. Seager, an American explorer, has found striking +remains of flourishing Minoan settlements. The contents of a series +of tombs at Mochlos throw an entirely new light on the civilization of +the Early Minoan age.</p> +</div> + +<p>The above summary gives, indeed, a very imperfect idea +of the extent to which the remains of the great Minoan civilization +are spread throughout the island. The “hundred +cities” ascribed to Crete by Homer are in a fair way +<span class="sidenote">Third Late Minoan period.</span> +of becoming an ascertained reality. The great days +of Crete lie thus beyond the historic period. The +period of decline referred to above (Late Minoan III.), which +begins about the beginning of the 14th century before our era, +must, from the abundance of its remains, have been of considerable +duration. As to the character of the invading elements that +hastened its close, and the date of their incursions, contemporary +Egyptian monuments afford the best clue. The Keftiu who +represented Minoan culture in Egypt in the concluding period +of the Cnossian palace (Late Minoan II.) cease to appear on +Egyptian monuments towards the end of the XVIIIth Dynasty +(c. 1350 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and their place is taken by the “Peoples of the +Sea.” The Achaeans, under the name <i>Akaiusha</i>, already appear +among the piratical invaders of Egypt in the time of Rameses +III. (c. 1200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) of the XXth Dynasty (see H. R. Hall, +“Keftiu and the Peoples of the Sea,” <i>Annual of British School +at Athens</i>, viii. 157 sqq.).</p> + +<p>About the same time the evidences of imports of +Late Minoan or “Mycenaean” fabrics in Egypt +definitely cease. In the <i>Odyssey</i> we already find the +<span class="sidenote">Greek settlementsin Crete.</span> +Achaeans together with Dorians settled in central +Crete. In the extreme east and west of the island the aboriginal +“Eteocretan” element, however, as represented respectively +by the Praesians or Cydonians, still held its own, and inscriptions +written in Greek characters show that the old language survived +to the centuries immediately preceding the Christian era.</p> + +<p>The mainland invasions which produced these great ethnic +changes in Crete are marked archaeologically by signs of widespread +destruction and by a considerable break in +the continuity of the insular civilization. New burial +<span class="sidenote">The dark ages.</span> +customs, notably the rite of cremation in place of the +older corpse-burial, are introduced, and in many cases the earlier +tombs were pillaged and re-used by new comers. The use of +iron for arms and implements now finally triumphed over +bronze. Northern forms of swords and safety-pins are now +found in general use. A new geometrical style of decoration +like that of contemporary Greece largely supplants the Minoan +models. The civic foundations which belong to this period, +and which include the greater part of the massive ruins of +Goulas and Anavlachos in the province of Mirabello and of +Hyrtakina in the west, affect more or less precipitous sites and +show a greater tendency to fortification. The old system of +writing now dies out, and it is not till some three centuries +later that the new alphabetic forms are introduced from a +Semitic source. The whole course of the older Cretan civilization +is awhile interrupted, and is separated from the new by the true +dark ages of Greece.</p> + +<p>It is nevertheless certain that some of the old traditions were +preserved by the remnants of the old population now reduced +to a subject condition, and that these finally leavened the whole +lump, so that once more—this time under a Hellenic guise—Crete +was enabled to anticipate mainland Greece in nascent +civilization. Already in 1883 A. Milchhöfer (<i>Anfänge der +Kunst</i>) had called attention to certain remarkable examples +of archaic Greek bronze-work, and the subsequent discovery +of the votive bronzes in the cave of Zeus on Mount Ida, and +notably the shields with their fine embossed designs, shows that +by the 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Cretan technique in metal not only held +its own beside imported Cypro-Phoenician work, but was distinctly +ahead of that of the rest of Greece (Halbherr, <i>Bronzi +del antro di Zeus Ideo</i>). The recent excavations by the British +School on the site of the Dictaean temple at Palaikastro bear +out this conclusion, and an archaic marble head of Apollo found +at Eleutherna shows that classical tradition was not at fault in +recording the existence of a very early school of Greek sculpture +in the island, illustrated by the names of Dipoenos and Scyllis.</p> + +<p>The Dorian dynasts in Crete seem in some sort to have claimed +descent from Minos, and the Dorian legislators sought their +sanction in the laws which Minos was said to have received +from the hands of the Cretan Zeus. The great monument +of Gortyna discovered by Halbherr and Fabricius (<i>Monumenti +antichi</i>, iii.) is the most important monument of early law +hitherto brought to light in any part of the Greek world.</p> + +<p>Among other Greek remains in the island may be mentioned, +besides the great inscription, the archaic temple of the Pythian +Apollo at Gortyna, a plain square building with a +<i>pronaos</i> added in later times, excavated by Halbherr, +<span class="sidenote">Greek remains.</span> +1885 and 1887 (<i>Mon. Ant.</i> iii. 2 seqq.), the Hellenic +bridge and the vast rock-cut reservoirs of Eleutherna, the city +walls of Itanos, Aptera and Polyrrhenia, and at Phalasarna, the +rock-cut throne of a divinity, the port, and the remains of a +temple. The most interesting record, however, that has been +preserved of later Hellenic civilization in the island is the +coinage of the Cretan cities (J. N. Svoronos, <i>Numismatique de +la Crete ancienne</i>; W. Wroth, <i>B. M. Coin Catalogue, Crete, &c.</i>; +P. Gardner, <i>The Types of Greek Coins</i>), which during the good +period display a peculiarly picturesque artistic style distinct +from that of the rest of the Greek world, and sometimes indicative +of a revival of Minoan types. But in every case these artistic +efforts were followed at short intervals by gross relapses into +barbarism which reflect the anarchy of the political conditions.</p> + +<p>Under the <i>Pax Romana</i>, the Cretan cities again enjoyed a +large measure of prosperity, illustrated by numerous edifices +still existing at the time of the Venetian occupation. A good +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>426</span> +account of these is preserved in a MS. description of the island +<span class="sidenote">Roman remains.</span> +drawn up under the Venetians about 1538, and existing in the +library of St Mark (published by Falkener, <i>Museum +of Classical Antiquities</i>, ii. pp. 263-303). Very little +of all this, however, has escaped the Turkish conquest +and the ravages caused by the incessant insurrections of the last +two centuries. The ruin-field of Gortyna still evokes something +of the importance that it possessed in Imperial days, and at +Lebena on the south coast are remains of a temple of Aesculapius +and its dependencies which stood in connexion with this city. +At Cnossus, save some blocks of the amphitheatre, the Roman +monuments visible in Venetian times have almost wholly +disappeared. Among the early Christian remains of the island +far and away the most important is the church of St Titus at +Gortyna, which perhaps dates from the Constantinian age.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—See the authorities already quoted, for further +details. Previous to the extensive excavations referred to above, +Crete had been carefully examined and explored by Tournefort, +Pococke, Olivier and other travellers, <i>e.g.</i> Pashley (<i>Travels in Crete</i>, +2 vols., London, 1837) and Captain Spratt (<i>Travels and Researches +in Crete</i>, 2 vols., London, 1865). A survey sufficiently accurate as +regards the maritime parts was also executed, under the orders of +the British admiralty, by Captain Graves and Captain (afterwards +Admiral) Spratt. Most that can be gathered from ancient authors +concerning the mythology and early history of the island is brought +together by Meursius (<i>Creta</i>, &c., in the 3rd vol. of his works) and +Hoeck (<i>Kreta</i>, 3 vols., Göttingen, 1823-1829), but the latter work +was published before the researches which have thrown so much +light on the topography and antiquities of the island. Much new +material, especially as to the western provinces of Crete, has been +recently collected by members of the Italian Archaeological Mission +(<i>Monumenti Antichi</i>, vol. vi. 154 seqq., ix. 286, 1899; xi. 286 seqq.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. J. E.)</div> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>History.</i></p> + +<p><i>Ancient.</i>—Lying midway between three continents, Crete +was from the earliest period a natural stepping-stone for the +passage of early culture from Egypt and the East to mainland +Greece. On all this the recent archaeological discoveries (see +the section on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archaeology</a></span>) have thrown great light, but the +earliest written history of Crete, like that of most parts of +continental Greece, is mixed up with mythology and fable to +so great an extent as to render it difficult to arrive at any clear +conclusions concerning it. The Cretans themselves claimed +for their island to be the birthplace of Zeus, as well as the parent +of all the other divinities usually worshipped in Greece as the +Olympian deities. But passing from this region of pure mythology +to the semi-mythic or heroic age, we find almost all the early +legends and traditions of the island grouped around the name +of Minos. According to the received tradition, Minos was a +king of Cnossus in Crete; he was a son of Zeus, and enjoyed +through life the privilege of habitual intercourse with his divine +father. It was from this source that he derived the wisdom +which enabled him to give to the Cretans the excellent system +of laws and governments that earned for him the reputation +of being the greatest legislator of antiquity. At the same time +he was reported to have been the first monarch who established +a naval power, and acquired what was termed by the Greeks +the <i>Thalassocracy</i>, or dominion of the sea.</p> + +<p>This last tradition, which was received as an undoubted fact +both by Thucydides and Aristotle, has during the last few years +received striking confirmation. The remarkable remains recently +brought to light on Cretan soil tend to show that already some +2000 years before the Dorian conquest the island was exercising a +dominant influence in the Aegean world. The great palaces now +excavated at Cnossus and Phaestus, as well as the royal villa +of Hagia Triada, exhibit the successive phases of a brilliant primitive +civilization which had already attained mature development +by the date of the XIIth Egyptian dynasty. To this civilization +as a whole it is convenient to give the name “Minoan,” and +the name of Minos itself may be reasonably thought to cover +a dynastic even more than a personal significance in much the +same way as such historic terms as “Pharaoh” or “Caesar.”</p> + +<p>The archaeological evidence outside Crete points to the actual +existence of Minoan plantations as far afield on one side as +Sicily and on the other as the coast of Canaan. The historic +tradition which identifies with the Cretans the principal element +of the Philistine confederation, and places the tomb of Minos +himself in western Sicily, thus receives remarkable confirmation. +Industrial relations with Egypt are also marked by the occurrence +of a series of finds of pottery and other objects of Minoan fabric +among the remains of the XVIIIth, XIIth and even earlier +dynasties, while the same seafaring enterprise brought Egyptian +fabrics to Crete from the times of the first Pharaohs. Even in the +Homeric poems, which belong to an age when the great Minoan +civilization was already decadent, the Cretans appear as the only +Greek people who attempted to compete with the Phoenicians +as bold and adventurous navigators. In the Homeric age the +population of Crete was of a very mixed character, and we are +told in the <i>Odyssey</i> (xix. 175) that besides the Eteocretes, who, +as their name imports, must have been the original inhabitants, +the island contained Achaeans, Pelasgians and Dorians. Subsequently +the Dorian element became greatly strengthened by +fresh immigrations from the Peloponnesus, and during the +historical period all the principal cities of the island were either +Dorian colonies, or had adopted the Dorian dialect and +institutions. It is certain that at a very early period the Cretan +cities were celebrated for their laws and system of government, +and the most extensive monument of early Greek law is the +great Gortyna inscription, discovered in 1884. The origin of the +Cretan laws was of course attributed to Minos, but they +had much in common with those of the other Dorian states, as +well as with those of Lycurgus at Sparta, which were, indeed, +according to one tradition, copied in great measure from those +already existing in Crete.<a name="FnAnchor_2m" id="FnAnchor_2m" href="#Footnote_2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>It is certain that whatever merits the Cretan laws may have +possessed for the internal regulation of the different cities, they +had the one glaring defect, that they made no provision for any +federal bond or union among them, or for the government of the +island as a whole. It was owing to the want of this that the +Cretans scarcely figure in Greek history as a people, though the +island, as observed by Aristotle, would seem from its natural +position calculated to exercise a preponderating influence over +Greek affairs. Thus they took no part either in the Persian or in +the Peloponnesian War, or in any of the subsequent civil contests +in which so many of the cities and islands of Greece were engaged. +At the same time they were so far from enjoying tranquillity on +this account that the few notices we find of them in history always +represent them as engaged in local wars among one another; and +Polybius tells us that the history of Crete was one continued +series of civil wars, which were carried on with a bitter animosity +exceeding all that was known in the rest of Greece.</p> + +<p>In these domestic contests the three cities that generally took +the lead, and claimed to exercise a kind of <i>hegemony</i> or supremacy +over the whole island, were Cnossus, Gortyna and Cydonia. +But besides these three, there were many other independent +cities, which, though they generally followed the lead of one or +other of these more powerful rivals, enjoyed complete autonomy, +and were able to shift at will from one alliance to another. Among +the most important of these were—Lyttus or Lyctus, in the +interior, south-east of Cnossus; Rhaucus, between Cnossus and +Gortyna; Phaestus, in the plain of Messara, between Gortyna +and the sea; Polyrrhenia, near the north-west angle of the +island; Aptera, a few miles inland from the Bay of Suda; +Eleutherna and Axus, on the northern slopes of Mount Ida; and +Lappa, between the White Mountains and the sea. Phalasarna +on the west coast, and Chersonesus on the north, seem to have +been dependencies, and served as the ports of Polyrrhenia and +Lyttus. Elyrus stood at the foot of the White Mountains just +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427"></a>427</span> +above the south coast. In the eastern portion of the island were +Praesus in the interior, and Itanus on the coast, facing the east, +while Hierapytna on the south coast was the only place of +importance on the side facing Africa, and on this account +rose under the Romans to be one of the principal cities of the +island.</p> +<div class="author">(A. J. E.)</div> + +<p><i>Medieval to 19th Century.</i>—Though it was continually torn by +civil dissensions, the island maintained its independence of the +various Macedonian monarchs by whom it was surrounded; but +having incurred the enmity of Rome, first by an alliance with the +great Mithradates, and afterwards by taking active part with +their neighbours, the pirates of Cilicia, the Cretans were at length +attacked by the Roman arms, and, after a resistance protracted +for more than three years, were finally subdued by Q. Metellus, +who earned by this success the surname of Creticus (67 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The +island was now reduced to a Roman province, and subsequently +united for administrative purposes with the district of Cyrenaica +or the Pentapolis, on the opposite coast of Africa. This arrangement +lasted till the time of Constantine, by whom Crete was +incorporated in the prefecture of Illyria. It continued to form +part of the Byzantine empire till the 9th century, when it fell +into the hands of the Saracens (823). It then became a formidable +nest of pirates and a great slave mart; it defied all the efforts of +the Byzantine sovereigns to recover it till the year 960, when it +was reconquered by Nicephorus Phocas. In the partition of the +Greek empire after the capture of Constantinople by the Latins +in 1204, Crete fell to the lot of Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, +but was sold by him to the Venetians, and thus passed under the +dominion of that great republic, to which it continued subject for +more than four centuries.</p> + +<p>Under the Venetian government Candia, a fortress originally +built by the Saracens, and called by them “Khandax,” became +the seat of government, and not only rose to be the capital and +chief city of the island, but actually gave name to it, so that it +was called in the official language of Venice “the island of +Candia,” a designation which from thence passed into modern +maps. The ancient name of Krete or Kriti was, however, always +retained in use among the Greeks, and is gradually resuming its +place in the usage of literary Europe. The government of Crete +by the Venetian aristocracy was, like that of their other dependencies, +very arbitrary and oppressive, and numerous +insurrections were the consequence. Daru, in his history of +Venice, mentions fourteen between the years 1207 and 1365, the +most important being that of 1361-1364,—a revolt not of the +natives against the rule of their Venetian masters, but of the +Venetian colonists against the republic. But with all its defects +their administration did much to promote the material prosperity +of the country, and to encourage commerce and industry; and it +is probable that the island was more prosperous than at any +subsequent time. Their Venetian masters at least secured to the +islanders external tranquillity, and it is singular that the Turks +were content to leave them in undisturbed possession of this +opulent and important island for nearly two centuries after the +fall of Constantinople. The Cretans themselves, however, were +eager for a change, and, disappointed in the hope of a Genoese +occupation, were ready, as is stated in the report of a Venetian +commissioner, to exchange the rule of the Venetians for that of +the Turks, whom they fondly expected to find more lenient, or at +any rate less energetic, masters. It was not till 1645 that the +Turks made any serious attempt to effect the conquest of the +island; but in that year they landed with an army of 50,000 men, +and speedily reduced the important city of Canea. Retimo fell the +following year, and in 1648 they laid siege to the capital city of +Candia. This was the longest siege on record, having been +protracted for more than twenty years; but in 1667 it was +pressed with renewed vigour by the Turks under the grand +vizier Ahmed Kuprili, and the city was at length compelled +to surrender (September 1669). Its fall was followed by the +submission of the whole island. Venice was allowed to retain +possession of Grabusa, Suda and Spinalonga on the north, but in +1718 these three strongholds reverted to the Turks, and the +island was finally lost to Venice.</p> + +<p>From this time Crete continued subject to Ottoman rule +without interruption till the outbreak of the Greek revolution. +After the conquest a large part of the inhabitants embraced +Mahommedanism, and thus secured to themselves the chief share +in the administration of the island. But far from this having a +favourable effect upon the condition of the population, the result +was just the contrary, and according to R. Pashley (<i>Travels in +Crete</i>, 1837) Crete was the worst governed province of the Turkish +empire. In 1770 an abortive attempt at revolt, the hero of +which was “Master” John, a Sphakiot chief, was repressed with +great cruelty. The regular authorities sent from Constantinople +were wholly unable to control the excesses of the janissaries, who +exercised without restraint every kind of violence and oppression. +In 1813 the ruthless severity of the governor-general, Haji +Osman, who obtained the co-operation of the Christians, broke +the power of the janissaries; but after Osman had fallen a victim +to the suspicions of the sultan, Crete again came under their +control. When in 1821 the revolution broke out in continental +Greece, the Cretans, headed by the Sphakiots, after a massacre at +Canea at once raised the standard of insurrection. They carried +on hostilities with such success that they soon made themselves +masters of the whole of the open country, and drove the Turks +and Mussulman population to take refuge in the fortified cities. +The sultan then invoked the assistance of Mehemet Ali, pasha of +Egypt, who despatched 7000 Albanians to the island. Hostilities +continued with no decisive result till 1824, when the arrival of +further reinforcements enabled the Turkish commander to +reduce the island to submission. In 1827 the battle of Navarino +took place, and in 1830 (3rd of February) Greece was declared +independent. The allied powers (France, England and Russia) +decided, however, that Crete should not be included amongst the +islands annexed to the newly-formed kingdom of Greece; but +recognizing that some change was necessary, they obtained from +the sultan Mahmud II. its cession to Egypt, which was confirmed +by a firman of the 20th of December 1832. This change +of masters brought some relief to the unfortunate Cretans, who +at least exchanged the licence of local misrule for the oppression +of an organized despotism; and the government of Mustafa +Pasha, an Albanian like Mehemet Ali, the ruler of the island for +a considerable period (1832-1852), was more enlightened and +intelligent than that of most Turkish governors. He encouraged +agriculture, improved the roads, introduced an Albanian police, +and put down brigandage. The period of his administration +has been called the “golden age” of Crete.</p> + +<p>In 1840 Crete was again taken from Mehemet Ali, and replaced +under the dominion of the Turks, but fortunately Mustafa still +retained his governorship until he left for Constantinople to +become grand vizier in 1852. Four years later an insurrection +broke out, owing to the violation of the provisions of an imperial +decree (February 1856), whereby liberty of conscience and +equal rights and privileges with Mussulmans had been conferred +upon Christians. The latter refused to lay down their arms until +a firman was issued (July 1858), confirming the promised concessions. +These promises being again repudiated, in 1864 the +inhabitants held an assembly and a petition was drawn up for +presentation at Constantinople by the governor. The sultan’s +reply was couched in the vaguest terms, and the Cretans were +ordered to render unquestioning obedience to the authorities. +After a period of great distress and cruel oppression, in 1866, +on the demand for reforms being again refused, a general insurrection +took place, which was only put down by great exertions +on the part of the Porte. It was followed by the concession of +additional privileges to the Christians of the island and of a kind +of constitutional government and other reforms embodied in +what is known as the “Organic Statute” of 1868.</p> +<div class="author">(J. H. F.)</div> + +<p><i>Modern Constitutional.</i>—Cretan constitutional history may be +said to date from 1868, when, after the suppression of an insurrection +which had extended over three years, the Turkish government +consented to grant a certain measure of autonomy to the +island. The privileges now accorded were embodied in what is +known as the Organic Statute, an instrument which eventually +obtained a somewhat wider importance, being proposed by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428"></a>428</span> +Article XXIII. of the Berlin Treaty as a basis of reforms to be +introduced in other parts of the Ottoman empire. Various +privileges already acquired by the Christian population were +confirmed; a general council, or representative body, was +brought into existence, composed of deputies from every district +in the island; mixed tribunals were introduced, together with +a highly elaborate administrative system, under which all the +more important functionaries, Christian and Mussulman, were +provided with an assessor of the opposite creed. The new +constitution, however, proved costly and unworkable, and failed +to satisfy either section of the population. The Christians were +ready for another outbreak, when, in 1878, the Greek government, +finding Hellenic aspirations ignored by the treaty of San Stefano, +gave the signal for agitation in the island. During the insurrection +which followed, the usual barbarities were committed on both +sides; the Christians betook themselves to the mountains, and +the Mussulman peasants crowded into the fortified towns. +Eventually the Cretan chiefs invoked the mediation of England, +which Turkey, exhausted by her struggle with Russia, was +<span class="sidenote">Pact of Halepa.</span> +ready to accept, and the convention known as the +Pact of Halepa was drawn up in 1878 under the auspices +of Mr Sandwith, the British consul, and Adossides +Pasha, both of whom enjoyed the confidence of the Cretan +population. The privileges conferred by the Organic Statute +were confirmed; the cumbersome and extravagant judicial and +administrative systems were maintained; the judges were +declared independent of the executive, and an Assembly composed +of forty-nine Christian and thirty-one Mussulman deputies +took the place of the former general council. A parliamentary +régime was thus inaugurated, and party warfare for a time took +the place of the old religious antagonism, the Moslems attaching +themselves to one or other of the political factions which now +made their appearance among the Christians. The material +interests of the island were neglected in the scramble for place and +power; the finances fell into disorder, and the party which came +off worst in the struggle systematically intrigued against the +governor-general of the day and conspired with his enemies at +Constantinople. A crisis came about in 1889, when the “Conservative” +leaders, finding themselves in a minority in the +chamber, took up arms and withdrew to the mountains. Though +the outbreak was unconnected with the religious feud, the latent +fanaticism of both creeds was soon aroused, and the island once +more became a scene of pillage and devastation. Unlike the two +preceding movements, the insurrection of 1889 resulted unfavourably +for the Christians. The Porte, having induced the Greek +government to persuade the insurgents not to oppose the occupation +of several strategic posts, despatched a military governor +to the island, proclaimed martial law, and issued a firman +abrogating many important provisions of the Halepa Pact. +The mode of election to the assembly was altered, the number +of its members reduced, and the customs revenue, which had +hitherto been shared with the island, was appropriated by the +Turkish treasury. The firman was undoubtedly illegal, as it +violated a convention possessing a quasi-international sanction, +but the Christians were unable to resist, and the powers abstained +from intervention. The elections held under the new system +proved a failure, the Christians refusing to go to the polls, and +for the next five years Crete was governed absolutely by a succession +of Mahommedan Valis. The situation went from bad to +worse, the deficit in the budget increased, the gendarmery, which +received no pay, became insubordinate, and crime multiplied. +In 1894 the Porte, at the instance of the powers, nominated a +Christian, Karatheodory Pasha, to the governorship, and the +Christians, mollified by the concession, agreed to take part in +the assembly which soon afterwards was convoked; no steps, +however, were taken to remedy the financial situation, which +became the immediate cause of the disorders that followed. The +refusal of the Porte to refund considerable sums which had been +illegally diverted from the Cretan treasury or even to sanction +a loan to meet immediate requirements caused no little exasperation +in the island, which was increased by the recall of Karatheodory +(March 1895). Before that event an Epitropé, or +“Committee of Reform,” had appeared in the mountains—the +harbinger of the prolonged struggle which ended in the emancipation +<span class="sidenote">Insurrection of 1896-97.</span> +of Crete. The Epitropé was at first nothing +more than a handful of discontented politicians who had +failed to find places in the administration, but some +slight reverses which it succeeded in inflicting on the +Turkish troops brought thousands of armed Christians to its +side, and in April 1896 it found itself strong enough to invest +the important garrison town of Vamos. The Moslem peasantry +now flocked to the fortified towns and civil war began. Serious +disturbances broke out at Canea on the 24th of May, and were +only quelled by the arrival of foreign warships. The foreign +consuls intervened in the hope of bringing about a peaceful +settlement, but the Sultan resolved on the employment of force, +and an expedition despatched to Vamos effected the relief of that +town with a loss of 200 men. The advance of a Turkish detachment +through the western districts, where other garrisons were +besieged, was marked by pillage and devastation, and 5000 +Christian peasants took refuge on the desolate promontory of +Spada, where they suffered extreme privations. These events, +which produced much excitement in Greece, quickened the +energies of the powers. An international blockade of the island +was proposed by Austria but rejected by England. The +ambassadors at Constantinople urged peaceful counsels on the +Porte, and the Sultan, alarmed at this juncture by an Armenian +outbreak, began to display a conciliatory disposition. The Pact +of Halepa was restored, the troops were withdrawn from the +interior, financial aid was promised to the island, a Christian +governor-general was appointed, the assembly was summoned, +and an imperial commissioner was despatched to negotiate an +arrangement. The Christian leaders prepared a moderate +scheme of reforms, based on the Halepa Pact, which, with a +few exceptions, were approved by the powers and eventually +sanctioned by the sultan.</p> + +<p>On the 4th of September 1896 the assembly formally accepted +the new constitution and declared its gratitude to the powers +for their intervention. The Moslem leaders acquiesced in the +arrangement, which the powers undertook to guarantee, and, +notwithstanding some symptoms of discontent at Candia, +there was every reason to hope that the island was now entering +upon a period of tranquillity. It soon became evident, however, +that the Porte was endeavouring to obstruct the execution of the +new reforms. Several months passed without any step being +taken towards this realization; difficulties were raised with +regard to the composition of the international commissions +charged with the reorganization of the gendarmery and judicial +system; intrigues were set on foot against the Christian governor-general; +and the presence of a special imperial commissioner, +who had no place under the constitution, proved so injurious +to the restoration of tranquillity that the powers demanded his +immediate recall. The indignation of the Christians increased, +a state of insecurity prevailed, and the Moslem peasants refused +to return to their homes. A new factor now became apparent +in Cretan politics. Since the outbreak in May 1896 the Greek +government had loyally co-operated with the powers in their +efforts for the pacification of the island, but towards the close of +the year a secret society known as the Ethniké Hetaeria began to +arrogate to itself the direction of Greek foreign policy. The aim +of the society was a war with Turkey with a view to the acquisition +of Macedonia, and it found a ready instrument for its +designs in the growing discontent of the Cretan Christians. +Emissaries of the society now appeared in Crete, large consignments +of arms were landed, and at the beginning of 1897 the +<span class="sidenote">Greek Intervention.</span> +island was practically in a state of insurrection. On +the 21st of January the Greek fleet was mobilized. +Affairs were brought to a climax by a series of conflicts +which took place at Canea on the 4th of February; +the Turkish troops fired on the Christians, a conflagration broke +out in the town, and many thousands of Christians took refuge +on the foreign warships in the bay. The Greek government now +despatched an ironclad and a cruiser to Canea, which were +followed a few days later by a torpedo flotilla commanded by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429"></a>429</span> +Prince George. The prince soon retired to Melos, but on the night +of the 14th of February a Greek expeditionary force under +Colonel Vassos landed at Kolymbari, near Canea, and its commander +issued a proclamation announcing the occupation of the +island in the name of King George. On the same day Georgi +Pasha, the Christian governor-general, took refuge on board a +Russian ironclad, and, on the next, naval detachments from +the warships of the powers occupied Canea. This step paralysed +the movements of Colonel Vassos, who after a few slight engagements +with the Turks remained practically inactive in the interior. +The insurgents, however, continued to threaten the town, and +their position was bombarded by the international fleet (21st +February). The intervention of Greece caused immense excitement +among the Christian population, and terrible massacres of +Moslem peasants took place in the eastern and western districts. +The forces of the powers shortly afterwards occupied Candia +and the other maritime towns, while the international fleet +blockaded the Cretan coast. These measures were followed by +the presentation of collective notes to the Greek and +<span class="sidenote">Decision of the powers.</span> +Turkish governments (2nd March), announcing the +decision of the powers that (1) Crete could in no case +in present circumstances be annexed to Greece; (2) +in view of the delays caused by Turkey in the application of the +reforms Crete should now be endowed with an effective autonomous +administration, intended to secure to it a separate +government, under the suzerainty of the sultan. Greece was at +the same time summoned to remove its army and fleet from the +island, while the Turkish troops were to be concentrated in the +fortresses and eventually withdrawn. The cabinet of Athens, +however, declined to recall the expeditionary force, which +remained in the interior till the 9th of May, when, after the Greek +reverses in Thessaly and Epirus, an order was given for its return. +Meantime Cretan autonomy had been proclaimed (20th March). +After the departure of the Greek troops the Cretan leaders, who +had hitherto demanded annexation to Greece, readily acquiesced +in the decision of the powers, and the insurgent Assembly, under +its president Dr Sphakianakis, a man of good sense and moderation, +co-operated with the international commanders in the +maintenance of order. The pacification of the island, however, +was delayed by the presence of the Turkish troops and the inability +of the powers to agree in the choice of a new governor-general. +The prospect of a final settlement was improved by the +withdrawal of Germany and Austria, which had favoured Turkish +pretensions, from the European concert (April 1898); the remaining +powers divided the island into four departments, which +they severally undertook to administer. An attack made by the +Moslems of Candia on the British garrison of that town, with +the connivance of the Turkish authorities, brought home to the +powers the necessity of removing the Ottoman troops, and the +last Turkish soldiers quitted the island on the 14th of November +1898.</p> + +<p>On the 26th of that month the nomination of Prince George +of Greece as high commissioner of the powers in Crete for a +period of three years (renewed in 1901) was formally +announced, and on the 21st of December the prince +<span class="sidenote">Prince George’s administration.</span> +landed at Suda and made his public entry into Canea +amid enthusiastic demonstrations. For some time +after his arrival complete tranquillity prevailed in the island, +but the Moslem population, reduced to great distress by the +prolonged insurrection, emigrated in large numbers. On the +27th of April 1899 a new autonomous constitution was voted +by a constituent assembly, and in the following June the local +administration was handed over to Cretan officials by the international +authorities. The extensive powers conferred by the +constitution upon Prince George were increased by subsequent +enactments. In 1901 M. Venezelo, who had played a noteworthy +part in the last insurrection, was dismissed from the post of +councillor by the prince, and soon afterwards became leader of a +strong opposition party, which denounced the arbitrary methods +of the government. During the next four years party spirit ran +high; in the spring of 1904 a deputation of chiefs and politicians +addressed a protest to the prince, and early in the following +year a band of armed malcontents under M. Venezelo raised the +standard of revolt at Theriso in the White Mountains. The +insurgents, who received moral support from Dr Sphakianakis, +proclaimed the union of the island with Greece (March 1905), +and their example was speedily followed by the assembly at +Canea. The powers, however, reiterated their decision to maintain +the <i>status quo</i>, and increased their military and naval +forces; the Greek flag was hauled down at Canea and Candia, +and some desultory engagements with the insurgents took place, +the international troops co-operating with the native gendarmerie. +In the autumn M. Venezelo and his followers, having obtained +an amnesty, laid down their arms. A commission appointed +by the powers to report on the administrative and financial +situation drew up a series of recommendations in January 1906, +and a constituent assembly for the revision of the constitution +met at Canea in the following June. On the 25th of July the +powers announced a series of reforms, including the reorganization +of the gendarmerie and militia under Greek officers, as a +preliminary to the eventual withdrawal of the international +troops, and the extension to Crete of the system of financial +control established in Greece. On the 14th of September, under +an agreement dated the 14th of August, they invited King +George of Greece, in the event of the high commissionership +becoming vacant, to propose a candidate for that post, to be +nominated by the powers for a period of five years, and on the +25th of September Prince George left the island. He had done +much for the welfare of Crete, but his participation in party +struggles and his attitude towards the representatives of the +powers had rendered his position untenable. His successor, +M. Alexander Zaimis, a former prime minister of Greece, arrived +in Crete on the 1st of October.</p> +<div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div> + +<p>On the 22nd of February 1907 M. Zaimis, as high commissioner, +took the oath to the new constitution elaborated after much +debate by the Cretan national assembly. His position was one +of singular difficulty. Apart from the rivalry of the factions +within the Assembly, there was the question of the Mussulman +minority, dwindling it is true,<a name="FnAnchor_3m" id="FnAnchor_3m" href="#Footnote_3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a> but still a force to be reckoned +with. The high commissioner, true to his reputation as a prudent +statesman and astute politician, showed great skill in dealing +with the situation. From the first he had taken up an attitude +of great reserve, appearing little in public and careful not to +identify himself with any faction. In such matters as appointments +to the judicial bench, indeed, his studied impartiality +offended both parties; but on the whole his administration was +a marked success, and the cessation of the chronic state of disturbance +in the island justified the powers in preparing for the +withdrawal of their troops. In spite of the admission of their +co-religionists to high office in the government, the Mussulmans, +it is true, still complained of continuous ill-treatment having +for its object their expatriation; but these complaints were +declared by Sir Edward Grey, in answer to a question in parliament, +to be exaggerated. The protecting powers had fixed the +conditions preliminary to evacuation—(1) the organization of a +native gendarmerie, (2) the maintenance of the tranquillity +of the island, (3) the complete security of the Mussulman population. +On the 20th of March 1908 M. Zaimis called the attention +of the powers to the fact that these conditions had been fulfilled, +and on the 11th of May the powers announced to the high +commissioner their intention of beginning the evacuation at once +and completing it within a year. The first withdrawal of the +troops (July 27), hailed with enthusiasm by the Cretan Christians, +led to rioting by the Mussulmans, who believed themselves +abandoned to their fate.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile M. Zaimis had made a further advance towards the +annexation of the island to Greece by a visit to Athens, where +he arranged for a loan with the Greek National Bank and engaged +Greek officers for the new gendarmerie. The issue was precipitated +by the news of the revolution in Turkey. On the 12th +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430"></a>430</span> +of October the Cretan Assembly once more voted the union with +Greece, and in the absence of M. Zaimis—who had gone for a +holiday to Santa Maura—elected a committee of six to govern +the island in the name of the king of Greece.</p> + +<p>Against this the Mussulman deputies protested, in a memorandum +addressed to the British secretary of state for foreign +affairs. His reply, while stating that his government would +safeguard the interests of the Mussulmans, left open the question +of the attitude of the powers, complicated now by sympathy +with reformed Turkey. The efforts of diplomacy were directed +to allaying the resentment of the “Young Turks” on the one +hand and the ardour of the Greek unionists on the other; and +meanwhile the Cretan administration was carried on peaceably +in the name of King George. At last (July 13, 1909) the powers +announced to the Porte, in answer to a formal remonstrance, +their decision to withdraw their remaining troops from Crete +by July 26 and to station four war-ships off the island to protect +the Moslems and to safeguard “the supreme rights” of the +Ottoman Empire. This arrangement, which was duly carried +out, was avowedly “provisional” and satisfied neither party, +leading in Greece especially to the military and constitutional +crises of 1909 and 1910.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Pashley, <i>Travels in Crete</i> (2 vols., Cambridge and +London, 1837); Spratt, <i>Travels and Researches in Crete</i> (2 vols., +London, 1867); Raulin, <i>Description physique de l’île de Crète</i> (3 vols, +and Atlas, Paris, 1869); W. J. Stillman, <i>The Cretan Insurrection of +1866-68</i> (New York, 1874); Edwardes, <i>Letters from Crete</i> (London, +1887); Stavrakis, <span class="grk" title="Statistikê tou plêthysmou tês Krêtês">Στατιστικὴ τοῦ πληθυσμοῦ τῆς Κρήτης</span> (Athens, 1890); +J. H. Freese, <i>A Short Popular History of Crete</i> (London, 1897); +Bickford-Smith, <i>Cretan Sketches</i> (London, 1897); Laroche, <i>La Crète +ancienne et moderne</i> (Paris, 1898); Victor Berard, <i>Les Affaires de +Crète</i> (Paris, 1898); <i>Monumenti Veneti dell’ isola de Creta</i> (published +by the Venetian Institute), vol. i. (1906), vol. ii. (1908). See also +Mrs Walker, <i>Eastern Life and Scenery</i> (London, 1886), and <i>Old Tracks +and New Landmarks</i> (London, 1897); H. F. Tozer, <i>The Islands of +the Aegean</i> (Oxford, 1890); J. D. Bourchier, “The Stronghold of the +Sphakiotes,” <i>Fortnightly Review</i> (August 1890); E. J. Dillon, “Crete +and the Cretans,” <i>Fortnightly Review</i> (May 1897).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1m" id="Footnote_1m" href="#FnAnchor_1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See L. Cayeux, “Les Lignes directrices des plissements de l’île +de Crète,” <i>C.R. IX. Cong. géol. internat. Vienna</i>, pp. 383-392 (1904).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2m" id="Footnote_2m" href="#FnAnchor_2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Among the features common to the two were the <i>syssitia</i>, or +public tables, at which all the citizens dined in common. Indeed, +the Cretan system, like that of Sparta, appears to have aimed at +training up the young, and controlling them, as well as the citizens +of more mature age, in all their habits and relations of life. The +supreme governing authority was vested in magistrates called Cosmi, +answering in some measure to the Spartan Ephori, but there was +nothing corresponding to the two kings at Sparta. These Cretan +institutions were much extolled by some writers of antiquity, but +receive only qualified praise from the judicious criticisms of Aristotle +(<i>Polit.</i> ii. 10).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3m" id="Footnote_3m" href="#FnAnchor_3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The Mussulman population, 88,000 in 1895, had sunk to 40,000 +in 1907, and the emigration was still continuing. The loss to the +country in wealth exported and land going out of cultivation has +been very serious.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRETINISM,<a name="ar244" id="ar244"></a></span> the term given to a chronic disease, either +sporadic or endemic, arising in early childhood, and due to +absence or deficiency of the normal secretion of the thyroid +gland. It is characterized by imperfect development both of +mind and body. The thyroid gland is either congenitally absent, +imperfectly developed, or there is definite goitre. The origin +of the word is doubtful. Its southern French form <i>Chrestiaa</i> +suggested to Michel a derivation from <i>cresta</i> (<i>crête</i>), the goose foot +of red cloth worn by the Cagots of the Pyrenees. The Cagots, +however, were not cretins. The word is usually explained as +derived from <i>chrétien</i> (Christian) in the sense of “innocent.” +But <i>Christianus</i> (which appears in the Lombard <i>cristanei</i>; +compare the Savoyard <i>innocents</i> and <i>gens du bon dieu</i>) is probably +a translation of the older <i>cretin</i>, and the latter is probably +connected with <i>creta</i> (<i>craie</i>)—a sallow or yellow-earthy complexion +being a common mark of cretinism.</p> + +<p>The endemic form of cretinism prevails in certain districts, +as in the valleys of central Switzerland, Tirol and the Pyrenees. +In the United Kingdom cretins have been found in England at +Oldham, Sholver Moor, Crompton, Duffield, Cromford (near +Matlock), and other points in Derbyshire; endemic goitre has +been seen near Nottingham, Chesterfield, Pontefract, Ripon, and +the mountainous parts of Staffordshire and Yorkshire, the east +of Cumberland, certain parts of Worcester, Warwick, Cheshire, +Monmouth, and Leicester, near Horsham in Hampshire, near +Haslemere in Surrey, and near Beaconsfield in Buckingham. +There are cretins at Chiselborough in Somerset. In Scotland +cretins and cases of goitre have been seen in Perthshire, on the +east coast of Fife, in Roxburgh, the upper portions of Peebles +and Selkirk, near Lanark and Dumfries, in the east of Ayrshire, +in the west of Berwick, the east of Wigtown, and in Kirkcudbright. +The disease is not confined to Europe, but occurs in North and +South America, Australia, Africa and Asia. Wherever endemic +goitre is present, endemic cretinism is present also, and it has +been constantly observed that when a new family moves into a +goitrous district, goitre appears in the first generation, cretinism +in the second. The causation of goitre has now been shown to +be due to drinking certain waters, though the particular impurity +in the water which gives rise to this condition has not been +determined (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Goitre</a></span>). The causation of the sporadic form +of cretinism is, however, obscure.</p> + +<p>Cretinism usually remains unrecognized until the child reaches +some eighteen months or two years, when its lack of mental +development and uncouth bodily form begin to attract attention. +Occasionally the child appears to be normal in infancy, but the +cretinoid condition develops later, any time up to puberty. The +essential point in the morbid anatomy of these cases is the absence +or abnormal condition of the thyroid gland (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metabolic +Diseases</a></span>). It may be congenitally absent, atrophied, or the +seat of a goitre, though this last condition is very rare in cases +of sporadic cretinism. The skeleton shows arrested growth, +most marked in the case of the long bones. The skull in the +endemic form of cretinism is usually brachycephalic, but in +the sporadic cases it is more commonly dolichocephalic. The +pathology of cretinism and its allied condition myxoedema (<i>q.v.</i>) +has now been conclusively worked out, and its essential cause +has been shown to be loss of function of the thyroid gland.</p> + +<p>The condition has existed and been described in far back +ages, but mingled with so many other entirely different deformities +and degenerations that it is now often almost impossible +to classify them satisfactorily. The following is a vivid picture +by Beaupré (<i>Dissertation sur les crétins</i>, translated in Blackie +on <i>Cretinism</i>, Edin., 1855):—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“I see a head of unusual form and size, a squat and bloated +figure, a stupid look, bleared hollow and heavy eyes, thick projecting +eyelids, and a flat nose. His face is of a leaden hue, his skin dirty, +flabby, covered with tetters, and his thick tongue hangs down over +his moist livid lips. His mouth, always open and full of saliva, +shows teeth going to decay. His chest is narrow, his back curved, +his breath asthmatic, his limbs short, misshapen, without power. +The knees are thick and inclined inward, the feet flat. The large +head drops listlessly on the breast; the abdomen is like a bag.”</p> +</div> + +<p>When fully grown the height rarely exceeds 4 ft., and is often +less than 3 ft. The skin feels doughy from thickening of the subcutaneous +tissues, and it hangs in folds over the abdomen and +the bends of the joints. Very frequently there is an umbilical +hernia. The hair has a far greater resemblance to horse-hair +than to that of a human being, and is usually absent on the body +of an adult cretin. The temperature is subnormal, and the +exposed parts tend to become blue in cold weather. The blood +is usually deficient in haemoglobin, which is often only 40-50% +of the normal. The mental capacity varies within narrow limits; +an intelligent adult cretin may reach the intellectual development +of a child 3-4 years of age, though more often the standard +attained is even below this. The child cretin learns neither +to walk nor talk at the usual time. Often it is unable even to +sit without support. Some years later a certain power of movement +is acquired, but the gait is waddling and clumsy. Speech +is long delayed, or in bad cases may be almost entirely lacking. +The voice is usually harsh and unpleasant. Of the senses smell +and taste are but slightly developed, more or less deafness is +generally present, and only the sight is fairly normal. In the +adult the genital organs remain undeveloped. If the cretin +is untreated he rarely has a long life, thirty years being an +exceptional age. Death results from some intercurrent disease.</p> + +<p>Cretinism has to be distinguished from the state of a Mongolian +idiot, in whom there is no thickening of the subcutaneous tissues, +and much greater alertness of mind; from achondroplasia, in +which condition there is usually no mental impairment; and +from infantilism, which covers a group of symptoms whose only +common point is that the primary and secondary sexual +characteristics fail to appear at the proper time.</p> + +<p>Before 1891 there was no treatment for this disease. The +patients lived in hopeless imbecility until their death. But in +that year Dr George Murray published his discovery of the +effect of hypodermic injections of thyroid gland extract in +cases of myxoedema. In the following year Drs Hector Mackenzie, +E. L. Fox of Plymouth, and Howitz of Copenhagen, +each working independently, showed the equally potent effect +of the gland administered by the mouth. The remedy was soon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431"></a>431</span> +after applied to cretinism and its effects were found to be even +more wonderful. It has to be used, however, with the greatest +care and discrimination, since personal idiosyncrasy seems to +be a very variable factor. Even small doses, if beyond the +patient’s power, may produce fever, excitement, headache, +insomnia and vomiting. The administration must be persisted +in throughout life, otherwise myxoedematous symptoms appear. +The first most apparent results are those of growth, and this +may supervene even in patients up to 25-30 years of age. Once +started, 4 to 6 in. may be gained in stature in the first year’s +treatment, though this is usually in inverse ratio to the age of +the patient, and also diminishes in later stages of treatment. +In young adolescents it may be so rapid that the patient has to +be kept lying down to prevent permanent bending of the long +bones of the leg, softened by their rapid growth. A very typical +case under Dr Hector Mackenzie, showing what can be expected +from early treatment, is that of a cretin aged 11 years in 1893, +when thyroid treatment was started. He grew very rapidly +and became a normal child, passed through school, and in 1908 +was at one of the universities.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Sardinian Commission, “Relazione della commissione +di Sardegna per studiare il cretinismo” (Torino, 1848); +C. Hilton Fagge, “On Sporadic Cretinism occurring in England,” +<i>Med. Chir. Trans.</i> (London, 1870); Vincenzo Allara, “Sulla causa +del cretinesimo,” studio (Milano, 1892); Victor Horsley, “Remarks +on the Function of the Thyroid Gland,” <i>Brit. Med. Journ.</i> (1892); +“The Treatment of Myxoedema and Cretinism, being a Review of +the Treatment of those Diseases by Thyroid Gland,” <i>Journ. Ment. Sc.</i> +(London, 1893); W. Osler, “On Sporadic Cretinism in America,” +<i>Am. Journ. of Med. Sc.</i> (1893); C. A. Ewald, <i>Die Erkrankungen der +Schilddrüse, Myxödeme und Cretinismus</i> (Wien, 1896); G. R. +Murray, <i>Diseases of the Thyroid Gland</i>, part i. (1900); R. Virchow, +“Über Cretinismus,” <i>Würzburger Verhand.</i>; Hector Mackenzie, +“Organotherapy,” <i>Textbook of Pharmacology and Therapeutics</i> (1901); +Weygandt, <i>Der heutige Stand der Lehre vom Kretinismus</i> (Halle, +1903); Hector Mackenzie, “Cretinism,” Allbutt & Rolleston’s <i>System +of Medicine</i>, part iv. (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRETONNE,<a name="ar245" id="ar245"></a></span> originally a strong, white fabric with a hempen +warp and linen weft. The word is said to be derived from Creton, +a village in Normandy where the manufacture of linen was +carried on. It is now applied to a strong, printed cotton cloth, +stouter than chintz but used for very much the same purposes. It +is usually unglazed and may be printed on both sides and even +with different patterns. Frequently the cretonne has a woven +fancy pattern of some kind which is modified by the printed +design. It is sometimes made with a weft of cotton waste.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREUSE,<a name="ar246" id="ar246"></a></span> a department of central France, comprising the +greater portion of the old province of Marche, together with +portions of Berry, Bourbonnais, Auvergne, Limousin and +Poitou. Area, 2164 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 274,094. It lies on the +north-western border of the central plateau and is bounded N. +by the departments of Indre and Cher, E. by Allier and Puy-de-Dôme, +S. by Corrèze and W. by Haute-Vienne. The surface is +hilly, with a general inclination north-westward in the direction +of the valley of the Creuse, sloping from the mountains of +Auvergne and Limousin, branches of which project into the +south of the department. The chief of these starts from the +Plateau de Gentioux, and under the name of the Mountains of +Marche extends along the left bank of the Creuse. The highest +point is in the forest of Châteauvert (3050 ft.) in the extreme +south-east of the department. Rivers, streams and lakes are +numerous, but none are navigable; the principal is the Creuse, +which rises on the north side of the mass of Mount Odouze on +the border of the department of Corrèze, and passes through +the department, dividing it into two nearly equal portions, +receiving the Petite Creuse from the right, and afterwards +flowing on to join the Vienne. The valleys of the head-streams +of the Cher and of its tributary the Tardes, which near Évaux +passes under a fine viaduct 300 ft. in height, occupy the eastern +side; those of the heads of the Vienne and its tributary the +Thaurion, and of the Gartempe joining the Creuse, are in the +west of the department. The climate is in general cold, moist +and variable; the rigorous winter covers the higher cantons +with snow; rain is abundant in spring, and storms are frequent +in summer, but the autumn is fine. Except in the valleys the +soil is poor and infertile, and agriculture is also handicapped by +the dearness of labour, due to the annual emigration of from +15,000 to 20,000 of the inhabitants to other parts of France, +where they serve as stonemasons, &c. The produce of cereals, +chiefly rye, wheat, oats and buckwheat, is not sufficient for home +consumption. The chestnut abounds in the north and west; +hemp and potatoes are also grown. Cattle-rearing and sheep-breeding +are the chief industries of the department, which +supplies Poitou and Vendée with draught oxen. Coal is mined +to some extent, chiefly in the basin of Ahun. There are thermal +springs at Évaux in the east of the department, where remains +of Roman baths are preserved. The chief industrial establishments +are the manufactories of carpets and hangings and +the dyeworks of Aubusson and Felletin. Saw-mills and the +manufacture of wooden shoes and hats have some importance. +Exports include carpets, coal, live-stock and hats; imports +comprise raw materials for the manufactures and food-supplies. +The department is served by the Orléans railway company, +whose line from Montluçon to Périgueux traverses it from east +to west. It is divided into the four arrondissements of Guéret, +the capital Aubusson, Bourganeuf, and Boussac, and further +into 25 cantons and 266 communes. With Haute-Vienne, +Creuse forms the diocese of Limoges, where also is its court of +appeal. It forms part of the académie (educational division) +of Clermont and of the region of the XII. army corps. The +principal towns are Guéret and Aubusson. La Souterraine, +Chambon-sur-Voueize and Bénévent-l’Abbaye possess fine +churches of the 12th century. At Moutier-d’Ahun there is a +church, which has survived from a Benedictine abbey. The +nave of the 15th century with a fine portal, and the choir with +its carved stalls of the 17th century, are of considerable interest. +The small industrial town of Bourganeuf has remains of a priory, +including a tower (15th century) in which Zizim, brother of the +sultan Bajazet II., is said to have been imprisoned.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREUTZ, GUSTAF FILIP,<a name="ar247" id="ar247"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1729-1785), Swedish poet, +was born in Finland in 1729. After concluding his studies in +Åbo he received a post in the court of chancery at Stockholm +in 1751. Here he met Count Gyllenborg, with whom his name +is indissolubly connected. They were closely allied with Fru +Nordenflycht, and their works were published in common; +to their own generation they seemed equal in fame, but posterity +has given the palm of genius to Creutz. His greatest work is +contained in the 1762 volume, the idyll of <i>Atis och Camilla</i>; +the exquisite little pastoral entitled “Daphne” was published +at the same time, and Gyllenborg was the first to proclaim the +supremacy of his friend. In 1763 Creutz practically closed his +poetical career; he went to Spain as ambassador, and after +three years to Paris in the same capacity. In 1783 Gustavus +III. recalled him and heaped honours upon him, but he died +soon after, on the 30th of October 1785. <i>Atis och Camilla</i> +was long the most admired poem in the Swedish language; +it is written in a spirit of pastoral which is now to some degree +faded, but in comparison with most of the other productions +of the time it is freshness itself. Creutz introduced a melody +and grace into the Swedish tongue which it lacked before, and +he has been styled “the last artificer of the language.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Creutz och Gyllenborgs Vitterhetsarbeten</i> (Stockholm, 1795).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREUZER, GEORG FRIEDRICH<a name="ar248" id="ar248"></a></span> (1771-1858), German philologist +and archaeologist, was born on the 10th of March 1771, +at Marburg, the son of a bookbinder. Having studied at Marburg +and Jena, he for some time lived at Leipzig as a private tutor; +but in 1802 he was appointed professor at Marburg, and two +years later professor of philology and ancient history at Heidelberg. +The latter position he held for nearly forty-five years, +with the exception of a short time spent at the university of +Leiden, where his health was affected by the Dutch climate. +He was one of the principal founders of the Philological Seminary +established at Heidelberg in 1807. The Academy of Inscriptions +of Paris appointed him one of its members, and from the grand-duke +of Baden he received the dignity of privy councillor. He +died on the 16th of February 1858. Creuzer’s first and most +famous work was his <i>Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Völker, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432"></a>432</span> +besonders der Griechen</i> (1810-1812), in which he maintained +that the mythology of Homer and Hesiod came from an Eastern +source through the Pelasgians, and was the remains of the symbolism +of an ancient revelation. This work was vigorously +attacked by Hermann in his <i>Briefen über Homer und Hesiod</i>, +and in his letter, addressed to Creuzer, <i>Über das Wesen und die +Behandlung der Mythologie</i>; by J. H. Voss in his <i>Antisymbolik</i>; +and by Lobek in his <i>Aglaophamos</i>. Of Creuzer’s other works +the principal are an edition of Plotinus; a partial edition of +Cicero, in preparing which he was assisted by Moser; <i>Die +historische Kunst der Griechen</i> (1803); <i>Epochen der griech. +Literaturgeschichte</i> (1802); <i>Abriss der römischen Antiquitäten</i> +(1824); <i>Zur Geschichte altrömischer Cultur am Oberrhein und +Neckar</i> (1833); <i>Zur Gemmenkunde</i> (1834); <i>Das Mithreum von +Neuenheim</i> (1838); <i>Zur Galerie der alten Dramatiker</i> (1839); <i>Zur +Geschichte der classischen Philologie</i> (1854).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the autobiographical <i>Aus dem Leben eines alten Professors</i> +(Leipzig and Darmstadt, 1848), to which was added in the year of his +death <i>Paralipomena der Lebenskizze eines alten Professors</i> (Frankfort, +1858); also Starck, <i>Friederich Kreuzer, sein Bildungsgang und seine +bleibende Bedeutung</i> (Heidelberg, 1875).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREVASSE,<a name="ar249" id="ar249"></a></span> a French word used in two senses. (1) In French +Switzerland, and thence universally in high mountain regions, it +designates a fissure in a glacier caused by gigantic cracks in the +ice-mass, sometimes of great depth, into which climbers frequently +fall through a light bridge of snow which conceals the +crevasse. (2) Adopted from the French of Louisiana, it signifies +locally a wide crack or breach in the bank of a canal or river, +and particularly of the “levee” of the Mississippi.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREVIER, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS<a name="ar250" id="ar250"></a></span> (1693-1765), French +author, was born at Paris, where his father was a printer. He +studied under Rollin and held the professorship of rhetoric in +the college of Beauvais for twenty years. He completed Rollin’s +<i>Histoire romaine</i> by the addition of six volumes (1750-1756); +he also published two editions of Livy, with notes; <i>L’Histoire +des empereurs des Romains, jusqu’à Constantin</i> (1749); <i>Histoire +de l’Université de Paris</i>, and a <i>Rhétorique françoise</i>, which +enjoyed much popularity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREVILLENTE<a name="ar251" id="ar251"></a></span>, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of +Alicante, and on the Murcia-Alicante railway. Pop. (1900) +10,726. Crevillente is a picturesque old town built among the +eastern foothills of the Sierra de Crevillente. Its flat-roofed +Moorish houses are enclosed by gardens of cactus, dwarf palm, +orange and other subtropical plants, interspersed with masses +of rock. The surrounding country, though naturally sterile, is +irrigated from two adjacent springs, which differ in temperature +by no less than 25° F. The district is famous for its melons, +and also produces wine, olives, wheat and esparto grass. Local +industries include the manufacture of coarse cloth, esparto +fabrics, oil and flour.