diff options
Diffstat (limited to '32423.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 32423.txt | 25937 |
1 files changed, 25937 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/32423.txt b/32423.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..75ff3c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/32423.txt @@ -0,0 +1,25937 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 7, Slice 6, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 6 + "Coucy-le-Château" to "Crocodile" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: May 19, 2010 [EBook #32423] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Marius Masi, Juliet +Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team +at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. When letters are subscripted, they are + preceded by an underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were originally printed in + superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x]. + +(5) Letters topped by Breve are represented as [)x]. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + Article COUNCIL: "Although the Frankish monarchs were not absolute + rulers, nevertheless they exercised the right of changing or + rejecting synodal decrees which ran counter to the interests of the + state." 'absolute' amended from 'abolute'. + + Article COUNCIL: "The last of the Reform councils, that of Basel, + approved these principles, and at length passed a sentence of + deposition against Pope Eugenius IV." 'approved' amended from + 'appoved'. + + Article COUNT: "It is difficult to give briefly a clear idea of the + functions of the three important officials comes sacrarum + largitionum, comes rei privatae and comes sacri patrimonii." + 'patrimonii' amended from 'partrimonii'. + + Article COVENANT: "The covenant not to sue belongs to the law of + contract and needs no explanation." 'explanation' amended from + 'explantion'. + + Article COWLEY, WELLESLEY: "and also during the excitement and + unrest produced by the attempt made in 1858 by Felice Orsini to + assassinate the emperor of the French." 'emperor' amended from + 'emporor'. + + Article CRAIG, JOHN: "James VI., like Henry VIII., accepted this + compromise, and the oath in this form was taken by Craig, the royal + chaplains and some others." 'like' amended from 'Like'. + + Article CREEDS: "The confession of the Four Cities, Strassburg, + Constance, Memmingen and London, was drawn up by M. Bucer and was + presented to Charles V. at Augsburg in 1530." 'Augsburg' amended + from 'Ausburg'. + + Article CREEDS: "It was prepared by Dr George Redford of Worcester, + and was presented, not as a scholastic or critical confession of + faith, but merely such a statement as any intelligent member of the + body might offer as containing its leading principles." 'of' + amended from 'or'. + + Article CREEK: "a small inlet on a low coast, an inlet in a river + formed by the mouth of a small stream, a shallow narrow harbour for + small vessels." 'vessels' amended from 'vessles'. + + Article CREIGHTON, MANDELL: "His irrepressible and often daring + humour, together with his frank distaste for much conventional + religious phraseology, was a stumbling-block to some pious people." + 'irrepressible' amended from 'irrespressible'. + + Article CRICKET: "The distance that constitutes "good length" is + not, however, to be defined by precise measurement; it depends on + the condition of the ground, and on the reach of the batsman." + 'constitutes' amended from 'consistutes'. + + Article CRITICISM: The Poetics of Aristotle (1898); H. L. Havell + and Andrew Lang, Longinus on the Sublime (1890). 'Aristotle' + amended from 'Artistotle'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME VII, SLICE VI + + Coucy-le-Chateau to Crocodile + + + + +Articles in This Slice: + + + COUCY-LE-CHATEAU CRANK + COUES, ELLIOTT CRANMER, THOMAS + COULISSE CRANNOG + COULOMB, CHARLES AUGUSTIN CRANSAC + COULOMMIERS CRANSTON + COUMARIN CRANTOR + COUMARONES CRANWORTH, ROBERT MONSEY ROLFE + COUNCIL CRAPE + COUNCIL BLUFFS CRASH + COUNSEL AND COUNSELLOR CRASHAW, RICHARD + COUNT CRASSULACEAE + COUNTER CRASSUS + COUNTERFEITING CRATER + COUNTERFORT CRATES (Athenian actor) + COUNTERPOINT CRATES (Greek philosophers) + COUNTERSCARP CRATES (of Mallus) + COUNTERSIGN CRATINUS + COUNTRY CRATIPPUS (Greek historian) + COUNTY CRATIPPUS (of Mitylene) + COUNTY COURT CRAU + COUPE CRAUCK, GUSTAVE + COUPLET CRAUFURD, QUINTIN + COUPON CRAUFURD, ROBERT + COURANTE CRAVAT + COURAYER, PIERRE FRANCOIS LE CRAVEN, PAULINE AGLAE + COURBET, GUSTAVE CRAVEN, WILLIAM CRAVEN + COURBEVOIE CRAWFORD, EARLS OF + COURCELLE-SENEUIL, JEAN GUSTAVE CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION + COURCI, JOHN DE CRAWFORD, THOMAS + COURIER, PAUL LOUIS CRAWFORD, WILLIAM HARRIS + COURIER CRAWFORDSVILLE + COURLAND CRAWFURD, JOHN + COURNOT, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN CRAYER, GASPARD DE + COURSING CRAYFISH + COURT, ANTOINE CRAYON + COURT CREASY, SIR EDWARD SHEPHERD + COURT BARON CREATIANISM AND TRADUCIANISM + COURT DE GEBELIN, ANTOINE CREBILLON, PROSPER JOLYOT DE + COURTENAY CRECHE + COURTENAY, RICHARD CRECY + COURTENAY, WILLIAM CREDENCE + COURTESY CREDENTIALS + COURTHOPE, WILLIAM JOHN CREDI, LORENZO DI + COURT LEET CREDIT + COURT-MARTIAL CREDIT FONCIER + COURTNEY, LEONARD HENRY COURTNEY CREDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA + COURTOIS, JACQUES and GUILLAUME CREDITON + COURTRAI CREDNER, CARL FRIEDRICH HEINRICH + COURVOISIER, JEAN JOSEPH ANTOINE CREE + COUSCOUS CREECH, THOMAS + COUSIN, JEAN CREEDS + COUSIN, VICTOR CREEK + COUSIN CREEK or MUSKOGEE INDIANS + COUSINS, SAMUEL CREETOWN + COUSTOU CREEVEY, THOMAS + COUTANCES, WALTER OF CREFELD + COUTANCES CREIGHTON, MANDEL + COUTHON, GEORGES CREIL + COUTTS, THOMAS CRELL NICHOLAS + COUTURE, THOMAS CREMA + COUVADE CREMATION + COVE CREMER, JAKOBUS JAN + COVELLITE CREMERA + COVENANT (mutual agreement) CREMIEUX, ISAAC MOISE + COVENANT (law term) CREMONA, LUIGI + COVENANTERS CREMONA + COVENT GARDEN CREMORNE GARDENS + COVENTRY, SIR JOHN CRENELLE + COVENTRY, THOMAS COVENTRY CREODONTA + COVENTRY, SIR WILLIAM CREOLE + COVENTRY CREON (king of Corinth) + COVER CREON (king of Thebes) + COVERDALE, MILES CREOPHYLUS + COVERTURE CREOSOTE + COVILHA CREPUSCULAR + COVILHAM PERO CREQUY + COVIN CREQUY, RENEE DE FROULLAY + COVINGTON CRESCAS, HASDAI BEN ABRAHAM + COWARD CRESCENT + COWBRIDGE CRESCIMBENI, GIOVANNI MARIO + COWDENBEATH CRESILAS + COWELL, JOHN CRESOLS + COWEN, FREDERIC HYMEN CRESPI, DANIELE + COWEN, JOSEPH CRESPI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA + COWES CRESPI, GIUSEPPE MARIA + COWL CRESS + COWLEY, ABRAHAM CRESSENT, CHARLES + COWLEY, HANNAH CRESSWELL, SIR CRESSWELL + COWLEY, CHARLES WELLESLEY CRESSY, HUGH PAULINUS DE + COWLEY FATHERS CREST (town of France) + COWPENS CREST (plume or tuft) + COWPER, WILLIAM COWPER CRESTON + COWPER, WILLIAM CRESWICK, THOMAS + COWRY CRESWICK + COW-TREE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM + COX, DAVID CRETE + COX, SIR GEORGE WILLIAM CRETINISM + COX, JACOB DOLSON CRETONNE + COX, KENYON CREUSE + COX, RICHARD CREUTZ, GUSTAF FILIP + COX, SAMUEL CREUZER, GEORG FRIEDRICH + COX, SAMUEL HANSON CREVASSE + COXCIE, MICHAEL CREVIER, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS + COXE, HENRY OCTAVIUS CREVILLENTE + COXE, WILLIAM CREW, NATHANIEL CREW + COXSWAIN CREW + COXWELL, HENRY TRACEY CREWE, ROBERT CREWE-MILNES + COYOTE CREWE + COYPEL CREWKERNE + COYPU CRIB + COYSEVOX, CHARLES ANTOINE CRIBBAGE + CRAB CRICCIETH + CRABBE, GEORGE CRICHTON, JAMES + CRACKER CRICKET (insect) + CRACOW CRICKET (game) + CRADDOCK, CHARLES EGBERT CRICKHOWELL + CRADLE CRICKLADE + CRADOCK CRIEFF + CRAFT CRIME + CRAG CRIMEA + CRAGGS, JAMES CRIMEAN WAR + CRAIG, JOHN CRIMINAL LAW + CRAIG, SIR THOMAS CRIMINOLOGY + CRAIGIE, PEARL MARY TERESA CRIMMITZSCHAU + CRAIK, DINAH MARIA CRIMP + CRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE CRIMSON + CRAIL CRINAGORAS + CRAILSHEIM CRINOLINE + CRAIOVA CRINUM + CRAMBO CRIOBOLIUM + CRAMER, JOHANN BAPTIST CRIPPLE CREEK + CRAMER, JOHN ANTONY CRISA + CRAMER, KARL VON CRISPI, FRANCESCO + CRAMP, CHARLES HENRY CRISPIN and CRISPINIAN + CRAMP CRITIAS + CRAMP-RINGS CRITICISM + CRANACH, LUCAS CRITIUS and NESIOTES + CRANBERRY CRITOLAUS + CRANBROOK, GATHORNE-HARDY CRITTENDEN, JOHN JORDAN + CRANBROOK CRIVELLI, CARLO + CRANDALL, PRUDENCE CROATIA-SLAVONIA + CRANE, STEPHEN CROCIDOLITE + CRANE, WALTER CROCKET + CRANE, WILLIAM HENRY CROCKETT, DAVID + CRANE CROCKETT, SAMUEL RUTHERFORD + CRANES CROCKFORD, WILLIAM + CRANIOMETRY CROCODILE + + + + +COUCY-LE-CHATEAU, a village of northern France, in the department of +Aisne, 18 m. W.S.W. of Laon on a branch of the Northern railway. Pop. +(1906) 663. It has extensive remains of fortifications of the 13th +century, the most remarkable feature of which is the Porte de Laon, a +gateway flanked by massive towers and surmounted by a fine apartment. +Coucy also has a church of the 15th century, preserving a facade in the +Romanesque style. The importance of the place is due, however, to the +magnificent ruins of a feudal fortress (see CASTLE) crowning the +eminence on the slope of which the village is built. The remains, which +embrace an area of more than 10,000 sq. yds., form an irregular +quadrilateral built round a court-yard and flanked by four huge towers. +The nucleus of the stronghold is a donjon over 200 ft. high and over 100 +ft. in diameter, standing on the south side of the court. Three large +vaulted apartments, one above the other, occupy its interior. The +court-yard was surrounded on the ground-floor by storehouses, kitchens, +&c., above which on the west and north sides were the great halls known +as the _Salle des preux_ and the _Salle des preuses_. A chapel projected +from the west wing. The bailey or base-court containing other buildings +and covering three times the area of the chateau extended between it and +the village. The architectural unity of the fortress is due to the +rapidity of its construction, which took place between 1230 and 1242, +under Enguerrand III., lord of Coucy. A large part of the buildings was +restored or enlarged at the end of the 14th century by Louis d'Orleans, +brother of Charles VI., by whom it had been purchased. The place was +dismantled in 1652 by order of Cardinal Mazarin. It is now state +property. In 1856 researches were carried on upon the spot by +Viollet-le-Duc, and measures for the preservation of the ruins were +subsequently undertaken. + +_Sires de Coucy._--Coucy gave its name to the sires de Coucy, a feudal +house famous in the history of France. The founder of the family was +Enguerrand de Boves, a warlike lord, who, at the end of the 11th century +seized the castle of Coucy by force. Towards the close of his life, he +had to fight against his own son, Thomas de Marle, who in 1115 succeeded +him, subsequently becoming notorious for his deeds of violence in the +struggles between the communes of Laon and Amiens. He was subdued by +King Louis VI. in 1117, but his son Enguerrand II. continued the +struggle against the king. Enguerrand III., the Great, fought at +Bouvines under Philip Augustus (1214), but later he was accused of +aiming at the crown of France, and he took part in the disturbances +which arose during the regency of Blanche of Castile. These early lords +of Coucy remained till the 14th century in possession of the land from +which they took their name. Enguerrand IV., sire de Coucy, died in 1320 +without issue and was succeeded by his nephew Enguerrand, son of Arnold, +count of Guines, and Alix de Coucy, from whom is descended the second +line of the house of Coucy. Enguerrand VI. had his lands ravaged by the +English in 1339 and died at Crecy in 1346. Enguerrand VII., sire de +Coucy, count of Soissons and Marle, and chief butler of France, was sent +as a hostage to England, where he married Isabel, the eldest daughter of +King Edward III. Wishing to remain neutral in the struggle between +England and France, he went to fight in Italy. Having made claims upon +the domains of the house of Austria, from which he was descended through +his mother, he was defeated in battle (1375-1376). He was entrusted with +various diplomatic negotiations, and took part in the crusade of Hungary +against the Sultan Bayezid, during which he was taken prisoner, and died +shortly after the battle of Nicopolis (1397). His daughter Marie sold +the fief of Coucy to Louis, duke of Orleans, in 1400. The Chatelain de +Coucy (see above) did not belong to the house of the lords of Coucy, but +was castellan of the castle of that name. + + + + +COUES, ELLIOTT (1842-1899), American naturalist, was born at Portsmouth, +New Hampshire, on the 9th of September 1842. He graduated at Columbian +(now George Washington) University, Washington, D.C., in 1861, and at +the Medical school of that institution in 1863. He served as a medical +cadet at Washington in 1862-1863, and in 1864 was appointed +assistant-surgeon in the regular army. In 1872 he published his _Key to +North American Birds_, which, revised and rewritten in 1884 and 1901, +has done much to promote the systematic study of ornithology in America. +In 1873-1876 Coues was attached as surgeon and naturalist to the United +States Northern Boundary Commission, and in 1876-1880 was secretary and +naturalist to the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of +the Territories, the publications of which he edited. He was lecturer on +anatomy in the medical school of the Columbian University in 1877-1882, +and professor of anatomy there in 1882-1887. He resigned from the army +in 1881 to devote himself entirely to scientific research. He was a +founder of the American Ornithologists' Union, and edited its organ, +_The Auk_, and several other ornithological periodicals. He died at +Baltimore, Maryland, on the 25th of December 1899. In addition to +ornithology he did valuable work in mammalogy; his book _Fur-Bearing +Animals_ (1877) being distinguished by the accuracy and completeness of +its description of species, several of which are already becoming rare. +In 1887 he became president of the Esoteric Theosophical Society of +America. Among the most important of his publications, in several of +which he had collaboration, are _A Field Ornithology_ (1874); _Birds of +the North-west_ (1874); _Monographs on North American Rodentia_, with J. +A. Allen (1877); _Birds of the Colorado Valley_ (1878); _A Bibliography +of Ornithology_ (1878-1880, incomplete); _New England Bird Life_ (1881); +_A Dictionary and Check List of North American Birds_ (1882); _Biogen, A +Speculation on the Origin and Motive of Life_ (1884); _The Daemon of +Darwin_ (1884); _Can Matter Think?_ (1886); and _Neuro-Myology_ (1887). +He also contributed numerous articles to the Century Dictionary, wrote +for various encyclopaedias, and edited the _Journals of Lewis and Clark_ +(1893), and _The Travels of Zebulon M. Pike_ (1895). + + + + +COULISSE (French for "groove," from _couler_, to slide), a term for a +groove in which a gate of a sluice, or the side-scenes in a theatre, +slide up and down, hence applied to the space on the stage between the +wings, and generally to that part of the theatre "behind the scenes" and +out of view of the public. It is also a term of the Paris Bourse, +derived from a _coulisse_, or passage in which transactions were carried +on without the authorized _agents de change_. The name _coulissier_ was +thus given to unauthorized _agents de change_, or "outside brokers" who, +after many attempts at suppression, were finally given a recognized +status in 1901. They bring business to the _agents de change_, and act +as intermediaries between them and other parties. (See STOCK EXCHANGE: +Paris.) + + + + +COULOMB, CHARLES AUGUSTIN (1736-1806), French natural philosopher, was +born at Angouleme on the 14th of June 1736. He chose the profession of +military engineer, spent three years, to the decided injury of his +health, at Fort Bourbon, Martinique, and was employed on his return at +Rochelle, the Isle of Aix and Cherbourg. In 1781 he was stationed +permanently at Paris, but on the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 he +resigned his appointment as _intendant des eaux et fontaines_, and +retired to a small estate which he possessed at Blois. He was recalled +to Paris for a time in order to take part in the new determination of +weights and measures, which had been decreed by the Revolutionary +government. Of the National Institute he was one of the first members; +and he was appointed inspector of public instruction in 1802. But his +health was already very feeble, and four years later he died at Paris on +the 23rd of August 1806. Coulomb is distinguished in the history alike +of mechanics and of electricity and magnetism. In 1779 he published an +important investigation of the laws of friction (_Theorie des machines +simples, en ayant regard au frottement de leurs parties et a la roideur +des cordages_), which was followed twenty years later by a memoir on +fluid resistance. In 1785 appeared his _Recherches theoriques et +experimentales sur la force de torsion et sur l'elasticite des fils de +metal_, &c. This memoir contained a description of different forms of +his torsion balance, an instrument used by him with great success for +the experimental investigation of the distribution of electricity on +surfaces and of the laws of electrical and magnetic action, of the +mathematical theory of which he may also be regarded as the founder. The +practical unit of quantity of electricity, the _coulomb_, is named after +him. + + + + +COULOMMIERS, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in +the department of Seine-et-Marne, 45 m. E. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906) +5217. It is situated in the fertile district of Brie, in a valley +watered by the Grand-Morin. The church of St Denis (13th and 16th +centuries), and the ruins of a castle built by Catherine of Gonzaga, +duchess of Longueville, in the early 17th century, are of little +importance. There is a statue to Commandant Beaurepaire, who, in 1792, +killed himself rather than surrender Verdun to the Prussians. +Coulommiers is the seat of a subprefect, and has a tribunal of first +instance and a communal college. Printing is the chief industry, +tanning, flour-milling and sugar-making being also carried on. Trade is +in agricultural products, and especially in cheeses named after the +town. + + + + +COUMARIN, C9H6O2, a substance which occurs naturally in sweet woodruff +(_Asperula odorata_), in the tonka bean and in yellow melilot +(_Melilotus officinalis_). It can be obtained from the tonka bean by +extraction with alcohol. It is prepared artificially by heating +aceto-ortho-coumaric acid (which is formed from sodium salicyl aldehyde) +or from the action of acetic anhydride and sodium acetate on salicyl +aldehyde (Sir W. H. Perkin, _Berichte_, 1875, 8, p. 1599). It can also +be prepared by heating a mixture of phenol and malic acid with sulphuric +acid, or by passing bromine vapour at 107 deg. C. over the anhydride of +melilotic acid. It forms rhombic crystals (from ether) melting at 67 +deg. C. and boiling at 290 deg. C., which are readily soluble in +alcohol, and moderately soluble in hot water. It is applied in perfumery +for the preparation of the _Asperula_ essence. On boiling with +concentrated caustic potash it yields the potassium salt of coumaric +acid, whilst when fused with potash it is completely decomposed into +salicylic and acetic acids. Sodium amalgam reduces it, in aqueous +solution, to melilotic acid. It forms addition products with bromine and +hydrobromic acid. By the action of phosphorus pentasulphide it is +converted into thiocoumarin, which melts at 101 deg. C.; and in +alcoholic solution, on the addition of hydroxylamine hydrochloride and +soda, it yields coumarin oxime. + +Ortho-coumaric acid (o-oxycinnamic acid) is obtained from coumarin as +shown above, or by boiling coumarin for some time with sodium ethylate. +It melts at 208 deg. C. and is easily soluble in hot water and in +alcohol. It cannot be converted into coumarin by heating alone, but it +is readily transformed on heating with acetic anhydride or acetyl +chloride. By the action of sodium amalgam it is readily converted into +_melilotic acid_, which melts at 81 deg. C., and on distillation +furnishes its lactone, _hydrocoumarin_, melting at 25 deg. C. For the +relations of coumaric and coumarinic acid see _Annalen_, 254, p. 181. +The homologues of coumarin may be obtained by the action of sulphuric +acid on phenol and the higher fatty acids (propionic, butyric and +isovaleric anhydrides), substitution taking place at the carbon atom in +the [alpha] position to the -CO-group, whilst by the condensation of +acetoacetic ester and phenols with sulphuric acid the [beta] substituted +coumarins are obtained. + +_Umbelliferone_ or 4-oxycoumarin, occurs in the bark of _Daphne +mezereum_ and may be obtained by distilling such resins as galbanum or +asafoetida. It may be synthesized from resorcin and malic anhydride or +from [beta] resorcyl aldehyde, acetic anhydride and sodium acetate. +_Daphnetin_ and _Aesculetin_ are dioxycoumarins. + +The structural formulae of coumarin and the related substances are: + + CH + / \_CH:CH.CO2H / \ / \\CH / \ /CH2.CH2.CO2H + | | | | | | | + | |_ | | | | | + \ / OH \ / \ / CO \ / \OH + O + Orthocoumaric Coumarin. Melilotic + acid. acid. + + CH2 CH + / \ / \ CH2 / \ / \\CH + | | | | | | + | | | | | | + \ / \ / CO HO \ / \ / CO + O O + Hydrocoumarin. Umbelliferone. + + + + +COUMARONES or BENZOFURFURANES, organic compounds containing the ring +system + + CH + /\\ + C6H4 CH. + \ / + O + +This ring system may be synthesized in many different ways, the chief +methods employed being as follows: by the action of hot alcoholic potash +on [alpha]-bromcoumarin (R. Fittig, _Ann._, 1883, 216, p. 162), + + CH:C.Br CH CH + / /\\ /\\ + C6H4 ---> C6H4 C.COOH ---> C6H4 CH; + \ . \ / \ / + O.CO O O + +from sodium salts of phenols and [alpha]-chloracetoacetic ester (A. +Hantzsch, _Ber._, 1886, 19, p. 1292), + + H C.CH3 + / COCH3 /\\ + C6H4 ---> . ---> C6H4 C.COOR; + \ Cl.CH.COOR \ / + ONa O + +or from ortho-oxyaldehydes by condensation with ketones (S. Kostanecki +and J. Tambor, _Ber._, 1896, 29, p. 237), or with chloracetic acid (A. +Rossing, _Ber._, 1884, 17, p. 3000), + + /OH CH3CO.C6H5 /OH + C6H4 ----------> C6H4 2 Br + \CHO \CH:CH.COC6H5 -----> + + /OH KHO / O \ + C6H4 ----> C6H4 C.COC6H5, + \CHBr.CHBr.COC6H5 \CH// + + /OH Cl.CH2.COOH /CHO CH3COONa + C6H4 ------------> C6H4 --------> + \CHO \O.CH2.COOH + + /CH\\ + C6H4 C.COOH. + \ O / + +The parent substance coumarone, C8H6O, is also obtained by heating +[omega]-chlor-ortho-oxystyrol with concentrated potash solution (G. +Komppa, _Ber._, 1893, 26. p. 2971), + + /CH:CHCl KOH /CH\\ + C6H4 ----> C6H4 CH. + \OH \ O / + +It is a colourless liquid which boils at 171-172 deg. C. and is readily +volatile in steam, but is insoluble in water and in potash solution. +Concentrated acids convert it into a resin. When heated with sodium and +absolute alcohol, it is converted into _hydrocoumarone_, C8H8O, and +ethyl phenol. + + + + +COUNCIL (Lat. _concilium_, from _cum_, together, and the root cal, to +call), the general word for a convocation, meeting, assembly. The Latin +word was frequently confused with _consilium_ (from _consulere_, to +deliberate, cf. _consul_), advice, i.e. counsel, and thus specifically +an advisory assembly. Du Cange (_Gloss. Med. Infim. Latin._) quotes the +Greek words [Greek: synodos, synedrion, symboulion] as the equivalent of +_concilium_. In French the distinction between _conseil_ (from +_consilium_), advice, and _concile_, council (i.e. ecclesiastical--its +only meaning) has survived, but the two English derivatives are much +confused. In the New Testament, "council" is the rendering of the Hebrew +Sanhedrin, Gr. [Greek: synedrion]. The word is generally used in English +for all kinds of congregations or convocations assembled for +administrative and deliberative purposes.[1] + +The present article is confined to a history of the development of the +ecclesiastical council, summoned to adjust matters in dispute with the +civil authority or for the settlement of doctrinal and other internal +disputes. For details see under separate headings, NICAEA, &c. + +From a very early period in the history of the Church, councils or +synods have been held to decide on matters of doctrine and discipline. +They may be traced back to the second half of the 2nd century A.D., when +sundry churches in Asia Minor held consultations about the rise of +Montanism. Their precise origin is disputed. The common Roman Catholic +view is that they are apostolic though not prescribed by divine law, and +the apostolic precedent usually cited is the "council" of Jerusalem +(Acts xv.; Galatians ii.). Waiving the consideration of vital critical +questions and accepting Acts xv. at its face value, the assembly at +Jerusalem would scarcely seem to have been a council in the technical +sense of the word; it was in essence a meeting of the Jerusalem church +at which delegates from Antioch were heard but apparently had no vote, +the decision resting solely with the mother church. R. Sohm argues that +synods grew from the custom of certain local churches which, when +confronted with a serious problem of their own, augmented their numbers +by receiving delegates from the churches of the neighbourhood. Hauck, +however, holds that these augmented church meetings, which dealt with +the affairs of but a single church, are to be distinguished from the +synods, which took cognizance of matters of general interest. Older +Protestant writers have contented themselves with saying either that +synods were of apostolic origin, or that they were the inevitable +outcome of the need of the leaders of churches to take counsel together, +and that they were perhaps modelled on the secular provincial assemblies +(_concilia provincialia_). + +Every important alteration in the constitution of the Church has +affected the composition and function of synods; but the changes were +neither simultaneous nor precisely alike throughout the Roman empire. +The synods of the 2nd century were extraordinary assemblies which met to +deliberate upon pressing problems. They had no fixed geographical limits +for membership, no _ex-officio_ members, nor did they possess an +authority which did away with the independence of the local church. In +the course of the 3rd century came the decisive change, which increased +the prestige of the councils: the right to vote was limited to bishops. +This was the logical outgrowth of the belief that each local church +ought to have but one bishop (monarchical episcopate), and that these +bishops were the sole legitimate successors of the apostles (apostolic +succession), and therefore official organs of the Holy Spirit. Although +as late as 250 the consensus of the priests, the deacons and the people +was still considered essential to the validity of a conciliar decision +at Rome and in certain parts of the East, the development had already +run its course in northern Africa. It was a further step in advance when +synods began to meet at regular intervals. They were held annually in +Cappadocia by the middle of the 3rd century, and the council of Nicaea +commanded in 325 that semiannual synods be held in every province, an +arrangement which was not systematically enforced, and was altered in +692, when the Trullan Council reduced the number to one a year. + +With the multiplication of synods came naturally a differentiation of +type. In text-books we find clear lines drawn between diocesan, +provincial, national, patriarchal and oecumenical synods; but the first +thousand years of church history do not justify the sharpness of the +traditional distinction. The _provincial_ synods, presided over by the +metropolitan (archbishop), were usually held at the capital of the +province, and attempted to legislate on all sorts of questions. The +state had nothing to do with calling them, nor did their decrees require +governmental sanction. Various abortive attempts were made to set up +synods of _patriarchal_ or at least of more than provincial rank. In +North Africa eighteen such synods were held between 393 and 424; during +part of the 5th and 6th centuries _primatial_ councils assembled at +Arles; and the patriarchs of Constantinople were accustomed to invite to +their "_endemic_ synods" ([Greek: synodoi endemousai]) all bishops who +happened to be sojourning at the capital. _Papal_ synods from the 5th +and especially from the 9th century onward included members such as the +archbishops of Ravenna, Milan, Aquileia and Grado, who resided outside +the Roman archdiocese; but the territorial limits from which the +membership was drawn do not appear to have been precisely defined. + +Before the form of the provincial synod had become absolutely fixed, +there arose in the 4th century the _oecumenical_ council. The Greek term +[Greek: synodos oikoumenike][2] (1) (used by Eusebius, _Vita +Constantini_, iii. 6) is preferable to the Latin _concilium universale_ +or _generale_, which has been applied loosely to national and even to +provincial synods. The oecumenical synods were not the logical outgrowth +of the network of provincial synods; they were creations of the imperial +power. Constantine, who had not even been baptized, laid the foundations +when, in response to a petition of the Donatists, he referred their case +to a committee of bishops that convened at Rome, which meeting Eusebius +calls a synod. After that the emperor summoned the council of Arles to +settle the matter. For both of these assemblies it was the emperor that +decided who should be summoned, paid the travelling expenses of the +bishops, determined where the council should be held and what topics +should be discussed. He regarded them as temporary advisory bodies, to +whose recommendations the imperial authority might give the force of +law. In the same manner he appointed the time and place for the council +of Nicaea, summoned the episcopate, paid part of the expenses out of the +public purse, nominated the committee in charge of the order of +business, used his influence to bring about the adoption of the creed, +and punished those who refused to subscribe. To be sure, the council of +Nicaea commanded great veneration, for it was the first attempt to +assemble the entire episcopate; but no more than the synods of Rome and +of Arles was it an organ of ecclesiastical self-government--it was +rather a means whereby the Church was ruled by the secular power. The +subsequent oecumenical synods of the undivided Church were patterned on +that of Nicaea. Most Protestant scholars maintain that the secular +authorities decided whether or not they should be convened, and issued +the summons; that imperial commissioners were always present, even if +they did not always preside; that on occasion emperors have confirmed or +refused to confirm synodal decrees; and that the papal confirmation was +neither customary nor requisite. Roman Catholic scholars to-day tend to +recede from the high ground very generally taken several centuries ago, +and Funk even admits that the right to convoke oecumenical synods was +vested in the emperor regardless of the wishes of the pope, and that it +cannot be proved that the Roman see ever actually had a share in calling +the oecumenical councils of antiquity. Others, however, while +acknowledging the futility of seeking historical proofs that the popes +_formally_ called, directed and confirmed these synods, yet assert that +the emperor performed these functions not of his own right but in his +quality as protector of the Church, that this involved his acting at the +request or at least with the permission and approval of the Church, and +in particular of the pope, and that a special though not a stereotyped +papal confirmation of conciliar decrees was necessary to their validity. + +In the Germanic states which arose on the ruins of the Western Empire we +find _national_ and _diocesan_ synods; provincial synods were unusual. +National synods were summoned by the king or with his consent to meet +special needs; and they were frequently _concilia mixta_, at which lay +dignitaries appeared. Although the Frankish monarchs were not absolute +rulers, nevertheless they exercised the right of changing or rejecting +synodal decrees which ran counter to the interests of the state. Clovis +held the first French national synod at Orleans in 511; Reccared, the +first in Spain in 589 at Toledo. Under Charlemagne they were +occasionally so representative that they might almost be ranked as +general synods of the West (Regensburg, 792, Frankfort, 794). +Contemporaneous with the evolution of the national synod was the +development of a new type of diocesan synod, which included the priests +of separate and mutually independent parishes and also the leaders of +the monastic clergy. + +The papal synods came into the foreground with the success of the +Cluniac reform of the Church, especially from the Lateran synod of 1059 +on. They grew in importance until at length Calixtus II. summoned to the +Lateran the synod of 1123 as "_generale concilium_." The powers which +the pope as bishop of the church in Rome had exercised over its synods +he now extended to the oecumenical councils. They were more completely +under his control than the ancient ones had been under the sway of the +emperor. The Pseudo-Isidorean principle that all major synods need papal +authorization was insisted on, and the decrees were formulated as papal +edicts. + +The absolutist principles cherished by the papal court in the 12th and +13th centuries did not pass unchallenged; but the protests of Marsilius +of Padua and the less radical William of Occam remained barren until the +Great Schism of 1378. As neither the pope in Rome nor his rival in +Avignon would give way, recourse was had to the idea that the supreme +power was vested not in the pope but in the oecumenical council. This +"conciliar theory," propounded by Conrad of Gelnhausen and championed by +the great Parisian teachers Pierre d'Ailly and Gerson, proceeded from +the nominalistic axiom that the whole is greater than its part. The +decisive revolutionary step was taken when the cardinals independently +of both popes ventured to hold the council of Pisa (1409). The council +of Constance asserted the supremacy of oecumenical synods, and ordered +that these be convened at regular intervals. The last of the Reform +councils, that of Basel, approved these principles, and at length passed +a sentence of deposition against Pope Eugenius IV. Eugenius, however, +succeeded in maintaining his power, and at the council of Florence +(1439) secured the condemnation of the conciliar theory; and this was +reiterated still more emphatically, on the eve of the Reformation, by +the fifth Lateran council (1516). Thenceforward the absolutist theories +of the 13th and 14th centuries increasingly dominated the Roman Church. +The popes so distrusted oecumenical councils that between 1517 and 1869 +they called but one; at this (Trent, 1545-1563), however, all treatment +of the question of papal versus conciliar authority was purposely +avoided. Although the Declaration of the French clergy of 1682 +reaffirmed the conciliar doctrines of Constance, since the French +Revolution this "Gallicanism" has shown itself to be but a passing phase +of constitutional theory; and in the 19th century the ascendancy of +Ultramontanism became so secure that Pius IX. could confidently summon +to the Vatican a synod which set its seal on the doctrine of papal +infallibility. Yet it would be a misconception to suppose that the +Vatican decrees mean the surrender of the ancient belief in the +infallibility of oecumenical synods; their decisions may still be +regarded as more solemn and more impressive than those of the pope +alone; their authority is fuller, though not higher. At present it is +agreed that the pope has the sole right of summoning oecumenical +councils, of presiding or appointing presidents and of determining the +order of business and the topics which shall come up. The papal +confirmation is indispensable; it is conceived of as the stamp without +which the expression of conciliar opinion lacks legal validity. In other +words, the oecumenical council is now practically in the position of the +senate of an absolute monarch. It is in fact an open question whether a +council is to be ranked as really