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREW, NATHANIEL CREW,<a name="ar252" id="ar252"></a></span> <span class="sc">3rd Baron</span> (1633-1721), bishop +of Durham, was a son of John Crew (1598-1679), who was created +Baron Crew of Stene in 1661, and a grandson of Sir Thomas Crew +(1565-1634), speaker of the House of Commons. Born on the +31st of January 1633, Nathaniel was educated at Lincoln College, +Oxford, and was appointed rector of the college in 1668. He +became dean and precentor of Chichester in 1669, clerk of the +closet to Charles II. shortly afterwards, bishop of Oxford in +1671, and bishop of Durham in 1674. He owed his rapid preferment +to James, then duke of York, whose favour he had gained +by conniving at the duke’s leanings to the Roman Church. After +the accession of James II. Crew received the deanery of the Chapel +Royal. He served in 1686 on the revived ecclesiastical commission +which suspended Compton, bishop of London, and then +shared the administration of the see of London with Sprat, +bishop of Rochester. In 1687 he was a member of another +ecclesiastical commission, which suspended the vice-chancellor +of the university of Cambridge for refusing the degree of M.A. +to a monk who would not take the customary oath. On the decline +of James’s power Crew dissociated himself from the court, +and made a bid for the favour of the new government by voting +for the motion that James had abdicated. He was excepted +from the general pardon of 1690, but afterwards was allowed to +retain his see. He left large estates to be devoted to charitable +ends, and his benefaction to Lincoln College and to Oxford +University is commemorated in the annual Crewian oration. +In 1697 Crew succeeded his brother Thomas as 3rd Baron Crew, +He died on the 18th of September 1721, when the barony became +extinct.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREW<a name="ar253" id="ar253"></a></span> (sometimes explained as a sea term of Scandinavian +origin, cf. O. Icel. <i>krú</i>, a swarm or crowd, but now regarded as +a shortened form of <i>accrue</i>, <i>accrewe</i>, used in the 16th century +in the sense of a reinforcement, O. Fr. <i>acreue</i>, from <i>accroître</i>, +to grow, increase), a band or body of men associated for a +definite purpose, a gang who jointly carry out a particular piece +of work, and especially those who man a ship, exclusive of the +captain, and sometimes also of the officers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREWE, ROBERT OFFLEY ASHBURTON CREWE-MILNES,<a name="ar254" id="ar254"></a></span> +<span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1858-  ), English statesman and writer, was +born on the 12th of January 1858, being the son of Lord Houghton +(<i>q.v.</i>), and was educated at Harrow and Trinity, Cambridge. +In 1880 he married Sibyl Marcia Graham, who died in 1887, +leaving him with two daughters. He inherited his father’s +literary tastes, and published <i>Stray Verses</i> in 1890, besides other +miscellaneous literary work. A Liberal in politics, he became +private secretary to Lord Granville when secretary of state for +foreign affairs (1883-1884), and in 1886 was made a lord-in-waiting. +In the Liberal administration of 1892-1895 he was +lord-lieutenant for Ireland, having Mr John Morley as chief +secretary. In 1895 he was created 1st earl of Crewe, his maternal +grandfather, the 2nd Baron Crewe, having left him his heir. +In 1899 he married Lady Margaret Primrose, daughter of the +5th earl of Rosebery. In 1905 he became lord president of the +council in the Liberal government; and in 1908, in Mr Asquith’s +cabinet, he became secretary of state for the colonies and Liberal +leader in the House of Lords.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREWE,<a name="ar255" id="ar255"></a></span> a municipal borough in the Crewe parliamentary +division of Cheshire, England, 158 m. N.W. of London, on the +main line of the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) +42,074. The town was built on an estate called Oak Farm in +the parish of Monk’s Coppenhall, and takes its name from the +original stations having been placed in the township of Crewe, in +which the seat of Lord Crewe is situated. It is a railway junction +where lines converge from London, Manchester, North Wales +and Holyhead, North Stafford and Hereford. It is inhabited +principally by persons in the employment of the London & +North-Western railway company, and was practically created +by that corporation, at a point where in 1841 only a farmhouse +stood in open country. Crewe is not only one of the busiest +railway stations in the world, but is the locomotive metropolis of +the London & North-Western company, which has centred here +enormous workshops for the manufacture of the material and +plant used in railways. In 1901 the 4000th locomotive was turned +out of the works. A series of subterranean ways extending many +miles have been constructed to enable merchandise traffic to pass +through without interfering with passenger trains on the surface +railways. The company possesses one of the finest electric +stations in the world, and electrical apparatus for the working of +train signals is in operation. The station is fitted with an +extensive suite of offices for the interchange of postal traffic, +the chief mails to and from Ireland and Scotland being stopped +here and arranged for various distributing centres. Its enormous +railway facilities and its geographical situation as the junction +of the great trunk lines running north and south, tapping also +the Staffordshire potteries on the one side and the great mineral +districts of Wales on the other, constitute Crewe station one of +the most important links of railway and postal communication +in the kingdom. The railway company built its principal schools, +provided it with a mechanics’ institute, containing library, +science and art classes, reading rooms, assembly rooms, &c. +Victoria Park, also the gift of the company, was opened in 1888. +The municipal corporation built the technical school and school +of art. The borough incorporated in 1877, is under a mayor, +7 aldermen and 21 councillors. Area, 2185 acres.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433"></a>433</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CREWKERNE,<a name="ar256" id="ar256"></a></span> a market town in the southern parliamentary +division of Somersetshire, England, 132 m. W.S.W. of London +by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district +(1901) 4226. It is pleasantly situated in a wooded hollow, +in the upper valley of the river Parret. The church of St +Bartholomew, one of the finest in the county, is in the Perpendicular +style characteristic of the district. The ornamentation +throughout is beautiful, and the west front especially notable. +The grammar school dates from 1499, but occupies modern buildings. +Sail-cloth, horsehair, cloth and webbing are manufactured.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRIB<a name="ar257" id="ar257"></a></span> (a word common to some Teutonic languages, cf. +Dutch <i>krib</i> and Ger. <i>Krippe</i>; it has a common origin with +the O. Eng. “cratch,” a manger or crib, cf. Fr. <i>crêche</i>), +a manger or framework receptacle for holding fodder for cattle +and horses, and so, from early times in English, particularly the +manger in which Jesus was laid. It is thus used of a “cradle,” +from which in form it should be distinguished as being a small +bed with high closed-in sides. The word has many transferred +meanings, as a rough, small hut or dwelling, from which comes +the slang use of “crib” as a berth or situation, or, as a burglar’s +term for a house to be broken into; also, technically, in engineering +for a timber framework for masonry constructed with a +caisson in laying foundations below water, or in mining for a +timber lining to a shaft. “Crib-biting” is a vicious habit in +horses, probably due in the first instance to indigestion; the +horse seizes the manger or other object in its teeth, and draws +in the breath, known as “wind-sucking”; the habit may be +checked by the use of a throat-strap. The slang meaning of the +verb “crib,” to steal, especially used of petty thefts, is probably +derived from an obsolete use of the substantive for a small +wicker basket; this meaning occurs in the expression “time-cribbing,” +used of an illicit increase of the hours of labour in +a factory or workshop, especially by the running of machinery +each day slightly beyond the time of ceasing work. “Crib” +and “cribbing” in this sense are also applied to any unacknowledged +appropriation or plagiarism from an author, and particularly +to the secret copying by a schoolboy of another’s work or +from a book, and also to the secret use of a translation and to +such translation itself. “Crib,” in the game of cribbage, of +which it is a shortened form, is the term for the cards thrown +away by each player and scored by the dealer.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRIBBAGE,<a name="ar258" id="ar258"></a></span> a game of cards. A very similar game called +“Noddy” was formerly played, the game being fifteen or twenty-one +up, marked with counters, occasionally by means of a noddy +board. Cribbage seems to be an improved form of Noddy. +According to John Aubrey (<i>Brief Lives</i>) it was invented by Sir +John Suckling (1609-1642).</p> + +<p>A complete pack of fifty-two cards is required, and a cribbage +board for scoring, drilled with sixty holes for each player and +one hole (called “the game hole”) at each end, the players usually +scoring from opposite ends. Each player has two scoring pegs. +The game is marked by inserting the pegs in the holes, one after +the other, as the player makes a fresh score, commencing with the +outer row at the game-hole end and going up the board. When +the thirtieth hole is reached the player comes down the board, +using the inner row of holes, until he places his foremost peg in the +game-hole. If the losing player fails to obtain half the holes, +his adversary wins a “lurch,” or double game.</p> + +<p>The game may be played by two players, five or six cards +being dealt to each, and each putting out two for what is called +“crib”; or by three players (with a triangular scoring board), +five cards being dealt to each, each putting out one for crib, +and a card from the top of the pack being dealt to complete the +crib; or by four players (two being partners against the other +two, sitting and playing as at whist, and one partner scoring for +both), five cards being dealt to each, and each putting out one card +for crib.</p> + +<p>Two-handed five-card cribbage was formerly considered the +most scientific game, but this verdict has now been reversed in +favour of the six-card game. In six-card cribbage both hands +and crib contain four cards, and 121 holes are scored.</p> + +<p>The players cut for deal, the lowest dealing. If more than one +game is played, the winner of the last game deals. The cards +rank from king (highest) to the ace (lowest). At the two-handed +five-card game, the non-dealer scores three holes (called “three +for last”) at any time during the game, but usually while the +dealer is dealing the first hand. This is not part of the six-card +game, which we take as our example.</p> + +<p>The dealer deals six cards to each, singly. The undealt cards +are placed face downwards on the table. The players then +look at their hands and “lay out,” each putting two cards face +downwards on the table, on the side of the board nearest to the +dealer, for the “crib.” A player must not take back into his hand +a card he has laid out if the cards have been covered, nor must +the crib be touched during the play of his hand.</p> + +<p>After laying out, the non-dealer (when more than two play, +the player to the dealer’s left) cuts the pack, and the dealer turns +up the top card of the lower packet, called the “start,” or “turn-up.” +If this is a knave, the dealer marks two “for his heels.” +This score is forfeited if not marked before the dealer plays a +card.</p> + +<p>The non-dealer plays first by laying face upwards on the table +on his side of the board any card from his hand; the dealer then +does the same, and so on alternately. When more than two play, +the player to the leader’s left plays the second card, and so on. +As soon as the first card is laid down the player calls out the +number of pips on it; if a picture card, ten. When the second +card is laid down, the player calls out the sum of the pips on the +two cards played, and so on until all the cards are played, or +until neither player can play without passing the number thirty-one. +If one player has a card or cards that will come in and the +other has not, he is at liberty to play them; at the six-card game +he must play as long as they can come in, and he can score +runs or make pairs, &c., with them. If one player’s cards are +exhausted, the adversary plays out his own, and can score with +them. When more than two play, the player next in rotation +is bound to play, and so on until no one can come in. At the two-handed +five-card game, when neither can come in the play stops; +at the other games the cards are played turned down, and the +remainder of the cards are played in rotation, and so on until +all are played out.</p> + +<p>The object of the play is to make <i>pairs</i>, <i>fifteens</i>, +<i>sequences</i>, +and the “go,” and to prevent the adversary from scoring.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Pairs.</i>—If a card is put down of the same denomination as the one +last played, the player pairing scores two holes. If a third card of +the same denomination is next played, a “pair royal” (abbreviated +to “prial”) is made, and the maker scores six holes. If a fourth +card of the same denomination is next played, twelve holes are scored +for the “double pair royal.” Kings pair only with kings, queens +with queens, and so with knaves and tens, notwithstanding that they +all count ten in play.</p> + +<p><i>Fifteens.</i>—If either player during the play reaches fifteen exactly, +by reckoning the values of all the played cards, he marks two.</p> + +<p><i>Sequences.</i>—If during the play of the hand three or more cards are +consecutively played which make an ascending or descending +sequence, the maker of the sequence marks one hole for each card +forming the sequence or run. King, queen, knave and ten reckon +in sequence in this order, notwithstanding that they are all tenth +cards in play; the other cards according to the number of their +pips. The ace is not in sequence with king, queen. If one player +obtains a run of three, his adversary can put down a card in sequence +and mark four, and so on. And, if there is a break in the sequence, +and the break is filled up during the play, without the intervention +of a card not in sequence, the player of the card that fills the break +scores a run. Thus the cards are played in this order: A-4, B-3, +A-2, B-ace, A gets a run of three, B a run of four. Had B’s last +card been a five, he would similarly have scored a run of four, as +there is no break. Had B’s last card been a four, he would have +scored a run of three. The cards need not be played in order. Thus +the cards being played in this order, A-4, B-2, A-5, B-3, A-6, A-4, +B-2, A-5, B-3, A-5, B-6, B takes a run of four for the fourth card +played, but there is no run for any one else, as the second five intervenes. +Again, if the cards at six-card cribbage are thus played, A-4, +B-2, A-3, B-ace, A-5, B-2, A-4, B-ace, A takes a run of three, B a +run of four, A a run of five. B then playing the deuce has no run, +as the deuce previously played intervenes.</p> + +<p>The “go,” end hole or last card is scored by the player who +approaches most nearly to thirty-one during the play, and entitles +to a score of one. If thirty-one is reached exactly, it is a go of two +instead of one. After a go no card already played can be counted +for pairs or sequences.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434"></a>434</span></p> + +<p><i>Compound Scores.</i>—More than one of the above scores can be made +at the same time. Thus a player pairing with the last card that will +come in scores both pair and go. Similarly a pair and a fifteen, or a +sequence and a fifteen, can be reckoned together.</p> + +<p>When the play is over, the hands are shown and counted aloud. +The non-dealer has first show and scores and marks first; the dealer +afterwards counts, scores and marks what he has in hand, and then +takes what is in crib. In counting both hands and crib the “start” +is included, so that five cards are involved.</p> + +<p>The combinations in hand or crib which entitle to a score are +fifteen, pairs or pairs royal, sequences, flushes and “his nob.”</p> + +<p><i>Fifteens.</i>—All the combinations of cards that, taken together, +make fifteen exactly, count two. For example, a ten (King, Queen, +Knave or Ten) card and a five reckon two, called as “fifteen two.” +Another five in the hand or turned up would again combine with the +ten card, and entitle to another fifteen (“fifteen four”); if the other +cards were a two and a three, two other fifteens would be counted +(“fifteen six,” “fifteen eight”)—one for the combination of the +three and two with the ten card, and one for the combination of the +two fives with the three and two. Similarly two ten cards and two +fives reckon eight; a nine and three threes count six; and so on for +other cards.</p> + +<p><i>Pairs.</i>—Pairs are reckoned as in play.</p> + +<p><i>Sequences.</i>—Three or more cards in sequence count one for each +card. If one sequence card can be substituted for another of the +same denomination, the sequence reckons again. For example, 3,4,5 +and a 3 turned up reckon two sequences of three; with another 3 +there would be three sequences of three, and so on.</p> + +<p><i>Flushes.</i>—If all the cards in hand are of the same suit, one is +reckoned for each card. If the start is also of the same suit, one +is reckoned for that also. In crib, no flush is reckoned unless the +start is of the same suit as the cards in crib.</p> + +<p><i>His Nob.</i>—If a player holds the knave of the suit turned up for the +start he counts one “for his nob.”</p> + +<p>A dialogue will illustrate the technical conversation of the game, +in a game at six-card cribbage. The cards for crib having been discarded, +A holds knave of hearts, a four and a pair of twos: B holds +a pair of nines, a six and a four. Two of hearts is turned up by B. +The hand might be played thus. A lays down a two and says +“Two”: B plays a nine and says “Eleven”: A follows with a +four, saying “Fifteen two”; pegging two holes at once: B plays +his four and says “Nineteen; two for a pair,” and pegs: A putting +on his knave, “Twenty-nine”; B says “Go.” A lays down his +two, his last card, and says “Thirty-one; good for two.” B plays +his nine and six, saying “Fifteen two, and one for my last—three.” +The points are marked as they are made. A then counts his hand +aloud. “Six for a pair-royal” or “Three twos—good for six,” +and “One for his nob—seven,” and throws down his hand for B’s +inspection. B, “Fifteen two, fifteen four, fifteen six, fifteen eight, +and a pair are ten.” B then looks at his crib and counts it. It +contains, say, king, eight, three, ace and the “start” is also reckoned. +B counts “Fifteen two and a run of three—five.”</p> + +<p>After the points in hand and crib are reckoned, the cards are +shuffled and dealt again, and so on alternately until the game is won.</p> + +<p>The highest possible score in hand is 29—three fives and a knave, +with a five, of the same suit as the knave, turned up.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRICCIETH,<a name="ar259" id="ar259"></a></span> a watering-place and contributory parliamentary +borough of Carnarvonshire, Wales, on Cardigan Bay, served by +the Cambrian railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 1406. It is +interesting for its high antiquity and the ruined castle, a fortress +on an eminence where a neck of land ends, projecting into the sea. +Portions of two towers are on the very verge of the rock. A double +fosse and vallum, with the outer and inner court lines, can +be traced. Apparently British, the castle was repaired later, +probably in the time of Edward I. Across the bay is seen +Harlech castle, backed by the Merionethshire hills. An old +county-family mansion near Criccieth is Gwynfryn (happy hill), +the seat of the Nanneys, situated near the stream Dwyfawr and +within some 7 m. of Pwllheli. Not far is a tumulus, <i>Tomen +fawr</i>. At a distance of 5 m. is Tremadoc (which owes its name. +Town of Madocks—as does Portmadoc—to Mr W. Madocks, +of Morfa Lodge, who made the embankment here). Criccieth +has become a favourite watering-place, as well as a centre of +excursions. The neighbourhood is agreeable, and the Cardigan +Bay shore is shelving and suitable for safe bathing. Cantref y +Gwaelod (the hundred of the bottom) is the Welsh literary +name of this bay, on the shores of which geological depression +has certainly taken place. Mythical history relates how +Seithennin’s drunkenness inundated the land now covered by the +bay, and how King Arthur’s ship was wrecked upon Meisdiroedd +Enlli near Bardsey. The <i>Mabinogion</i> tell how Harlech was a +port. Similarly, in Carnarvon Bay, about 2 m. seaward, at +low water, are visible the ruins of Caerarianrhod (fortified town +of the silver wheel), a submerged town—due to another geological +depression.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRICHTON, JAMES<a name="ar260" id="ar260"></a></span> (1560-? 1582), commonly called the +“Admirable Crichton,” was the son of Robert Crichton, lord +advocate of Scotland in the reign of Mary and James VI., and of +Elizabeth, daughter of Sir James Stewart of Beath, through +whom he claimed royal descent. He was born probably at +Eliock in Dumfriesshire in 1560, and when ten years old was sent +to St Salvator’s College, St Andrews, where he took his B.A. in +1574 and his M.A. in 1575. In 1577 Crichton was undoubtedly in +Paris, but his career on the continent is difficult to follow. That +he displayed considerable classical knowledge, was a good +linguist, a ready and versatile writer of verse, and above all that +he possessed an astounding memory, seems certain, not only +from the evidence of men of his own time, but from the fact that +even Joseph Scaliger (<i>Prima Scaligerana</i>, p. 58, 1669) speaks of +his attainments with the highest praise. But those works of his +which have come down to us show few traces of unusual ability; +and the laudation of him as a universal genius by Sir Thomas +Urquhart and Aldus Manutius requires to be discounted. +Urquhart (in his <i>Discovery of a most exquisite jewel</i>) states that +while in Paris Crichton successfully held a dispute in the college of +Navarre, on any subject and in twelve languages, and that the +next day he won a tilting match at the Louvre. There is, however, +no contemporary evidence for this, the only certain facts +being that for two years Crichton served in the French army, and +that in 1579 he arrived in Genoa. The latter event is proved by a +Latin address (of no particular merit) to the Doge and Senate +entitled <i>Oratio J. Critonii Scoti pro Moderatorum Genuensis +Reipubl. electione coram Senatu habita....</i> (Genoa, 1579). The +next year Crichton was in Venice, and won the friendship of Aldus +Manutius by his Latin ode <i>In appulsu ad urbem Venetam de +Proprio statu J. Critonii Scoti Carmen ad Aldum Manuccium....</i> +(Venice, 1580). The best contemporary evidence for Crichton’s +stay in Venice is a handbill printed by the Guerra press in 1580 +(and now in the British Museum), giving a short biography and an +extravagant eulogy of his powers; he speaks ten languages, has a +command of philosophy, theology, mathematics; he improvises +Latin verses in all metres and on all subjects, has all Aristotle +and his commentators at his fingers’ ends; is of most beautiful +appearance, a soldier from top to toe, &c. This work is undoubtedly +by Manutius, as it was reprinted with his name in +1581 as <i>Relatione della qualità di ... Crettone</i>, and again in +1582 (reprinted Venice, 1831).</p> + +<p>In Venice Crichton met and vanquished all disputants except +Giacomo Mazzoni, was followed from place to place by crowds of +admirers, and won the affection of the humanists Lorenzo Massa +and Giovanni Donati. In March 1581 he went to Padua, where +he held two great disputations. In the first he extemporized +in succession a Latin poem, a daring onslaught on Aristotelian +ignorance, and an oration in praise of ignorance. In the second, +which took place in the Church of St John and St Paul, and lasted +three days, he undertook to refute innumerable errors in Aristotelians, +mathematicians and schoolmen, to conduct his dispute +either logically or by the secret doctrine of numbers, &c. According +to Aldus, who attended the debate and published an account of +it in his dedication to Crichton prefixed to Cicero’s “Paradoxa” +(1581), the young Scotsman was completely successful. In June +Crichton was once more in Venice, and while there wrote two +Latin odes to his friends Lorenzo Massa and Giovanni Donati, but +after this date the details of his life are obscure. Urquhart +states that he went to Mantua, became the tutor of the young +prince of Mantua, Vincenzo di Gonzaga, and was killed by the +latter in a street quarrel in 1582. Aldus in his edition of Cicero’s +<i>De universitate</i> (1583), dedicated to Crichton, laments the 3rd +of July as the fatal day; and this account is apparently confirmed +by the Mantuan state papers recently unearthed by Mr +Douglas Crichton (<i>Proc. Soc. of Antiquaries of Scotland</i>, 1909). +Mr Sidney Lee (<i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>) argued against this date, on the +ground that in 1584 and 1585 Crichton was alive and in Milan, +as certain works of his published in that year testified, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435"></a>435</span> +regarded it as probable that he died in Mantua c. 1585/6. But +these later works seem to have been by another man of the same +name. The epithet “admirable” (<i>admirabilis</i>) for Crichton +first occurs in John Johnston’s <i>Heroes Scoti</i> (1603). It is probably +impossible to recover the whole truth either as to Crichton’s +death or as to the extent of his attainments, which were so +quickly elevated into legendary magnitude.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Sir Thomas Urquhart’s <i>Discovery of a most +excellent jewel</i> (1652; reprinted in the Maitland Club’s edition of +Urquhart’s Works in 1834) is written with the express purpose of +glorifying Scotland. The panegyrics of Aldus Manutius require to +be received with some caution, since he was given to exaggerating +the merits of his friend, and uses almost the same language about a +young Pole named Stanilaus Niegosevski; see John Black’s <i>Life of +Torquato Tasso</i>, ii. 413-451 (1810), for a criticism. The <i>Life of +Crichton</i>, by P. Fraser Tytler (2nd ed., 1823), contains many extracts +from earlier writers; see also “Notices of Sir Robert Crichton of +Cluny and of his son James,” by John Stuart, in <i>Proceedings Soc. of +Antiquaries of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. pp. 103-118 (1855); and the article +by Andrew Lang, “The death of the Admirable Crichton,” in the +<i>Morning Post</i> (London), Feb. 25, 1910. W. Harrison-Ainsworth in +his novel <i>Crichton</i> (new ed., 1892) reprints and translates some +documents relating to Crichton, as well as some of his poems.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRICKET<a name="ar261" id="ar261"></a></span> (<i>Gryllidae</i>), a family of saltatory Orthopterous +Insects, closely related to the Locustidae. The wings when +folded form long slender filaments, which often reach beyond the +extremity of the body, and give the appearance of a bifid tail, +while in the male they are provided with a stridulating apparatus +by which the well-known chirping sound, to which the insect +owes its name, is produced. The abdomen of the female ends in a +long slender ovipositor, which, however, is not exserted in the +mole cricket. The house cricket (<i>Gryllus domesticus</i>) is of a +greyish-yellow colour marked with brown. It frequents houses, +especially in rural districts, where its lively, if somewhat +monotonous, chirp may be heard nightly in the neighbourhood of +the fireplace. It is particularly fond of warmth, and is thus +frequently found in bakeries, where its burrows are often sunk to +within a few inches of the oven. In the hot summer it goes out of +doors, and frequents the walls of gardens, but returns again to its +place by the hearth on the first approach of cold, where, should +the heat of the fire be withdrawn, it becomes dormant. It is +nocturnal, coming forth at the evening twilight in search of food, +which consists of bread crumbs and other refuse of the kitchen. +The field cricket (<i>Gryllus campestris</i>) is a larger insect than the +former, and of a darker colour. It burrows in the ground to a +depth of from 6 to 12 in., and in the evening the male may be +observed sitting at the mouth of its hole noisily stridulating until +a female approaches, “when,” says Bates, “the louder notes are +succeeded by a more subdued tone, whilst the successful musician +caresses with his antennae the mate he has won.” The musical +apparatus in this species consists of upwards of 130 transverse +ridges on the under side of one of the nervures of the wing cover, +which are rapidly scraped over a smooth, projecting nervure on +the opposite wing. The female deposits her eggs—about 200 in +number—on the ground, and when hatched the larvae, which +resemble the perfect insect except in the absence of wings, form +burrows for themselves in which they pass the winter. The +mole cricket (<i>Gryllotalpa vulgaris</i>) owes its name to the striking +analogy in its habits and structure to those of the common +mole. Its body is thick and cylindrical in shape, and it burrows +by means of its front legs, which are short and greatly flattened +out and thickened, with the outer edge partly notched so as +somewhat to resemble a hand. It prefers loose and sandy +ground in which to dig, its burrow consisting of a vertical shaft +from which long horizontal galleries are given off; and in making +those excavations it does immense injury to gardens and vineyards +by destroying the tender roots of plants, which form its principal +food. It also feeds upon other insects, and even upon the weak +of its own species in the absence of other food. It is exceedingly +fierce and voracious, and is usually caught by inserting a stem of +grass into its hole, which being seized, is retained till the insect is +brought to the surface. The female deposits her eggs in a neatly +constructed subterranean chamber, about the size of a hen’s egg, +and sufficiently near the surface to allow of the eggs being hatched +by the heat of the sun.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRICKET.<a name="ar262" id="ar262"></a></span> The game of cricket may be called the national +summer pastime of the English race. The etymology of the word +itself is the subject of much dispute. The <i>Century Dictionary</i> +connects with O. Fr. <i>criquet</i>, “a stick used as a mark in the game of +bowls,” and denies the connexion with A.S. <i>crice</i> or <i>cryce</i>, a staff. +A claim has also been made for <i>cricket</i>, meaning a stool, from the +stool at which the ball was bowled, while in the wardrobe account +of King Edward I. for the year 1300 (p. 126) is found an allusion +to a game called <i>creag</i>. Skeat, in his <i>Etymological Dictionary</i>, +states that the word is probably derived from A.S. <i>crice</i> (repudiated +by the first authority quoted), the meaning of which is a +staff, and suggests that the “et” is a diminutive suffix; the word +is of the same origin as “crutch.” Finally the <i>New English +Dictionary</i> traces the O. Fr. <i>criquet</i>, defined by Littré as “<i>jeu +d’addresse</i>,” to M. Flem. <i>Krick, Krüke, baston à s’appuyer, +quinette, potence</i>.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—In a MS. of the middle of the 13th century, in the +King’s library, 14 Bv, entitled <i>Chronique d’Angleterre, depuis +Ethelberd jusqu’à Hen. III.</i>, there is found a grotesque delineation +of two male figures playing a game with a bat and ball. This is +undoubtedly the first known drawing of what was destined to +develop into the scientific cricket of modern times. The left-hand +figure is that of the batsman, who holds his weapon upright +in the right hand with the handle downwards. The right-hand +figure shows the catcher, whose duty is at once apparent by the +extension of his hands. In another portion of the same MS., +however, there is a male figure pointing a bat towards a female +figure in the attitude of catching, but the ball is absent. In a +Bodleian Library MS., No. 264, dated the 18th of April 1344, and +entitled <i>Romance of the Good King Alexander</i>, fielders for the +first time appear in addition to the batsman and bowler. All the +players are monks (not female figures, as Strutt misinterprets +their dress in his <i>Sports and Pastimes</i>), and on the extreme left +of the picture, the bowler, with his cowl up, poises the ball in the +right hand with the arm nearly horizontal. The batsman comes +next with his cowl down, a little way only to the right, standing +sideways to the bowler with a long roughly-hewn and slightly-curved +bat, held upright, handle downwards in the left hand. +On the extreme right come four figures—with cowls alternately +down and up, and all having their hands raised in an attitude to +catch the ball. It has been argued that the bat was always +held in the left hand at this date, since on the opposite page of +the same MS. a solitary monk is figured with his cowl down, and +also holding a somewhat elongated oval-shaped implement in +his left hand; but it is unsafe to assume that the accuracy of +the artist can be trusted.</p> + +<p>The close roll of 39 Edw. III. (1365), Men. 23, disparages +certain games on account of their interfering with the practice of +archery, where the game of cricket is probably included among the +pastimes denounced as “ludos inhonestos, et minus utiles aut +valentes.” In this instance cricket was clearly considered fit for +the lower orders only, though it is evident from the entry in +King Edward’s wardrobe account, already mentioned, that in +1300 the game of <i>creag</i> was patronized by the nobility. Judging +from the drawings, it can only be conjectured that the game +consisted of bowling, batting and fielding, though it is known +that there was an in-side and an out-side, for sometime during the +15th century the game was called “Hondyn or Hondoute,” or +“Hand in and Hand out.” Under this title it was interdicted +by 17 Edw. IV. c. 3 (1477-1478), as one of those illegal games +which still continued to be so detrimental to the practice of +archery. By this statute, any one allowing the game to be played +on his premises was liable to three years’ imprisonment and £20 +fine, any player to two years’ imprisonment and £10 fine, and +the implements to be burnt. The inference that hand in and +hand out was analogous to cricket is made from a passage in the +Hon. Daines Barrington’s <i>Observations on the more Ancient Statutes +from Magna Charta to 21 James I. cap. 27</i>. Writing in 1766, he +comments thus on the above statute, viz.: “This is, perhaps, +the most severe law ever made against gaming, and some +of these forbidden sports seem to have been manly exercises, +particularly the <i>handyn</i> and <i>handoute</i>, which I should suppose +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>436</span> +to be a kind of cricket, as the term hands is still retained in +that game.”</p> + +<p>The word “cricket” occurs about the year 1550. In Russell’s +<i>History of Guildford</i> it appears there was a piece of waste land in +the parish of Holy Trinity in that city, which was enclosed by +one John Parish, an innholder, some five years before Queen +Elizabeth came to the throne. In 35 Elizabeth (1593) evidence +was taken before a jury and a verdict returned, ordering the +garden to be laid waste again and disinclosed. Amongst other +witnesses John Derrick, gent., and one of H.M.’s coroners for +Surrey, <i>aetat.</i> fifty-nine, deposed he had known the ground for +fifty years or more, and “when he was a scholler in the free +school of Guildford, he and several of his fellowes did runne +and play there at <i>crickett</i> and other plaies.” In the original +edition of Stow’s <i>Survey of London</i> (1598) the word does not +occur, though he says, “The ball is used by noblemen and +gentlemen in tennis courts, and by people of the meaner sort in +the open fields and streets.”</p> + +<p>Some noteworthy references to the game may be cited. In +Giovanni Florio’s dictionary <i>A Worlde of Wordes most Copious +and Exact</i>, published in Italy in 1595 and in London three years +later, <i>squillare</i> is defined as “to make a noise as a cricket, to +play cricket-a-wicket and be merry.” Sir William Dugdale +states that in his youth Oliver Cromwell, who was born in 1599, +threw “himself into a dissolute and disorderly course,” became +“famous for football, cricket, cudgelling and wrestling,” and +acquired “the name of royster.” In Randle Cotgrave’s <i>Dictionary +of French and English</i>, dated 1611, <i>Crosse</i> is translated +“crosier or bishop’s staffe wherewith boys play at cricket,” and +<i>Crosser</i> “to play at cricket.”</p> + +<p>Among the earliest traces of cricket at public schools is an +allusion to be found in the <i>Life of Bishop Ken</i> by William Lisle +Bowles (1830). Concerning the subject of this biography, who +was admitted to Winchester on the 13th of January 1650/1, +it is said “on the fifth or sixth day, our junior ... is found +for the first time attempting to wield a cricket bat.” In 1688 a +“ram and bat” is charged in an Etonian’s school bill, but it is +possible this may only refer to a cudgel used for ram-baiting. +In <i>The Life of Thomas Wilson, Minister of Maidstone</i>, published +anonymously in 1672, Wilson having been born in 1601 and +dying in or about 1653, occurs the following passage (p. 40): +“Maidstone was formerly a very profane town, in as much as I +have seen morrice-dancing, cudgel-playing, stool-ball, crickets, +and many other sports openly and publicly indulged in on the +Lord’s Day.” Cricket is found enumerated as one of the games +of Gargantua in <i>The Works of Rabelais</i>, translated in 1653 by +Sir Thomas Urchard (Urquhart), vol. i. ch. xxii. p. 97. In a +poem entitled <i>The Mysteries of Love and Eloquence or the Arts of +Wooing and Complimenting</i> (1658), by Edward Phillips, John +Milton’s nephew, the mistress of a country bumpkin when she +goes to a fair with him says “Would my eyes had been beaten out +of my head with a cricket ball.” The St Alban’s Cricket Club +was founded in 1661, one of its earliest presidents being James +Cecil, 4th earl of Salisbury (1666-1694).</p> + +<p>In 1662 John Davies of Kidwelly issued his translation of +Adam Olearius’ work entitled <i>The Voyages and Travels of the +Ambassadors from the Duke of Holstein to the Grand Duke of +Muscovy, and the King of Persia. Begun in the year 1633 and +finished in 1639</i>. On page 297 is a description of the exercises +indulged in by the Persian grandees in 1637, and the statement +is made that “They play there also at a certain game, +which the Persians call <i>Kuitskaukan</i>, which is a kind of <i>Mall</i>, +or <i>Cricket</i>.” In the Clerkenwell parish book of 1668 the +proprietor of the Rum Inn, Smithfield, is found rated for a +cricket field.</p> + +<p>The chaplain of H.M.S., “Assistance,” Rev. Henry Teonge, +states in his diary that during a visit to Antioch on the 6th of +May 1676, several of the ship’s company, accompanied by the +consul, rode out of the city early and amongst other pastimes +indulged in “krickett.” During the first half of the 18th century +the popularity of the game increased and is frequently mentioned +by writers of the time, such as Swift, who alludes sneeringly to +“footmen at cricket,” D’Urfey, Pope, Soame Jenyns, Strype +in his edition of Stow’s <i>Survey of London</i>, and Arbuthnot in +<i>John Bull</i>, iv. 4, “when he happened to meet with a football or +a match at cricket.”</p> + +<p>In 1748 it was decided that cricket was not an illegal game +under the statute 9 Anne, cap. 19, the court of king’s bench +holding “that it was a very manly game, not bad in itself, +but only in the ill use made of it by betting more than ten +pounds on it; but that was bad and against the law.” Frederick +Louis, prince of Wales, died in 1751 from internal injuries caused +by a blow from a cricket ball whilst playing at Cliefden House. +Games at this period were being played for large stakes, ground +proprietors and tavern-keepers farming and advertising matches, +the results of which were not always above suspicion. The old +Artillery Ground at Finsbury was one of the earliest sites of this +type of fixture. Here it was that the London Club—formed +about 1700—played its matches. The president was the prince +of Wales, and many noblemen were among its supporters. It +flourished for more than half a century. One of the very earliest +full-scores kept in the modern fashion is that of the match +between Kent and All England, played on the Artillery Ground +on the 18th of June 1744.</p> + +<p>Cricket, however, underwent its most material development +in the southern counties, more especially in the hop-growing +districts. It was at the large hop-fairs, notably that of Weyhill, +to which people from all the neighbouring shires congregated, +that county matches were principally arranged.</p> + +<p>The famous Hambledon Club lasted approximately from 1750 +to 1791. Its matches were played on Broad Half-Penny and +Windmill Downs, and in its zenith the club frequently contended +with success against All England. The chief players were more +or less retainers of the noblemen and other wealthy patrons of +cricket. The original society was broken up in 1791 owing to +Richard Nyren, their “general,” abandoning the game, of which +in consequence “the head and right arm were gone.” The +dispersion of the players over the neighbouring counties caused +a diffusion of the best spirit of the game, which gradually extended +northward and westward until, at the close of the 18th +century, cricket became established as the national game, and +the custom became general to play the first game of each year on +Good Friday.</p> + +<p>The M.C.C. (or Marylebone Cricket Club), which ranks as +the leading club devoted to the game in any part of the globe, +sprang from the old Artillery Ground Club, which played at +Finsbury until about 1780, when the members migrating to +White Conduit Fields became the White Conduit Cricket Club. +In 1787 they were remodelled under their present title, and +moved to Lord’s ground, then on the site of what is now Dorset +Square; thence in 1811 to Lord’s second ground nearer what +is now the Regent’s Canal; and in 1814, when the canal was cut, +to what is now Lord’s ground in St John’s Wood. Thomas +Lord, whose family were obliged to leave their native Scotland +on account of their participation in the rebellion of 1745, was +born in Thirsk, Yorkshire, in 1757, and is first heard of as an +attendant at the White Conduit Club, London, in 1780. Soon +afterwards he selected and superintended a cricket ground for +the earl of Winchilsea and other gentlemen, which was called +after his name. He died in 1832 on a farm at West Meon, +Hampshire, of which he took the management two years before. +Lord took away the original turf of his cricket-ground at each +migration and relaid it. In 1825 the pavilion was burnt down, +invaluable early records of the game being destroyed; and in +the same year the ground would have been broken up into +building plots had not William Ward purchased Lord’s interest. +Dark bought him out in 1836, selling the remainder of his lease +to the club in 1864. Meanwhile, in 1860, the freehold had been +purchased at public auction by a Mr Marsden—<i>né</i> Moses—for +£7000, and he sold it to the club six years later for nearly £18,500, +a similar sum being paid in 1887 for additional ground. In 1897 +the Great Central railway company conveyed a further portion +to the club, making the ground complete as it now is; the total +area is about 20 acres, including the site of various villas adjoining +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437"></a>437</span> +the ground which are part of the property. The number of +members now considerably exceeds five thousand.</p> + +<p><i>Laws.</i>—The oldest laws of cricket extant are those drawn up by +the London Club in 1744. These were amended at the “Star +and Garter” in Pall Mall, London, in 1755, and again in 1774, +and were also revised by the M.C.C. in 1788. From this time +the latter club has been regarded as the supreme authority, +even though some local modifications have in recent years been +effected in Australia. Alterations and additions have been +frequently made, and according to the present procedure they +have to be approved by a majority of two-thirds of the members +present at the annual general meeting of the whole club; the +administration being in the hands of a president, annually +nominated by his outgoing predecessor, a treasurer and a +committee composed of sixteen members, four annually retiring, +in conjunction with a secretary and a large subordinate staff.</p> + +<p><i>Implements.</i>—Concerning the implements of the game, in the +1744 rules it was declared that the weight of the ball must be +“between five and six ounces,” and it was not until 1774 that it +was decided that it “shall weigh not less than five ounces and +a half nor more than five ounces and three-quarters,” as it is +to the present day. Not until 1838 however came the addition, +“it shall measure not less than nine inches nor more than nine +inches and a quarter in circumference.” The materials out of +which the old balls were made are not on record. At present +a cube of cork forms the foundation, round which layers of fine +twine and thin shavings of cork are accumulated till the proper +size and shape are attained, when a covering of red leather is +sewn on with six parallel seams. Various “compositions” +have been tried as a substitute for cork and leather, but without +taking their place.</p> + +<p>For the bat, English willow has been proverbially found the +best wood. The oldest extant bats resemble a broad and curved +hockey stick, and it has been claimed to be an evolution of the +club employed in the Irish game of “hurley.” The straight +blade was adopted as soon as the bowler began to pitch the ball +up, an alteration which took place about 1750, but pictures +show slightly curved bats almost to the time of the battle of +Waterloo. The oldest were all made in one piece and were +so used until the middle of the 19th century, when handles +of ash were spliced into the blade, and the whole cane-handle +was introduced about 1860. No limit was set to the length +of the bat until 1840, though the width was restricted to 4¼ in. +“in the widest part” by the laws of 1788, and a gauge was made +for the use of the Hambledon Club. The length of the bat is +now restricted to 38 in., 36 being more generally used, as a rule the +handle being 14 in. long and the blade 22 in. As to weight, +though there is no restriction, 2 ℔ 3 oz. is considered light, 2 ℔ +6 oz. fairly heavy; but W. Ward (1787-1849) used a bat weighing +4 ℔.</p> + +<p>At present the wicket consists of three stumps (round straight +pieces of wood) of equal thickness, standing 27 in. upright out +of the ground. On the top are two “bails,” short pieces of +wood which fit into grooves made in the top of the stumps so +as not to project more than half an inch above them. But the +evolution of the wicket has been very gradual, and the history +of it is very obscure, since different types of wickets seem to +have existed simultaneously. If early pictures are to be trusted, +no wicket was required in primitive times: the striker was +either caught out, or run out, the fieldsman having to put the +ball into a hole scooped in the ground, before the batsman could +put his bat into it. A single stump, it is supposed, was sometimes +substituted for the hole to save collision between the bat and +the fieldsman’s fingers. In due course, but at an unknown +date, a wicket—a “skeleton gate”—was raised over the hole; +it consisted of two stumps each 12 in. high, set 24 in. apart, +with a third laid on the top of them. John Nyren, however, +writing in 1833, and discussing some memoranda given him by +Mr W. Ward, says apropos of these dimensions, “There must +be a mistake in this account of the width of the wicket.” Undoubtedly +such wickets were all against the bowler, who must +have bowled over or through the wicket twenty times for every +occasion when he succeeded in hitting either the uprights or the +cross stump. In pictures of cricket played about 1743 we find +only two stumps and a cross stump, or bail, the wicket varying +apparently both in height and width. In a picture, the property +of H.M. the King, entitled “A Village Match in 1768,” three +stumps and a bail are distinctly shown. Two stumps are shown +as used in 1779, afterwards three always with one exception. +Two prints, advertisements, representing matches played +between women on consecutive days in 1811, show, one of them +a wicket of three stumps, the other a wicket of two. The addition +of the third stump, as is universally agreed, was due to an +incident which occurred in a match of the Hambledon Club in +1775. “It was observed at a critical point in the game, that +the ball passed three times between Mr Small’s two stumps +without knocking off the bail; and then, first a third stump +was added, and seeing that the new style of balls which rise +over the bat also rise over the wicket, then but 1 ft. high, +the wicket was altered to the dimensions of 22 in. by 8, and to +its present dimensions of 27 in. by 8 in 1817.” So writes the Rev. +J. Pycroft (1813-1895), quoting fairly closely from Nyren, who +wrote many years after the event; but Pycroft is wrong in +writing 22 by 8, which should really be 22 by 6. It is hard to +believe that the 12 by 24 wicket lasted as long as 1775, for in the +laws issued after the meeting held at the “Star and Garter,” +Pall Mall, where many “noblemen and gentlemen” attended +“finally to settle” the laws of the game, we read that the +stumps are to be 22 in. and the bail 6. “N.B.—It is lately settled +to use three stumps instead of two to each wicket, the bail the +same length as before.” Regarding all the circumstances one +is tempted to believe that Small defended a wicket of two stumps, +22 in. high and 6 in. apart, strange as is the circumstance +that the ball should thrice in a short innings—for Small only +made 14 runs—pass through them without dislodging the bail, +even though the diameter of the ball is a trifle less than 3 in. +Allusion is also found to a wicket 12 in. by 6, but it is hard to +believe in its existence, unless it was used as a form of handicap. +It should be recorded that in advertisements of matches about +this time (1787) the fact that three stumps will be used “to +shorten the game” is especially mentioned, and that the <i>Hampshire +Chronicle</i> of the 15th of July 1797 records that “The earl +of Winchilsea has made an improvement in the game of cricket, +by having four stumps instead of three, and the wickets 2 in. +higher. The game is thus rendered shorter by easier bowling +out.” In 1788, however, when the M.C.C. revised the laws, +reference is made to stumps (no number given, but probably +three) 22 in. high and a bail of 6 in. Big scoring in 1796 caused +the addition next year of 2 in. to the height and of 1 to the +breadth, making the wicket 24 in. by 7. That three stumps +were employed is shown by a print of the medallion of the +Oxfordshire County C.C. 1797, forming the frontispiece to +Taylor’s <i>Annals of Lord’s</i> (1903). In 1817 the dimensions +now in use were finally settled, three stumps 27 in. high, and a +wicket 8 in. wide. Larger wickets have occasionally been used +by way of handicap or experiment. The distance between the +wickets seems always, or at least as far back as 1700, to have +been 22 yds.—one chain.</p> + +<p><i>The Game.</i>—Cricket is defined in the <i>New English Dictionary</i> as +“an open-air game played with bats, ball and wickets by two +sides of eleven players each; the batsman defends his wicket +against the ball which is bowled by a player of the opposing side, +the other players of this side being stationed about the field in +order to catch or stop the ball.” The laws define that the score +shall be reckoned by runs. The side which scores the greatest +number of runs wins the match. Each side has two innings +taken alternately, except that the side which leads by 150 runs +in a three days’ match or by 100 runs in a two days’ match or +by 75 runs in a one day match shall have the option of requiring +the other side to “follow their innings.” In England cricket +is invariably played on turf wickets, but in the Colonies matting +wickets are often employed, and sometimes matches have taken +place on sand, earth and other substances. The oldest form +of the game is probably single wicket, which consists of one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438"></a>438</span> +batsman defending one wicket, but this has become obsolete, +though it was very popular in the time when matches were +played for money with only one or two, or perhaps four or five, +players on a side. Matches between an unequal number of +players are still sometimes arranged, but mainly in the case of +local sides against touring teams, or “colts” playing against +eleven experienced cricketers. In any case two umpires are +always appointed, and for English first-class county cricket +these are now annually chosen beforehand by the county captains. +Two scorers are officially recognized. All the arrangements as +to scoreboards, and accommodation for players, members of the +club and general spectators, vary considerably according to +local requirements. Between six and seven acres forms the most +suitable area for a match, but the size of a cricket ground has +never been defined by law.</p> + +<p>The wickets are pitched opposite and parallel to one another +at a distance of 22 yds.; the “bowling crease” being +marked with whitewash on the turf on a line with the stumps +8 ft. 8 in. in length, with short “return creases” at right +angles to it at each end; but the “popping crease,” marked +parallel to the wicket and 4 ft. in front of it, is deemed +of unlimited length. The captains of the opposing sides toss for +choice of innings, and the winner of the toss, though occasionally, +owing to the condition of the ground or the weather prospects, +electing to put his adversaries in first, as a general rule elects for +his own side to bat first. The captain of the batting side sends +his eleven (or whatever the number of his team may be) in to +bat in any order he thinks best, and much judgment is used in +deciding what this order shall be. Two batsmen with strong +defensive powers and good nerve are usually selected to open +the innings, the most brilliant run-getters immediately following +them, and the weakest batsmen going in last. As there must +always, except in the obsolete single-wicket cricket, be two +batsmen in together, it follows that when ten of the side (in a +side of eleven) have been put out, one of the final pair must be +“not out”; that is to say, his innings is terminated without +his getting out because there is none of his side left to become +his partner. The batsman who is thus “not out” is said to +“carry his bat,” a phrase that recalls a period when two bats +sufficed for the whole side, each retiring batsman leaving the +implement on the ground for the use of his successor, till at the +close of the innings the “not out” man carried it back to the +tent or pavilion. As the phrase is not also applied to the last +batsman to get out, who would of course have carried the second +bat off the ground, it was possibly at one time restricted to a +player who going in first survived through the whole innings. +It should be observed that the term “wicket” is used by +cricketers in a number of different senses. Besides being the +name given to the set of three stumps with their two bails when +pitched for a match, it is in an extended sense applied to that +portion of the ground, also called the “pitch,” on which the +stumps are pitched, as when it is described as being “a fast +wicket,” a “sticky wicket” and so forth. It also in several +idiomatic expressions signifies the getting out of a batsman +and even the batsman himself, as in the phrases: “Grace lost +his wicket without scoring,” “Grace went in first wicket down,” +“when Grace got out England lost their best wicket,” “England +beat Australia by two wickets.”</p> + +<p>The umpires are required to decide questions arising in the +course of play and to call the “overs,” the “over” being a series +of successive deliveries of the ball (usually six) by the bowler +from one end of the pitch, the rest of the “out” side, or fielders, +being stationed in various positions in the field according to +well-defined principles. When an “over” has been bowled +from one end a different bowler then bowls an “over” from the +opposite end, the alternation being continued without interruption +throughout the innings, and the bowlers being selected and +changed from time to time by the captain of their side at his +discretion. At the end of every over the fielders “change over” +or otherwise rearrange their places to meet the batting from +the other end. An over from which no runs are made off the +bat is called a “maiden.” A “run” is made when the two +batsmen change places, each running from his own to the opposite +wicket without being “run out.” The aim of the batting side +is to make as many runs as possible, while the object of the +fielding side is to get their opponents out, and to prevent their +making runs while in.</p> + +<p>There are nine ways in which the batsman, or “striker,” can +be put out. Of these the following five are the most important. +(1) The striker is “bowled” out if the bowler hits the wicket +with the ball, when bowling, and dislodges the bail; (2) he is +“caught” out if the ball after touching his bat or hand be held +by any member of the fielding side before it touches the ground; +(3) he is “stumped” out if the wicket-keeper dislodges the bail +with the ball, or with his hand holding the ball, at a moment +when the striker in playing at the ball has no part of his person +or bat in contact with the ground behind the popping crease, +<i>i.e.</i> when the batsman is “out of his ground”; (4) he is out +“l.b.w.” (leg before wicket) if he stops with any part of his +person other than his hand, or arm below the elbow, a ball +which in the umpire’s judgment pitched straight between the +wickets, and would have bowled the striker’s wicket; (5) if +when the batsmen are attempting to make a run a wicket +is put down (<i>i.e.</i> the bail dislodged) by the ball, or by the hand +of any fieldsman holding the ball, at a moment when neither +batsman has any part of his person or bat on the ground behind +the popping crease, the nearer of the two batsmen to the wicket +so put down is “run out.” The remaining four ways in which +a batsman may be dismissed are (6) hit wicket, (7) handling the +ball, (8) hitting the ball more than once “with intent to score,” +and (9) obstructing the field.</p> + +<p>The positions of the fieldsmen are those which experience proves +to be best adapted for the purpose of saving runs and getting +the batsmen caught out. During the middle of the 19th century +these positions became almost stereotyped according to the pace +of the bowler’s delivery and whether the batsmen were right +or left handed. A certain number of fielders stood on the “on” +side, <i>i.e.</i> the side of the wicket on which the batsman stands, and +a certain number on the opposite or “off” side, towards which +the batsman faces. “Point” almost invariably was placed +square with the striker’s wicket some ten or a dozen yards +distant on the “off” side; “cover point” to the right of +“point” (as he is looking towards the batsman) and several +yards deeper; “mid on” a few yards to the right of the bowler, +and “mid off” in a corresponding position on his left, and so +forth. Good captains at all times exercised judgment in modifying +to some extent the arrangement of the field according to +circumstances, but in this respect much was learnt from the +Australians, who on their first visit to England in 1878 varied +the positions of the field according to the idiosyncrasies of the +batsmen and other exigencies to a degree not previously practised +in England. The perfection of wicket-keeping displayed by +the Australian, McCarthy Blackham (b. 1855), taught English +cricketers that on modern grounds the “long stop” could +be altogether dispensed with; and this position, which in +former days was considered a necessary and important one, +has since been practically abolished. In many matches at the +present day, owing to the character of modern bowling, no more +than a single fieldsman is placed on the “on” side, while the +number and positions of those “in the slips,” <i>i.e.</i> behind the +wicket on the “off” side, are subject to no sort of rule, but vary +according to the nature of the bowling, the state of the ground, +or any other circumstances that may influence the judgment +of the captain of the fielding side. Charts such as were once +common, showing the positions of the fielders for fast, slow and +medium bowling respectively, would therefore to-day give no +true idea of the actual practice; and much of the skill of modern +captaincy is shown in placing the field.</p> + +<p>The score is compiled by runs made by the batsman and by the +addition of “extras,” the latter consisting of “byes,” “leg-byes,” +“wides” and “no-balls.” All these are included in the +designation “runs,” of which the total score is composed, though +neither “wides” nor “no-balls” involve any actual run on the +part of the batsmen. They are called by the umpire on his own +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439"></a>439</span> +initiative, in the one case if the bowler’s delivery passes the +batsman beyond the reach of his bat (“wide”), and in the other +if he delivers the ball without having either foot touching the +ground behind the “bowling crease” and within the “return +crease,” or if the ball be jerked or thrown instead of being <i>bona +fide</i> “bowled.” “Wides” and “no-balls” count as one “run” +each, and all “extras” are added to the score of the side without +being credited to any individual batsman. The batsman may, +however, hit a “no-ball” and make runs off it, the runs so made +being scored to the striker’s credit instead of the “no-ball” +being entered among the “extras.” The batsman may be “run +out” in attempting a run off a “no-ball,” but cannot be put out +off it in any other way. “Byes” are runs made off a ball which +touches neither the bat nor the person of the batsman, “leg-byes” +off a ball which, without touching the bat or hand, touches any +other part of his person. With the exception of these “extras” +the score consists entirely of runs made off the bat.</p> + +<p>Batting is the most scientific feature of the game. Proficiency +in it, as in golf and tennis, depends in the first instance to a great +extent on the player assuming a correct attitude for +making his stroke, the position of leg, shoulder and +<span class="sidenote">Batting.</span> +elbow being a matter of importance; and although a quick and +accurate eye may occasionally be sufficient by itself to make a +tolerably successful run-getter, good style can never be acquired, +and a consistently high level of achievement can seldom be +gained, by a batsman who has neglected these rudiments. Good +batting consists in a defence that is proof against all the bowler’s +craft, combined with the skill to seize every opportunity for +making runs that the latter may inadvertently offer. If the +batsman’s whole task consisted in keeping the ball out of his +wicket, the accomplishment of his art would be comparatively +simple; it is the necessity for doing this while at the same time he +must prevent the ball from rising off his bat into the air in the +direction of any one of eleven skilfully-placed fielders, each eager +to catch him out, that offers scope for the science of a Grace, a +MacLaren or a Trumper. In early days when the wickets were +low and the ball was trundled along the ground, the curved bats of +the old pictures were probably well adapted for hitting, defence +being neglected; but when the height of the wickets was raised, +and bowlers began to pitch the ball closer to the batsman so that +it would reach the wicket on the first bound, defence of the wicket +became more necessary and more difficult. Hence the modern +straight-bladed bat was produced, and a more scientific method of +batting became possible. Batting and bowling have in fact +developed together, a new form of attack requiring a new form of +defence. One of the first principles a young batsman has to +learn is to play with a “a straight bat” when defending his wicket +against straight balls. This means that the whole blade of the +bat should be equally opposite to the line on which the ball is +travelling towards him, in order that the ball, to whatever height +it may bound from the ground, may meet the bat unless it +rises altogether over the batsman’s hands; the tendency of the +untutored cricketer being on the contrary to hold the bat sloping +outwards from the handle to the point, as the golf-player holds his +“driver,” so that the rise of the ball is apt to carry it clear of the +blade. Standing then in a correct position and playing with a +straight bat, the batsman’s chief concern is to calculate accurately +the “length” of the ball as soon as he sees it leave the bowler’s +hand. The “length” of the ball means the distance from the +batsman at which it pitches, and “good length” is the first +essential of the bowler’s art. The distance that <span class="correction" title="amended from consistutes">constitutes</span> +“good length” is not, however, to be defined by precise measurement; +it depends on the condition of the ground, and on the +reach of the batsman. A “good-length ball” is one that pitches +too far from the batsman for him to reach out to meet it with the +bat at the moment it touches the ground or immediately it begins +to rise, in the manner known as “playing forward”; and at the +same time not far enough from him to enable him to wait till after +it has reached the highest point in its bound before playing it +with the bat, <i>i.e.</i> “playing back.” When, owing to the good +length of the ball, the batsman is unable to play it in either of +these two ways, but is compelled to play at it in the middle of its +rise from the ground, he is almost certain, if he does not miss it +altogether, to send it up in the air with the danger of being caught +out. If through miscalculation the batsman plays forward to a +short-pitched ball, he will probably give a catch to the bowler or +“mid off,” if he plays back to a well-pitched-up ball, he will +probably miss it and be bowled out. The bowler is therefore +continually trying to pitch balls just too short for safe forward +play, while the batsman defends his wicket by playing forward +or back as his judgment directs so long as the bowling is straight +and of approximately good length, and is ready the instant he +receives a bad-length ball, or one safely wide of the wicket, to hit it +along the ground clear of the fieldsmen so as to make as many +runs as he and his partner can accomplish before the ball is +returned to the wicket-keeper or the bowler. But even those +balls off which runs are scored are not to be hit recklessly or +without scientific method. A different stroke is brought into +requisition according to the length of the ball and its distance +wide of the wicket to the “off” or “on” as the case may be; and +the greatest batsmen are those who with an almost impregnable +defence combine the greatest variety of strokes, which as occasion +demands they can make with confidence and certainty. There +are, however, comparatively few cricketers who do not excel in +some particular strokes more than in others. One will make most +of his runs by “cuts” past “point,” or by wrist strokes behind +the wicket, while others, like the famous Middlesex Etonian +C. I. Thornton, and the Australian C. J. Bonnor, depend mainly +on powerful “drives” into the deep field behind the bowler’s +wicket. Some again, though proficient in all-round play, develop +exceptional skill in some one stroke which other first-class players +seldom attempt. A good illustration is the “glance stroke” off +the legs which K. S. Ranjitsinhji made with such ease and grace. +All great cricketers in fact, while observing certain general +principles, display some individuality of style, and a bowler who +is familiar with a batsman’s play is often aware of some idiosyncrasy +of which he can take advantage in his attack.</p> + +<p>Bowling is, indeed, scarcely less scientific than batting. It is +not, however, so systematically taught to young amateurs, and +it may be partly in consequence of this neglect that +amateur bowling is exceedingly weak in England as +<span class="sidenote">Bowling.</span> +compared with that of professionals. The evolution of the art +of bowling, for it has been an evolution, is an interesting chapter +in the history of cricket which can only be briefly outlined here. +The fundamental law as to the proper mode of the bowler’s +delivering the ball is that the ball must be bowled, not thrown +or jerked. When bowling underhand along the ground was +superseded by “length bowling,” it was found that the ball +might be caused, by jerking, to travel at a pace which on the +rough grounds was considered dangerous; hence the law against +jerking, which was administered practically by chalking the inside +of the bowler’s elbow; if a chalk mark was found on his side, +the ball was not allowed as fair. The necessity of keeping the +elbow away from the side led gradually to the extension of the +arm horizontally and to round-arm bowling, the invention of +which is usually attributed to John Wills (or Willes; b. 1777) +of Kent and Sussex. Nyren, however, says “Tom Walker +(about 1790) began the system of throwing instead of bowling +now so much the fashion”; and, “The first I recollect seeing +revive this fashion was Wills, a Sussex man,” the date of the +revival being 1807. Walker was no-balled. Beldham (1766-1862) +says, “The law against jerking was owing to the frightful +pace Tom Walker put on, and I believe that he afterwards +tried something more like the modern throwing-bowling. Willes +was not the inventor of that kind, or round-arm bowling. He +only revived what was forgotten or new to the young folk.” +Curiously enough, Beldham also writes of the same Tom Walker +that he was “the first lobbing slow bowler” he ever saw, +and that he “did feel so ashamed of such baby bowling, but +after all he did more than even David Harris himself.” Round-arm +bowling was long and vigorously opposed, especially in 1826 +when three matches were arranged between England and Sussex, +the Sussex bowlers being round-arm bowlers. When England +had lost the first two matches, nine of the professionals refused +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440"></a>440</span> +to take part in the third, “unless the Sussex bowlers bowl fair, +that is, abstain from throwing.” Five of them did play and +Sussex lost, but the new style of bowling had indicated its +existence. In 1844 the M.C.C.’s revised law reads, “The ball +must be bowled, not thrown or jerked, and the hand must not +be above the shoulder in delivery.” Round-arm bowling was +thenceforth legal. In 1862 Willsher (1828-1885), the Kent +bowler, was no-balled by the umpire (Lillywhite) for raising his +hand too high, amid a scene of excitement that almost equalled +a tumult. Overhand bowling was legalized on the 10th of June +1864 after strenuous opposition. In early days much importance +was attached to great pace, but the success of the slow lobbing +bowling (pitched up underhand) led to its cultivation; in both +styles some of the best performers delivered the ball with a +curious high action, thrusting the ball, as it were, from close under +the arm-pit. When the advantages of bias (or twist, or break) +were first known is not closely recorded, but we read of one +Lamborn who (about 1800) could make the ball break from leg +so that “the Kent and Surrey men could not tell what to make +of that cursed twist of his.” Whatever the pace of bowling, +accuracy is the essential point, or, more correctly, the power of +accurately varying pace, pitch and direction, so that the batsman +is never at peace. If the bowler is a mere machine, the batsman +soon becomes his master; but the question as to which of the +two is supreme depends very largely on the condition of the +turf, whether it be hard and true, soft and wet, hard and rough +or soft and drying: the first pair of conditions favour the batsmen, +the second pair the bowler.</p> + +<p>The immense amount of labour and expense devoted to the +preparation and care of cricket grounds has produced during +the past quarter of a century a perfection of smoothness in the +turf which has materially altered the character of the game. On +the rough and fiery pitches of earlier days, on which a “long +stop” was indispensable, the behaviour of the ball could not be +reckoned upon by the batsman with any degree of confidence. +The first ball of an “over” might be a “shooter,” never rising +as much as an inch off the ground, the next might bound over +his head, and the third pursue some equally eccentric course. +But on the best grounds of to-day, subject to the well-understood +changes due to weather, the bound of the ball is so regular as +to be calculable with reasonable certainty by the batsman. +The result has been that in fine weather, when wickets are true +and fast, bowlers have become increasingly powerless to defeat +the batsmen. In other words the defence has been strengthened +out of proportion to the attack. Bowlers have consequently to +a great extent abandoned all attempt to bowl the wicket down, +aiming instead at effecting their purpose by bowling close to but +clear of the wicket, with the design of getting the batsman to +give catches. Many batsmen of the stubbornly defensive type, +known in cricket slang as “stonewallers,” retaliated by leaving +such balls alone together, or stopping them deliberately with the +legs instead of the bat.</p> + +<p>These tactics caused the game to become very slow; over after +over was bowled without an attempt being made to score a run +and without apparent prospect of getting a wicket. This not +only injured the popularity of the game from the spectator’s +point of view, but, in conjunction with the enormous scores that +became common in dry seasons, made it so difficult to finish a +match within the three days to which first-class matches in +England are invariably limited, that nearly 70% of the total +number of fixtures in some seasons were drawn. Cricketers of +an older generation have complained that the cause of this is +partly to be found in the amount of time wasted by contemporary +cricketers. These critics see no reason why half of a summer’s +day should be allowed to elapse before cricket begins, and they +comment with some scorn on the interval for tea, and the +fastidiousness with which play is frequently interrupted on +account of imperfect light or for other unimperative reasons. +Various suggestions have been made, including proposals for +enlarging the wicket, for enabling the attack to hold its own +against the increasing strength of the defence. But the M.C.C., +the only recognized source of cricket legislation, has displayed +a cautious but wise conservatism, due to the fact that its authority +rests on no sanction more formal than that of prestige tacitly +admitted by the cricketing world; and consequently no drastic +changes have been made in the laws of the game, the only important +amendments of recent years being that which now +permits a side to close its innings voluntarily under certain +conditions, and that which, in substitution for the former hard +and fast rule for the “follow on,” has given an option in the +matter to the side possessing the requisite lead on the first +innings.</p> + +<p><i>Early Players.</i>—If the era of the present form of cricket can +very properly be dated from the visit of the first Australian team +to England in 1878, some enumeration must be made of a few of +the cricketers who took part in first-class matches in the earlier +portion of the 19th century. Among amateurs should be noted +the two fast bowlers, Sir F. H. Bathurst (1807-1881; Eton, +Hampshire), and Harvey Fellowes (b. 1826; Eton); the +batsman N. Felix (1804-1876; Surrey and Kent), who was +a master of “cutting” and one of the earliest to adopt batting +gloves; the cricketing champion of his time Alfred Mynn (1807-1861; +Kent); and the keen player F. P. Miller (1828-1875; +Surrey). The three Marshams, Rev. C. D. Marsham (b. 1835), +R. H. B. Marsham (b. 1833) and G. Marsham (b. 1849), all of +Eton and Oxford, were as famous as the Studds in the ’eighties; +and R. Hankey (1832-1886; Harrow and Oxford) was a great +scorer. In the next generation one of the greatest bats of his +own or any time was R. A. H. Mitchell (1843-1905; Eton, Oxford, +Hants). A very attractive run-getter was C. F. Buller (b. +1846; Harrow, Middlesex); an all too brief career was that +of C. J. Ottaway (1850-1878; Eton, Oxford, Kent and Middlesex); +whilst A. Lubbock (b. 1845; Eton, Kent) was a sound bat, +and D. Buchanan (1830-1900; Rugby and Cambridge) a destructive +bowler, as was also A. Appleby (1843-1902; Lancashire).</p> + +<p>Of the professionals, Fuller Pilch (1803-1870) and E. G. +Wenman (1803-1897) were great bats; T. Box (1808-1876) the +most skilled wicket-keeper of his time; W. Lillywhite (1792- +1854), one of the first round-arm bowlers, renowned for the +accuracy of his pitch, and W. Clark (1798-1856) possessed +wonderful variety of pace and pitch. It was the last-named who +organized the All England Eleven, and he was not chosen to +represent the players until he had reached the age of forty-seven. +George Parr (1826-1891), the greatest leg-hitter in England, had +no professional rival until the advent of Richard Daft (1835- +1900). J. Dean (1816-1891) was the finest long-stop, Julius +Caesar (1830-1878) a hard clean hitter, as was G. Anderson (1826-1902), +and T. Lockyer (1826-1869) seems to have been the first +prominent wicket-keeper who took balls wide on the leg-side. +Of bowlers, E. Willsher (1828-1885) would seem to have been the +most difficult, W. Martingell (1818-1897) being a very good +medium-paced bowler, and J. Wisden (1826-1884) a very fast +bowler but short in his length. Four famous bowlers of a later +date are George Freeman (1844-1895), J. Jackson (1833-1901), +G. Tarrant (1838-1870) and G. Wootton (b. 1834). With them +must be mentioned the great batsmen, T. Hayward (1835-1876) +and R. Carpenter (1830-1901), as well as two other keen cricketers, +H. H. Stephenson (1833-1896) and T. Hearne (1826-1900).</p> + +<p>Since the first half of the 19th century the sort of cricket to +engage public attention has very greatly changed, and the change +has become emphasized since the exchange of visits between +Australian and English teams has become an established feature +of first-class cricket. First-class cricket has become more formal, +more serious and more spectacular. The contest for the county +championship has introduced an annual competition, closely +followed by the public, between standing rivals familiar with each +other’s play and record; an increased importance has become +attached to “averages” and “records,” and it is felt by some +that the purely sporting side of the game has been damaged by +the change. Professionalism has increased, and it is an open +secret that not a few players who appear before the public as +amateurs derive an income under some pretext or other from +the game. Cricket on the village green has in many parts of the +country almost ceased to exist, while immense crowds congregate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>441</span> +to watch county matches in the great towns; but this must no +doubt be in part attributed to the movement of population from +the country districts; and some compensation is to be found in +league cricket (see below), and in the numerous clubs for the +employees of business firms and large shops, and for the members +of social institutes of all kinds, which play matches in the suburbs +of London and other cities. At an earlier period two great professional +organizations, “The All England,” formed in 1846, and +“The United All England,” toured the country, mainly for profit, +playing local sides in which “given men,” generally good professional +players, figured. They did much good work in popularizing +the game, and an annual match between the two at +Lord’s on Whit-Monday was once a great feature of the season; +but the increase of county cricket led eventually to their +disbandment.</p> + +<p>At this period, and much later, the first-class matches of +“M.C.C. and ground” (<i>i.e.</i> ground-staff, or professionals attached +to the club) occupied a far greater amount of importance than is +at present the case. In recent years over 150 minor matches of +the utmost value in propagating the best interests of cricket are +annually played by the leading club. League cricket has of late +become exceedingly popular, especially in the North of England, +a number of clubs—about twelve to sixteen—combining to form +a “League” and playing home-and-home matches, each one +with each of the others in turn; points are scored according as +each club wins, loses, or draws matches, the championship of the +“League” being thus decided.</p> + +<p><i>English County Cricket.</i>—The first English inter-county +match which is recorded was played on Richmond Green in +1730 between Surrey and Middlesex; but for very many years, +though counties played counties, there was no systematic organization, +matches often being played at odds or with “given” +players, who had no county connexion with the side they represented. +This was the natural outcome of the custom of playing +for stakes. It was not till 1872 that any real effort was made +to organize county cricket. In that year the M.C.C. took the +initiative by offering a cup for competition between the counties, +six of which were to be selected by the M.C.C., the matches to +be played at Lord’s, but the scheme fell through owing to the +coolness of the counties themselves. It was only in 1890 that the +counties were formally and officially classified, Notts (the county +club dating from 1859), Lancashire (1864), Surrey (1845), Kent +(1842), Middlesex (1864), Gloucestershire (1869), Yorkshire +(1862), and Sussex (1839), being regarded as “first-class,” as +indeed had been the case from the time of their existence; and +by degrees other counties were promoted to this class; Somerset +in 1893; Derbyshire, Essex, Leicestershire, Warwickshire in +1894; Hampshire in 1895; Worcestershire in 1899; Northamptonshire +in 1905.</p> + +<p>In 1887 the County Cricket Council had been formed, working +with and not against the Marylebone Club, for the management +of county cricket, but the council dissolved itself in 1890, and +it was then arranged that the county secretaries and delegates +should meet and discuss such matters, and request the M.C.C. to +consider the result of their deliberations, and practically to act +as patron and arbitrator. In 1905 an Advisory Cricket Committee +was formed “with the co-operation of the counties, with +a view to improve the procedure in dealing with important +matters arising out of the development of cricket, the effect of +which will be” (the quotation is from the annual report of M.C.C. +in 1905) “to bring the counties into closer touch with the +M.C.C.” Various methods have been tried as to the assignment +of points or marks, the following being the list of champion +counties up to 1909:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc">1864</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Surrey</td> <td class="tcc">1873</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Surrey</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1865</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Notts</td> <td class="tcc">1874</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Gloucestershire</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1866</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Middlesex</td> <td class="tcc">1875</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Notts</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1867</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td> <td class="tcc">1876</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Gloucestershire</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1868</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td> <td class="tcc">1877</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Gloucestershire</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1869</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Notts</td> <td class="tcc">1878</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Notts</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1870</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td> <td class="tcc">1879</td> <td class="tcl">Lancashire</td> <td class="tccm" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 3em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #657383;">}</span>equal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1871</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Notts</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcl">Notts</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1872</td> <td class="tcl">Surrey</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 3em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #657383;">}</span>equal</td> <td class="tcc">1880</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Notts</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcl">Gloucestershire</td> <td class="tcc">1881</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Lancashire</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1882</td> <td class="tcl">Lancashire</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 3em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #657383;">}</span>equal</td> <td class="tcc">1895</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Surrey</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcl">Notts</td> <td class="tcc">1896</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1883</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td> <td class="tcc">1897</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Lancashire</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1884</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Notts</td> <td class="tcc">1898</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1885</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Notts</td> <td class="tcc">1899</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Surrey</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1886</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Notts</td> <td class="tcc">1900</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1887</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Surrey</td> <td class="tcc">1901</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1888</td> <td class="tcl">Surrey</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 3em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #657383;">}</span>equal</td> <td class="tcc">1902</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcl">Notts</td> <td class="tcc">1903</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Middlesex</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1889</td> <td class="tcl">Lancashire</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 3em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #657383;">}</span>equal</td> <td class="tcc">1904</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Lancashire</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcl">Surrey</td> <td class="tcc">1905</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1890</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Surrey</td> <td class="tcc">1906</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Kent</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1891</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Surrey</td> <td class="tcc">1907</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Notts</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1892</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Surrey</td> <td class="tcc">1908</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1893</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td> <td class="tcc">1909</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Kent</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1894</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Surrey</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>English county cricket is now the most firmly established cricketing +institution in the world, but in its earlier stages it owed much in +different counties to enthusiastic individuals and famous +cricketing families whose energies were devoted to its +<span class="sidenote">The Graces and Gloucestershire.</span> +encouragement and support. To Gloucestershire belongs +the honour of the greatest name in the history of the game. +Dr W. G. Grace (<i>q.v.</i>) was not only the most brilliant all-round +cricketer in the world, but he remained supreme after reaching +an age when most cricketers have long abandoned the game. He +and his two famous brothers, E. M. Grace (b. 1841) and G. F. Grace +(1850-1880), rendered invaluable service to their county for many +years; and not to their county alone, for the great part they played +for a generation in first-class cricket did much to increase the growing +popularity of the county fixtures. A separate article is devoted to +Dr W. G. Grace, whose name as the champion of the game will +always be associated with its history. And of Dr E. M. Grace it +may be mentioned that, besides being the most daring field at +“point” ever seen, he altogether took 11,092 wickets and scored +75,625 runs. In more recent years some excellent cricketers +have been associated with Gloucestershire, such as F. Townsend, +and the professional Board; but foremost stands G. L. Jessop, +a somewhat “unorthodox” batsman famous for his powers of +hitting.</p> + +<p>What W. G. Grace did for Gloucestershire, Lord Harris (b. 1851) +did for Kent, and his services are not to be estimated by his performances +in the field alone, great as they were. His influence +was always exerted to impart a spirit of sportsmanship +<span class="sidenote">Kent.</span> +and honourable distinction to the national game. Kent had been a +home of cricket since the first half of the 18th century, but it was +Lord Harris more than any other individual who made it a first-class +county, celebrated for the number of distinguished amateurs who +have taken part in its matches. The Hon. Ivo Bligh, afterwards +Lord Darnley (b. 1859), and F. Marchant (b. 1864), both Etonians +like Lord Harris himself; the two Harrovians, W. H. Patterson +(b. 1859) and M. C. Kemp (b. 1862), and the Wykehamist J. R. +Mason (b. 1874) are names that show the place taken by public +school men in the annals of Kent cricket, while the family of Hearnes +supplied the county with some famous professionals. Amateur +batsmen like W. Rashleigh, C. J. Burnup, E. W. Dillon and A. P. +Day have been prominent in the Kent eleven; and in Fielder and +Blythe they have had two first-class professional bowlers. The +“Kent nursery” at Tonbridge has proved a valuable institution for +training young professional players, and contributed not a little to +the rising reputation of Kent, which justified itself when the county +won the championship in 1906, largely owing to the admirable +batting of the amateur K. L. Hutchings.</p> + +<p>Middlesex and Lancashire, not less than Kent, have been indebted +to the great public schools, and especially to Harrow, which provided +both counties with famous captains who directed their +fortunes for an uninterrupted period of over twenty years. +<span class="sidenote">Middlesex and Lancashire.</span> +I. D. Walker, the most celebrated of seven cricketing +brothers, all Harrovians, who founded the Middlesex +County Club, handed on the captaincy, after a personal record of +astonishing brilliancy, to a younger Harrow and Oxford cricketer, +A. J. Webbe, who was one of the finest leg-hitters and one of the +safest out-fielders of his day, and a captain of consummate judgment +and knowledge of the game. A. N. Hornby, a contemporary at +Harrow of I. D. Walker, was for many years the soul of Lancashire +cricket, and was succeeded in the captaincy of the county by the +still more famous Harrovian, A. C. MacLaren, one of the greatest +batsmen in the history of cricket, whose record for England in test +matches against Australia was almost unrivalled. In 1895, when he +headed the batting averages, MacLaren made the highest individual +score in a first-class match, viz. 424 against Somersetshire. Middlesex +has also the distinction of having produced the two greatest amateur +wicket-keepers in the history of English cricket, namely, the Hon. +Alfred Lyttelton (b. 1857) and Gregor MacGregor, both of whom, +after playing for Cambridge University, gave their services to the +Metropolitan county; while Lancashire can boast of the greatest +professional wicket-keeper in Richard Pilling (1855-1891), whose +reputation has not been eclipsed by that of the most proficient of +more recent years. Another famous Cambridge University cricketer, +a contemporary of Lyttelton, who was invaluable to Lancashire for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442"></a>442</span> +some years when he was one of the very finest all-round cricketers +in the country, was A. G. Steel (b. 1858), equally brilliant as a batsman +and as a slow bowler; and other names memorable in Lancashire +cricket were R. G. Barlow (b. 1859), whose stubborn batting +was a striking contrast to the rapid run-getting of Hornby and the +perfect style of Steel; John Briggs (1862-1902), whose slow left-hand +bowling placed him at the head of the bowling averages in +1890; John Crossland (1853-1903) and A. Mold (b. 1865), both of +whom were destructive fast bowlers; J. T. Tyldesley and R. H. +Spooner, both among the most brilliant batsmen of a later generation; +and W. Brearley, the amateur fast bowler.</p> + +<p>Middlesex, like Kent, has been better served by amateurs than +professionals. Indeed, with the notable exceptions of J. T. Hearne, +who headed the bowling averages in 1891, 1896 and 1898, and of the +imported Australian A. E. Trott, few professionals of high merit are +conspicuously associated with the history of the county cricket. +Trott, in 1899 and again in 1900, performed the previously unprecedented +feat of taking over two hundred wickets and scoring over +one thousand runs in the same season. And in his “benefit match” +in May 1907 at Lord’s he achieved the “hat trick” twice in one +innings, taking first four and then three wickets with successive +balls. But if there has been a dearth of professionals in Middlesex +cricket, the county has produced an abundance of celebrated +amateurs. In addition to the Walkers and A. J. Webbe, the metropolitan +county was the home of the celebrated hitter, C. I. Thornton, +and of the Studd family, who learnt their cricket at Eton and +Cambridge University. C. T. Studd, one of the most polished +batsmen who ever played cricket, was at the same time an excellent +medium-paced bowler, and his brother G. B. Studd is remembered +especially for his fielding, though like his elder brother, J. E. K. +Studd, he was an all-round cricketer of the greatest value to a +county team. Sir T. C. O’Brien, who made his reputation by a fine +innings for Oxford University against the Australian team of 1882, +sustained it in the following years by many brilliant performances +for Middlesex. A. E. Stoddart for several years was the best run-getter +in the Middlesex eleven; and W. J. Ford and his younger +brother, F. G. J. Ford, were conspicuous among many prominent +Middlesex batsmen. In more recent times the Oxonian P. F. Warner +(b. 1873), both as captain and as batsman, did splendid work; and +B. J. T. Bosanquet, besides assisting powerfully with the bat, +became famous for inaugurating a new style of curly bowling +(“googlies”) of a very effective type.</p> + +<p>A glance at the table given above shows the high place occupied +by Surrey in the past. Surrey county cricket can be traced as far +back as 1730. Pycroft observes that “the name of Surrey +as one united county club is quite lost in the annals of +<span class="sidenote">Surrey.</span> +cricket from 1817 to 1845.” But before that date two of the most +celebrated cricketers, William Lillywhite and Fuller Pilch, had +occasionally played for the county, and so also had James Broadbridge +(1796-1843) and W. Lambert (1779-1851). Kennington Oval +became the Surrey county ground in 1845, the property being leased +from the duchy of Cornwall; and in the years immediately following +the county team included H. H. Stephenson (1833-1896), Caffyn +(b. 1828), N. Felix, and Lockyer (1826-1869); among a later generation +appeared such well-remembered names as Jupp, Southerton, +Pooley and R. Humphrey. After being champion county in 1873, +Surrey did not again attain the same position for fourteen years, +but for the next ten years maintained an almost uninterrupted +supremacy. The greatest credit was due to the energetic direction +of J. Shuter (b. 1855), who kept together a remarkable combination +of cricketers, such as W. W. Read (1855-1906), Maurice Read (b. +1859), George Lohmann (1865-1901), and Robert Abel (b. 1859), +all of whom were among the greatest players of their period. Lohmann +in 1885-1890 would alone have made any side famous; and +in the same years when he was heading the bowling averages and +proving himself the most deadly bowler in the country, W. W. Read +was performing prodigies of batting. No sooner did the latter begin +to decline in power than Abel took his place at the head of the +batting averages, scoring with astonishing consistency in 1897-1900. +In 1899 he made 357 not out in an innings against Somersetshire, +and in 1901 his aggregate of 3309 was the largest then compiled. +The Oxonian K. J. Key was another famous batsman whose services +as captain were also exceedingly valuable to the county. An almost +inexhaustible supply of professionals of the very highest class has +been at Surrey’s service. W. Lockwood (b. 1868) became almost as +deadly a bowler as Lohmann, and Tom Richardson (b. 1870) was the +terror of all Surrey’s opponents for several seasons after 1893. +Richardson took in all no less than 1340 wickets at the cost of 20,000 +runs. Tom Hayward (b. 1867), nephew of the renowned Cambridge +professional of the same name, succeeded Abel as the leading Surrey +batsman, his play in the test matches of 1899, when he averaged 65, +being superb. During the following years his reputation was fully +maintained, and in 1906 he had a particularly successful season. +Key was followed in the captaincy by D. L. A. Jephson, but the +county did not in the opening years of the 20th century maintain +the high place it occupied during the last quarter of the 19th. It +possessed some excellent professionals, however, in Hayes, Hobbs +and Lees, and the season of 1906, under the captaincy of Lord +Dalmeny, showed a revival, a new fast bowler being found in N. A. +Knox, and a fine batsman and bowler in J. N. Crawford.</p> + +<p>Several of the celebrated cricketers of early times already mentioned +as having played for the Surrey club were more closely +associated with the adjoining county of Sussex, whose +records go back as far as 1734, in which year a match was +<span class="sidenote">Sussex.</span> +played against Kent, the chief promoters of which were the duke +of Richmond and Sir William Gage. One of the earliest famous +cricketers, Richard Newland (d. 1791), was a Sussex man; and James +Broadbridge, W. Lambert, Tom Box, and the great Lillywhite +family were all members of the Sussex county team. Lambert, in +a match against Epsom, played at Lord’s in 1817, made a “century” +(one hundred runs) in each innings, a feat not repeated in first-class +cricket for fifty years; and the occasion was the first when the +aggregate of a thousand runs was scored in a match. Broadbridge +played for Sussex in five reigns, while Box (1808-1876) kept wicket +for the county for twenty-four years without missing a match. +Notwithstanding this distinguished history, Sussex never attained +the highest place in the county rivalry, and for a number of years +towards the end of the 19th century the left-handed batting of F. M. +Lucas (1860-1887) alone saved the county from complete insignificance. +A revival came when W. L. Murdoch (b. 1855), of Australian +celebrity, qualified for Sussex; and at a still later date the fortunes +of the county were raised by the inclusion in its eleven of Kumar +Shri Ranjitsinhji, afterwards H.H. the Jam of Nawanagar (b. 1872), +the Indian prince, who had played for Cambridge University. +Ranjitsinhji’s dexterity, grace and style were unrivalled. He +scored 2780 runs in 1896, averaging 57, while in county matches in +1899 his aggregate was 2555, with an average of 75. Even this +performance was beaten in 1900 when he scored a total of 2563 runs, +giving an average for the season of 83. In all matches his aggregates +were 3159 in 1899, and 3065 in 1900. Not less remarkable was the +cricket of C. B. Fry (b. 1872), who came from Oxford University to +become a mainstay of Sussex cricket, and who in 1901 performed +the unparalleled feat of scoring in successive innings 106, 209, 149, +105, 140 and 105, his aggregate for the season being 3147 with an +average of 78. In 1905 his average for Sussex was 86, but in the +following year an accident kept him out of the cricket field throughout +the season; and in 1909 he transferred his services to Hampshire.</p> + +<p>If Kent and Middlesex may be described as the counties of +amateurs, Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire should be called the +counties of famous professionals. Between 1864 and +1889 Nottinghamshire was champion county twelve times +<span class="sidenote">Notts.</span> +and the county eleven was as a rule composed almost entirely of +professional players, among whom have been many of the greatest +names in the history of the game. Richard Daft (1835-1900), after +playing as an amateur, became a professional in preference to +abandoning the game, scorning to resort to any of the pretexts by +which cricketers have been known to accept payment for their +services while continuing to cling to the status of the amateur. +William Oscroft (1843-1905) was one of Nottinghamshire’s early +batting heroes, and in Alfred Shaw (b. 1842) and F. Morley (1850-1884) +the county possessed an invaluable pair of bowlers. William +Gunn (b. 1858), besides being a magnificent fielder “in the country,” +was an exceptionally able batsman; but his performances did not +equal those of his greater contemporary, Arthur Shrewsbury, who in +six years between 1885 and 1892 headed the English batting averages. +Shrewsbury’s perfect style combined with inexhaustible patience +placed him in the front rank of the “classical” batsmen of English +cricket. Of the batsmen nicknamed “stonewallers,” who at one time +endangered the popularity of first-class cricket, was W. Scotton +(1856-1893); and among the other numerous professionals whose +cricket contributed to the renown of Nottinghamshire were Barnes +(1852-1899), at times a most formidable bat; Flowers (b. 1856), +always useful both with the bat and the ball; W. Attewell (b. 1861), +a remarkably steady bowler who bowled an abnormal number of +maiden overs; Mordecai Sherwin (b. 1851), an excellent successor +to T. Plumb (b. 1833) and F. Wild (1847-1893) as wicket-keeper +for the county; and among more recent players, J. Iremonger (b. +1877) and John Gunn, both of whom proved themselves cricketers +worthy of the Notts traditions. J. A. Dixon (b. 1861), one of the +few amateurs of the Nottinghamshire records, was for some time +captain of the county team; and he was succeeded by A. O. Jones +(b. 1873), a dashing batsman, who in 1899 was partner with Shrewsbury +when the pair scored 391 for the first wicket in a match against +Gloucestershire.</p> + +<p>The history of Yorkshire cricket is modern in comparison with +that of Surrey, Sussex or Kent. The county club only dates from +1861, and for some years the team was composed entirely +of professionals. But though Yorkshire attained the +<span class="sidenote">Yorkshire.</span> +championship three times during the first ten years of the county +club’s existence, thirteen years elapsed after 1870 before it again +occupied the place of honour. In the ten years 1896-1906 Yorkshire +was no less than six times at the head of the list, this position of +supremacy being in no small measure due to the captaincy of Lord +Hawke (b. 1860), who played continuously for the county from his +university days for more than twenty years, and whose influence on +Yorkshire cricket was unique. But before his time Yorkshire had +already produced some notable cricketers, such as George Ulyett +(1857-1898), who headed the batting averages in 1878, and who +was also a fine fast bowler; Louis Hall (b. 1852), a patient bat; +and another excellent scorer, Ephraim Lockwood (b. 1845). William +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443"></a>443</span> +Bates (1855-1900), too, was effective both as batsman and bowler; +and Tom Emmett (1841-1904), long proverbial for bowling “a +wide and a wicket,” was deservedly popular. To the earlier period +belonged two fast bowlers, George Freeman (1844-1895) and Allan +Hill (b. 1845), and the eminent wicket-keeper Pincher (1841-1903), +who was succeeded by J. Hunter (1857-1891), and later by his +brother Daniel Hunter (b. 1862). The full effect of Lord Hawke’s +energetic captaincy was seen in 1900, when Yorkshire played through +a programme of twenty-eight fixtures without sustaining a defeat; +and the county’s record was but little inferior in both the following +years and again in 1905, in each of which years it retained the +championship. It was during this period that as notable a group of +cricketers wore the Yorkshire colours as ever appeared in county +matches. Edmund Peate (1856-1900), one of the finest bowlers +in his day, did not survive to take part in the later triumphs of his +county; but the period beginning in 1890 saw J. T. Brown, J. Tunnicliffe, +R. Peel, W. Rhodes, George Hirst and the Hon. F. S. Jackson +in the field. The two first named became famous for their first +wicket partnerships. In 1896 in a match against Middlesex at Lord’s +these two batsmen scored 139 before being separated in the first +innings, and in the second knocked off the 147 required to win the +match. In the following year they made 378 for the first wicket +against Surrey, and during their careers they scored over a hundred +for the first wicket on no less than fifteen occasions, the greatest feat +of all being in 1898, when they beat the world’s record by staying +together till 554 runs had been compiled. Peel was for many years +an untiring bowler, and Yorkshire was fortunate in discovering a +successor of even superior skill in Wilfrid Rhodes, who in 1900 took +over 200 wickets at a cost of 12 runs each in county matches alone, +and was also an excellent bat. Hirst and Jackson were the two +finest all-round cricketers in England about 1905. The Hon. F. S. +Jackson (b. 1870), like his fellow-Harrovian A. C. MacLaren, had a +wonderful record in test matches against Australia; he captained the +England eleven in 1905, and his wonderful nerve enabled him to +extricate his side when in a difficulty, and to render his best service +at an emergency. Hirst (b. 1871) in 1904 and in 1905 scored over +2000 runs and took more than 100 wickets; and in 1906 he surpassed +all previous records by scoring over 2000 runs and taking over 200 +wickets during the season. A concourse of 78,000 people watched +his “benefit” match (Yorkshire against Lancashire) in August 1904. +Besides cricketers like these, such fine players were included in the +team as Wainwright (b. 1865), Haigh (b. 1871), Denton (b. 1874), +and E. Smith (b. 1869); with such material the Yorkshire eleven +had no “tail,” and was able to win the championship six times in +a decade.</p> + +<p>Somersetshire hardly fulfilled the promise held out by the success +achieved in the closing decade of the 19th century; this had been +largely owing to the captaincy and brilliant batting of +H. T. Hewett (b. 1864), who in partnership with L. C. H. +<span class="sidenote">Somersetshire.</span> +Palairet (b. 1870), famous for his polished style, scored +346 for the first wicket in a match against Yorkshire in 1892. Hewett +was succeeded in the command of the county eleven by the Cambridge +fast bowler, S. M. J. Woods (b. 1868); and among other members +of the eleven the most valuable was L. C. Braund (b. 1876), a professional +who excelled as an all-round cricketer.</p> + +<p>The counties above referred to are those which have figured most +prominently in the history of county cricket. Individual players of +the highest excellence are, however, to be found from time +to time in all parts of the country. Warwickshire, for +<span class="sidenote">Minor counties.</span> +example, can boast of having had in A. A. Lilley (b. 1867) +the best wicket-keeper of his day, who represented England +against Australia in the test matches; while Worcestershire produced +one of the best all-round professionals in the country for a +number of years in Arnold (b. 1877), and a batsman of extreme +brilliancy in R. E. Foster, a member of a cricketing family to whom +belongs the credit of raising Worcestershire into a cricketing county +of the first class. Derbyshire, similarly, can claim some well-known +cricket names, the bowler W. Mycroft (1841-1894), W. Chatterton +(b. 1863), and W. Storer (b. 1868), a first-class wicket-keeper. Essex +possesses at Leyton one of the best county grounds in the country, +and the club was helped over financial difficulties by the munificent +support of an old Uppingham and Cambridge cricketer, C. E. Green. +It has produced a fair number of excellent players, notably the batsmen +P. Perrin, C. MacGahey, and the fast bowler C. J. Kortright; +and A. P. Lucas, afterwards a member of the county club, was a +famous cricketer who played for England in 1880 in the first Australian +test match. Hampshire had a fine batsman in Captain E. G. Wynyard, +and its annals are conspicuous for the phenomenal scores made +during the single season of 1899 by Major R. M. Poore; these two +put together 411 against Somersetshire in that year before being +separated. Among the later Hants professionals, Llewellyn was most +prominent.</p> + +<p>The distribution of cricketing ability in England might be the +subject of some interesting speculation. In the first forty years +of the annual competition for the championship six counties alone +gained the coveted distinction, and three of these, Surrey, Notts and +Yorkshire, won it thirty-four times between them. Why, it may be +asked, is it that one county excels in the game while another has no +place whatever in the history of cricket? How comes it that great +names recur continually in the annals of Surrey and Yorkshire, for +example, while those of Berkshire and Lincolnshire are entirely +barren? No doubt proximity to great centres of population favours +the cultivation of the game, but in this respect Kent and Sussex are +no better situated than Hertfordshire, nor does it account for Nottinghamshire +having so illustrious a record while Staffordshire has none +at all, nor for Somersetshire having outclassed Devon. It is strange, +moreover, that while the universities are the chief training-grounds +for amateur cricketers, neither Oxfordshire nor Cambridgeshire has +made any mark among the counties. The influence of individuals +and families, such as the Graces in Gloucestershire, the Walkers in +Middlesex, and in recent times the Fosters in Worcestershire, has +of course been of inestimable benefit to cricket in those counties; +but Buckinghamshire and Norfolk and Cheshire send their sons to +the public schools and universities no less than Lancashire or Kent. +It is difficult, therefore, to understand why county cricket should +so persistently confine itself to a small number of counties; but +such is the fact.</p> + +<p>Cricket has never flourished vigorously in Scotland, Ireland or +Wales, a fact that may partly be accounted for by the comparative +difficulty of obtaining good grounds in those parts of the kingdom, +and by the inferiority, for the purpose of cricket, of their climate. +In the south of Scotland, and especially in the neighbourhood of +Edinburgh, there are clubs which keep the game alive; and Scotland, +though it has produced no great cricketers, either amateur or professional, +has sent a few players to the English university elevens +who have found places in English county teams. In Ireland cricket +is fairly popular, especially in those parts of the island where local +sides can obtain assistance from soldiers quartered in the neighbourhood. +One or two counties play annual matches, that between +Kildare and Cork in particular exciting keen rivalry. Trinity +College, Dublin, has turned out some excellent players; and the +Phoenix and Leinster clubs in Dublin, and the North of Ireland club +in Belfast, play a full programme of matches every season. D. N. +Trotter, who played for county Meath for many years towards the +close of the 19th century, was a batsman who would have found a +place in any English county eleven; so also would William Hone, +one of several brothers all of whom were keen and skilful cricketers. +About the same period Lieutenant Dunn scored so many centuries +in Irish cricket that he was played, though without any great success, +for his native county of Surrey. More recently L. H. Gwynn (1873-1902) +batted in a style and with a success that proved him capable +of great things. Sir T. C. O’Brien, though an Irishman, belongs as a +cricketer to Middlesex; but T. C. Ross, who was chosen to play for +Gentlemen v. Players at Lord’s in 1902, was a bowler who played +regularly for county Kildare.</p> + +<p><i>Gentlemen v. Players.</i>—The most important match of the year as +far as purely English cricket is concerned is the match between the +gentlemen and players (amateurs and professionals) played at Lord’s. +For many years a match played between sides similarly composed +at the Oval excited equal interest, but latterly county cricket has +rather starved this particular game, though it still continues as a +popular fixture. Other matches with the same title have been played +in London on Prince’s Ground (now built over), and at Brighton, +Hastings and Scarborough and elsewhere, but those games in no +way rank with the London matches.</p> + +<p>The Lord’s fixture was first established in 1806, in which year two +matches were played; it became annual in 1819, but in those days +the amateurs, being no match for their opponents, generally received +odds, while in 1832 they defended wickets 22 in. by 6, and in 1837 +the professionals stood in front of wickets of four stumps, measuring +in all 36 in. by 12 in. This match was known as “The Barndoor +Match” or “Ward’s Folly,” and the professionals won by an innings +and 10 runs. Odds were not given after 1838, the gentlemen having +then won eight matches and lost thirteen. From 1839 to 1866 the +gentlemen only won 7 matches as compared with 21 losses. In 1867 +the tide turned, for the brothers Grace, especially Dr W. G. Grace, +became a power in the cricket-field, and from 1867 to 1884 the +gentlemen, winning fifteen matches, only lost one. From 1885 the +balance swung round, and by 1903 the professionals had won eleven +matches and lost but four. The gentlemen won on nine successive +occasions between 1874 and 1884, a draw intervening; while beginning +with 1854 the professionals won eleven matches “off the reel.” +The professionals won in 1860 by an innings and no less than 181 +runs; in 1900 they only won by two wickets, but to do so had to +make, and did make, 501 runs in the last innings of the match. In +1903 the gentlemen, heavily in arrears after each side had played an +innings, actually scored 500 in their second innings with only two +men out. In 1904 the gentlemen won by two wickets after being +156 runs behind on the first innings, thanks to fine play by K. S. +Ranjitsinhji and A. O. Jones. J. H. King had scored a century in +each innings, a feat previously only performed by R. E. Foster in +1900. C. B. Fry’s 232 not out in 1903 was the largest innings scored +in the match. Dr W. G. Grace, who is credited with eight centuries, +is the only cricketer who exceeded the hundred more than twice at +Lord’s in the fixture, 164 by J. T. Brown being the highest innings +by a professional. There were seven instances before 1864 of two +bowlers being unchanged in the match, and the Hon. F. S. Jackson +and S. M. J. Woods repeated this in 1894. The Oval match was first +played in 1857. The amateurs effected their first win in 1866, and +though several games were drawn the professionals did not win again +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444"></a>444</span> +till 1880. As at Lord’s, it was the era of Grace, but from this point +the amateurs could only win two matches, and by the narrowest of +margins, till 1903, this making their sum of victories up to then +thirteen, as opposed to twenty-three. In 1879 the gentlemen won +in one innings by 126 runs, the heaviest beating that one side had +inflicted on the other. The highest individual score was Robert +Abel’s 247, and the next Dr W. G. Grace’s 215. Hayward scored +203 in 1904; A. G. Steel and A. H. Evans bowled unchanged in +1879.</p> + +<p><i>School and Club Cricket.</i>—Cricket is the standing summer game +at every English private and public school, where it is taught as +carefully and systematically as either classics or mathematics. There +are also numbers of amateur clubs which possess no grounds of their +own and are connected with no particular locality, but which are in +fact mere associations of cricketers who play matches against the +universities, schools or local teams, or against each other. Of these +the best known, perhaps, is I Zingari (The Wanderers), popularly +known as I.Z., whose well-known colours, red, yellow and black +stripes, are prized rather as a social than as a cricketing distinction. +This club was founded in 1845 by Lorraine Baldwin and Sir Spencer +Ponsonby-Fane. The first rule of the club humorously declares that +“the entrance fee shall be nothing, and the annual subscription +shall not exceed the entrance fee.” It is a rule of the club that no +member shall play on the opposing side. I.Z. has long been connected +with the social festivities forming a feature of the “Canterbury +Week,” a cricket festival held at Canterbury during the first +week in August, of the Scarborough week, and of the Dublin horse-show. +Dr W. G. Grace, who almost invariably appeared in the +cricket field wearing the red and yellow stripes of the M.C.C., and +some other notable amateurs, never belonged to I.Z. or any similar +club; but Dr Grace was instrumental in the formation of the London +county club, whose ground was at the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. +Other amateur clubs, similar to I Zingari, are the Free Foresters, +Incogniti, Etceteras, and in Ireland Na Shuler; while the Eton +Ramblers, Harrow Wanderers, Old Wykehamists, and others are +clubs whose membership is restricted to “old boys.”</p> + +<p>The Oxford and Cambridge universities match was first played in +1827, but was not an annual fixture till 1838. Five matches, those +of 1829, 1843, 1846, 1848 and 1850, were played at Oxford, the rest +at Lord’s. The “’Varsity match,” and that between the two great +public schools, Eton and Harrow, are great “society” events at +Lord’s every summer. Up to 1909 Eton won thirty times, and +Harrow on thirty-five occasions. D. C. Boles by scoring 183 in +1904 set up a new record for this match, beating the 152 obtained +in 1841 by Emilius Bayley (afterwards the Rev. Sir John Robert +Laurie); and in 1907 the Harrow captain, M. C. Bird, established a +further record by scoring over a hundred runs in each innings. Of +the contests between Oxford and Cambridge, the latter (up to 1909) +had lost thirty-one and won thirty-five. Oxford’s 503 in 1900 and +Cambridge’s 392 in the same match furnished the highest aggregates. +The largest individual innings was 172 not out by J. F. Marsh in +1904; but as a feat of batting it was intrinsically inferior to the 171 +by R. E. Foster in 1900. Of the thirty centuries scored up to 1909, +Oxford was credited with sixteen. Eustace Crawley (b. 1868) made +a hundred both in the Eton v. Harrow and Oxford v. Cambridge +matches. In the match of 1870 F. C. Cobden (b. 1849) took the last +three Oxford wickets with consecutive balls, winning the match for +Cambridge by 2 runs.</p> + +<p><i>Australian Cricket.</i>—Naturally popular in a British colony, +cricket made but little progress in Australia before the arrival of an +English professional eleven in 1861-1862, which carried all before it. +Subsequent visits, and the coaching of imported professionals, so +promoted the game that in 1878 a representative eleven of Australians +visited England. The visits were repeated biennially till +1890, and then triennially. The visits of the Australian teams to +England aroused unparalleled interest and acted as an immense +incentive to the game. A great sensation was caused when the first +team, captained by D. W. Gregory, on the 27th of May 1878, defeated +a powerful M.C.C. eleven in a single day, disposing of them for 33 +and 19, the fast bowler F. R. Spofforth (b. 1853) taking 6 wickets +for 4 runs, and H. F. Boyle (b. 1847) 5 for 3. Their prowess was well +maintained when in September 1880 Australia for the first time met +the whole strength of England, such matches between representatives +of Australia and England being known as “test matches,” a term +that was applied later to matches between England and South +Africans also. Although in 1880 the old country won by 5 wickets, +the honours were fairly divided, especially as Spofforth could not +play. Dr W. G. Grace with a score of 152 headed the total of 420, +but even finer was the Australian captain W. L. Murdoch’s imperturbable +display, when he carried his bat for 153. From 1882 onwards +the Colonials, with two exceptions, at Blackpool and Skegness, only +played eleven-a-side matches. Such bowlers as Spofforth, Boyle, +G. E. Palmer (b. 1861), T. W. Garrett (b. 1858), and G. Giffen (1859) +became household names. Nor was the batting less admirable, +for Murdoch was supported by H. H. Massie (b. 1854), P. S. +McDonnell (1860-1896), A. C. Bannerman (b. 1859), T. Horan +(b. 1855), C. J. Bonnor (b. 1855), and S. P. Jones (b. 1861), whilst +the wicket-keeper was McCarthy Blackham (b. 1855). This visiting +side in 1882 was the greatest team of all; 23 matches were won, +only 4 lost, and England was defeated at the Oval by 7 runs. In +1884 English cricket had improved, and the visiting record was +hardly so good. The match against England at the Oval will not +soon be forgotten. The Colonials scored 551 (Murdoch 211, McDonnell +103, Scott 102), and England responded with 346, Scotton and +W. W. Read adding 151 for the ninth wicket.</p> + +<p>The team of H. J. H. Scott (b. 1858) in 1886 proved less successful, +for all three test matches were lost, and eight defeats had to be set +against nine victories, but Giffen covered himself with distinction. +This was the first tour under the auspices of the Melbourne Club. +McDonnell’s team in 1888 marked the appearance of the bowlers +C. T. B. Turner (b. 1862) and J. J. Ferris (1867-1900). The former +took 314 wickets for 11 runs each, and the latter 220 for 14 apiece. +To all appearance they redeemed a poor tour, 19 matches being +won and 14 lost. The 1890 tour, though Murdoch reappeared as +captain, proved disappointing, both the test matches being lost and +defeats for the first time exceeding victories, though the two bowlers +again performed marvellously well. After an interval of three years, +M. Blackham captained the seventh team, which was moderately +fortunate. H. Graham (b. 1870) and S. E. Gregory (b. 1870) batted +admirably, and the 149 of J. J. Lyons (b. 1863) in the match against +M.C.C. was an extraordinary display of punishing cricket. In +1896, though they did not win the rubber of test matches, the +colonials were most successful, 19 matches being victories and only +6 lost. S. E. Gregory, J. Darling (b. 1870), F. A. Iredale (b. 1867), +G. Giffen, C. Hill (b. 1877), and G. H. S. Trott (1866-1905) were +the best bats, and the last-named made an admirable captain. +H. Trumble (1867) kept an excellent length, and E. Jones (1869) was +deadly with his fast bowling.</p> + +<p>The Australian representatives in 1899 demonstrated that they +were the best since 1882, 16 successes and only 3 defeats (v. Essex, +Surrey and Kent) being emphasized by a victory over England at +Lord’s by 10 wickets, the only one of the five test matches brought to +a conclusion. M. A. Noble (b. 1873) and Victor Trumper (b. 1877), both +newcomers, batted superbly. The latter, v. Sussex, made 300, the +largest individual score hitherto made by an Australian in England, +the previous best having been 286 by Murdoch in the corresponding +match in 1882. H. Trumble scored 1183 runs and took 142 wickets +for 18 runs apiece, and Darling not only made a judicious captain, +but scored the biggest aggregate, 1941, up to then obtained by any +batsman touring with a colonial eleven in England. On the home side, +Hayward did sound service with the bat, and his stand with F. S. +Jackson in the fifth test match yielded 185 runs for the first wicket.</p> + +<p>In 1902 another fine Australian eleven, captained by Darling, +won 23 and lost only 2 matches. They won the rubber of test +matches at Manchester by 3 runs, but lost the final at the Oval by +one wicket after an even more remarkable struggle, G. L. Jessop +having scored 104 in an hour and a quarter. The other defeat +was by Yorkshire by 5 wickets, when they were dismissed for 23 +by Hirst and Jackson. The rest of the tour was characterized +by brilliant batting. The performance of Trumper in making 2570 +runs (with an average of 48) surpassed anything previously seen; +R. A. Duff (b. 1878) also proved a brilliant run-getter. W. W. +Armstrong (b. 1879) was useful in all departments, and J. V. Saunders +(b. 1876) proved a successful left-handed bowler.</p> + +<p>In 1905 there was a marked falling-off, as England won two and +drew the other three test matches; but only one other defeat, by +Essex by 19 runs, had to be set against 16 Australian victories. The +persistent bowling off the wicket by Armstrong, and the inability +to finish games within three days, were the chief drawbacks. Armstrong +eclipsed all previous colonial records in England by heading +both tables of averages, scoring 2002 (average 48) and taking 130 +wickets at a cost of 17 runs each. He also compiled the largest +individual score (303 not out v. Somerset) ever made on an Australian +tour. M. A. Noble also exceeded 2000 runs. For a long time the +fast bowler, A. Cotter (b. 1882, N.S.W.), failed, but eventually +“came off,” just as F. Laver (b. 1869), who had taken many wickets +in the earlier part of the tour, was becoming less formidable. Duff +saved the colonials by a great innings in the fifth test match; +Trumper was less certain than formerly, and Clement Hill more +reckless; whilst J. J. Kelly (b. 1867) on his fifth tour was better +than ever before with the gloves.</p> + +<p>The Australians who visited England under the leadership of +M. A. Noble in 1909 were generally held to be a weaker team than +most of their predecessors, but they greatly improved as the season +advanced, proving that the side included several cricketers of the +highest merit, and as a captain Noble has seldom been surpassed in +consummate generalship. Their record of thirteen wins to four +defeats offered little evidence of inferiority, while the large number +of twenty-one drawn matches was accounted for by the cold wet +weather that largely prevailed throughout the summer. Two out of +the five test matches were unfinished, and Australia won the rubber +by two matches to one. In all the test matches England was under +the command of A. C. MacLaren, but the great Harrovian was no +longer the batsman he had been some years earlier; Jackson had +abandoned first-class cricket; Hirst and Hayward were becoming +veterans; and, speaking generally, the English batting was decidedly +inferior, and it collapsed feebly in three of the test matches. +England’s failure, for which poor fielding and missed catches were +also responsible, was the more disappointing since they began well +by winning the first test match at Birmingham by ten wickets. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445"></a>445</span> +C. B. Fry and Hobbs knocking off the 105 runs required to win in the +second innings without the loss of a wicket. In the third test match, +at Leeds, England was deprived of the services of Hayward and +Blythe through illness, and an accident to Jessop during the match +compelled the side to play a man short. It was in bowling that the +Australians were thought to be least strong; but Laver’s analysis +in the Manchester test match, when he took 8 wickets for 31 runs in +England’s first innings, was the most notable feature of the match; +and although his record at the head of the bowling averages for the +tour, 70 wickets at an average cost of 14.9 runs, had frequently been +beaten in earlier Australian tours in England, it proved him a worthy +successor of Spofforth, Boyle and Turner. Armstrong, although he +did not equal his record of 1905, again scored over 1000 runs and took +over 100 wickets, his exact figures being 1439 runs and 120 wickets. +The most remarkable Australian batting was that of two young +left-handed players who on this occasion visited England for the +first time, W. Bardsley (b. 1884) and Vernon Ransford (b. 1885), the +latter of whom headed the averages both for test matches (58.8) +and for the whole tour (45.5), his principal achievement being an +innings of 143 not out in the test match at Lord’s. Bardsley, who +was second in the test matches averages (39.6), fell into the third +place slightly below Armstrong in the averages for the tour; but he +alone scored over 200 in an innings, which he accomplished twice, +and over 2000 in aggregate for the tour, and he established a test +match “record” by scoring 136 and 130 in the match at the Oval. +Of the twenty-two “centuries” scored by Australians during the +season Bardsley and Ransford each made six. Trumper and Noble +each scored over a thousand runs, and Macartney was an invaluable +member of the side both in batting and bowling. As a wicket-keeper +Carter worthily filled the place of Kelly, and the fielding of +the Colonials fully maintained the brilliant Australian standard of +former years.</p> + +<p>The following “records” of Australian cricket in England up to +1909 are of interest:—Highest total by an Australian team: 843 +v. Past and Present of Oxford and Cambridge Universities in 1893. +Highest total against an Australian team: 576 by England at the +Oval in 1899. Lowest total by an Australian team: 18 v. M.C.C. in +1896. Lowest total against an Australian team: 17 by Gloucestershire +in 1896. Highest individual Australian score in one innings: +303 not out by W. W. Armstrong v. Somersetshire in 1905. Highest +individual Australian aggregate in a tour: 2570 by V. T. Trumper in +1902. Two centuries in a match: V. T. Trumper 109 and 119 v. +Essex in 1902; W. Bardsley 136 and 130 v. England in 1909 (test +match record).</p> + +<p>The following table shows the Australians who headed the batting +and bowling averages respectively in tours in England up to 1909.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Batting.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Inn.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Not<br />out.