oecumenical until after its decrees +have been approved by the pope. (See VATICAN COUNCIL, ULTRAMONTANISM, +INFALLIBILITY.) + +The earlier oecumenical councils have well been called "the pitched +battles of church history." Summoned to combat heresy and schism, in +spite of degrading pressure from without and tumultuous disorder within, +they ultimately brought about a modicum of doctrinal agreement. On the +one side as time went on they bound scholarship hand and foot in the +winding-sheet of tradition, and also fanned the flames of intolerance; +yet on the other side they fostered the sense of the Church's corporate +oneness. The diocesan and provincial synods have formed a valuable +system of regularly recurring assemblies for disposing of ecclesiastical +business. They have been held most frequently, however, in times of +stress and of reform, for instance in the 11th, 16th and 19th centuries; +at other periods they have lapsed into disuse: it is significant that +to-day the prelate who neglects to convene them suffers no penalty. At +present the main function of both provincial and oecumenical synods +seems to be to facilitate obedience to the wishes of the central +government of the Church. + +The _right to vote_ (_votum definitivum_) has been distinguished from +early times from the right to be heard (_votum consultativum_). The +Reform Synods of the 15th century gave a decisive vote to doctors and +licentiates of theology and of laws, some of them sitting as +individuals, some as representatives of universities. Roman Catholic +canonists now confine the right to vote at oecumenical councils to +bishops, cardinal deacons, generals or vicars general of monastic orders +and the _praelati nullius_ (exempt abbots, &c.); all other persons, lay +or clerical, who are admitted or invited, have merely the _votum +consultativum_--they are chiefly procurators of absent bishops, or very +learned priests. It was but a clumsy and temporary expedient, designed +to offset the preponderance of Italian bishops dependent on the pope +when the council of Constance subdivided itself into several groups or +"nations," each of which had a single vote. In voting, the simple +majority decides; yet such is the importance attached to a unanimous +verdict that an irreconcilable minority may absent itself from the final +vote, as was the case at the Vatican Council. + +The numbering of oecumenical synods is not fixed; the list most used in +the Roman Church to-day is that of Hefele (_Conciliengeschichte_, 2nd +ed., I. 59 f.): + + A.D. + 1. Nicaea I. 325 + 2. Constantinople I. 381 + 3. Ephesus 431 + 4. Chalcedon 451 + 5. Constantinople II. 553 + 6. Constantinople III. 680 + 7. Nicaea II. 787 + 8. Constantinople IV. 869 + 9. Lateran I. 1123 + 10. Lateran II. 1139 + 11. Lateran III. 1179 + 12. Lateran IV. 1215 + 13. Lyons I. 1245 + 14. Lyons II. 1274 + 15. Vienne 1311 + 16. Constance (in part) 1414-1418 + 17a. Basel (in part) 1431 ff. + 17b. Ferrara-Florence (a continuation of Basel) 1438-1442 + 18. Lateran V. 1512-1517 + 19. Trent 1545-1563 + 20. Vatican 1869-1870 + +(Each of these and certain other important synods are treated in +separate articles.) + +By including Pisa (1409) and by treating Florence as a separate synod, +certain writers have brought the number of oecumenical councils up to +twenty-two. These standard lists are of the type which became +established through the authority of Cardinal R. F. Bellarmine +(1542-1621), who criticized Constance and Basel, while defending +Florence and the fifth Lateran council against the Gallicans. As late as +the 16th century, however, "the majority did not regard those councils +in which the Greek Church did not take part as oecumenical at all" +(Harnack, _History of Dogma_, vi. 17). The Greek Church accepts only the +first seven synods as oecumenical; and it reckons the Trullan synod of +692 (the Quinisextum) as a continuation of the sixth oecumenical synod +of 680. But concerning the first seven councils it should be remarked +that Constantinople I. was but a general synod of the East; its claim to +oecumenicity rests upon its reception by the West about two centuries +later. Similarly the only representatives of the West present at +Constantinople II. were certain Africans; the pope did not accept the +decrees till afterwards and they made their way in the West but +gradually. Just as there have been synods which have come to be +considered oecumenical though not convoked as such, so there have been +synods which though summoned as oecumenical, failed of recognition: for +instance Sardica (343), Ephesus (449), Constantinople (754). The last +two received the imperial confirmation and from the legal point of view +were no whit inferior to the others; their decrees, however, were +overthrown by subsequent synods. As the Protestant leaders of the 16th +century held fast the traditional christology, they regarded with +veneration the dogmatic decisions of Nicaea I., Constantinople I., +Ephesus and Chalcedon. These four councils had enjoyed a more or less +fortuitous pre-eminence both in Roman and in canon law, and by many +Catholics at the time of the Reformation were regarded, along with the +three great creeds (Apostles', Nicene, Athanasian), as a sort of +irreducible minimum of orthodoxy. In the 17th century the liberal +Lutheran George Calixtus based his attempts at reuniting Christendom on +this _consensus quinquesaecularis_. Many other Protestants have accepted +Constantinople II. and III. as supporting the first four councils; and +still others, notably many Anglican high churchmen, have felt bound by +all the oecumenical synods of the undivided Church. The common +Protestant attitude toward synods is, however, that they may err and +have erred, and that the Scriptures and not conciliar decisions are the +sole infallible standard of faith, morals and worship. + +_Protestant Councils._--The churches of the Reformation have all had a +certain measure of synodal life. The Church of England has maintained +its ancient provincial synods or convocations, though for the greater +part of the 18th and the first part of the 19th centuries they +transacted no business. In the Lutheran churches of Germany there was no +strong agitation in favour of introducing synods until the 19th century, +when a movement, designed to render the churches less dependent on the +governmental consistories, won its way, until at length Prussia itself +fell into line (1873 and 1876). As the powers granted to the German +synods are very limited, many of their advocates have been +disillusioned; but the Lutheran churches of America, being independent +of the state, have developed synods both numerous and potent. In the +Reformed churches outside Germany synodal life is vigorous; its forms +were developed by the Huguenots in days of persecution, and passed +thence to Scotland and other presbyterian countries. Even many of the +churches of congregational polity have organized national councils (see +CONGREGATIONALISM); but here the principle of the independence of the +local church prevents the decisions from binding those congregations +which do not approve of the decrees. Moreover, in the last decade of the +19th century a growing desire for a rapprochement between the Free +Churches in the United Kingdom as a whole led to the annual assembly of +the Free Church Council for the consideration of all matters affecting +the dissenting bodies. This body has no executive or doctrinal authority +and is rather a conference than a council. In general it may be said +that synods are becoming more and more powerful in Protestant lands, and +that they are destined to still greater prominence because of the +growing sentiment for Christian unity. + + AUTHORITIES.--GENERAL COLLECTIONS: _Collectio regia_ (Paris, 1644, 37 + vols.) (the first very extensive work); P. Labbe (not Labbe) and G. + Cossart, _Sacrosancta concilia_ (Paris, 1672, 17 vols.), with + supplement by Etienne Baluze (Baluzius), 1683 (based on above); J. + Hardouin (Harduinus), _Conciliorum collectio regia maxima_ (Paris, + 1715), 11 tomi in 12 vols, (to 1714; more exact; indexed; serious + omissions); enlarged edition by N. Coletus (Venice, 1728-1732), + supplemented by J. D. Mansi, _Sanctorum conciliorum et decretorum nova + collectio_ (Lucca, 1748, 6 tomi). Convenient but fallible is Mansi's + _Sacrorum conciliorum et decretorum nova et amplissima collectio_ + (Florence, 1759-1767; completed Venice, 1769-1798, 31 vols.); + facsimile reproduction by Welter (Paris, 1901 ff.), adding (tom. O) + _Introductio seu apparatus ad sacrosancta concilia_, and (tom. 17B and + 18B) Baluze, _Capitularia regum Francorum_, and continuing to date by + reproducing parts of Coletus and of Mansi's supplement to Coletus, and + furnishing (tom. 37 ff.) a new edition of the councils from 1720 on by + J. B. Martin and L. Petit. A careful text of Roman Catholic synods + from 1682 to 1870 is _Collectio Lacensis_ (_Acta et decreta sacrorum + conciliorum recentiorum_, Friburgi, 1870 ff.), 7 vols. + + SPECIAL COLLECTIONS: GREAT BRITAIN: _Concilia Magnae Britanniae et + Hiberniae_, ed. D. Wilkins (London, 1737, 4 vols.); _Councils and + Ecclesiastical Documents relating to Great Britain and Ireland_, ed. + by A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs (Oxford, 1869 ff., 4 vols.); J. W. + Joyce, _Handbook of the Convocations or Provincial Synods of the + Church of England_ (London, 1887); _Concilia Scotiae_ (1225-1559), ed. + Joseph Robertson (Edinburgh, Bannatyne Club, 1866, 2 tom.). + + UNITED STATES: _Collectio Lacensis_ (Roman Catholic synods); _The + American Church History Series_ (New York, 1893 ff. 13 vols.) gives + information on the various Protestant synods. + + FRANCE.--_Concilia aevi Merovingici_, rec. F. Maassen (Hanover, 1893) + (_Monumenta Germaniae historica, Legum sectio_ iii., _Concilia_, tom. + i.); _Concilia antiqua Galliae_, cur. J. Sirmond (Paris, 1629, 3 + vols.); supplement by P. de la Lande (Paris, 1666); L. Odespun, + _Concilia novissima Galliae_ (Paris, 1646); _Conciliorum Galliae tam + editorum quam ineditorum, stud. congreg. S. Mauri_, tom. i. (Paris, + 1789). Synods of the Reformed Churches of France are contained in J. + Quick, _Synodicon in Gallia reformata_ (London, 1692, 2 vols.); J. + Aymon, _Tous les synodes nationaux des eglises reformees de France_ + (La Haye, 1710, 2 vols.); E. Hugues, _Les Synodes du desert_ (Paris, + 1885 f., 3 vols.). For the synods of other countries see Herzog-Hauck, + 3rd ed., 19,262 f., and Wetzer and Welte, 2nd ed., 3809 f. + + LESS ELABORATE TEXTS: _Canones apostolorum et conciliorum saeculorum_, + iv.-vii., rec. H. T. Bruns (Berlin, 1839, 2 vols.) (still useful); J. + Fulton, _Index Canonum_ (3rd ed., New York, 1892) (3rd and 4th + centuries); W. Bright, _Notes on the Canons of the First Four General + Councils_ (2nd ed., Oxford, 1892); _Die Kanones der wichtigsten + altkirchlichen Conzilien nebst den apostolischen Kanones_, ed. F. + Lauchert (Freiburg i. B., 1896); _Enchiridion symbolorum et + definitionum, quae de rebus fidei et morum a conciliis oecumenicis et + summis pontificibus emanarunt_, ed. H. Denzinger (7th ed., Wurzburg, + 1895); _Bibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln der alten Kirche_, + ed. by A. Hahn (3rd edition, revised and enlarged, Breslau, 1897), + with variant readings; C. Mirbt, _Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums + und des romischen Katholizismus_ (2nd much enlarged ed., Tubingen, + 1901); E. F. Karl Muller, Die Bekenntnisschriften der reformierten + Kirche (Leipzig, 1903) (for all countries). These last five are + elaborately indexed. + + TRANSLATIONS: John Johnson, _A Collection of the Laws and Canons of + the Church of England_ [601-1519], 2 parts (London, 1720; reprinted + Oxford, 1850 f., in the _Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology_); P. + Schaff, _The Creeds of Christendom_ (New York, 1877, 3 vols.) (texts + and translations parallel); _Canons and Creeds of the First Four + Councils_, ed. by E. K. Mitchell, in _Translations and Reprints from + the Original Sources of European History, published by the Department + of History of the University of Pennsylvania_, vol. iv. 2 (1897); H. + R. Percival, _The Ecumenical Councils_ (New York, 1900) (_Nicene and + Post-Nicene Fathers_, second series, vol. xiv.; translates canons and + compiles notes; bibliography in Introduction). + + GENERAL HISTORIES OF COUNCILS: C. J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_ + (Freiburg i. B., 1855); English translation of the earlier volumes to + A.D. 787, from A.D. 326 on, based on the second German edition + (Edinburgh, 1871 ff.); French, by Delarc (Paris, 1869-1874, 10 vols.). + This first edition not entirely superseded by the second, made after + the Vatican council, and continued by Knopfler and by Hergenrother + (Freiburg, 1873-1890, 9 vols.); a French translation, with + continuation and critical and bibliographical notes, _par un religieux + benedictin de Farnborough_, tome i. 1^re partie (Paris, Letouzey, + 1907); Paul Viollet, _Examen de l'histoire des conciles de Mgr Hefele_ + (Paris, 1876) (_Extrait de la Revue historique_); W. P. du Bose, _The + Ecumenical Councils_ (New York, 1896) (popular); P. Guerin, _Les + Conciles generaux et particuliers_ (Paris, 1868, 3rd impression, 1897, + 3 tom.); see also A. Harnack, _History of Dogma_ (Boston, 1895-1900, 7 + vols.); F. Loofs, _Leitfaden der Dogmengeschichte_ (4th ed., enlarged, + Halle, 1906). + + LITERATURE: _Dictionnaire universel et complet des conciles_, redige + par A. C. Peltier, publie par Migne (Paris, 1847, 2 vols.) (Migne, + _Encyclopedie theologique_, vol. 13 f.); Z. Zitelli-Natali, _Epitome + historico-canonica conciliorum generalium_ (Rome, 1881); F. X. Kraus, + _Realencyklopadie der christlichen Altertumer_, vol. i. + (Freiburg-i.-B., 1882) (art. "Concilien" by Funk); William Smith and + S. Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_ (London, 1876-1880, + 2 vols.) (erudite detail); Wetzer und Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_, 2nd + ed. by Hergenrother and Kaulen (Freiburg i. B., 1882-1903, 13 vols.) + (art. "Concil" by Scheeben); _La Grande Encyclopedie_ (Paris, s.d., 31 + vols.) (numerous articles); P. Hinschius, _Das Kirchenrecht der + Katholiken und Protestanten in Deutschland_, vol. 3 (Berlin, 1883) + (fundamental and masterly); R. von Scherer, _Handbuch des + Kirchenrechtes_, vol. i. (Graz, 1886) (excellent notes and + references); E. H. Landon, _A Manual of Councils of the Holy Catholic + Church_, (revised ed., London, [1893], 2 vols.) (paraphrases chief + canons; needs revision); Martigny, _Dictionnaire des antiquites + chretiennes_ (3rd ed., Paris, 1889) (for ceremonial); R. Sohm, + _Kirchenrecht_, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1892) (brilliant); A. Kneer, _Die + Entstehung der konziliaren Theorie_ (Rome, 1893); _Realencyklopadie + fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche_, begrundet von J. J. Herzog, + 3rd revised ed. by A. Hauck (Leipzig, 1896 ff.) (in vol. 19 Hauck's + excellent _Synoden_, 1907); F. X. Funk, _Kirchengeschichtliche + Abhandlungen und Untersuchungen_ (Paderborn, 1897); A. V. G. Allen, + _Christian Institutions_ (New York, 1897), chap. xi.; C. A. Kneller, + "Papst und Konzil im ersten Jahrtausend" (_Zeitschrift fur katholische + Theologie_, vols. 27 and 28, Innsbruck, 1893 f.); F. Bliemetzrieder, + _Das Generalkonzil im grossen abendlandischen Schisma_ (Paderborn, + 1904); Wilhelm and Scannell, _Manual of Catholic Theology_ (3rd ed., + London, 1906, sect. 32); J. Forget, "Conciles," in A. Vacant and E. + Mangeot, _Dictionnaire de theologie catholique_, tome 3, 636-676 + (Paris, 1906 ff.), with elaborate bibliography; _The Catholic + Encyclopedia_ (New York, 1907 ff.). (W. W. R.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For the Greek Council see BOULE; for the Hebdomadal Council see + OXFORD; see also ENGLAND: Local Government. + + [2] From [Greek: he oikoumene (ge)]. the inhabited world; Latin + _oecumenicus_ or _universalis_. The English forms "oecumenical" and + "ecumenical" are both used. + + + + +COUNCIL BLUFFS, a city and the county-seat of Pottawattamie county, +Iowa, U.S.A., about 2-1/2 m. E. of the Missouri river opposite Omaha, +Nebraska, with which it is connected by a road bridge and two railway +bridges. Pop. (1890) 21,474; (1900) 25,802, of whom 3723 were +foreign-born; (1910) 29,292. It is pre-eminently a railway centre, being +served by the Union Pacific, of which it is the principal eastern +terminus, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Milwaukee & +Saint Paul, the Chicago & Northwestern, the Chicago, Rock Island & +Pacific, the Chicago Great-Western, the Illinois Central, and the +Wabash, which together have given it considerable commercial importance. +It is built for the most part on level ground at the foot of high +bluffs; and has several parks, the most attractive of which, commanding +fine views, is Fairmount Park. With the exception of bricks and tiles, +carriages and wagons, agricultural implements, and the products of its +railway shops, its manufactures are relatively unimportant, the factory +product in 1905 being valued at only $1,924,109. Council Bluffs is the +seat of the Western Iowa Business College, and of the Iowa school for +the deaf. On or near the site of Council Bluffs, in 1804, Lewis and +Clark held a council with the Indians, whence the city's name. In 1838 +the Federal government made this the headquarters of the Pottawattamie +Indians, removed from Missouri. They remained until 1846-1847, when the +Mormons came, built many cabins, and named the place Kanesville. The +Mormons remained only about five years, but on their departure for Utah +their places were speedily taken by new immigrants. During 1849-1850 +Council Bluffs became an important outfitting point for California gold +seekers--the goods being brought by boat from Saint Louis--and in 1853 +it was incorporated as a city. + + + + +COUNSEL AND COUNSELLOR, one who gives advice, more particularly in legal +matters. The term "counsel" is employed in England as a synonym for a +barrister-at-law, and may refer either to a single person who pleads a +cause, or collectively, to the body of barristers engaged in a case. +Counsellor or, more fully, counsellor-at-law, is practically an obsolete +term in England, but is still in use locally in Ireland as an equivalent +to barrister. In the United States, a counsellor-at-law is, +specifically, an attorney admitted to practice in all the courts; but as +there is no formal distinction of the legal profession into two classes, +as in England, the term is more often used loosely in the same sense as +"lawyer," i.e. one who is versed in, or practises law. + + + + +COUNT (Lat. _comes_, gen. _comitis_, Fr. _comte_, Ital. _conte_, Span. +_conde_), the English translation of foreign titles equivalent generally +to the English "earl."[1] In Anglo-French documents the word _counte_ +was at all times used as the equivalent of earl, but, unlike the +feminine form "countess," it did not find its way into the English +language until the 16th century, and then only in the sense defined +above. The title of earl, applied by the English to the foreign counts +established in England by William the Conqueror, is dealt with elsewhere +(see EARL). The present article deals with (1) the office of count in +the Roman empire and the Frankish kingdom, (2) the development of the +feudal count in France and under the Holy Roman Empire, (3) modern +counts. + +1. The Latin _comes_ meant literally a companion or follower. In the +early Roman empire the word was used to designate the companions of the +emperor (_comites principis_) and so became a title of honour. The +emperor Hadrian chose senators as companions on his travels and to help +him in public business. They formed a permanent council, and Hadrian's +successors entrusted these _comites_ with the administration of justice +and finance, or placed them in military commands. The designation +_comes_ thus developed into a formal official title of high officers of +state, some qualification being added to indicate the special duties +attached to the office in each case. Thus in the 5th century, among the +_comites_ attached to the emperor's establishment, we find, e.g., the +_comes sacrarum largitionum_ and the _comes rei privatae_; while others, +forming the council, were styled _comites consistorii_. Others were sent +into the provinces as governors, _comites per provincias constituti_; +thus in the _Notitia dignitatum_ we find a _comes Aegypti_, a _comes +Africae_, a _comes Belgicae_, a _comes Lugdunensis_ and others. Two of +the generals of the Roman province of Britain were styled the _comes +Britanniae_ and the _comes littoris Saxonici_ (count of the Saxon +shore). + +At Constantinople in the latter Roman empire the Latin word _comes_ +assumed a Greek garb as [Greek: komes] and was declined as a Greek noun +(gen. [Greek: kometos]); the _comes sacrarum largitionum_ (count of the +sacred bounties) was called at Constantinople [Greek: ho komes ton +sakron largitionon] and the _comes rerum privatarum_ (count of the +private estates) was called [Greek: komes ton pribaton]. The count of +the sacred bounties was the lord treasurer or chancellor of the +exchequer, for the public treasury and the imperial fisc had come to be +identical; while the count of the private estates managed the imperial +demesnes and the privy purse. In the 5th century the "sacred bounties" +corresponded to the _aerarium_ of the early Empire, while the _res +privatae_ represented the fisc. The officers connected with the palace +and the emperor's person included the count of the wardrobe (_comes +sacrae vestis_), the count of the residence (_comes domorum_), and, most +important of all, the _comes domesticorum et sacri stabuli_ (graecized +as [Greek: komes tou stablou]). The count of the stable, originally the +imperial master of the horse, developed into the "illustrious" +commander-in-chief of the imperial army (Stilicho, e.g., bore the full +title as given above), and became the prototype of the medieval +constable (q.v.). + +An important official of the second rank (_spectabilis_, "respectable" +as contrasted with those of highest rank who were "illustrious") was the +count of the East, who appears to have had the control of a department +in which 600 officials were engaged. His power was reduced in the 6th +century, when he was deprived of his authority over the Orient diocese, +and became civil governor of Syria Prima, retaining his "respectable" +rank. Another important officer of the later Roman court was the _comes +sacri patrimonii_, who was instituted by the emperor Anastasius. In this +connexion it should be observed that the word _patrimonium_ gradually +changed in meaning. In the beginning of the 3rd century _patrimonium_ +meant crown property, and _res privata_ meant personal property: at the +beginning of the 6th century _patrimonium_ meant personal property, and +_res privata_ meant crown property. It is difficult to give briefly a +clear idea of the functions of the three important officials _comes +sacrarum largitionum_, _comes rei privatae_ and _comes sacri +patrimonii_; but the terms have been well translated by a German author +as _Finanzminister des Reichsschatzes_ (finance minister of the treasury +of the Empire), _F. des Kronschatzes_ (of the crown treasury), and _F. +des kaiserlichen Privatvermogens_ (of the emperor's private property). + +The Frankish kings of the Merovingian dynasty retained the Roman system +of administration, and under them the word _comes_ preserved its +original meaning; the _comes_ was a companion of the king, a royal +servant of high rank. Under the early Frankish kings some _comites_ did +not exercise any definite functions; they were merely attached to the +king's person and executed his orders. Others filled the highest +offices, e.g. the _comes palatii_ and _comes stabuli_ (see CONSTABLE). +The kingdom was divided for administrative purposes into small areas +called _pagi_ (_pays_, Ger. _Gau_), corresponding generally to the Roman +_civitates_ (see CITY).[2] At the head of the _pagus_ was the _comes_, +corresponding to the German _Graf_ (_Gaugraf_, cf. Anglo-Saxon +_scire-gerefa_,[3] sheriff). The _comes_ was appointed by the king and +removable at his pleasure, and was chosen originally from all classes, +sometimes from enfranchised slaves. His essential functions were +judicial and executive, and in documents he is often described as the +king's agent (_agens publicus_) or royal judge (_judex publicus_ or +_fiscalis_). As the delegate of the executive power he had the right to +military command in the king's name, and to take all the measures +necessary for the preservation of the peace, i.e. to exercise the royal +"ban" (_bannus regis_). He was at once public prosecutor and judge, was +responsible for the execution of the sentences of the courts, and as the +king's representative exercised the royal right of protection (_mundium +regis_) over churches, widows, orphans and the like. He enjoyed a triple +wergeld, but had no definite salary, being remunerated by the receipt of +certain revenues, a system which contained the germs of discord, on +account of the confusion of his public and private estates. He also +retained a third of the fines which he imposed in his judicial capacity. + +Under the early Carolings the title count did not indicate noble birth. +A _comes_ was generally raised from childhood in the king's palace, and +rose to be a count through successive stages. The count's office was not +yet a dignity, nor hereditary; he was not independent nor appointed for +life, but exercised the royal power by delegation, as under the +Merovingians. While, however, he was theoretically paid by the king, he +seems to have been himself one of the sources of the royal revenue. The +counties were, it appears, farmed out; but in the 7th century the royal +choice became restricted to the larger landed proprietors, who gradually +emancipated themselves from royal control, and in the 8th century the +term _comitatus_ begins to denote a geographical area, though there was +little difference in its extent under the Merovingian kings and the +early Carolings. The count was about to pass into the feudatory stage. +Throughout the middle ages, however, the original official and personal +connotation of the title was never wholly lost; or perhaps it would be +truer to say, with Selden, that it was early revived with the study of +the Roman civil law in the 12th century. The unique dignity of count of +the Lateran palace,[4] bestowed in 1328 by the emperor Louis IV. the +Bavarian on Castrucio de' Antelminelli, duke of Lucca, and his heirs +male, was official as well as honorary, being charged with the +attendance and service to be performed at the palace at the emperor's +coronation at Rome (Du Cange, s.v. _Comites Palatii Lateranensis_; +Selden, op. cit. p. 321). This instance, indeed, remained isolated; but +the personal title of "count palatine," though honorary rather than +official, was conferred on officials--especially by the popes on those +of the Curia--had no territorial significance, and was to the last +reminiscent of those early comites palatii whose relations to the +sovereign had been purely personal and official (see PALATINE). A relic +of the old official meaning of "count" still survives in Transylvania, +where the head of the political administration of the Saxon districts is +styled count (_comes_, _Graf_) of the Saxon Nation. + +2. _Feudal Counts._--The process by which the official counts were +transformed into feudal vassals almost independent is described in the +article FEUDALISM. In the confusion of the period of transition, when +the title to possession was usually the power to hold, designations +which had once possessed a definite meaning were preserved with no +defined association. In France, by the 10th century, the process of +decomposition of the old organization had gone far, and in the 11th +century titles of nobility were still very loosely applied. That of +"count" was, as Luchaire points out, "equivocal" even as late as the +12th century; any castellan of moderate rank could style himself _comte_ +who in the next century would have been called _seigneur_ (_dominus_). +Even when, in the 13th century, the ranks of the feudal hierarchy in +France came to be more definitely fixed, the style of "count" might +imply much, or comparatively little. In the oldest register of Philip +Augustus counts are reckoned with dukes in the first of the five orders +into which the nobles are divided, but the list includes, besides such +almost sovereign rulers as the counts of Flanders and Champagne, +immediate vassals of much less importance--such as the counts of +Soissons and Dammartin--and even one mediate vassal, the count of +Bar-sur-Seine. The title was still in fact "equivocal," and so it +remained throughout French history. In the official lists it was early +placed second to that of duke (Luchaire, _Manuel_, p. 181, note 1), but +in practice at least the great _comtes-pairs_ (e.g. of Champagne) were +the equals of any duke and the superiors of many. Thus, too, in modern +times royal princes have been given the title of count (Paris, Flanders, +Caserta), the heir of Charles X. actually changing his style, without +sense of loss, from that of duc de Bordeaux to that of comte de +Chambord. From the 16th century onwards the equivocal nature of the +title in France was increased by the royal practice of selling it, +either to viscounts or barons in respect of their fiefs, or to rich +_roturiers_. + +In Germany the change from the official to the territorial and +hereditary counts followed at the outset much the same course as in +France, though the later development of the title and its meaning was +different. In the 10th century the counts were permitted by the kings to +divide their benefices and rights among their sons, the rule being +established that countships (_Grafschaften_) were hereditary, that they +might be held by boys, that they were heritable by females and might +even be administered by females. The _Grafschaft_ became thus merely a +bundle of rights inherent in the soil; and, the count's office having +become his property, the old counties or _Gauen_ rapidly disappeared as +administrative units, being either amalgamated or subdivided. By the +second half of the 12th century the official character of the count had +quite disappeared; he had become a territorial noble, and the foundation +had been laid of territorial sovereignty (_Landeshoheit_). The first +step towards this was the concession to the counts of the military +prerogatives of dukes, a right enjoyed from the first by the counts of +the marches (see MARGRAVE), then given to counts palatine (see PALATINE) +and, finally, to other counts, who assumed by reason of it the style of +landgrave (_Landgraf_, i.e. count of a province). At first all counts +were reckoned as princes of the Empire (_Reichsfursten_); but since the +end of the 12th century this rank was restricted to those who were +immediate tenants of the crown,[5] the other counts of the Empire +(_Reichsgrafen_) being placed among the free lords (_barones_, _liberi +domini_). Counts of princely rank (_gefurstete Grafen_) voted among the +princes in the imperial diet; the others (_Reichsgrafen_) were grouped +in the _Grafenbanke_--originally two, to which two more were added in +the 17th century--each of which had one vote. In 1806, on the formation +of the Confederation of the Rhine, the sovereign counts were all +mediatized (see MEDIATIZATION). Even before the end of the Empire (1806) +the right of bestowing the title of count was freely exercised by the +various German territorial sovereigns. + +3. _Modern Counts._--Any political significance which the feudal title +of count retained in the 18th century vanished with the changes produced +by the Revolution. It is now simply a title of honour and one, moreover, +the social value of which differs enormously, not only in the different +European countries, but within the limits of the same country. In +Germany, for instance, there are several categories of counts: (1) the +mediatized princely counts (_gefurstete Grafen_), who are reckoned the +equals in blood of the European sovereign houses, an equality symbolized +by the "closed crown" surmounting their armorial bearings. The heads of +these countly families of the "high nobility" are entitled (by a decree +of the federal diet, 1829) to the style of _Erlaucht_ (illustrious, most +honourable); (2) Counts of the Empire[6] (_Reichsgrafen_), descendants +of those counts who, before the end of the Holy Roman Empire (1806), +were _Reichsstandisch_ i.e. sat in one of the _Grafenbanke_ in the +imperial diet, and entitled to a ducal coronet; (3) Counts (a) descended +from the lower nobility of the old Empire, titular since the 15th +century, (b) created since; their coronet is nine-pointed (cf. the nine +points and strawberry leaves of the English earl). The difficulty of +determining in any case the exact significance of the title of a German +count, illustrated by the above, is increased by the fact that the title +is generally heritable by all male descendants, the only exception being +in Prussia, where, since 1840, the rule of primogeniture has prevailed +and the bestowal of the title is dependent on a rent-roll of L3000 a +year. The result is that the title is very widespread and in itself +little significant. A German or Austrian count may be a wealthy noble of +princely rank, a member of the Prussian or Austrian Upper House, or he +may be the penniless cadet of a family of no great rank or antiquity. +Nevertheless the title, which has long been very sparingly bestowed, +always implies a good social position. The style _Altgraf_ (old count), +occasionally found, is of some antiquity, and means that the title of +count has been borne by the family from time immemorial. + +In medieval France the significance of the title of count varied with +the power of those who bore it; in modern France it varies with its +historical associations. It is not so common as in Germany or Italy; +because it does not by custom pass to all male descendants. The title +was, however, cheapened by its revival under Napoleon. By the decree of +the 1st of March 1808, reviving titles of nobility, that of count was +assigned _ex officio_ to ministers, senators and life councillors of +state, to the president of the Corps Legislatif and to archbishops. The +title was made heritable in order of primogeniture, and in the case of +archbishops through their nephews. These Napoleonic countships, +increased under subsequent reigns, have produced a plentiful crop of +titles of little social significance, and have tended to lower the +status of the counts deriving from the _ancien regime_. The title of +marquis, which Napoleon did not revive, has risen proportionately in the +estimation of the Faubourg St Germain. As for that of count, it is safe +to say that in France its social value is solely dependent on its +historical associations. + +Of all European countries Italy has been most prolific of counts. Every +petty Italian prince, from the pope downwards, created them for love or +money; and, in the absence of any regulating authority, the title was +also widely and loosely assumed, while often the feudal title passed +with the sale of the estate to which it was attached. Casanova remarked +that in some Italian cities all the nobles were _baroni_, in others all +were _conti_. An Italian _conte_ may or may not be a gentleman; he has +long ceased, _qua_ count, to have any social prestige, and his rank is +not recognized by the Italian government. As in France, however, there +are some Italian _conti_ whose titles are respectable, and even +illustrious, from their historic associations. The prestige belongs, +however, not to the title but to the name. As for the papal countships, +which are still freely bestowed on those of all nations whom the Holy +See wishes to reward, their prestige naturally varies with the religious +complexion of the country in which the titles are borne. They are +esteemed by the faithful, but have small significance for those outside. +In Spain, on the other hand, the title of _conde_, the earlier history +of which follows much the same development as in France, is still of +much social value, mainly owing to the fact that the rule of +primogeniture exists, and that, a large fee being payable to the state +on succession to a title, it is necessarily associated with some degree +of wealth. The Spanish counts of old creation, some of whom are grandees +and members of the Upper House, naturally take the highest rank; but the +title, still bestowed for eminent public services or other reasons, is +of value. The title, like others in Spain, can pass through an heiress +to her husband. In Russia the title of count (_graf_, fem. _grafinya_), +a foreign importation, has little social prestige attached to it, being +given to officials of a certain rank. In the British empire the only +recognized counts are those of Malta, who are given precedence with +baronets of the United Kingdom. + + See Selden, _Titles of Honor_ (London, 1672); Du Cange, _Glossarium + Med. Lat._ (ed. Niort, 1883) s.v. "Comes"; _La Grande Encyclopedie_, + s.v. "Comte"; A. Luchaire, _Manuel des institutions francaises_ + (Paris, 1892); P. Guilhiermoz, _Essai sur l'origine de la noblesse en + France au moyen age_ (Paris, 1902); Brunner, _Deutsche + Rechtsgeschichte_, Band ii. (Leipzig, 1892). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The exact significance of a title is difficult to reproduce in a + foreign language. Actually, only some foreign counts could be said to + be equivalent to English earls; but "earl" is always translated by + foreigners by words (_comte_, _Graf_) which in English are + represented by "count," itself never used as the synonym of "earl." + Conversely old English writers had no hesitation in translating as + "earl" foreign titles which we now render "count." + + [2] The changing language of this epoch speaks of _civitates_, + subsequently of _pagi_, and later of _comitatus_ (counties). + + [3] The A.S. _gerefa_, however, meaning "illustrious," "chief," has + apparently, according to philologists, no connexion with the German + _Graf_, which originally meant "servant" (cf. "knight," "valet," + &c.). It is the more curious that the _gerefa_ should end as a + servant ("reeve"), the _Graf_ as a noble (count). + + [4] "Count of the Lateran Palace" (_Comes Sacri Lateranensis + Palatii_) was later the title usually bestowed by the popes in + creating counts palatine. The emperors, too, continued to make counts + palatine under this title long after the Lateran had ceased to be an + imperial palace. + + [5] Of these there were four who, as counts of the Empire _par + excellence_, were sometimes styled "simple counts" (_Schlechtgrafen_), + i.e. the counts of Cleves, Schwarzburg, Cilli and Savoy; they were + entitled to the ducal coronet. Three of these had become dukes by the + 17th century, but the count (now prince) of Schwarzburg still styled + himself "Of the four counts of the Holy Roman Empire, count of + Schwarzburg" (see Selden, ed. 1672, p. 312). + + [6] This title is borne by certain English families, e.g. by Lord + Arundell of Wardour. In other cases it has been assumed without due + warrant. See J. H. Round, "English Counts of the Empire," in _The + Ancestor_, vii. 15 (Westminster, October 1903). + + + + +COUNTER. (1) (Through the O. Fr. _conteoir_, modern _comptoir_, from +Lat. _computare_, to reckon), a round piece of metal, wood or other +material used anciently in making calculations, and now for reckoning +points in games of cards, &c., or as tokens representing actual coins or +sums of money in gambling games such as roulette. The word is thus used, +figuratively, of something of no real value, a sham. In the original +sense of "a means of counting money, or keeping accounts," "counter" is +used of the table or flat-topped barrier in a bank, merchant's office or +shop, on which money is counted and goods handed to a customer. The term +was also applied, usually in the form "compter," to the debtors' prisons +attached to the mayor's or sheriff's courts in London and some other +boroughs in England. The "compters" of the sheriff's courts of the city +of London were, at various times, in the Poultry, Bread St., Wood St. +and Giltspur St.; the Giltspur St. compter was the last to be closed, in +1854. (2) (From Lat. _contra_, opposite, against), a circular parry in +fencing, and in boxing, a blow given as a parry to a lead of an +opponent. The word is also used of the stiff piece of leather at the +back of a boot or shoe, of the rounded angle at the stern of a ship, +and, in a horse, of the part lying between the shoulder and the under +part of the neck. In composition, counter is used to express contrary +action, as in "countermand," "counterfeit," &c. + + + + +COUNTERFEITING (from Lat. _contra-facere_, to make in opposition or +contrast), making an imitation without authority and for the purpose of +defrauding. The word is more particularly used in connexion with the +making of imitations of money, whether paper or coin. (See COINAGE +OFFENCES; FORGERY.) + + + + +COUNTERFORT (Fr. _contrefort_), in architecture, a buttress or pier +built up against the wall of a building or terrace to strengthen it, or +to resist the thrust of an arch or other constructional feature inside. + + + + +COUNTERPOINT (Lat. _contrapunctus_, "point counter point," "note against +note"), in music, the art happily defined by Sir Frederick Gore Ouseley +as that "of combining" melodies: this should imply that good +counterpoint is the production of beautiful harmony by a combination of +well-characterized melodies. The individual audibility of the melodies +is a matter of which current criticism enormously overrates the +importance. What is always important is the peculiar life breathed into +harmony by contrapuntal organization. Both historically and +aesthetically "counterpoint" and "harmony" are inextricably blended; for +nearly every harmonic fact is in its origin a phenomenon of +counterpoint. And if in later musical developments it becomes possible +to treat chords as, so to speak, harmonic lumps with a meaning +independent of counterpoint, this does not mean that they have really +changed their nature; but it shows a difference between modern and +earlier music precisely similar to that between modern English, in which +metaphorical and abstract expressions are so constantly used that they +have become a mere shorthand for the literal and concrete expression, +and classical Greek, where metaphors and abstractions can appear only as +elaborate similes or explicit philosophical ideas. The laws of +counterpoint are, then, laws of harmony with the addition of such laws +of melody as are not already produced by the interaction of harmonic and +melodic principles. In so far as the laws of counterpoint are derived +from purely harmonic principles, that is to say, derived from the +properties of concord and discord, their origin and development are +discussed in the article HARMONY. In so far as they depend entirely on +melody they are too minute and changeable to admit of general +discussion; and in so far as they show the interaction of melodic and +harmonic principles it is more convenient to discuss them under the head +of harmony, because they appear in such momentary phenomena as are more +easily regarded as successions of chords than as principles of design. +All that remains, then, for the present article is the explanation of +certain technical terms. + +1. _Canto Fermo_ (i.e. plain chant) is a melody in long notes given to +one voice while others accompany it with quicker counterpoints (the term +"counterpoint" in this connexion meaning accompanying melodies). In the +simplest cases the _Canto Fermo_ has notes of equal length and is +unbroken in flow. When it is broken up and its rhythm diversified, the +gradations between counterpoint on a _Canto Fermo_ and ordinary forms of +polyphony, or indeed any kind of melody with an elaborate accompaniment, +are infinite and insensible. + +2. _Double Counterpoint_ is a combination of melodies so designed that +either can be taken above or below the other. When this change of +position is effected by merely altering the octave of either or both +melodies (with or without transposition of the whole combination to +another key), the artistic value of the device is simply that of the +raising of the lower melody to the surface. The harmonic scheme remains +the same, except in so far as some of the chords are not in their +fundamental position, while others, not originally fundamental, have +become so. But double counterpoint may be in other intervals than the +octave; that is to say, while one of the parts remains stationary, the +other may be transposed above or below it by some interval other than an +octave, thus producing an entirely different set of harmonies. + +_Double Counterpoint in the 12th_ has thus been made a powerful means of +expression and variety. The artistic value of this device depends not +only on the beauty and novelty of the second scheme of harmony obtained, +but also on the change of melodic expression produced by transferring +one of the melodies to another position in the scale. Two of the most +striking illustrations of this effect are to be found in the last chorus +of Brahms's _Triumphlied_ and in the fourth of his variations on a theme +by Haydn. + +_Double Counterpoint in the 10th_ has, in addition to this, the property +that the inverted melody can be given in the new and in the original +positions simultaneously. + +Double counterpoint in other intervals than the octave, 10th and 12th, +is rare, but the general principle and motives for it remain the same +under all conditions. The two subjects of the _Confiteor_ in Bach's B +minor Mass are in double counterpoint in the octave, 11th and 13th. And +Beethoven's Mass in D is full of pieces of double counterpoint in the +inversions of which a few notes are displaced so as to produce momentary +double counterpoint in unusual intervals, obviously with the intention +of varying the harmony. Technical treatises are silent as to this +purpose, and leave the student in the belief that the classical +composers used these devices, if at all, in a manner as meaningless as +the examples in the treatises. + +3. _Triple, Quadruple and Multiple Counterpoint._--When more than two +melodies are designed so as to combine in interchangeable positions, it +becomes increasingly difficult to avoid chords and progressions of which +some inversions are incorrect. In triple counterpoint this difficulty is +not so great; although a complete triad is dangerous, as it is apt to +invert as a "6/4" which requires careful handling. On the other hand, in +triple counterpoint the necessity for strictness is at its greatest, +because there are only six possible inversions, and in a long polyphonic +work most of these will be required. Moreover, the artistic value of the +device is at its highest in three-part polyphonic harmony, which, +whether invertible or not, is always a fine test of artistic economy, +while the inversions are as evident to the ear, especially where the top +part is concerned, as those in double counterpoint. Triple counterpoint +(and a fortiori multiple counterpoint) is normally possible only at the +octave; for it will be found that if three parts are designed to invert +in some other interval this will involve two of them inverting in a +third interval which will give rise to incalculable difficulty. This +makes the fourth of Brahms's variations on a theme of Haydn almost +miraculous. The plaintive expression of the whole variation is largely +due to the fact that the flowing semiquaver counterpoint below the main +theme is on each repeat inverted in the 12th, with the result that its +chief emphasis falls upon the most plaintive parts of the scale. But in +the first eight bars of the second part of the variation a third +contrapuntal voice appears, and this too is afterwards inverted in the +12th, with perfectly natural and smooth effect. But this involves the +inversion of two of the counterpoints with each other in the 9th, a kind +of double counterpoint which is almost impossible. The case is unique, +but it admirably illustrates the difference between artistic and merely +academic mastery of technical resource. + +_Quadruple Counterpoint_ is not rare with Bach. It would be more +difficult than triple, but for the fact that of its twenty-four possible +inversions not more than four or five need be correct. _Quintuple +counterpoint_ is admirably illustrated in the finale of Mozart's +_Jupiter Symphony_, in which everything in the successive statement and +gradual development of the five themes conspires to give the utmost +effect to their combination in the coda. Of course Mozart has not room +for more than five of the 120 possible combinations, and from these he +selects such as bring fresh themes into the outside parts, which are the +most clearly audible. _Sextuple Counterpoint_ may be found in Bach's +great double chorus, _Nun ist das Heil_, and in the finale of his +concerto for three claviers in C, and probably in other places. + +4. _Added Thirds and Sixths._--An easy and effective imitation of triple +and quadruple counterpoint, embodying much of the artistic value of +inversion, is found in the numerous combinations of themes in thirds and +sixths which arise from an extension of the principle which we mentioned +in connexion with double counterpoint in the 10th, namely, the +possibility of performing it in its original and inverted positions +simultaneously. The _Pleni sunt coeli_ of Bach's B minor Mass is written +in this kind of transformation of double into quadruple counterpoint; +and the artistic value of the device is perhaps never so magnificently +realized as in the place, at bar 84, where the trumpet doubles the bass +three octaves and a third above while the alto and second tenor have the +counter subjects in close thirds in the middle. + +Almost all other contrapuntal devices are derived from the principle of +the _canon_ and are discussed in the article CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS. + +As a training in musical grammar and style, the rhythms of 16th-century +polyphony were early codified into "the five species of counterpoint" +(with various other species now forgotten) and practised by students of +composition. The classical treatise on which Haydn and Beethoven were +trained was Fux's _Gradus ad Parnassum_ (1725). This was superseded in +the 19th century by Cherubini's, the first of a long series of attempts +to bring up to date as a dead language what should be studied in its +original and living form. (D. F. T.) + + + + +COUNTERSCARP ( = "opposite scarp," Fr. _contrescarpe_), a term used in +fortification for the outer slope of a ditch; see FORTIFICATION and +SIEGECRAFT. + + + + +COUNTERSIGN, a military term for a sign, word or signal previously +arranged and required to be given by persons approaching a sentry, guard +or other post. In some armies the "countersign" is strictly the reply of +the sentry to the pass-word given by the person approaching. + + + + +COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. _contre_ or _contrie_, and O. Fr. _cuntree_; +Late Lat. _contrata_, showing the derivation from _contra_, opposite, +over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. +_Gegend_, neighbourhood), an extent of land without definite limits, or +such a region with some peculiar character, as the "black country," the +"fen country" and the like. The extension from such descriptive +limitation to the limitation of occupation by particular owners or races +is easy; this gives the common use of the word for the land inhabited by +a particular nation or race. Another meaning is that part of the land +not occupied by towns, "rural" as opposed to "urban" districts; this +appears too in "country-house" and "country town"; so too "countryman" +is used both for a rustic and for the native of a particular land. The +word appears in many phrases, in the sense of the whole population of a +country, and especially of the general body of electors, as in the +expression "go to the country," for the dissolution of parliament +preparatory to a general election. + + + + +COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. _counte_, cf. O. Fr. _cunte_, _conte_, Mod. +Fr. _comte_, from Lat. _comitatus_, cf. Ital. _comitato_, Prov. +_comtat_; see COUNT), in its most usual sense the name given to certain +important administrative divisions in the United Kingdom, the British +dominions beyond the seas, and the United States of America. The word +was first introduced after the Norman Conquest as the equivalent of the +old English "shire," which has survived as its synonym, though +occasionally also applied to divisions smaller than counties, e.g. +Norhamshire, Hexhamshire and Hallamshire. The word "county" is also +sometimes used, alternatively with "countship," to translate foreign +words, e.g. the French _comte_ and the German _Grafschaft_, which +connote the territorial jurisdiction of a count (q.v.). The present +article is confined to a sketch of the origin and development of English +counties, which have served in a greater or less degree as the model +for the county organizations in the various countries of the +English-speaking world which are described under their proper headings. + +About one-third of the English counties represent ancient kingdoms, +sub-kingdoms or tribal divisions, such as Kent, Sussex, Norfolk, Devon; +but most of the remaining counties take their names from some important +town within their respective boundaries. The counties to the south of +the Thames (except Cornwall) already existed in the time of Alfred, but +those of the midlands seem to have been created during the reign of +Edward the Elder (901-925) and to have been artificially bounded areas +lying around some stronghold which became a centre of civil and military +administration. There is reason, however, for thinking that the counties +of Bedford, Cambridge, Huntingdon and Northampton are of Danish origin. +Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmorland were not recognized as +English counties until some time after the Norman Conquest, the last two +definitely appearing as fiscal areas in 1177. The origin of Rutland as a +county is obscure, but it had its own sheriff in 1154. + +In the period preceding the Norman Conquest two officers appear at the +head of the county organization. These are the ealdorman or earl, and +the _scirgerefa_ or sheriff. The shires of Wessex appear each to have +had an ealdorman, whose duties were to command its military forces, to +preside over the county assembly (_scirgemot_), to carry out the laws +and to execute justice. The name ealdorman gave way to that of earl, +probably under Danish influence, in the first half of the 11th century, +and it is probable that the office of sheriff came into existence in the +reign of Canute (1017-1035), when the great earldoms were formed and it +was no longer possible for the earl to perform his various +administrative duties in person in a group of counties. After the Norman +Conquest the earl was occasionally appointed sheriff of his county, but +in general his only official connexion with it was to receive the third +penny of its pleas, and the earldom ceased to be an office and became +merely a title. In the 12th century the office of coroner was created, +two or more of them being chosen in the county court as vacancies +occurred. In the same century verderers were first chosen in the same +manner for the purpose of holding inquisitions on vert and venison in +those counties which contained royal forests. It was the business of the +sheriff (_vicecomes_) as the king's representative to serve and return +all writs, to levy distresses on the king's behalf, to execute all royal +precepts and to collect the king's revenue. In this work he was assisted +by a large staff of clerks and bailiffs who were directly responsible to +him and not to the king. The sheriff also commanded the armed forces of +the crown within his county, and either in person or by deputy presided +over the county court which was now held monthly in most counties. In +1300 it was enacted that the sheriffs might be chosen by the county, +except in Worcestershire, Cornwall, Rutland, Westmorland and Lancashire, +where there were then sheriffs in fee, that is, sheriffs who held their +offices hereditarily by royal grant. The elective arrangement was of no +long duration, and it was finally decided in 1340 that the sheriffs +should be appointed by the chancellor, the treasurer and the chief baron +of the exchequer, but should hold office for one year only. The county +was from an early period regarded as a community, and approached the +king as a corporate body, while in later times petitions were presented +through the knights of the shire. It was also an organic whole for the +purpose of the conservation of the peace. The assessment of taxation by +commissioners appointed by the county court developed in the 13th +century into the representation of the county by two knights of the +shire elected by the county court to serve in parliament, and this +representation continued unaltered save for a short period during the +Protectorate, until 1832, when many of the counties received a much +larger representation, which was still further increased by later acts. + +The royal control over the county was strengthened from the 14th century +onward by the appointment of justices of the peace. This system was +further developed under the Tudors, while in the middle of the 16th +century the military functions of the sheriff were handed over to a new +officer, the lord-lieutenant, who is now more prominently associated +with the headship of the county than is the sheriff. The lord-lieutenant +now usually holds the older office of _custos rotulorum_, or keeper of +the records of the county. The justices of the peace are appointed upon +his nomination, and until lately he appointed the clerk of the peace. +The latter appointment is now made by the joint committee of quarter +sessions and county council. + +The Tudor system of local government received little alteration until +the establishment of county councils by the Local Government Act of 1888 +handed over to an elected body many of the functions previously +exercised by the nominated justices of the peace. For the purposes of +this act the ridings of Yorkshire, the divisions of Lincolnshire, east +and west Sussex, east and west Suffolk, the soke of Peterborough and the +Isle of Ely are regarded as counties, so that there are now sixty +administrative counties of England and Wales. Between 1373 and 1692 the +crown granted to certain cities and boroughs the privilege of being +counties of themselves. There were in 1835 eighteen of these counties +corporate, Bristol, Chester, Coventry, Gloucester, Lincoln, Norwich, +Nottingham, York and Carmarthen, each of which had two sheriffs, and +Canterbury, Exeter, Hull, Lichfield, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Poole, +Southampton, Worcester and Haverfordwest, each of which had one sheriff. +All these boroughs, with the exception of Carmarthen, Lichfield, Poole +and Haverfordwest, which remain counties of themselves, and forty-seven +others, were created county boroughs by the Local Government Act 1888, +and are entirely dissociated from the control of a county council. The +City of London is also a county of itself, whose two sheriffs are also +sheriffs of Middlesex, while for the purposes of the act of 1888 the +house-covered district which extends for many miles round the City +constitutes a county. + +The county has always been the unit for the organization of the militia, +and from about 1782 certain regiments of the regular army were +associated with particular counties by territorial titles. The army +scheme of 1907-1908 provided for the formation of county associations +under the presidency of the lords-lieutenant for the organization of the +new territorial army. + + See _Statutes of the Realm_; W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History of + England_ (1874-1878); F. W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_ + (1897); Sir F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, _History of English Law_ + (1895); H. M. Chadwick, _Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_ (1905), + and _The Victoria History of the Counties of England_. (G. J. T.) + + + + +COUNTY COURT, in England, a local court of civil jurisdiction. The +county court, it has been said, is at once the most ancient and the most +modern of English civil tribunals. The Saxon Curia Comitatus, maintained +after the Norman Conquest, was a local court and a small debts court. It +was instituted by Alfred the Great, its jurisdiction embracing civil, +and, until the reign of William I., ecclesiastical matters. The officers +of the court consisted of the earldorman, the bishop and the sheriff. +The court was held once in every four weeks, being presided over by the +earl, or, in his absence, the sheriff. The suitors of the court, i.e. +the freeholders, were the judges, the sheriff being simply a presiding +officer, pronouncing and afterwards executing the judgment of the court. +The court was not one of record. The appointment of judges of assize in +the reign of Henry II., as well as the expensive and dilatory procedure +of the court, brought about its gradual disuse, and other local courts, +termed courts of request or of conscience, were established. These, in +turn, proved unsatisfactory, owing both to the limited nature of their +jurisdiction (restricted to causes of debt not exceeding 40s. in value, +and to the fact that they were confined to particular places). +Accordingly, with the view of making justice cheaper and more accessible +the County Courts Act 1846 was passed. This act had the modest title of +"An Act for the Recovery of Small Debts and Demands in England." The +original limit of the jurisdiction of the new courts was L20, extended +in 1850 to L50 in actions of debt, and in 1903 (by an act which came +into force in 1905) to L100. Thirteen amending acts were passed, by +which new jurisdiction was from time to time conferred on the county +courts, and in the year 1888 an act was passed repealing the previous +acts and consolidating their provisions, with some amendment. This is +now the code or charter of the county courts. + +The grain of mustard-seed sown in 1846 has grown into a goodly tree, +with branches extending over the whole of England and Wales; and they +embrace within their ambit a more multifarious jurisdiction than is +possessed by any other courts in the kingdom. England and Wales were +mapped out into 59 circuits (not including the city of London), with +power for the crown, by order in council, to abolish any circuit and +rearrange the areas comprised in the circuits (sec. 4). There is one +judge to each circuit, but the lord chancellor is empowered to appoint +two judges in a circuit, provided that the total number of judges does +not exceed 60. The salary of a county court judge was originally fixed +at L1200, but he now receives L1500. He must at the time of his +appointment be a barrister-at-law of at least seven years' standing, and +not more than sixty years of age; after appointment he cannot sit as a +member of parliament or practise at the bar. + +Every circuit (except in Birmingham, Clerkenwell, and Westminster) is +divided into districts, in each of which there is a court, with a +registrar and bailiffs. The judges are directed to attend and hold a +court in each district at least once in every month, unless the lord +chancellor shall otherwise direct (secs. 10, 11). But in practice the +judge sits several times a month in the large centres of population, and +less frequently than once a month in the court town of sparsely +inhabited districts. By sec. 185 of the act of 1888 the judges and +officers of the city of London court have the like jurisdiction, powers, +and authority as those of a county court, and the county court rules +apply to that court. + +The ordinary jurisdiction of the county courts may be thus tabulated:-- + + Pecuniary limit + Subject matter. of jurisdiction. + + Common-law actions, with written consent of both + parties Unlimited. + Actions founded on contract (except for breach of + promise of marriage, in which the county courts have + no jurisdiction) L100. + + Actions founded on tort (except libel, slander, and + seduction, in which the county courts have no + jurisdiction) L100. + + Counter claims (unless plaintiff gives written notice + of objection) Unlimited. + + Ejectment or questions of title to reality L100 annual value. + + Equity jurisdiction L500. + + Probate jurisdiction L200 personalty + and L300 realty. + + Admiralty jurisdiction L300. + + Bankruptcy jurisdiction Unlimited. + + Replevin Unlimited. + + Interpleader transferred from High Court L500. + + Actions in contract transferred from High Court L100. + + Actions in tort transferred from High Court Unlimited. + + Companies (winding up), when the paid-up capital + does not exceed L10,000. + +There is no discoverable principle upon which these limits of the +jurisdiction of the county courts have been determined. But the above +table is not by any means an exhaustive statement of the jurisdiction of +the county courts. For many years it has been the practice of parliament +to throw on the county court judges the duty of acting as judges or +arbitrators for the purpose of new legislation relating to social +subjects. It is impossible to classify the many statutes which have been +passed since 1846 and which confer some jurisdiction, apart from that +under the County Courts Act, on county courts or their judges. Some of +these acts impose exceptional duties on the judges of the county courts, +others confer unlimited jurisdiction concurrently with the High Court or +some other court, others, again, confer limited or, sometimes, exclusive +jurisdiction. A list of all the acts will be found in the _Annual County +Courts Practice_. A county court judge may determine all matters of fact +as well as law, but a jury may be summoned at the option of either +plaintiff or defendant when the amount in dispute exceeds L5, and in +actions under L5 the judge may in his discretion, on application of +either of the parties, order that the action be tried by jury. The +number of jurymen impanelled and sworn at the trial was, by the County +Courts Act 1903, increased from five to eight. + +There is an appeal from the county courts on matters of law to a +divisional court of the High Court, i.e. to the admiralty division in +admiralty cases and to the king's bench division in other cases (sec. +120 of act of 1888). The determination of the divisional court is final, +unless leave be given by that court or the court of appeal (Judicature +Acts 1894). (See further APPEAL.) In proceedings under the Workmen's +Compensation Act the appeal from a county court judge is to the court of +appeal, with a subsequent appeal to the House of Lords. In 1908 a +Committee was appointed by the lord chancellor "to inquire into certain +matters of county court procedure." The committee presented a report in +1909 (H.C. 71), recommending the extension of existing county court +jurisdiction, but a bill introduced to give effect to the +recommendations was not proceeded with. + + See _Annual County Courts Practice_, also "Fifty Years of the English + County Courts," by County Court Judge Sir T. W. Snagge, in _Nineteenth + Century_, October 1897. + + + + +COUPE (French for "cut off"), a small closed carriage of the brougham +type, with four wheels and seats for two persons; the term is also used +of the front compartment on a _diligence_ or mail-coach on the continent +of Europe, and of a compartment in a railway carriage with seats on one +side only. + + + + +COUPLET, a pair of lines of verse, which are welded together by an +identity of rhyme. The _New English Dict._ derives the use of the word +from the French _couplet_, signifying two pieces of iron riveted or +hinged together. In rhymed verse two lines which complete a meaning in +themselves are particularly known as a couplet. Thus, in Pope's _Eloisa +to Abelard_:-- + + "Speed the soft intercourse from soul to soul, + And waft a sigh from Indus to the Pole." + +In much of old English dramatic literature, when the mass of the +composition is in blank verse or even in prose, particular emphasis is +given by closing the scene in a couplet. Thus, in the last act of +Beaumont and Fletcher's _Thierry and Theodoret_ the action culminates in +an unexpected rhyme:-- + + "And now lead on; they that shall read this story + Shall find that virtue lives in good, not glory." + +In French literature, the term couplet is not confined to a pair of +lines, but is commonly used for a stanza. A "square" couplet, in French, +for instance, is a strophe of eight lines, each composed of eight +syllables. In this sense it is employed to distinguish the more emphatic +parts of a species of verse which is essentially gay, graceful and +frivolous, such as the songs in a vaudeville or a comic opera. In the +18th century, Le Sage, Piron and even Voltaire did not hesitate to +engage their talents on the production of couplets, which were often +witty, if they had no other merit, and were well fitted to catch the +popular ear. This signification of the word _couplet_ is not unknown in +England, but it is not customary; it is probably used in a stricter and +a more technical sense to describe a pair of rhymed lines, whether +serious or merry. The normal type, as it may almost be called, of +English versification is the metre of ten-syllabled rhymed lines +designated as _heroic couplet_. This form of iambic verse, with five +beats to each line, is believed to have been invented by Chaucer, who +employs it first in the Prologue _The Legend of Good Women_ the +composition of which is attributed to the year 1385. That poem opens +with the couplet:-- + + "A thousand times have I heard man tell + That there is joy in heaven and pain in hell." + +This is an absolutely correct example of the heroic couplet, which +ultimately reached such majesty in the hands of Dryden and such +brilliancy in those of Pope. It has been considered proper for didactic, +descriptive and satirical poetry, although in the course of the 19th +century blank verse largely took its place. Epigram often selects the +couplet as the vehicle of its sharpened arrows, as in Sir John +Harington's + + "Treason doth never prosper: what's the reason? + Why, if it prosper, none dare call it treason." + (E. G.) + + + + +COUPON (from Fr. _couper_, to cut), a certificate entitling its owner to +some payment, share or other benefit; more specifically, one of a +series of interest certificates or dividend warrants attached to a bond +running for a number of years. The word coupon (a piece cut off) +possesses an etymological meaning so comprehensive that, while on the +Stock Exchange it is only used to denote such an interest certificate or +a certificate of stock of a joint-stock company, it may be as suitably, +and elsewhere is perhaps more frequently, applied to tickets sold by +tourist agencies and others. The coupons by means of which the interest +on a bond or debenture is collected are generally printed at the side or +foot of that document, to be cut off and presented for payment at the +bank or agency named on them as they become due. The last portion, +called a "talon," is a form of certificate, and entitles the holder, +when all the coupons have been presented, to obtain a fresh coupon +sheet. They pass by delivery, and are as a rule exempt from stamp duty. +Coupons for the payment of dividends are also attached to the share +warrants to bearer issued by some joint-stock companies. The coupons on +the bonds of most of the principal foreign loans are payable in London +in sterling as well as abroad. + + + + +COURANTE (a French word derived from _courir_, to run), a dance in 3-2 +time march in vogue in France in the 17th century (see DANCE). It is +also a musical term for a movement or independent piece based on the +dance. In a _suite_ it followed the Allemande (q.v.), with which it is +contrasted in rhythm. + + + + +COURAYER, PIERRE FRANCOIS LE (1681-1776), French Roman Catholic +theological writer, was born at Rouen on the 17th of November 1681. +While canon regular and librarian of the abbey of St Genevieve at Paris, +he conducted a correspondence with Archbishop Wake on the subject of +episcopal succession in England, which