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Runs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Most.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Aver.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1878</td> <td class="tcl rb">C. Bannerman, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcc rb">31</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">723</td> <td class="tcr rb">133</td> <td class="tcc rb">24.10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcl rb">W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcc rb">19</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">465</td> <td class="tcr rb">*153</td> <td class="tcc rb">25.80</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1882</td> <td class="tcl rb">W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcc rb">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">1711</td> <td class="tcr rb">*286</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1884</td> <td class="tcl rb">W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">1378</td> <td class="tcr rb">211</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1886</td> <td class="tcl rb">G. Giffen, S.A.</td> <td class="tcc rb">63</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1453</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcc rb">26.90</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1888</td> <td class="tcl rb">P. M‘Donnell, V.</td> <td class="tcc rb">62</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1393</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcl rb">W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcc rb">64</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">1459</td> <td class="tcr rb">*158</td> <td class="tcc rb">23.33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893</td> <td class="tcl rb">H. Graham, V.</td> <td class="tcc rb">55</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1492</td> <td class="tcr rb">219</td> <td class="tcc rb">28.36</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcl rb">S. E. Gregory, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcc rb">48</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">1464</td> <td class="tcr rb">154</td> <td class="tcc rb">31.38</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcl rb">J. Darling, S.A.</td> <td class="tcc rb">56</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1941</td> <td class="tcr rb">167</td> <td class="tcc rb">41.29</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcl rb">V. T. Trumper, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcc rb">53</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2570</td> <td class="tcr rb">128</td> <td class="tcc rb">48.49</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcl rb">W. W. Armstrong, V.</td> <td class="tcc rb">48</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">2002</td> <td class="tcr rb">*303</td> <td class="tcc rb">48.82</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1909</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">V. S. Ransford</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">43</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1778</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">190</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">45.58</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc f80" colspan="7">* Not out.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Bowling.</i></p> +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">O.</td> <td class="tccm allb">M.</td> <td class="tccm allb">R.</td> <td class="tccm allb">W.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Aver.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1878</td> <td class="tcl rb">T. W. Garrett, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 296.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">144</td> <td class="tcr rb">394</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.30</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcl rb">F. R. Spofforth, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 240.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">396</td> <td class="tcr rb">46</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1882</td> <td class="tcl rb">H. F. Boyle, V.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1200.14</td> <td class="tcr rb">525</td> <td class="tcr rb">1680</td> <td class="tcr rb">144</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1884</td> <td class="tcl rb">F. R. Spofforth, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1544.32</td> <td class="tcr rb">649</td> <td class="tcr rb">2642</td> <td class="tcr rb">216</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1886</td> <td class="tcl rb">G. Giffen, S.A.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1693.26</td> <td class="tcr rb">722</td> <td class="tcr rb">2711</td> <td class="tcr rb">159</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.05</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1888</td> <td class="tcl rb">C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcl rb">2589.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1222</td> <td class="tcr rb">3492</td> <td class="tcr rb">314</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.38</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcl rb">C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1651.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">724</td> <td class="tcr rb">2725</td> <td class="tcr rb">215</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.45</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893</td> <td class="tcl rb">C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1148</td> <td class="tcr rb">450</td> <td class="tcr rb">2202</td> <td class="tcr rb">160</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcl rb">T. R. M‘Kibbin, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 647.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">198</td> <td class="tcr rb">1441</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.27</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcl rb">H. Trumble, V.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1249.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">431</td> <td class="tcr rb">2618</td> <td class="tcr rb">142</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.43</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcl rb">H. Trumble, V.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 948</td> <td class="tcr rb">305</td> <td class="tcr rb">1998</td> <td class="tcr rb">140</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.27</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcl rb">W. W. Armstrong, V.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1027</td> <td class="tcr rb">308</td> <td class="tcr rb">2288</td> <td class="tcr rb">130</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1909</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">F. Laver</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> 495.5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">161</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1048</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">70</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">14.97</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>The first English team to visit Australia was organized in 1862, +and was captained by H. H. Stephenson. George Parr (1826-1891) +took out the next in 1864, Dr E. M. Grace being the only amateur. +In 1873 the Melbourne Club invited Dr W. G. Grace to take out an +eleven, and three years later James Lillywhite conducted a team of +professionals. On this tour for the first time colonials contended on +equal terms, one match v. Australia being won by 4 wickets and the +other lost by 45 runs. Lord Harris in the autumn of 1878 took a +team of amateurs assisted by Ulyett and Emmett, winning 2 and +losing 3 eleven-a-side encounters, Emmett’s 137 wickets averaging +8 runs each. Shaw, Shrewsbury and Lillywhite jointly organized +the expedition of 1881, when Australia won the second test match +by 5 wickets. The Hon. Ivo Bligh (afterwards Lord Darnley) in +1882 took a fine team, which was crippled owing to an injury sustained +by the bowler F. Morley. Four victories could be set against +three defeats; Australia winning the only test match, owing to the +batting of Blackham. Shaw’s second tour in 1884 showed Barnes +heading both batting and bowling averages, while six victories +counterbalanced two defeats. In the third tour Shrewsbury became +captain, but the English for the first time encountered the bowling +of C. T. B. Turner, who took 27 wickets for 113 runs in two matches. +Australia was twice defeated, the English captain batting in fine +form. On this tour was played the Smokers v. Non-Smokers, when +the latter scored 803 for 9 wickets (Shrewsbury 236, W. Bruce 131, +Gunn 150), against the bowling of Briggs, Boyle, Lohmann, Palmer +and Flowers. The winter of 1887 saw two English teams in Australia, +one under Lord Hawke and G. F. Vernon, the other under Shrewsbury +and Lillywhite. Both teams played well, the batting being +headed by W. W. Read with an average of 65, and Shrewsbury with +58. The ill-success of Lord Sheffield’s team in two out of three test +matches did not disprove the great merits of his eleven. Dr W. G. +Grace headed the averages with 44, and received the best support +from Abel and A. E. Stoddart, whilst Attewell, Briggs and Lohmann +all possessed fine bowling figures. A. E. Stoddart’s first team (in +1894) achieved immense success and was the best of all. In the first +test match they went in against 586 runs and ultimately won by +10 runs, Ward making 75 and 117. Stoddart himself averaged 51, +scoring 173 in the second test match, and A. C. MacLaren (who +made 228 v. Victoria), Brown and Ward all averaged over 40. The +last tour conducted by Stoddart proved less satisfactory, four of +the five test matches being lost, and some friction being caused by +various incidents. K. S. Ranjitsinhji, who averaged 60 and made +175 in a test match and 189 v. South Australia, and A. C. MacLaren, +who scored five hundreds and averaged 54, were prominent, Hayward +also doing good work; but the bowling broke down. Weakness +in bowling was the cause of the ill success of A. C. MacLaren’s +side in 1901. After a brilliant victory by an innings and 124 runs +at Sydney, the other four test matches were all lost. MacLaren +himself batted magnificently, and so did Hayward and Tyldesley. +Braund stood alone as an all-round man. The M.C.C. in 1903 +officially despatched a powerful side led by P. F. Warner, and in +every sense except the financial the success was complete. Three +test matches were won and two lost, while two new records were +set up, one by Rhodes obtaining 15 wickets at Melbourne, the other +by R. E. Foster, who in seven hours of brilliant batting compiled +287. Tyldesley and Hayward both did good work as batsmen; +Rhodes and Braund both bowled consistently. The catch-phrase +about “bringing back the ashes” became almost proverbial; its +origin is to be found in the <i>Sporting Times</i> in 1882 after Australia +had defeated England at the Oval.</p> + +<p><i>New Zealand.</i>—Although cricket has not attained a degree of +perfection in New Zealand commensurate with that in Australia, it +is keenly played. Lord Hawke sent out from England a team in +1902-1903 which won all the eighteen matches arranged.</p> + +<p><i>Cricket in India.</i>—Not only the English who live in India, but +the natives also—Parsees, Hindus and Mahommedans alike—play +cricket. A Parsee eleven visited England in 1884 and 1888.</p> + +<p><i>South Africa.</i>—South African cricketers visiting England are +handicapped by playing on turf instead of on the matting wickets +used in South Africa. The side which came over during the Boer +War in 1901 won 13, lost 9, and drew 2 matches, playing a tie with +Worcestershire, and showing marked improvement on the team which +had visited England in 1894. E. A. Halliwell (b. 1864) proved a +fine wicket-keeper, J. H. Sinclair (b. 1876) a good all-round cricketer, +J. J. Kotze (b. 1879) a very fast bowler, and G. A. Rowe (b. 1872) +clever with the ball. In 1904 more decided success was achieved, +for on a more ambitious programme ten victories could be set against +two defeats by Worcestershire and Kent, with a tie with Middlesex. +The most important success was a victory by 189 runs over a +powerful England eleven at Lord’s, when R. O. Schwarz (b. 1875) +scored 102 and 26, and took 8 wickets for 106, dismissing Ranjitsinhji +twice. Kotze and Sinclair again bore the brunt of the attack. +Of the English teams visiting South Africa, that taken by Lord +Hawke in 1894 did not meet with such important opposition as the +one he led in 1900, yet the side came back undefeated, having won +all three test matches. P. F. Warner and F. Mitchell, with Tyldesley, +were the chief run-getters, Haigh, Trott and Cuttell bowling finely. +In the winter of 1905 the M.C.C. sent out a side under P. F. Warner, +but it lost four out of the five test matches, F. L. Fane and J. N. +Crawford being the most successful of the Englishmen, and G. C. White +(1882) and A. D. Nourse proving themselves great colonial batsmen. +In 1907 a representative South African team came to England, and +their improved status in the cricketing world was shown by the +arrangement of test matches. In the winter of 1909-1910 an English +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>446</span> +team under Mr Leveson Gower went to South Africa, and played +test matches.</p> + +<p><i>West Indies.</i>—West Indian cricketers toured in England in 1900, +winning 5 matches and losing 8. The best batsman was C. A. +Olivierre (b. 1876), who subsequently qualified for Derbyshire. The +brunt of the bowling devolved on S. Woods and T. Burton (b. 1878). +In 1897 teams under Lord Hawke and A. Priestly (b. 1865) both +visited West Indies, Trinidad defeating both powerful combinations. +R. S. Lucas (b. 1867) had in 1895 taken out a successful side. A +much weaker combination in 1902 suffered five defeats but won +13 matches. B. J. T. Bosanquet, E. R. Wilson (b. 1879) and E. M. +Dowson (b. 1880) were the chief performers. In 1906 another West +Indian side visited England, but were not particularly successful.</p> + +<p><i>America.</i>—In the United States cricket has always had to contend +with the popularity of baseball, and in Canada with the rival attractions +of lacrosse. Nevertheless it has grown in popularity, +Philadelphia being the headquarters of the game in the New World.</p> + +<p>The Germantown, Belmont, Merion and Philadelphia Clubs play +annually for the Halifax Cup, and the game is controlled by the +Associated Cricket clubs of Philadelphia. In the neighbourhood +of New York matches are arranged by the Metropolitan District +Cricket League and the New York Cricket Association; similar +organizations are the Northwestern, the California and the Massachusetts +associations, while the Intercollegiate Cricket League +consists of college teams representing Harvard, Pennsylvania and +Haverford. R. S. Newhall (b. 1852) and D. S. Newhall (b. 1849) +may almost claim to be the fathers of cricket in the United States; +while D. W. Saunders (b. 1862) did much for the game in Canada. +Other eminent names in American cricket are A. M. Wood; H. +Livingston, of the Pittsburg Club, who scored three centuries in +one week in 1907; H. V. Hordern, University of Pennsylvania, a +very successful bowler; J. B. King, who in 1906 made 344 not out +for Belmont v. Merion, and who as a fast bowler proved most effective +during two tours in England. At San Francisco in 1894 W. +Robertson and A. G. Sheath compiled a total of 340 without the loss +of a wicket, the former scoring 206 not out, and the latter 118 not out. +A large number of English cricket teams have visited the United +States and Canada. The first county to do so was Kent in 1904, in +which year the Philadelphians also made a tour in England, in the +course of which J. B. King (b. 1873) took 93 wickets at an average +cost of 14 runs, and proved himself the best all-round man on the +side. P. H. Clark (b. 1873), a clever fast bowler, and J. A. Lester +(b. 1872), the captain of the team, also showed themselves to be +cricketers of merit, while N. Z. Graves (b. 1880) and F. H. Bohlen +(b. 1868) were quite up to English county form. The team did not, +however, include G. S. Patterson (b. 1868), one of the best batsmen +in America. The Philadelphians again visited Great Britain in 1908, +when they won 7 out of 14 matches, one being drawn. On this tour +King surpassed his former English record by taking 115 wickets, and +Wood, who played one fine innings of 132, was the most successful +of the American batsmen.</p> + +<p><i>Other Countries.</i>—The English residents of Portugal support +the game, but were no match for a moderate English team that +visited them in 1898. In Holland, chiefly at the Hague and Haarlem, +cricket is played to a limited extent on matting wickets. Dutch +elevens have visited England, and English elevens have crossed to +Holland, the most important visit being that of the gentlemen of +the M.C.C. in 1902, the Englishmen winning all the matches.</p> + +<p><i>Professionalism.</i>—The remuneration of the first-class English +professionals is £6 per match, out of which expenses have to be paid; +a man engaged on a ground to bowl receives from £2, 10s. to £3, 10s. +a week when not away playing matches. A professional player +generally receives extra reward for good batting or bowling, the +amount being sometimes a fixed sum of £1 for every fifty runs, more +frequently a sum awarded by the committee on the recommendation +of the captain. Some counties give their men winter pay, others try +to provide them with suitable work when cricket is over. A few get +cricket in other countries during the English winter. For international +matches professional players and “reserves” receive +£20 each, though before 1896 the fee was only £10; players (and +reserves) in Gentlemen v. Players at Lord’s are paid £10. A good +county professional generally receives a “benefit” after about ten +years’ service; but the amount of the proceeds varies capriciously +with the weather, the duration of the match, and the attendance. +In the populous northern counties of England benefits are far more +lucrative than in the south, but £800 to £1000 may be regarded +as a good average result. County clubs generally exercise some +control over the sums received. Umpires are paid £6 a match; in +minor games they receive about £1 a day.</p> + +<p><i>Records.</i>—Records other than those already cited may be added for +reference. A schoolboy named A. E. J. Collins, at Clifton College in +1899, excited some interest by scoring 628 not out in a boy’s match, +being about seven hours at the wicket. C. J. Eady (b. 1870) scored 566 +for Break o’ Day v. Wellington in eight hours in 1902, the total being +911. A. E. Stoddart made 485 for Hampstead v. Stoics in 1886. +In first-class cricket the highest individual score for a batsman is +A. C. MacLaren’s 424 for Lancashire v. Somerset at Taunton in +1895. Melbourne University scored 1094 against Essendon in March +1898, this being the highest authenticated total on record. M.C.C. +and Ground made 735 v. Wiltshire in 1888, the highest total at Lord’s. +In the match between A. E. Stoddart’s team and New South Wales +at Sydney in 1898, 1739 runs were scored, an aggregate unparalleled +in first-class cricket. The highest total for an innings in a first-class +match is 918 for N.S.W. v. South Australia in January 1901. Yorkshire +scored 887 v. Warwickshire at Birmingham in May 1896. The +lowest total in a first-class match is 12 by Northamptonshire v. +Gloucestershire in June 1907. The record for first wicket is 472 by +S. Colman and P. Coles at Eastbourne in 1892. The longest partnership +on record is 623 by Captain Oates and Fitzgerald at the Curragh +in 1895. The best stand that has been made for the last wicket in +a first-class match is 230 runs, which was run up by R. W. Nicholls +and Roche playing for Middlesex v. Kent at Lord’s in 1899.</p> + +<p>The “averages” of individual players for batting and bowling +annually excite a good deal of interest, and there is a danger that +some players may think too much of their averages and too little of +the sporting side of the game. Any comparison of the highest averages +during a series of years would be misleading, owing to improvements +in grounds, difference of weather, and the variations in the number +of innings.</p> + +<p>The following table of aggregates, compiled from the figures to +the end of 1905, affords a summary of the records of a select list of +historic cricketers; it will serve to supplement some details already +given above about them and others.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Batting.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Innings.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Not Out.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Runs.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Most.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Aver.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">K. S. Ranjitsinhji</td> <td class="tcc rb">448</td> <td class="tcc rb">57</td> <td class="tcc rb">22,277</td> <td class="tcc rb">285</td> <td class="tcc rb">56.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">C. B. Fry</td> <td class="tcc rb">481</td> <td class="tcc rb">29</td> <td class="tcc rb">22,865</td> <td class="tcc rb">244</td> <td class="tcc rb">50.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">T. Hayward</td> <td class="tcc rb">667</td> <td class="tcc rb">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">25,225</td> <td class="tcc rb">315</td> <td class="tcc rb">41.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">J. T. Tyldesley</td> <td class="tcc rb">491</td> <td class="tcc rb">38</td> <td class="tcc rb">18,683</td> <td class="tcc rb">250</td> <td class="tcc rb">41.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dr W. G. Grace</td> <td class="tcc rb">1463 </td> <td class="tcc rb">103 </td> <td class="tcc rb">54,073</td> <td class="tcc rb">344</td> <td class="tcc rb">39.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">A. Shrewsbury</td> <td class="tcc rb">784</td> <td class="tcc rb">88</td> <td class="tcc rb">25,819</td> <td class="tcc rb">267</td> <td class="tcc rb">37.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">R. Abel</td> <td class="tcc rb">964</td> <td class="tcc rb">69</td> <td class="tcc rb">32,810</td> <td class="tcc rb">357</td> <td class="tcc rb">36.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">A. C. MacLaren</td> <td class="tcc rb">526</td> <td class="tcc rb">37</td> <td class="tcc rb">17,364</td> <td class="tcc rb">424</td> <td class="tcc rb">35.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">G. H. Hirst</td> <td class="tcc rb">626</td> <td class="tcc rb">92</td> <td class="tcc rb">18,615</td> <td class="tcc rb">341</td> <td class="tcc rb">34.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hon. F. S. Jackson</td> <td class="tcc rb">490</td> <td class="tcc rb">35</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,498</td> <td class="tcc rb">160</td> <td class="tcc rb">34.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">W. Gunn</td> <td class="tcc rb">821</td> <td class="tcc rb">66</td> <td class="tcc rb">25,286</td> <td class="tcc rb">273</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">W. W. Read</td> <td class="tcc rb">739</td> <td class="tcc rb">53</td> <td class="tcc rb">22,919</td> <td class="tcc rb">328</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">A. E. Stoddart</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">513</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16,081</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">221</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">32.2</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Bowling.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Overs.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Maid.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Runs.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Wkts.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Aver.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">A. Shaw</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,830</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,803</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,887</td> <td class="tcr rb">1916</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">F. R. Spofforth</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,342</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,168</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,773</td> <td class="tcr rb">682</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">C. T. B. Turner</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,388</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,396</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,419</td> <td class="tcr rb">649</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">T. Emmett</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,672</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,870</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,811</td> <td class="tcr rb">1523</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">G. Lohmann</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,196</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,508</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,958</td> <td class="tcr rb">1734</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">F. Morley</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,610</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,239</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,938</td> <td class="tcr rb">1213</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">E. Peate</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,669</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,593</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,299</td> <td class="tcr rb">1061</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">W. Rhodes</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,014</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,476</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,336</td> <td class="tcr rb">1564</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">W. Attewell</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,461</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,408</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,671</td> <td class="tcr rb">1874</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">J. Briggs</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,300</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,275</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,411</td> <td class="tcr rb">2161</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">R. Peel</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,255</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,856</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,795</td> <td class="tcr rb">1733</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">S. Haigh</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,749</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,279</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,516</td> <td class="tcr rb">1102</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">J. T. Hearne</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,895</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,395</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,532</td> <td class="tcr rb">2350</td> <td class="tcc rb">17.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">W. H. Lockwood</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,733</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,241</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,981</td> <td class="tcr rb">1273</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">T. Richardson (1904)</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,474</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,835</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,126</td> <td class="tcr rb">2081</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dr W. G. Grace (1904)</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,502</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,892</td> <td class="tcr rb">50,441</td> <td class="tcr rb">2730</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">G. H. Hirst</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11,586</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3,525</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">27,028</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1377</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">19.8</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The chief works on cricket are, apart from well-known +annuals:—H. Bentley’s <i>Scores from 1786 to 1822</i> (published +in 1823); John Nyren’s <i>Young Cricketer’s Tutor</i> (1833); N. Wanostrocht’s +<i>Felix on the Bat</i> (various editions, 1845-1855); F. Lillywhite’s +<i>Cricket Scores and Biographies, 1746 to 1840</i> (1862); Rev. J. +Pycroft’s <i>Cricket Field</i> (various editions, 1862-1873); C. Box’s +<i>Theory and Practice of Cricket</i> (1868); F. Gale’s <i>Echoes from Old +Cricket Fields</i> (1871, new ed. 1896); <i>Marylebone Cricket Club +Scores and Biographies</i> (1876), a continuation of Lillywhite’s +<i>Scores and Biographies</i>; C. Box’s <i>English Game of Cricket</i> (1877); +<i>History of a Hundred Centuries</i>, by W. G. Grace (1895); <i>History +of the Middlesex County Cricket Club</i>, by W. J. Ford (1900); <i>History +of the Cambridge University Cricket Club</i>, by W. J. Ford (1902); +<i>History of Yorkshire County Cricket</i>, by R. S. Holmes (1904); +<i>History of Kent County Cricket</i>, ed. by Lord Harris, (1907); <i>Annals +of Lord’s</i>, by A. D. Taylor (1903); <i>Curiosities of Cricket</i>, by F. S. +Ashley Cooper (1901); “Cricket,” by Lord Hawke, in <i>English Sport</i>, +by A. E. T. Watson (1903); <i>Cricket</i>, edited by H. G. Hutchinson +(1903); <i>Cricket Form at a Glance</i>, by Home Gordon (1903); <i>Cricket</i> +(Badminton Library), by A. G. Steel and Hon. R. H. Lyttleton (1904); +<i>Old English Cricketers</i>, by Old Ebor (1900); <i>Cricket in Many Climes</i>, +by P. F. Warner (1903); <i>How We Recovered the Ashes</i>, by P. F. Warner +(1904); <i>England v. Australia</i>, by J. N. Pentelow (records from 1877 +to 1904) (1904); <i>The Jubilee Book of Cricket</i>, by K. S. Ranjitsinhji +(1897).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447"></a>447</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRICKHOWELL,<a name="ar263" id="ar263"></a></span> a market town of Brecknockshire, Wales, +14 m. E. of Brecon, beautifully situated on the left bank of the +Usk, which divides it from Llangattock. Pop. (1901) 1150. The +nearest railway stations are Govilon (5 m.) and Gilwern (4 m.) +on the London & North-Western railway, but a mail and +passenger motor service running between Abergavenny and +Brecon passes through the town. It is also served by the +Brecon & Newport Canal, which passes through Llangattock +about a mile distant. Agriculture is almost the sole industry +of the district. The town derives its name from a British fortress, +Crûg Hywel, commonly called Table Mountain, about 2 m. +N.N.E. of the town. Crickhowell Castle, of which only a tower +remains, probably dated from the Norman conquest of the +country. The manor of Crickhowell used to be regarded as a +borough by prescription, but there is no record of its ever having +possessed any municipal institutions. The church is in transitional +Decorated style.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRICKLADE,<a name="ar264" id="ar264"></a></span> a market town in the Cricklade parliamentary +division of Wiltshire, England, 9 m. N.W. of Swindon, on the +Midland & South-Western Junction railway. Pop. (1901) +1517. It is pleasantly situated in the plain which borders the +south bank of the Thames, not far from the Thames & Severn +Canal. The cruciform church of St Sampson is mainly Perpendicular, +with a fine ornate tower, and an old rood-stone in +its churchyard. The small church of St Mary has an Early +English tower, Perpendicular aisles and a Norman chancel-arch. +There is some agricultural trade.</p> + +<p>Legend makes Cricklade the abode of a school of Greek +philosophers before the Roman conquest, and the name is given +as “Greeklade” in Drayton’s <i>Polyolbion</i>. It owed its importance +in Saxon times to its position at the passage of the Thames. +During the revolt of Æthelwald the Ætheling in 905 he and +his army “harried all the Mercian’s land until they came to +Cricklade and there they went over the Thames” (Anglo-Sax. +Chron. <i>sub anno</i>), and in 1016 Canute came with his army over +the Thames into Mercia at Cricklade (ibid.). There was a mint at +Cricklade in the time of Edward the Confessor and William I., +and William of Dover fortified a castle here in the reign of +Stephen. In the reign of Henry III. a hospital dedicated to +St John the Baptist was founded at Cricklade, and placed under +the government of a warden or prior. Cricklade was a borough +by prescription at least as early as the Domesday Survey, and +returned two members to parliament from 1295 until disfranchised +by the Redistribution Act of 1885. The borough +was never incorporated, but certain liberties, including exemption +from toll and passage, were granted to the townsmen by Henry +III. and confirmed by successive sovereigns. In 1257 Baldwin +de Insula obtained a grant of a Thursday market, and an annual +three days’ fair at the feast of St Peter ad Vincula. The market +was subsequently changed to Saturday, and was much frequented +by dealers in corn and cattle, but is now inconsiderable. During +the 14th century Cricklade formed part of the dowry of the +queens of England. In the reign of Henry VI. the lordship was +acquired by the Hungerford family, and in 1427 Sir Walter +Hungerford granted the reversion of the manor to the dean and +chapter of Salisbury cathedral to aid towards the repair of their +belfry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRIEFF,<a name="ar265" id="ar265"></a></span> a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, capital of +Strathearn, 17¾ m. W. of Perth by the Caledonian railway. +Pop. (1901) 5208. Occupying the southern slopes of a hill on +the left bank of the Earn, here crossed by a bridge, it practically +consists of a main street, with narrower streets branching off +at right angles. Its climate is the healthiest in mid-Scotland, +the air being pure and dry. Its charter is said to date from 1218, +and it was the seat of the courts of the earls of Strathearn till +1747, when heritable jurisdictions were abolished. A Runic +sculptured stone, believed to be of the 8th century, and the old +town cross stand in High Street, but the great cattle fair, for +which Crieff was once famous, was removed to Falkirk in 1770. +It was probably in connexion with this market that the “kind +gallows of Crieff” acquired their notoriety, for they were mostly +used for the execution of Highland cattle-stealers. The principal +buildings are the town hall, tolbooth, public library, assembly +rooms, mechanics’ institute, Morison’s academy (founded in +1859), and Strathearn House, a hydropathic establishment +built on an eminence at the back of the town, and itself sheltered +by the Knock of Crieff (911 ft. high). The industries consist +of manufactures of cotton, linen, woollens and worsteds, and +leather. Drummond Castle, about 3 m. S., is celebrated for +its gardens. They cover an area of 10 acres, are laid out in +terraces, and illustrate Italian, Dutch and French styles. They +were planned by the 2nd earl of Perth (d. 1662), and take rank +with the most magnificent in the United Kingdom. The keep +of the castle dates from 1490, and much of the original building +was demolished in 1689, a few years after its siege by Cromwell. +The present structure was erected subsequent to the extinction +of the Jacobite rebellion.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRIME<a name="ar266" id="ar266"></a></span> (Lat. <i>crimen</i>, accusation), the general term for offences +against the <span class="sc">Criminal Law</span> (<i>q.v.</i>). Crime has been defined as +“a failure or refusal to live up to the standard of conduct +deemed binding by the rest of the community.” Sir James +Stephen describes it as “some act or omission in respect of +which legal punishment may be inflicted on the person who is +in default whether by acting or omitting to act.” Such action +or neglect of action may be injurious or hurtful to society. It +is a wrong or tort, to be prevented and corrected by the strong +arm of the law.</p> + +<p>Crimes vary in character with times and countries. Under +different circumstances of place and custom, that which at one +time is denounced as a crime, at another passes as a meritorious +act. It was once an imperative duty for the family to avenge +the death of a kinsman, and the blood feud had a sanction that +made killing no murder. Again, among primitive tribes to make +away with parents at an advanced age or suffering from an +incurable disease was a filial duty. Polyandry was sometimes +encouraged, and cannibalism practised with general approval; +religious sentiment elevated into heinous crimes, blasphemy, +heresy, sacrilege, sorcery and even science when it ran counter +to accepted dogmas of the church. Offences multiplied when +people gathered into communities and the rights of property +and of personal security were understood and established. The +law of the strongest might still interfere with individual ownership; +the weakest went to the wall; authority, whether exercised +by one master or by the combined government of the many, +was resisted, and this resistance constituted crime. As civilization +spread and the bulk of the population settled into orderliness, +society, for its own comfort, convenience and protection, would +not tolerate the infraction of its rules, and rising against all law-breakers +decreed reprisals against them as the common enemy. +Then began that constant warfare between criminals and the +forces of law and order which has been continuously waged +through the centuries with varying degrees of bitterness.</p> + +<p>The combat with crime was long waged with great cruelty. +Extreme penalties were thought to constitute the best deterrent, +and the principle of vengeance chiefly inspired the penal law. +The harshness of ancient codes makes a more humane age +shudder. It was the custom to hang or decapitate, or otherwise +take life in some more or less barbarous fashion, on the smallest +excuse. The final act was preceded by hideous torture. It was +performed with the utmost barbarity. Victims were put to +death by breaking on the wheel, burning at the stake, by dismemberment +and flaying or boiling alive. These were the +aggravations of the original idea of riddance, of checking crime +by the absolute removal of the offender. Only slowly and +gradually milder methods came into force. Revenge and +retaliation were no longer the chief aims, the law had a larger +mission than to coerce the criminal and force him by severity +to mend his ways. To withdraw him for a lengthened period +from the sphere of his baneful activity was something; to subject +him to more or less irksome processes, to solitary confinement +upon short diet, deprived of all the solaces of life, with severe +labour, were sharp lessons limited in effect to those actually +subjected to them, but too remote to deter the outside crowd +of potential wrongdoers. The higher duty of the administrator +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>448</span> +is to utilize the period of detention by labouring to reform the +criminal subjects and send them out from gaol reformed +characters. If no very remarkable success has been achieved +in this direction, it is obviously the right aim, and it is being more +and more steadfastly pursued. But it is generally accepted in +principle that to eradicate criminal proclivities and cut off +recruits from the permanent army of crime the work must be +undertaken when the subject is of an age susceptible of +reform; hence the extreme value attaching to the more +enlightened treatment of crime in embryo, a principle becoming +more and more largely accepted in practice among civilized +nations.</p> + +<p>It may safely be asserted that the germ of crime is universally +present in mankind, ever ready to show under conditions favourable +to its growth. Children show criminal tendencies in their +earliest years. They exhibit evil traits, anger, resentment, +mendacity; they are often intensely selfish, are strongly acquisitive, +greedy of gain, ready to steal and secrete things at the first +opportunity. Happily the fatal consequences that would otherwise +be inevitable are checked by the gradual growth of inhibitory +processes, such as prudence, reflection, a sense of moral duty, and +in many cases the absence of temptation. From this Dr +Nicholson deduces that “in proportion as this development is +prevented or stifled, either owing to an original brain defect or +by lack of proper education or training, so there is the risk of +the individual lapsing into criminal-mindedness or into actual +crime.” In the lowest strata of society this risk is largely +increased from the conditions of life. The growth of criminals +is greatly stimulated where people are badly fed, morally and +physically unhealthy, infected with any forms of disease and +vice. In such circumstances, moreover, there is too often the +evil influence of heredity and example. The offspring of criminals +are constantly impelled to follow in their parents’ footsteps by +the secret springs of nature and pressure of childish imitativeness. +The seed is thrown, so to speak, into a hot-bed where it finds +congenial soil in which to take root and flourish.</p> + +<p>Wherever crime shows itself it follows certain well-defined lines +and has its genesis in three dominant mental processes, the result +of marked propensities. These are malice, acquisitiveness and +lust. Malicious crimes may be amplified into offences against +the person originating in hatred, resentment, violent temper, +and rising from mere assaults into manslaughter and murder. +Crimes of greed and acquisitiveness cover the whole range of +thefts, frauds and misappropriation; of larcenies of all sorts; +obtaining by false pretences; receiving stolen goods; robberies; +house-breaking, burglary, forgery and coining. Crimes of lust +embrace the whole range of illicit sexual relations, the result of +ungovernable passion and criminal depravity. The proportions +in which these three categories are manifested have been +worked out in England and Wales to give the following figures. +The percentage in any 100,000 of the population is:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Crimes of malice</td> <td class="tcc">15%</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Crimes of greed</td> <td class="tcc">75%</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Crimes of lust</td> <td class="tcc">10%</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The members of these categories do not form distinct classes; +their crimes are interdependent and constantly overlap. Crime +in many is progressive and passes through all the stages from +minor offences to the worst crimes. Murder—the culminating +point of malice—is constantly preceded by petty larceny; theft +by forcible entry; and robbery is associated with violence and +armed resistance to capture. Criminality rising into its highest +development shows itself under many forms. It is instinctive, +passionate, accidental, deliberate and habitual, the outcome +of abnormal appetite, of weak and disordered moral sense. +The causation of crime varies, but a predominating motive +is idleness, leading to the predatory instincts of gain easily +acquired without the labour of continuous effort. To deprive +the more industrious or more happily placed of their hard-won +earnings or possessions, inspires the bulk of modern serious +crime. It no doubt has produced one peculiar feature in modern +crime: the extensive scale on which it is carried out. The +greatest frauds are now commonly perpetrated; great robberies +are planned in one capital and executed in another. The whole +is worked by wide associations of cosmopolitan criminals.</p> + +<p>Other features of modern crime are especially interesting. +It is extraordinarily precocious. Children of quite tender years +commit murders, and boys and girls are frequently to be met +with as professional thieves. Again, the comparative proportions +of crime in the two sexes may be considered. Everywhere +women are less criminal than men. Naturally they have fewer +facilities for committing crimes of violence, although they have +offences peculiar to their sex, such as infanticide, and are more +frequently guilty of poisoning than men by 70% against 30%. +Statistics presented to the Prison Congress at Stockholm fix the +percentage of female criminals at 3% in Japan, the East generally, +South America and some parts of North America. In +some states of the American Union it is 10%; in China, 20%; +in Europe generally it varies between 10% and 21%. In France +the proportion of accused women is fifteen to eighty-five men. +In Great Britain it is now one in four, but has been less. The total +sentenced in 1905-1906 to penal servitude and imprisonment +was 139,389 men and 44,294 women, the balance being made up +by summary convictions. The curious fact in female crime is +that one-seventh of the women committed to prison had already +been convicted from eleven to twenty times. It has been well +said from the above proportions that women are less criminal +according to the figures, because when a woman wants a crime +committed she can generally find a man to do it for her.</p> + +<p>It has often been debated whether or not prison methods react +upon the criminality of the country; whether, in other words, +severity of treatment <i>deters</i>, while milder methods encourage the +wrongdoers to despise the penalties imposed by the law. +Evidence for and against the verdict may be drawn from the +whole civilized world. In England, as judged by the increase +or decrease of the prison population, it might be supposed that +the prison system was at one time effective in diminishing crime. +Between 1878 and 1891 there was a steady decrease in numbers +because of it. More recently there has been an appreciable +increase in the number of crimes and proportionately of those +imprisoned. The figures for 1906 showed a distinct increase in +criminality for that year as compared with the years immediately +preceding. The proportion of indictable offences had increased +in 1906 from 59,079 as against 50,494 in 1899, or in the proportion +of 171.01 per 100,000 of the population as against 158.97, a very +marked increase over earlier years. Nevertheless the figures for +1906, although high, are by no means the highest, as on eight +occasions during the fifty odd years for which statistics were +available in 1909 the total crimes exceeded 60,000, and in the +quinquennial period 1860-1864 the annual average was 280 per +100,000 as compared with 171.01 for 1906 and 175 for the quinquennial +period 1902-1906. The quality of the crime varied, and +while offences against property have increased, those against the +person have constantly fallen. Quite half the whole number +of crimes were committed by old offenders (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Recidivism</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Statistics have not been kept with the same care in all other +countries, but some authentic figures may be quoted for France, +where the number of thefts increased while offences against the +person diminished. In Belgium there has been a satisfactory +decrease in recent years. In Prussia the prison population has +on the whole increased, but there has been a slight diminution +in more serious crime. Some very noticeable figures are forthcoming +from the United States, and comparison is possible of +the relative amount of crime in the two countries, America and +England. Here the want of statistics covering a large period is +much to be regretted. On the general question serious crime +in the ten years between 1880 and 1890 slightly increased, while +petty crime was very considerably less during the period. +Charges for homicide have been much more numerous. There +were in 1880, 4608, or a ratio of 9.1 to 100,000 of the population; +but in 1890 these offences rose to 7351, or a ratio of 11.7. Comparing +America with England, it has been calculated in round +numbers that the proportion of prisoners to the general population +was in the United States as 1 to every 759, and in England +1 to every 1764 persons. As regards the more serious crimes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449"></a>449</span> +the number in English convict prisons was as 1 to 10,000, and +in the American state prisons (the corresponding institutions) +the ratio was 1 to every 1358. In the lesser prisons, <i>i.e.</i> the +English local prisons and the American city or county gaols, +the numbers more nearly approximate, being in England 1 +to 2143 and in America 1 to 1721. It has been argued that +much of the crime in America is attributable to the preponderance +of foreign immigrants, but the ratio of native born prisoners is +that of 1237 to the million, of foreign born prisoners 1777 to the +million.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—A. MacDonald, <i>Criminology</i> (New York, 1893); +A. Drähms, <i>The Criminal</i> (New York, 1900); E. Ferri, <i>La Sociologie +criminelle</i>, trans. Ferrier (Paris, 1905); all these contain extensive +bibliographies. See also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Criminology</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. G.)</div> + + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRIMEA<a name="ar267" id="ar267"></a></span> (ancient <i>Tauris</i> or Tauric Chersonese, called by the +Russians by the Tatar name <i>Krym</i> or <i>Crim</i>), a peninsula on the +north side of the Black Sea, forming part of the Russian government +of Taurida, with the mainland of which it is connected +by the Isthmus of Perekop (3-4 m. across). It is rudely rhomboid +in shape, the angles being directed towards the cardinal points, +and measures 200 m. between 44° 23′ and 46° 10′ N., and 110 m. +between 32° 30′ and 36° 40′ E. Its area is 9700 sq. m.</p> + +<p>Its coasts are washed by the Black Sea, except on the north-east, +where is the Sivash or Putrid Sea, a shallow lagoon separated +from the Sea of Azov by the Arabat spit of sand. The shores are +broken by several bays and harbours—on the west side of the +Isthmus of Perekop by the Bay of Karkinit; on the south-west +by the open Bay of Kalamita, on the shores of which the allies +landed in 1854, with the ports of Eupatoria, Sevastopol and +Balaklava; by the Bay of Arabat on the north side of the +Isthmus of Yenikale or Kerch; and by the Bay of Kaffa or +Feodosiya (Theodosia), with the port of that name, on the south +side of the same. The south-east coast is flanked at a distance +of 5 to 8 m. from the sea by a parallel range of mountains, the +Yaila-dagh, or Alpine Meadow mountains, and these are backed, +inland, by secondary parallel ranges; but 75% of the remaining +area consists of high arid prairie lands, a southward continuation +of the Pontic steppes, which slope gently north-westwards from +the foot of the Yaila-dagh. The main range of these mountains +shoots up with extraordinary abruptness from the deep floor of +the Black Sea to an altitude of 2000 to 2500 ft., beginning at +the south-west extremity of the peninsula, Cape Fiolente (anc. +<i>Parthenium</i>), supposed to have been crowned by the temple +of Artemis in which Iphigeneia officiated as priestess. On +the higher parts of this range are numerous flat mountain pastures +(Turk, <i>yailas</i>), which, except for their scantier vegetation, are +analogous to the <i>almen</i> of the Swiss Alps, and are crossed by +various passes (<i>bogaz</i>), of which only six are available as carriage +roads. The most conspicuous summits in this range are the +Demir-kapu or Kemal-egherek (5040 ft.), Roman-kosh (5060 ft.), +Chatyr-dagh (5000 ft.), and Karabi-yaila (3975 ft.). The second +parallel range, which reaches altitudes of 1500 to 1900 ft., +likewise presents steep crags to the south-east and a gentle +slope towards the north-west. In the former slope are thousands +of small caverns, probably inhabited in prehistoric times; and +several rivers pierce the range in picturesque gorges. A valley, +10 to 12 m. wide, separates this range from the main range, +while another valley 2 to 3 m. across separates it from the third +parallel range, which reaches altitudes of only 500 to 850 ft. +Evidences of a fourth and still lower ridge can be traced towards +the south-west.</p> + +<p>A number of short streams, none of them anywhere navigable, +leap down the flanks of the mountains by cascades in spring, +<i>e.g.</i> the Chernaya, Belbek, Kacha and Alma, to the Black Sea, +and the Salghir, with its affluent, the Kara-su, to the Sivash +lagoon.</p> + +<p>In point of climate and vegetation there exist marked differences +between the open steppes and the south-eastern littoral, +with the slopes of the Yaila-dagh behind it. The former, +although grasses and Liliaceae grow on them in great variety +and luxuriance in the early spring, become completely parched +up by July and August, while the air is then filled with clouds +of dust. There also high winds prevail, and snowstorms, hailstorms +and frost are of common occurrence. Nevertheless this +region produces wheat and barley, rye and oats, and supports +numbers of cattle, sheep and horses. Parts of the steppes are, +however, impregnated with salt, or studded with saline lakes; +there nothing grows except the usual species of <i>Artemisia</i> and +<i>Salsola</i>. As a rule water can only be obtained from wells sunk +200 to 300 ft. deep, and artesian wells are now being bored +in considerable numbers. All over the steppes are scattered +numerous <i>kurgans</i> or burial-mounds of the ancient Scythians. +The picture which lies behind the sheltering screen of the Yaila-dagh +is of an altogether different character. Here the narrow +strip of coast and the slopes of the mountains are smothered +with greenery. This Russian Riviera stretches all along the +south-east coast from Cape Sarych (extreme S.) to Feodosiya +(Theodosia), and is studded with summer sea-bathing resorts—Alupka, +Yalta, Gursuv, Alushta, Sudak, Theodosia. Numerous +Tatar villages, mosques, monasteries, palaces of the Russian +imperial family and Russian nobles, and picturesque ruins of +ancient Greek and medieval fortresses and other buildings cling +to the acclivities and nestle amongst the underwoods of hazel +and other nuts, the groves of bays, cypresses, mulberries, figs, +olives and pomegranates, amongst the vineyards, the tobacco +plantations, and gardens gay with all sorts of flowers; while +the higher slopes of the mountains are thickly clothed with +forests of oak, beech, elm, pines, firs and other Coniferae. Here +have become acclimatized, and grow in the open air, such plants +as magnolias, oleanders, tulip trees, bignonias, myrtles, camellias, +mimosas and many tender fruit-trees. Vineyards cover over +19,000 acres, and the wine they yield (3½ million gallons annually) +enjoys a high reputation. Fruits of all kinds are produced in +abundance. In some winters the tops of the mountains are +covered with snow, but snow seldom falls to the south of them, +and ice, too, is rarely seen in the same districts. The heat of +summer is moderated by breezes off the sea, and the nights +are cool and serene; the winters are mild and healthy. Fever +and ague prevail in the lower-lying districts for a few weeks in +autumn. Dense fogs occur sometimes in March, April and May, +but seldom penetrate inland. The difference of climate between +the different parts of the Crimea is illustrated by the following +data: annual mean, at Melitopol, on the steppe N. of Perekop, +48° Fahr.; at Simferopol, just within the mountains, 50°; at +Yalta, on the south-east coast, 56.5°; the respective January +means being 20°, 31° and 39.5°, and the July means 74°, 70° +and 75.5°. The rainfall is small all over the peninsula, the +annual average on the steppes being 13.8 in., at Simferopol 17.5, +and at Yalta 18 in. It varies greatly, however, from year to +year; thus at Simferopol it ranges between the extremes of +7.5 and 26.4 in.</p> + +<p>Other products of the Crimea, besides those already mentioned, +are salt, porphyry and limestone, and ironstone has recently +been brought to light at Kerch. Fish abound all round the +coast, such as red and grey mullet, herring, mackerel, turbot, +soles, plaice, whiting, bream, haddock, pilchard, a species of +pike, whitebait, eels, salmon and sturgeon. Manufacturing +industries are represented by shipbuilding, flour-mills, ironworks, +jam and pickle factories, soap-works and tanneries. The +Tatars excel in a great variety of domestic industries, especially +in the working of leather, wool and metal. A railway, coming +from Kharkov, crosses the peninsula from north to south, +terminating at Sevastopol and sending off branch lines to +Theodosia and Kerch.</p> + +<p>The bulk of the population consist of Tatars, who, however, are +racially modified by intermarriage with Greeks and other ethnic +elements. The remainder of the population is made up of +Russians, Germans, Karaite Jews, Greeks and a few Albanians. +The total in 1897 was 853,900, of whom only 150,000 lived in +the towns. Simferopol is the chief town; others of note, in +addition to those already named, are Eupatoria and Bakhchisarai, +the old Tatar capital.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The earliest inhabitants of whom we have any +authentic traces were the Celtic Cimmerians, who were expelled +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450"></a>450</span> +by the Scythians during the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> A remnant, who +took refuge in the mountains, became known subsequently as +the Tauri. In that same century Greek colonists began to settle +on the coasts, <i>e.g.</i> Dorians from Heraclea at Chersonesus, and +Ionians from Miletus at Theodosia and Panticapaeum (also +called Bosporus). Two centuries later (438 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the archon +or ruler of the last-named assumed the title of king of Bosporus, +a state which maintained close relations with Athens, supplying +that city with wheat and other commodities. The last of these +kings, Paerisades V., being hard pressed by the Scythians, put +himself under the protection of Mithradates VI., king of Pontus, +in 114 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> After the death of this latter sovereign his son +Pharnaces, as a reward for assistance rendered to the Romans +in their war against his father, was (63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) invested by Pompey +with the kingdom of Bosporus. In 15 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it was once more +restored to the king of Pontus, but henceforward ranked as a +tributary state of Rome. During the succeeding centuries +the Crimea was overrun or occupied successively by the Goths +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 250), the Huns (376), the Khazars (8th century), the +Byzantine Greeks (1016), the Kipchaks (1050), and the Mongols +(1237). In the 13th century the Genoese destroyed or seized +the settlements which their rivals the Venetians had made on +the Crimean coasts, and established themselves at Eupatoria, +Cembalo (Balaklava), Soldaia (Sudak), and Kaffa (Theodosia), +flourishing trading towns, which existed down to the conquest +of the peninsula by the Ottoman Turks in 1475. Meanwhile +the Tatars had got a firm footing in the northern and central +parts of the peninsula as early as the 13th century, and after +the destruction of the Golden Horde by Tamerlane they founded +an independent khanate under a descendant of Jenghiz Khan, +who is known as Hadji Ghirai. He and his successors reigned +first at Solkhat (Eski-krym), and from the beginning of the 15th +century at Bakhchi-sarai. But from 1478 they ruled as tributary +princes of the Ottoman empire down to 1777, when having been +defeated by Suvarov they became dependent upon Russia, and +finally in 1783 the whole of the Crimea was annexed to the +Russian empire. Since that date the only important phase of its +history has been the Crimean War of 1854-56, which is treated +of under a separate article. At various times, <i>e.g.</i> after the +acquisition by Russia, after the Crimean War of 1854-56, and +in the first years of the 20th century, the Tatars emigrated in +large numbers to the Ottoman empire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Antiquités du Bosphore cimmérien</i> (3 vols., St Petersburg, +1854); C. Bossoll, <i>The Beautiful Scenery of the Crimea</i> (52 large +drawings, London, 1855-1856); P. Brunn, <i>Notices hist. et topogr. +concernant les colonies italiennes en Gazarie</i> (St Petersburg, 1866); +J. B. Telfer, <i>The Crimea and Transcaucasia</i> (2 vols., London, 2nd ed., +1877); F. Remy, <i>Die Krim in ethnographischer, landschaftlicher und +hygienischer Beziehung</i> (Leipzig, 1872); Joseph, Baron von Hammer-Purgstall, +<i>Geschichte der Chane der Krim unter osmanischer Herrschaft</i> +(Vienna, 1856); M. G. Canale, <i>Della Crimea e dei suoi dominatori +dalle sue origini fino al trattato di Parigi</i> (3 vols., Genoa, 1855-1856); +and Sir Evelyn Wood, <i>The Crimea in 1854 and 1894</i> (London, +1895). (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bosporus Cimmerius</a></span>.)</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRIMEAN WAR.<a name="ar268" id="ar268"></a></span> The war of 1853-56, usually known by +this name, arose from causes the discussion of which will be +found under the heading <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Turkey</a></span>: <i>History</i>. When Turkey, +after a period of irregular fighting, declared war on Russia in +October 1853, Great Britain and France (subsequently assisted +by Sardinia) intervened in the quarrel. At first this intervention +was represented merely by the presence of an allied squadron +in the Bosporus, but the storm of indignation aroused in Great +Britain and France by the destruction of the Turkish fleet at +Sinope (30th November) soon impelled these powers to more +active measures. On the 27th of January 1854 they declared +war on the tsar, and prepared to carry their armaments to the +Danube. In this, the main, theatre of war, the Turks had +hitherto proved quite capable of holding their own. The +Russian commander, Prince Michael Gorchakov, had crossed +the Pruth with two corps early in July 1853, and had overrun +Moldavia and Wallachia without difficulty. Omar Pasha, +however, disposing of superior forces, was able to check any +further advance. During October, November and December +the Turks won a succession of actions, of which that at Oltenitza +(Nov. 4th) may be particularly mentioned, and a little later +Gorchakov found himself compelled to fight at Cetatea (Tchetati) +before reinforcements could come up. The defeat he sustained +was for the time being decisive (6th Jan. 1854). Three months +later, the Russians, now under command of the veteran Prince +Paskievich, took the offensive in great force. Crossing the +Danube near its mouth at Galatz and Braila, they advanced +through the Dobrudja and closed upon the fortress of Silistria, +which offered a strong and steady resistance, with an effect all +the greater as the Turks from the side of Shumla, now supported +by the leading British and French brigades at Varna, prevented +a close investment. The Turks, however, avoided a decisive +encounter, and the stormers stood ready in the trenches before +Silistria, when the siege was suddenly raised. The decision had +passed into other hands. The tsar had learned that the Austrian +army of observation in Transylvania, 50,000 strong under +Feldzeugmeister Hess, was about to enforce the wishes of the +“Four Powers.” The Russian offensive was at an end, the +army hastily fell back, and on the 2nd of August 1854 the last +man recrossed the Pruth. The principalities were at once +occupied by Hess.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:517px; height:589px" src="images/img450.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>The Invasion of the Crimea.</i>—The primary object of the war +had thus easily been obtained. But Great Britain and France +were by no means content with a triumph that left untouched +the vast resources of an enemy who was certain to employ them +at the next opportunity. The two nations felt that Sevastopol, +the home of the Black Sea fleet, the port whence Admiral +Nachimov had sailed for Sinope, must be crippled for some years +at least, and as early as June 29th Lord Raglan and Marshal +Saint Arnaud, the allied commanders of England and France, +had received instructions to “concert measures for the siege +of Sevastopol.” Dynastic considerations reinforced the arguments +of policy and popular opinion in the case of France; in +Great Britain soldier and civilian alike saw the menace of a +Russian Mediterranean fleet in the unfinished forts and busy +dockyards. The popular strategy for once coincided with the +views of the responsible leaders. Yet there is no sign that +either the commanders on the spot or their governments realized +the magnitude of the undertaking. Few but the most urgently +necessary preparations were made, and cholera, breaking out +virulently amongst the French at this time, reduced the army +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451"></a>451</span> +at Varna, and even the fleet at sea, to impotence. The troops +were so weakened that, even in September, the five-mile march +from camp to transport exhausted most of the men. Heavy +weather still further delayed the start, and it was not until +the 7th of September that the expedition began to cross the +Black Sea. One hundred and fifty war-vessels and transports +conveyed the army, which, guarded on all sides by the fighting +fleet, crossed without incident and drew up on the Crimean coast +on September 13th. Tactical considerations prevailed in the +choice of place. The landlocked harbours south of Sevastopol +were for the time being neglected, and a spot known as Old +Fort preferred, because the long beach, the heavy metal of the +ships’ broadsides, and a line of lagoons covering the front +offered singularly favourable conditions for the delicate operation +of disembarkation. Still, on this side of Sevastopol there was +no good harbour, and it is quite open to question whether in +this case the strategic necessities of the situation were not +neglected in favour of purely tactical and temporary advantages. +As a matter of fact no opposition was offered to the landing, +but the weather prevented the disembarkation being completed +until the 18th. St Arnaud and Raglan had at this time under +their orders 51,000 British, French and Turkish infantry, 1000 +British cavalry, and 128 guns, and on the 19th this force (less +some detachments) began the southward march in order of +battle, the British (who alone had their cavalry present) on the +exposed left flank, the French next the sea, the fleet moving +in the same direction parallel to the troops.</p> + +<p><i>The Alma.</i>—Old Fort was beyond the reach of Menshikov, +the Russian commander, but, as the fortress communicated with +the interior of Russia via Kerch and Simferopol, it was to be +expected that he would either accept battle on the Sevastopol +road, or cover Simferopol by a flank attack on Lord Raglan. +Both these contingencies were provided for by the order of +march, and in due course it was ascertained that the Russians +adopted the former alternative, and barred the Sevastopol road +on the heights of the river Alma. Menaced by the guns of the +fleet, Menshikov had wheeled back his left, and at the same time +he strengthened his right in order to cover the Simferopol road. +From this it followed naturally that the brunt of the attack fell +upon the British divisions, whilst the French, nearer the sea, +struck to some extent <i>dans le vide</i>. The two commanders, after +a reconnaissance, decided upon their plan. The French divisions +in echelon from the right were to cross the river and force Menshikov +inwards, whilst the British were to move straight to their +front against the strongest part of the Russian line. Substantially +this plan was carried out on the 20th of September. Owing to +want of men (he had but 36,400 against over 50,000) Menshikov +was unable to hold his left wing very strongly, and the French +were scarcely checked save by physical obstacles; but opposite +the British force the ground sloped glacis-wise up to the Russian +line, and nothing but their iron discipline, the best heritage of +the Peninsular War, brought them victorious to the crest of +Kurghane hill. The Russians had no option but to retreat, +which they did without molestation. The allies lost about 3000 +men, mostly British (though Prince Napoleon’s men also suffered +heavily); the Russians reported 5709 casualties.</p> + +<p><i>The March on Sevastopol.</i>—On the 23rd of September the +advance was resumed, and by the 25th Sevastopol was in full +view of the allied outposts. It was now that the necessary +consequences of the choice of Old Fort as the landing-place +presented themselves as a problem for instant solution. Whatever +chance there had been of assaulting the north side of +Sevastopol was now gone. Menshikov had sacrificed some ships +in order to seal up the harbour mouth, and naval co-operation +in attack was now impossible, while the other Russian ships +could in safety aid the defenders with their heavy guns. A +siege, based on the beach of Old Fort or the open roads of +Kacha, was out of the question, as was re-embarkation for a +fresh landing. There remained only a flank march by Mackenzie’s +farm and the river Chernaya. Once established on the south +side, the allies could use the excellent harbours of Kamiesh +and Balaklava; this could almost certainly be effected without +fighting, while in besieging Sevastopol itself and not merely +the north side, the allies would be striking at the heart. But +a flank march is almost always in itself a hazardous undertaking, +and in this case the invaders were required further to abandon +their line of retreat on Old Fort. In point of fact, the army, +covered by a division opposite the Russian works, successfully +accomplished the task. At the same moment Menshikov, after +providing for the defence of Sevastopol, had marched out with +a field army towards Bakhchiserai, and on the 25th of September +each army, without knowing it, actually crossed the other’s +front. On arrival at Balaklava the allies regained contact with +the fleet, and the detachment left on the north side, its mission +being at an end, followed the same route and rejoined the main +body. The French now took possession of Kamiesh, the British +of Balaklava.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:522px; height:448px" src="images/img451.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Beginning of the Siege.</i>—Thus secured, the allies closed upon +the south side of the fortress. A siege corps was formed, and the +British army and General Bosquet’s French corps covered its +operations against interruption from the Russian field army. +The harbour of Sevastopol, formed by the estuary of the Chernaya, +was protected against attack by sea not only by the Russian +war-vessels, afloat and sunken, but also by heavy granite forts +on the south side and by the works which had defied the allies on +the north. For the town itself and the Karabelnaya suburb +the trace of the works had been laid down for years. The +Malakoff, a great tower of stone, covered the suburb, flanked +on either side by the Redan and the Little Redan. The town +was covered by a line of works marked by the Flagstaff and +central bastions, and separated from the Redan by the inner +harbour. Lieut.-Col. Todleben, the Russian chief engineer, +had very early begun work on these sites, and daily re-creating, +rearming and improving the fortifications, finally connected +them by a continuous enceinte. Yet Sevastopol was not, early +in October 1854, the towering fortress it afterwards became, +and Todleben himself maintained that, had the allies immediately +assaulted, they would have succeeded in taking the place. +There were, however, many reasons against so decided a course, +and it was not until the 17th of October that the first attack +took place. All that day a tremendous artillery duel raged. +The French siege corps lost heavily and its guns were overpowered. +The fleet engaged the harbour batteries close inshore, and +suffered a loss of 500 men, besides severe damage to the ships. +On the other hand the British siege batteries silenced the Malakoff +and its annexes, and, if failure had not occurred at the other +points of attack, an assault might have succeeded. As it was, +Todleben, by daybreak, had repaired and improved the damaged +works. Meanwhile General Canrobert had succeeded St Arnaud +(who died on the 29th of September) in the joint leadership of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452"></a>452</span> +the allies. It was not long before Menshikov and the now +augmented field army from Bakhchiserai appeared on the +Chernaya and moved towards the Balaklava lines and the British +base.</p> + +<p><i>Balaklava.</i>—A long line of works on the upland secured the +siege corps from interference, and the Balaklava lines themselves +were strong, but the low Vorontsov ridge between the two was +weakly held, and here the Russian commander hoped to sever +the line of communications. On the 25th of October Liprandi’s +corps carried its slight redoubts at the first rush. But the British +cavalry stationed at the foot of the upland was situated on their +flank, and as the Russian cavalry moved towards Kadikoï, the +“Heavy Brigade” under General Scarlett charged home with +such effect that Menshikov’s troopers only rallied behind their +field batteries near Traktir bridge. At the same time some of the +Russian squadrons, coming upon the British 93rd regiment +outside the Balaklava lines, were completely broken by the steady +volleys of the “thin red line.” The “Light Brigade” of British +cavalry, farther north, had hitherto remained inactive, even +when the Russians, broken by the “Heavies,” fled across their +front. The cavalry commander, Lord Lucan, now received +orders to prevent the withdrawal of the guns taken by Liprandi. +The aide-de-camp who carried the order was killed by the first +shell, and the whole question of responsibility for what followed +is wrapped in obscurity. Lord Cardigan led the Light Brigade +straight at the Russian field batteries, behind which the enemy’s +squadrons had re-formed. From the guns in front, on the +Fedukhin heights, and on the captured ridge to their right, +the advancing squadrons at once met a deadly converging fire, +but the gallant troopers nevertheless reached the guns and cut +down the artillerymen. Small parties even charged the cavalry +behind, and at least two unbroken squadrons struck out right and +left with success, but the combat could only end in one way. +The 4th Chasseurs d’Afrique relieved the British left by a dashing +charge. The “Heavies” made as if to advance, but came under +such a storm of fire that they were withdrawn. By twos and +threes the gallant survivors of the “Light Brigade” made their +way back. Two-thirds of its numbers were left on the field, and +the day closed with the Russians still in possession of the +Vorontsov ridge.</p> + +<p><i>Inkerman.</i>—If the heights lost in this action were not absolutely +essential to the safety of the allies, the point selected for the +next attempt at relief was of vital importance. The junction +of the covering army and the siege corps near Inkerman was the +scene of a slight action on the day following Balaklava, and +the battle of Inkerman followed on the 5th of November. By +that time the French had made good the losses of the 17th of +October, their approaches were closing upon Flagstaff bastion, +and the British batteries daily maintained their superiority +over the Malakoff. On the 5th there was to have been a meeting +of generals to fix the details of an assault, but at dawn the +Russian army, now heavily reinforced from Odessa, was attacking +with the utmost fury the British divisions guarding the angle +between Bosquet and the siege corps. The battle of Inkerman +defies description; every regiment, every group of men bore its +own separate part in the confused and doubtful struggle, save +when leaders on either side obtained a momentary control over +its course by means of reserves which, carrying all before them +with their original impetus, soon served but to swell the mêlée. +It was a “soldiers’ battle” pure and simple. After many +hours of the most desperate fighting the arrival of Bosquet +(hitherto contained by a force on the Balaklava ground) confirmed +a success won by supreme tenacity against overwhelming +odds, and Menshikov sullenly drew off his men, leaving over +12,000 on the field. The allies had lost about 3300 men, of +whom more than two-thirds belonged to the small British force +on which the strain of the battle fell heaviest. Their losses +included several generals who could ill be spared, but they had +held their ground, which was all that was required of them, with +almost unrivalled tenacity. Lord Raglan was promoted to be +field marshal after the battle.</p> + +<p><i>The Winter of 1854-1855.</i>—It was now obvious that the army +must winter in the Crimea, and preparations in view of this +were begun betimes. But on the night of November 14th a +violent storm arose which wrecked nearly thirty vessels with +their precious cargoes of treasure, medical comforts, forage, +clothing and other necessaries. After so grave a calamity it +was to be expected that the troops would be called upon to +undergo great hardships. But the direct cause of sufferings +that have become a byword for the utmost depths of misery +was the loss of twenty days’ forage in the great storm. Of food +and clothing enough was in store to tide over temporary difficulties, +but the only paved road from Balaklava to the British +camps was now in Russian hands, and the few starving transport +animals were utterly inadequate for the work of drawing wagons +over the miry plain; things went from bad to worse with Raglan’s +troops, until from the outposts before the Redan to the hospitals +at Scutari a state of the utmost misery prevailed, relieved only +by the example of devotion and self-sacrifice set by officers and +men. The British hospital returns showed eight thousand sick +at the end of November. Even the French, whose base of +Kamiesh had escaped the storm, were not unhurt by the severity +of the winter, but Napoleon III. sent freely all the men his +general asked, while the Russians in Sevastopol, who had made +long painful marches from the interior, were the survivors of +the fittest. Canrobert took over the lines before the Malakoff +to relieve the British. He had at the end of January 1855 +78,000 men for duty; Raglan could barely muster 12,000. But, +with the advent of spring, paved roads and a railway were +promptly taken in hand, and during the remainder of the war +the British troops were so well cared for that their death-rate +was lower than at home, while the hospitals in rear, thanks to +the energy and devotion of Florence Nightingale and her nurses, +became models of good management.</p> + +<p><i>Course of the Siege.</i>—Meanwhile the siege works were making +but slow progress, and the fortress grew day by day under the +skilful direction of Todleben. Rifle-pits pushed out in front of +the defenders’ lines were connected so as to form a veritable +envelope. Beyond the left wing a new line, the “White Works,” +sprang up in a single night, and the hill of the Mamelon was +suddenly crowned with a lunette to cover the still defiant +Malakoff. But the absence of bomb-proof cover exposed the +huge working parties necessary for these defences to an almost +incessant <i>feu d’enfer</i>, by which the Russians every week suffered +the losses of a pitched battle. Meanwhile the field army was +idle, Menshikov had been replaced by Prince Michael Gorchakov, +Liprandi’s corps had withdrawn from the Vorontsov ridge, and +Omar Pasha, with a detachment of the troops he had led at +Oltenitza and Cetatea, repulsed a Russian attack on Eupatoria +(Feb. 17th). The besiegers steadily approached the White +Works, Mamelon, Redan and Flagstaff bastion, and as spring +arrived the logistic and material advantages of the allies returned. +On Easter Sunday (April 8th, 1855) another terrific bombardment +began, which lasted almost uninterruptedly for ten days. The +White Works and the Mamelon were practically destroyed, +and the Russians, drawn up in momentary expectation of +assault, lost between six and seven thousand men.</p> + +<p>But the bombardment ceased, and assault did not follow. +For, at the allied headquarters and at Paris, grave differences +of opinion on the conduct of the war had developed. Napoleon +III. wished active operations to be undertaken against the +Simferopol field army, whereas the leaders on the spot, while +admitting the theoretical soundness of the French emperor’s +views, considered that they were wholly beyond the means of +the two armies. The discussions culminated in Canrobert’s +resignation of the chief command, though he would not leave +the army, and took a subordinate post, which he filled with great +distinction to the end of the war. His successor, General +Pélissier, was a soldier trained in the hard school of Algerian +warfare, and endowed, as was soon evident, with the most +inflexible resolution of character. He did not hesitate to take up +and maintain a position of decided opposition to his sovereign’s +views; and the capture of Kerch (24th May 1855), carried out +by a joint expedition, was the first earnest of new vigour in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453"></a>453</span> +operations. This success served all the purposes of a complete +investment of Sevastopol, the want of which had greatly troubled +the allied generals. The line of communication and supply +between Sevastopol and the interior was cut, vast stores intended +for the fortress were destroyed, and the sea of Azov was cleared +of shipping. On the 25th Canrobert established himself on the +Fedukhin heights, his right continued along the Chernaya by +General la Marmora’s newly arrived Sardinians, 15,000 strong, +while masses of Turks occupied the Vorontsov ridge and the +old Balaklava battlefield.</p> + +<p>As June approached, Raglan and Pélissier, who, unlike most +allied commanders, were in complete accord and sympathy, +initiated very vigorous methods of attack. They decided that +the works west of Flagstaff could be comparatively neglected, +and the full weight of the bombardment once more fell upon +the Mamelon and the Malakoff. Once more these works were +reduced to ruins, but the rest of the defences still held out.</p> + +<p><i>The Assault of the Redan.</i>—On the 7th of June 1855 the French +stormed the Mamelon and the White Works, the British captured +and maintained some quarries close to the Redan, and next +morning the whole of Todleben’s envelope had become a siege-parallel. +The losses were, as usual, heavy, 8500 to the Russians, +6883 to the allies. This was merely a preliminary to the great +assault fixed for the 18th, the fortieth anniversary of Waterloo. +But meanwhile Pélissier’s temper and Raglan’s health had been +strained to breaking-point by continued dissensions with Paris +and London. The telegraph, a new strategic factor, daily +tormented the unfortunate commanders with the latest ideas +of the Paris strategists, and on the fateful day the two armies +rushed on to failure. The French attack on the Malakoff +dwindled away into a meaningless fire-fight: the British, +attacking the Redan in face of a cross-fire of one hundred heavy +guns, at first succeeded in entering the work, but in the end +sustained a bloody and disastrous repulse. Of the six generals +who led the two attacks, four were killed and one wounded, and +on the 17th and 18th the losses to the Russians were 5400, to the +allies 4000. But the defenders’ resources were almost at an end, +and the bombardment reopened at once with increased fury. +On the 20th Todleben was wounded, and soon afterwards +Nakhimov, the victor of Sinope, found a grave by the side of +three other admirals who had fallen in the defence. Pélissier +resolutely clung to his plans, in spite of the failure of the 18th, +against ever-increasing opposition at home. Raglan, worn out +by his troubles and heartbroken at the Redan failure, died on +the 28th, mourned by none more deeply than by his stern +colleague.</p> + +<p><i>The Storming of the Malakoff.</i>—During July the Russians lost +on an average 250 men a day, and at last it was decided that +Gorchakov and the field army must make another attack at the +Chernaya—the first since Inkerman. On the 16th of August +the corps of Generals Liprandi and Read furiously attacked the +37,000 French and Sardinian troops on the heights above Traktir +Bridge. The assailants came on with the greatest determination, +but the result was never for one moment doubtful. At the end +of the day the Russians drew off baffled, leaving 260 officers and +8000 men on the field. The allies only lost 1700. With this +defeat vanished the last chance of saving Sevastopol. On the +same day (Aug. 16th) the bombardment once more reduced the +Malakoff and its dependencies to impotence, and it was with +absolute confidence in the result that Pélissier planned the final +assault. On the 8th of September 1855 at noon, the whole of +Bosquet’s corps suddenly swarmed up to the Malakoff. The +fighting was of the most desperate kind. Every casemate, every +traverse, was taken and retaken time after time, but the French +maintained the prize, and though the British attack on the +Redan once more failed, the Russians crowded in that work +became at once the helpless target of the siege guns. Even on +the far left, opposite Flagstaff and Central bastions, there was +severe hand-to-hand fighting, and throughout the day the bombardment +mowed down the Russian masses along the whole line. +The fall of the Malakoff was the end of the siege. All night the +Russians were filing over the bridges to the north side, and on +the 9th the victors took possession of the empty and burning +prize. The losses in the last assault had been very heavy, to +the allies over 10,000 men, to the Russians 13,000. No less than +nineteen generals had fallen on that day. But the crisis was +surmounted. With the capture of Sevastopol the war loses its +absorbing interest. No serious operations were undertaken +against Gorchakov, who with the field army and the remnant of +the garrison held the heights at Mackenzie’s Farm. But Kinburn +was attacked by sea, and from the naval point of view the attack +is interesting as being the first instance of the employment of +ironclads. An armistice was agreed upon on the 26th of February +and the definitive peace of Paris was signed on the 30th of March +1856.</p> + +<p><i>Decisive Importance of the Victory.</i>—The importance of the +siege of Sevastopol, from the strategical point of view, lies +beneath the surface. It may well be asked, why did the fall of a +place, at first almost unfortified, bring the master of the Russian +empire to his knees? At first sight Russia would seem to be +almost invulnerable to a sea power, and no first success, however +crushing, could have humbled Nicholas I. Indeed the capture +of Sevastopol in October 1854 would have been far from decisive +of the war, but once the tsar had decided to defend to the last +this arsenal, the necessity for which he was in the best position +to appreciate, the factor of unlimited resources operated in the +allies’ favour. The sea brought to the invaders whatever they +needed, whilst the desert tracks of southern Russia were marked +at every step with the corpses of men and horses who had fallen +on the way to Sevastopol. The hasty nature, too, of the fortifications, +which, daily crushed by the fire of a thousand guns, had +to be re-created every night, made huge and therefore unprotected +working parties necessary, and the losses were correspondingly +heavy. The double cause of loss completely exhausted even +Russia’s resources, and, when large bodies of militia appeared +in line of battle at Traktir Bridge, it was obvious that the end +was at hand. The novels of Tolstoy give a graphic picture of the +war from the Russian point of view; the miseries of the desert +march, the still greater miseries of life in the casemates, and the +almost daily ordeal of manning the lines under shell-fire to meet an +assault that might or might not come; and no student of the +siege can leave it without feeling the profoundest respect for the +courage, discipline and stubborn loyalty of the defenders.</p> + +<p><i>Minor Operations.</i>—A few words may be added on the minor +operations of the war. The Asiatic frontier was the scene of +severe fighting between the Turks and the Russians. Hindered +at first by Shamyl and his Caucasian mountaineers, the Russians +stood on the defensive during 1853, but next year they took the +offensive, and, while their coast column won an action on the 16th +of June at the river Churuk, another force from Erivan gained an +important success on the Araxes and took Bayazid, and General +Bebutov completely defeated a Turkish column from Kars at +Kuruk Dere (July 31st, 1854). Next year Count Muraviev +completely isolated the garrison of Kars, which made a magnificent +defence, inspired by Fenwick Williams Pasha and other +British officers. In one assault alone 7000 Russians were killed +and wounded, and it was not until the 26th of November 1855 +that the fortress was forced to surrender. The naval operations +in the Baltic furnish many interesting examples for the study +of naval war. The allied fleet in 1854, after a first repulse, +succeeded in landing a French force under Baraguay d’Hilliers +before Bomarsund, and the place fell after an eight days’ siege. +In 1855 seventy allied warships appeared before Kronstadt, +which defied them. Reinforced they attacked Sveåborg, but +after two days’ fighting had to draw off baffled.</p> + +<p>The numbers engaged in the Crimean War and the cost in men +and money is stated in round numbers below. In May 1855 the +Crimean theatre of war occupied 174,500 allies (of whom 32,000 +were British) and 170,000 Russians. The losses in battle were: +allies 70,000 men, Russians 128,700; and the total losses, from +all causes and in all theatres of the war: allies 252,600 (including +45,000 English), Russians 256,000 men (Berndt, <i>Die Zahl im +Kriege</i>, p. 35). In the siege of Sevastopol the Russians are stated +by Berndt to have lost 102,670 men dead, wounded and missing. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454"></a>454</span> +Mulhall (<i>Dict. of Statistics</i>, 1903 ed., pp. 586-587) gives much +greater losses to each of the four powers principally engaged. +The cost of the war in money is stated by Mulhall to have been +£69,000,000 to Great Britain, £93,000,000 to France, £142,000,000 +to Russia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Of the many works on the Crimean War those of +the greatest value are the following. English: the official work on +the <i>Siege of Sebastopol</i>; A. W. Kinglake, <i>The Invasion of the Crimea</i> +(London, 1863; “Student’s edition” by Sir G. S. Clarke); Sir E. B. +Hamley, <i>The War in the Crimea</i> (London, 1891); (Sir) W. H. Russell, +<i>The War in the Crimea</i> (London, 1855-1856); Sir Evelyn Wood, +<i>The Crimea in 1854 and in 1894</i> (London, 1895); Sir D. Lysons, +<i>The Crimean War from First to Last</i> (London, 1895); Col. A. Lake, +<i>The Defence of Kars</i> (London, 1857). French: Official, <i>Guerre de +l’Orient, Hist. de l’artillerie</i> (Paris, 1859); (Marshal Niel), <i>Siège de +Sébastopol</i> (official account of engineer operations, Paris, 1858), and +<i>Atlas historique et topographique de la guerre de Crimée</i> (see also the +map of Russia by the French staff, sheets 56 and 57); Baron C. de +Bazancourt, <i>L’Expédition de Crimée</i> (Paris, 1856); C. Rousset, +<i>Histoire de la guerre de Crimée</i> (Paris, 1877). Russian: the work of +Todleben, <i>Die Vertheidigung von Sevastopol</i> (St. Petersburg, 1864); +<i>Défense de Sébastopol</i> (St Petersburg, 1863); Anitschkoff, <i>Feldzug in +der Krim</i> (German trans., Berlin, 1857); Bogdanovitch, <i>Der Orientkrieg</i> +(St Petersburg, 1876); Petroff, <i>Der Donaufeldzug Russlands +gegen Türkei</i> (German trans., Berlin, 1891). Of German works the +most useful are: Kunz, <i>Die Schlachten und Treffen des Krimkrieges</i> +(Berlin, 1889); <i>Der Feldzug in der Krim; Sammlung der Berichte +beider Parteien</i> (Leipzig, 1855-1856).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. F. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRIMINAL LAW.<a name="ar269" id="ar269"></a></span> By criminal, or penal, law is now understood +the law as to the definition, trial and punishment of crimes, +<i>i.e.</i> of acts or omissions forbidden by law which affect injuriously +public rights, or constitute a breach of duties due to the whole +community. The sovereign is taken to be the person injured by +the crime, as he represents the whole community, and prosecutions +are in his name. Criminal law includes the rules as to the +prevention, the investigation, prosecution and punishment of +crime (<i>q.v.</i>). It lays down what constitutes a criminal offence, +what proof is necessary to establish the fact of a criminal offence +and the culpability of the offender, what excuse or justification +for the act or omission can be legally admitted, what procedure +should be followed in a criminal court, what degrees and kinds +of punishment should be imposed for the various offences which +come up for trial. Finally, it regulates the constitution of the +tribunals established for the trial of offences according to the +gravity of the infraction of law, and deals with the organization +of the police and the proper management of prisons, and the +maintenance of prison discipline. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Evidence</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prison</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Police</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Many acts or omissions, which are technically criminal and +classified as offences and punished by fine or imprisonment, +cannot be said to have a strictly criminal character, since they +do not fall within the popular conception of crime. To this class +belong such matters as stopping up a highway under claim of +right, or failing to repair it, or allowing a chimney to emit +black smoke in excessive quantities, or to catch fire from being +unswept, or breach of building by-laws, or driving a motor car +on a highway at a speed in excess of the legal limit. Such breaches +of law are under the French law described as <i>contraventions</i>. +In England most of them are described as petty misdemeanours +or offences punishable on summary conviction, or less happily +as “summary offences,” and some writers speak of them as +<i>mala prohibita</i> as distinguished from <i>mala in se</i>, <i>i.e.</i> as not involving +any breach of ordinary morality other than a breach of +positive regulations. Continental jurists at times speak of +crimes <i>de droit commun</i> (<i>i.e.</i> offences common to all systems +of law as distinguished from offences which are crimes only by a +particular municipal law). To this class of crimes <i>de droit commun</i> +belong most of the offences included in extradition treaties.</p> + +<p>Criminal and civil law overlap, and many acts or omissions +are not only “wrongs” for which the person injured is entitled +to recover compensation for his own personal injury or damage, +but also “offences” for which the offender may be prosecuted +and punished in the interest of the state. In non-English +European systems care is taken to prevent civil remedies from +being extinguished by punishment: it is quite usual for the +civil and criminal remedies to be pursued concurrently, the +individual appearing as <i>partie civile</i> and receiving an award of +compensation by the judgment which determines the punishment +to be inflicted for the offence against the state. Under English +law it is now exceptional to allow civil and criminal remedies +to be pursued concurrently or in the same proceeding, or to +award compensation to the injured party in criminal proceedings, +and he is usually left to seek his remedy by action. Among the +exceptions are the restitution of stolen goods on conviction +of the thief if the prosecution has been at the instance or with +the aid of the owner of the goods (Larceny Act 1861, § 100), +and the award of compensation to persons who have suffered +injury to property by felony (Forfeiture Act 1870).</p> + +<p>As Sir Henry Maine says (<i>Ancient Law</i>, ed. 1906, p. 381), “All +civilized systems of law agree in drawing a distinction between +offences against the state or community (crimes or +<i>crimina</i>) and offences against the individual (wrongs, +<span class="sidenote">Development of modern criminal law.</span> +<i>torts</i> or <i>delicta</i>).” But the process of historical development +by which this distinction has been ultimately +established has given great occasion for study of +early laws and institutions by eminent men, whose researches +have disclosed the extremely gradual evolution of the modern +notion of criminal law enforced by the state from the primitive +conceptions and customs of barbarous or semi-civilized communities. +Of the oldest codes or digests of customs which +are available to the student it has been said the more archaic +a code the fuller and minuter is its penal legislation: but this +penal legislation is not true criminal law; it is the law, not of +crimes, but of wrongs. The intervention of the community +or tribe is in the first instance to persuade or compel the wronged +person or his family or tribe to abandon private vengeance or a +blood feud and to accept compensation for the wrong collectively +or individually sustained; and in the tariffs of compensation +preserved in early laws the importance of the injured person +was the measure of the compensation or vengeance which he +was recognized to be entitled to exact, and the scales of punishment +or compensation are fixed from this point of view.</p> + +<p>The laws of Khammurabi (2285-2242), the oldest extant code, +contain definite schemes and scales of offences and punishments, +and indicate the existence of tribunals to try the +offences and to award the appropriate remedy. The +<span class="sidenote">Babylon.</span> +punishments are very severe. It is not distinctly indicated +whether the proceedings were at the instance of the state or +the person wronged, but compensation and penalty could be +awarded in the same proceeding, and the provisions as to the +<i>lex talionis</i> and scale of compensation for injuries tend to show +that the procedure was on private complaint and not on behalf +of the state (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babylonian Law</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Of the early criminal laws of Greece only fragments survive, +<i>e.g.</i> those of Solon and Draco. In Athens in early times crime +was dealt with in the Areopagus from the point of view +<span class="sidenote">Greece.</span> +of religion and by the archons from the point of view of +compensation: and it was only when the state interests were +directly affected that proceedings by way of <span class="grk" title="eisangelia">εἰσαγγελία</span> or +impeachment were taken. In classical times crimes fell to be +tried by panels of jurors or judges drawn from the assembly and +described as <span class="grk" title="dikastêria">δικαστήρια</span>.</p> + +<p>The earliest materials for ascertaining the criminal law of +Rome are to be found in the Twelve Tables, Table VIII. The +criminal law of imperial Rome is collected in books 47 +and 48 of the Digest. The classification of crimes +<span class="sidenote">Rome.</span> +therein is capricious and anomalous. “In the early Roman +law the idea of legislative power was so fully grasped and that +of judicial power so little understood that the criminal jurisdiction +arose in the form of a legislative enactment applicable +to particular cases.” Crimes were classified according to the +mode of prosecution into:</p> + +<p>1. <i>Publica judicia</i>, dealing with crimes specifically forbidden +by definite laws, which took the place of the standing commissions +(<i>quaestiones perpetuae</i>) of the time of the republic. +In the earlier stages of Roman law the state only interfered to +punish offences which gravely affected it, and did so by <i>privilegia</i>, +which correspond to impeachment or Bill of Pains and Penalties.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455"></a>455</span></p> + +<p>2. <i>Extraordinaria crimina</i>, crimes for which no special procedure +or punishment was provided: the punishment being, +within limits, left to the discretion of the judge and the +prosecution to the injured party.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Privata delicta</i>, offences for which a special form of action +was open to the injured party, <i>e.g. actio furti</i>.</p> + +<p>The multiplicity of tribunals under the republic was replaced +under the empire by a complete organization of the judiciary +throughout the districts (dioceses) under the supervision of the +emperor in his privy council (see Maine, <i>Ancient Law</i>, ed. 1906, +p. 393). Public prosecution under the empire began by arrest of +the accused, who was taken before an <i>eirenarcha</i>, who examined +him (by torture in the case of a slave or parricide) and sent him +on for trial before the <i>praeses</i> of the diocese (<span class="grk" title="dioikêsis">διοίκησις</span>). Private +prosecution followed, a procedure closely resembling that of +civil actions, beginning with <i>citatio</i> (summons), followed by +<i>libellus</i> or accusation, and appointment of a day for hearing. +The right of either party to call witnesses was very imperfectly +established.</p> + +<p>The early laws of the Celtic races are preserved as to Wales +in the laws of Hywel Dda, and as to Ireland in the Book of +Aicill and other Brehon law tracts, which are professional +collections of precedents and formulae made +<span class="sidenote">Celtic law.</span> +by the hereditary law caste (Brehons), whose business it was +“to pass sentence from precedents and commentaries.” (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brehon Laws</a></span>.) The development of Celtic law was arrested +by the Saxon and Anglo-Norman conquest: but the materials +preserved indicate an origin common with that of Germanic law.</p> + +<p>The special characteristics of Irish criminal law, if it can be +so called, were:—</p> + +<p>1. The law was customary and theoretically unchangeable, +and no legislative or judicial authority existed to alter or +enforce it.</p> + +<p>2. All crimes were treated as wrongs, for which compensation +was made by assessment of damages by a consensual tribunal +whose power to make awards depended on submission of the +parties and the ultimate sanction of public opinion or custom. +A customary tariff for compensation existed for all offences +from wilful murder downwards. No crime was unamendable. +The Irish law recognized a body price or compensation (S. <i>bot</i>) +and an honour price or <i>eric</i> (S. <i>wer</i>), for which the family or tribe +of the offender was collectively liable; but there is no clearly +ascertained equivalent to the Saxon <i>wite</i>, or fine to the chief.</p> + +<p>The laws of the Germanic tribes, so far as preserved in the +<i>Germania</i> of Tacitus, and in the compilations of customs known +as the Salic and Ripuarian laws, the Leges Barbarorum, +the Dooms of Æthelberht and the collections of +<span class="sidenote">Germanic law.</span> +Anglo-Saxon law and custom (to be found in Thorpe’s +<i>Ancient Laws and Institutes of England</i>), do not indicate any +adequate or definite division between crimes and causes of civil +action, but, like the laws of Babylon, recognize the system and +contain the tariffs of compensation for wrongs. The idea of +the compensation was originally to put an end (<i>finis</i>) to blood +feuds and private war or vengeance.</p> + +<p>These laws formed the foundation of the criminal law of +Germany, including the Netherlands, of England and of Scandinavia. +But in each country the development of criminal law +has been affected by influences other than Germanic, mainly +consisting in an infusion more or less great of ideas derived from +Roman law. In England under Alfred some part of the Levitical +law (Exod. xxi. 12-15) was incorporated, just as in 1567 the +criminal law as to incest in Scotland was taken bodily from +Leviticus xviii.</p> + +<p>The stage which the development of criminal law had reached +in England by the reign of Edward the Confessor is thus described +by Pollock and Maitland (<i>Hist. Eng. Law</i>, ii. 447): +“On the eve of the Norman Conquest what we may call +<span class="sidenote">Anglo-Saxon law.</span> +the criminal law of England (but it was also the law +of torts or civil wrongs) contained four elements which +deserve attention: Its past history had in the main consisted +of the varying relations between them. We have to speak of +outlawry, of the blood feud (<i>faidus</i>), of the tariffs of <i>wer</i> and <i>wite</i> +(<i>fredus</i> or <i>friede</i>), and <i>bot</i>, of punishment in life and limb. As +regards the malefactor the community may assume one of four +attitudes: it may make war on him; it may have him exposed +to the vengeance of those whom he has wronged; it may suffer +him to make atonement; it may inflict on him a determinate +punishment, death, mutilation or the like.” The <i>wite</i> or sum +paid to the king or lord is now thought to have been originally +not a penalty but a fee for time and trouble taken in hearing and +determining a controversy. But at an early stage fines for +breach of peace were imposed. An evil result from the public +point of view followed from the system of atoning for crime by +pecuniary mulct. “Criminal jurisdiction became a source of +revenue.” So early as Canute’s time certain crimes were pleas of +the crown; but grants of criminal jurisdiction, with the attendant +forfeitures, were freely made to prelates, towns and lords of +manors, and some traces of this jurisdiction still survive (<i>e.g.</i> +the criminal jurisdiction of the justices of the <i>soke</i> (<i>soc</i>) of +Peterborough, and the rights of some boroughs, <i>e.g.</i> Nottingham, +to forfeitures). Outlawry soon ceased to be a mode of punishment, +and became, as it still is, a process to compel submission to +justice (Crown Office Rules, 1906, rules 88-110). Certain crimes, +such as murder, rape, arson and burglary, became unamendable +or bootless, <i>i.e.</i> placed the offender’s life, limb, lands and goods +at the king’s mercy. These crimes came to be generally described +by the name felony (<i>q.v.</i>). Other crimes became punishable by +fines which took the place of <i>wites</i>. These were styled trespasses +and correspond to what is now called misdemeanour (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>Minor acts of violence, dishonesty or nuisance, were dealt with +in seigniorial and borough courts by presentment of the jurors +of courts baron and courts leet, and punished by fine +or in some cases by pillory, tumbril or stocks. Grave +<span class="sidenote">Anglo-Norman period.</span> +acts were dealt with by the sheriff as breaches of the +peace. He sat with the freeholders in the county +court, which sat twice a year, or in the hundred court, which sat +every four weeks. So far as this involved dealing with pleas +of the crown the sheriff’s jurisdiction was abolished and was +ultimately replaced by that of the justices or conservators of +the peace. The sheriff then ceased to be a judge in criminal cases, +but remained and still is in law responsible for the peace of his +county, and is the officer for the execution of the law. The royal +control over crime was effectually established by the itinerant +justices sent regularly throughout the realm, who not only dealt +with the ordinary proprietary and fiscal rights of the crown +but also with the graver crimes (treason and felony), and ultimately +were commissioned to deal with the less grave offences +now classed as indictable misdemeanours. The change resulted +from the strengthening of royal authority throughout England, +which enabled the crown gradually to enlarge the pleas of the +crown and to weaken and finally to supersede the criminal +jurisdiction, notably of the sheriff, but also of prelates and lords +in ecclesiastical and other manors and franchises. “In the early +English laws and constitution there existed a national sovereignty +and original criminal jurisdiction, but the ideas of legislative +power and crime were very slowly developed.” During the 12th +century the criminal law was affected by the influence of the +church, which introduced into it elements from the Canon and +Mosaic laws, and also by the memory of the Roman empire and +the renewed study of the Roman law, which enabled lawyers +to draw a clearer distinction than had before been recognized +between the criminal (<i>dolus</i>) and civil (<i>culpa</i>) aspect of wrongful +acts. The Statute of Treasons (1351) is to a large extent an +admixture of Roman with feudal law; and to the same source +is probably due the more careful analysis of the mental elements +necessary to create criminal responsibility, summed up in +the somewhat misleading expression <i>nemo reus est nisi mens +sit rea</i>.</p> + +<p>In the 14th century justices of the peace and quarter sessions +were established to deal with offences not sufficiently important +for the king’s judges, and from that time the course of criminal +justice in England has run substantially on the same lines, with +the single and temporary interruption caused by the court of +star chamber.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456"></a>456</span></p> + +<p>The penal laws of modern states classify crimes somewhat +differently, but in the main on the same general principles, +dividing them into:—</p> + +<p>1. Offences against the external and internal +<span class="sidenote">Classification of crimes.</span> +order and security of the state.</p> + +<p>2. Offences against the administration of police and +against public authority.</p> + +<p>3. Acts injurious to the public in general.</p> + +<p>4. Offences against the person (life, health, liberty and +reputation), and conjugal and parental rights and duties.</p> + +<p>5. Offences relating to property and contracts (including +theft, fraud, forgery and malicious damage).</p> + +<p>The terminology by which crimes are described by reference +to their comparative gravity varies considerably. In many +continental codes distinctions are drawn between crimes (Ger. +<i>Verbrechen</i>; Norse <i>vorbrydelser</i>; Span. <i>crimenes</i>; Ital. +<i>reato</i>), delicts (Ger. <i>Vergehen</i>; Ital. <i>delitti</i>; Span, <i>delitos</i>), and +contraventions (Ital. <i>contravenzioni</i>; Span, <i>faltas</i>).</p> + +<p>The classification adopted by English law is peculiar to itself, +“treason,” “felony” and “misdemeanour,” with a tentative +fourth class described as “summary offences.” The particular +distinctions between these three classes are dealt with under the +titles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Treason</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Felony</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Misdemeanour</a></span>, &c. Here it is +enough to say that the distinction is a result of history and is +marked for abolition and reclassification. Treason and most +felonies and some misdemeanours would under foreign codes +fall under the head of crime. Misdemeanour, roughly but not +exactly, corresponds to the French <i>délit</i>, and summary offence +to <i>contravention</i>.</p> + +<p>In all systems of criminal law it is found necessary +to determine the criterion of criminal responsibility, +the mental elements of crime, the degrees of criminality +<span class="sidenote">Elements of criminal responsibility.</span> +and the point at which the line is to be drawn +between intention and commission.</p> + +<p>The full definition of every crime contains expressly or by +implication a proposition as to a state of mind, and in all systems +of criminal law, competent age, sanity and some degree of +freedom from coercion, are assumed to be essential to criminality; +and it is also generally recognized that an act does not fall within +the sanction of the criminal law if done by pure accident or in an +honest and reasonable belief in circumstances which if true +would make it innocent; <i>e.g.</i> when a married person marries +again in the honest and reasonable but mistaken belief that the +former spouse is dead. Honest and reasonable mistake of fact +stands on the same footing as absence of the reasoning faculty, +as in infants, or perversion of that faculty, as in lunatics.</p> + +<p>Besides the elements essential to constitute crime generally, +particular mental elements, which may differ widely, are involved +in the definition of particular crimes; and in the case of statutory +offences adequately and carefully defined, the mental elements +necessary to constitute the crime may be limited by the definition +so as to make the prohibition of the law against a particular act +absolute for all persons who are not infants or lunatics. As a +general rule of English law, it is enough to prove that the acts +alleged to constitute a crime were done by the accused, and to +leave him to rebut the presumption that he intended the natural +consequences of the acts by showing facts justifying or excusing +him or otherwise making him not liable. Children are conclusively +presumed to be incapable of crime up to seven years of +age; and from seven to fourteen the presumption is against the +capacity, but is not absolute.</p> + +<p>Under the common law, insanity was an absolute answer to +an accusation of crime. Since 1883, where insanity is proved +to have existed at the date of the commission of the incriminated +acts, the accused is found guilty of the acts but insane when he +did them, and is relegated to a criminal lunatic asylum. There +was also at common law a presumption that a married woman +committing certain crimes in the presence of her husband did +so under his coercion. But under modern decisions and practice +the presumption has become feeble almost to inanition (<i>R</i>. v. +<i>Mary Baines</i>, 1900, 69 L.J. Q.B. 681). Distinctions are also +drawn between degrees of guilt or complicity.</p> + +<p>English criminal law punishes attempts to commit crime if +the attempt passes from the stage of resolution or intention +to the stage of action, when the completion of the full offence +is frustrated by something other than the will of the accused. +Except in the case of attempt to commit murder, which is +a felony, attempts to commit a crime are punished as misdemeanours. +It also punishes the solicitation or incitement of +others to commit crime, as a separate offence if the incitement +fails, as the offence of being accessory before the fact or abettor +if the offence is committed as a result of the incitement; and +it punishes persons who, after a more serious crime—felony—has +been committed, do any act to shield the offender from +justice. In the case of the crimes described as felonies the law +distinguishes between principals in the first or second degree +and accessories before or after the fact. In the case of misdemeanours +the same punishment is incurred by the principal +offenders, and by persons who are present aiding and abetting the +commission of the offence, or who, though not present, counselled +or procured the commission of the offence (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Accessory</a></span>). Besides +these degrees of crime there is one almost peculiar to English +law known as conspiracy, <i>i.e.</i> an agreement to commit crime or to +do illegal acts (including interference with the due course of +justice), which is punishable even if the conspiracy does not get +beyond the stage of agreement. The exact nature of this form +of crime and the propriety of abolishing it or limiting its scope +have been the subject of much controversy, especially with +reference to combinations by trade unions.</p> + +<p>The English law does not, but most European laws do, allow +the jury to reduce the penalty of an offence by finding in their +verdict that the commission of the offence was attended by +extenuating circumstances; but when the jury recommend +to mercy a person whom they find guilty the judge may give +effect to the recommendation or report it to the Home Office.</p> + +<p>In systems of criminal law derived from England the forms of +crime or degrees of complicity above stated reappear with or +without modification, but as to conspiracy with a good deal of +alteration. In the Indian penal code, for instance, conspiracy +is limited to cases of treason (§ 121 A), and when it goes beyond +agreement in the case of other offences it is merely a form of +abetment or participation (§ 107).</p> + +<p>The criminal law of England<a name="FnAnchor_1n" id="FnAnchor_1n" href="#Footnote_1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> is not codified, but is composed +of a large number of enactments resting on a basis of common +law. A very large part is reduced to writing in +statutes. The unwritten portion of the law includes +<span class="sidenote">Definitions of particular crimes.</span> +(1) principles relating to the excuse or justification of +acts or omissions which are prima facie criminal, (2) +the definitions of many offences, <i>e.g.</i> murder, assault, theft, +forgery, perjury, libel, riot, (3) parts of the law relating to +procedure. The law is very rich in principles and rules embodied +in judicial decisions and is extremely detailed and explicit, +leaving to the judges very little latitude of interpretation or +expression. So far as the legislature is concerned there is an +absence of systematic arrangement. The definitions of particular +crimes are still to be sought in the common law and the decisions +of the judges. The Consolidation Acts of 1861 for the most part +leave definitions as they stood, <i>e.g.</i> the Larceny Act 1861 does +not define the crime of larceny. The consequence is that exact +definitions are very difficult to frame, and the technical view of +a crime sometimes includes more, sometimes less, than it ought. +Thus the crime of murder, as settled by the existing law, would +include offences of such very different moral gravity as killing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457"></a>457</span> +a man deliberately for the sake of robbing him, and killing a man +accidentally in an attempt to rob him. On the other hand, +offences which ought to have been criminal were constantly +declared by the judges not to fall within the definition of the +particular crimes alleged, and the legislature has constantly +had to fill up the <i>lacunae</i> in the law as interpreted by the judges.</p> + +<p>The jurisdiction to deal with crime is primarily territorial, +and can be exercised only as to acts done within the territory +or territorial waters, or on the ships of the law-giver. +<i>Extra territorium jus dicenti impune non paretur.</i> No +<span class="sidenote">Jurisdiction.</span> +state will enforce the penal laws of another nor permit +the officer of another state to execute its laws outside its own +territory. But international law recognizes the competence of +a state to make its criminal law binding on its own subjects +wherever they are, and perhaps even to punish foreigners who +outside its territory do acts which menace its internal or external +security, <i>e.g.</i> by dynamite plots or falsification of coin. Apart +from extradition arrangements the national law cannot reach +such persons, be they citizens or aliens, until they come within +the territory of the state whose law has been broken.</p> + +<p>The codes of France, Germany and Italy make the penal law +national or personal and not territorial. In some British colonies +whose legislatures have a derived and limited legislative +authority, indirect methods have been taken to deal within +the colony with persons who commit offences outside its +territory.</p> + +<p>Throughout the development of the English criminal law it +showed and retains one particular characteristic that crime +was treated as local, which means not merely that the common +law of England was limited to English soil, but that an offence +on English soil could be “inquired of, dealt with, tried, determined +and punished” only in the particular territorial division +of England in which it was committed, which was and is known +as the venue (<i>q.v.</i>). Each township was responsible for crimes +within its boundaries, a responsibility made effective by the +“view of frankpledge,” now obsolete, and the guilt or innocence +of every man had to be determined by his neighbours. This +rule excluded from trial by the courts of common law, treasons, +&c. committed by Englishmen abroad and piracy; and it was +not till Henry VIII.’s reign (1536, 1544) that the common-law +mode of trial was extended to these offences. The legislature +has altered the common law as to numerous offences, but on no +settled plan, and except for a bill introduced about 1888, at the +instance of the 3rd marquess of Salisbury, no attempt has been +made to make the English criminal law apply generally to +subjects when outside the realm; and in view of the complicated +nature of the British empire and the absence of a common +criminal code it has been found desirable to remain content +with extradition in the case of crimes abroad, and with the +provisions of the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 in the case of +criminals who flee from one part to another of the empire.</p> + +<p>The localization in England of crime, and the procedure for +punishing it, differ largely from the view taken in France and +most European countries. The French theory is that a Frenchman +owes allegiance to the French state, and commits a breach +of that allegiance whenever he commits a crime against French +law, even although he is not at the time within French territory. +In modern days this theory has been extended so as to allow +French and German courts to punish their subjects for crimes +committed in foreign countries, and by reason of this power +certain countries refuse to extradite their subjects who have +committed crimes in other states.</p> + +<p>The principle of the French law, though not expressly recognized +in England, must be invoked to justify two departures +from the English principle—(1) as regards offences +on the high seas, and (2) as regards certain offences +<span class="sidenote">Offences on the high seas.</span> +committed outside the United Kingdom. In early +days offences committed by Englishmen on the high +seas were punished by the lord high admiral, and he encroached +so much on the ordinary courts as to render it necessary to pass +an act in Richard II.’s reign (15 Rich. II. st. 2, c. 3) to restrain +him.</p> + +<p>In the time of Henry VIII. (1536, 28 Hen. VIII. c. 15) an act +was passed stating that, as the admiral tried persons according +to the course of civil law, they could not be convicted unless +either they confessed or they or the witnesses were submitted +to torture, and that therefore it was expedient to try the offences +according to the course of the common law. Under that act +a special commission of oyer and terminer was issued to try these +offences at the Old Bailey, and English law was satisfied by permitting +the indictment to state that the offence was committed +on board a ship on the high seas, to wit in the county of Middlesex. +Since 1861 these special commissions have been rendered unnecessary +by the provision (contained in each of the Criminal Law +Consolidation Acts of that year) that all offences committed on +the high seas may be tried as if they had been committed in +England. As regards offences on land, it was found necessary +as early as the reign of Henry VIII. (1544) to provide for the trial +in England of treasons and murders committed on land outside +England. This was largely due to the constant presence in +<span class="sidenote">Offences committed on land outside England.</span> +France of the king and many of his nobles and knights, +but the aid of this statute had to be invoked in 1903 +in the case of Lynch, tried for treason in South Africa. +The latest legislation on the subject was in 1861 +(Offences against the Person Act, § 9), and any murder +or manslaughter committed on land out of the United Kingdom, +whether within the king’s dominions or without, and whether +the person killed were a subject of His Majesty or not, may be +dealt with in all respects as if it were committed in England. +The jurisdiction has been extended to a few other cases such as +slave trade, bigamy, perjury, committed with reference to +proceedings in an English court, and offences connected with +explosives. But these offences must be committed on land and +not on board a foreign ship, because if a man takes service on +board a foreign ship he is treated for the time as being a member +of the foreign state to which that ship belongs. The principle +<span class="sidenote">Misdemeanours committed by public officers in colonies.</span> +has been also extended to misdemeanours (but not to +felonies) committed by public officers out of Great +Britain, whether within or without the British +dominions. Thus a governor or an inferior officer of a +colony, if appointed by the British government, may be +prosecuted for any misdemeanour committed by him by +virtue of his office in the colony; and cases have occurred where +governors have been so prosecuted, such as that of General +Picton at the beginning of the 19th century, and of Governor +Eyre of Jamaica in 1865, and the attempt to prosecute Governor +MacCallum of Natal in 1906. As a corollary to the system of +“capitulations” applied to certain non-Christian states in Asia +and Africa, it has been necessary to take powers for punishing +under English law offences by British subjects in those states, +which would otherwise go unpunished either by the law of the +land where the offence was committed or by the law of the state +to which the offender belonged (Jenkyns, <i>Foreign Jurisdiction +of the Crown</i>).</p> + +<p>An essential part of the criminal law is the punishment or +sanction by which the state seeks to prevent or avenge offences. +See also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Criminology</a></span>. Here it is enough +<span class="sidenote">Punishment.</span> +to say that during the 19th century great changes +have been made throughout the world in the modes +of punishing crime.</p> + +<p>In England until early in the 19th century, punishments for +crime were ferocious. The severity of the law was tempered +by the rule as to benefit of clergy and by the rigid adherence of +the judges (<i>in favorem vitae</i>) to the rules of correct pleading and +proof, whereby the slightest error on the part of the prosecution +led to an acquittal. Bentham pointed out that certainty of +punishment was more effective than severity, that severe +punishments induced juries to acquit criminals, and that thus +the certainty of punishment was diminished. But his arguments +and the eloquence of Sir Samuel Romilly produced no effect +until after the reform of parliament in 1832, shortly after which +statutes were passed abolishing the death sentence for all felonies +where benefit of clergy existed. The severity of capital sentences +had already been modified by the pardoning power of the crown, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458"></a>458</span> +which pardoned convicts under sentence of death on their +consenting to be transported to convict settlements in the colonies. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deportation</a></span>.) For some years this was only done by the +consent of the convict, who agreed to be transported if his death +sentence was remitted, but in 1824, when a convict refused to +give this consent, parliament authorized the crown to substitute +transportation for a death sentence, and the same course was +adopted in Ireland in 1851 when some treason-felony prisoners +refused commutation of their sentence to transportation.</p> + +<p>The punishments now in use under the English law for indictable +offences are:—</p> + +<p>1. Death, inflicted by hanging, with a provision that other +modes of execution may be authorized by royal warrant in cases +of high treason.</p> + +<p>2. Penal servitude, which in 1853 was substituted for transportation +to penal settlements outside the United Kingdom. +The minimum term of penal servitude is three years (Penal +Servitude Act 1891), and the sentence is carried out in a convict +prison, in the United Kingdom, but there is still power to send +the convicts out of the United Kingdom.</p> + +<p>3. Imprisonment in a local prison, which must be without hard +labour unless a statute specially authorizes a sentence of hard +labour. At common law there is no limit to a term of imprisonment +for misdemeanour; but for many offences (both felonies +and misdemeanours) the term is limited by statute to two years, +and in practice this limit is not exceeded for any offence. The +treatment of prisoners is regulated by the prison acts and rules.</p> + +<p>4. Police supervision, on conviction or indictment of felony +and certain misdemeanours after a previous conviction of such +offences. Prevention of Crimes Act, c. 112, §§ 8, 20.</p> + +<p>5. Pecuniary fine, a punishment appropriate only to misdemeanours +and never imposed for a felony except under +statutory authority, <i>e.g.</i> manslaughter (Offences against the +Person Act, § 5). The amount of the fine is in the discretion of +the judge, subject to the directions of Magna Carta and the +Bill of Rights and of any statute limiting the maximum for a +particular offence.</p> + +<p>6. Whipping was a common law punishment for misdemeanants +of either sex. Under the present law the whipping of females +is prohibited, and the punishment is not inflicted on males except +under statutory authority, which is given in the case of certain +assaults on the sovereign, of certain forms of robbery with +violence or assaults with intent to commit felony (Garrotters +Act 1863), of incorrigible rogues, larceny and malicious damage, +and certain other offences by youthful offenders.</p> + +<p>7. Recognizances (caution) to keep peace and be of good +behaviour, <i>i.e.</i> a bond with or without sureties creating a debt +to the crown not enforceable unless the conditions as to conduct +therein made are broken. This bond may be taken from any +misdemeanant, and, under statutory authority, from persons +convicted of any felony (except murder) falling within the +Criminal Law Consolidation Acts of 1861.</p> + +<p>8. In the case of any offence which is not capital the court, +if it is a first offence or if any other grounds for mercy appear, +may simply bind the offender over to come up for judgment +when required, intimating to him that if his conduct is good no +further steps will be taken to punish him.</p> + +<p>Except in the case of the death penalty, the court of trial +has a discretion as to the <i>quantum</i> of a particular punishment, +no minimum being fixed. In the case of offences punishable +on summary conviction the maximum punishment is always +fixed by statute. It consists of imprisonment with or without +hard labour, or a fine of a limited amount, or both. The imprisonment +in very few cases may exceed six months. If the maximum +exceeds three months the accused must be informed that he has a +right, if he so elects, to be tried by a jury.</p> + +<p>Where power is given to deal summarily with offences which +under ordinary circumstances would be tried on indictment, +the punishments are as follows (Summary Jurisdiction Act +1879):—</p> + +<p>(a) In the case of adults pleading guilty, imprisonment not +exceeding six months without the option of a fine.</p> + +<p>(b) In the case of adults (consenting to be summarily tried), +where the offence affects property not worth over forty shillings, +imprisonment not over three months, or fine not exceeding £20.