supplied him with material for +his work, _Dissertation sur la validite des ordinations des Anglais et +sur la succession des eveques de l'Eglise anglicane, avec les preuves +justificatives des faits avances_ (Brussels, 1723; Eng. trans. by D. +Williams, London, 1725; reprinted Oxford, 1844, with memoir of the +author), an attempt to prove that there has been no break in the line of +ordination from the apostles to the English clergy. His opinions exposed +him to a prosecution, and with the help of Bishop Atterbury, then in +exile in Paris, he took refuge in England, where he was presented by the +university of Oxford with a doctor's degree. In 1736 he published a +French translation of Paolo Sarpi's _History of the Council of Trent_, +and dedicated it to Queen Caroline, from whom he received a pension of +L200 a year. Besides this he translated Sleidan's _History of the +Reformation_, and wrote several theological works. He died in London on +the 17th of October 1776, and was buried in the cloisters of Westminster +Abbey. In his will, dated two years before his death, he declared +himself still a member of the Roman Catholic Church, although dissenting +from many of its opinions. + + + + +COURBET, GUSTAVE (1819-1877), French painter, was born at Ornans (Doubs) +on the 10th of June 1819. He went to Paris in 1839, and worked at the +studio of Steuben and Hesse; but his independent spirit did not allow +him to remain there long, as he preferred to work out his own way by the +study of Spanish, Flemish and French painters. His first works, an +"Odalisque," suggested by Victor Hugo, and a "Lelia," illustrating +George Sand, were literary subjects; but these he soon abandoned for the +study of real life. Among other works he painted his own portrait with +his dog, and "The Man with a Pipe," both of which were rejected by the +jury of the Salon; but the younger school of critics, the neo-romantics +and realists, loudly sang the praises of Courbet, who by 1849 began to +be famous, producing such pictures as "After Dinner at Ornans" and "The +Valley of the Loire." The Salon of 1850 found him triumphant with the +"Burial at Ornans," the "Stone-Breakers" and the "Peasants of Flazey." +His style still gained in individuality, as in "Village Damsels" (1852), +the "Wrestlers," "Bathers," and "A Girl Spinning" (1852). Though +Courbet's realistic work is not devoid of importance, it is as a +landscape and sea painter that he will be most honoured by posterity. +Sometimes, it must be owned, his realism is rather coarse and brutal, +but when he paints the forests of Franche-Comte, the "Stag-Fight," "The +Wave," or the "Haunt of the Does," he is inimitable. When Courbet had +made a name as an artist he grew ambitious of other glory; he tried to +promote democratic and social science, and under the Empire he wrote +essays and dissertations. His refusal of the cross of the Legion of +Honour, offered to him by Napoleon III., made him immensely popular, and +in 1871 he was elected, under the Commune, to the chamber. Thus it +happened that he was responsible for the destruction of the Vendome +column. A council of war, before which he was tried, condemned him to +pay the cost of restoring the column, 300,000 francs (L12,000). To +escape the necessity of working to the end of his days at the orders of +the State in order to pay this sum, Courbet went to Switzerland in 1873, +and died at La Tour du Peilz, on the 31st of December 1877, of a disease +of the liver aggravated by intemperance. An exhibition of his works was +held in 1882 at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. + + See Champfleury, _Les Grandes Figures d'hier et d'aujourd' hui_ + (Paris, 1861); Mantz, "G. Courbet," _Gaz. des beaux-arts_ (Paris, + 1878); Zola, _Mes Haines_ (Paris, 1879); C. Lemonnier, _Les Peintres + de la Vie_ (Paris, 1888). (H. FR.) + + + + +COURBEVOIE, a town of northern France, in the department of Seine, 5 m. +W.N.W. of Paris on the railway to Versailles. Pop. (1906) 29,339. It is +a residential suburb of Paris, and has a fine avenue opening on the +Neuilly bridge, and forming with it a continuation of the Champs +Elysees. It carries on bleaching and the manufacture of carriage bodies, +awnings, drugs, biscuits, &c. + + + + +COURCELLE-SENEUIL, JEAN GUSTAVE (1813-1892), French economist, was born +at Seneuil (Dordogne) on the 22nd of December 1813. Seneuil was an +additional name adopted from his native place. Devoting himself at first +to the study of the law, he was called to the French bar in 1835. Soon +after, however, he returned to Dordogne and settled down as a manager of +ironworks. He found leisure to study economic and political questions, +and was a frequent contributor to the republican papers. On the +establishment of the second republic in 1848 he became director of the +public domains. After the _coup d'etat_ of Napoleon III. in 1851 he went +to South America, and held the professorship of political economy at the +National Institute of Santiago, in Chile, from 1853 to 1863, when he +returned to France. In 1879 he was made a councillor of state, and in +1882 was elected a member of the _Academie des sciences morales et +politiques_. He died at Paris on the 29th of June 1892. +Courcelle-Seneuil, as an economist, was strongly inclined towards the +liberal school, and was equally partial to the historical and +experimental methods; but his best energies were directed to applied +economy and social questions. His principal work is _Traite theorique et +pratique d'economie politique_ (2 vols., 1858); among his others may be +mentioned _Traite theorique et pratique des operations de banque_ +(1853); _Etudes sur la science sociale_ (1862); _La Banque libre_ +(1867); _Liberte et socialisme_ (1868); _Protection et libre echange_ +(1879); he also translated into French John Stuart Mill's _Principles_. + + + + +COURCI, JOHN DE (d. 1219?), Anglo-Norman conqueror of Ulster, was a +member of a celebrated Norman family of Oxfordshire and Somersetshire, +whose parentage is unknown, and around whose career a mass of legend has +grown up. It would appear that he accompanied William Fitz-Aldelm to +Ireland when the latter, after the death of Strongbow, was sent thither +by Henry II., and that he immediately headed an expedition from Dublin +to Ulster, where he took Downpatrick, the capital of the northern +kingdom. After some years of desultory fighting de Courci established +his power over that part of Ulster comprised in the modern counties of +Antrim and Down, throughout which he built a number of castles, where +his vassals, known as "the barons of Ulster," held sway over the native +tribes. After the accession of Richard I., de Courci in conjunction with +William de Lacy appears in some way to have offended the king by his +proceedings in Ireland. De Lacy quickly made his peace with Richard, +while de Courci defied him; and the subsequent history of the latter +consisted mainly in the vicissitudes of a lasting feud with the de +Lacys. In 1204 Hugh de Lacy utterly defeated de Courci in battle, and +took him prisoner. De Courci, however, soon obtained his liberty, +probably by giving hostages as security for a promise of submission +which he failed to carry out, seeking an asylum instead with the +O'Neills of Tyrone. He again appeared in arms on hearing that Hugh de +Lacy had obtained a grant of Ulster with the title of earl; and in +alliance with the king of Man he ravaged the territory of Down; but was +completely routed by Walter de Lacy, and disappeared from the scene till +1207, when he obtained permission to return to England. In 1210 he was +in favour with King John, from whom he received a pension, and whom he +accompanied to Ireland. There is some indication of his having sided +with John in his struggle with the barons; but of the later history of +de Courci little is known. He probably died in the summer of 1219. Both +de Courci and his wife Affreca were benefactors of the church, and +founded several abbeys and priories in Ulster. + +A story is told that de Courci when imprisoned in the Tower volunteered +to act as champion for King John in single combat against a knight +representing Philip Augustus of France; that when he appeared in the +lists his French opponent fled in panic; whereupon de Courci, to gratify +the French king's desire to witness his prowess, "cleft a massive helmet +in twain at a single blow," a feat for which he was rewarded by a grant +of the privilege for himself and his heirs to remain covered in the +presence of the king and all future sovereigns of England. This tale, +which still finds a place in Burke's _Peerage_ in the account of the +baron Kingsale, a descendant of the de Courci family, is a legend +without historic foundation which did not obtain currency till centuries +after John de Courci's death. The statement that he was created earl of +Ulster, and that he was thus "the first Englishman dignified with an +Irish title of honour," is equally devoid of foundation. John de Courci +left no legitimate children. + + See J. H. Round's art. "Courci, John de," in _Dictionary of National + Biography_, vol. xii. (London, 1887), to which is added a bibliography + of the original and later authorities for the life of de Courci. + + + + +COURIER, PAUL LOUIS (1773-1825), French Hellenist and political writer, +was born in Paris on the 4th of January 1773. Brought up on his father's +estate of Mere in Touraine, he conceived a bitter aversion for the +nobility, which seemed to strengthen with time. He would never take the +name "de Mere," to which he was entitled, lest he should be thought a +nobleman. At the age of fifteen he was sent to Paris to complete his +education; his father's teaching had already inspired him with a +passionate devotion to Greek literature, and although he showed +considerable mathematical ability, he continued to devote all his +leisure to the classics. He entered the school of artillery at Chalons, +however, and immediately on receiving his appointment as sub-lieutenant +in September 1793 he joined the army of the Rhine. He served in various +campaigns of the Revolutionary wars, especially in those of Italy in +1798-99 and 1806-7, and in the German campaign of 1809. He became _chef +d'escadron_ in 1803. + +He made his first appearance as an author in 1802, when he contributed +to the _Magasin encyclopedique_ a critique on Johannes Schweighauser's +edition of Athenaeus. In the following year appeared his _Eloge +d'Helene_, a free imitation rather than a translation from Isocrates, +which he had sketched in 1798. Courier had given up his commission in +the autumn of 1808, but the general enthusiasm in Paris over the +preparations for the new campaign affected him, and he attached himself +to the staff of a general of artillery. But he was horror-struck by the +carnage at Wagram (1809), refusing from that time to believe that there +was any art in war. He hastily quitted Vienna, escaping the formal +charge of desertion because his new appointment had not been confirmed. +The savage independence of his nature rendered subordination intolerable +to him; he had been three times disgraced for absenting himself without +leave, and his superiors resented his satirical humour. After leaving +the army he went to Florence, and was fortunate enough to discover in +the Laurentian Library a complete manuscript of Longus's _Daphnis and +Chloe_, an edition of which he published in 1810. In consequence of a +misadventure--blotting the manuscript--he was involved in a quarrel +with the librarian, and was compelled by the government to leave +Tuscany. He retired to his estate at Veretz (Indre-et-Loire), but +frequently visited Paris, and divided his attention between literature +and his farm. + +After the second restoration of the Bourbons the career of Courier as +political pamphleteer began. He had before this time waged war against +local wrongs in his own district, and had been the adviser and helpful +friend of his neighbours. He now made himself by his letters and +pamphlets one of the most dreaded opponents of the government of the +Restoration. The first of these was his _Petition aux deux chambres_ +(1816), exposing the sufferings of the peasantry under the royalist +reaction. In 1817 he was a candidate for a vacant seat in the Institute; +and failing, he took his revenge by publishing a bitter _Lettre a +Messieurs de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_ (1819). This +was followed (1819-1820) by a series of political letters of +extraordinary power published in _Le Censeur Europeen_. He advocated a +liberal monarchy, at the head of which he doubtless wished to see Louis +Philippe. The proposal, in 1821, to purchase the estate of Chambord for +the duke of Bordeaux called forth from Courier the _Simple Discours de +Paul Louis, vigneron de la Chavonniere_, one of his best pieces. For +this he was tried and condemned to suffer a short imprisonment and to +pay a fine. Before he went to prison he published a _compte rendu_ of +his trial, which had a still larger circulation than the Discours +itself. In 1823 appeared the _Livret de Paul Louis_, the _Gazette de +village_, followed in 1824 by his famous _Pamphlet des pamphlets_, +called by his biographer, Armand Carrel, his swan-song. Courier +published in 1807 his translation from Xenophon, _Du commandement de la +cavalerie et de l'equitation_, and had a share in editing the +_Collections des romans grecs_. He also projected a translation of +Herodotus, and published a specimen, in which he attempted to imitate +archaic French; but he did not live to carry out this plan. In the +autumn of 1825, on a Sunday afternoon (August 18th), Courier was found +shot in a wood near his house. The murderers, who were servants of his +own, remained undiscovered for five years. + +The writings of Courier, dealing with the facts and events of his own +time, are valuable sources of information as to the condition of France +before, during, and after the Revolution. Sainte-Beuve finds in +Courier's own words, "peu de matiere et beaucoup d'art," the secret and +device of his talent, which gives his writings a value independent of +the somewhat ephemeral subject-matter. + + A _Collection complete des pamphlets politiques et opuscules + litteraires de P. L. Courier_ appeared in 1826. See editions of his + _OEuvres_ (1848), with an admirable biography by Armand Carrel, + which is reproduced in a later edition, with a supplementary criticism + by F. Sarcey (1876-1877); also three notices by Sainte-Beuve in the + _Causeries du lundi_ and the _Nouveaux Lundis_. + + + + +COURIER (from the O. Fr. _courier_, modern _courrier_, from Lat. +_currere_, to run), properly a running messenger, who carried despatches +and letters; a system of couriers, mounted or on foot, formed the +beginnings of the modern post-office (see POST, and POSTAL SERVICE). The +despatches which pass between the foreign office and its representatives +abroad, and which cannot be entrusted to the postal service or the +telegraph, are carried by special couriers, styled, in the British +service, King's Messengers. "Courier," more particularly, is applied to +a travelling attendant, whose duties are to arrange for the carrying of +the luggage, obtaining of passports, settling of hotel accommodation, +and generally to look to the comfort and facility of travel. The name +"courier" and the similar word "_courant_" (Ital. _coranto_) have often +been used as the title of a newspaper or periodical (see NEWSPAPERS); +the _Courier_, founded in 1792, was for some time the leading London +journal. + + + + +COURLAND, or KURLAND, one of the Baltic provinces of Russia, lying +between 55 deg. 45' and 57 deg. 45' N. and 21 deg. and 27 deg. E. It is +bounded on the N.E. by the river Dvina, separating it from the +governments of Vitebsk and Livonia, N. by the Gulf of Riga, W. by the +Baltic, and S. by the province of East Prussia and the Russian +government of Kovno. The area is 10,535 sq. m., of which 101 sq. m. are +occupied by lakes. The surface is generally low and undulating, and the +coast-lands flat and marshy. The interior is characterized by wooded +dunes, covered with pine, fir, birch and oak, with swamps and lakes, and +fertile patches between. The surface nowhere rises more than 700 ft. +above sea-level. The Mitau plain divides it into two parts, of which the +western is fertile and thickly inhabited, except in the north, while the +eastern is less fertile and thinly inhabited. One-third of the area is +still forest. + +Courland is drained by nearly one hundred rivers, of which only three, +the Dvina, the Aa and the Windau, are navigable. They all flow +north-westwards and discharge into the Baltic Sea. Owing to the numerous +lakes and marshes, the climate is damp and often foggy, as well as +changeable, and the winter is severe. Agriculture is the chief +occupation, the principal crops being rye, barley, oats, wheat, flax and +potatoes. The land is mostly owned by nobles of German descent. In 1863 +laws were issued to enable the Letts, who form the bulk of the +population, to acquire the farms which they held, and special banks were +founded to help them. By this means some 12,000 farms were bought by +their occupants; but the great mass of the population are still +landless, and live as hired labourers, occupying a low position in the +social scale. On the large estates agriculture is conducted with skill +and scientific knowledge. Fruit grows well. Excellent breeds of cattle, +sheep and pigs are kept. Libau and Mitau are the principal industrial +centres, with iron-works, agricultural machinery works, tanneries, glass +and soap works. Flax spinning is mostly a domestic industry. Iron and +limestone are the chief minerals; a little amber is found on the coast. +The only seaports are Libau, Windau and Polangen, there being none on +the Courland coast of the Gulf of Riga. The population was 619,154 in +1870; 674,437 in 1897, of whom 345,756 were women; 714,200 (estimate) in +1906. Of the whole, 79% are Letts, 8-1/4% Germans, 1.7% Russians, and 1% +each Poles and Lithuanians. In addition there are about 8% Jews and some +Lives. The chief towns of the ten districts are Mitau (Doblenskiy +district), capital of the government (pop. 35,011 in 1897), Bauske +(6543), Friedrichstadt (5223), Goldingen (9733), Grobin (1489), +Hasenpoth (3338), Illuxt (2340), Talsen (6215), Tuckum (7542) and Windau +(7132). The prevailing religion is the Lutheran, to which 76% of the +population belong; the rest belong to the Orthodox Eastern and the Roman +Catholic churches. + +Anciently Courland was inhabited by the Cours or Kurs, a Lettish tribe, +who were subdued and converted to Christianity by the Brethren of the +Sword, a German military order, in the first quarter of the 13th +century. In 1237 it passed under the rule of the Teutonic Knights owing +to the amalgamation of this order with that of the Brethren of the +Sword. At that time it comprised the two duchies of Courland and +Semgallen. Under the increasing pressure of Russia (Muscovy) the +Teutonic Knights in 1561 found it expedient to put themselves under the +suzerainty of Poland, the grandmaster Gotthard Kettler (d. 1587) +becoming the first duke of Courland. The duchy suffered severely in the +Russo-Swedish wars of 1700-9. But by the marriage in 1710 of Kettler's +descendant, Duke Frederick William (d. 1711), to the princess Anne, +niece of Peter the Great and afterwards empress of Russia, Courland came +into close relation with the latter state Anne being duchess of Courland +from 1711 to 1730. The celebrated Marshal Saxe was elected duke in 1726, +but only managed to maintain himself by force of arms till the next +year. The last Kettler, William, titular duke of Courland, died in 1737, +and the empress Anne now bestowed the dignity on her favourite Biren, +who held it from 1737 to 1740 and again from 1763 till his death in +1772. During nearly the whole of the 18th century Courland, devastated +by continual wars, was a shuttlecock between Russia and Poland; until +eventually in 1795 the assembly of the nobles placed it under the +Russian sceptre. The Baltic provinces--Esthonia, Livonia and +Courland--ceased to form collectively one general government in 1876. + + See H. Hollmann, _Kurlands Agrarverhaltnisse_ (Riga, 1893), and E. + Seraphim, _Geschichte Liv-, Esth-, und Kurlands_ (2 vols., Reval, + 1895-1896). + + + + +COURNOT, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN (1801-1877), French economist and +mathematician, was born at Gray (Haute-Saone) on the 28th of August +1801. Trained for the scholastic profession, he was appointed assistant +professor at the Academy of Paris in 1831, professor of mathematics at +Lyons in 1834, rector of the Academy of Grenoble in 1835, +inspector-general of studies in 1838, rector of the Academy of Dijon and +honorary inspector-general in 1854, retiring in 1862. He died in Paris +on the 31st of March 1877. Cournot was the first who, with a competent +knowledge of both subjects, endeavoured to apply mathematics to the +treatment of economic questions. His _Recherches sur les principes +mathematiques de la theorie des richesses_ (English trans. by N. T. +Bacon, with bibliography of mathematics of economics by Irving Fisher, +1897) was published in 1838. He mentions in it only one previous +enterprise of the same kind (though there had in fact been +others)--that, namely, of Nicholas Francois Canard (c. 1750-1833), whose +book, _Principes d'economie politique_ (Paris, 1802), was crowned by the +French Academy, though "its principles were radically false as well as +erroneously applied." Notwithstanding Cournot's just reputation as a +writer on mathematics, the _Recherches_ made little impression. The +truth seems to be that his results are in some cases of little +importance, in others of questionable correctness, and that, in the +abstractions to which he has recourse in order to facilitate his +calculations, an essential part of the real conditions of the problem is +sometimes omitted. His pages abound in symbols representing unknown +functions, the form of the function being left to be ascertained by +observation of facts, which he does not regard as a part of his task, or +only some known properties of the undetermined function being used as +bases for deduction. In his _Principes de la theorie des richesses_ +(1863) he abandoned the mathematical method, though advocating the use +of mathematical symbols in economic discussions, as being of service in +facilitating exposition. Other works of Cournot's were _Traite +elementaire de la theorie des fonctions et du calcul infinitesimal_ +(1841); _Exposition de la theorie des chances et des probabilites_ +(1843); _De l'origine et des limites de la correspondance entre +l'algebre et la geometrie_ (1847); _Traite de l'enchainement des idees +fondamentales dans les sciences et dans l'histoire_ (1861); and _Revue +sommaire des doctrines economiques_ (1877). + + + + +COURSING (from Lat. _cursus_, _currere_, to run), the hunting of game by +dogs solely by sight and not by scent. From time to time the sport has +been pursued by various nations against various animals, but the +recognized method has generally been the coursing of the hare by +greyhounds. Such sport is of great antiquity, and is fully described by +Arrian in his _Cynegeticus_ about A.D. 150, when the leading features +appear to have been much the same as in the present day. Other Greek and +Latin authors refer to the sport; but during the middle ages it was but +little heard of. Apart from private coursing for the sake of filling the +pot with game, public coursing has become an exhilarating sport. The +private sportsman seldom possesses good strains of blood to breed his +greyhounds from or has such opportunities of trying them as the public +courser. + +The first known set of rules in England for determining the merits of a +course were drawn up by Thomas, duke of Norfolk, in Queen Elizabeth's +reign; but no open trials were heard of until half a century later, in +the time of Charles I. The oldest regular coursing club of which any +record exists is that of Swaffham, in Norfolk, which was founded by Lord +Orford in 1766; and in 1780 the Ashdown Park (Berkshire) meeting was +established. During the next seventy years many other large and +influential societies sprang up throughout England and Scotland, the +Altcar Club (on the Sefton estates, near Liverpool) being founded in +1825. The season lasts about six months, beginning in the middle of +September. It was not until 1858 that a coursing parliament, so to +speak, was formed, and a universally accepted code of rules drawn up. In +that year the National Coursing Club was founded. It is composed of +representatives from all clubs in the United Kingdom of more than a +year's standing, and possessing more than twenty-four members. Their +rules govern meetings, and their committee adjudicate on matters of +dispute. A comparative trial of two dogs, and not the capture of the +game pursued, is the great distinctive trait of modern coursing. A +greyhound stud-book was started in 1882. + +The breeding and training of a successful kennel is a precarious matter; +and the most unaccountable ups and downs of fortune often occur in a +courser's career. At a meeting an agreed-on even number of entries are +made for each stake, and the ties drawn by lot. After the first round +the winner of the first tie is opposed to the winner of the second, and +so on until the last two dogs left in compete for victory; but the same +owner's greyhounds are "guarded" as far as it is possible to do so. A +staff of beaters drive the hares out of their coverts or other +hiding-places, whilst the slipper has the pair of dogs in hand, and +slips them simultaneously by an arrangement of nooses, when they have +both sighted a hare promising a good course. The judge accompanies on +horseback, and the six points whereby he decides a course are--(1) +speed; (2) the go-by, or when a greyhound starts a clear length behind +his opponent, passes him in the straight run, and gets a clear length in +front; (3) the turn, where the hare turns at not less than a right +angle; (4) the wrench, where the hare turns at less than a right angle; +(5) the kill; (6) the trip, or unsuccessful effort to kill. He may +return a "no course" as his verdict if the dogs have not been fairly +tried together, or an "undecided course" if he considers their merits +equal. The open Waterloo meeting, held at Altcar every spring,--the name +being taken from its being originated by the proprietor of the Waterloo +Hotel, Liverpool,--is now the recognized fixture for the decision of the +coursing championship, and the Waterloo Cup (1836) is the "Blue Riband" +of the leash. In the United States, several British colonies, and other +countries, the name has been adopted, and Waterloo Coursing Cups are +found there as in England. In America an American Coursing Board +controls the sport, the chief meetings being in North and South Dakota, +Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa and Minnesota. + + The chief works on coursing are:--Arrian's _Cynegeticus_, translated + by the Rev. W. Dansey (1831); T. Thacker, _Courser's Companion and + Breeder's Guide_ (1835); Thacker's _Courser's Annual Remembrancer_ + (1849-1851); D. P. Blaine, _Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports_ (3rd ed., + 1870); and J. H. Walsh, _The Greyhound_ (3rd ed., 1875). See also the + _Coursing Calendar_ (since 1857); _Coursing and Falconry_ (Badminton + Library, 1892); _The Hare_ ("Fur and Feather" series, 1896); and _The + Greyhound Stud Book_ (since 1882). + + + + +COURT, ANTOINE (1696-1760), French Protestant divine, was born in the +village of Villeneuve-de-Berg, in the province of the Vivarais. He has +been designated the "Restorer of Protestantism in France," and was the +organizer of the "Church of the Desert." He was eight years old when the +Camisard revolt was finally suppressed, and nineteen when on the 8th of +March 1715 the edict of Louis XIV. was published, declaring that "he had +abolished entirely the exercise of the so-called reformed religion" +("qu'il avait aboli tout exercice de la religion pretendue reformee"). +Antoine, taken to the secret meetings of the persecuted Calvinists, +began, when only seventeen, to speak and exhort in these congregations +of "the desert." He came to suspect after a time that many of the +so-called "inspired" persons were "dupes of their own zeal and +credulity," and decided that it was necessary to organize at once the +small communities of believers into properly constituted churches. To +the execution of this vast undertaking he devoted his life. On the 21st +of August 1715 he summoned all the preachers in the Cevennes and Lower +Languedoc to a conference or synod near the village of Monoblet. Here +elders were appointed, and the preaching of women, as well as pretended +revelations, was condemned. The village of Monoblet "thus seems entitled +to the honour of having had the first organized Protestant church after +the revocation of the edict of Nantes" (H. M. Baird). But there were as +yet no ordained pastors. Pierre Corteiz was therefore sent to seek +ordination. He was ordained at Zurich, and from him Court himself +received ordination. The scene of his labours for fifteen years was +Languedoc, the Vivarais, and Dauphine. His beginnings were very small +prayer-meetings in "the desert." But the work progressed under his wise +direction, and he was able "to be present, in 1744, at meetings of ten +thousand souls." In 1724 Louis XV., again assuming that there were no +Protestants in France, prohibited the most secret exercise of the +Reformed religion, and imposed severe penalties. It was impossible fully +to carry out this menace. But persecution raged, especially against the +pastors. A price was set on the life of Court; and in 1730 he escaped to +Lausanne. He had already, with the aid of some of the Protestant +princes, established a theological college ("Seminaire de Lausanne") +there, and during the remaining thirty years of his life he filled the +post of director. He had the title of deputy-general of the churches, +and was really the pillar of their hope. The Seminary of Lausanne sent +forth all the pastors of the Reformed Church of France till the days of +the first French Empire. Court formed the design of writing a history of +Protestantism, and made large collections for the purpose, which have +been preserved in the Public Library of Geneva; but this he did not live +to carry out. He died at Lausanne in 1760. He wrote, amongst other +works, a _Histoire des troubles des Cevennes ou de la guerre des +Camisards_ (1760). He was the father of the more generally known Antoine +Court de Gebelin (q.v.). + + For details of his life see Napoleon Peyrat's _Histoire des pasteurs + du desert_ (1842; English translation, 1852); Edmond Hugues, _Antoine + Court, histoire de la restauration du protestantisme en France au + XVIII^e siecle_ (2nd ed., 1872), _Les Synodes du desert_ (3 vols., + 1885-1886), _Memoires d'Antoine Court_ (1885); E. and E. Haag, _La + France protestante_, vol. iv. (1884, new edition); H. M. Baird, _The + Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes_ (1895), vol. ii.; + cf. _Bulletin de la societe de l'histoire du protestantisme francais_ + (1893-1906). + + + + +COURT (from the O. Fr. _court_, Late Lat. _cortis_, _curtis_, a popular +form of class. Lat. _cohors_, gen. _cohortis_; the mod. Fr. form _cour_ +is due to the influence of the Lat. _curia_, the word used in medieval +documents to translate "court" in the feudal sense), a word originally +denoting an enclosed place, and so surviving in its architectural sense +(courtyard, &c.), but chiefly used as a general term for judicial +tribunals and in the special sense of the household of the king, called +"the court."[1] All law courts were not, however, purely judicial in +character; the old county court, for instance, was the assembly of the +freeholders of the county in which representatives and certain officers +were elected. Such assemblies in early times exercised political and +legislative as well as judicial functions. But these have now been +almost entirely separated everywhere, and only judicial bodies are now +usually called courts. In every court, says Blackstone, there must be +three parts,--an _actor_ or plaintiff, _reus_ or defendant, and _judex_, +or judge. + +The language of legal fictions, which English lawyers invariably use in +all constitutional subjects, makes the king the ultimate source of all +judicial authority, and assumes his personal presence in all the courts. + + "As by our excellent constitution," says Blackstone, "the sole + executive power of the laws is vested in the person of the king, it + will follow that all courts of justice, which are the medium by which + he administers the laws, are derived from the power of the crown. For + whether created by act of parliament or letters patent, or subsisting + by prescription (the only methods by which any court of judicature can + exist), the king's consent in the two former is expressly, in the + latter impliedly given. In all these courts the king is supposed in + contemplation of law to be always present; but as that is in fact + impossible, he is then represented by his judges, whose power is only + an emanation of the royal prerogative." + +These words might give a false impression of the historical and legal +relations of the courts and the crown, if it is not remembered that they +are nothing more than the expression of a venerable fiction. The +administration of justice was, indeed, one of the functions of the king +in early times; the king himself sat on circuit so late as the reign of +Edward IV.; and even after regular tribunals were established, a reserve +of judicial power still remained in the king and his council, in the +exercise of which it was possible for the king to participate +personally. The last judicial act of an English king, if such it can be +called, was that by which James I. settled the dispute between the court +of chancery and courts of common law. Since the establishment of +parliamentary government the courts take their law directly from the +legislature, and the king is only connected with them indirectly as a +member of the legislative body. The king's name, however, is still used +in this as in other departments of state action. The courts exercising +jurisdiction in England are divided by certain features which may here +be briefly indicated. + +We may distinguish between (1) superior and inferior courts. The former +are the courts of common law and the court of chancery, now High Court +of Justice. The latter are the local or district courts, county courts, +&c. (2) Courts of record and courts not of record. "A court of record is +one whereof the acts and judicial proceedings are enrolled for a +perpetual memory and testimony, which rolls are called the records of +the court, and are of such high and supereminent authority that their +truth is not to be called in question. For it is a settled rule and +maxim that nothing shall be averred against a record, nor shall any plea +or even proof be admitted to the contrary. And if the existence of the +record shall be denied it shall be tried by nothing but itself; that is, +upon bare inspection whether there be any such record or no; else there +would be no end of disputes. All courts of record are the courts of the +sovereign in right of the crown and royal dignity, and therefore any +court of record has authority to fine and imprison for contempt of its +authority" (Stephen's _Blackstone_). (3) Courts may also be +distinguished as civil or criminal. (4) A further distinction is to be +made between courts of first instance and courts of appeal. In the +former the first hearing in any judicial proceeding takes place; in the +latter the judgment of the first court is brought under review. Of the +superior courts, the High Court of Justice in its various divisions is a +court of first instance. Over it is the court of appeal, and over that +again the House of Lords. The High Court of Justice is (through +divisional courts) a court of appeal for inferior courts. (5) There is a +special class of local courts, which do not appear to fall within the +description of either superior or inferior courts. Some, while +administering the ordinary municipal law, have or had jurisdiction +exclusive of their superior courts; such were the common pleas of Durham +and Lancaster. Others have concurrent jurisdiction with the superior +courts; such are the lord mayor's court of London, the passage court of +Liverpool, &c. + +The distribution of judicial business among the various courts of law in +England may be exhibited as follows. + +_Criminal Courts._--(1) The lowest is that of the justice of the peace, +sitting in petty sessions of two or more, to determine in a summary way +certain specified minor offences. In populous districts, such as London, +Manchester, &c., stipendiary magistrates are appointed, generally with +enlarged powers. Besides punishing by summary conviction, justices may +commit prisoners for trial at the assizes. (2) The justices in quarter +sessions are commissioned to determine felonies and other offences. An +act of 1842 (5 & 6 Vict. c. 38) contains a list of offences _not_ +triable at quarter sessions--treason, murder, forgery, bigamy, &c. (see +QUARTER SESSIONS, COURT OF). The corresponding court in a borough is +presided over by a recorder. (3) The more serious offences are reserved +for the judges of the superior courts sitting under a commission of oyer +and terminer or gaol delivery for each county. The assize courts, as +they are called, sit in general in each county twice a year, following +the division of circuits; but additional assizes are also held under +acts of 1876 and 1877, which permit several counties to be united +together for that purpose (see CIRCUIT). London, which occupies an +exceptional position in all matters of judicature, has a high criminal +court of its own, established by the Central Criminal Court Act 1834, +under the name of the central criminal court. Its judges usually present +are a rota selected from the superior judges of common law, the +recorder, common serjeant, and the judge of the City of London court.