</p> + +<p>(c) In the case of young persons, between twelve and sixteen +years, imprisonment not over three months, or fine not exceeding +£10.</p> + +<p>(d) In the case of children under twelve, imprisonment not +over one month, or fine not exceeding forty shillings.</p> + +<p>If the offence is trifling, the accused may be discharged +without punishment, and under the First Offenders Act (1887) +the justices have a discretionary power to forgo punishment. +The justices have also the power, under the Prevention of Crime +Act 1908, in lieu of passing a sentence of penal servitude or +imprisonment, to commit persons between the ages of sixteen and +twenty-one to a Borstal institution, for a period of detention +ranging from one to three years (see <span class="sc">Juvenile Offenders</span>).</p> + +<p>In the criminal law of Europe the scale of punishments is +on similar lines in most states, and is more elaborate than that +of England, and less is left to the discretion of the court of trial. +The following examples will indicate the kind of punishments +awarded under the French penal code. Punishments are +classified as (1) <i>afflictives et infamantes</i>, including death, <i>travaux +forcés à perpétuité ou à temps</i>, <i>déportation</i>, <i>détention</i>, <i>reclusion</i>; +(2) <i>infamantes</i>, viz. banishment and civil degradation; (3) +<i>peines en matière correctionnelle</i>, viz. imprisonment in a house +of correction (six days to five years), interdiction from certain +civic rights, and fine. The punishments in no case have any +effect to extinguish the civil claims of individuals who have +suffered by the offence (arts. 6 and 55). Special provisions are +made for <i>récidivistes</i>, police supervision and first offenders (<i>Loi +Bérenger</i>).</p> + +<p>In the German code of 1872 the legal punishments are: (1) +death; (2) penal servitude for life or for a term not exceeding +fifteen years nor less than one year; (3) imprisonment with +labour for a term not exceeding five years nor less than one day; +(4) confinement in a fortress (terms same as for penal servitude +but involving only withdrawal of freedom and supervision); (5) +arrest for not more than six weeks nor less than one day; (6) +fine (not less than three marks in the case of crimes or delicts +nor one mark in case of petty offences). Sentence of imprisonment +is in certain cases followed by liability to be placed under +police supervision for a term after release. In the case of a +sentence of death or of penal servitude, the court may order +forfeiture of civil privileges, and a condemnation to penal +servitude permanently disqualifies for service in the army and +public office (Code pt. 1, chap. 1, arts. 13-40).</p> + +<p>Under the Italian code of 1889 (arts. 11-30) the punishments +are (1) <i>ergastolo</i> (for life); (2) <i>reclusione</i> (from three days to +twenty-four years), which involves hard labour and cellular +confinement; (3) <i>detenzione</i> (like term), which involves labour +and at night separate confinement; (4) <i>confino</i> (one month to +three years), a form of banishment from the commune of origin +or residence of the offender; (5a) fine (<i>multa</i>), from ten to ten +thousand lire; (5b) <i>amende</i>, from one to two thousand lire; (6) +arrest (one day to two years); (7) interdiction from public +office; (8) suspension from professional calling. Punishments +(5b), (6) and (8) are applied only to contraventions, the others +to crimes (<i>delitti</i>).</p> + +<p>The Spanish law (<i>Codigo Penal</i>, title 3, chaps. 2 and 3) contains +a general scale of punishments classified as afflictive, correctional, +light and accessory. The first class begins with death and runs +down through many forms of imprisonment to disqualification +(<i>inhabilitacion</i>). The second includes forms of imprisonment, +(<i>presidio</i> and <i>prisión</i>), and arrest, public censure and suspension +from the exercise of certain offices or callings. The slight +punishments are minor arrest and private censure. Offenders +in any of the three classes may also be fined or put under recognizance +(<i>caución</i>). The accessory punishments include payment +of costs, degradation, civil interdiction.</p> + +<p>In England indictable offences (<i>i.e.</i> offences which must be +tried by a judge and jury) are thus dealt with:—</p> + +<p>1. Courts of assize (sitting under old commissions known as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459"></a>459</span> +commissions of assize, oyer and terminer, and general gaol +delivery) are held twice or oftener in every year in each county +<span class="sidenote">Tribunals.</span> +and also in some large cities and boroughs. They are +the lineal successors of the justices <i>in eyre</i><a name="FnAnchor_2n" id="FnAnchor_2n" href="#Footnote_2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> of the +middle ages; but they are now integral parts of the High Court +of Justice. These courts can try any indictable offence presented +by a grand jury for the district in which they sit.</p> + +<p>2. For the counties of London and Middlesex and certain +adjoining districts, a special court of assize known as the central +criminal court sits monthly.</p> + +<p>3. In all counties and many boroughs the justices of the +peace sit quarterly or oftener under the commission of the peace +to try the minor indictable offences. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Quarter Sessions, +Court of</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>4. The High Court of Justice in the king’s bench division +tries a few special offences in its original jurisdiction, and where +justice requires may transfer indictments from other courts +for trial before itself.</p> + +<p>5. The court of criminal appeal has been instituted by the +Criminal Appeal Act 1907; to it all persons convicted on +indictment have a right of appeal. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Appeal</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The substantive law as to crime applies in England to all +persons except the reigning sovereign, and criminal procedure +is the same for all subjects alike, except in the case of peers or +peeresses charged with felony, who have the right of trial by +their peers in the House of Lords if it be sitting, or in the court +of the lord high steward.</p> + +<p>There are in England no courts of a special character, such +as exist in some foreign countries, for the determination of +disputes between the governing classes themselves +or with the governed classes, whether of a civil or +<span class="sidenote">Special tribunals.</span> +criminal character. There are a few exceptional +courts with criminal jurisdiction. The court of chivalry, which +used to punish offences committed within military lines outside +the kingdom, is obsolete. Special tribunals exist for trying +naval or military offences committed by members of the navy +and army, but those members are not exempt from being tried +by the ordinary tribunals for offences against the ordinary law, +as though they were civilians. The naval courts can be held +only on board a ship, and can as a general rule try only persons +entered on the books of a king’s ship. The military courts can +only try persons who are actually members of the army at the +time, and their authority is annually renewed by parliament, +in consequence of the jealousy still felt against the trial of any +man except by the ordinary courts of law. Military and naval +courts can try in any part of the world, and whenever the forces are +in active service can try followers of the camp as if they were +actual members of the forces. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Military Law</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Martial +Law</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The ecclesiastical courts, which were formerly very powerful +in England, and punished persons for various offences, such as +perjury, swearing, and sexual offences, have now +almost fallen into disuse. Their authority over +<span class="sidenote">Ecclesiastical courts.</span> +Protestant dissenters from the established church +was taken away by statute; their authority over lay +members of the Church of England has disappeared by disuse. +Occasionally suits are instituted in them against the clergy for +offences either against morality or against doctrine or ritual. +In these cases their sentences are enforced by penalties, such as +suspension, or deprivation of benefice, or by imprisonment; +which has replaced the old punishment of excommunication.</p> + +<p>A system of procedure, with the judicial machinery required +to work it, may be created either by the direct legislative action +of the supreme power or by custom and the action +of the courts. Both at Rome and in England it was +<span class="sidenote">Procedure.</span> +through usage and by the courts themselves that +the earlier system was slowly moulded: both at Rome and in +England it was direct legislation that established the later +system. (See Bryce, <i>Studies in History and Jurisprudence</i>, 1901, +ii. 334.)</p> + +<p>The characteristics of English criminal procedure which most +distinguish it from the procedure of other countries are as +follows:—</p> + +<p>1. It is litigious or accusatory and not inquisitorial (Stephen, +<i>Prel. View Cr. Law</i>). It is for the prosecutor to prove by evidence +the commission of the alleged offence. No power exists to +interrogate the accused unless he consents to be sworn as a +witness in his own defence, which since 1898 he may do. The +right to cross-examine him even when he is so sworn is limited +by law, with the object of excluding inquiry into his past +character or into past offences not relevant to the particular +charge on which he is being tried.</p> + +<p>2. The forms of criminal pleading still in use are in substance +framed on the lines of the old system of pleading at common +law in civil cases, which was swept away by the judicature acts. +Criminal pleadings have, however, one peculiarity. Indictments, +being in form the presentment of a grand jury, could not be +amended until provision for that purpose was made in 1851. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indictment</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>3. Criminal prosecutions are ordinarily undertaken by the +individuals who have suffered by a crime. There is not in +England, as in Scotland and all European countries, a public +department concerned to deal with all prosecutions for crime. +The result is that the prosecution of most ordinary crime is left +to individual enterprise or the action of the local police force or +the justices’ clerk.</p> + +<p>The attorney-general has always represented the crown in +criminal matters, and in state prosecutions appears in person +on behalf of the crown, and when he so appears has certain +privileges as respects the reply to the prisoner’s defence and +the mode of trial. In the Prosecution of Offences Acts of 1879, +1884 and 1908 there is to be found the nucleus of a system of +public prosecution such as obtains in other countries in case of +crime. Under these acts the director of public prosecutions (up +to 1908 an office conjoint with that of solicitor to the Treasury) +acts under the attorney-general, but unless specially directed he +only undertakes a limited number of prosecutions, <i>e.g.</i> for murder, +coining and serious crimes affecting the government.</p> + +<p>4. Where an indictable offence is supposed to have been +committed the accused is arrested, with or without the warrant +of a justice, according to the nature of the offence, or is summoned +by a justice before him. On his appearance a preliminary +inquiry is held for the purpose of ascertaining whether there is +a prima facie case against him. The procedure is regulated by +the Indictable Offences Act 1848, and is entirely different from +the procedure for summary offences. It may be, though usually +it is not, held in private; it is an inquiry and not a trial; the +justices have to consider not whether the man is guilty, but +whether there is such a prima facie case against him that he +ought to be tried. If they think that there is, they commit him +to prison to wait his trial, or require him to give security, with +or without sureties, to the amount named by them, for appearing +to take his trial. If they think the charge unsubstantial they +discharge the accused at once. The prosecutor in cases of felony +may if he likes go before the grand jury whether the case has +or has not been the subject of a preliminary inquiry, but in the +case of many misdemeanours it is obligatory first to have a +preliminary inquiry, as a protection against vexatious indictments.</p> + +<p>Whether there has or has not been a preliminary inquiry +before a magistrate, no person can be tried for any of the graver +crimes, treason or felony, except upon indictment +found by a grand jury of the county or place where +<span class="sidenote">The grand jury.</span> +the offence is said to have been committed or is by +statute made cognizable. In olden days, and even now in theory, +the grand jury inquire of their own knowledge, by the oath of +good and lawful men of the neighbourhood, into the crime of +the county, but in practice the charges against the accused +persons are always first submitted to the proper officer of the +court. The grand jurors are instructed as to their inquisition +by a charge from the judge, as regards the indictments concerning +which they are called upon to enquire whether there is a +prima facie case to send them for trial to the petty jury. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460"></a>460</span> +grand jury must consist of not less than twelve, nor more than +twenty-three, good and lawful men of the county. But any +person who prefers an indictment is entitled to have it presented +to the grand jury. Officers of the court lay the indictments before +the grand jury. The charges are then called bills, and if the +grand jury considers that there is no prima facie case the foreman +endorses the bill with the words “no true bill,” and it is then +presented to the judge. The jury are then said to have ignored +the bill, and if the person charged is in custody he is released, +but is liable to be indicted again on better evidence.</p> + +<p>As a means of constitutional protection in times of monarchical +aggression this practice had no doubt a great value, but in the +present day, when few offenders are tried without a preliminary +inquiry by justices, the functions of a grand jury are of secondary +importance, and the jurors’ time is perhaps needlessly occupied. +The institution of the grand jury prevented the crown in the +days of its great power from removing a person whom it wished +to get rid of from among his neighbours, and placing him on trial +in a strange place where the influence of the crown was greater. +This is still true to a certain extent, as great injustice may be +caused to a man by removing him from his neighbours and +trying him at a distance from his friends, and from the witnesses +whom he might call for his defence. In Ireland, for instance, +the greatest injustice might be done by removing an Orangeman +from Belfast and trying him in a Roman Catholic county or +vice versa. But it has its evils where the area from which the +jurors are drawn is small, such as a town of a few thousand +inhabitants. In that case a man charged, say, with fraud, may +be protected by his friends from being properly punished for +that fraud. But where justice requires, an order may be made +for the trial of the offence in another county or at the central +criminal court.</p> + +<p>In many colonies the Scottish system has been adopted, +by which the ordinary form of accusation is by indictment +framed by the public prosecutor, and a grand jury is only impannelled +in cases where an individual claims to prosecute an +offence as to which the public officials decline to proceed. In +England criminal informations by the attorney-general, or by +leave of the court without the intervention of a grand jury, are +permitted in cases of misdemeanour, but are now rarely preferred.</p> + +<p>If a coroner’s jury, on inquiring into any sudden death, finds +that murder or manslaughter has been committed, that finding +has the same effect as an indictment by a grand jury, +and the man charged may be tried by the petty jury +<span class="sidenote">Coroner’s courts.</span> +accordingly. The law and procedure of the coroner’s +courts are now regulated by the Coroners Act 1887. When +there is a dead body of a person lying within the area of his +jurisdiction, and there is reasonable cause to suspect that such +person died a violent or unnatural death, or a sudden death of +which the cause is unknown, or has died in prison, the coroner +is entitled to hold an inquest, and if the verdict or inquisition +finds murder or manslaughter, it is followed by trial in the same +way as if the person accused had been indicted.</p> + +<p>When an indictment is found by the grand jury (twelve at +least must concur) the person charged is brought before the +court, the indictment is read to him, he is asked +whether he is guilty or not guilty. If he pleads guilty +<span class="sidenote">Trial by jury.</span> +he is then sentenced by the court; if he pleads not +guilty, a petty jury of twelve is formed from the panel or list of +jurors who have been summoned by the sheriff to attend the +court. He is tried by these jurors in open court. The common +law method of trial of crimes by a jury of twelve, native to +English law, has been in modern times transplanted to European +countries. It was not the original form of trial, for it was preceded +by wager of battle (which was not finally abolished +till 1819); and by ordeal, which was suppressed as to criminal +trials in 1219 in consequence of the decree of the Lateran Council +(1216). The first was allowed only on an appeal by an individual +accuser; the second was resorted to on an accusation by public +fame, which the accused was allowed to meet by submitting to the +ordeal. It was after 1219 that trial by the jury of twelve (known +as trial in pais) began to develop. At the outset the accused +used to be asked how he would be tried, and could not be directly +compelled to plead to the charge or to accept trial by a jury; +which led to the indirect pressure known as the <i>peine forte et dure</i>, +which fell into disuse after the Revolution and was formally +abolished in 1772. But it was not until 1827 that refusal to +plead was treated as a plea of not guilty, entailing a trial by a +jury, and some old-fashioned officials still ask the old question +“How will you be tried?” to which the old answer was “By +God and my country.”</p> + +<p>The original trial jury or inquest certainly acted on its own +knowledge or inquiries without necessarily having evidence laid +before it in court. The impartiality of the jurors was to some +extent secured by the power of challenge. The exact time when +the jury came into its present position is difficult accurately to +define. On the trial before the petty jury the procedure and the +rules of evidence differ in very few points from an ordinary civil +case. The proceedings as already stated are accusatory. The +prosecutor must begin to prove his case. Confessions (which are +the object sought by French procedure) are regarded with some +suspicion, and admissions alleged to have been made by the +accused are not admitted unless it is clear that they were not +extracted by inducements of a temporal nature held out by persons +in authority over him. During the spring assizes of 1877 a +prisoner was charged with having committed a murder twenty +years before, and the counsel for the prosecution, with the consent +of the judge, withdrew from the case because the only evidence, +besides the prisoner’s own confession, was that of persons who +either had never known him personally or could not identify +him. The accused may not be interrogated by the judge or the +prosecuting counsel unless he consents to be sworn as a witness. +In this respect the contrast between a criminal trial in England +and a criminal trial in France is very striking. The interrogation +and browbeating of the prisoner by the judge, consistent as it +may be with the inquisitorial theory of their procedure, is strange +to English lawyers, accustomed to see in every criminal trial a +fair fight between the prisoner and the prosecution, and not a +contest between the judge and the prisoner. The accused may, +if he choose, be defended by counsel, and if poor may get legal +aid at the public expense if the court certify for it. He is entitled +to cross-examine the witnesses for the prosecution and to call +witnesses in his defence. At the conclusion of the evidence +and speeches the judge sums up to the jury both as to the facts +and the law, and the jury by their verdict acquit or convict. +Immediate discharge follows on acquittal; sentence by the +judge on conviction.</p> + +<p>Justices of the peace may under many statutes convict in +a summary manner (without the intervention of a jury) for +offences of minor importance. The procedure for +punishing summary offences is before two justices, +<span class="sidenote">Summary trials.</span> +or a stipendiary magistrate. This proceeding must not +be confused with the preliminary inquiry already mentioned +before justices for an indictable offence, nor with the procedure +before justices in relation to civil matters, such as the recovery +of small sums of money. The proceeding begins either by the +issue of a warrant for the arrest of the person charged, in which +case a sworn information must be filed, or by a summons directing +the person charged to appear on a certain day to answer the +complaint made by the prosecutor. The justices hear the case +in open court; the person charged can make his defence either in +person or by his solicitor or counsel, he can cross-examine +<span class="sidenote">Procedure for summary offences.</span> +the witnesses for the prosecution, call his own witnesses, +and address the justices in his defence. The +justices, after hearing the case, either acquit or convict +him, and in case of conviction award the sentence. +If the sentence is a fine, and the fine is not paid, the person convicted +is liable to be imprisoned for the term fixed by the justices, +not exceeding a scale fixed by an act of 1879, the maximum of +which is one month. The imprisonment may be with or without +hard labour.</p> + +<p>Of late years this summary jurisdiction of the justices has +received very large extensions, and many offences which were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461"></a>461</span> +formerly prosecuted as serious offences by an indictment before +the court of assize or quarter sessions have, where the offence was +a trivial one, been made punishable, on summary proceedings +before justices, by a small fine or a short term of imprisonment.</p> + +<p>The extension of the jurisdiction of the justices is open to the +observation that it deprives a person charged of the protection +of a jury, and also that it throws upon him, if convicted, and upon +the prosecution if there is no conviction, the cost of the proceedings. +The former objection is much mitigated by the enactment +made in 1879, that a person if liable on conviction to be sentenced +to imprisonment for more than three months, or to a fine exceeding +£100, can claim to be tried by a jury. But the objection as +to the costs remains, and the payment of costs is often a very +serious addition to the trivial fine; and it is anomalous that a +person convicted of a trifling offence should bear the cost of the +prosecution, while if he is convicted before a superior tribunal of +the most serious offence he does not pay the costs.</p> + +<p>In English law until 1907, where a criminal case had been tried +by a jury the verdict of the jury of guilt or innocence was final +and there was no appeal on the facts. Any considerable +defect or informality in the procedure might be the +<span class="sidenote">Appeal.</span> +subject of a writ of error. And if any question of law arose at +the trial, the judge might, if he chose, reserve it for the opinion +of the court for the consideration of crown cases reserved, by +whom the conviction might be either quashed or confirmed.</p> + +<p>By the Criminal Appeal Act 1907, a new court was established, +to which any person convicted on indictment might appeal. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Appeal</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The expenses of prosecution for crime in England are dealt +with in the following manner. Prosecutions for high treason +and the cognate offence known as treason-felony +are at the expense of the state, which alone undertakes +<span class="sidenote">Costs.</span> +such prosecutions. In the case of all other felonies and of many +misdemeanours the expense of the prosecution falls on the local +rate. In the case of other misdemeanours the expense falls on +the prosecutor. Where an offence is summarily prosecuted the +costs are in the discretion of the court, which may order the +accused to pay them, if convicted, or the prosecutor to pay on +acquittal, or may leave the parties to pay their own expenses. +On charges of felony and a few misdemeanours the court may +order the accused person to pay the expenses of his prosecution +in relief of the local rate. In a few cases, chiefly where the +prosecution is vexatious, the court may order the prosecution +to pay the expenses of the defence. The expenses of witnesses +for the defence in any indictable offence may be paid out of the +local rate when they have been called at the preliminary inquiry; +and where the court in the case of a poor prisoner has certified +that he should have legal aid, the expenses of the defence may +be charged to the local rate. The local rate upon which the +expenses fall is usually that of the county or borough in which +the offence was committed; but sometimes is that of the place +where the offence is tried.</p> + +<p>Between 1852 and 1888 parliament reimbursed to the local +authorities the expense imposed on the local rate. In 1888 the +proceeds of certain taxes were set aside and handed over to the +local authorities as a set-off to the expense incurred in prosecutions. +In one class of case, offences committed in the admiralty +jurisdiction, <i>i.e.</i> outside England, the treasury directly reimburses +to the local authorities the expense incurred.</p> + +<p>Under most, if not all, European codes, the state pays for +the prosecution, subject to reimbursement by the accused, if +the court so orders.</p> + +<p>The English system of criminal procedure is the basis of that +of most of the states which form the United States of America, +and, with few exceptions, of the procedure throughout +<span class="sidenote">Non-British criminal procedure.</span> +the British empire.</p> + +<p>The French penal code and code of criminal +procedure are substantially the model of all systems +of continental criminal law. They were promulgated in 1811 +by Napoleon I., and although he called in the aid of the greatest +French jurists, he guided, and occasionally even revised, their +labours. The French codes have been improved upon by later +European codes, and more especially by the Italian penal code. +All European codes have an opening chapter where the general +principles of criminal law in its practical application are enunciated, +such as, for instance, the rules that—(1) no person is liable +to punishment for any act not expressly declared to be an +offence; (2) no person can be punished for an act which by +virtue of a subsequent law is declared not to be an offence; +(3) whoever commits an offence within the kingdom is tried and +punished according to the criminal law of the kingdom, and by +the tribunals created for the administration of justice, to the +exclusion of special tribunals created for temporary purposes. +This rule really lays down that no citizen can be deprived of +his own judges when he is accused of a criminal offence. (4) +A citizen, although he may have been tried in a foreign country +for an offence committed within the kingdom, can be retried +according to the law of the kingdom. (5) Extradition only +applies to foreigners, not to citizens. The preliminary chapter +is followed by the classification of offences according to the +importance of the punishments the law assigns to them. The +lowest degree of offence is denominated “contravention.” It +applies mainly to the pettiest offences, or to infractions of police +regulations, and can be punished by fine or by imprisonment +under a week, or by both fine and imprisonment, limited to a +week. Next comes the “<i>délit</i>,” which includes all offences +punished by imprisonment over a week and under five years. +Then, finally, we arrive at the “<i>crime</i>,” the highest form of +offence in French criminal law. It includes all offences subject +to a more severe sentence than the punishment assigned to a +<i>délit</i>. All cases are held to be crimes where death, life-imprisonment +with or without hard labour, deportation out of the kingdom, +detention or seclusion in a fortress or other expressly +assigned place, are the punishments mentioned by the law. A +certain number of explanatory definitions follow, of which the +most important concern <i>attempts</i> to commit offences, and in +“crimes” they are punishable if the execution of the attempt +was only prevented by circumstances beyond the will of the +offender, whilst in “<i>délits</i>” an attempt is not punishable as an +offence unless the law specially provides that it should be +punished. As regards “contraventions,” attempts not carried +out are not held to be offences at all. Accomplices are generally +subject to the same punishment as the principal. Old offenders +(<i>récidivistes</i>) are subject to severer punishments. The usual +exceptions as regards responsibility for crime, such as madness +and extreme youth and <i>force majeure</i>, are to be found in all +codes. The excuse of youth extends to all offenders under the +age of sixteen, when the tribunal decides whether the offender +has acted without “discernment,” and acquits where the discernment +is not found, whilst one-half of the usual punishment +is inflicted where discernment is found. Foreign codes differ +from the English law in allowing the injured party to claim +damages in the criminal suit, appearing as <i>partie civile</i>. On +another question there is a wide divergence on the continent +of Europe from English law. According to the law of England +there is no prescription in criminal law (with a few exceptions +created by statute). An offender is always liable to punishment +whatever time may have elapsed since the committal of the +offence. On the continent of Europe the limitation of a judgment +and sentence for a crime is twenty years; five years for +a <i>délit</i>, and for a contravention two years. No proceedings can +be taken as regards a crime after a lapse of ten years, whilst as +regards a <i>délit</i> the limit is three years, and two years for a +contravention.</p> + +<p>There are three main differences between English criminal +procedure and European criminal procedure.</p> + +<p>1. A criminal prosecution directed on European criminal +procedure at once passes into the hands of the state as an infringement +of law which must be repressed, on the ground that the +whole community bases its security on obedience to law. In +England the repression of all minor crime is left to the injured +party.</p> + +<p>2. In England every criminal trial from beginning to end is, +and has always been, public. Preliminary inquiries into an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462"></a>462</span> +indictable offence may be, but rarely if ever are, conducted +in private. On the continent of Europe, with rare exceptions, +all preliminary proceedings in a criminal charge are secret. +Outside English-speaking countries this secret investigation +continues more or less. But of the two systems, accusatory +or inquisitorial—the first meaning the right of the accused to +defend himself, the second meaning the right of the state to +examine any legal offence in private in order to ensure the safety +of society,—the accusatory is gaining ground in every country. +In English-speaking countries it is an established law that an +accused person should have the right of publicity of the proceedings +and the right to defend himself by counsel and by +witnesses. In Europe the inquisitorial system is gradually being +abandoned. Perhaps the best code of criminal procedure in +Europe is that promulgated in Austria in 1873. It followed a +fundamental law of the Empire which laid down <i>inter alia</i> that +all legal proceedings, civil or criminal, should be oral and public, +and that the accusatory system in criminal cases should be +adopted. Germany followed this example. Italy, Holland. +Switzerland and Spain have followed Austria and Germany as +regards the preliminary investigation; Italy and Belgium have +surrounded the accused with guarantees against arbitrary +confinement before trial; Holland has conferred upon the accused +the right of seeing the adverse testimony and of being confronted +with the witnesses, and, further, has formally insisted that no +insidious questions, such as questions assuming a fact as true +which is not known to be true, should be allowed. Other +countries still remain on the old lines. But everywhere, whether +reform has actually been accomplished or not, there is a demand +for even-handed justice, and a growing conviction that the +accused should have all his rights, now that society is no longer +in danger from undiscovered criminals and unpunished crime. +Even in France, the champion of the inquisitorial system, a +change is being made. Up to 1897 secrecy was imposed invariably +in the preliminary investigation of crime, and was held +necessary for the discovery and punishment of the offender. +The <i>Loi de l’instruction contradictoire</i>, December 8, 1897, +however, was a long step towards complete justice in the treatment +of the accused in the preliminary inquiry. The main +reform is that the accused, after he has once appeared before +the judge and a formal charge has been made against him, is +entitled to the assistance of counsel, either chosen by himself or +assigned to him if he is poor. If he is in prison he is allowed +to communicate freely with his counsel, who is entitled to see all +the proceedings, and in every appearance before the judge his +counsel accompanies him. There are, however, certain limitations. +The counsel cannot address the judge without leave, +which may be refused, nor can he insist on any proceeding he +thinks necessary in his client’s interest. He can only solicit. +He has no right to be present at the examination of witnesses, +who continue to be interrogated by the judge alone and not in +the presence of the accused; but he must receive twenty-four +hours’ notice of every appearance of the accused, and he is +entitled to be present whenever his client, after the first formal +appearance, comes before the judge. In England, as already +pointed out, although the prosecution is in the name of the crown, +and although a public prosecutor has been appointed, still as +a rule it is conducted by the person injured as the person injured, +or by the police.</p> + +<p>3. In England the single-judge system is universal, save in +appeal; on the continent of Europe plurality of judges is insisted +upon, save in the most trivial cases, where the punishment is +insignificant. In most countries of the continent of Europe +the whole machinery for the prevention, investigation and +punishment of crime, is conducted by what is called the <i>parquet</i>, +which represents society as a collective unit and not the individual +injured. The head of the whole parquet in France is the <i>procureur-général</i>, +who holds equal rank with the members of the supreme +court. Under him there are procureurs-généraux attached to +each of the courts of appeal, of which in France there are twenty-six, +and under each of these subordinate procureurs there are +procureurs (prosecutors) of a lesser degree. The next stage +to the parquet is the <i>juge d’instruction</i>, who corresponds to the +English magistrate, and is the most formidable personage in the +whole system of French criminal law. He can detain and +accuse a person in prison, can send for him at any time and ask +him such questions as he pleases.</p> + +<p>After the first examination the prisoner is entitled, in most +European countries, to the assistance of counsel, but the powers +of counsel are so limited that the juge d’instruction has a complete +discretionary power regarding the investigation of the case. +The natural consequence of this procedure is that the preliminary +investigation really decides the ultimate result, and the final +trial becomes more or less a solemn form.</p> + +<p>The criminal law of Ireland is to a great extent the same as +that of England, resting on the same common law and on statutes +which extend to both countries or are in almost the +same terms, and is administered by courts of assize +<span class="sidenote">Ireland.</span> +and quarter sessions, and by justices, as in England. In a few +instances statutes passed for England or Great Britain before +the Union have not been extended to Ireland, or statutes passed +by the Irish parliament before the Union or by the British parliament +since the Union create offences not known to English law. +In Ireland the system of prosecution is nominally the same as +in England, but in practice almost all prosecutions are instituted +and conducted under the direction of the attorney-general for +Ireland, who is a member of the government of the day, and so +responsible to parliament, as in the case of the lord advocate. +In Ireland, owing to the police being a centralized force, under the +management of commissioners residing in Dublin, any prosecution +which in England might be conducted by the local police, +would in Ireland be conducted under the direction of the chief +of the police in Dublin, who is necessarily in close communication +with and under the control of the attorney-general.</p> + +<p>In Scotland hardly any crimes are constituted by statute +law, the common law being to the effect that if a judge will +direct any act to be a crime, and a jury will convict, +that act is a crime. This great elasticity of the common +<span class="sidenote">Scotland.</span> +law to include every sort of new crime which might arise was +in times past very dangerous to political liberty, as it greatly +enlarged the power of the crown to oppress political opponents, +but in modern days it has its convenience in facilitating the +punishment of persons committing crimes for the punishment +of which in England a new act of parliament may be necessary. +Criminal procedure in Scotland is regulated by an act of 1887 +which greatly simplified indictments and proceedings. The +prosecution of crime is in the hands of public officers, procurators +fiscal, under the control of the lord advocate. Private prosecutions +are possible, but rare. Except in the case of the law +of treason, imported from England at the Union, no grand jury +is required, and the indictments are filed by the public officer.</p> + +<p>The criminal law of England forms the basis of the criminal +law of all British possessions abroad, with a few exceptions, <i>e.g.</i> +the Channel Islands (still subject to the custom of +Normandy) and the anomalous case of Cyprus, where +<span class="sidenote">Other British possessions.</span> +Mahommedan law is to some extent in force. As to +India, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">infra</a></span>.</p> + +<p>In many British colonies the criminal law has been codified +or at the least consolidated. Criminal codes have been passed +in Canada, New Zealand (1893), Queensland (1899) and W. +Australia (1901). Many crown colonies have codes framed on +the model prepared by the late Sir R. S. Wright for Jamaica +and revised in 1901, and in British Guiana opportunity was taken +(in 1893) to abolish the remnants of Roman-Dutch criminal +law.</p> + +<p>The criminal law of South Africa, which is based on the Roman-Dutch +law, including the <i>Constitutio Criminalis Carolina</i> (1532), +is not codified. In the Transvaal and Orange River colonies +codes of criminal procedure are in force, drawn mainly from the +common and statute law of the Cape Colony with the addition +of provisions borrowed from English and colonial legislation.</p> + +<p>In Mauritius the criminal law is comprised in a penal code of +1838 and a procedure code of 1853, which, with the incorporated +amendments, are to be found in the <i>Revised Laws of Mauritius</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463"></a>463</span> +(1903-1904), ii. 466 et seq. The penal code is based on the Code +Napoléon.</p> + +<p>“Criminal law has everywhere grown out of custom, and has +in all civilized states been largely dealt with by direct legislation. +In most civilized states (including Japan) it has been +codified by statute, to the general satisfaction of the +<span class="sidenote">Codification.</span> +people; and the conspicuous success of the Indian +penal code shows that English criminal law is susceptible of +being so treated” (Bryce, <i>Studies</i>, ii. 34).</p> + +<p>The expediency, if not the necessity, of codifying the criminal +law of England has long been apparent. The writings of Bentham +drew attention to many of its substantial defects, and the efforts +of Romilly and Mackintosh led to certain improvements embodied +in what are known as Peel’s Acts (1826 to 1832). In 1833, at +the instance of Lord Chancellor Brougham, a royal commission +was appointed to deal with the criminal law. The nature of +the instructions indicate the crudity of the ideas then ruling as to +codification. The commissioners were directed to digest into +one statute all enactments touching crimes and the punishment +thereof, and into another statute the provisions of the common +unwritten law touching the same. The commission was renewed +in 1836 and 1837, and in 1843 a second commission was appointed. +Numerous and voluminous reports were published, including +(1848) a bill for consolidating and amending the law as to crimes +and punishments, and (1849) a like bill for criminal procedure, +indicating that the commissioners had in the meantime learned +the distinction between substantive and adjective law. Lord +Brougham in 1848 unsuccessfully introduced the first bill, and in +the end the only fruit of the reports has been certain amendments +of procedure in 1851 and the passing of the seven Criminal +Law Consolidation Acts of 1861, which deal with the statute law +as to theft, forgery, malicious injuries to property, coinage +offences and offences against the person. The reports, however, +proved of value in the revision of Macaulay’s draft of the Indian +penal code, and led to the formation of the Statute Law Committee, +which has relieved the statute book of much dead matter. +On his return from India, impressed by the success of the Indian +penal code, Sir J. Stephen made a strong effort to obtain codification. +In 1878, at the instance of Lord Cairns, he prepared a +draft code (based on his well-known <i>Digest of the Criminal Law</i>), +which was laid before parliament and then submitted to judicial +criticism and revision. As a result of this revision a code bill +was introduced in 1880; but a dissolution intervened and no +serious effort was then made. The obstacle in the way is not +lack of reports or digests on which to frame a code, but the incapacity +of parliament to do the work itself, and its unwillingness +to trust the work to other hands.</p> + +<p>The Indian penal code and criminal procedure code, by their +history, their form, and the extent and diversity of the races +and peoples to which they apply, are perhaps the +most important codes in the whole world. While the +<span class="sidenote">India.</span> +East India Company was merely a trading company holding +certain forts and trading ports in India and elsewhere, such +criminal justice as was administered under its auspices was in +the main based on the English criminal law, said to have been +introduced to some extent by the company’s charter of 1661, +but reintroduced into the presidency laws by later charters of +1726, 1753 and 1774. (See <i>Nuncomar and Impey</i>, by Sir J. +Stephen.) From 1771 until 1860 the criminal law administered +was the Mahommedan law. When in 1771 the East Indian +Company determined to stand forth as diwan, Warren Hastings +required the courts of the mofussil (provinces), as distinct from +those of the presidency town of Fort William, to be guided in +the administration of criminal justice by Mahommedan law, +which under the Moguls had been used in criminal cases to the +exclusion of Hindu law. Difficulties arose in administration, +from the definition of crime, the nature of punishments, and in +matters of procedure, which were removed by regulations and +by enactments on English lines, especially in Bombay (1827); +and great delays and considerable injustice were caused by the +want of unity in judicial organization.</p> + +<p>Between 1834 and 1837 Macaulay with three other commissioners, +Macleod, Anderson and Millet, prepared a draft +penal code for India, for which they drew not only upon English +and Indian laws and regulations but also upon Livingstone’s +Louisiana code and the Code Napoléon. Little or nothing was +taken from the Mahommedan law. A revised draft of the penal +code by Sir B. Peacock, Sir J. W. Colville and others was completed +in 1856. In framing it the reports of the English criminal +law commissioners (published after Macaulay’s draft code) +were considered. The draft was presented to the legislative +council in 1856, but owing to the mutiny and to objections from +missionaries, &c., its passing was delayed till the 6th of October +1860. A draft scheme of criminal procedure was prepared in +India in 1847-1848, which, after submission to a commission +in England in 1853 (Government of India Act 1853), was moulded +into a draft code which passed the India legislative council +in 1861 (Act No. XXV.) and came into force in 1862. It has +been re-enacted with amendments in 1872 (Act X.), 1882 +(Act X.) and 1898 (Act V.).</p> + +<p>The result is that in India the criminal law is the law of the +conqueror, though for many civil purposes the law of race, +religion and caste governs. Under the codes, one set of courts +has been established throughout the country, composed of +well-paid, well-educated judges, most of the higher judicial +appointments being held by Englishmen; all those who hold +subordinate judicial posts at the same time are subjected to +a combined system of appeal and revision. The arrangement +of the Indian penal code is natural as well as logical; its basis +is the law of England stripped of technicality and local peculiarities, +whilst certain modifications are introduced to meet the +exigencies of a country such as British India. It opens with a +chapter of general explanations, and interpretations of the terms +used throughout the code. It then describes the various punishments +to which offenders are liable; follows with a list of the +exceptions regarding criminal responsibility under which a +person who otherwise would be liable to punishment is exempted +from the penal consequences of his act, such as offences committed +by children, by accident or misfortune without any +criminal intention, offences committed by lunatics, offences +committed in the exercise of the right of private defence. It +may be worth while to add, as an innovation on English law, +that an act which results in harm so slight that no person of +ordinary sense and temper would complain of such harm is not +considered an offence under the code. Then follows a chapter +on abetment, in other words, the instigation of a person to +do a wrongful act. The next chapters deal with offences against +the public, including the state, the army and navy, public +tranquillity, public servants, contempts of the lawful authority +of public servants, perjury; offences relating to coin and +government stamps, to weights and measures; offences affecting +the public health, safety, convenience, decency and morals; +offences relating to religion; and offences relating to the human +body, from murder down to the infliction of any hurt. The code +then passes on to offences against property; offences relating +to forgery, including trade marks, criminal breach of contracts +for service; offences relating to marriage, defamation, criminal +intimidation, insult and annoyance. Under this last head is +included an attempt to cause a person to do anything which +that person is not legally bound to do, by inducing him to +believe that he would otherwise become subject to Divine +displeasure. The last chapter deals with attempts to commit +offences punishable by the code with transportation or imprisonment, +and the punishment is limited to one-half of the longest +term provided for the offence had it been carried out.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>One peculiarity of the Penal Code which has proved eminently +successful lies in the system of illustration of the offence declared in +every section by a brief statement of some concrete case. For +instance, as illustration of the offence of an attempt to commit an +offence the following examples are given:—</p> + +<p>I. “A. makes an attempt to steal some jewels by breaking open +a box, and finds on opening the box there is no jewel in it. He has +done an act towards the commission of theft, and therefore is guilty +under this section.</p> + +<p>II. “A. makes an attempt to pick the pocket of Z. by thrusting +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464"></a>464</span> +his hand into Z.’s pocket. A. fails in the attempt in consequence +of Z. having nothing in his pocket. A. is guilty under this section.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Passing on to the system of criminal procedure which is set +forth in detail in the Code of Criminal Procedure as amended +in 1898, it is no doubt modelled on the English system, +but with considerable modifications. The principal +<span class="sidenote">Indian code of criminal procedure.</span> +steps are—(1) arrest by the police and inquiries by +the police; (2) the issue of summons or warrant by +the magistrate; (3) the mode of procedure before the magistrate, +who may either try the accused himself or commit him to the +sessions or the High Court, according to the importance of the +case; (4) procedure before the court of session; (5) appeals, +reference and revision by the High Court.</p> + +<p>Elaborate provision is made for the prevention of offences, +as regards security for keeping the peace and for good behaviour, +the dispersion of unlawful assemblies, the suppression of nuisances, +disputes as to immovable property, which in all Oriental +countries constitute one of the most frequent causes of a breach +of the peace.</p> + +<p>Ample provision is thus made for the prevention of offences, +and the code next deals with the mode of prosecution of offences +actually committed.</p> + +<p>As a general rule, every offence is inquired into and tried by +the court within the local limits of whose jurisdiction it was +committed. Differing from the practice of continental countries, +all offences, even attempts, may be prosecuted after any lapse of +time. As in England, there is no statutory limitation to a +criminal offence.</p> + +<p>A simple procedure is provided for what are called summons +cases, as distinguished from warrant cases—the first being +offences for which a police officer may arrest without warrant, +the second being offences where he must have a warrant, or, +in other words, minor offences and important offences. In +summons cases no formal charge need be framed. The magistrate +tells the accused the particulars of the offence charged; if he +admits his guilt, he is convicted; if he does not, evidence is +taken, and a finding is given in accordance with the facts as +proved. When the complaint is frivolous or vexatious, the +magistrate has the power to fine the complainant. The code +gives power of criminal appeal which goes much further than +the system in England.</p> + +<p>In cases tried by a jury, no appeal lies as to matters of fact, +but it is allowed as to matters of law; in other cases, criminal +appeal is admitted on matters of law and fact.</p> + +<p>In addition to the system of appeal, the superior courts are +entrusted with a power of revision, which is maintained automatically +by the periodical transmission to the High Courts of +calendars and statements of all cases tried by the inferior courts; +and at the same time, whenever the High Court thinks fit, it +can call for the record of any trial and pass such orders as it +deems right. All sentences of death must be confirmed by the +High Court. No appeal lies against an acquittal in any criminal +case. This system of appeal, superintendence and revision +would be totally inapplicable to England, but it has proved +eminently successful as applied to the present social condition +of the inhabitants of India. The appeals keep the judges up to +their work, revision corrects all grave mistakes, superintendence +is necessary as a kind of discipline over the conduct of judges, +who are not subjected, as in England, to the criticism of +enlightened public opinion.</p> + +<p>These Indian codes form the basis of the penal, &c., codes in +force in Ceylon (superseding there the Roman-Dutch law), the +Straits Settlements, the Sudan and the East Africa protectorates.</p> + +<p>It has already been stated that most European states have +codified their criminal law. The earliest of continental codes +is that of Charles V., promulgated in 1532, and known +as <i>Constitutio Criminalis Carolina</i>. Austria made +<span class="sidenote">Foreign codes.</span> +further codes in 1768 (<i>Constitutio Criminalis +Theresiana</i>) and 1787 (Emperor Joseph’s code). A new code +was framed in 1803, and amended in 1852 by reference to the Code +Napoléon; and in 1906 a completely new code existed in draft. +The Hungarian penal code dates from 1880. The Bavarian code +of 1768 of Maximilian, revised in 1861, and the Prussian code +of 1780, have been superseded by the German penal code +of 1872.</p> + +<p>The most important of the continental criminal codes are those +of France, the <i>Code Pénal</i> (1810) and the <i>Code d’Instruction +Criminelle</i> (1808)—the work of Napoleon the Great and his +advisers, which professedly incorporate much of the Roman law.</p> + +<p>The Belgian codes (1867), and the Dutch penal code (1880), +closely follow the French model. In Spain the penal code dates +from 1870, the procedure code from 1886. The Spanish American +republics for the most part also have codes. Portugal has a +penal code (1852). In Italy the procedure code and the penal +code, perhaps the completest yet framed, are of 1890. The +Swedish code dates from 1864. The Norwegian code was passed +in May 1902, and came into force in 1905. Japan has a code +based on a study of European and American models; and +Switzerland is framing a federal criminal code.</p> + +<p>In the United States no federal criminal code is possible; but +most states, following the lead of Louisiana, have digested their +criminal law and procedure more or less effectually into penal +codes.</p> +<div class="author">(W. F. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1n" id="Footnote_1n" href="#FnAnchor_1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> “It is founded,” said Sir J. Fitzjames Stephen, writing in 1863, +“on a set of loose definitions and descriptions of crimes, the most +important of which are as old as Bracton. Upon this foundation +there was built, principally in the course of the 18th century, an +entire and irregular superstructure of acts of parliament, the enactments +of which were for the most part intended to supply the +deficiencies of the original system. These acts have been re-enacted +twice over in the present generation—once between 1826 and 1832 +and once in 1861; besides which they were all amended in 1837. +Finally, every part of the whole system has been made the subject +of judicial comments and constructions occasioned by particular +cases, the great mass of which have arisen within the last fifty years.” +(<i>View of the Criminal Law of England</i>, by J. Fitzjames Stephen.)</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2n" id="Footnote_2n" href="#FnAnchor_2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> Itinerant justices. From the Latin <i>in itinere</i>, on a journey.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRIMINOLOGY,<a name="ar270" id="ar270"></a></span> the name given to a new branch of social +science, devoted to the discussion of the genesis of crime (<i>q.v.</i>), +which has received much attention in recent years. The expression +is one of modern coinage, and originated with the speculative +theories first advanced by the school of sociologists which had +the Italian savant, Professor Lombroso, at its head. He discovered +or was supposed to have discovered a criminal type, +the “instinctive” or “born” criminal, a creature who had +come into the world predestined to evil deeds, and who could +be surely recognized by certain stigmata, certain facial, physical, +even moral birthmarks, the possession of which, presumably +ineradicable, foredoomed him to the commission of crime. Dr +Lombroso, in his ingenious work <i>L’Uomo delinquente</i>, found many +attentive and appreciative, not to say bigoted followers. Large +numbers of dissentients exist, however, and the conclusions of the +Italian school have been warmly contested and on very plausible +grounds. If the doctrines be fully accepted the whole theory of +free-will breaks down, and we are faced with the paradox that +we have no right to punish an irresponsible being who is impelled +to crime by congenital causes, entirely beyond his control. +The “instinctive” criminal, under this reasoning, must be +classed with the lunatic whom we cannot justly, and practically +never do, punish. There are other points on which proof of the +existence of the criminal type fails absolutely. The whole +theory illustrates a modern phase of psychological doctrine, +and the subject has exercised such a potent effect on modern +thought that the claims and pretensions of the Lombroso school +must be examined and disposed of.</p> + +<p>The alleged discovery of the “born-criminal” as a separate +and distinct genus of the human species was first published by +Dr Lombroso in 1876 as the result of long continued investigation +and examination of a number of imprisoned criminals. The +personality of this human monster was to be recognized by +certain inherent moral and physical traits, not all displayed +by the same individual but generally appearing in conjunction +and then constituting the type. These traits have been defined +as follows:—various brain and cerebral anomalies; receding +foreheads; massive jaws, prognathous chins; skulls without +symmetry; ears long, large and projecting (the ear <i>ad ansa</i>); +noses rectilinear, wrinkles strongly marked, even in the young +and in both sexes, hair abundant on the head, scanty on the cheeks +and chin; eyes feline, fixed, cold, glassy, ferocious; bad repellent +faces. Much stress is laid upon the physiognomy, and it is said +that it is independent of nationality; two natives of the same +country do not so nearly resemble each other as two criminals of +different countries. Other peculiarities are:—great width of +the extended arms (<i>l’envergure</i> of the French), extraordinary +ape-like agility; left-handedness as well as ambi-dexterism; +obtuse sense of smell, taste and sometimes of hearing, although +the eyesight is superior to that of normal people. “In general,” +to quote Lombroso, “the born criminal has projecting ears, thick +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465"></a>465</span> +hair and thin beard, projecting frontal eminences, enormous jaws, +a square and protruding chin, large cheek bones and frequent +gesticulation.” So much for the anatomical and physiological +peculiarities of the criminal. There remain the psychological +or mental characteristics, so far as they have been observed. +Moral insensibility is attributed to him, a dull conscience that +never pricks and a general freedom from remorse. He is said to +be generally lacking in intelligence, hence his stupidity, the want +of proper precautions, both before and after an offence, which leads +so often to his detection and capture. His vanity is strongly +marked and shown in the pride taken in infamous achievements +rather than personal appearance.</p> + +<p>No sooner was this new theory made public than the very +existence of the supposed type was questioned and more evidence +demanded. A French savant declared that Lombroso’s portraits +were very similar to the photographs of his friends. Save for the +dirt, the recklessness, the weariness and the misery so often seen +on it, the face of the criminal does not differ from that of an honest +man’s. It was pointed out that if certain traits denoted the +criminal, the converse should be seen in the honest man. A +pertinent objection was that the deductions had been made +from insufficient premises. The criminologists had worked upon +a comparatively small number of criminals, and yet made their +discoveries applicable to the whole class. The facts were collected +from too small an area and no definite conclusions could be based +upon them. Moreover, the criminologists were by no means +unanimous. They differed amongst themselves and often contradicted +one another as to the characteristics exhibited.</p> + +<p>The controversy was long maintained. Many eminent +persons have been arrayed on either side. In Italy Lombroso +was supported by Colajanni, Ferri, Garofalo; in France by +J. A. Lacassagne. In Germany Lombroso has found few +followers; Dr Naëcke of Hubertusburg near Leipzig, one of the +most eminent of German alienists, declined to admit there was +any special animal type. Van Hamel of Amsterdam gives only +a qualified approval. In England it stands generally condemned, +because it gives no importance to circumstance and passing +temptation, or to domestic or social environment, as affecting +the causation of crime. Dr Nicholson of Broadmoor has said that +“if the criminal is such by predestination, heredity or accidental +flaws or anomalies in brain or physical structure, he is such for +good and all; no cure is possible, all the plans and processes +for his betterment, education, moral training and disciplinary +treatment are nugatory and vain.” No weight can then be +attached to evil example, or unfavourable social surroundings, +in moulding and forming character, particularly during the more +plastic periods of childhood and youth.</p> + +<p>The pertinent question remains, has the study and development +of criminology served any useful purpose? Little perhaps can +come of it in its restricted sense, but it has taken a wider meaning +and embraces larger researches. It has inquired into the sources +and causes of crime, it has collected criminal statistics and +deduced valuable lessons from them, it has sought and obtained +guidance in the best methods of prevention, repression, and +forms of procedure. The champions of law and order have been +greatly aided by the criminologist in carrying on the continual +combat with crime, and in dealing with the most complicated +of social phenomena. The new science has, in fact, by accumulating +a number of curious details, in recording the psychology, +the secret desires, the springs of the criminal’s nefarious actions, +his corrigibility or the reverse, “prepared the way to his sociological +explanation” (Tarde). Thanks to the labours of the +criminologist we are moving steadily forward to a future improved +treatment of the criminal, and may thus arrive at the +increased morality and greater safety of society. Very appreciable +advance has been made in the increased attention paid to +juvenile and adult crime, the acceptance of the theory, now +well established, that there is an especially criminal age, a period +when the moral fibre is weaker and more yielding to temptation +to crime, when happily human nature is more malleable and +susceptible to improvement and reform.</p> + +<p>The study of criminology has, however, gone far to satisfy +us that the true genesis of crime is not to be sought in the anatomical +anomalies of individuals, or in the fact that there are people +who under “any social conditions whatever and of any nationality +at no matter what epoch, would have undoubtedly become +murderers and thieves.” On the contrary it may be safely +assumed that many such would have done no wrong if they had, +<i>e.g.</i>, been born rich, had been free from the pressing needs that +drove them into crime, and had escaped the evil influences of +their surroundings. The criminologists have strengthened the +hands of administrators, have emphasized the paramount importance +of child-rescue and judicious direction of adults, have +held the balance between penal methods, advocating the moralizing +effect of open-air labour as opposed to prolonged isolation, +and have insisted upon the desirability of indefinite detention +for all who have obstinately determined to wage perpetual war +against society by the persistent perpetration of crime.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—See A. Weingart, <i>Kriminaltaktik, ein Handbuch +für das Untersuchen von Verbrechen</i> (Leipzig, 1904); F. H. Wines, +<i>Punishment and Reformation</i> (New York, 1895); C. Perrier, <i>Les +Criminels</i> (Paris, 1905); G. Macé, <i>Femmes criminelles</i> (Paris, 1904); +E. Carpenter, <i>Prisons, Police and Punishment</i> (1905); R. R. Rentoul, +<i>Proposed Sterilization of certain Mental and Physical Degenerates</i> +(1904); R. Sommer, <i>Kriminalpsychologie und strafrechtliche Psychopathologie +auf naturwissenschaftlicher Grundlage</i> (Leipzig, 1904); +F. Kitzinger, <i>Die internationale kriminalistische Vereinigung</i> (1905); +Reports of Committee on the best mode of giving efficiency to +Secondary Punishments (1831-1832); Reports of the House of +Commons Committee of 1853, of the royal commission of 1884, of +the departmental committee of 1895, and the annual reports of H. M. +inspectors for Great Britain and Ireland.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRIMMITZSCHAU,<a name="ar271" id="ar271"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Krimmitschau</span>, a town of Germany, +in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Pleisse and the main Leipzig-Hof +railway, 7 m. N.W. from Zwickau. Pop. (1900) 22,845. +The most important industries of the town are the manufacture +of buckskin, the spinning of carded yarn and vicuna-wool, +and the processes of dyeing, finishing and wool-spinning connected +with these. Among other manufactures are brushes, +boilers and the like, machinery, metal ware generally, the +cases and other parts of watches. The town has a modern +school (Realschule), a commercial school, and technical schools +for weaving and finishing.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRIMP<a name="ar272" id="ar272"></a></span> (possibly connected with “crimp,” to draw together, +or fold in parallel lines, in the sense of “confine”; the primary +meaning, however, seems to be that of “agent,” and the word +may be a distinct one, of which the origin is lost), an agent for +the supplying of soldiers and sailors, by kidnapping, drugging, +decoying or other illegal means. Crimps were formerly regularly +employed in the days of impressment (<i>q.v.</i>). Now the term is +used, first of any one who engages to supply merchant seamen +without a licence from the Board of Trade, and is not either the +owner, master or mate of the ship, or is not bona fide the servant, +and in the constant employment of the owner, or is not a superintendent +(Merchant Shipping Act 1894, § 111); and, with a +wide application, of the extortionate lodging or boarding-house +keepers, who are generally in league with the “crimp” proper.</p> + +<p>Sections 212 to 219 inclusive of the above act provide for the +protection of merchant seamen in the United Kingdom from +imposition. Local authorities at seaports have power to make +by-laws for the licensing and regulating of lodging-houses for +sailors, and to inflict penalties for the infringement thereof. +If this power be not exercised, the Board of Trade may do so. +Penalties are also imposed by the act for overcharging by +lodging-house keepers, for detaining of seamen’s effects, and for +soliciting. Unauthorized persons are prohibited from boarding +a ship in port without leave. The Board of Trade officer at a port +may provide money for sending a seaman to his home on discharge, +and may forward his wages after deducting the expenses. +Facilities are also given for having wages sent home from foreign +ports at a small charge. These provisions have practically +killed “crimping” in the United Kingdom. In the ports of the +United States of America crimping was long prevalent, especially +on the Pacific coast, and its prevention was very difficult, but +state regulations as to the licensing of boarding-houses, and +the limitation of the amount of so-called “blood-money” paid +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466"></a>466</span> +by masters of vessels to the suppliers of crews to ships denuded +by desertions, have reduced the abuse materially.</p> + +<p>The term “to shanghai” is used of a more serious offence. +Literally meaning “to ship to Shanghai,” in China, it is applied +to the drugging or rendering unconscious by violence or other +means of persons, whether sailors or not, and shipping them +to distant ports, in order fraudulently to obtain money in advance +of wages, or for the sake of the premium paid for supplying crews.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRIMSON<a name="ar273" id="ar273"></a></span>, the name of a strong, bright red colour tinged to +a greater or less degree with purple. It is the colour of the dye +produced from the dried bodies of the cochineal insect (<i>Coccus +cacti</i>). The word, in its earlier forms <i>cremesin, crymysyn</i>, also +<i>cramoysin</i>, cf. “cramoisy,” the name of a red cloth, is adapted +from the Med. Lat. <i>cremesinus</i> for <i>kermesinus</i> or <i>carmesinus</i>, +the dye produced from the insect <i>Kermes</i> (<i>Coccus ilicis</i>), Arab. +<i>quirmiz</i>, which Skeat (<i>Etym. Dict.</i>, 1898) connects with the +Sanskrit <i>krimi</i>, cognate with Lat. <i>vermis</i> and Eng. “worm.” +From the Lat. <i>carminus</i>, a shortened form of carmesinus, +comes “carmine” (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRINAGORAS<a name="ar274" id="ar274"></a></span>, of Mytilene, Greek epigrammatist, flourished +during the reign of Augustus (Strabo xiii. p. 617). A number +of epigrams appear under his name in the Greek Anthology. +From inscriptions discovered at Mytilene, he appears to have +been one of the ambassadors sent from that city to Rome in +45 and 26 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The epigrams have been edited by M. Rubensohn (1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRINOLINE<a name="ar275" id="ar275"></a></span> (a Fr. word formed of the Lat. <i>crinis</i>, hair, and +<i>linum</i>, thread), a stiffening material made of horse-hair and +cotton or linen thread. Substitutes for this, such as the straw-like +material used in making hat shapes, are also known by the +same name. From the use of the material to expand ladies’ skirts +the term was applied, during the third quarter of the 19th +century, when the fashion of wearing greatly expanded skirts +was at its height, to the whalebone and steel hoops employed +to support the skirts thus worn (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Costume</a></span>). The term is also +used of structures resembling these articles, especially of the +framework of booms, spars and netting forming a protection +for a warship against torpedo attack.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRINUM<a name="ar276" id="ar276"></a></span>, a genus (nat. ord. Amaryllidaceae) of bulbous +plants with rather broad leaves and a solid leafless stem, bearing +a cluster of handsome white or red funnel-shaped regular flowers. +They are well known in cultivation, and owing to the wide +distribution of the genus different methods are adopted with +different species. Some require the hot, moist temperature of +a stove; such are <i>C. amabile</i>, a native of Sumatra, <i>C. amoenum</i> +(India), <i>C. Balfourii</i> (Socotra), <i>C. giganteum</i> (West tropical +Africa), <i>C. Kirkii</i> (Zanzibar), <i>C. latifolium</i> (India), <i>C. zeylanicum</i> +(tropical Asia and Africa), and others. Others thrive in a greenhouse; +such are <i>C. asiaticum</i>, a widely distributed plant on the +sea-coast of tropical Asia, <i>C. capense</i> and <i>C. longiflorum</i>, from +the Cape, and <i>C. Macowani</i> and <i>C. Moorei</i> from Natal. <i>C. +asiaticum</i>, <i>C. capense</i> and <i>C. Macowani</i> will also thrive in sheltered +positions in the garden.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRIOBOLIUM<a name="ar277" id="ar277"></a></span>, the sacrifice of a ram in the cult of Attis and +the Great Mother. It seems to have been a special ceremony +instituted after the rise, and on the analogy of the taurobolium +(<i>q.v.</i>), which was performed in honour of the Great Mother, for +the purpose of giving fuller recognition to Attis in the duality +which he formed with the Mother. There is no evidence of its +existence either in Asia or in Italy before the taurobolium came +into prominence (after <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 134). When the criobolium was +performed in conjunction with the taurobolium, the altar was +almost invariably inscribed to both the Mother and Attis, while +the inscription was to the Mother alone when the taurobolium +only was performed. The celebration of the criobolium was +widespread, and its importance such that it was sometimes +performed in place of the taurobolium (<i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i> vi. +505, 506). The details and effect of the ceremony were no doubt +similar to those of the taurobolium.</p> +<div class="author">(G. Sn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRIPPLE CREEK<a name="ar278" id="ar278"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Teller county, +almost at the geographical centre of Colorado, U.S.A., one of +the phenomenal mining camps of the West. Pop. (1900) +10,147 (1408 foreign-born); (1910) 6206. The city is served +by three railways—the Colorado Springs & Cripple Creek +District (a branch of the Colorado & Southern), the Midland +Terminal (which connects at Divide, 30 m. distant by rail, with +the Colorado Midland), and the Florence & Cripple Creek. +Cripple Creek is situated on a mountain slope in a pocket amid +the ranges, about 9600 ft. above the sea at the head of the stream +after which it is named. The municipal water-supply is drawn +from Pike’s Peak, 10 m. distant. The interest of the city is in +its extraordinary mines and their history. Cripple Creek’s site +was frequently prospected after 1860, and “colours” and gold +“float” were always found, but not until February 1891 was +the source discovered. Cripple Creek was at that time a cattle +range. In 1891 the output of gold in the district was valued +at $449, in 1892 at $583,010, and in the next three years at +$2,010,367, $2,908,702 and $6,879,137 respectively. From +1891 to 1906 the total production of gold was valued at +$168,584,331; in 1905<a name="FnAnchor_1o" id="FnAnchor_1o" href="#Footnote_1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the product of gold was valued at +$15,411,724, the total for the whole state being valued at +$25,023,973; in 1906 the output for the district was valued +at $14,253,245, out of $23,210,629 for the entire state. The +development of the camp into a yellow-pine town and then into +something more like a substantial city was marvellously rapid. +The first railway was completed in 1894. In the same year a +great strike—one of the most famous in American industrial +history—threatening civil war, temporarily closed the mines; +in 1896 fire almost destroyed the city; in 1903-1904 a second +strike, lasting more than a year and greater than the first, +occurred. The first strike, which was for an eight-hour day +and $3.00 wage, was won by the miners. The second, for the +recognition outright of the union organization of the miners, +secured only a reaffirmation of the former conditions. The ores +are almost exclusively gold, tellurides being the most characteristic +form, and occur in fissure veins. Outcroppings were very +rare, as the veins were covered with loose wash, and this +accounted for the late opening of the field. The field covers a +district about 8 × 10 m. Some peculiarities of the ores have +required the use of new methods in their treatment, and in +general the development of mining methods and machinery is +of a wonderful character. The whole surrounding country is +seamed with miles of tunnels in granite, and the hillsides are +dotted everywhere with enormous dumps. The most famous +mines have been the “Independence” (1891) and the “Portland” +(1892). The latter had in 1904 more than 25 m. of +workings above the 1100-ft. level. In 1903 the El Paso drain +was completed, to unwater the western half of the field to the +880-ft. level, greatly increasing many mine values and outputs; +in 1906 the work of drainage was again taken up, and work on +a long bore was begun in May 1907. There are smelters and +cyanide extracters in the district, but the bulk of the ore product +is shipped to other places for treatment. Among the towns +around Cripple Creek in the same mining district is Victor, +pop. (1910) 3162, incorporated in 1894, chartered as a city in +1898.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Lindgren and F. L. Ransome, <i>Geology and Gold Deposits of +the Cripple Creek District, Colorado</i>, with maps (Washington, 1906), +being Professional Paper No. 54 of the United States Geological +Survey; and Benjamin McKie Rastall, <i>The Labor History of the +Cripple Creek District; A Study in Industrial Evolution</i> (Madison, +Wis., 1908), a full account of the strikes of 1894 and of 1903-1904.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1o" id="Footnote_1o" href="#FnAnchor_1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The value of gold mined in 1899-1902 was greater, annually, +than the product of 1905 or 1906; up to 1905 the greatest annual +value was in 1900, $18,073,539.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRISA<a name="ar279" id="ar279"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Crissa</span>, in ancient geography, one of the oldest +cities of Greece, situated in Phocis, on one of the spurs of +Parnassus. Its name occurs both in the <i>Iliad</i> and in the Homeric +<i>Hymns</i>, where it is described as a powerful place, with a rich +and fertile territory, reaching to the sea, and including within +its limits the sanctuary of Pytho. As the town of Delphi grew +up around the shrine, and the seaport of Cirrha arose on the +Crisean Gulf, Crisa gradually lost much of its importance. By +the ancients themselves the name of Cirrha was so often substituted +for that of Crisa, that it soon became doubtful whether +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>467</span> +these names indicated the same city or not. The question was +practically settled by the investigations of H. N. Ulrichs. From +its position Cirrha commanded the approach to Delphi, and its +inhabitants became obnoxious to the Greeks from the heavy +tolls which they exacted from the devotees who thronged to +the shrine. The Amphictyonic Council declared war (the first +Sacred War) against the Criseans in 595 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and having taken +the town, razed it to the ground, and consecrated its territory +to the temple at Delphi. The plunder of the town was sold to +defray the expenses of the Pythian games. In 339 the people +of Amphissa began to rebuild the town of Cirrha and to cultivate +the plain. This act brought on the second Sacred War, the +conduct of which was entrusted by the Amphictyons to Philip +of Macedon, who took Amphissa (mod. Salona) in the following +year. The ruins of Crisa may be still seen where the ravine of +the Pleistus joins the plain; its name is probably preserved by +the modern Chryso.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. G. Frazer’s <i>Pausanias</i>, v. 459 (note on x. 37.5).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Gr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRISPI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar280" id="ar280"></a></span> (1819-1901), Italian statesman, was +born at Ribéra in Sicily on the 4th of October 1819. In 1846 +he established himself as advocate at Naples. On the outbreak +of the Sicilian revolution at Palermo (January 12, 1848) he +hastened to the island and took an active part in guiding the +insurrection. Upon the restoration of the Bourbon government +(May 15, 1849) he was excluded from the amnesty and compelled +to flee to Piedmont. Here he unsuccessfully applied for a +situation as communal secretary of Verolengo, and eked out a +penurious existence by journalism. Implicated in the Mazzinian +conspiracy at Milan (February 6, 1853), he was expelled from +Piedmont, and obliged to take refuge at Malta, whence he fled +to Paris. Expelled from France, he joined Mazzini in London, +and continued to conspire for the redemption of Italy. On the +15th of June 1859 he returned to Italy after publishing a letter +repudiating the aggrandizement of Piedmont, and proclaiming +himself a republican and a partisan of national unity. +Twice in that year he went the round of the Sicilian cities +in disguise, and prepared the insurrectionary movement of +1860.</p> + +<p>Upon his return to Genoa he organized, with Bertani, Bixio, +Medici and Garibaldi, the expedition of the Thousand, and +overcoming by a stratagem the hesitation of Garibaldi, secured +the departure of the expedition on the 5th of May 1860. Disembarking +at Marsala on the 11th, Crispi on the 13th, at Salemi, +drew up the proclamation whereby Garibaldi assumed the +dictatorship of Sicily, with the programme: “Italy and Victor +Emmanuel.” After the fall of Palermo, Crispi was appointed +minister of the interior and of finance in the Sicilian provisional +government, but was shortly afterwards obliged to resign on +account of the struggle between Garibaldi and the emissaries of +Cavour with regard to the question of immediate annexation. +Appointed secretary to Garibaldi, Crispi secured the resignation +of Depretis, whom Garibaldi had appointed pro-dictator, and +would have continued his fierce opposition to Cavour at Naples, +where he had been placed by Garibaldi in the foreign office, had +not the advent of the Italian regular troops and the annexation +of the Two Sicilies to Italy brought about Garibaldi’s withdrawal +to Caprera and Crispi’s own resignation. Entering parliament +in 1861 as deputy of the extreme Left for Castelvetrano, Crispi +acquired the reputation of being the most aggressive and most +impetuous member of the republican party. In 1864, however, +he made at the chamber a monarchical profession of faith, in +the famous phrase afterwards repeated in his letter to Mazzini: +“The monarchy unites us; the republic would divide us.” +In 1860 he refused to enter the Ricasoli cabinet; in 1867 he +worked to impede the Garibaldian invasion of the papal states, +foreseeing the French occupation of Rome and the disaster of +Mentana. By methods of the same character as those subsequently +employed against himself by Cavallotti, he carried on +the violent agitation known as the Lobbia affair, in which sundry +conservative deputies were, on insufficient grounds, accused +of corruption. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War he +worked energetically to impede the projected alliance with +France, and to drive the Lanza cabinet to Rome. The death of +Ratazzi in 1873 induced Crispi’s friends to put forward his +candidature to the leadership of the Left; but Crispi, anxious +to reassure the crown, secured the election of Depretis. After +the advent of the Left he was elected (November 1876) president +of the chamber. During the autumn of 1877 he went to London, +Paris and Berlin on a confidential mission, establishing cordial +personal relationships with Gladstone, Granville and other +English statesmen, and with Bismarck.</p> + +<p>In December 1877 he replaced Nicotera as minister of the +interior in the Depretis cabinet, his short term of office (70 days) +being signalized by a series of important events. On January 9, +1878, the death of Victor Emmanuel and the accession of King +Humbert enabled Crispi to secure the formal establishment of a +unitary monarchy, the new monarch taking the title of Humbert +I. of Italy instead of Humbert IV. of Savoy. The remains of +Victor Emmanuel were interred in the Pantheon instead of being +transported to the Savoy Mausoleum at Superga. On the 9th +of February, 1879, the death of Pius IX. necessitated a conclave, +the first to be held after the unification of Italy. Crispi, helped +by Mancini and Cardinal Pecci (afterwards Leo XIII.), persuaded +the Sacred College to hold the conclave in Rome, and prorogued +the chamber lest any untoward manifestation should mar the +solemnity of the event. The statesmanlike qualities displayed +on this occasion were unavailing to avert the storm of indignation +conjured up by Crispi’s opponents in connexion with a charge +of bigamy not susceptible of legal proof. Crispi was compelled +to resign office, although the judicial authorities upheld the +invalidity of his early marriage, contracted at Malta in 1853, +and ratified his subsequent union with Signora Barbagallo. +For nine years Crispi remained politically under a cloud, but in +1887 returned to office as minister of the interior in the Depretis +cabinet, succeeding to the premiership upon the death of Depretis +(July 29, 1887).</p> + +<p>One of his first acts as premier was a visit to Bismarck, whom +he desired to consult upon the working of the Triple Alliance. +Basing his foreign policy upon the alliance, as supplemented by +the naval <i>entente</i> with Great Britain negotiated by his predecessor, +Count Robilant, Crispi assumed a resolute attitude towards +France, breaking off the prolonged and unfruitful negotiations +for a new Franco-Italian commercial treaty, and refusing the +French invitation to organize an Italian section at the Paris +Exhibition of 1889. At home Crispi secured the adoption of the +Sanitary and Commercial Codes, and reformed the administration +of justice. Forsaken by his Radical friends, Crispi governed with +the help of the Right until, on the 31st of January 1891, an +intemperate allusion to the <i>sante memorie</i> of the conservative +party led to his overthrow. In December 1893 the impotence +of the Giolitti cabinet to restore public order, then menaced by +disturbances in Sicily and in Lunigiana, gave rise to a general +demand that Crispi should return to power. Upon resuming +office he vigorously suppressed the disorders, and steadily +supported the energetic remedies adopted by Sonnino, minister +of finance, to save Italian credit, which had been severely shaken +by the bank and financial crises of 1892-1893. Crispi’s uncompromising +suppression of disorder, and his refusal to abandon +either the Triple Alliance or the Eritrean colony, or to forsake +his colleague Sonnino, caused a breach between him and the +radical leader Cavallotti. Cavallotti then began against him a +pitiless campaign of defamation. An unsuccessful attempt upon +Crispi’s life by the anarchist Lega brought a momentary truce, +but Cavallotti’s attacks were soon renewed more fiercely than +ever. They produced so little effect that the general election of +1895 gave Crispi a huge majority, but, a year later, the defeat +of the Italian army at Adowa in Abyssinia brought about his +resignation. The ensuing Rudini cabinet lent itself to Cavallotti’s +campaign, and at the end of 1897 the judicial authorities applied +to the chamber for permission to prosecute Crispi for embezzlement. +A parliamentary commission, appointed to inquire into +the charges against him, discovered only that Crispi, on assuming +office in 1893, had found the secret service coffers empty, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468"></a>468</span> +had borrowed from a state bank the sum of £12,000 for secret +service, repaying it with the monthly instalments granted in +regular course by the treasury. The commission, considering +this proceeding irregular, proposed, and the chamber adopted, +a vote of censure, but refused to authorize a prosecution. Crispi +resigned his seat in parliament, but was re-elected by an overwhelming +majority in April 1898 by his Palermo constituents. +For some time he took little part in active politics, chiefly on +account of his growing blindness. A successful operation for +cataract restored his eyesight in June 1900, and notwithstanding +his 81 years he resumed to some extent his former political +activity. Soon afterwards, however, his health began to give +way permanently, and he died at Naples on the 12th of August +1901.</p> + +<p>The importance of Crispi in Italian public life depended less +upon the many reforms accomplished under his administrations +than upon his intense patriotism, remarkable fibre, and capacity +for administering to his fellow-countrymen the political tonic of +which they stood in constant need. In regard to foreign politics +he greatly contributed to raise Italian prestige and to dispel +the reputation for untrustworthiness and vacillation acquired +by many of his predecessors. If in regard to France his policy +appeared to lack suavity and circumspection, it must be remembered +that the French republic was then engaged in active +anti-Italian schemes and was working, both at the Vatican and +in the sphere of colonial politics, to create a situation that should +compel Italy to bow to French exigencies and to abandon the +Triple Alliance. Crispi was prepared to cultivate good relations +with France, but refused to yield to pressure or to submit to dictation; +and in this attitude he was firmly supported by the bulk +of his fellow-countrymen. The criticism freely directed against +him was based rather upon the circumstances of his unfortunate +private life and the misdeeds of an unscrupulous <i>entourage</i> which +traded upon his name than upon his personal or political shortcomings.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Scritti e discorsi politici di F. Crispi, 1847-1890</i> (Rome, 1890); +<i>Francesco Crispi</i>, by W. J. Stillman (London, 1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRISPIN<a name="ar281" id="ar281"></a></span> and <span class="bold">CRISPINIAN</span>, the patron saints of shoemakers, +whose festival is celebrated on the 25th of October. Their +history is largely legendary, and there exists no trace of it earlier +than the 8th century. It is said that they were brothers and +members of a noble family in Rome. They gave up their property +and travelled to Soissons (Noviodunum, Augusta Sucessionum), +where they supported themselves by shoemaking and made many +converts to Christianity. The emperor Maximianus (Herculius) +condemned them to death. His prefect Rictiovarus endeavoured +to carry out the sentence, but they emerged unharmed from all +the ordeals to which he subjected them, and the weapons he used +recoiled against the executioners. Rictiovarus in disgust cast +himself into the fire, or the caldron of boiling tar, from which +they had emerged refreshed. At last Maximian had their heads +cut off (c. 287-300). Their remains were buried at Soissons, +but were afterwards removed, partly by Charlemagne to Osnabrück +(where a festival is observed annually on the 20th of June) +and partly to the chapel of St Lawrence in Rome. The abbeys +of St Crépin-en-Chaye (the remains of which still form part of a +farmhouse on the river Aisne, N.N.W. of Soissons), of St Crépin-le-Petit, +and St Crépin-le-Grand (the site of which is occupied +by a house belonging to the Sisters of Mercy), in or near Soissons, +commemorated the places sanctified by their imprisonment and +burial. There are also relics at Fulda, and a Kentish tradition +claims that the bodies of the martyrs were cast into the sea and +cast on shore on Romney Marsh (see <i>Acta SS. Bolland</i>, xi. 495; +A. Butler, <i>Lives of the Saints</i>. October 25th).</p> + +<p>Especially in France, but also in England and in other parts of +Europe, the festival of St Crispin was for centuries the occasion +of solemn processions and merry-making, in which gilds of shoemakers +took the chief part. At Troyes, where the gild of St +Crispin was reconstituted as late as 1820, an annual festival is +celebrated in the church of St Urban. In England and Scotland +the day acquired additional importance as the anniversary of +the battle of Agincourt (cf. Shakespeare, <i>Henry V.</i> iv. 3); the +symbolical processions in honour of “King Crispin” at Stirling +and Edinburgh were particularly famous.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For other examples see <i>Notes and Queries</i>, 1st series, v. 30, vi. 243; +W. S. Walsh, <i>Curiosities of Popular Customs</i> (London, 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRITIAS<a name="ar282" id="ar282"></a></span>, Athenian orator and poet, and one of the Thirty +Tyrants. In his youth he was a pupil of Gorgias and Socrates, +but subsequently devoted himself to political intrigues. In +415 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he was implicated in the mutilation of the Hermae and +imprisoned. In 411 he helped to put down the Four Hundred, +and was instrumental in procuring the recall of Alcibiades. +He was banished (probably in the democratic reaction of 407) +and fled to Thessaly, where he stirred up the Penestae (the helots +of Thessaly) against their masters, and endeavoured to establish +a democracy. Returning to Athens he was made ephor by the +oligarchical party; and he was the most cruel and unscrupulous +of the Thirty Tyrants who in 404 were appointed by the Lacedaemonians. +He was slain in battle against Thrasybulus and the +returning democrats. Critias was a man of varied talents—poet, +orator, historian and philosopher. Some fragments of his +elegies will be found in Bergk, <i>Poetae Lyrici Graeci</i>. He was +also the author of several tragedies and of biographies of distinguished +poets (possibly in verse).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Xenophon, <i>Hellenica</i>, ii. 3. 4. 19, <i>Memorabilia</i>, i. 2; Cornelius +Nepos, <i>Thrasybulus</i>, 2; R. Lallier, <i>De Critiae tyranni vita ac +scriptis</i> (1875); Nestle, <i>Neue Jahrb. f. d. kl. Altert.</i> (1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRITICISM<a name="ar283" id="ar283"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kritês">κρίτης</span>, a judge, <span class="grk" title="krinein">κρίνειν</span>, to decide, +to give an authoritative opinion), the art of judging the qualities +and values of an aesthetic object, whether in literature or the +fine arts.<a name="FnAnchor_1p" id="FnAnchor_1p" href="#Footnote_1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> It involves, in the first instance, the formation +and expression of a judgment on the qualities of anything, and +Matthew Arnold defined it in this general sense as “a disinterested +endeavour to learn and propagate the best that is known and +thought in the world.” It has come, however, to possess a +secondary and specialized meaning as a published analysis +of the qualities and characteristics of a work in literature or fine +art, itself taking the form of independent literature. The sense +in which criticism is taken as implying censure, the “picking +holes” in any statement or production, is frequent, but it is +entirely unjustifiable. There is nothing in the proper scope of +criticism which presupposes blame. On the contrary, a work +of perfect beauty and fitness, in which no fault could possibly +be found with justice, is as proper a subject for criticism to deal +with as a work of the greatest imperfection. It may be perfectly +just to state that a book or a picture is “beneath criticism,” +<i>i.e.</i> is so wanting in all qualities of originality and technical +excellence that time would merely be wasted in analysing it. +But it can never be properly said that a work is “above criticism,” +although it may be “above censure,” for the very complexity +of its merits and the fulness of its beauties tempt the +skill of the analyser and reward it.</p> + +<p>It is necessary at the threshold of an examination of the +history of criticism to expose this laxity of speech, since nothing +is more confusing to a clear conception of this art than to suppose +that it consists in an effort to detect what is blameworthy. +Candid criticism should be neither benevolent nor adverse; +its function is to give a just judgment, without partiality or bias. +A critic (<span class="grk" title="kritikos">κριτικός</span>) is one who exercises the art of criticism, +who sets himself up, or is set up, as a judge of literary and +artistic merit. The irritability of mankind, which easily forgets +and neglects praise, but cannot forgive the rankling poison of +blame, has set upon the word <i>critic</i> a seal which is even more +unamiable than that of <i>criticism</i>. It takes its most savage form +in Benjamin Disraeli’s celebrated and deplorable <i>dictum</i>, “the +critics are the men who have failed in literature and art.” It +is plain that such names as those of Aristotle, Dante, Dryden, +Joshua Reynolds, Sainte-Beuve and Matthew Arnold are not +to be thus swept by a reckless fulmination. There have been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469"></a>469</span> +many critics who brought from failure in imaginative composition +a cavilling, jealous and ignoble temper, who have mainly +exercised their function in indulging the evil passion of envy. +But, so far as they have done this, they have proved themselves +bad critics, and neither minute care, nor a basis of learning, nor +wide experience of literature, salutary as all these must be, +can avail to make that criticism valuable which is founded on +the desire to exaggerate fault-finding and to emphasize censure +unfairly. The examination of what has been produced by other +ages of human thought is much less liable to this dangerous error +than the attempt to estimate contemporary works of art and +literature. There are few indeed whom personal passion can +blind to the merits of a picture of the 15th or a poem of the +17th century. In the higher branches of historical criticism, +prejudice of this ignoble sort is hardly possible, and therefore, +in considering criticism in its ideal forms, it is best to leave out +of consideration that invidious and fugitive species which bears +the general name of “reviewing.” This pedestrian criticism, +indeed, is useful and even indispensable, but it is, by its very +nature, ephemeral, and it is liable to a multitude of drawbacks. +Even when the reviewer is, or desires to be, strictly just, it is +almost impossible for him to stand far enough back from the +object under review to see it in its proper perspective. He is +dazzled, or scandalized, by its novelty; he has formed a preconceived +notion of the degree to which its author should be +encouraged or depressed; he is himself, in all cases, an element +in the mental condition which he attempts to judge, and if +not positively a defendant is at least a juryman in the court over +which he ought to preside with remote impartiality.</p> + +<p>It may be laid down as the definition of criticism in its pure +sense, that it should consist in the application, in the most competent +form, of the principles of literary composition. Those +principles are the general aesthetics upon which taste is founded; +they take the character of rules of writing. From the days of +Aristotle the existence of such rules has not been doubted, but +different orders of mind in various ages have given them diverse +application, and upon this diversity the fluctuations of taste +are founded. It is now generally admitted that in past ages +critics have too often succumbed to the temptation to regulate +taste rigidly, and to lay down rules that shall match every case +with a formula. Over-legislation has been the bane of official +criticism, and originality, especially in works of creative imagination, +has been condemned because it did not conform to existing +rules. Such instances of want of contemporary appreciation +as the reception given to William Blake or Keats, or even Milton, +are quoted to prove the futility of criticism. As a matter of +fact they do nothing of the kind. They merely prove the +immutable principles which underlie all judgment of artistic +products to have been misunderstood or imperfectly obeyed +during the life-times of those illustrious men. False critics have +built domes of glass, as Voltaire put it, between the heavens and +themselves, domes which genius has to shatter in pieces before +it can make itself comprehended. In critical application formulas +are often useful, but they should be held lightly; when the +formula becomes the tyrant where it should be the servant of +thought, fatal error is imminent. What is required above all +else by a critic is knowledge, tempered with good sense, and +combined with an exquisite delicacy of taste. He who possesses +these qualities may go wrong in certain instances, but his error +cannot become radical, and he is always open to correction. It +is not his business crudely to pronounce a composition “good” +or “bad”; he must be able to show why it is “good” and +wherein it is “bad”; he must admire with independence and +blame with careful candour. He must above all be assiduous +to escape from pompous generalizations, which conceal lack of +thought under a flow of words. The finest criticism should take +every circumstance of the case into consideration, and hold it +necessary, if possible, to know the author as well as the book. +A large part of the reason why the criticism of productions of +the past is so much more fruitful than mere contemporary +reviewing, is that by remoteness from the scene of action the +critic is able to make himself familiar with all the elements of +age, place and medium which affected the writer at the moment +of his composition. In short, knowledge and even taste are not +sufficient for perfect criticism without the infusion of a still +rarer quality, breadth of sympathy.</p> + +<p>Criticism has been one of the latest branches of literature to +reach maturity, but from very early times the instinct which +induces mankind to review what it has produced led to the +composition of imperfect but often extremely valuable bodies +of opinion. What makes these early criticisms tantalizing is +that the moral or political aspects of literature had not disengaged +themselves from the purely intellectual or aesthetic.</p> + +<p>To pass to an historical examination of the subject, we find +that in antiquity Aristotle was regarded as the father and almost +as the founder of literary criticism. Yet before his day, three +Greek writers of eminence had examined, in more or less fulness, +the principles of composition; these were Plato, Isocrates and +Aristophanes. The comedy of <i>The Frogs</i>, by the latter, is the +earliest specimen we possess of hostile literary criticism, being +devoted to ridicule of the plays of Euripides. In the cases of +Plato and Isocrates, criticism takes the form mainly of an +examination of the rules of rhetoric. We reach, however, much +firmer ground when we arrive at Aristotle, whose <i>Poetics</i> and +<i>Rhetoric</i> are among the most valuable treatises which antiquity +has handed down to us. Of what existed in the literature of his +age, extremely rich in some branches, entirely empty in others, +Aristotle speaks with extraordinary authority; but Mr G. +Saintsbury has justly remarked that as his criticism of poetry +was injuriously affected by the non-existence of the novelist, so +his criticism of prose was injuriously affected by the omnipresence +of the orator. This continues true of all ancient criticism. A +work by Aristotle on the problems raised by a study of Homer +is lost, and there may have been others of a similar nature; in +the two famous treatises which remain we have nothing less +important than the foundation on which all subsequent European +criticism has been raised. It does not appear that any of the +numerous disciples of Aristotle understood his attitude to literature, +nor do the later philosophical schools offer much of interest. +The Neoplatonists, however, were occupied with analysis of the +Beautiful, on which both Proclus and Plotinus expatiated; +still more purely literary were some of the treatises of Porphyry. +There seems to be no doubt that Alexandria possessed, in the +third century, a vivid school of critic-grammarians; the names +of Zenodotus, of Crates and of Aristarchus were eminent in this +connexion, but of their writings nothing substantial has survived. +They were followed by the scholiasts, and they by the mere +rhetoricians of the last Greek schools, such as Hermogenes and +Aphthonius. In the 2nd century of our era, Dio Chrysostom, +Aristides of Smyrna, and Maximus of Tyre were the main +representatives of criticism, and they were succeeded by Philostratus +and Libanius. The most modern of post-Christian Greek +critics, however, is unquestionably Dionysius of Halicarnassus, +who leads up to Lucian and Cassius Longinus. The last-mentioned +name calls for special notice; in “the lovely and +magnificent personality of Longinus” we find the most intelligent +judge of literature who wrote between Aristotle and the +moderns. His book <i>On the Sublime</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri hupsous">Περὶ ὕψους</span>), probably +written about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 260, and first printed in 1554, is of extreme +importance, while his intuitions and the splendour of his style +combine to lift Longinus to the highest rank among the critics +of the world.</p> + +<p>In Roman literature criticism never took a very prominent +position. In early days the rhetorical works of Cicero and the +famous <i>Art of Poetry</i> of Horace exhaust the category. During the +later Augustan period the only literary critic of importance was +the elder Seneca. Passing over the valuable allusions to the art +of writing in the poets, especially in Juvenal and Martial, we +reach, in the Silver Age, Quintilian, the most accomplished +of all the Roman critics. His <i>Institutes of Oratory</i> has been +described as the fullest and most intelligent application of +criticism to literature which the Latin world produced, and one +which places the name of Quintilian not far below those of +Aristotle and Longinus. He was followed by Aulus Gellius, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a>470</span> +by Macrobius (whose reputation was great in the middle ages), +by Servius (the great commentator on Virgil), and, after a long +interval, by Martianus Capella. Latin criticism sank into mere +pedantry about rhetoric and grammar. This continued throughout +the Dark Ages, until the 13th century, when rhythmical treatises, +of which the <i>Labyrinthus</i> of Eberhard (1212?) and the <i>Ars +rhythmica</i> of John of Garlandia (John Garland) are the most +famous, came into fashion. These writings testified to a growing +revival of a taste for poetry.</p> + +<p>It is, however, in the masterly technical treatise <i>De vulgari +eloquio</i>, generally attributed to Dante, the first printed (in +Italian) in 1529, that modern poetical criticism takes its first step. +The example of this admirable book was not adequately followed; +throughout the 14th and 15th centuries, criticism is mainly +indirect and accidental. Boccaccio, indeed, is the only figure +worthy of mention, between Dante and Erasmus. With the +Renaissance came a blossoming of Humanist criticism in Italy, +producing such excellent specimens as the <i>Sylvae</i> of Poliziano, +the <i>Poetics</i> (1527) of Vida, and the <i>Poetica</i> of Trissino, the best +of a whole crop of critical works produced, often by famous +names, between 1525 and 1560. These were followed by sounder +scholars and acuter theorists: by Scaliger with his epoch-making +<i>Poetices</i> (1561); by L. Castelvetro, whose <i>Poetica</i> (1570) +started the modern cultivation of the Unities and asserted the +value of the Epic; by Tasso with his <i>Discorsi</i> (1587); and by +Francesco Patrizzi in his <i>Poetica</i> (1586).</p> + +<p>In France, the earliest and for a long time the most important +specimen of literary criticism was the <i>Défense et illustration de +la langue française</i>, published in 1549 by Joachim du Bellay. +Ronsard, also, wrote frequently and ably on the art of poetry. +The theories of the Pléiade were summed up in the <i>Art poétique</i> +of Vauquelin de la Fresnaye, which belongs to 1574 (though not +printed until 1605).</p> + +<p>In England, the earliest literary critic of importance was +Thomas Wilson, whose <i>Art of Rhetoric</i> was printed in 1553, +and the earliest student of poetry, George Gascoigne, whose +<i>Instruction</i> appeared in 1575. Gascoigne is the first writer +who deals intelligently with the subject of English prosody. +He was followed by Thomas Drant, Harvey, Gosson, Lodge +and Sidney, whose controversial pamphlets belong to the period +between 1575 and 1580. Among Elizabethan “arts” or “defences” +of English poetry are to be mentioned those of William +Webbe (1586), George Puttenham (1589), Thomas Campion +(1602), and Samuel Daniel (1603). With the tractates of Ben +Jonson, several of them lost, the criticism of the Renaissance may +be said to close.</p> + +<p>A new era began throughout Europe when Malherbe started, +about 1600, a taste for the neo-classic or anti-romantic school +of poetry, taking up the line which had been foreshadowed by +Castelvetro. <i>Enfin Malherbe vint</i>, and he was supported in his +revolution by Regnier, Vaugelas, Balzac, and finally by Corneille +himself, in his famous prefatory discourses. It was Boileau, +however, who more than any other man stood out at the close of +the 17th century as the law-giver of Parnassus. The rules of the +neo-classics were drawn together and arranged in a system by +René Rapin, whose authoritative treatises mainly appeared +between 1668 and 1674. It is in writings of this man, and of +the Jesuits, Le Bossu and Bouhours, that the preposterous +rigidity of the formal classic criticism is most plainly seen. The +influence of these three critics was, however, very great throughout +Europe, and we trace it in the writings of Dryden, Addison +and Rymer. In the course of the 18th century, when the neoclassic +creed was universally accepted, Pope, Blair, Kames, +Harris, Goldsmith and Samuel Johnson were its most distinguished +exponents in England, while Voltaire, Buffon (to +whom we owe the phrase “the style is the man”), Marmontel, +La Harpe and Suard were the types of academic opinion in +France.</p> + +<p>Modern, or more properly Romantic, criticism came in when +the neo-classic tradition became bankrupt throughout Europe +at the very close of the 18th century. It has been heralded in +Germany by the writings of Lessing, and in France by those of +Diderot. Of the reconstruction of critical opinion in the 19th +century it is impossible to speak here with any fulness, it is +contained in the record of the recent literature of each European +language. It is noticeable, in England, that the predominant +place in it was occupied, in violent contrast with Disraeli’s +dictum, by those who had obviously <i>not</i> failed in imaginative +composition, by Wordsworth, by Shelley, by Keats, by Landor, +and pre-eminently by S. T. Coleridge, who was one of the most +penetrative, original and imaginative critics who have ever lived. +In France, the importance of Sainte-Beuve is not to be ignored +or even qualified; after manifold changes of taste, he remains +as much a master as he was a precursor. He was followed by +Théophile Gautier, Saint-Marc, Girardin, Paul de Saint Victor, +and a crowd of others, down to Taine and the latest school of +individualistic critics, comparable with Matthew Arnold, Pater, +and their followers in England.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Saintsbury, <i>A History of Criticism</i> (3 vols., 1902-1904); +J. E. Spingarn, <i>A History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance</i> +(2nd ed. 1908); Théry, <i>Histoire des opinions littéraires</i> (1849); J. A. +Symonds, <i>The Revival of Learning</i> (1877); Matthew Arnold, <i>Essays +in Criticism</i>, i. (1865), ii. (1868); Bourgoin, <i>Les Maîtres de la critique +au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1889); Paul Hamelius, <i>Die Kritik in der englischen +Literatur</i> (1897); S. H. Butcher, <i>The Poetics of</i> <span class="correction" title="amended from Artistotle"><i>Aristotle</i></span> (1898); +H. L. Havell and Andrew Lang, <i>Longinus on the Sublime</i> (1890). +See also the writings of Sainte-Beuve, Matthew Arnold, F. Brunetière, +Anatole France, Walter Pater, <i>passim</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1p" id="Footnote_1p" href="#FnAnchor_1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It is in this general sense that the subject is considered in this +article. The term is, however, used in more restricted senses, +generally with some word of qualification, <i>e.g.</i> “textual criticism” +or “higher criticism”; see the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Textual Criticism</a></span> and the +article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span> for an outstanding example of both “textual” and +“higher.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRITIUS<a name="ar284" id="ar284"></a></span> and <span class="bold">NESIOTES</span>, two Greek sculptors of uncertain +school, of the time of the Persian Wars. When Xerxes carried +away to Persia the statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton made +by Antenor, Critius and Nesiotes were commissioned to replace +them. By the help of coins and reliefs, two statues at Naples, +wrongly restored as gladiators, have been identified as copies of +the tyrannicides of Critius; and to them well apply the words +in which Lucian (<i>Rhetor. praecepta</i>, 9) describes the works of +Critius and Nesiotes, “closely knit and sinewy, and hard and +severe in outline.” Critius also made a statue of the armed +runner Epicharinus.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRITOLAUS<a name="ar285" id="ar285"></a></span>, Greek philosopher, was born at Phaselis in +the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He lived to the age of eighty-two and died +probably before 111 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He studied philosophy under Aristo +of Ceos and became one of the leaders of the Peripatetic school +by his eminence as an orator, a scholar and a moralist. There +has been considerable discussion as to whether he was the +immediate successor of Aristo, but the evidence is confused and +unprofitable. In general he was a loyal adherent to the Peripatetic +succession (cf. Cicero, <i>De fin.</i> v. 5 “C. imitari antiquos +voluit”), though in some respects he went beyond his predecessors. +For example, he held that pleasure is an evil (Gellius, <i>Noctes +Atticae</i>, ix. 5. 6), and definitely maintained that the soul consists +of aether. The end of existence was to him the general perfection +of the natural life, including the goods of the soul and the body, +and also external goods. Cicero says in the <i>Tusculans</i> that the +goods of the soul entirely outweighed for him the other goods +(“tantum propendere illam bonorum animi lancem”). Further, +he defended against the Stoics the Peripatetic doctrine of the +eternity of the world and the indestructibility of the human race. +There is no observed change in the natural order of things; +mankind re-creates itself in the same manner according to the +capacity given by Nature, and the various ills to which it is +heir, though fatal to individuals, do not avail to modify the +whole. Just as it is absurd to suppose that man is merely +earth-born, so the possibility of his ultimate destruction is +inconceivable. The world, as the manifestation of eternal order, +must itself be immortal. The life of Critolaus is not recorded. +One incident alone is preserved. From Cicero (<i>Acad.</i> ii. 45) it +appears that he was sent with Carneades and Diogenes to Rome +in 156-155 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to protest against the fine of 500 talents imposed +on Athens in punishment for the sack of Oropus. The three +ambassadors lectured on philosophy in Rome with so much +success that Cato was alarmed and had them dismissed the +city. Gellius describes his arguments as <i>scita et teretia</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Consult the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peripatetics</a></span>, and histories of ancient philosophy, +<i>e.g.</i> Zeller.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471"></a>471</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRITTENDEN, JOHN JORDAN<a name="ar286" id="ar286"></a></span> (1787-1863), American +statesman, was born in Versailles, Kentucky, on the 10th of +September 1787. After graduating at the College of William +and Mary in 1807, he began the practice of law in his native +state. He served for three months, in 1810, as attorney-general +of Illinois Territory, but soon returned to Kentucky, and during +the War of 1812 he was for a time on the staff of General Isaac +Shelby. In 1811-1817 he served in the state House of Representatives, +being speaker in 1815-1816, and in 1817-1819 was a +United States senator. Settling in Frankfort, he soon took high +rank as a criminal lawyer, was in the Kentucky House of Representatives +in 1825 and 1829-1832, acting as speaker in the latter +period, and from 1827 to 1829 was United States district-attorney. +He was removed by President Jackson, to whom he was radically +opposed. In 1835, as a Whig, he was again elected to the United +States Senate, and was re-elected in 1841, but resigned to enter +the cabinet of President W. H. Harrison as attorney-general, +continuing after President Tyler’s accession and serving from +March until September. He was again a member of the United +States Senate from 1842 to 1848, and in 1848-1850 was governor +of Kentucky. He was an ardent and outspoken supporter of +Clay’s compromise measures, and in 1850 he entered President +Fillmore’s cabinet as attorney-general, serving throughout the +administration. From 1855 to 1861 he was once more a member +of the United States Senate. During these years he was perhaps +the foremost champion of Union in the South, and strenuously +opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which he declared prophetically +would unite the various elements of opposition in the +North, and render the breach between the sections irreparable. +Nevertheless he laboured unceasingly in the cause of compromise, +gave his strong support to the Bell and Everett ticket +in 1860, and in 1860-1861 proposed and vainly contended for +the adoption by congress of the compromise measures which bear +his name. When war became inevitable he threw himself +zealously into the Union cause, and lent his great influence to +keep Kentucky in the Union. In 1861-1863 he was a member +of the national House of Representatives, where, while advocating +the prosecution of the war, he opposed such radical measures +as the division of Virginia, the enlistment of slaves and the +Conscription Acts. He died at Frankfort, Kentucky, on the +26th of July 1863.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Life of J. J. Crittenden</i>, by his daughter Mrs Chapman +Coleman (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1871).</p> +</div> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">George Bibb Crittenden</span> (1812-1880), soldier, was +born in Russellville, Kentucky, on the 20th of March 1812, and +graduated at West Point in 1832, but resigned his commission +in 1833. He re-entered the army as a captain of mounted rifles +in the Mexican War, served with distinction, and was breveted +major for bravery at Contreras and Churubusco. After the +war he remained in the army, and in 1856 attained the rank +of lieutenant-colonel. In June 1861 he resigned, and entered +the service of the Confederacy. He was commissioned major-general +and given a command in south-east Kentucky and +Tennessee, but after the defeat of his forces by General George H. +Thomas at Mill Springs (January 9, 1862), he was censured and +gave up his command. He served subsequently as a volunteer +aide on the staff of Gen. John S. Williams. From 1867 to 1871 +he was state librarian of Kentucky. He died at Danville, +Kentucky, on the 27th of November 1880.</p> + +<p>Another son, <span class="sc">Thomas Leonidas Crittenden</span> (1815-1893), +soldier, was also born at Russellville, Kentucky. He studied +law, and practised with his father, and in 1842 became commonwealth’s +attorney. He served in the Mexican War as a lieutenant-colonel +of Kentucky volunteers, and was an aide on Gen. Zachary +Taylor’s staff at the battle of Buena Vista. From 1849 to +1853 he was United States consul at Liverpool, England. Like +his father, he was a strong Union man, and in September 1861 +he was commissioned by President Lincoln a brigadier-general +of volunteers. He commanded a division at Shiloh, for gallantry +in which battle he was promoted major-general in July 1862. +He was in command of a corps in the army of the Ohio under +Gen. D. C. Buell, and took part in the battles of Stone River +and Chickamauga. Subsequently he served in the Virginia +campaign of 1864. He resigned his commission in December +1864, but in July 1866 entered the regular army with the rank +of colonel of infantry, receiving the brevet of brigadier-general +in 1867, served on the frontier and in several Indian wars, and +retired in 1881. He died on the 23rd of October 1893.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CRIVELLI, CARLO<a name="ar287" id="ar287"></a></span>, Venetian painter, was born in the earlier +part of the 15th century. The only dates that can with certainty +be given are 1468 and 1493; these are respectively the earliest +and the latest years signed on his pictures—the former on an +altar-piece in the church of San Silvestro at Massa near Fermo, +and the latter on a picture in the Oggioni collection in Milan. +Though born in Venice, Crivelli seems to have worked chiefly +in the March of Ancona, and especially in and near Ascoli; +there are only two pictures of his proper to a Venetian building, +both of these being in the church of San Sebastiano. He is said +to have studied under Jacobello del Fiore, who was painting as +late at any rate as 1436; at that time Crivelli was probably only +a boy. The latter always signed as “Carolus Crivellus Venetus”; +from 1490 he added “Miles,” having been then knighted +(“Cavalière”) by Ferdinand II. of Naples. He painted in +tempera only, and is seen to most advantage in subject pictures +of moderate size. He introduced agreeable landscape backgrounds; +and was particularly partial to giving fruits and +flowers (the peach is one of his favourite fruits) as accessories, +often in pendent festoons. The National Gallery in London is +well supplied with examples of Crivelli; the “Annunciation,” +and the “Beato Ferretti” (of the same family as Pope Pius IX.) +in religious ecstasy, may be specified. Another of his principal +pictures is in San Francesco di Matelica; in Berlin is a +“Madonna and Saints” (1491); in the Vatican Gallery a “Dead +Christ,” and in the Brera of Milan the painter’s own portrait, +with other examples. Crivelli is a painter of marked individuality,—hard +in form, crudely definite in contour; stern, forced, +energetic, almost grotesque and repellent, in feature and expression, +and yet well capable of a prim sort of prettiness; simply +vigorous in his effect of detachment and relief, and sometimes +admitting into his pictures objects actually raised in surface; +distinct and warm in colour, with an effect at once harsh and +harmonious. His pictures gain by being seen in half-light, and +at some little distance; under favouring conditions they grip +the spectator with uncommon power. Few artists seem to have +worked with more uniformity of purpose, or more forthright +command of his materials, so far as they go. It is surmised that +Carlo was of the same family as the painters Donato Crivelli +(who was working in 1459, and was also a scholar of Jacobello) +and Vittorio Crivelli. Pietro Alamanni was his pupil.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See, along with Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Berenson, <i>Venetian +Painters of the Renaissance</i> (1899); Morelli, <i>Italian Painters</i> (1892-1893); +Rushforth, <i>Carlo Crivelli</i> (1900).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CROATIA-SLAVONIA<a name="ar288" id="ar288"></a></span> (Serbo-Croatian <i>Hrvatska i Slavonija</i>; +Hung. <i>Horvát-Szlavonország</i>; Ger. <i>Kroatien und Slawonien</i>), a +kingdom of the Hungarian monarchy; bounded on the N. by +Carniola, Styria and Hungary proper; E. by Hungary and +Servia; S. by Servia, Bosnia and Dalmatia; and W. by the +Adriatic Sea, Istria and Carniola. Until 1881 Croatia, in the +N.W. of this region, was divided from Slavonia, in the N.E., by +a section of the Austrian Military Frontier. This section is now +the county of Bjelovar, and forms part of the united kingdom +of Croatia-Slavonia. The river Kulpa, which bisects the county +of Agram, is usually regarded as the north-eastern limit of the +Balkan Peninsula; and thus the greater part of Croatia, lying +south of this river, falls within the peninsular boundary, while +the remainder, with all Slavonia, belongs to the continental +mainland. According to the official survey of 1900, the total +area of the country is 16,423 sq. m. The Croatian littoral extends +for about 90 m. from Fiume to the Dalmatian frontier. A +narrow strait, the Canale della Morlacca (or della Montagna), +separates it from Veglia, Arbe, Pago and other Istrian or Dalmatian +islands. The city and territories of Fiume, the sole +important harbour on this coast, are included in Hungary proper, +and controlled by the Budapest government. Westward from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472"></a>472</span> +Warasdin, and along the borders of Styria, Carniola, Istria, +Dalmatia and north-western Bosnia, the frontier is generally +mountainous and follows an irregular course. The central and +eastern region, situated between the Drave and Danube on the +north, and the Save on the south, forms one long wedge, with its +point at Semlin.</p> + +<p><i>Physical Features</i>.—Croatia-Slavonia is naturally divided +into two great sections, the highlands of the west and the lowlands +of the east.</p> + +<p>The plateau of the Istrian Karst is prolonged in several of +the bare and desolate mountain chains between the Save and +the Adriatic, notably the Great and Little Kapella (or Kapela), +which link together the Karst and the Dinaric Alps, culminating +in Biela Lažica (5029 ft.); the Plješevica or Pliševica Planina +(5410 ft.), overlooking the valley of the river Una; and the +Velebit Planina, which follows the westward curve of the coast, +and rises above the sea in an abrupt wall, unbroken by any +considerable bay or inlet. As it skirts the Dalmatian border, +this range attains its greatest altitude in the adjacent peaks of +Sveto Brdo (5751 ft.), and Vakanski Vrh (5768 ft.). Large +tracts of the Croatian highlands are well-nigh waterless, and it +is only in the more sheltered hollows that sufficient soil collects +for large trees to flourish. In northern Croatia and Slavonia +the mountains are far more fertile, being often densely wooded +with oaks, beeches and pines. They comprise the Uskoken +Gebirge, or Uskoks Mountains, named after the piratical Uskoks +(<i>q.v.</i>) of Zengg, who were deported hither after the fall of their +stronghold in 1617; the Warasdin Mountains, with the peak +of Ivansciča (3478 ft.); the Agram Mountains, culminating in +Sljeme or Slema (3396 ft.), and including the beautiful stretches +of Alpine pasture known as the Zagorje, or “land beyond the +hills”; the Bilo Gebirge, or White Mountains, a low range of +chalk, and, farther to the south, several groups of mountains, +among which Psunj (3228 ft.), Papuk (3217 ft.) Crni Vrh (2833 +ft.), and the Ravna Gora (2808 ft.) are the chief summits. All +these ranges, except the Uskoken Gebirge, constitute the central +watershed of the kingdom, between the Drave and Save. In +the east Slavonian county of Syrmia<a name="FnAnchor_1q" id="FnAnchor_1q" href="#Footnote_1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the Fruška Gora or +Vrdnik Mountains rise to a height of 1768 ft. along the southern +bank of the Danube, their picturesque vineyards and pine or +oak woods contrasting strongly with the plains that surround +them.</p> + +<p>The lowlands, in the valleys of the Drave, Danube, Save and +Kulpa, belong partly to the great Hungarian Plains, or Alföld. +Besides the sterile and monotonous steppes, valuable only as +pasture, and so sparsely populated that it is possible to travel +for many hours without encountering any sign of human life +except a primitive artesian well or a shepherd’s hut, there are +wide expanses of fen-country, regularly flooded in spring and +autumn. The marshes which line the Save below Sissek are +often impassable except at Brod and Mitrovica, and the river +is constantly scooping out fresh channels in the soft soil, only to +abandon each in turn. The total area liable to yearly inundation +exceeds 200 sq. m. But along the Drave and Danube the plains +are sometimes strikingly fertile, and yield an abundance of grain, +fruit and wine.</p> + +<p>The main rivers of Croatia-Slavonia, the Danube, Drave +and Save, are fully described under separate headings. After +reaching Croatian territory 13 m. N.W. of Warasdin, the Drave +flows along the northern frontier for 155 m., receiving the +Bednja and Karasnica on the right, and falling, near Esseg, +into the Danube, which serves as the Hungaro-Slavonian +boundary for an additional 116 m. The Save enters the country +16 m. W. of Agram, and, after winding for 106 m. S.E. to Jasenovac, +constitutes the southern frontier for 253 m., and meets +the Danube at Belgrade. It is joined by the Sotla, Krapina, +Lonja, Ilova, Pakra and Oljana, which drain the central watershed; +but its only large tributaries are the Una, a Bosnian +stream, which springs in the Dinaric Alps, and skirts the Croatian +border for 40 m. before entering the Save at Jasenovac; and +the Kulpa, which follows a tortuous course of 60 m. from its +headwaters north of Fiume, to its confluence with the Save at +Sissek. The Mrežnica, Dobra, Glina and Korana are right-hand +tributaries of the Kulpa. In the Croatian Karst the seven +streams of the Lika unite and plunge into a rocky chasm near +Gospić, and the few small brooks of this region usually vanish +underground in a similar manner. Near Fiume, the Recina, +Rjeka or Fiumara falls into the Adriatic after a brief course. +There is no large lake in Croatia-Slavonia, but the upland pools +and waterfalls of Plitvica, near Ogulin, are celebrated for their +beauty. After a thaw or heavy rain, the subterranean rivers +flood the mountain hollows of the Karst; and a lake thus formed +by the river Gajka, near Otočac, has occasionally filled its basin +to a depth of 160 ft.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Minerals</i>.—The mineral resources of the kingdom, though capable +of further development, are not rich. They are chiefly confined to +the mountains, where iron, coal, copper, lead, zinc, silver and +sulphur are mined in small quantities. Warm mineral springs rise +at Krapina, at Toplice near Warasdin, at Stubica near Agram, and +elsewhere.</p> + +<p><i>Climate</i>.—The climate of Croatia-Slavonia varies greatly in +different regions. In the Karst it is liable to sudden and violent +changes, and especially to the <i>bora</i>, a fierce N.N.E. wind, which +renders navigation perilous among the islands off the coast, and, in +winter, blocks the roads and railway-cuttings with deep snowdrifts. +The sheltered bays near Fiume enjoy an equable climate; but in all +other districts the temperature in mid-winter falls regularly below +zero, and the summer heats are excessive. Earthquakes are common +among the mountains, and the eastern lowlands are exposed to the +great winds and sandstorms which sweep down the Alföld. At +Agram, during the years 1896-1900, the mean annual temperature +was 52° F., with 34.6 in. of rain and snow; at Fiume, the figures +for the same period were 57° and 71 in.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture</i>.