[2] +The criminal appeal court, to which all persons convicted on indictment +may appeal, superseded in 1908 (by the Criminal Appeal Act 1907) the +court for crown cases reserved, to which any question of law arising on +the trial of a prisoner could after conviction be remitted by the judge +in his discretion. To the criminal appeal court there is an appeal both +on questions of fact and of law (see APPEAL). + +_Civil Courts._--In certain special cases, civil claims of small +importance may be brought before justices or stipendiaries. Otherwise, +and excepting the special and peculiar jurisdictions above mentioned, +the civil business of England and Wales may be said to be divided +between the county courts (taking small cases) and the High Court of +Justice (taking all others). + +The effect of the Judicature Acts on the constitution of the superior +courts may be briefly stated. There is now one Supreme Court of +Judicature, consisting of two permanent divisions called the High Court +of Justice and the court of appeal. The former takes the jurisdiction of +the court of chancery, the three common law courts, the courts of +admiralty, probate, and divorce, the courts of pleas at Lancaster and +Durham, and the courts created by commissions of assize, oyer and +terminer, and gaol delivery. The latter takes the jurisdiction of the +court of appeal in chancery (including chancery of Lancaster), the court +of the lord warden of the stannaries, and of the exchequer chamber, and +the appellate jurisdiction in admiralty and heresy matters of the +judicial committee; and power is given to the sovereign to transfer the +remaining jurisdiction of that court to the court of appeal. By the +Appellate Jurisdiction Act of 1876 the House of Lords is enabled to sit +for the hearing of appeals from the English court of appeal and the +Scottish and Irish courts during the prorogation and dissolution of +parliament. The lords of appeal, of whom three must be present, are the +lord chancellor, the lords of appeal in ordinary, and peers who have +held "high judicial office" in Great Britain or Ireland. The lords in +ordinary are an innovation in the constitution of the House. They hold +the rank of baron for life only, have a right to sit and vote in the +House during tenure of office only, and a salary of L6000 per annum. + +There are also many obsolete or decayed courts, of which the most +noticeable are dealt with under their individual headings, as COURT +BARON, COURT LEET, &c. + +The history of English courts affords a remarkable illustration of the +continuity that characterizes English institutions. It might perhaps be +too much to say that all the courts now sitting in England may be traced +back to a common origin, but at any rate the higher courts are all +offshoots from the same original judicature. Leaving out of account the +local courts, we find the higher jurisdiction after the Norman Conquest +concentrated along with all other public functions in the king and +council. The first sign of a separation of the judicial from the other +powers of this body is found in the recognition of a Curia Regis, which +may be described as the king's council, or a portion of it, charged +specially with the management of judicial and revenue business. In +relation to the revenue it became the exchequer, under which name a +separate court grew up whose special field was the judicial business +arising out of revenue cases. By Magna Carta the inconvenience caused by +the curia following the king's person was remedied, in so far as private +litigation was concerned, by the order that common pleas (Communia +Placita) should be held at some fixed place; and hence arose the court +of common pleas. The Curia Regis, after having thrown off these +branches, is represented by the king's bench, so that from the same +stock we have now three courts, differing at first in functions, but +through competition for business, and the ingenious use of fictions, +becoming finally the co-ordinate courts of common law of later history. +But an inner circle of counsellors still surrounded the king, and in his +name claimed to exercise judicial as well as other power; hence the +chancellor's jurisdiction, which became, partly in harmony with the +supra-legal power claimed from which it sprang, and partly through the +influence of the ecclesiastical chancellors by whom it was first +administered, the equity of English law. Similar developments of the +same authority were the court of requests (which was destroyed by a +decision of the common pleas) and the court of star chamber--a court of +criminal equity, as it has been called,--which, having been made the +instrument of tyranny, was abolished in 1641. Even then the productive +power of the council was not exhausted; the judicial committee of the +privy council, established in 1832, superseding the previous court of +delegates, exercises the jurisdiction in appeal belonging to the king in +council. The appellate jurisdiction of the Lords rests on their claim to +be the representatives of the ancient great council of the realm. + + See further ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF; APPEAL; CHANCERY; COMMON LAW; + COMMON PLEAS, COURT OF; DIVORCE; EQUITY; &c. + +_United States._--The Federal judicial system of the United States is +made by the Constitution independent both of the Legislature and of the +Executive. It consists of the Supreme Court, the circuit courts, and the +district courts. + +The Supreme Court is created by the Constitution, and consisted in 1909 +of nine judges, who are nominated by the President and confirmed by the +Senate. They hold office during good behaviour, i.e. are removable only +by impeachment, thus having a tenure even more secure than that of +English judges. The court sits at Washington from October to July in +every year. The sessions of the court are held in the Capitol. A rule +requiring the presence of six judges to pronounce a decision prevents +the division of the court into two or more benches; and while this +secures a thorough consideration of every case, it also retards the +despatch of business. Every case is discussed twice by the whole body, +once to ascertain the view of the majority, which is then directed to be +set forth in a written opinion; then again, when the written opinion, +prepared by one of the judges, is submitted for criticism and adoption +by the court as its judgment. + +The other Federal courts have been created by Congress under a power in +the Constitution to establish "inferior courts." The circuit courts +consist of twenty-nine circuit judges, acting in nine judicial circuits, +while to each circuit there is also allotted one of the justices of the +Supreme Court. Circuit courts of appeals, established to relieve the +Supreme Court, consist of three judges (two forming a quorum), and are +made up of the circuit and district judges of each circuit and the +Supreme Court justice assigned to the circuit. Some cases may, however, +be appealed to the Supreme Court from the circuit court of appeals, and +others directly from the lower courts. The district courts number (1909) +ninety, in most cases having a single justice. There is also a special +tribunal called the court of claims, which deals with the claims of +private persons against the Federal government. It is not strictly a +part of the general judicial system, but is a creation of Congress +designed to relieve that body of a part of its own labours. + +The jurisdiction of the Federal courts extends only to those cases in +which the Constitution makes Federal law applicable. All other cases are +left to the state courts, from which there is no appeal to the Federal +courts, unless where some specific point arises which is affected by the +Federal Constitution or a Federal law. The classes of cases dealt with +by the Federal courts are as follows:-- + +1. Cases in law and equity arising under the Constitution, the laws of +the United States, and treaties made under their authority; + +2. Cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls; + +3. Cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; + +4. Controversies to which the United States shall be a party; + +5. Controversies between two or more states, between a state and +citizens of another state, between citizens of different states, between +citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different +states, and between a state or the citizens thereof and foreign states, +citizens or subjects (_Const._, Art. III., S 2). Part of this +jurisdiction has, however, been withdrawn by the eleventh Amendment to +the Constitution, which declares that "the judicial power of the United +States shall not be construed to extend to any suit commenced or +prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another +state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state." + +The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is original in cases affecting +ambassadors, and wherever a state is a party; in other cases it is +appellate. In some matters the jurisdiction of the Federal courts is +exclusive; in others it is concurrent with that of the state courts. + +As it frequently happens that cases come before state courts in which +questions of Federal law arise, a provision has been made whereby due +respect for the latter is secured by giving the party to a suit who +relies upon Federal law, and whose contention is overruled by a state +court, the right of having the suit removed to a Federal court. The +Judiciary Act of 1789 (as amended by subsequent legislation) provides +for the removal to the Supreme Court of the United States of "a final +judgment or decree in any suit rendered in the highest court of a state +in which a decision could be had, where is drawn in question the +validity of a treaty or statute of, or an authority exercised under the +United States, and the decision is against their validity; or where is +drawn in question the validity of a statute of, or an authority +exercised under, any state, on the ground of their being repugnant to +the Constitution, treaties or laws of the United States, and the +decision is in favour of their validity; or where any title, right, +privilege or immunity is claimed under the Constitution, or any treaty +or statute of, or commission held, or authority exercised under the +United States, and the decision is against the title, right, privilege +or immunity specially set up or claimed by either party under such +Constitution, treaty, statute, commission or authority." If the decision +of the state court is in favour of the right claimed under Federal law +or against the validity or applicability of the state law set up, there +is no ground for removal, because the applicability or authority of +Federal law in the particular case could receive no further protection +from a Federal court than has in fact been given by the state court. + +The power exercised by the Supreme Court in declaring statutes of +Congress or of state legislatures (or acts of the Executive) to be +invalid because inconsistent with the Federal Constitution, has been +deemed by many Europeans a peculiar and striking feature of the American +system. There is, however, nothing novel or mysterious about it. As the +Federal Constitution, which emanates directly from the people, is the +supreme law of the land everywhere, any statute passed by any lower +authority (whether the Federal Congress or a state legislature), which +contravenes the Constitution, must necessarily be invalid in point of +law, just as in the United Kingdom a railway by-law which contravened an +act of parliament would be invalid. Now, the functions of judicial +tribunals--of all courts alike, whether Federal or state, whether +superior or inferior--is to interpret the law, and if any tribunal finds +a Congressional statute or state statute inconsistent with the +Constitution, the tribunal is obliged to hold such statute invalid. A +tribunal does this not because it has any right or power of its own in +the matter, but because the people have, in enacting the Constitution as +a supreme law, declared that all other laws inconsistent with it are +_ipso jure_ void. When a tribunal has ascertained that an inferior law +is thus inconsistent, that inferior law is therewith, so far as +inconsistent, to be deemed void. The tribunal does not enter any +conflict with the Legislature or Executive. All it does is to declare +that a conflict exists between two laws of different degrees of +authority, whence it necessarily follows that the weaker law is extinct. +This duty of interpretation belongs to all tribunals, but as +constitutional cases are, if originating in a lower court, usually +carried by appeal to the Supreme Court, men have grown accustomed to +talk of the Supreme Court as in a special sense the guardian of the +Constitution. + +The Federal courts never deliver an opinion on any constitutional +question unless or until that question is brought before them in the +form of a lawsuit. A judgment of the Supreme Court is only a judgment on +the particular case before it, and does not prevent a similar question +being raised again in another lawsuit, though of course this seldom +happens, because it may be assumed that the court will adhere to its +former opinion. There have, however, been instances in which the court +has virtually changed its view on a constitutional question, and it is +understood to be entitled so to do. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Cf. the German _Hof_ for court-yard, court of law, and royal + court. + + [2] The sittings are held in the court-house in the Old Bailey. The + old sessions house was destroyed in the Gordon riots of 1780. The + building erected in its place, although enlarged from time to time, + was very incommodious, and a new structure, occupying the site of + Newgate Prison, which was pulled down for the purpose, was completed + in 1907. + + + + +COURT BARON, an English manorial court dating from the middle ages and +still in existence. It was laid down by Coke that a manor had two +courts, "the first by the common law, and is called a court baron," the +freeholders ("barons") being its suitors; the other a customary court +for the copyholders. Stubbs adopted this explanation, but the latest +learning, expounded by Professor Maitland, holds that court baron means +_curia baronis_, "_la court de seigneur_," and that there is no evidence +for there being more than one court. The old view that at least two +freeholders were required for its composition is also now discarded. +Prof. Maitland's conclusion is that the "court baron" was not even +differentiated from the "court-leet" at the close of the 13th century, +but that there was a distinction of jurisdictional rights, some courts +having only feudal rights, while others had regalities as well. When the +court-leet was differentiated, the court baron remained with feudal +rights alone. These rights he was disposed to trace to a lord's +jurisdiction over his men rather than to his possession of the manor, +although in practice, from an early date, the court was associated with +the manor. Its chief business was to administer the "custom of the +manor" and to admit fresh tenants who had acquired copyholds by +inheritance or purchase, and had to pay, on so doing, a "fine" to the +lord of the manor. It is mainly for the latter purpose that the court is +now kept. It is normally presided over by the steward of the lord of the +manor, who is a lawyer, and its proceedings are recorded on "the court +rolls," of which the older ones are now valuable for genealogical as +well as for legal purposes. + + See _Select Pleas in Manorial and other Seignorial Courts_, vol. i., + and _The Court Baron_ (Selden Society). (J. H. R.) + + + + +COURT DE GEBELIN, ANTOINE (1728-1784), French scholar, son of Antoine +Court (q.v.), was born at Nimes in 1728. He received a good education, +and became, like his father, a pastor of the Reformed Church. This +office, however, he soon relinquished, to devote himself entirely to +literary work. He had conceived the project of a work which should set +in a new light the phenomena, especially the languages and mythologies, +of the ancient world; and, after his father's death, he went to Paris in +order to be near the necessary books. After long years of research, he +published in 1775 the first volume of his vast undertaking under the +title of _Le Monde primitif, analyse et compare avec le monde moderne_. +The ninth volume appeared in 1784, leaving the work still unfinished. +The literary world marvelled at the encyclopaedic learning displayed by +the author, and supposed that the French Academy, or some other society +of scholars, must have combined their powers in its production. Now, +however, the world has well-nigh forgotten the huge quartos. These +learned labours did not prevent Gebelin from pleading earnestly the +cause of religious tolerance. In 1760 he published a work entitled _Les +Toulousaines_, advocating the rights of the Protestants; and he +afterwards established at Paris an agency for collecting information as +to their sufferings, and for exciting general interest in their cause. +He co-operated with Franklin and others in the periodical work entitled +_Affaires de l'Angleterre et de l'Amerique_ (1776, sqq.), which was +devoted to the support of American independence. He was also a supporter +of the principles of the economists, and Quesnay called him his +well-beloved disciple. In the last year of his life he became acquainted +with Mesmer, and published a _Lettre sur le magnetisme animal_. He was +imposed upon by speculators in whom he placed confidence, and was +reduced to destitution by the failure of a scheme in which they engaged +him. He died at Paris on the 10th of May 1784. + + See _La France protestante_, by the brothers Haag, tome iv.; Charles + Dardier, _Court de Gebelin_ (Nimes, 1890). + + + + +COURTENAY, the name of a famous English family. French genealogists head +the pedigree of this family with one Athon or Athos, who is said to have +fortified Courtenay in Gatinois about the year 1010. His son Josselin +had, with other issue, Miles, lord of Courtenay, founder of the +Cistercian abbey of Fontaine-Jean. By his wife Ermengarde, daughter of +Renaud, count of Nevers, Miles left a son Renaud, one of the magnates +who followed Louis le Jeune to the Holy Land. This was the last lord of +Courtenay of the line of Athon. Elizabeth, his elder daughter--a younger +daughter died without issue,--carried Courtenay and other lordships to +her husband Pierre, seventh and youngest son of the French king Louis +VI. the Fat, the marriage taking place about 1150, and the many +descendants of this royal match bore the surname of Courtenay. + +Pierre, the eldest son, was founder of a short-lived dynasty of emperors +of Constantinople, which ended in 1261 when Baldwin (Baudouin), last of +the Frankish emperors, fled before Michael Palaeologus from a capital in +flames. Baldwin's son Philip, however, bore the empty title, and his +granddaughter Catherine, wife of Charles, count of Valois, was titular +empress. Other lines of the royal Courtenays, sprung from Pierre of +France, were lords of Champignolles, Tanlai, Yerre, Bleneau, La Ferte +Loupiere and Chevillon. On the death of Gaspard, sieur de Bleneau, in +1655, his cousin Louis de Courtenay, comte de Cesi (_jure uxoris_) and +sieur de Chevillon, had Bleneau, and reckoned himself the surviving +chief of his house. He styled himself Prince de Courtenay and his family +made attempts to obtain recognition for their royal blood. But their +laboriously constructed genealogies availed nothing to this impoverished +race. The last "Prince de Courtenay," an ex-captain of dragoons, died in +1730; his uncle Roger de Courtenay, abbe des Eschalis, who died in 1733, +was the last recognized member of the line of Pierre of France. + +A younger branch of the first house of Courtenay came from Josselin, +second son of Josselin, son of Athon. This Josselin, a notable crusader, +went to the Holy Land with the count of Blois, and held by the sword for +eleven years the county of Edessa, given him by his cousin King Baldwin +II. Edessa was won back by the infidel from his son Josselin, who died a +prisoner in Aleppo in 1147. A grandson, also a Josselin, was seneschal +of the kingdom of Jerusalem. + +In England a house of Courtenay has flourished with varying fortunes +since the reign of the first Angevin king. The monks of Ford, to whom +they were benefactors, complacently set down their patrons as the +offspring of the royal Courtenays, of whose origin they had some dim +knowledge, deriving them from "Florus," son of Louis the Fat. A +comparison of dates destroys the story. But they were, doubtless, +Courtenays of the stock of Athon. Josselin, the first count of Edessa, +has been suggested by modern writers as their founder, but the name +Reinaud, borne by the first known ancestor of the English house, +suggests that they may have sprung from a younger son of Josselin I. of +Courtenay by his marriage about 1095 with Ermengarde, daughter of +Reinaud, count of Nevers. It is also notable that the English Courtenays +have, from the first introduction of armorial bearings, borne with +various differences the three red roundels in a golden field, the arms +of the Courtenays in France, the shield of the earls of Devonshire being +identical with that of the lords of La Ferte Loupiere. + +Several Courtenays whose kinship cannot be exactly ascertained, appear +in English records of the 12th century. One of them, Robert de +Courtenay, married the daughter and heir of Reynold fitz Urse, the +leader of the murderers of Archbishop Thomas Becket. His son, William, a +Shropshire baron, held the castle of Montgomery, as heir by his mother +of Baldwin de Buslers, or Bollers, to whom Henry I. had given it with +his "niece" Sibil de Falaise. This William married Ada of Dunbar, +daughter of Patrick, earl of Dunbar, but died in the reign of King John, +without issue. + +Reinaud de Courtenay, ancestor of the main English line, may well have +been a brother of the Robert above named. The English pedigrees confuse +him with his son of the same name. He was a favourite with Henry II., +his attestations of charters showing him as a constant companion at home +and abroad of the king, whom he followed to Wexford in the Irish +expedition of 1172. Henry gave him Berkshire lands at Sutton, still +known as Sutton Courtenay, by a charter to which the date of 1161 can be +assigned. In England he had to wife Maude, daughter of Robert fitz Roy +by Maude of Avranches, the elder Maude being the heir of the house of +Brionne. By her, who survived him, dying before January 1224, he had no +issue, but by a wife who may have died before his coming to England he +had, with other issue, Robert and Reinaud. Robert, who succeeded to +Sutton about 1192, was husband of Alice de Rumeli, widow of Gilbert +Pipard, and one of the three sisters and co-heirs of William, the boy of +Egremond, of whose drowning in the Strid Wordsworth has made a ballad. +Robert died childless in 1209. Of his brother Reinaud or Reynold de +Courtenay little is known, save that he was a married man in 1178 when +he and his wife Hawise were given by the pope a licence to have a free +chapel at Okehampton. This wife, Hawise de Ayencourt, was, with Maude +his father's second wife, a daughter and co-heir of Maude of Avranches, +her father being the lord of Ayencourt, first husband of the last named +Maude. Her great inheritance included the honour of Okehampton in +Devonshire of which, as a widow, she had livery about 1205. Her son, +Robert de Courtenay, succeeded to her land in 1219, having been his +uncle Robert's heir in Sutton ten years before. Like his father he +advanced his house by a great marriage, his wife being Mary, the younger +daughter of William de Vernon, earl of Devon and of the Isle of Wight. +He was succeeded in 1242 by his son John, who by Isabel, a daughter of +Hugh de Vere, earl of Oxford, has issue Hugh, whose wife was Eleanor, +daughter of the earl of Winchester, elder of the two favourites of +Edward II. The son of this marriage, another Hugh, followed his father +at Okehampton in 1291. Two years later died Isabel, surviving sister and +heir of Baldwin de Reviers, earl of Devon, and widow of William de Forz, +last earl of Aumerle (Albemarle). On her death-bed she had granted her +lordship of the Wight to the king, but her cousin Hugh de Courtenay +succeeded her in the unalienated estates of the house of Reviers. He was +summoned as a baron on the 6th of February 1298/9, and in 1300 he +displayed his banner before the castle of Caerlaverock. Claiming the +"third penny" of the county of Devon, he was refused by the exchequer as +he did not claim in the name of an earl. Following, however, a writ of +inquiry, a patent of the 22nd of February 1334/5 declared him earl of +Devon and qualified to take such style as his ancestors, earls of Devon, +were wont to take. Hugh, his son, the second earl, a warrior who drove +the French back from their descent on Cornwall in 1339, made another of +the brilliant marriages of this family, his wife being Eleanor, daughter +of Humfrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford and Essex, by Elizabeth daughter +of Edward I. Their eldest son, Sir Hugh de Courtenay, shared in the +honours of Crecy and Calais, and was one of the knights founders of the +order of the Garter, the stall-plate of his arms being yet in St +George's chapel at Windsor. This knight died in the lifetime of the +earl, as did his only son Hugh, summoned as a baron on the 3rd of +January 1370/1, a companion at Najara of the Black Prince, whose +step-daughter Maude of Holland he had married. The earl was therefore +succeeded by his grandson Edward (son of Edward his third son), earl +marshal of England in 1385, who died blind in 1419, the year after the +death of Sir Edward his heir apparent, one of the conquerors at +Agincourt. Hugh, a second son of Earl Edward, succeeded as fourth earl +of the Courtenay line. By his wife, a sister of the renowned Talbot, +earl of Shrewsbury, he had issue Thomas the fifth earl, a partisan of +Henry VI., whose wife was Margaret Beaufort, daughter of John, earl of +Somerset. The effigy of this grandaughter of John of Gaunt, with the +shields of Courtenay and Beaufort above it, is in Colyton church. It is +less than life size, a fact which has given rise to a village legend +that it represents "Little choke-a-bone," an infant daughter of the +tenth earl, who died "choked by a fish bone." In spite of the evidence +of the shields and the 15th century dress of the effigy, the legend has +now been strengthened by an inscription upon a brass plate, and in the +year 1907 ignorance engaged a monumental sculptor to deface the effigy +by giving its broken features the newly carved face of a young child. +Both sons of this marriage fell in the Wars of the Roses, Thomas the +sixth earl being taken at Towton by the Yorkists and beheaded at York in +1462, his younger brother Henry having the same fate at Salisbury in +1466. + +The earldom being extinguished by attainder, Sir Humphrey Stafford was +created earl of Devon in 1469, but in the same year, having retired with +his men from the expedition against Robin of Redesdale, another earl of +Devon suffered at the headsman's hands, his patent being afterwards +annulled by a statute of Henry VII. On the restoration of Henry VI. John +Courtenay, only surviving brother of Thomas and Henry, was restored to +the earldom by the reversal of attainder. He, too, died in the +Lancastrian cause, being killed on the 4th of May 1471 at Tewkesbury, +where he led the rear of the host. The representation of the Reviers +earls and of the Courtenay barony fell then to his sisters and their +descendants. Beside him at Tewkesbury died his cousin Sir Hugh Courtenay +of Boconnoc, son of Hugh, a younger brother of the blind earl, leaving a +son Edward, who thus became the heir male of the house though not its +heir general. Joining in the cause which had cost so many of his kinsmen +their lives, he and his brother Walter shared the duke of Buckingham's +rising. On its failure they fled into France to the earl of Richmond, +beside whom Sir Edward fought at Bosworth. By a patent of the 26th of +October 1485 he was created earl of Devon with remainder to the heirs +male of his body, and by an act of 1485 he was restored to all honours +lost in his attainder by the Yorkist parliament. He defended Exeter +against Warbeck's rebels and was a knight of the Garter in 1489, dying +twenty years later, when the earldom became again forfeit by his son's +attainder. That son, William Courtenay, had drawn the jealousy of Henry +VII. by a marriage with Catherine, sister of the queen and daughter of +King Edward IV., the Yorkist sovereign whose hand had been so heavy on +the Courtenays. After the queen's death, Henry sent his wife's +brother-in-law to the Tower on a charge of corresponding with Edmund +Pole, an attainder following. But on the accession of Henry VIII., the +young king released his uncle, who although styled an earl was not fully +restored in blood at his death in 1511. His son Henry Courtenay obtained +from parliament in December 1512 a reversal of his father's attainder, +thus succeeding to the earldom of his grandfather. At the Field of Cloth +of Gold he ran a course with the king of France. He was knight of the +Garter and on the 15th of June 1525 had a patent as marquess of Exeter. +Profiting by the suppression of the monasteries he increased his estate, +his power being all but supreme in the west country. But Cromwell was +his enemy and the royal strain in his blood was a dangerous thing. +Involved in correspondence with Cardinal Pole, he was sent to the Tower +with his wife and his young son, and on the 9th of December 1538 he was +beheaded as a traitor. The misfortunes of the house were heavy upon the +son, who at twelve years old was a prisoner for the sake of his high +descent. His honours had been forfeited, and release did not come until +the accession of Queen Mary, who took him into favour. Noailles the +ambassador found him _le plus beau et le plus agreable gentilhomme +d'Angleterre_, and he had some hopes of becoming king consort. The queen +created him earl of Devonshire by a patent of the 3rd of September 1553 +and in the next month he was restored in blood. But, disappointed in his +hopes, he formed some wild plans for marrying the Lady Elizabeth and +making her queen. He could raise Devon and Cornwall. Wyat did raise +Kent, but the plot was soon crushed. The earl was sent back to the Tower +and thence to Fotheringhay. At Easter of 1555 he was released on parole +and exiled, dying suddenly at Padua in 1556. His co-heirs were the +descendants of the four sisters of Earl Edward (d. 1519), the wives of +four Cornish squires, and with him was extinguished, to the belief of +all men, the Courtenays' earldom of Devon. His heir male was Sir William +Courtenay, his sixth cousin once removed, head of a knightly line of +Courtenays whose seat was Powderham Castle, a line which, during the +civil wars, stood for the White Rose. Sir William, who is said to have +been killed at St Quintin in 1557, was succeeded by his son, another Sir +William, one of the undertakers for the settling of Ireland, where the +family obtained great estates. William Courtenay of Powderham, of whose +marriage with the daughter of Sir William Waller (the parliament's +general) it is remarked that the years of bride and bridegroom added +together were less than thirty when their first child was born, was +created a baronet by writ of privy seal in February 1644, the patent +being never enrolled. His great grandson, Sir William Courtenay, many +years a member of parliament, was on the 6th of May 1762, ten days +before his death, created Viscount Courtenay of Powderham Castle. + +Since the death at Padua in 1556 of Edward, earl of Devon, that ancient +title had been twice revived. Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy, who was +created earl of Devon in 1603, died without lawful issue in 1606. In +1618 Sir William Cavendish, son of the famous Bess of Hardwick, was +given the same title, which is still among the peerage honours of the +ducal house descending from him. For the Courtenays, who had without +protest accepted a baronetcy and a viscounty, their earldom was dead. In +the reign of William IV., the third and last Viscount Courtenay was +living unmarried in Paris, an exile who for sufficient reasons was +keeping out of the reach of the English criminal law. In the name of +this man, his presumptive heir male, William Courtenay, clerk assistant +of the parliament, succeeded in persuading the House of Lords that the +Courtenay earldom under the patent of 1553 was still in existence, the +plea being that the terms of the remainder--to him and his heirs male +for ever--did not limit the succession to heirs male of the body of the +grantee. Five other cases wherein the words _de corpore suo_ had been +omitted from the patent are known to peerage lawyers. In no case had a +peerage before been claimed by collateral heirs male. "I have often +rallied Brougham," writes Lord Campbell, "upon his creating William +Courtenay earl of Devon. He says he consulted Chief Justice Tenterden. +But Tenterden knew nothing of peerage law." After the death of the exile +in 1835 the clerk of the parliament succeeded him as an earl by force of +the House of Lords decision of the 15th of March 1831. His second son, +the Rev. Henry Hugh Courtenay (1811-1904), succeeded, as 13th earl, a +nephew whose extravagance had impoverished the estates. He in turn was +followed, as 14th earl, by his grandson Charles Pepys Courtenay (b. +1870). + +No other recognized branch of this house, once so widely spread in the +western counties, is now among the landed houses of England. Among its +cadets were many famous warriors, but three prelates must be reckoned as +the most eminent of the Courtenays. William, a younger son of the match +of Courtenay and Bohun, was bishop of Hereford in 1370, bishop of London +in 1375 and archbishop of Canterbury in 1381. Proceeding against +Wycliffe he opposed John of Gaunt, who, taunting him with his trust in +his great kinsfolk, threatened to drag him out of St Paul's by his hair, +a threat which roused the angry Londoners in his defence. He died in +1396 and lies buried at the feet of the Black Prince in his cathedral of +Canterbury. By his will he left his best mitre to his nephew Richard +Courtenay--son and pupil, as he styles him--against the time he should +be a bishop. This Richard, a friend of Henry V. when prince, and +treasurer of his household, was bishop of Norwich in 1413. Twice +chancellor of Oxford, he repelled Archbishop Arundel and all his train +when that primate would have had a visitation of the university, +although the claim of the university to independence was at last broken +down. Tall of stature, eloquent and learned, he kept the favour of the +king, who was with him when he died of dysentery in the host before +Harfleur. Heir of this bishop was his nephew Sir Philip of Powderham, +whose younger son Peter Courtenay was the third of the Courtenay +prelates, being bishop of Exeter from 1478 to 1487, when he was +translated to Winchester. Although of the Yorkist Courtenays, he was of +Buckingham's party and, being attainted by Richard III. for joining with +certain of his kinsfolk in an attempt to raise the west, he escaped to +Brittany, whence he returned with the first Tudor sovereign, who had him +in high favour. A fourth prelate of this family was Henry Reginald +Courtenay, who was bishop of Bristol 1794-1797 and bishop of Exeter from +1797 to his death in 1803. + + See charter, patent, close, fine and plea rolls, inquests _post + mortem_ and other records. G. E. C.'s _Complete Peerage_; _Dictionary + of National Biography_; _Notes and Queries_, series viii. vol. 7; J. + H. Round's _Peerage Studies_; _Calendars of State Papers_; Machyn's + _Diary_ (Camden Society); Chronicles of Capgrave, Wavrin, Adam of Usk, + &c. (O. BA.) + + + + +COURTENAY, RICHARD (d. 1415), English prelate, was a son of Sir Philip +Courtenay of Powderham Castle, near Exeter, and a grandson of Hugh +Courtenay, earl of Devon (d. 1377). He was a nephew of William +Courtenay, archbishop of Canterbury, and a descendant of Edward I. +Educated at Exeter College, Oxford, he entered the church, where his +advance was rapid. He held several prebends, was dean of St Asaph and +then dean of Wells, and became bishop of Norwich in 1413. As chancellor +of the university of Oxford, an office to which he was elected in 1407 +and again in 1410, Courtenay asserted the independence of the university +against Thomas Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury, in 1411; but the +archbishop, supported by Henry IV. and Pope John XXIII, eventually +triumphed. Courtenay was a personal friend of Henry V. both before and +after he came to the throne; and in 1413, immediately after Henry's +accession, he was made treasurer of the royal household. On two +occasions he went on diplomatic errands to France, and he was also +employed by Henry on public business at home. Having accompanied the +king to Harfleur in August 1415, Courtenay was attacked by dysentery and +died on the 15th of September 1415, his body being buried in Westminster +Abbey. + +Another member of this family, PETER COURTENAY (d. 1492), a grandnephew +of Richard, also attained high position in the English Church. Educated +at Exeter College, Oxford, Peter became dean of Windsor, then dean of +Exeter; in 1478 bishop of Exeter; and in 1487 bishop of Winchester in +succession to William of Waynflete. With Henry Stafford, duke of +Buckingham, and others he attempted to raise a rebellion against Richard +III. in 1483, and fled to Brittany when this enterprise failed. +Courtenay was restored to his dignities and estates in 1485 by Henry +VII., whom he had accompanied to England, and he died on the 23rd of +September 1492. + + See J. H. Wylie, _History of England under Henry IV_. (London, + 1884-1898). + + + + +COURTENAY, WILLIAM (c. 1342-1396), English prelate, was a younger son of +Hugh Courtenay, earl of Devon (d. 1377), and through his mother +Margaret, daughter of Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford, was a +great-grandson of Edward I. Being a native of the west of England he was +educated at Stapledon Hall, Oxford, and after graduating in law was +chosen chancellor of the university in 1367. Courtenay's ecclesiastical +and political career began about the same time. Having been made +prebendary of Exeter, of Wells and of York, he was consecrated bishop of +Hereford in 1370, was translated to the see of London in 1375, and +became archbishop of Canterbury in 1381, succeeding Simon of Sudbury in +both these latter positions. As a politician the period of his activity +coincides with the years of Edward III.'s dotage, and with practically +the whole of Richard II.'s reign. From the first he ranged himself among +the opponents of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster; he was a firm +upholder of the rights of the English Church, and was always eager to +root out Lollardry. In 1373 he declared in convocation that he would not +contribute to a subsidy until the evils from which the church suffered +were removed; in 1375 he incurred the displeasure of the king by +publishing a papal bull against the Florentines; and in 1377 his decided +action during the quarrel between John of Gaunt and William of Wykeham +ended in a temporary triumph for the bishop. Wycliffe was another cause +of difference between Lancaster and Courtenay. In 1377 the reformer +appeared before Archbishop Sudbury and Courtenay, when an altercation +between the duke and the bishop led to the dispersal of the court, and +during the ensuing riot Lancaster probably owed his safety to the good +offices of his foe. Having meanwhile become archbishop of Canterbury +Courtenay summoned a council, or synod, in London, which condemned the +opinions of Wycliffe; he then attacked the Lollards at Oxford, and urged +the bishops to imprison heretics. He was for a short time chancellor of +England during 1381, and in January 1382 he officiated at the marriage +of Richard II. with Anne of Bohemia, afterwards crowning the queen. In +1382 the archbishop's visitation led to disputes with the bishops of +Exeter and Salisbury, and Courtenay was only partially able to enforce +the payment of a special tax to meet his expenses on this occasion. +During his concluding years the archbishop appears to have upheld the +papal authority in England, although not to the injury of the English +Church. He protested against the confirmation of the statute of +provisors in 1390, and he was successful in slightly modifying the +statute of praemunire in 1393. Disliking the extravagance of Richard II. +he publicly reproved the king, and after an angry scene the royal +threats drove him for a time into Devonshire. In 1386 he was one of the +commissioners appointed to reform the kingdom and the royal household, +and in 1387 he arranged a peace between Richard and his enemies under +Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester. Courtenay died at Maidstone on +the 31st of July 1396, and was buried in Canterbury cathedral. + + See W. F. Hook, _Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury_, vol. iv. + (London, 1860-1876); and W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vols. + ii. and iii. (Oxford, 1895-1896). + + + + +COURTESY (O. Fr. _curtesie_, later _courtoisie_), manners or behaviour +that suit a court, politeness, due consideration for others. A special +application of the word is in the expression "by courtesy," where +something is granted out of favour and not of right, hence "courtesy" +titles, i.e. those titles of rank which are given by custom to the +eldest sons of dukes, marquesses and earls, usually the second title +held by the father; to the younger sons and to the daughters of dukes +and marquesses, viz. the prefix "lord" and "lady" with the Christian and +surname. For "tenure by the courtesy" see CURTESY. Another form of the +word, "curtsey" or "curtsy," was early confined to the expression of +courtesy or respect by a gesture or bow, now only of the reverence made +by a woman, consisting in a bending of the knees accompanied by a +lowering of the body. + + + + +COURTHOPE, WILLIAM JOHN (1842- ), English writer and historian of +poetry, whose father was rector of South Malling, Essex, was born on the +17th of July 1842. From Harrow school he went to New College, Oxford; +took first-classes in classical "moderations" and "greats"; and won the +Newdigate prize for poetry (1864) and the Chancellor's English essay +(1868). He seemed destined for distinction as a poet, his volume of +_Ludibria Lunae_ (1869) being followed in 1870 by the remarkably fine +_Paradise of Birds_. But a certain academic quality of mind seemed to +check his output in verse and divert it into the field of criticism. +Apart from many contributions to the higher journalism, his literary +career is associated mainly with his continuation of the edition of +Pope's works, begun by Whitwell Elwin (1816-1900), which appeared in ten +volumes from 1871-1889; his life of Addison (Men of Letters series, +1882); his _Liberal Movement in English Literature_ (1885); and his +tenure of the professorship of Poetry at Oxford (1895-1901), which +resulted in his elaborate _History of English Poetry_ (the first volume +appearing in 1895), and his _Life in Poetry_ (1901). He deals with the +history of English poetry as a whole, and in its unity as a result of +the national spirit and thought in succeeding ages, and attempts to +bring the great poets into relation with this. In 1887 he was appointed +a civil service commissioner, being first commissioner in 1892, and +being made a C.B. He was made an honorary fellow of his old college at +Oxford in 1896, and was given the honorary degrees of D.Litt. by Durham +in 1895 and of LL.D. by Edinburgh University in 1898. + + + + +COURT LEET, an English petty criminal court for the punishment of small +offences. It has been usual to make a distinction between court baron +and court leet[1] as being separate courts, but in the early history of +the court leet no such distinction can be drawn. At a very early time +the lords of manors exercised or claimed certain jurisdictional +franchises. Of these the most important was the "view of frankpledge" +and its attendant police jurisdiction. Some time in the later middle +ages the court baron when exercising these powers gained the name of +_leet_, and, later, of "court leet." The _quo warranto_ proceedings of +Edward I. established a sharp distinction between the court baron, +exercising strictly manorial rights, and the court leet, depending for +its jurisdiction upon royal franchise. The court leet was a court of +record, and its duty was not only to view the pledges but to present by +jury all crimes that might happen within the jurisdiction, and punish +the same. The steward of the court acted as judge, presiding wholly in a +judicial character, the ministerial acts being executed by the bailiff. +The court leet began to decline in the 14th century, being superseded by +the more modern courts of the justices, but in many cases courts leet +were kept up until nearly the middle of the 19th century. Indeed, it +cannot be said that they are now actually extinct, as many still survive +for formal purposes, and by s. 40 of the Sheriffs Act 1887 they are +expressly kept up. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The history of the word "leet" is very obscure. It appears in + Anglo-French documents as _lete_ and in Anglo-Latin as _leta_. + Professor W. W. Skeat has connected it with Old English _laetan_, to + let, which is very doubtful, though this is the origin of the use of + the word in such expressions as "two-" "three-way leet," a place + where cross-roads meet. The _New English Dictionary_ suggests a + connexion with "lathe," a term which survives as a division of the + county of Kent, containing several "hundreds." This is of Old + Norwegian origin, and seems to have meant "landed possessions." There + is also another Old Norwegian _leith_, a court or judicial assembly, + and modern Danish has _laegd_, a division of the country for military + purposes. J. H. Round (_Feudal England_, p. 101) points out that the + Suffolk hundred was divided for assessment into equal blocks called + "leets" (see further F. W. Maitland, _Select Pleas in Manorial + Courts_, Selden Soc. Publications I. lxxiii-lxxvi). "Leet" is also + used, chiefly in Scotland, for a list of persons nominated for + election to an office. This is, apparently, a shortened form of the + French _elite_, elected. + + + + +COURT-MARTIAL, a court for the trial of offences against military or +naval discipline, or for the administration of martial law. In England +courts-martial have inherited part of the jurisdiction of the old _Curia +militaris_, or court of the chivalry, in which a single marshal and at +one time the high constable proceeded "according to the customs and +usages of that court, and, in cases omitted according to the civil law, +_secundum legem armorum_" (Coke, 4 _Ins._ 17). The modern form of the +courts was adopted by ordinance in the time of Charles I., when English +soldiers were studying the "articles and military laws" of Gustavus +Adolphus and the Dutch military code of Arnheim; it is first recognized +by statute in the first Mutiny Act of 1689. The Mutiny Act (with various +extensions and amendments) and the statutory articles of war continued +to be the sources of military law which courts-martial administered +until 1879, when they were codified in the Army Discipline and +Regulation Act 1879, which was, in turn, superseded by the Army Act +1881. This act is re-enacted annually by the Army (Annual) Act. The +constitution of courts-martial, their procedure, &c., are dealt with +under MILITARY LAW. + +_Naval Courts-Martial._--The administration of the barbarous naval law +of England was long entrusted to the discretion of commanders acting +under instructions from the lord high admiral, who was supreme over both +the royal and merchant navy. It was the leaders of the Long Parliament +who first secured something like a regular tribunal by passing in 1645 +an ordinance and articles concerning martial law for the government of +the navy. Under this ordinance Blake, Monk and Penn issued instructions +for the holding general and ship courts-martial with written records, +the one for captains and commanders, the other for subordinate officers +and men. Of the latter the mate, gunner and boatswain were members, but +the admirals reserved a control over the more serious sentences. Under +an act of 1661 the high admiral again received power to issue +commissions for holding courts-martial--a power which continues to be +exercised by the board of admiralty. During the 18th century, under the +auspices of Anson, the jurisdiction was greatly extended, and the +Consolidation Act of 1749 was passed in which the penalty of death +occurs as frequently as the curses in the commination service. The Naval +Articles of War have always been statutory, and the whole system may now +be said to rest on the Naval Discipline Act 1866, as amended by the act +of 1884. The navy has its courts of inquiry for the confidential +investigation of charges "derogatory to the character of an officer and +a gentleman." Under the act of 1866 a court-martial must consist of from +five to nine officers of a certain rank, and must be held publicly on +board of one of H.M. ships of war, and where at least two such ships are +together. The rank of the president depends on that of the prisoner. A +judge-advocate attends, and the procedure resembles that in military +courts, except that the prisoner is not asked to plead, and the +sentence, if not one of death, does not require the confirmation of the +commander-in-chief abroad or of the admiralty at home. The court has a +large and useful power of finding the prisoner guilty of a less serious +offence than that charged, which might well be imitated in the ordinary +criminal courts. The death sentence is always carried out by hanging at +the yard-arm; Admiral Byng, however, was shot in 1757. The board of +admiralty have, under the Naval Discipline Acts, a general power of +suspending, annulling, and modifying sentences which are not capital. +The jurisdiction extends to all persons belonging to the navy, to land +forces and other passengers on board, shipwrecked crews, spies, persons +borne on the books of H.M. ships in commission, and civilians on board +who endeavour to seduce others from allegiance. The definition of the +jurisdiction by locality includes harbours, havens or creeks, lakes or +rivers, in or out of the United Kingdom; all places within the +jurisdiction of the admiralty; all places on shore out of the United +Kingdom; the dockyards, barracks, hospitals, &c., of the service +wherever situated; all places on shore in or out of the United Kingdom +for all offences punishable under the Articles of War except those +specified in section 38 of the Naval Discipline Act 1860, which are +punishable by ordinary law. The Royal Marines, while borne on the books +of H.M. ships, are subject to the Naval Discipline Acts, and, by an +order in council, 1882, when they are embarked on board ship for service +on shore; otherwise they are under the Army Acts. By s. 179, sub.-sec. +7, of the Army Act, in the application of the act to the Royal Marines +the admiralty is substituted for military authorities. + + AUTHORITIES.--Simmons, _On the Constitution and Practice of + Courts-Martial_; Clode, _Military and Martial Law_; Stephens, Gifford + and Smith, _Manual of Naval Law and Court-Martial Procedure_. The + earlier writers on courts-martial are Adye (1796), M'Arthur (1813), + Maltby (1813, Boston), James (1820), D'Aguilar (1843), and Hough, + _Precedents in Military Law_ (1855). + + + + +COURTNEY, LEONARD HENRY COURTNEY, BARON (1832- ), English politician +and man of letters, eldest son of J. S. Courtney, a banker, was born at +Penzance on the 6th of July 1832. At Cambridge, Leonard Courtney was +second wrangler and first Smith's prizeman, and was elected a fellow of +his college, St John's. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in +1858, was professor of political economy at University College from 1872 +to 1875, and in December 1876, after a previous unsuccessful attempt, +was elected to parliament for Liskeard in the Liberal interest. He +continued to represent the borough, and the district into which it was +merged by the Reform Act of 1885, until 1900, when his attitude towards +the South African War--he was one of the foremost of the so-called +"Pro-Boer" party--compelled his retirement. Until 1885 he was a devoted +adherent of Mr Gladstone, particularly in finance and foreign affairs. +In 1880 he was under-secretary of state for the home department, in 1881 +for the colonies, and in 1882 secretary to the treasury; but he was +always a stubborn fighter for principle, and upon finding that the +government's Reform Bill in 1884 contained no recognition of the scheme +for proportional representation, to which he was deeply committed, he +resigned office. He refused to support Mr Gladstone's Home Rule Bill in +1885, and was one of those who chiefly contributed to its rejection, and +whose reputation for unbending integrity and intellectual eminence gave +solidity to the Liberal Unionist party. In 1886 he was elected chairman +of committees in the House of Commons, and his efficiency in this office +seemed to mark him out for the speakership in 1895. A Liberal Unionist, +however, could only be elected by Conservative votes, and he had made +himself objectionable to a large section of the party by his independent +attitude on various questions, on which his Liberalism outweighed his +party loyalty. He would in any case have been incapacitated by an +affection of the eyesight, which for a while threatened to withdraw him +from public life altogether. After 1895 Mr Courtney's divergences from +the Unionist party on questions other than Irish politics became +gradually more marked. He became known in the House of Commons +principally for his candid criticism of the measures introduced by his +nominal leaders, and he was rather to be ranked among the Opposition +than as a Ministerialist; and when the crisis with the Transvaal came +in 1899, Mr Courtney's views, which remained substantially what they +were when he supported the settlement after Majuba in 1881, had plainly +become incompatible with his position even as a nominal follower of Lord +Salisbury and Mr Chamberlain. He gradually reverted to formal membership +of the Liberal party, and in January 1906 unsuccessfully contested a +division of Edinburgh as a supporter of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman at +the general election. Among the birthday honours of 1906 he was elevated +to the peerage as Baron Courtney of Penwith (Cornwall). Lord Courtney, +who in 1883 married Miss Catherine Potter (an elder sister of Mrs Sidney +Webb), was a prominent supporter of the women's movement. In earlier +years he was a regular contributor to _The Times_, and he wrote numerous +essays in the principal reviews on political and economic subjects. In +1901 he published a book on _The Working Constitution of the United +Kingdom_. + +Two of his brothers, John Mortimer Courtney (b. 1838), and William +Prideaux Courtney (b. 1845), also attained public distinction, the +former in the government service in Canada (from 1869, retiring in +1906), rising to be deputy-minister of finance, and the latter in the +British civil service (1865-1892), and as a prominent man of letters and +bibliographer. + + + + +COURTOIS, JACQUES (1621-1676) and GUILLAUME (1628-1679). The two French +painters who bore these names are also called by the Italian equivalents +Giacomo (or Jacopo) Cortese and Guglielmo Cortese. Each of the brothers +is likewise named, from his native province, Le Bourguignon, or Il +Borgognone. + +Jacques Courtois was born at St Hippolyte, near Besancon, in 1621. His +father was a painter, and with him Jacques remained studying up to the +age of fifteen. Towards 1637 he came to Italy, was hospitably received +at Milan by a Burgundian gentleman, and entered, and for three years +remained in, the French military service. The sight of some +battle-pictures revived his taste for fine art. He went to Bologna, and +studied under the friendly tutelage of Guido; thence he proceeded to +Rome, where he painted, in the Cistercian monastery, the "Miracle of the +Loaves." Here he took a house and after a while entered upon his own +characteristic style of art, that of battle-painting, in which he has +been accounted to excel all other old masters; his merits were cordially +recognized by the celebrated Cerquozzi, named Michelangelo delle +Battaglie. He soon rose from penury to ease, and married a painter's +beautiful daughter, Maria Vagini; she died after seven years of wedded +life. Prince Matthias of Tuscany employed Courtois on some striking +works in his villa, Lappeggio, representing with much historical +accuracy the prince's military exploits. In Venice also the artist +executed for the senator Sagredo some remarkable battle-pieces. In +Florence he entered the Society of Jesus, taking the habit in Rome in +1655; it was calumniously rumoured that he adopted this course in order +to escape punishment for having poisoned his wife. As a Jesuit father, +Courtois painted many works in churches and monasteries of the society. +He lived piously in Rome, and died there of apoplexy on the 20th of May +1676 (some accounts say 1670 or 1671). His battle-pieces have movement +and fire, warm colouring (now too often blackened), and great command of +the brush,--those of moderate dimensions are the more esteemed. They are +slight in execution, and tell out best from a distance. Courtois etched +with skill twelve battle-subjects of his own composition. The Dantzig +painter named in Italy Pandolfo Reschi was his pupil. + +Guillaume Courtois, born likewise at St Hippolyte, came to Italy with +his brother. He went at once to Rome, and entered the school of Pietro +da Cortona. He studied also the Bolognese painters and Giovanni +Barbieri, and formed for himself a style with very little express +mannerism, partly resembling that of Maratta. He painted the "Battle of +Joshua" in the Quirinal Gallery, the "Crucifixion of St Andrew" in the +church of that saint on Monte Cavallo, various works for the Jesuits, +some also in co-operation with his brother. His last production was +Christ admonishing Martha. His draughtsmanship is better than that of +Jacques, whom he did not, however, rival in spirit, colour or +composition. He also executed some etchings. Guillaume Courtois died of +gout on the 15th of June 1679. + + + + +COURTRAI (Flemish, _Kortryk_), an important and once famous town of West +Flanders, Belgium, situated on the Lys. Pop. (1904) 34,564. It is now +best known for its fine linen, which ranks with that of Larne. The lace +factories are also important and employ 5000 hands. But considerable as +is the prosperity of modern Courtrai it is but a shadow of what it was +in the middle ages during the halcyon period of the Flemish communes. +Then Courtrai had a population of 200,000, now it is little over a sixth +of that number. On the 11th of July 1302 the great battle of Courtrai +(see INFANTRY) was fought outside its walls, when the French army, under +the count of Artois, was vanquished by the allied burghers of Bruges, +Ypres and Courtrai with tremendous loss. As many as 700 pairs of golden +spurs were collected on the field from the bodies of French knights and +hung up as an offering in an abbey church of the town, which has long +disappeared. There are still, however, some interesting remains of +Courtrai's former grandeur. Perhaps the Pont de Broel, with its towers +at either end of the bridge, is as characteristic and complete as any +monument of ancient Flanders that has come down to modern times. The +hotel de ville, which dated from the earlier half of the 16th century, +was restored in 1846, and since then statues have also been added to +represent those that formerly ornamented the facade. Two richly and +elaborately carved chimney-pieces in the hotel de ville merit special +notice. The one in the council chamber upstairs dates from 1527 and +gives an allegorical representation of the Virtues and the Vices. The +other, three-quarters of a century later, contains an heraldic +representation of the noble families of the town. The church of St +Martin dates from the 15th century, but was practically destroyed in +1862 by a fire caused by lightning. It has been restored. The most +important building at Courtrai is the church of Notre Dame, which was +begun by Count Baldwin IX. in 1191 and finished in 1211. The portal and +the choir were reconstructed in the 18th century. In the chapel behind +the choir is hung one of Van Dyck's masterpieces, "The Erection of the +Cross." The chapel of the counts attached to the church dates from 1373, +and contained mural paintings of the counts and countesses of Flanders +down to the merging of the title in the house of Burgundy. Most if not +all of these had become obliterated, but they have now been carefully +restored. With questionable judgment portraits have been added of the +subsequent holders of the title down to the emperor Francis II. (I. of +Austria), the last representative of the houses of Flanders and Burgundy +to rule in the Netherlands. Courtrai celebrated the 600th anniversary of +the battle mentioned above by erecting a monument on the field in 1902, +and also by fetes and historical processions that continued for a +fortnight. + +Courtrai, the _Cortracum_ of the Romans, ranked as a town from the 7th +century onwards. It was destroyed by the Normans, but was rebuilt in the +10th century by Baldwin III. of Flanders, who endowed it with market +rights and laid the foundation of its industrial importance by inviting +the settlement of foreign weavers. The town was once more burnt, in +1382, by the French after the battle of Roosebeke, but was rebuilt in +1385 by Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy. + + + + +COURVOISIER, JEAN JOSEPH ANTOINE (1775-1835), French magistrate and +politician, was born at Besancon on the 30th of November 1775. During +the revolutionary period he left the country and served in the army of +the _emigres_ and later in that of Austria. In 1801, under the +Consulate, he returned to France and established himself as an advocate +at Besancon, being appointed _conseiller-auditeur_ to the court of +appeal there in 1808. At the Restoration he was made advocate-general by +Louis XVIII., resigned and left France during the Hundred Days, and was +reappointed after the second Restoration in 1815. In 1817, after the +modification of the constitution by the _ordonnance_ of the 5th of +September, he was returned to the chamber of deputies, where he attached +himself to the left centre and supported the moderate policy of +Richelieu and Decazes. He was an eloquent speaker, and master of many +subjects; and his proved royalism made it impossible for the +ultra-Royalists to discredit him, much as they resented his consistent +opposition to their short-sighted violence. After the revolt at Lyons +in 1817 he was nominated _procureur-general_ of the city, and by his +sense and moderation did much to restore order and confidence. He was +again a member of the chamber from 1819 to 1824, and vigorously opposed +the exceptional legislation which the second administration of Richelieu +passed under the influence of the ultra-Royalists. In 1824 he failed to +secure re-election, and occupied himself with his judicial duties until +his nomination as councillor of state in 1827. On the 8th of August 1829 +he accepted the offer of the portfolio of justice in the Polignac +ministry, but resigned on the 19th of May 1830, when he realized that +the government intended to abrogate the Charter and the inevitable +revolution that would follow. During the trial of the ex-ministers, in +December, he was summoned as a witness, and paid a tribute to the +character of his former colleagues which, under the circumstances, +argued no little courage. He refused to take office under Louis +Philippe, and retired into private life, dying on the 18th of September +1835. + + + + +COUSCOUS, or KOUS-KOUS (an Arabic word derived from _kaskasa_, to +pound), a dish common among the inhabitants of North Africa, made of +flour rubbed together and steamed over a stew of mutton, fowl, &c., with +which it is eaten. + + + + +COUSIN, JEAN (1500-1590), French painter, was born at Soucy, near Sens, +and began as a glass-painter, his windows in the Sainte Chapelle at +Vincennes being considered the finest in France. As a painter of subject +pictures he is ranked as the founder of the French school, as having +first departed from the practice of portraits. His "Last Judgment," +influenced by Parmigiano, is in the Louvre, and a "Descent from the +Cross" (1523) in the museum at Mainz is attributed to him. He was known +also as a sculptor, and an engraver, both in etching and on wood, his +wood-cuts for Jean le Clerc's Bible (1596) and other books being his +best-known work. He also wrote a _Livre de perspective_ (1560), and a +_Livre de portraiture_ (1571). + + See Ambroise Firmin-Didot, _Etude sur J. Cousin_ (1872), and _Recueil + des oeuvres choisies de J. Cousin_ (1873). + + + + +COUSIN, VICTOR (1792-1867), French philosopher, the son of a watchmaker, +was born in Paris, in the Quartier St Antoine, on the 28th of November +1792. At the age of ten he was sent to the grammar school of the +Quartier St Antoine, the Lycee Charlemagne. Here he studied until he was +eighteen. The lycee had a connexion with the university, and when Cousin +left the secondary school he was "crowned" in the ancient hall of the +Sorbonne for the Latin oration delivered by him there, in the general +concourse of his school competitors. The classical training of the lycee +strongly disposed him to literature. He was already known among his +compeers for his knowledge of Greek. From the lycee he passed to the +Normal School of Paris, where Laromiguiere was then lecturing on +philosophy. In the second preface to the _Fragmens philosophiques_, in +which he candidly states the varied philosophical influences of his +life, Cousin speaks of the grateful emotion excited by the memory of the +day in 1811, when he heard Laromiguiere for the first time. "That day +decided my whole life. Laromiguiere taught the philosophy of Locke and +Condillac, happily modified on some points, with a clearness and grace +which in appearance at least removed difficulties, and with a charm of +spiritual _bonhomie_ which penetrated and subdued." Cousin was set +forthwith to lecture on philosophy, and he speedily obtained the +position of master of conferences (_maitre de conferences_) in the +school. The second great philosophical impulse of his life was the +teaching of Royer-Collard. This teacher, as he tells us, "by the +severity of his logic, the gravity and weight of his words, turned me by +degrees, and not without resistance, from the beaten path of Condillac +into the way which has since become so easy, but which was then painful +and unfrequented, that of the Scottish philosophy." In 1815-1816 Cousin +attained the position of _suppleant_ (assistant) to Royer-Collard in the +history of modern philosophy chair of the faculty of letters. There was +still another thinker who influenced him at this early period,--Maine de +Biran, whom Cousin regarded as the unequalled psychological observer of +his time in France. + +These men strongly influenced both the method and the matter of Cousin's +philosophical thought. To Laromiguiere he attributes the lesson of +decomposing thought, even though the reduction of it to sensation was +inadequate. Royer-Collard taught him that even sensation is subject to +certain internal laws and principles which it does not itself explain, +which are superior to analysis and the natural patrimony of the mind. De +Biran made a special study of the phenomena of the will. He taught him +to distinguish in all cognitions, and especially in the simplest facts +of consciousness, the fact of voluntary activity, that activity in which +our personality is truly revealed. It was through this "triple +discipline," as he calls it, that Cousin's philosophical thought was +first developed, and that in 1815 he entered on the public teaching of +philosophy in the Normal School and in the faculty of letters.