—The agricultural inquiry of 1895 showed that 94.5% +of the country consisted of arable land, gardens, vineyards, meadows, +pastures and forests; but much of this area must be set down as +mountainous and swampy pasture of poor quality. The richest land +occurs in the Zagorje and its neighbourhood, in the hills near Warasdin +and in the northern half of Syrmia. The Karst and the fens are +of least agricultural value. Indian corn heads the list of cereals, +but wheat, oats, rye and barley are also cultivated, besides hemp, +flax, tobacco and large quantities of potatoes. The extensive vineyards +were much injured by <i>phylloxera</i> towards the close of the +19th century. The Slavonian plum orchards furnish dried prunes, +besides a kind of brandy largely exported under the name of <i>sliwowitz</i> +or <i>shlivovitsa</i>. Near Fiume the orange, lemon, pomegranate, fig +and olive bear well; mulberries are planted on many estates for +silkworms; and the heather-clad uplands of the central region +favour the keeping of bees. Large herds of swine fatten in the oak +and beech forests; and dairy-farming is a thriving industry in the +highlands between Agram and Warasdin, where, during the last +years of the 19th century, systematic attempts were made to replace +the mountain pastures by clover and sown grass. The proportion +of sheep to other live-stock is lower than in most of the South Slavonic +lands, and the scarcity of goats is also noteworthy. Horsebreeding +is a favourite pursuit in Slavonia; and between 1900 and 1902 +many thousands of remounts were shipped to the British army in +South Africa. The local administration endeavours to better the +quality of live-stock by importing purer breeds, distributing prizes, +and other measures; but the native farmers are slow to accept +improvements.</p> + +<p><i>Forests</i>.—Forests, principally of oak, pine and beech, covered +3,734,000 acres in 1895, about one-fifth being state property. Especially +valuable are the Croatian oak-forests, near Agram and Sissek. +Timber is exported from Fiume and down the Danube.</p> + +<p><i>Industries</i>.—Apart from the distilleries and breweries scattered +throughout the country, the rude flour-mills which lie moored in the +rivers, and a few glass-works, saw-mills, silk-mills and tobacco +factories, the chief industrial establishments of Croatia-Slavonia +are at Agram, Fiume, Semlin, Buccari and Porto Ré. Only 8.3 of +the population was, in 1900, engaged in industries other than +farming, which occupied 85.2%. The exports mainly consist of +foodstuffs, especially grain, of live-stock, especially pigs and horses, +and of timber. The imports include textiles, iron, coal, wine and +colonial products; with machinery and other finished articles. +Goods in transit to and from Hungary figure largely in the official +returns for Fiume<a name="FnAnchor_2q" id="FnAnchor_2q" href="#Footnote_2q"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and Semlin, which are the centres of the +foreign trade. In 1900 Croatia-Slavonia possessed 253 banking +establishments.</p> + +<p><i>Communications</i>.—The commerce of the country is furthered by +upwards of 2000 m. of carriage-roads, the most remarkable of these +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473"></a>473</span> +being the Maria Louisa, which connects Karlstadt with Fiume, and +the Josephina, which passes inland from Zengg. Many excellent +highways were built for strategic purposes before the abolition of +the Military Frontier in 1881. The railways, which are all owned +and managed by the Hungarian state, intersect most parts of the +country except the mountains south of Ogulin, where there is, +nevertheless, a considerable traffic over the passes into Dalmatia +and Bosnia. Agram is the principal railway centre, from which +lines radiate S. W. to Fiume, W. into Austria, N.N.E. to Warasdin +and into Hungary, and S.E. into Bosnia by way of Kostajnica. +The main line eastward from Agram passes through Brod, where it +meets the Bosnian system, and on to Belgrade; throwing out two +branch lines to Brčka and Šamac in Bosnia, and several branches +on the north, which traverse the central watershed, and cross the +Hungarian frontier at Zákány, Barcs, Esseg, Erdar and Peterwardein. +Above Agram the Save is used chiefly for floating rafts of timber; +east of Sissek it is navigable by small steamboats, but, despite its +great volume, the multitude of its perpetually shifting sandbanks +interferes greatly with traffic. Steamers also ply on the Una, the +Drave below Barcs, and the Danube. The marshes of Syrmia are +partially drained by the so-called “Canal of Probus,” the one large +artificial waterway in the country, said to have been cut by the +Romans in the 3rd century.</p> + +<p><i>Chief Towns</i>,—The principal towns are Agram, the capital, +with 61,002 inhabitants in 1900; Esseg, the capital of Slavonia +(24,930); Semlin (15,079); Mitrovica (11,518); Warasdin (12,930); +Karlstadt (7396); Brod (7310); Sissek (7047); Djakovo (6824); +Karlowitz (5643); Peterwardein (5019); Zengg (3182); and +Buccari (1870). These are described in separate articles. The +centre of the coasting trade is Novi, and other small seaports are +San Giorgio (<i>Sveto Juraj</i>), Porto Ré (<i>Kraljevica</i>) and Carlopago. +Agram, Gospić (10,799), Ogulin (8699), Warasdin and Bjelovar +(6056) are respectively the capitals of the five counties which belong +to Croatia proper,—Agram (Hung. <i>Zágráb</i>), Modruš-Fiume, Lika-Krbava, +Warasdin (<i>Varasd</i>) and Bjelovar (<i>Belovár-Körös</i>); while +the capitals of the three Slavonian counties, Virovitica (<i>Veröcze</i>), +Požega (<i>Pozsega</i>) and Syrmia (<i>Szerém</i>), are Esseg, Požega (5000) +and Semlin.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Population and National Characteristics</i>.—The population rose +from 1,892,499 in 1881 to 2,416,304 in 1900, an increase of +little less than one-third, resulting from a uniformly low death +rate, with a high marriage and birth rate, and characterized +by that preponderance of male over female children which is +common to all the South Slavonic lands. More than 75% of the +inhabitants are Croats, the bulk of the remainder being Serbs, +who predominate in eastern Slavonia. Outside Croatia-Slavonia, +the Croats occupy the greater part of Dalmatia and northern +Bosnia. There are large Croatian settlements in the south of +Hungary, and smaller colonies in Austria. The numbers of the +whole nation may be estimated at 3,500,000 or 4,000,000. The +distinction between Croats and Serbs is religious, and, to a less +extent, linguistic. Croats and Serbs together constitute a single +branch of the Slavonic race, frequently called the Serbo-Croatian +branch. The literary language of the two nations is identical, +but the Croats use the Latin alphabet,<a name="FnAnchor_3q" id="FnAnchor_3q" href="#Footnote_3q"><span class="sp">3</span></a> while the Serbs prefer +a modified form of the Cyrillic. The two nations have also been +politically separated since the 7th century, if not for a longer +period; but this division has produced little difference of +character or physical type. Even the costume of the Croatian +peasantry, to whom brilliant colours and intricate embroideries +are always dear, proclaims their racial identity with the Serbs; +their songs, dances and musical instruments, the chief part of +their customs and folk-lore, their whole manner of life, so little +changed by its closer contact with Western civilization, may +be studied in Servia (<i>q.v.</i>) itself. In both countries rural society +was based on the old-fashioned household community, or <i>zadruga</i>, +which still survives in the territories that formed the Military +Frontier, though everywhere tending to disappear and be +replaced by individual ownership. The Croatian peasantry +are least prosperous in the riverside districts, where marsh-fevers +prevail, and especially beside the Save. Even in many +of the towns the houses are mere cabins of wood and thatch. +As in Servia, there is practically no middle class between the +peasants and the educated minority; and the commercial +element consists to a great extent of foreigners, especially +Germans, Hungarians, Italians and Jews. Numerically this +alien population is insignificant. The Italians are chiefly +confined to the coast; the Germans congregate at Semlin and +Warasdin; the Slovenes are settled along the north-western +frontier, where they have introduced their language, and so +greatly modified the local dialect; the gipsies wander from city +to city, as horse-dealers, metal workers or musicians; there are +numerous Moravian and Bohemian settlements; and near +Mitrovica there is a colony of Albanians. It is impossible to +give accurate statistics of the alien population; for, in the +compilation of the official figures, language is taken as a test +of nationality, an utterly untrustworthy method in a country +where every educated person speaks two or three languages. +Croatian nationalists also maintain that official figures are +systematically altered in the Hungarian interest.</p> + +<p><i>Constitution and Government</i>.—By the fundamental law of the +21st of December 1867 Austria-Hungary was divided, for purposes +of internal government, into Cisleithania, or the Austrian +empire, and Transleithania, or the kingdoms of Hungary and +Croatia-Slavonia. In theory the viceroy, or <i>ban</i> of Croatia-Slavonia +is nominated by the crown, and enjoys almost unlimited +authority over local affairs; in practice the consent of the crown +is purely formal, and the <i>ban</i> is appointed by the Hungarian +premier, who can dismiss him at any moment. The provincial +government is subject to the <i>ban</i>, and comprises three ministries—the +interior, justice, and religion and education,—for whose +working the <i>ban</i> is responsible to the Hungarian premier, and to +the national assembly of Croatia-Slavonia (<i>Narodna Skupština</i>). +This body consists of a single chamber, composed partly of +elected deputies, partly of privileged members, whose numbers +cannot exceed half those of the deputies. There are 69 constituencies, +besides the 21 royal free cities which also return +deputies. Electors must belong to certain professions or pay a +small tax. The privileged members are the heads of the nobility, +with the highest ecclesiastics and officials. As a rule, they +represent the “Magyarist” section of society, which sympathizes +with Hungarian policy. The chamber deals with religion, +education, justice and certain strictly provincial affairs, but +even within this limited sphere all its important enactments +must be countersigned by the minister for Croatia-Slavonia, +a member, without portfolio, of the Hungarian cabinet. At +the polls, all votes are given orally, a system which facilitates +corruption; the officials who control the elections depend for +their livelihood on the <i>ban</i>, usually a Magyarist; and thus, +even apart from the privileged members, a majority favourable +to Hungary can usually be secured. The constitutional relations +between Hungary and Croatia-Slavonia are regulated by the +agreement, or <i>nagoda</i>, of 1868. This instrument determines the +functions of the <i>ban</i>; the control of common interests, such as +railways, posts, telegraphs, telephones, commerce, industry, +agriculture or forests; and the choice of delegates by the +chamber, to sit in the Hungarian parliament. See also below, +under <i>History</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For administrative purposes Croatia-Slavonia is divided into 8 +rural counties, already enumerated; besides the 4 urban counties, +or municipalities of Agram, Semlin, Warasdin and Esseg. +These are subdivided into rural and urban communes, +<span class="sidenote">Local administration.</span> +each with its representative council. The affairs of each +rural county are managed by an assembly chosen for 6 +years, which comprises not only elected members, but delegates +from all the cities except Agram and Esseg, with certain high +ecclesiastics and officials.</p> + +<p>The highest judicial authority is the supreme court or Septemviral +Table, which sits at Agram, and ranks above the royal +<span class="sidenote">Justice.</span> +courts of appeal, the county courts of first instance, +and the district courts or magistracies.</p> + +<p>Fully four-fifths of the population belong to the Roman Catholic +Church, which has an archbishop at Agram and bishops at Zengg +and Djakovo. There are about 12,000 Greek Catholics, +with a bishop at Kreuz (<i>Križevac</i>). The Serb congregations, +<span class="sidenote">Religion.</span> +who had previously been classed as Orthodox Greek, were +officially recognized as members of the Orthodox Church of Servia +after 1883. Their episcopal sees of Karlowitz and Pakrac depend +upon the metropolitanate of Belgrade; but from 1830 to 1838 +Karlowitz was itself the headquarters of the Servian Church.</p> + +<p>During the 19th century strenuous efforts to better the state of +education were made by Bishop Strossmayer (1815-1905) and other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474"></a>474</span> +reformers; but, although some success was achieved, only one-third +<span class="sidenote">Education.</span> +of the population could read and write in 1900. Foremost among the +educational institutions is the South Slavonic Academy +of Sciences and Arts (<i>Jugoslavenska Akademija Znanosti +i Umjetnosti</i>), founded by Strossmayer and others in +1867, as an improvement on a learned society which had existed +since 1836. The academy is the headquarters of the nationalist +propaganda. Its numerous publications, though sometimes biased +by political passion, throw much light on Serbo-Croatian history, +law, philology and kindred topics. Agram University, founded in +1874, possesses three faculties—theology, philosophy and law; +but, unlike other Hungarian universities, it lacks a faculty of medicine. +Its average number of students varies from 300 to 350. In +1900 there were also 19 <i>real-gymnasia</i>, teaching science, art and +modern languages, as well as classics and mathematics; 1400 +elementary schools; and a few special institutions, such as the naval +and military academies of Fiume, ecclesiastical seminaries and +commercial colleges. In almost every case the language of instruction +is Serbo-Croatian. The development of higher education, +without a corresponding advance of technical education, has created +an intellectual class, comprising many men of letters, and several +painters, musicians and sculptors, though none of great eminence; +it also tends to produce many aspirants to official or professional +careers, who find employment difficult to obtain. The want of a +strong native middle class may partly be traced to this tendency.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>History.</i></p> + +<p>Medieval historians did not use the terms Croatia and Slavonia +in their present sense. The Croatia of the middle ages comprised +north-western Bosnia, Turkish Croatia, and the region now +known as Upper Croatia. The whole country between the Drave +and Save, thus including a large part of modern Croatia, was +called in Latin <i>Slavonia</i>, in German <i>Windisches Land</i>, and in +Hungarian <i>Tótország</i>, to distinguish it from the territories in +which the Croats were racially supreme (<i>Horvátország</i>). At the +time of their conquest by the Romans (35 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) both these +divisions were occupied by the Pannonians, who in Slavonia had +displaced an older population, the Scordisci; and both were +included in the Roman province of Pannonia Inferior, although +Slavonia had the distinctive name of Pannonia Savia (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pannonia</a></span>). When the Roman dominions were broken up in +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 395, Croatia-Slavonia remained part of the Western empire. +The Ostrogoths overran it in 489; in 535 it was annexed by +Justinian; in 568 it was conquered by the Avars. These were +in turn expelled from Croatia by the Croats, a Slavonic people +from the western Carpathians, who, according to some authorities, +had occupied the territories of the Marcomanni in Bohemia, +and been driven thence in the 6th century by the Czechs. The +main body of the Croats, whose tribal and racial names respectively +are perpetuated in the names of Croatia and Slavonia, +entered Croatia between 634 and 638, and were encouraged by +the emperor Heraclius to attack the Avars. Smaller bodies had +led the way southwards since 548. The Croats formed the +western division of the great migratory horde of Serbo-Croats +which colonized the lands between Bulgaria and the Adriatic. +Contemporary chroniclers called them <i>Chrobati</i>, <i>Belochrobati</i> +(“White Croats”), <i>Chrovati</i>, <i>Horvati</i>, or by some similar Latin +or Byzantine variant of the Slavonic <i>Khrvaty</i>. The Croats +occupied most of the region now known as Croatia-Slavonia, +Dalmatia, and north-western Bosnia, displacing or absorbing +the earlier inhabitants everywhere except along the Dalmatian +littoral, where the Italian city-states usually maintained their +independence, and in certain districts of Slavonia, where, out +of a mixed population of Slavonic immigrants, Avars and +Pannonians, the Slavs, and especially the Serbo-Croats, gradually +became predominant. The Croats brought with them their +primitive tribal institutions, organized on a basis partly military, +partly patriarchal, and identical with the Zhupanates of the +Serbs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Servia</a></span>); agriculture, war and hunting were their +chief pursuits. Although they at first acknowledged no alien +sovereign, they passed gradually under Italian influence in the +extreme west, and under Byzantine influence in the south and +south-east. In 806 the northern and north-eastern districts +were added to the empire of the Franks, and thus won for the +Western Church. Frankish predominance was long commemorated +by the name Francochorion, given by the Byzantines +to Syrmia; it is still commemorated by the name Fruška Gora, +“Mountains of the Franks,” in that province.</p> + +<p><i>The Croatian Kingdom: c. 910-1091.</i>—In 877 the Croats +were temporarily subdued by the Byzantine emperor, but after +successive insurrections which tended to centralize their loosely +knit tribal organization, and to place all power in the hands of +a military chief, they regained their independence and founded +a national kingdom about 910. It is probable that Tomislav or +Timislav, who had led their armies to victory, assumed the title +of king in that year. Some authorities, however, state that +Tomislav only bore the title of <i>veliki župan</i> or “paramount chief,” +and was only one in a long line of princes which can be traced +without interruption back to 818. On this view, Držislav +(c. 978-1000) was the first king properly so called. But Tomislav, +whatever his official style, was certainly the first of a series of +independent national rulers which lasted for nearly two centuries. +The records of this period, regarded by many Croats as the golden +age of their country, are often scanty, and its chronology is still +unsettled. Little is known of Trpimir, who preceded Držislav, +or of Stephen I. (1035-1058), but a few of the kings gained a more +lasting fame by their success in war and diplomacy. Among +these were Krešimir I. (c. 940—946), his successor Miroslav, and +especially Krešimir II., surnamed the Great (c. 1000-1035), +who harried the Bulgarians, at that time a powerful nation, and +conquered a large part of Dalmatia, including some of the +Italian cities. Already, under his predecessors, the Croats had +built a fleet, which they used first for piracy and afterwards for +trade. Their skill in maritime affairs, exemplified first in the +9th century by the pagan corsairs of the Narenta (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dalmatia</a></span>: +<i>History</i>), and later by the numerous Dalmatian and Croatian +sailors who served in the navies of Venice and Austria, is remarkable +in a Slavonic people, and one which had so recently migrated +from central Europe. At the end of the 10th century they even +for a short period exacted tribute from Venice, but their power +was temporarily destroyed in 1000, when the Venetians captured +and sacked Biograd or Belgrade, the Italian Zaravecchia. This +Dalmatian port was not only the Croatian arsenal, but the seat +of the kings, who here sought to enhance their dignity by borrowing +the grandiose titles and elaborate procedure of the Byzantine +court. Krešimir II. and Krešimir Peter (c. 1058-1073), the hero +of many national legends and lays, restored the naval power of +the Croats. After the death of Krešimir Peter, Slavic or Slaviža +reigned until 1076, when he was succeeded by Zvonimir (Svinimir +or Zvoinimir) Demetrius. Zvonimir was crowned by the legate +of Pope Gregory VII, and appears to have been regarded as a +vassal of the papacy. Both he and Stephen II., a nephew of +Krešimir II., died in 1089.</p> + +<p><i>Hungarian Supremacy: 1091-c. 1526.</i>—Amid the strife of +rival claimants to the throne, Helena, the widow of Stephen, +appealed for aid to her brother Ladislaus I., king of Hungary. +Ladislaus took possession of the country in 1091. He founded +the bishopric of Agram and introduced Hungarian law. His +death in 1095 was the signal for a nationalist insurrection, but +after two years the rebels were crushed by his successor Coloman. +This monarch reorganized the administration on a system which +has been maintained, with modifications in detail, by almost +all subsequent rulers. He respected the existing institutions of +the conquered territory so far as to leave its autonomy in domestic +affairs intact; but delegated his own sovereignty, and especially +the control of foreign affairs and war, to a governor known as +the ban (<i>q.v.</i>). This office was sometimes held by princes of +the royal house, often by Croatian nobles. Coloman also +extended his authority over Dalmatia and the islands of the +Quarnero, but the best modern authorities reject the tradition +that in 1102 he was crowned king of Croatia, Slavonia and +Dalmatia. In 1127 Syrmia, which had been annexed to Bulgaria +from about 700 to 1018, and to the Eastern empire from 1019, +was united to Slavonia. The Hungarian government left much +liberty to the Croatian nobles, a turbulent and fanatical class, +ever ready for civil war, rebellion or a campaign against the +Bosnian heretics. Their most powerful leaders were the counts +of Zrin and Bribir (or Brebir), whose surname was Šubić. This +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475"></a>475</span> +family played an important part in local politics from the 13th +century to 1670, when Peter Šubić was its last member to hold +the office of ban. Paul Šubić (d. 1312) and Mladen Šubić (d. 1322) +even for a short period united Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia and part +of Dalmatia under their own rule. From 1322 to 1326 the +Croatian nobles successfully withstood the armies of Hungary +and Bosnia; from 1337 to 1340, instigated by the Vatican, they +carried on a crusade against the Bosnian Bogomils; and in the +Krajina (Turkish Croatia) hostilities were resumed at intervals +until the Turkish conquest.</p> + +<p><i>The Turkish Occupation: c. 1526-1718.</i>—Here, as elsewhere, +the Ottoman invasion was facilitated by the feuds of the Christian +sects. When King Matthias Corvinus undertook to defend +Slavonia in 1490 it was too late; Matthias lost Syrmia and died +in the same year. His successor Ladislaus of Poland (1490-1516) +added Slavonia to the kingdoms named in the royal title, which +now included the words “King of Dalmatia and Croatia and +Slavonia” (<i>Rex Dalmatiae et Croatiae et Slavoniae</i>). But he +failed to repel the Turks, who in 1526 destroyed the power of +Hungary at the battle of Mohács. In 1527 the Croats were +compelled to swear allegiance to Ferdinand I. of Austria, who +had been elected king of Hungary. Ferdinand founded the +generalcy of Karlstadt and thus laid the foundation of the +military frontier. The provinces of Agram, Warasdin and +Kreutz, previously included in Slavonia, were added to Croatia, +to counterbalance the loss of territory in the Krajina. Throughout +the century the Turks continued to extend their conquests +until, in 1606, the emperor retained only western Croatia, with +the cities of Agram, Karlstadt, Warasdin and Zengg. During +the same period the doctrines of the Reformation had spread +among the Croats; but they were forcibly suppressed in 1607-1610. +The military occupation by the Turks left little permanent +impression; colonization was never attempted; and the +continuous wars by which the victors strove to secure or enlarge +their dominions north of the Save left no time for the introduction +of Moslem religion or civilization among the vanquished. Thus +in the reconquest of Croatia-Slavonia there was none of the +local opposition which afterwards hindered the Austrian occupation +of Bosnia. The successes of Prince Eugene in 1697 led +two years later to the peace of Carlowitz, by which the Turks +ceded the greater part of Slavonia and Hungary to Austria; +and the remainder was surrendered in 1718 by the treaty of +Passarowitz. Only Turkish Croatia henceforth remained part of +the Ottoman empire.</p> + +<p><i>Austrian and French Supremacy: 1718-1814.</i>—Austrian +influence predominated throughout Croatia-Slavonia during +most of the 18th century, although Slavonia was constitutionally +regarded as belonging to Hungary. Despite Magyar protests +the misleading name “Croatia” was popularly and even in +official documents applied to the whole country, including the +purely Slavonian provinces of Virovitica, Požega and Syrmia. +From 1767 to 1777 Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia were collectively +named Illyria, and governed from Vienna, but each of +these divisions was subsequently declared a separate kingdom, +with a separate administration, while the military frontier +remained under military rule. In 1776 the Croatian seaboard, +which had previously been under the same administration as +the rest of the Austrian coast, was annexed to Croatia, but three +years later Fiume was declared an integral part of Hungary. +These administrative changes, and especially the brief existence +of united “Illyria,” stimulated the dormant nationalism of the +Croats and their jealousy of the Magyars. In 1809 Austria +was forced to surrender to Napoleon a large part of Croatia, +with Dalmatia, Istria, Carinthia, Carniola, Görz and Gradisca. +These territories received the name of the Illyrian Provinces, +and remained under French rule until 1813. All the Croats +capable of service were enrolled under the French flag; their +country was divided for administrative purposes into <i>Croatie +civile</i> and <i>Croatie militaire</i>. In 1814 Dalmatia was incorporated +in Austria, while Istria, Carinthia, Carniola, Görz and Gradisca +became the Illyrian kingdom of Austria, and retained their +united government until 1849. Croatia and Slavonia were +declared appanages of the Hungarian crown—<i>partes adnexae</i>, +or subject provinces, according to the Magyars; <i>regna socia</i>, +or allied kingdoms, according to their own view. Each phrase +afterwards became the watchword of a political party: neither +is accurate. The Croats preserved their local autonomy, the +use of their language for official purposes, their elected diet and +other ancient institutions, but Hungarian control was represented +by the ban.</p> + +<p><i>The National Revival.</i>—The Croats acquiesced in their position +of inferiority until 1840, when the Magyars endeavoured to +introduce Hungarian as the official language. A nationalist +or “Illyrist” party was formed under Count Drašković and +Bishop J. Strossmayer (<i>q.v.</i>) to combat Hungarian influence +and promote the union of the “Illyrian” Slavs, <i>i.e.</i> the Slovenes, +Croats and Serbs. Ljudevit Gaj, the leading Croatian publicist, +strongly supported the movement. The elections of 1842 were +marked by a series of sanguinary conflicts between Illyrists +and Magyarists, but not until 1848 were the Illyrists returned to +office. One of their leaders, Baron Josef Jellachich, was appointed +ban in 1848. He strongly advocated the union of Croatia with +Carinthia, Carniola and Styria, but found his policy thwarted +as much by the apathy of the Slovenes as by the hostility of the +Magyars. A Croatian deputation was received at Innsbruck +by Ferdinand V., but before its arrival the Hungarians had +obtained a royal manifesto hostile to Illyrism. But failure only +increased the agitation among the southern Slavs; all attempts +at mediation proved unsuccessful, and on the 31st of August +the Croats claimed to have convinced the king that justice was +on their side. On the 11th of September the advance-guard of +their army crossed the Drave under the command of Jellachich. +On the 29th they were driven back from Pákozd by the +Hungarians, and retired towards Vienna; they subsequently +aided the Austrian army against the Hungarian revolutionaries +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jellachich, Josef</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>). The constitution +of 1849 proclaimed Croatia and Slavonia separated from +Hungary and united as a single Austrian crownland, to which +was annexed the Croatian littoral, including Fiume. Austrian +supremacy lasted until 1867; no ban was appointed, and owing +to the suspension of local autonomy from 1850 to 1860 this +period is known as “the ten years of reaction.” It was ended +by the celebrated “October Diploma” of the 20th of October +1860, which promised the restoration of constitutional liberty. +But the so-called “Constitution of February” (21st February +1861) placed all practical power in the hands of an executive +controlled by the government at Vienna. The newly elected +diet was soon dissolved for its advocacy of a great South Slavonic +confederation under imperial rule, and no other was elected +until 1865.</p> + +<p>From 1865 to 1867 Strossmayer and the nationalists endeavoured +to secure the formation of a subordinate Austrian +kingdom comprising Dalmatia, Croatia-Slavonia and the +islands of the Quarnero. The Magyars had, however, resolved +to subject Croatia-Slavonia to the crown of St Stephen, and in +1867 had secured control of the finances and electoral machinery. +The office of ban was revived, and its holder, Baron Levin Rauch, +was an ardent Magyarist. At the elections of December 1867 +a majority of Hungarian partisans was easily obtained, and +on the 29th of January the diet passed a resolution in favour +of reunion with Hungary. The whole Opposition refused to +take any part in the proceedings, as a protest against the alleged +illegality of the elections; but by the 25th of June the Croatian +commissioners and the Hungarian government had framed a +new constitution, which was ratified in September. Besides +substituting Hungarian for Austrian sovereignty, it provided +that the diet and the ban should control local affairs, subject +to the Croatian minister in the Hungarian cabinet, and that +Croatia-Slavonia should pay 55% of its revenue to Hungary for +mutual and imperial expenses, but should be represented in +the Hungarian parliament by thirty-six delegates, and should +continue to use Serbo-Croatian as the official language. Hungary +guaranteed that the 45% retained by the territorial government +should be not less than two and a half million gulden (£250,000). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476"></a>476</span> +In May 1870 Fiume was annexed to Hungary, but in 1873 the +Croats received as compensation an increase of their guaranteed +revenue to £350,000, an addition of seven to the number of their +representatives at Budapest, and a promise that the military +frontier should be incorporated in the existing civil provinces. +In 1877 a convention with Hungary regulated the control of +public estates in the military frontier, and on the 15th of July +1881 the frontier, including the district of Sichelburg claimed +by Carniola, was handed over to the local administration.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the events of 1875-1878 in the Balkans, culminating +in the Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, revived +the agitation for a “Great Croatia.” A party separate from +the regular Opposition, and known as the “Party of the Right,” +was formed to oppose the Magyarists. Its activity resulted +in the riots of 1883, which were with difficulty quelled; in 1885 +its leader, N. Starčević, was condemned to imprisonment for +the violence of his speeches against the ban, Count Khuen-Héderváry. +In 1888 the moderate Opposition also lost its +leader, Bishop Strossmayer, who was censured by the king on +account of his famous Panslavist telegram to the Russian Church +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strossmayer</a></span>). In 1889 the financial agreement with +Hungary was revised and the contribution of Croatia-Slavonia +to the expenses shared with Hungary or common to the whole +of the Dual Monarchy was raised by 1%. This added +burden combined with bad harvests, a fall in the revenue and a +deficit in the budget to heighten popular discontent. Count +Khuen-Héderváry was responsible for several administrative +improvements, but the prosperity of the country declined from +year to year. The government was accused of illegal interference +with the elections, with the use of the Hungarian arms +and language in official documents, and with undue harshness +in the censorship of the press. In May 1903 there were outbreaks +of rioting in Agram, Sissek and other towns, besides serious +agrarian disturbances directed against the Magyarist landowners; +in a debate in the Reichsrath (18th May) an Austrian +deputy named Bianchini unsuccessfully attempted to induce the +imperial government to intervene. At the end of June Count +Khuen-Héderváry was made Hungarian prime minister; Count +T. Pejačević succeeded him as ban, and restored quiet by +promising freedom of assembly and greater liberty of the press. +Since 1898 the financial agreement had only been renewed from +year to year. But the estimates for 1904 revealed another +heavy deficit; and this was only paid by Hungary on condition +that the agreement should be renewed until the 31st of December +1913, and the contribution of 56% maintained.</p> + +<p>The constitutional crisis of 1905 in Hungary stimulated the +nationalist agitation. A congress of Croatian and Dalmatian +deputies met at Spalato to advocate Serbo-Croatian unity, and +in 1906 the municipality of Agram endeavoured to petition the +king in favour of union with Bosnia and Herzegovina. This +propaganda was severely discouraged. Baron Rauch, appointed +ban in 1908, refused to summon the diet, in which he could not +command a single vote, and much excitement was caused in 1909 +by the trial of 57 nationalist leaders for high treason. The policy +of the nationalists, who now aimed at the political union, under +the king-emperor, of all Serbo-Croats in Austria-Hungary—upwards +of 4,500,000—was less visionary than the older Illyrism, +and less aggressively Panslavist. It no longer sought to +include Carinthia, Carniola and Styria in the proposed +“Great Croatia.” It was opposed by Austria as tending to +create a new and formidable Slavonic nation within the Dual +Monarchy, and by Hungary as a menace to Magyar predominance +in Transleithania.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Language and Literature.</i></p> + +<p>For the place of the Croatian dialects among Slavonic +languages generally, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Slavs</a></span>. The Croatian dialects, like +the Servian, have gradually developed from the Old Slavonic, +which survives in medieval liturgies and biblical or apocryphal +writings. The course of this development was similar in both +cases, except that the Croats, owing to their dependence on +Austria-Hungary, were not so deeply influenced as the Serbs by +Byzantine culture in the middle ages, and by Russian linguistic +forms and Russian ideas in modern times. The Orthodox Serbs, +moreover, use a modified form of the Cyrillic alphabet, while +the Roman Catholic Croats use Latin characters, except in a +few liturgical books which are written in the ancient Glagolitic +script. As the literary language of both nations is now practically +the same, and is, indeed, commonly known as “Serbo-Croatian,” +the reader may be referred to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Servia</a></span>: +<i>Language and Literature</i>, for an account of its history, of its +chief literary monuments up to the 19th century and inclusive +of Dalmatian literature, and of the principal differences between +the dialects spoken in Servia and Croatia-Slavonia.</p> + +<p>The three most important Croatian dialects are known as +the <i>Čakavci</i>, <i>Čakavština</i> or, in Servian, <i>Chakavski</i>, spoken along +the Adriatic littoral; the <i>Štokavci</i> (<i>Štokavština</i>, <i>Shtokavski</i>), +spoken in Servia and elsewhere in the north-west of the Balkan +Peninsula; and the <i>Kajkavci</i> (<i>Kajkavština</i>, <i>Kaykavski</i>), spoken +by the partly Slovene population of the districts of Agram, +Warasdin and Kreuz. This classification is based on the form, +varying in different localities, of the pronoun <i>ča</i>, <i>što</i>, or <i>kaj</i>, +meaning “what.”</p> + +<p>The Cakavci literature includes most of the works of the +Dalmatian writers of the 15th and 16th centuries—the golden +age of Serbo-Croatian literature. Its history is indissolubly +interwoven with that of the Štokavci, which ultimately superseded +it, and became the literary language of all the Serbo-Croats, +as it had long been the language of the best national +ballads and legends.</p> + +<p>Kajkavci had from about 1550 to 1830 a distinctive literature, +consisting of chronicles and histories, poems of a religious or +educational character, fables and moral tales. These writings +possess more philological interest than literary merit, and are +hardly known outside Croatia-Slavonia and the Slovene districts +of Austria.</p> + +<p>Apart from the Kajkavci dialect, the whole body of Serbo-Croatian +literature up to the 19th century may justly be regarded +as the common heritage of Serbs and Croats. The linguistic +and literary reforms which Dossitey Obradovich and Vuk +Stefanovich Karajich carried out in Servia about the close of +this period helped to stimulate among the Croats a new interest +in their national history, their traditions, folk-songs and folk-tales. +One result of this nationalist revival was the unsuccessful +attempt made between 1814 and 1830 to raise the Čakavci +dialect to the rank of a distinctive literary language for Croatia-Slavonia; +but the Illyrist movement of 1840 led to the adoption +of the Štokavci, which was already the vernacular of the majority +of Serbo-Croats. Ljudevit Gaj (1809-1872), though he failed +to create an artificial literary language by the fusion of the +principal dialects spoken by Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, was +by his championship of Illyrism instrumental in securing the +triumph of the Štokavci. Gaj was a poet of considerable talent, +and one of the founders of Croatian journalism. Among other +writers of the first half of the 19th century may be mentioned +Ivan Mažuranić (1813-1890), whose first poems were published +in the <i>Danica ilirska</i> (“Illyrian Dawnstar”), a journal founded +and for a time edited by Gaj. In 1846 Mažuranić published his +<i>Smrt Smail Aga Čengića</i> (“Death of Ismail Aga Čengić”), +called by Serbo-Croats the “Epos of Hate.” This remarkable +poem, written in the metre of the old Servian ballads, gives a +vivid description of life in Bosnia under Turkish rule, and of the +hereditary border feuds between Christians and Moslems. In +later life Mažuranić distinguished himself as a statesman, and +became ban of Croatia from 1873 to 1880. Other writers representative +of Croatian literature before 1867 were the lyric poet +Stanko Vraz (1810-1851) and Dragutin Rakovac (1813-1854), +the author of many patriotic songs.</p> + +<p>With the foundation of the South Slavonic Academy at Agram, +in 1867, the study of science and history received a new impetus. +Under the presidency of Franko Rački (1825-1894) the academy, +with its journal the <i>Rad jugoskovenske Akademije</i>, became the +headquarters of an active group of savants, among whom may +be mentioned Vastroslav Jagić (b. 1838), sometime editor of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477"></a>477</span> +<i>Archiv für slavische Philologie</i>; the historians Šime Ljubić +(1822-1896) and Vjekoslav Klaić, author of several standard +works on Croatia and the Croats; the lexicographer Bogoslav +Šulek (1816-1895); the ethnographer and philologist Franko +Karelac (1811-1874). In Dalmatia, where the Ragusan journal +<i>Slovinac</i> has served, like the Agram <i>Rad</i>, as a focus of literary +activity, there have been numerous poets and prose writers, +associated, in many cases, with the Illyrist or the nationalist +propaganda. Among these may be mentioned Count Medo +Pučić (1821-1882), and the dramatist Matija Ban (1818-1903), +whose tragedy <i>Meyrimah</i> is considered by many the finest +dramatic poem in the Serbo-Croatian language.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—For the topography, products, inhabitants and +modern condition of Croatia-Slavonia, see <i>Bau und Bild Österreichs</i>, +by C. Diener, F. E. Suess, R. Hoernes and V. Uhlig (Leipzig, 1903); +<i>Die österreich-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild</i>, vol. xxiv., +edited by J. von Weilen (Vienna, 1902); <i>Führer durch Ungarn, +Kroatien und Slawonien</i>, by B. Alföldi (Vienna, 1900); <i>Reiseführer +durch Kroatien und Slawonien</i>, by A. Lukšić (Agram, 1893); <i>Vegetationsverhältnisse +von Kroatien</i>, by A. Neilreich (Vienna, 1868); +“Die Slowenen,” by J. Šuman, and “Die Kroaten,” by F. Staré, +in vol. x. of <i>Die Völker Österreich-Ungarns</i> (Vienna, 1881-1882); +<i>Die Serbokroaten der adriatischen Küstenländer</i>, by A. Weisbach +(Berlin, 1884); and the map <i>Zemljovid Hrvatske i Slavonije</i>, by +M. Katzenschläger (Vienna, 1895). The only detailed history is one +in Serbo-Croatian, written by a succession of the highest native +authorities, and published by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, +from 1861). It is largely based on the following works: <i>Vetera +monumenta historica Hungariam sacram illustrantia</i>, containing +documents from the Vatican library edited by A. Theiner (Rome, +1860); <i>Vetera monumenta historiam Slavorum meridionalium +illustrantia</i>, published by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, +1863, &c.); <i>Jura regni Croatiae, Dalmatiae, et Slavoniae cum privilegiis</i>, +by J. Kukuljević (Agram, 1861-1862); <i>Monumenta historica +Slavorum meridionalium</i>, by V. Makushev, in Latin and Italian, +with notes in Slavonic (Belgrade, 1885); <i>De regno Dalmatiae et +Croatiae</i>, by G. Lucio (Amsterdam, 1666; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dalmatia</a></span>, under +bibliography); <i>Regno degli Slavi</i>, by M. Orbini (Pesaro, 1601); +and, for ecclesiastical history, <i>Illyricum sacrum</i>, by D. Farlatus and +others (Venice, 1751-1819). See also <i>Hrvatska i Hrvati</i>, by V. Klaić +(Agram, 1890, &c.); and <i>Slawonien vom 10. bis zum 13. Jahrhundert</i>, +translated from the Serbo-Croatian of Klaić by J. von Vojničić +(Agram, 1882).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. G. J.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1q" id="Footnote_1q" href="#FnAnchor_1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Also written <i>Sirmia</i> and <i>Sirmium</i>; Serbo-Croatian <i>Sriem</i>; +Hungarian <i>Szerém</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2q" id="Footnote_2q" href="#FnAnchor_2q"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It is impossible to exclude Fiume from any survey of Croatian +trade, although Fiume belongs politically to Hungary proper, and +is the main outlet for Hungarian emigration and maritime commerce.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3q" id="Footnote_3q" href="#FnAnchor_3q"><span class="fn">3</span></a> It is important to notice the value of the following letters and +signs, which recur frequently:—<i>c</i> = <i>ts</i>; <i>č</i> = <i>ch</i> (hard); <i>ć</i> = <i>ch</i> (soft); +<i>j</i> = y, or j in German; <i>š</i> = <i>sh</i>; <i>ž</i> = <i>zh</i>, or <i>j</i> in French.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CROCIDOLITE,<a name="ar289" id="ar289"></a></span> a mineral described in 1815 by M. H. Klaproth +under the name <i>Blaueisenstein</i> (blue ironstone), and in 1831 +by J. F. Hausmann, who gave it its present name on account of +its nap-like appearance (Gr. <span class="grk" title="krokus">κροκύς</span>, nap of cloth). It is a blue +fibrous mineral belonging to the amphibole group and closely +related to riebeckite; chemically it is an iron sodium silicate. +Its resemblance to asbestos has gained for it the name Cape +Asbestos, the chief occurrence being in Cape Colony. The +mineral suffers alteration by removal of alkali and peroxidation +of the ferrous iron, and further by deposition of silica between +the fibres, or by their replacement by silica; a hard siliceous +mineral is thus formed which when polished shows, in consequence +of its fibrous structure, a beautiful chatoyance or silky +lustre. This is the ornamental stone which is known when blue +as “hawk’s-eye,” and when of rich golden brown colour as +“tiger-eye.” The latter, which represents the final alteration +of the crocidolite, has become very fashionable as “South +African cat’s eye,” and is often termed “crocidolite,” though +practically only a mixture of quartz with brown oxide of iron. +The following are analyses by A. Renard and C. Klement of the +unaltered crocidolite and of the blue and brown products of +alteration:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb tb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Crocidolite.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hawk’s-eye.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Tiger-eye.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Silica</td> <td class="tcc rb">51.89 </td> <td class="tcc rb">93.45 </td> <td class="tcc rb">93.05 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ferric oxide</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.22 </td> <td class="tcc rb">2.41</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.94</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alumina</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.66</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ferrous oxide</td> <td class="tcc rb">17.53 </td> <td class="tcc rb">1.43</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Magnesia</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.43</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.22</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.26</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lime</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.40</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.13</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.44</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Soda</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.71</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Potash</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.15</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Water</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.36</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.82</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.76</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcc allb">101.69 </td> <td class="tcc allb">98.69 </td> <td class="tcc allb">100.11 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Another alteration product of the crocidolite, consisting of +silica and ferric hydrate, has been called griqualandite. Crocidolite +and the minerals resulting from its alteration occur in +seams, associated with magnetite and other iron-ores, in the +jasper-slates of the Asbestos Mountains in Griqualand West, +Cape Colony. It is known also from a few other localities, but +only in subordinate quantity. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cat’s-Eye</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CROCKET<a name="ar290" id="ar290"></a></span> (Ital. <i>uncinetti</i>, Fr. <i>crochet</i>, <i>crosse</i>, Ger. <i>Häklein</i>, +<i>Knollen</i>), in architecture, an ornament running up the sides of +gablets, hood-moulds, pinnacles, spires; generally a winding +stem like a creeping plant, with flowers or leaves projecting at +intervals, and terminating in a finial.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CROCKETT, DAVID<a name="ar291" id="ar291"></a></span> (1786-1836), American frontiersman, +was born in Greene county, Tennessee, on the 17th of August +1786. His education was obtained chiefly in the rough school +of experience in the Tennessee backwoods, where he acquired +a wide reputation as a hunter, trapper and marksman. In 1813-1814 +he served in the Creek War under Andrew Jackson, and +subsequently became a colonel in the Tennessee militia. In +1821-1824 he was a member of the state legislature, having won +his election not by political speeches but by telling stories. In +1827 he was elected to the national House of Representatives as +a Jackson Democrat, and was re-elected in 1829. At Washington +his shrewdness, eccentric manners and peculiar wit made him +a conspicuous figure, but he was too independent to be a supporter +of all Jackson’s measures, and his opposition to the +president’s Indian policy led to administration influences being +turned against him with the result that he was defeated for +re-election in 1831. He was again elected in 1833, but in 1835 +lost his seat a second time, being then a vigorous opponent +of many distinctively Jacksonian measures. Discouraged and +disgusted, he left his native state, and emigrated to Texas, then +engaged in its struggle for independence. There he lost his life +as one of the defenders of the Alamo at San Antonio on the 6th +of March 1836.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A so-called “autobiography,” which he very probably dictated +or at least authorized, was published in Philadelphia in 1834; a +work purporting to be a continuation of this autobiography and +entitled <i>Colonel Crockett’s Exploits and Adventures in Texas</i> (Philadelphia, +1836) is undoubtedly spurious. These two works were +subsequently combined in a single volume, of which there have been +several editions. Numerous popular biographies have been written, +the best by E. S. Ellis (Philadelphia, 1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CROCKETT, SAMUEL RUTHERFORD<a name="ar292" id="ar292"></a></span> (1860-  ), Scottish +novelist, was born at Duchrae, Galloway, on the 24th of +September 1860, the son of a Galloway farmer. He was brought +up on a Galloway farm, and graduated from Edinburgh University +in 1879. After some years of travel he became in 1886 minister +of Penicuik, but eventually abandoned the Free Church ministry +for novel-writing. The success of Mr J. M. Barrie had created +a demand for stories in the Scottish dialect when Mr Crockett +published his successful story of <i>The Stickit Minister</i> in 1893. +It was followed by a rapidly produced series of popular novels +dealing often with the past history of Scotland, or with his native +Galloway. Such are <i>The Raiders</i>, <i>The Lilac Sun-bonnet</i> and +<i>Mad Sir Uchtred</i> in 1894; <i>The Men of the Moss Hags</i> in 1895; +<i>Cleg Kelly</i> and <i>The Grey Man</i> in 1896; <i>The Surprising Adventures +of Sir Toady Lion</i> (1897); <i>The Red Axe</i> (1898); <i>Kit +Kennedy</i> (1899); <i>Joan of the Sword Hand</i> and <i>Little Anna Mark</i> +in 1900; <i>Flower o’ the Corn</i> (1902); <i>Red Cap Tales</i> (1904), &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CROCKFORD, WILLIAM<a name="ar293" id="ar293"></a></span> (1775-1844), proprietor of Crockford’s +Club, was born in London in 1775, the son of a fishmonger, +and for some time himself carried on that business. After +winning a large sum of money—according to one story £100,000—either +at cards or by running a gambling establishment, he +built, in 1827, a luxurious gambling house at 50 St James’s +Street, which, to ensure exclusiveness, he organized as a club. +Crockford’s quickly became the rage; every English social +celebrity and every distinguished foreigner visiting London +hastened to become a member. Even the duke of Wellington +joined, though, it is averred, only in order to be able to blackball +his son, Lord Douro, should he seek election. Hazard was the +favourite game, and very large sums changed hands. Crockford +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478"></a>478</span> +retired in 1840, when, in the expressive language of Captain R. H. +Gronow, he had “won the whole of the ready money of the +then existing generation.” He took, indeed, about £1,200,000 +out of the club, but subsequently lost most of it in unlucky +speculations. Crockford died on the 24th of May 1844.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See John Timbs, <i>Club Life of London</i> (London, 1866); Gronow, +<i>Celebrities of London and Paris</i>, 3rd series (London, 1865).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CROCODILE,<a name="ar294" id="ar294"></a></span> a name for certain reptiles, taken from ancient +Gr. <span class="grk" title="kordylos">κορδύλος</span>, signifying lizard and newt; with reduplication +<span class="grk" title="korkordylos">κορκορδύλος</span>, and by metathesis ultimately <span class="grk" title="krokodeilos">κροκόδειλος</span>. Herodotus +makes mention of them, and tells us that the Egyptian +name was <i>champsa</i>. The Arabic term is <i>ledschun</i>. The same +root <i>kar</i> leads through something like <i>kar-kar-ta</i>, <i>glakarta</i> +(<i>glazard</i> in Breton), to <i>lacerta</i> and to “lizard.” Lacerta in turn +has become, in Spanish, <i>lagarto</i>, which, with the article, <i>el lagarto</i>, +is the origin of the term “alligator.” This word is, however, +artificial, although now widely used; Spanish and Portuguese-speaking +people in America universally call the crocodile and the +alligator simply <i>lagarto</i>, which is never intended for lizard.</p> + +<p>The Crocodilia form a separate order of reptiles with many +peculiarities. The premaxillae are short and always enclose the +nostrils. The posterior nares or choanae open far behind in the +roof of the mouth, in recent forms within the pterygoids. The +under jaws are hinged on to the quadrate bones, which extend +obliquely backwards, and are immovably wedged in between the +squamosal and the lateral occipital wings. The teeth form a +complete series in the under jaw, and in the upper jaw on the +premaxillary and maxillary bones. They are conical and deeply +implanted in separate sockets. They are often shed throughout +life, the successors lying on the inner side, and with their caps +partly fitting into the wide open roots of the older teeth. Especially +in alligators the upper teeth overlap laterally those of the +lower jaw, whilst in most crocodiles the overlapping is less +marked and the teeth mostly interlock, a feature which increases +with the slenderness of the snout. In old specimens some +of the longer, lower teeth work their tips into deep pits, and +ultimately even perforate the corresponding parts of the upper +jaw. The first and second vertebrae each have a pair of long, +movable ribs. There is a compound abdominal sternum. The +so-called pubic bones are large and movable. There are five +fingers and four toes, provided with claws, excepting the outer +digits.</p> + +<p>The tongue is flat and thick, attached by its whole under +surface; its hinder margin is raised into a transverse fold, +which, by meeting a similar fold from the palate, can shut off the +mouth completely from the wide cavity of the throat. Dorsally +the posterior nares open into this cavity. Consequently the +beast can lie submerged in the water, with only the nostrils +exposed, and with the mouth open, and breathe without water +entering the windpipe. Within the glottis is a pair of membranous +folds which serve as vocal cords; all the Crocodilia are possessed +of a loud, bellowing voice.</p> + +<p>The stomach is globular, rather muscular, with a pair of +tendinous centres like those of birds; its size is comparatively +small, but the digestion is so rapid and powerful that every +bone of the creature’s prey is dissolved whilst still being stowed +away in the wide and long gullet. The anal opening forms a +longitudinal slit; within it, arising from its anterior corner, +is the unpaired copulatory organ. The vascular system has +attained the highest state of development of all reptiles. The +heart is practically quadrilocular, the right and left halves being +completely partitioned, except for a small communication, the +<i>foramen Panizzae</i>, between the right and left aortae where these +cross each other on leaving their respective ventricles. The outer +ear lies in a recess which can be closed tightly by a dorsal flap of +skin. The power of hearing is acute, and so is the sight, the +eyes being protected by upper and lower lids and by a nictitating +membrane. The skin of the whole body is scaly, with a hard, +horny, waterproof covering of the epidermis, but between these +mostly flat scales the skin is soft. The scutes or dermal portions +of the scales are more or less ossified, especially on the back, +and form the characteristic dermal armour. The skins or +“hides” of commerce consist entirely of the tanned cutis minus, +the epidermis and the horny coverings of the scutes. All the +Crocodilia possess two pairs of musk-glands in the skin; one is +situated on the inner side of the lower jaw. The opening of the +glands is slit-like and leads into a pocket, which is filled with a +smeary, strongly scented matter. The other pair lies just within +the lips of the cloacal opening.</p> + +<p>Propagation takes place by eggs, which are oval, quite white, +with a very hard and strong shell. Their size varies from 2 to +4 in. in length, according to the size of the species and the age +of the female. She lays several dozen eggs in a carefully prepared +nest. The Nile crocodile makes a hole in white sand, which is then +filled up and smoothed over; the mother sleeps upon the nest, +and keeps watch over her eggs, and when these are near hatching—after +about twelve weeks—she removes the 18 in. or 2 ft. of +sand. Other species, especially the alligators, make a very large +nest of leaves, twigs and humus, scraping together a mound +about a yard high and two or more yards in diameter. The +eggs, in several layers, are laid near the top. The adults frequently +dig long subterranean passages into the banks of streams, +and, during dry seasons, they have been found deep in the +hardened mud, whence they emerge with the beginning of the +rains. They spend most of their time in the water, but are also +very fond of basking in the hot sun on the banks of rivers or in +marshes, usually with the head turned towards the water, to +which they take on the slightest alarm. They can walk perfectly +well, and they do so deliberately with the whole body raised a +little above the ground. When their pools dry up, or when in +search of new hunting-grounds, they sometimes undertake long +wanderings over land. But the water is their true element. +They swim rapidly, propelled by the powerful tail and by the +mostly webbed limbs, or they submerge themselves, with only the +tip of the nose and the eyes showing, or sometimes also the back. +They then look like floating logs; and thus they float or gently +approach their prey, which consists of anything they can overpower. +Many a large mammal coming to drink at its accustomed +place is dragged into the water by the lurking monster. Certainly +there are occasional man-eaters amongst them, and in some +countries they are much feared. As a rule, however, they are +so wary and suspicious that they are very difficult to approach, +and their haunts are so well stocked with fish and other game that +they make off and hide rather than attack a man swimming +in their waters. But if a dog is sent in there will be a sudden yelp, +the splash from a big tail, and a widening eddy.</p> + +<p>Crocodile stories, not all fabulous, are plentiful, and begin +with one of the oldest writings in the world, the book of Job. +“Canst thou draw leviathan with a hook? or his tongue with +a cord which thou lettest down?... Lay thine hand upon him, +remember the battle, do no more.” This is a very interesting +passage, since it can apply only to a large-sized crocodile. Now +nothing is known of the occurrence of such in Arabia, but a few +specimens of rather small size seem still to exist in Syria, in the +Wadi Zerka, an eastern tributary of the Jordan.</p> + +<p>Crocodiles are caught in various ways,—for instance, with +two pointed sticks, which are fastened crosswise within the bait, +an animal’s entrails, to which is attached a rope. When the +creature has swallowed the spiked bait it keeps its jaws so firmly +closed that it can be dragged out of the water. A kind of plover, +<i>Pluvianus aegyptius</i>, often sits upon basking crocodiles, and, +since the latter often rest with gaping mouth, it is possible that +these agile birds do pick the reptiles’ teeth in search of parasites. +Being a very watchful bird, its cry of warning, when it flies off +on the approach of danger, is probably appreciated by the +crocodile. But the story of the ichneumon or mongoose is a +fable. Although an inveterate destroyer of eggs, this little +creature prefers those of birds and the soft-shelled eggs of lizards +to the very hard and strong-shelled eggs which are deeply buried +in the crocodile’s nest.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Considering the interest which is taken in crocodiles and their +allies, on account of their size, their dangerous nature and the +sporting trophies which they yield, the following “key,” based upon +easily ascertained characters of the skull, is given.</p> + +<p>I. Snout very long and slender. The mandibular symphysis extends +backwards at least to the fifteenth tooth.</p> + +<p style="padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -2em;">(a) Nasal bones very small, and widely separated from the +premaxilla (which encloses the nostrils) by the maxillaries which +join each other for a long distance along the dorsal mid-line.... +<i>Gavialis gangeticus</i> of India, the “gharial” or fish-eater.</p> + +<p style="padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -2em;">(b) Nasal bones long, so as to be in contact with the premaxilla at +the hinder corner of the nostril groove.... <i>Tomistoma schlegeli</i> of +Borneo, Malacca and Sumatra.</p> + +<p>II. Snout mostly triangular or rounded off. The mandibular symphysis +does not reach beyond the eighth tooth.</p> + +<p style="padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -2em;">(a), The fourth mandibular tooth fits into a notch in the upper jaw. +Crocodiles.</p> + +<p style="padding-left: 7em; text-indent: -2em;">1. Without a bon nasal septum between the nostrils.... +Crocodiles.</p> + +<p style="padding-left: 7em; text-indent: -2em;">2. The nasal bones project through the nasal groove, forming a +bony septum. <i>Osteolaemus frontatus s. tetraspis</i> of West rica.</p> + +<p style="padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -2em;">(b) Fourth mandibular tooth fitting into a pit in the upper jaw. +Alligators.</p> + +<p style="padding-left: 7em; text-indent: -2em;">1. Without a bony nasal septum.... <i>Caiman</i>, Central and South +America.</p> + +<p style="padding-left: 7em; text-indent: -2em;">2. Nasal bones dividing the nasal groove.... <i>Alligator</i>, America +and China.</p> +</div> + +<p>The genus <i>Cracodilus</i> contains seven species. <i>C. vulgaris</i> or +<i>niloticus</i> of most of Africa, is found from the Senegal to Egypt and to +Madagascar, reaching a length of 15 ft. It has eighteen or nineteen +upper and fifteen lower teeth on each side. <i>C. palustris</i>, the “mugger” +or “marsh crocodile” of India and Ceylon, extends westwards into +Baluchistan, eastwards into the Malay islands. It has nineteen upper and +lower teeth on either side. The scutes on the neck, six in number, are +packed closely together, the four biggest forming a square. The length +of 12 ft. is a fair size for a large specimen. <i>C. porosus</i> or +<i>biporcatus</i> is easily recognised by the prominent longitudinal ridge +which extends in front of each eye. Specimens of more than 20 ft. in +length are not uncommon, and a monster of 33 ft. is on record. It is +essentially an inhabitant of tidal waters and estuaries, and often goes +out to sea; hence its wide distribution, from the whole coast of Bengal +to southern China, to the northern coasts of Australia and even to the +Fiji islands. Australians are in the habit of calling their crocodiles +alligators. <i>C. cataphractus</i> is the common crocodile of West Africa, +easily recognised by the slender snout which resembles that of the +gavial, but the mandibular symphysis does not reach beyond the eighth +tooth. <i>C. johnstoni</i> of northern Australia and Queensland is allied to +the last species mentioned, with which it agrees by the slender snout. +Lastly there are two species of true crocodiles in America, <i>C. +intermedius</i> of the Orinoco, allied to the former, and <i>C. americanus</i> +or <i>acutus</i> of the West Indies, Mexico, Central America to Venezuela and +Ecuador; its characteristic feature is a median ridge or swelling on the +snout, which is rather slender.</p> + +<p>The above list shows that the usual statement that crocodiles inhabit +the Old World and alligators the New World is not strictly true. In the +Tertiary epoch alligators, crocodiles and long-snouted gavials existed +in Europe.</p> +<div class="author">(H. F. G.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 7, Slice 6, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 32423-h.htm or 32423-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/2/4/2/32423/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Marius Masi, Juliet +Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team +at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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