[1] He +then took up the study of German, worked at Kant and Jacobi, and sought +to master the _Philosophy of Nature_ of Schelling, by which he was at +first greatly attracted. The influence of Schelling may be observed very +markedly in the earlier form of his philosophy. He sympathized with the +principle of faith of Jacobi, but regarded it as arbitrary so long as it +was not recognized as grounded in reason. In 1817 he went to Germany, +and met Hegel at Heidelberg. In this year appeared Hegel's _Encyclopadie +der philosophischen Wissenschaften_, of which Cousin had one of the +earliest copies. He thought Hegel not particularly amiable, but the two +became friends. The following year Cousin went to Munich, where he met +Schelling for the first time, and spent a month with him and Jacobi, +obtaining a deeper insight into the _Philosophy of Nature_. + + + Political troubles. + + Fragmens philosophiques. + +The political troubles of France interfered for a time with his career. +In the events of 1814-1815 he took the royalist side. He at first +adopted the views of the party known as _doctrinaire_, of which +Royer-Collard was the philosophical chief. He seems then to have gone +farther than his party, and even to have approached the extreme Left. +Then came a reaction against liberalism, and in 1821-1822 Cousin was +deprived of his offices alike in the faculty of letters and in the +Normal School. The Normal School itself was swept away, and Cousin +shared at the hands of a narrow and illiberal government the fate of +Guizot, who was ejected from the chair of history. This enforced +abandonment of public teaching was not wholly an evil. He set out for +Germany with a view to further philosophical study. While at Berlin in +1824-1825 he was thrown into prison, either on some ill-defined +political charge at the instance of the French police, or on account of +certain incautious expressions which he had let fall in conversation. +Liberated after six months, he continued under the suspicion of the +French government for three years. It was during this period, however, +that he thought out and developed what is distinctive in his +philosophical doctrine. His eclecticism, his ontology and his philosophy +of history were declared in principle and in most of their salient +details in the _Fragmens philosophiques_ (Paris, 1826). The preface to +the second edition (1833) and the _Avertissement_ to the third (1838) +aimed at a vindication of his principles against contemporary criticism. +Even the best of his later books, the _Philosophie ecossaise_ (4th ed., +1863), the _Du vrai, du beau, et du bien_ (12th ed., 1872; Eng. trans., +3rd ed., Edinburgh, 1854), and the _Philosophie de Locke_ (4th ed., +1861) were simply matured revisions of his lectures during the period +from 1815 to 1820. The lectures on Locke were first sketched in 1819, +and fully developed in the course of 1829. + +During the seven years of enforced abandonment of teaching he produced, +besides the _Fragmens_, the edition of the works of Proclus (6 vols., +1820-1827), and the works of Descartes (11 vols., 1826). He also +commenced his _Translation of Plato_ (13 vols.), which occupied his +leisure time from 1825 to 1840. + +We see in the _Fragmens_ very distinctly the fusion of the different +philosophical influences by which his opinions were finally matured. For +Cousin was as eclectic in thought and habit of mind as he was in +philosophical principle and system. It is with the publication of the +_Fragmens_ of 1826 that the first great widening of his reputation is +associated. In 1827 followed the _Cours de l'histoire de la +philosophie_. + + + Career as a lecturer. + +In 1828 M. de Vatimesnil, minister of public instruction in Martignac's +ministry, recalled Cousin and Guizot to their professorial positions in +the university. The three years which followed were the period of +Cousin's greatest triumph as a lecturer. His return to the chair was the +symbol of the triumph of constitutional ideas and was greeted with +enthusiasm. The hall of the Sorbonne was crowded as the hall of no +philosophical teacher in Paris had been since the days of Abelard. The +lecturer had a singular power of identifying himself for the time with +the system which he expounded and the historical character he portrayed. +Clear and comprehensive in the grasp of the general outlines of his +subject, he was methodical and vivid in the representation of details. +In exposition he had the rare art of unfolding and aggrandizing. There +was a rich, deep-toned, resonant eloquence mingled with the speculative +exposition; his style of expression was clear, elegant and forcible, +abounding in happy turns and striking antitheses. To this was joined a +singular power of rhetorical climax. His philosophy exhibited in a +striking manner the generalizing tendency of the French intellect, and +its logical need of grouping details round central principles. + +There was withal a moral elevation in his spiritual philosophy which +came home to the hearts of his hearers, and seemed to afford a ground +for higher development in national literature and art, and even in +politics, than the traditional philosophy of France had appeared capable +of yielding. His lectures produced more ardent disciples, imbued at +least with his spirit, than those of any other professor of philosophy +in France during the 18th century. Tested by the power and effect of his +teaching influence, Cousin occupies a foremost place in the rank of +professors of philosophy, who like Jacobi, Schelling and Dugald Stewart +have united the gifts of speculative, expository and imaginative power. +Tested even by the strength of the reaction which his writings have in +some cases occasioned, his influence is hardly less remarkable. The +taste for philosophy--especially its history--was revived in France to +an extent unknown since the 17th century. + + + Disciples and followers. + +Among the men who were influenced by Cousin we may note T. S. Jouffroy, +J. P. Damiron, Garnier, J. Barthelemy St Hilaire, F. Ravaisson-Mollien, +Remusat, Jules Simon and A. Franck. Jouffroy and Damiron were first +fellow-students and then disciples. Jouffroy, however, always kept firm +to the early--the French and Scottish--impulses of Cousin's teaching. +Cousin continued to lecture regularly for two years and a half after his +return to the chair. Sympathizing with the revolution of July, he was at +once recognized by the new government as a friend of national liberty. +Writing in June 1833 he explains both his philosophical and his +political position:-- + + "I had the advantage of holding united against me for many years both + the sensational and the theological school. In 1830 both schools + descended into the arena of politics. The sensational school quite + naturally produced the demagogic party, and the theological school + became quite as naturally absolutism, safe to borrow from time to time + the mask of the demagogue in order the better to reach its ends, as in + philosophy it is by scepticism that it undertakes to restore + theocracy. On the other hand, he who combated any exclusive principle + in science was bound to reject also any exclusive principle in the + state, and to defend representative government." + +The government was not slow to do him honour. He was induced by the +ministry of which his friend Guizot was the head to become a member of +the council of public instruction and counsellor of state, and in 1832 +he was made a peer of France. He ceased to lecture, but retained the +title of professor of philosophy. Finally, he accepted the position of +minister of public instruction in 1840 under Thiers. He was besides +director of the Normal School and virtual head of the university, and +from 1840 a member of the Institute (Academy of the Moral and Political +Sciences). His character and his official position at this period gave +him great power in the university and in the educational arrangements +of the country. In fact, during the seventeen and a half years of the +reign of Louis Philippe, Cousin mainly moulded the philosophical and +even the literary tendencies of the cultivated class in France. + + + Relation to primary education in France. + +But the most important work he accomplished during this period was the +organization of primary instruction. It was to the efforts of Cousin +that France owed her advance, in primary education, between 1830 and +1848. Prussia and Saxony had set the national example, and France was +guided into it by Cousin. Forgetful of national calamity and of personal +wrong, he looked to Prussia as affording the best example of an +organized system of national education; and he was persuaded that "to +carry back the education of Prussia into France afforded a nobler (if a +bloodless) triumph than the trophies of Austerlitz and Jena." In the +summer of 1831, commissioned by the government, he visited Frankfort and +Saxony, and spent some time in Berlin. The result was a series of +reports to the minister, afterwards published as _Rapport sur l'etat de +l'instruction publique dans quelques pays de l'Allemagne et +particulierement en Prusse_. (Compare also _De l'instruction publique en +Hollande_, 1837.) His views were readily accepted on his return to +France, and soon afterwards through his influence there was passed the +law of primary instruction. (See his _Expose des motifs et projet de loi +sur l'instruction primaire, presentes a la chambre des deputes, seance +du 2 janvier 1833_.) + +In the words of the _Edinburgh Review_ (July 1833), these documents +"mark an epoch in the progress of national education, and are directly +conducive to results important not only to France but to Europe." The +_Report_ was translated into English by Mrs Sarah Austin in 1834. The +translation was frequently reprinted in the United States of America. +The legislatures of New Jersey and Massachusetts distributed it in the +schools at the expense of the states. Cousin remarks that, among all the +literary distinctions which he had received, "None has touched me more +than the title of foreign member of the American Institute for +Education." To the enlightened views of the ministries of Guizot and +Thiers under the citizen-king, and to the zeal and ability of Cousin in +the work of organization, France owes what is best in her system of +primary education,--a national interest which had been neglected under +the Revolution, the Empire and the Restoration (see _Expose_, p. 17). In +the first two years of the reign of Louis Philippe more was done for the +education of the people than had been either sought or accomplished in +all the history of France. In defence of university studies he stood +manfully forth in the chamber of peers in 1844, against the clerical +party on the one hand and the levelling or Philistine party on the +other. His speeches on this occasion were published in a tractate +_Defense de l'universite et de la philosophie_ (1844 and 1845). + + + Philosophical writings. + +This period of official life from 1830 to 1848 was spent, so far as +philosophical study was concerned, in revising his former lectures and +writings, in maturing them for publication or reissue, and in research +into certain periods of the history of philosophy. In 1835 appeared _De +la Metaphysique d'Aristote, suivi d'un essai de traduction des deux +premiers livres_; in 1836, _Cours de philosophie professe a la faculte +des lettres pendant l'annee 1818_, and _Ouvrages inedits d'Abelard_. +This _Cours de philosophie_ appeared later in 1854 as _Du vrai, du beau, +et du bien_. From 1825 to 1840 appeared _Cours de l'histoire de la +philosophie_, in 1829 _Manuel de l'histoire de la philosophie de +Tennemann_, translated from the German. In 1840-1841 we have _Cours +d'histoire de la philosophie morale au XVIII^e siecle_ (5 vols.). In +1841 appeared his edition of the _OEuvres philosophiques de +Maine-de-Biran_; in 1842, _Lecons de philosophie sur Kant_ (Eng. trans. +A. G. Henderson, 1854), and in the same year _Des Pensees de Pascal_. +The _Nouveaux fragments_ were gathered together and republished in 1847. +Later, in 1859, appeared _Petri Abaelardi Opera_. + + + Literary studies. + +During this period Cousin seems to have turned with fresh interest to +those literary studies which he had abandoned for speculation under the +influence of Laromiguiere and Royer-Collard. To this renewed interest we +owe his studies of men and women of note in France in the 17th century. +As the results of his work in this line, we have, besides the _Des +Pensees de Pascal_, 1842, _Etudes sur les femmes et la societe du XVII^e +siecle_, 1853. He has sketched Jacqueline Pascal (1844), Madame de +Longueville (1853), the marquise de Sable (1854), the duchesse de +Chevreuse (1856), Madame de Hautefort (1856). + +When the reign of Louis Philippe came to a close through the opposition +of his ministry, with Guizot at its head, to the demand for electoral +reform and through the policy of the Spanish marriages, Cousin, who was +opposed to the government on these points, lent his sympathy to +Cavaignac and the Provisional government. He published a pamphlet +entitled _Justice et charite_, the purport of which showed the +moderation of his political views. It was markedly anti-socialistic. But +from this period he passed almost entirely from public life, and ceased +to wield the personal influence which he had done during the preceding +years. After the _coup d'etat_ of the 2nd of December, he was deprived +of his position as permanent member of the superior council of public +instruction. From Napoleon and the Empire he stood aloof. A decree of +1852 placed him along with Guizot and Villemain in the rank of honorary +professors. His sympathies were apparently with the monarchy, under +certain constitutional safeguards. Speaking in 1853 of the political +issues of the spiritual philosophy which he had taught during his +lifetime, he says,--"It conducts human societies to the true republic, +that dream of all generous souls, which in our time can be realized in +Europe only by constitutional monarchy."[2] + +During the last years of his life he occupied a suite of rooms in the +Sorbonne, where he lived simply and unostentatiously. The chief feature +of the rooms was his noble library, the cherished collection of a +lifetime. He died at Cannes on the 13th of January 1867, in his +sixty-fifth year. In the front of the Sorbonne, below the lecture rooms +of the faculty of letters, a tablet records an extract from his will, in +which he bequeaths his noble and cherished library to the halls of his +professorial work and triumphs. + +_Philosophy._--There are three distinctive points in Cousin's +philosophy. These are his method, the results of his method, and the +application of the method and its results to history,--especially to the +history of philosophy. It is usual to speak of his philosophy as +eclecticism. It is eclectic only in a secondary and subordinate sense. +All eclecticism that is not self-condemned and inoperative implies a +system of doctrine as its basis,--in fact, a criterion of truth. +Otherwise, as Cousin himself remarks, it is simply a blind and useless +syncretism. And Cousin saw and proclaimed from an early period in his +philosophical teaching the necessity of a system on which to base his +eclecticism. This is indeed advanced as an illustration or confirmation +of the truth of his system,--as a proof that the facts of history +correspond to his analysis of consciousness. These three points--the +method, the results, and the philosophy of history--are with him +intimately connected; they are developments in a natural order of +sequence. They become in practice Psychology, Ontology and Eclecticism +in history. + + + Method. + +First, as to method. On no point has Cousin more strongly insisted than +the importance of method in philosophy. That which he adopts, and the +necessity of which he so strongly proclaims, is the ordinary one of +observation, analysis and induction. This observational method Cousin +regards as that of the 18th century,--the method which Descartes began +and abandoned, and which Locke and Condillac applied, though +imperfectly, and which Reid and Kant used with more success, yet not +completely. He insists that this is the true method of philosophy as +applied to consciousness, in which alone the facts of experience appear. +But the proper condition of the application of the method is that it +shall not through prejudice of system omit a single fact of +consciousness. If the authority of consciousness is good in one +instance, it is good in all. If not to be trusted in one, it is not to +be trusted in any. Previous systems have erred in not presenting the +facts of consciousness, i.e. consciousness itself, in their totality. +The observational method applied to consciousness gives us the science +of psychology. This is the basis and the only proper basis of ontology +or metaphysics--the science of being--and of the philosophy of history. +To the observation of consciousness Cousin adds induction as the +complement of his method, by which he means inference as to reality +necessitated by the data of consciousness, and regulated by certain laws +found in consciousness, viz. those of reason. By his method of +observation and induction as thus explained, his philosophy will be +found to be marked off very clearly, on the one hand from the deductive +construction of notions of an absolute system, as represented either by +Schelling or Hegel, which Cousin regards as based simply on hypothesis +and abstraction, illegitimately obtained; and on the other, from that of +Kant, and in a sense, of Sir W. Hamilton, both of which in the view of +Cousin are limited to psychology, and merely relative or phenomenal +knowledge, and issue in scepticism so far as the great realities of +ontology are concerned. What Cousin finds psychologically in the +individual consciousness, he finds also spontaneously expressed in the +common sense or universal experience of humanity. In fact, it is with +him the function of philosophy to classify and explain universal +convictions and beliefs; but common-sense is not with him philosophy, +nor is it the instrument of philosophy; it is simply the material on +which the philosophical method works, and in harmony with which its +results must ultimately be found. + + + Results. + +The three great results of psychological observation are Sensibility, +Activity or Liberty, and Reason. + +These three facts are different in character, but are not found apart in +consciousness. Sensations, or the facts of the sensibility, are +necessary; we do not impute them to ourselves. The facts of reason are +also necessary, and reason is not less independent of the will than the +sensibility. Voluntary facts alone are marked in the eyes of +consciousness with the characters of imputability and personality. The +will alone is the person or _Me_. The me is the centre of the +intellectual sphere without which consciousness is impossible. We find +ourselves in a strange world, between two orders of phenomena which do +not belong to us, which we apprehend only on the condition of our +distinguishing ourselves from them. Further, we apprehend by means of a +light which does not come from ourselves. All light comes from the +reason, and it is the reason which apprehends both itself and the +sensibility which envelops it, and the will which it obliges but does +not constrain. Consciousness, then, is composed of these three integrant +and inseparable elements. But Reason is the immediate ground of +knowledge and of consciousness itself. + + + Spontaneity in will. + +But there is a peculiarity in Cousin's doctrine of activity or freedom, +and in his doctrine of reason, which enters deeply into his system. This +is the element of spontaneity in volition and in reason. This is the +heart of what is new alike in his doctrine of knowledge and being. +Liberty or freedom is a generic term which means a cause or being +endowed with self-activity. This is to itself and its own development +its own ultimate cause. Free-will is so, although it is preceded by +deliberation and determination, i.e. reflection, for we are always +conscious that even after determination we are free to will or not to +will. But there is a primary kind of volition which has not reflection +for its condition, which is yet free and spontaneous. We must have +willed thus spontaneously first, otherwise we could not know, before our +reflective volition, that we could will and act. Spontaneous volition is +free as reflective, but it is the prior act of the two. This view of +liberty of will is the only one in accordance with the facts of +humanity; it excludes reflective volition, and explains the enthusiasm +of the poet and the artist in the act of creation; it explains also the +ordinary actions of mankind, which are done as a rule spontaneously and +not after reflective deliberation. + + + Impersonality of reason. + +But it is in his doctrine of the Reason that the distinctive principle +of the philosophy of Cousin lies. The reason given to us by +psychological observation, the reason of our consciousness, is +impersonal in its nature. We do not make it; its character is precisely +the opposite of individuality; it is universal and necessary. The +recognition of universal and necessary principles in knowledge is the +essential point in psychology; it ought to be put first and emphasized +to the last that these exist, and that they are wholly impersonal or +absolute. The number of these principles, their enumeration and +classification, is an important point, but it is secondary to that of +the recognition of their true nature. This was the point which Kant +missed in his analysis, and this is the fundamental truth which Cousin +thinks he has restored to the integrity of philosophy by the method of +the observation of consciousness. And how is this impersonality or +absoluteness of the conditions of knowledge to be established? The +answer is in substance that Kant went wrong in putting necessity first +as the criterion of those laws. This brought them within the sphere of +reflection, and gave as their guarantee the impossibility of thinking +them reversed; and led to their being regarded as wholly relative to +human intelligence, restricted to the sphere of the phenomenal, +incapable of revealing to us substantial reality--necessary, yet +subjective. But this test of necessity is a wholly secondary one; these +laws are not thus guaranteed to us; they are each and all given to us, +given to our consciousness, in an act of spontaneous apperception or +apprehension, immediately, instantaneously, in a sphere above the +reflective consciousness, yet within the reach of knowledge. And "all +subjectivity with all reflection expires in the spontaneity of +apperception. The reason becomes subjective by relation to the voluntary +and free self; but in itself it is impersonal; it belongs not to this or +to that self in humanity; it belongs not even to humanity. We may say +with truth that nature and humanity belong to it, for without its laws +both would perish." + + + Laws of reason. + +But what is the number of those laws? Kant reviewing the enterprise of +Aristotle in modern times has given a complete list of the laws of +thought, but it is arbitrary in classification and may be legitimately +reduced. According to Cousin, there are but two primary laws of thought, +that of causality and that of substance. From these flow naturally all +the others. In the order of nature, that of substance is the first and +causality second. In the order of acquisition of our knowledge, +causality precedes substance, or rather both are given us in each other, +and are contemporaneous in consciousness. + +These principles of reason, cause and substance, given thus +psychologically, enable us to pass beyond the limits of the relative and +subjective to objective and absolute reality,--enable us, in a word, to +pass from psychology, or the science of knowledge, to ontology or the +science of being. These laws are inextricably mixed in consciousness +with the data of volition and sensation, with free activity and fatal +action or impression, and they guide us in rising to a personal being, a +self or free cause, and to an impersonal reality, a not-me--nature, the +world of force--lying out of us, and modifying us. As I refer to myself +the act of attention and volition, so I cannot but refer the sensation +to some cause, necessarily other than myself, that is, to an external +cause, whose existence is as certain for me as my own existence, since +the phenomenon which suggests it to me is as certain as the phenomenon +which had suggested my reality, and both are given in each other. I thus +reach an objective impersonal world of forces which corresponds to the +variety of my sensations. The relation of these forces or causes to each +other is the order of the universe. + + + The infinite or absolute. + +But these two forces, the me and the not-me, are reciprocally +limitative. As reason has apprehended these two simultaneous phenomena, +attention and sensation, and led us immediately to conceive the two +sorts of distinct causes, correlative and reciprocally finite, to which +they are related, so, from the notion of this limitation, we find it +impossible under the same guide not to conceive a supreme cause, +absolute and infinite, itself the first and last cause of all. This is +relatively to self and not-self what these are to their proper effects. +This cause is self-sufficient, and is sufficient for the reason. This is +God; he must be conceived under the notion of cause, related to humanity +and the world. He is absolute substance only in so far as he is absolute +cause, and his essence lies precisely in his creative power. He thus +creates, and he creates necessarily. + + + Charge of Pantheism. + +This theodicy of Cousin laid him open obviously enough to the charge of +pantheism. This he repels, and his answer may be summed up as follows. +Pantheism is properly the deification of the law of phenomena, the +universe God. But I distinguish the two finite causes self and not-self +from each other and from the infinite cause. They are not mere +modifications of this cause or properties, as with Spinoza,--they are +free forces having their power or spring of action in themselves, and +this is sufficient for our idea of independent finite reality. I hold +this, and I hold the relation of these as effects to the one supreme +cause. The God I plead for is neither the deity of Pantheism, nor the +absolute unity of the Eleatics, a being divorced from all possibility of +creation or plurality, a mere metaphysical abstraction. The deity I +maintain is creative, and necessarily creative. The deity of Spinoza and +the Eleatics is a mere substance, not a cause in any sense. As to the +necessity under which Deity exists of acting or creating, this is the +highest form of liberty, it is the freedom of spontaneity, activity +without deliberation. His action is not the result of a struggle between +passion and virtue. He is free in an unlimited manner; the purest +spontaneity in man is but the shadow of the freedom of God. He acts +freely but not arbitrarily, and with the consciousness of being able to +choose the opposite part. He cannot deliberate or will as we do. His +spontaneous action excludes at once the efforts and the miseries of will +and the mechanical operation of necessity. + + + History of philosophy. + +The elements found in consciousness are also to be found in the history +of humanity and in the history of philosophy. In external nature there +are expansion and contraction which correspond to spontaneity and +reflection. External nature again in contrast with humanity expresses +spontaneity; humanity expresses reflection. In human history the East +represents the spontaneous stage; the Pagan and Christian world +represent stages of reflection. + +This was afterwards modified, expanded and more fully expressed by +saying that humanity in its universal development has three principal +moments. First, in the spontaneous stage, where reflection is not yet +developed, and art is imperfect, humanity has thought only of the +immensity around it. It is preoccupied by the infinite. Secondly, in the +reflective stage, mind has become an object to itself. It thus knows +itself explicitly or reflectively. Its own individuality is now the only +or at least the supreme thing. This is the moment of the finite. +Thirdly, there comes an epoch in which the self or me is subordinated. +Mind realizes another power in the universe. The finite and the infinite +become two real correlatives in the relation of cause and product. This +is the third and highest stage of development, the relation of the +finite and the infinite. As philosophy is but the highest expression of +humanity, these three moments will be represented in its history. The +East typifies the infinite, Greece the finite or reflective epoch, the +modern era the stage of relation or correlation of infinite and finite. +In theology, the dominant philosophical idea of each of these epochs +results in pantheism, polytheism, theism. In politics we have in +correspondence also with the idea, monarchy, democracy, +constitutionalism. + + + Eclecticism. + +Eclecticism thus means the application of the psychological method to +the history of philosophy. Confronting the various systems co-ordinated +as sensualism, idealism, scepticism, mysticism, with the facts of +consciousness, the result was reached "that each system expresses an +order of phenomena and ideas, which is in truth very real, but which is +not alone in consciousness, and which at the same time holds an almost +exclusive place in the system; whence it follows that each system is not +false but incomplete, and that in re-uniting all incomplete systems, we +should have a complete philosophy, adequate to the totality of +consciousness." Philosophy, as thus perfected, would not be a mere +aggregation of systems, as is ignorantly supposed, but an integration of +the truth in each system after the false or incomplete is discarded. + + + Relations to Kant, Schelling and Hegel. + +Such is the system in outline. The historical position of the system +lies in its relations to Kant, Schelling and Hegel. Cousin was opposed +to Kant in asserting that the unconditioned in the form of infinite or +absolute cause is but a mere unrealizable tentative or effort on the +part of the mind, something different from a mere negation, yet not +equivalent to a positive thought. With Cousin the absolute as the ground +of being is grasped positively by the intelligence, and it renders all +else intelligible; it is not as with Kant a certain hypothetical or +regulative need. + +With Schelling again Cousin agrees in regarding this supreme ground of +all as positively apprehended, and as a source of development, but he +utterly repudiates Schelling's method. The intellectual intuition either +falls under the eye of consciousness, or it does not. If not, how do you +know it and its object which are identical? If it does, it comes within +the sphere of psychology; and the objections to it as thus a relative, +made by Schelling himself, are to be dealt with. Schelling's +intellectual intuition is the mere negation of knowledge. + +Again the pure being of Hegel is a mere abstraction,--a hypothesis +illegitimately assumed, which he has nowhere sought to vindicate. The +very point to be established is the possibility of reaching being per se +or pure being; yet in the Hegelian system this is the very thing assumed +as a starting-point. Besides this, of course, objections might be made +to the method of development, as not only subverting the principle of +contradiction, but as galvanizing negation into a means of advancing or +developing the whole body of human knowledge and reality. The +intellectual intuition of Schelling, as above consciousness, the pure +being of Hegel, as an empty abstraction, unvindicated, illegitimately +assumed, and arbitrarily developed, are equally useless as bases of +metaphysics. This led Cousin, still holding by essential knowledge of +being, to ground it in an analysis of consciousness,--in psychology. + +The absolute or infinite--the unconditioned ground and source of all +reality--is yet apprehended by us as an immediate datum or reality; and +it is apprehended in consciousness--under its condition, that, to wit, +of distinguishing subject and object, knower and known. The doctrine of +Cousin was criticized by Sir W. Hamilton in the _Edinburgh Review_ of +1829, and it was animadverted upon about the same time by Schelling. +Hamilton's objections are as follows. The correlation of the ideas of +infinite and finite does not necessarily imply their correality, as +Cousin supposes; on the contrary, it is a presumption that finite is +simply positive and infinite negative of the same--that the finite and +infinite are simply contradictory relatives. Of these "the positive +alone is real, the negative is only an abstraction of the other, and in +the highest generality even an abstraction of thought itself." A study +of the few sentences under this head might have obviated the trifling +criticism of Hamilton's objection which has been set afloat recently, +that the denial of a knowledge of the absolute or infinite implies a +foregone knowledge of it. How can you deny the reality of that which you +do not know? The answer to this is that in the case of contradictory +statements--A and not A--the latter is a mere negation of the former, +and posits nothing; and the negation of a notion with positive +attributes, as the finite, does not extend beyond abolishing the given +attributes as an object of thought. The infinite or non-finite is not +necessarily known, ere the finite is negated, or in order to negate it; +all that needs be known is the finite itself; and the contradictory +negation of it implies no positive. Non-organized may or may not +correspond to a positive--i.e. an object or notion with qualities +contradictory of the organized; but the mere sublation of the organized +does not posit it, or suppose that it is known beforehand, or that +anything exists corresponding to it. This is one among many flaws in the +Hegelian dialectic, and it paralyzes the whole of the _Logic_. Secondly, +the conditions of intelligence, which Cousin allows, necessarily exclude +the possibility of knowledge of the absolute--they are held to be +incompatible with its unity. Here Schelling and Hamilton argue that +Cousin's absolute is a mere relative. Thirdly, it is objected that in +order to deduce the conditioned, Cousin makes his absolute a relative; +for he makes it an absolute cause, i.e. a cause existing absolutely +under relation. As such it is necessarily inferior to the sum total of +its effects, and dependent for reality on these--in a word, a mere +potence or becoming. Further, as a theory of creation, it makes creation +a necessity, and destroys the notion of the divine. Cousin made no reply +to Hamilton's criticism beyond alleging that Hamilton's doctrine +necessarily restricted human knowledge and certainty to psychology and +logic, and destroyed metaphysics by introducing nescience and +uncertainty into its highest sphere--theodicy. + + + Criticism of his philosophy. Impersonality of reason. + +The attempt to render the laws of reason or thought impersonal by +professing to find them in the sphere of spontaneous apperception, and +above reflective necessity, can hardly be regarded as successful. It may +be that we first of all primitively or spontaneously affirm cause, +substance, time, space, &c., in this way. But these are still in each +instance given us as realized in a particular form. In no single act of +affirmation of cause or substance, much less in such a primitive act, do +we affirm the universality of their application. We might thus get +particular instances or cases of these laws, but we could never get the +laws themselves in their universality, far less absolute impersonality. +And as they are not supposed to be mere generalizations from experience, +no amount of individual instances of the application of any one of them +by us would give it a true universality. The only sure test we have of +their universality in our experience is the test of their reflective +necessity. We thus after all fall back on reflection as our ground for +their universal application; mere spontaneity of apprehension is futile; +their universality is grounded in their necessity, not their necessity +in their universality. How far and in what sense this ground of +necessity renders them personal are of course questions still to be +solved. + +But if these three correlative facts are immediately given, it seems to +be thought possible by Cousin to vindicate them in reflective +consciousness. He seeks to trace the steps which the reason has +spontaneously and consciously, but irreflectively, followed. And here +the question arises--Can we vindicate in a reflective or mediate process +this spontaneous apprehension of reality? + +The self is found to be a cause of force, free in its action, on the +ground that we are obliged to relate the volition of consciousness to +the self as its cause, and its ultimate cause. It is not clear from the +analysis whether the self is immediately observed as an acting or +originating cause, or whether reflection working on the principle of +causality is compelled to infer its existence and character. If self is +actually so given, we do not need the principle of causality to infer +it; if it is not so given, causality could never give us either the +notion or the fact of self as a cause or force, far less as an ultimate +one. All that it could do would be to warrant a cause of some sort, but +not this or that reality as the cause. And further, the principle of +causality, if fairly carried out, as universal and necessary, would not +allow us to stop at personality or will as the ultimate cause of its +effect--volition. Once applied to the facts at all, it would drive us +beyond the first antecedent or term of antecedents of volition to a +still further cause or ground--in fact, land us in an infinite regress +of causes. + +The same criticism is even more emphatically applicable to the influence +of a not-self, or world of forces, corresponding to our sensations, and +the cause of them. Starting from sensation as our basis, causality could +never give us this, even though it be allowed that sensation is +impersonal to the extent of being independent of our volition. Causality +might tell us that a cause there is of sensation somewhere and of some +sort; but that this cause is a force or sum of forces, existing in +space, independently of us, and corresponding to our sensations, it +could never tell us, for the simple reason that such a notion is not +supposed to exist in our consciousness. Causality cannot add to the +number of our notions,--cannot add to the number of realities we know. +All it can do is to necessitate us to think that a cause there is of a +given change, but _what_ that cause is it cannot of itself inform us, or +even suggest to us, beyond implying that it must be adequate to the +effect. Sensation might arise, for aught we know, so far as causality +leads us, not from a world of forces at all, but from a will like our +own, though infinitely more powerful, acting upon us, partly furthering +and partly thwarting us. And indeed such a supposition is, with the +principle of causality at work, within the limits of probability, as we +are already supposed to know such a reality--a will--in our own +consciousness. When Cousin thus set himself to vindicate those points by +reflection, he gave up the obvious advantage of his other position that +the realities in question are given us in immediate and spontaneous +apprehension. The same criticism applies equally to the inference of an +absolute cause from the two limited forces which he names self and +not-self. Immediate spontaneous apperception may seize this supreme +reality; but to vindicate it by reflection as an inference on the +principle of causality is impossible. This is a mere paralogism; we can +never infer either absolute or infinite from relative or finite. + +The truth is that Cousin's doctrine of the spontaneous apperception of +impersonal truth amounts to little more than a presentment in +philosophical language of the ordinary convictions and beliefs of +mankind. This is important as a preliminary stage, but philosophy +properly begins when it attempts to co-ordinate or systematize those +convictions in harmony, to conciliate apparent contradiction and +opposition, as between the correlative notions of finite and infinite, +the apparently conflicting notions of personality and infinitude, self +and not-self; in a word, to reconcile the various sides of consciousness +with each other. And whether the laws of our reason are the laws of all +intelligence and being--whether and how we are to relate our +fundamental, intellectual and moral conceptions to what is beyond our +experience, or to an infinite being--are problems which Cousin cannot be +regarded as having solved. These are in truth the outstanding problems +of modern philosophy. + + + Volition. + +Cousin's doctrine of spontaneity in volition can hardly be said to be +more successful than his impersonality of the reason through spontaneous +apperception. Sudden, unpremeditated volition may be the earliest and +the most artistic, but it is not the best. Volition is essentially a +free choice between alternatives, and that is best which is most +deliberate, because it is most rational. Aristotle touched this point in +his distinction between [Greek: boulesis] and [Greek: proairesis]. The +sudden and unpremeditated wish represented by the former is wholly +inferior in character to the free choice of the latter, guided and +illumined by intelligence. In this we can deliberately resolve upon what +is in our power; in that we are subject to the vain impulse of wishing +the impossible. Spontaneity is pleasing, sometimes beautiful, but it is +not in this instance the highest quality of the thing to be obtained. +That is to be found in a guiding and illumining reflective activity. + + + General estimate. + +Eclecticism is not open to the superficial objection of proceeding +without a system or test in determining the complete or incomplete. But +it is open to the objection of assuming that a particular analysis of +consciousness has reached all the possible elements in humanity and in +history, and all their combinations. It may be asked, Can history have +that which is not in the individual consciousness? In a sense not; but +our analysis may not give all that is there, and we ought not at once to +impose that analysis or any formula on history. History is as likely to +reveal to us in the first place true and original elements, and +combinations of elements in man, as a study of consciousness. Besides, +the tendency of applying a formula of this sort to history is to assume +that the elements are developed in a certain regular or necessary order, +whereas this may not at all be the case; but we may find at any epoch +the whole mixed, either crossing or co-operative, as in the +consciousness of the individual himself. Further, the question as to how +these elements may possibly have grown up in the general consciousness +of mankind is assumed to be non-existent or impossible. + +It was the tendency of the philosophy of Cousin to outline things and to +fill up the details in an artistic and imaginative interest. This is +necessarily the case, especially in the application to history of all +formulas supposed to be derived either from an analysis of +consciousness, or from an abstraction called pure thought. Cousin was +observational and generalizing rather than analytic and discriminating. +His search into principles was not profound, and his power of rigorous +consecutive development was not remarkable. He left no distinctive +permanent principle of philosophy. But he left very interesting +psychological analyses, and several new, just, and true expositions of +philosophical systems, especially that of Locke and the philosophers of +Scotland. He was at the same time a man of impressive power, of rare and +wide culture, and of lofty aim,--far above priestly conception and +Philistine narrowness. He was familiar with the broad lines of nearly +every system of philosophy ancient and modern. His eclecticism was the +proof of a reverential sympathy with the struggles of human thought to +attain to certainty in the highest problems of speculation. It was +eminently a doctrine of comprehension and of toleration. In these +respects it formed a marked and valuable contrast to the arrogance of +absolutism, to the dogmatism of sensationalism, and to the doctrine of +church authority, preached by the theological school of his day. His +spirit, while it influenced the youth of France, saved them from these +influences. As an educational reformer, as a man of letters and +learning, who trod "the large and impartial ways of knowledge," and who +swayed others to the same paths, as a thinker influential alike in the +action and the reaction to which he led, Cousin stands out conspicuously +among the memorable Frenchmen of the 19th century. + +Sir W. Hamilton (_Discussions_, p. 541), one of his most resolute +opponents, described Cousin as "A profound and original thinker, a lucid +and eloquent writer, a scholar equally at home in ancient and in modern +learning, a philosopher superior to all prejudices of age or country, +party or profession, and whose lofty eclecticism, seeking truth under +every form of opinion, traces its unity even through the most hostile +systems." + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. Barthelemy St Hilaire, _V. Cousin, sa vie et sa + correspondence_ (3 vols., Paris, 1895); H. Hoffding, _Hist. of Mod. + Phil._ ii. 311 (Eng. trans., 1900); C. E. Fuchs, _Die Philosophie + Victor Cousins_ (Berlin, 1847); J. Alaux, _La Philos. de M. Cousin_ + (Paris, 1864); P. Janet, _Victor Cousin et son oeuvre_ (Paris, + 1885); Jules Simon, _V. Cousin_ (1887); Adolphe Franck, _Moralistes et + philosophes_ (1872); J. P. Damiron, _Souvenirs de vingt ans + d'enseignement_ (Paris, 1859); H. Taine in _Les Philosophes_ (Paris, + 1868), pp. 79-202. (J. V.; X.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Fragmens philosophiques--preface deuxieme._ + + [2] _Du vrai, du beau, et du bien_ (preface). + + + + +COUSIN (Fr. _cousin_, Ital. _cugino_, Late Lat. _cosinus_, perhaps a +popular and familiar abbreviation of _consobrinus_, which has the same +sense in classical Latin), a term of relationship. Children of brothers +and sisters are to each other first cousins, or cousins-german; the +children of first cousins are to each other second cousins, and so on; +the child of a first cousin is to the first cousin of his father or +mother a first cousin once removed. + +The word cousin has also, since the 16th century, been used by +sovereigns as an honorific style in addressing persons of exalted, but +not equal sovereign, rank, the term "brother" being reserved as the +style used by one sovereign in addressing another. Thus, in Great +Britain, dukes, marquesses and earls are addressed by the sovereign in +royal writs, &c., as "cousin." In France the kings thus addressed +princes of the blood royal, cardinals and archbishops, dukes and peers, +the marshals of France, the grand officers of the crown and certain +foreign princes. In Spain the right to be thus addressed is a privilege +of the grandees. + + + + +COUSINS, SAMUEL (1801-1887), English mezzotint engraver, was born at +Exeter on the 9th of May 1801. He was preeminently the interpreter of +Sir Thomas Lawrence, his contemporary. During his apprenticeship to S. +W. Reynolds he engraved many of the best amongst the three hundred and +sixty little mezzotints illustrating the works of Sir Joshua Reynolds +which his master issued in his own name. In the finest of his numerous +transcripts of Lawrence, such as "Lady Acland and her Sons," "Pope Pius +VII." and "Master Lambton," the distinguishing characteristics of the +engraver's work, brilliancy and force of effect in a high key, +corresponded exactly with similar qualities in the painter. After the +introduction of steel for engraving purposes about the year 1823, +Cousins and his contemporaries were compelled to work on it, because the +soft copper previously used for mezzotint plates did not yield a +sufficient number of fine impressions to enable the method to compete +commercially against line engraving, from which much larger editions +were obtainable. The painter-like quality which distinguished the +18th-century mezzotints on copper was wanting in his later works, +because the hardness of the steel on which they were engraved impaired +freedom of execution and richness of tone, and so enhanced the labour of +scraping that he accelerated the work by stipple, etching the details +instead of scraping them out of the "ground" in the manner of his +predecessors. To this "mixed style," previously used by Richard Earlom +on copper, Cousins added heavy roulette and rocking-tool textures, +tending to fortify the darks, when he found that the "burr" even on +steel failed to yield enough fine impressions to meet the demand. The +effect of his prints in this method after Reynolds and Millais was +mechanical and out of harmony with the picturesque technique of these +painters, but the phenomenal popularity which Cousins gained for his +works at least kept alive and in favour a form of mezzotint engraving +during a critical phase of its history. Abraham Raimbach, the line +engraver, dated the decline of his own art in England from the +appearance in 1837 of Cousins's print (in the "mixed style") after +Landseer's "Bolton Abbey." Such plates as "Miss Peel," after Lawrence +(published in 1833); "A Midsummer Night's Dream," after Landseer (1857); +"The Order of Release" and "The First Minuet," after Millais (1856 and +1868); "The Strawberry Girl" and "Lavinia, Countess Spencer," after +Reynolds; and "Miss Rich," after Hogarth (1873-1877), represent various +stages of Cousins's mixed method. It reached its final development in +the plates after Millais's "Cherry Ripe" and "Pomona," published in 1881 +and 1882, when the invention of coating copper-plates with a film of +steel to make them yield larger editions led to the revival of pure +mezzotint on copper, which has since rendered obsolete the steel plate +and the mixed style which it fostered. The fine draughtsmanship of +Cousins was as apparent in his prints as in his original lead-pencil +portraits exhibited in London in 1882. In 1885 he was elected a full +member of the Royal Academy, to which institution he later gave in trust +L15,000 to provide annuities for superannuated artists who had not been +so successful as himself. One of the most important figures in the +history of British engraving, he died in London, unmarried, on the 7th +of May 1887. + + See George Pycroft, M.R.C.S.E., _Memoir of Samuel Cousins, R.A., + Member of the Legion of Honour_ (published for private circulation by + E. E. Leggatt, London, 1899); Algernon Graves, _Catalogue of the Works + of Samuel Cousins, R.A._ (published by H. Graves and Co., London, + 1888); and Alfred Whitman, _Samuel Cousins_ (published by George Bell + & Sons, London, 1904), which contains a catalogue, good illustrations, + and much detail useful to the collector and dealer. (G. P. R.) + + + + +COUSTOU, the name of a famous family of French sculptors. + +NICOLAS COUSTOU (1658-1733) was the son of a wood-carver at Lyons, where +he was born. At eighteen he removed to Paris, to study under C. A. +Coysevox, his mother's brother, who presided over the recently-established +Academy of Painting and Sculpture; and at three-and-twenty he gained the +Colbert prize, which entitled him to four years' education at the French +Academy at Rome. He afterwards became rector and chancellor of the Academy +of Painting and Sculpture. From the year 1700 he was a most active +collaborator with Coysevox at the palaces of Marly and Versailles. He was +remarkable for his facility; and though he was specially influenced by +Michelangelo and Algardi, his numerous works are among the most typical +specimens of his age now extant. The most famous are "La Seine et la +Marne," "La Saone," the "Berger Chasseur" in the gardens of the Tuileries, +the bas-relief "Le Passage du Rhin" in the Louvre, and the "Descent from +the Cross" placed behind the choir altar of Notre Dame at Paris. + +His younger brother, GUILLAUME COUSTOU (1677-1746), was a sculptor of +still greater merit. He also gained the Colbert prize; but refusing to +submit to the rules of the Academy, he soon left it, and for some time +wandered houseless through the streets of Rome. At length he was +befriended by the sculptor Legros, under whom he studied for some time. +Returning to Paris, he was in 1704 admitted into the Academy of Painting +and Sculpture, of which he afterwards became director; and, like his +brother, he was employed by Louis XIV. His finest works are the famous +group of the "Horse Tamers," originally at Marly, now in the Champs +Elysees at Paris, the colossal group "The Ocean and the Mediterranean" +at Marly, the bronze "Rhone" which formed part of the statue of Louis +XIV. at Lyons, and the sculptures at the entrance of the Hotel des +Invalides. Of these latter, the bas-relief representing Louis XIV. +mounted and accompanied by Justice and Prudence was destroyed during the +Revolution, but was restored in 1815 by Pierre Cartellier from Coustou's +model; the bronze figures of Mars and Minerva, on either side of the +doorway, were not interfered with. + +Another GUILLAUME COUSTOU (1716-1777), the son of Nicolas, also studied +at Rome, as winner of the Colbert prize. While to a great extent a +copyist of his predecessors, he was much affected by the bad taste of +his time, and produced little or nothing of permanent value. + + See Louis Gougenot, _Eloge de M. Coustou le jeune_ (1903); Arsene + Houssaye, _Histoire de l'art francais au XVIII^e siecle_ (1860); Lady + Dilke, _Gazette des beaux-arts_, vol. xxv. (1901) (2 articles). + + + + +COUTANCES, WALTER OF (d. 1207), bishop of Lincoln and archbishop of +Rouen, commenced his career in the chancery of Henry II., was elected +bishop of Lincoln in 1182, and in 1184 obtained, with the king's help, +the see of Rouen. Throughout his career he was much employed in +diplomatic and administrative duties. He started with Richard I. for the +Third Crusade, but was sent back from Messina to investigate the charges +which the barons and the official class had brought against the +chancellor, William Longchamp. There was no love lost between the two; +and they were popularly supposed to be rivals for the see of Canterbury. +The archbishop of Rouen sided with the barons and John, and sanctioned +Longchamp's deposition--a step which was technically warranted by the +powers which Richard had given, but by no means calculated to protect +the interests of the crown. The Great Council now recognized the +archbishop as chief justiciar, and he remained at the head of the +government till 1193, when he was replaced by Hubert Walter. The +archbishop did good service in the negotiations for Richard's release, +but subsequently quarrelled with his master and laid Normandy under an +interdict, because the border stronghold of Chateau Gaillard in the +Vexin had been built on his land without his consent. After Richard's +death the archbishop accepted John as the lawful heir of Normandy and +consecrated him as duke. But his personal inclinations leaned to Arthur +of Brittany, whom he was with difficulty dissuaded from supporting. The +archbishop accepted the French conquest of Normandy with equanimity +(1204), although he kept to his old allegiance while the issue of the +struggle was in doubt. He did not long survive the conquest, and his +later history is a blank. + + See W. Stubbs's editions of _Benedictus Abbas_, _Hoveden_ and _Diceto_ + (Rolls series); R. Howlett's edition of "William of Newburgh" and + "Richard of Devizes" in _Chronicles, &c., of the Reigns of Stephen, + Henry II. and Richard I._ (Rolls series). See also the preface to the + third volume of Stubbs's _Hoveden_, pp. lix.-xcviii.; J. H. Round's + _Commune of London_, and the French poem on _Guillaume le Marechal_ + (ed. P. Meyer, _Soc. de l'Histoire de France_). (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +COUTANCES, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement +of the department of Manche, 7 m. E. of the English Channel and 58 m. S. +of Cherbourg on the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 6089. Coutances is +beautifully situated on the right bank of the Soulle on a granitic +eminence crowned by the celebrated cathedral of Notre-Dame. The date of +this church has been much disputed, but while traces of Romanesque +architecture survive, the building is, in the main, Gothic in style and +dates from the first half of the 13th century. The slender turrets +massed round the western towers and the octagonal central tower, which +forms a lantern within, are conspicuous features of the church. In the +interior, which comprises the nave with aisles, transept and choir with +ambulatory and side chapels, there are fine rose-windows with stained +glass of the 14th century, and other works of art. Of the other +buildings of Coutances the church of St Pierre, in which Renaissance +architecture is mingled with Gothic, and that of St Nicolas, of the 16th +and 17th centuries, demand mention. There is an aqueduct of the 14th +century to the west of the town. Coutances is a quiet town with winding +streets and pleasant boulevards bordering it on the east; on the western +slope of the hill there is a public garden. The town is the seat of a +bishop, a court of assizes and a sub-prefect; it has tribunals of first +instance and of commerce, a lycee for boys, a communal college and a +training college for girls, and an ecclesiastical seminary. +Leather-dressing and wool-spinning are carried on and there is trade in +live-stock, in agricultural produce, especially eggs, and in marble. + +Coutances is the ancient _Cosedia_, which before the Roman conquest was +one of the chief towns in the country of the Unelli. Towards the end of +the 3rd century its name was changed to _Constantia_, in honour of the +emperor Constantius Chlorus, who fortified it. It became the capital of +the _pagus Constantinus_ (Cotentin), and in the middle ages was the seat +of a viscount. It has been an episcopal see since the 5th century. In +the 17th century it was the centre of the revolt of the _Nu-pieds_, +caused by the imposition of the salt-tax (_gabelle_). + + A good bibliography of general works and monographs on the archaeology + and the history of the town and diocese of Coutances is given in U. + Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources, &c., Topo-Bibliographie_ + (Montbeliard, 1894-1899), s.v. + + + + +COUTHON, GEORGES (1755-1794), French revolutionist, was born at Orcet, a +village in the district of Clermont in Auvergne. He studied law, and was +admitted advocate at Clermont in 1785. At this period he was noted for +his integrity, gentle-heartedness and charitable disposition. His health +was feeble and both legs were paralysed. In 1787 he was a member of the +provincial assembly of Auvergne. On the outbreak of the Revolution +Couthon, who was now a member of the municipality of Clermont-Ferrand, +published his _L'Aristocrate converti_, in which he revealed himself as +a liberal and a champion of constitutional monarchy. He became very +popular, was appointed president of the tribunal of the town of Clermont +in 1791, and in September of the same year was elected deputy to the +Legislative Assembly. His views had meanwhile been embittered by the +attempted flight of Louis XVI., and he distinguished himself now by his +hostility to the king. A visit to Flanders for the sake of his health +brought him into close intercourse and sympathy with Dumouriez. In +September 1792 Couthon was elected member of the National Convention, +and at the trial of the king voted for the sentence of death without +appeal. He hesitated for a time as to which party he should join, but +finally decided for that of Robespierre, with whom he had many opinions +in common, especially in matters of religion. He was the first to demand +the arrest of the proscribed Girondists. On the 30th of May 1793 he +became a member of the Committee of Public Safety, and in August was +sent as one of the commissioners of the Convention attached to the army +before Lyons. Impatient at the slow progress made by the besieging +force, he decreed a _levee en masse_ in the department of Puy-de-Dome, +collected an army of 60,000 men, and himself led them to Lyons. When the +city was taken, on the 9th of October 1793, although the Convention +ordered its destruction, Couthon did not carry out the decree, and +showed moderation in the punishment of the rebels. The Republican +atrocities began only after Couthon was replaced, on the 3rd of November +1793, by Collot d'Herbois. Couthon returned to Paris, and on the 21st of +December was elected president of the Convention. He contributed to the +prosecution of the Hebertists, and was responsible for the law of the +22nd Prairial, which in the case of trials before the Revolutionary +Tribunal deprived the accused of the aid of counsel or of witnesses or +their defence, on the pretext of shortening the proceedings. During the +crisis preceding the 9th Thermidor, Couthon showed considerable courage, +giving up a journey to Auvergne in order, as he wrote, that he might +either die or triumph with Robespierre and liberty. Arrested with +Robespierre and Saint-Just, his colleagues in the triumvirate of the +Terror, and subjected to indescribable sufferings and insults, he was +taken to the scaffold on the same cart with Robespierre on the 28th of +July 1794 (10th Thermidor). + + See Fr. Mege, _Correspondance de Couthon ... suivie de "l'Aristocrate + converti," comedie en deux actes de Couthon_ (Paris, 1872); and + _Nouveaux Documents sur Georges Couthon_ (Clermont-Ferrand, 1890); + also F. A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la + Convention_ (Paris, 1885-1886), ii. 425-443. + + + + +COUTTS, THOMAS (1735-1822), English banker and founder of the banking +house of Coutts & Co., was born on the 7th of September 1735. He was the +fourth son of John Coutts (1699-1751), who carried on business in +Edinburgh as a corn factor and negotiator of bills of exchange, and who +in 1742 was elected lord provost of the city. The family was originally +of Montrose, but one of its members had settled at Edinburgh about 1696. +Soon after the death of John Coutts the business was divided into two +branches, one carried on in Edinburgh, the other in London. The banking +business in London was in the hands of James and Thomas Coutts, sons of +John Coutts. From the death of his brother in 1778, Thomas, as surviving +partner, became sole head of the firm; and under his direction the +banking house rose to the highest distinction. His ambition was to +establish his character as a man of business and to make a fortune; and +he lived to succeed in this aim and long to enjoy his reputation and +wealth. A gentleman in manners, hospitable and benevolent, he counted +amongst his friends some of the literary men and the best actors of his +day. Of the enormous wealth which came into his hands he made munificent +use. His private life was not without its romantic elements. Soon after +his settlement in London he married Elizabeth Starkey, a young woman of +humble origin, who was in attendance on the daughter of his brother +James. They lived happily together, and had three daughters--Susan, +married in 1796 to the 3rd earl of Guilford; Frances, married in 1800 to +John, 1st marquess of Bute; and Sophia, married in 1793 to Sir Francis +Burdett. Mrs Coutts dying in 1815, her husband soon after married the +popular actress, Harriet Mellon; and to her he left the whole of his +immense fortune. He died in London on the 24th of February 1822. His +widow married in 1827 the 9th duke of St Albans, and died ten years +later, having bequeathed her property to Angela, youngest daughter of +Sir Francis Burdett, who then assumed the additional name and arms of +Coutts. In 1871 this lady was created Baroness Burdett-Coutts (q.v.). + + See C. Rogers, _Genealogical Memoirs of the Families of Colt and + Coutts_ (1879); and R. Richardson, _Coutts & Co._ (1900). + + + + +COUTURE, THOMAS (1815-1879), French painter, was born at Senlis (Oise), +and studied under Baron A. J. Gros and Paul Delaroche, winning a Prix de +Rome in 1837. He began exhibiting historical and _genre_ pictures at the +Salon in 1840, and obtained several medals. His masterpiece was his +"Romans in the Decadence of the Empire" (1847), now in the Luxembourg; +and his "Love of Money" (1844; at Toulouse), "Falconer" (1855), and +"Damocles" (1872), are also good examples. + + + + +COUVADE (literally a "brooding," from Fr. _couver_, to hatch, Lat. +_cubare_, to lie down), a custom so called in Bearn, prevalent among +several peoples in different parts of the world, requiring that the +father, at and sometimes before the birth of his child, shall retire to +bed and fast or abstain from certain kinds of food, receiving the +attentions generally shown to women at their confinements. The existence +of the custom in ancient classical times is testified to by Apollonius +Rhodius, Diodorus (who refers to its existence among the Corsicans), and +Strabo (who noticed it among the Spanish Basques, by whom, as well as by +the Gascons, it has been said to be still observed, though the most +recent researches entirely discredit this). Travellers, from the time of +Marco Polo, who relates its observance in Chinese Turkestan, have found +the custom to prevail in China, India, Borneo, Siam, Africa and the +Americas. Even in Europe it cannot be said to have entirely disappeared. +In certain of the Baltic provinces of Russia the husband, on the +lying-in of the wife, takes to his bed and groans in mock pain. One +writer believes he found traces of it in the little island of Marken in +the Zuyder Zee. Even in rural England, notably in East Anglia, a +curiously obstinate belief survives (the prevalence of which in earlier +times is proved by references to it in Elizabethan drama) that the +pregnancy of the woman affects the man, and the young husband who +complains of a toothache is assailed by pleasantries as to his wife's +condition. In Guiana the custom is observed in its most typical form. +The woman works to within a few hours of the birth, but some days before +her delivery the father leaves his occupations and abstains from certain +kinds of animal food lest the child should suffer. Thus the flesh of the +agouti is forbidden, lest the child should be lean, and that of the +capibara or water-cavy, for fear he should inherit through his father's +gluttony that creature's projecting teeth. A few hours before delivery +the woman goes alone, or with one or two women-friends, into the forest, +where the baby is born. She returns as soon as she can stand, to her +work, and the man then takes to his hammock and becomes the invalid. He +must do no work, must touch no weapons, is forbidden all meat and food, +except at first a fermented liquor and after the twelfth day a weak +gruel of _cassava_ meal. He must not even smoke, or wash himself, but is +waited on hand and foot by the women. So far is the comedy carried that +he whines and groans as if in actual pain. Six weeks after the birth of +the child he is taken in hand by his relatives, who lacerate his skin +and rub him with a decoction of the pepper-plant. A banquet is then held +from which the patient is excluded, for he must not leave his bed till +several days later; and for six months he must eat the flesh of neither +fish nor bird. Almost identical ceremonies have been noticed among the +natives of California and New Mexico; while in Greenland and Kamchatka +the husband may not work for some time before and after his wife's +confinement. Among the Larkas of Bengal a period of isolation and +uncleanness, synchronous with that compulsory on the woman, is +imperative for the man, on the conclusion of which the child's parentage +is publicly proclaimed. + +No certain explanation can be offered for the custom. The most +reasonable view is that adopted by E. B. Tylor, who traces in it the +transition from the earlier matriarchal to the later patriarchal system +of tribe-organization. Among primitive tribes, and probably in all ages, +the former order of society, in which descent and inheritance are +reckoned through the mother alone, as being the earliest form of family +life, is and was very common, if not universal. The acknowledgment of a +relationship between father and son is characteristic of the progress of +society towards a true family life. It may well be that the Couvade +arose in the father's desire to emphasize the bond of blood between +himself and his child. It is a fact that in some countries the father +has to purchase the child from its mother; and in the Roman ceremony of +the husband raising the baby from the floor we may trace the savage idea +that the male parent must formally proclaim his adoption of and +responsibility for the offspring. Max Muller, in his _Chips from a +German Workshop_, endeavoured to find an explanation in primitive +"henpecking," asserting that the unfortunate husband was tyrannized over +by "his female relatives and afterwards frightened into +superstition,"--that, in fact, the whole fabric of ceremony is reared on +nothing but masculine hysteria; but this theory can scarcely be taken +seriously. The missionary, Joseph Francois Lafitau, suspected a +psychological reason, assuming the custom to be a dim recollection of +original sin, the isolation and fast types of repentance. The +explanation of the American Indians is that if the father engaged in any +hard or hazardous work, e.g. hunting, or was careless in his diet, the +child would suffer and inherit the physical faults and peculiarities of +the animals eaten. This belief that a person becomes possessed of the +nature and form of the animal he eats is widespread, being as prevalent +in the Old World as in the New, but it is insufficient to account for +the minute ceremonial details of La Couvade as practised in many lands. +It is far more likely that so universal a practice has no trivial +beginnings, but is to be considered as a mile-stone marking a great +transitional epoch in human progress. + + AUTHORITIES.--E. B. Tylor's _Early History of Man_ (1865; 2nd ed. p. + 301); F. Max Muller, _Chips from a German Workshop_ (1868-1875), ii. + 281; Lord Avebury, _Origin of Civilisation_ (1900); Brett's _Indian + Tribes of Guiana_; Johann Baptist von Spix and Karl F. P. von Martius, + _Travels in Brazil_ (1823-1831), ii. 281; J. F. Lafitau, _Moeurs des + sauvages americains_ (1st ed., 1724); W. Z. Ripley, _Races of Europe_ + (1900); A. H. Keane's _Ethnology_ (1896), p. 368 and footnote; A. + Giraud-Teulon, _Les Origines du mariage et de la famille_ (Paris, + 1884). + + + + +COVE, a word mostly used in the sense of a small inlet or sheltered bay +in a coast-line. In English dialect usage it is also applied to a cave +or to a recess in a mountain-side. The word in O. Eng. is _cofa_, and +cognate forms are found in the Ger. _Koben_, Norwegian _kove_, and in +various forms in other Teutonic languages. It has no connexion with +"alcove," recess in a room or building, which is derived through the +Span. _alcoba_ from Arab. _al_, the, and _qubbah_, vault, arch, nor with +"cup" or "coop," nor with "cave" (Lat. _cava_). The use of the word was +first confined to a small chamber or cell or inner recess in a room or +building. From this has come the particular application in architecture +to any kind of concave moulding, the term being usually applied to the +quadrantal curve rising from the cornice of a lofty room to the moulded +borders of the horizontal ceiling. The term "coving" is given in +half-timbered work to the curved soffit under a projecting window, or in +the 18th century to that occasionally found carrying the gutter of a +house. In the Musee Plantin at Antwerp the hearth of the fireplace of +the upper floor is carved on coving, which forms part of the design of +the chimney-piece in the room below. The slang use of "cove" for any +male person, like a "fellow," "chap," &c., is found in the form "cofe" +in T. Harman's _Caveat for Cursetors_ (1587) and other early quotations. +This seems to be identical with the Scots word "cofe," a pedlar, hawker, +which is formed from "coff," to sell, purchase, cognate with the Ger. +_kaufen_, to buy, and the native English "cheap." The word "cove," +therefore, is in ultimate origin the same as "chap," short for +"chapman," a pedlar. + + + + +COVELLITE, a mineral species consisting of cupric sulphide, CuS, +crystallizing in the hexagonal system. It is of less frequent occurrence +in nature than copper-glance, the orthorhombic cuprous sulphide. +Crystals are very rare, the mineral being usually found as compact and +earthy masses or as a blue coating on other copper sulphides. Hardness +1-1/2-2; specific gravity 4.6. The dark indigo-blue colour is a +characteristic feature, and the mineral was early known as indigo-copper +(Ger. _Kupferindig_). The name covellite is taken from N. Covelli, who +in 1839 observed crystals of cupric sulphide encrusting Vesuvian lava, +the mineral having been formed here by the interaction of hydrogen +sulphide and cupric chloride, both of which are volatile volcanic +products. Covellite is, however, more commonly found in copper-bearing +veins, where it has resulted by the alteration of other copper +sulphides, namely chalcopyrite, copper-glance and erubescite. It is +found in many copper mines; localities which may be specially mentioned +are Sangerhausen in Prussian Saxony, Butte in Montana, and Chile; in the +Medicine Bow Mountains of Wyoming a platiniferous covellite is mined, +the platinum being present as sperrylite (platinum arsenide). + (L. J. S.) + + + + +COVENANT (an O. Fr. form, later _convenant_, from _convenir_, to agree, +Lat. _convenire_), a mutual agreement of two or more parties, or an +undertaking made by one of the parties. In the Bible the Hebrew word +[Hebrew: briia], _b[)e]r[=i]th_, is used widely for many kinds of +agreements; it is then applied to a contract between two persons or to a +treaty between two nations, such as the covenant made between Abimelech +and Isaac, representing a treaty between the Israelites and the +Philistines (Gen. xxvi. 26, seq.); more particularly to an engagement +made between God and men, or such agreements as, by the observance of a +religious rite, regarded God as a party to the engagement. Two +suggestions have been made for the derivation of _b[)e]r[=i]th_: (1) +tracing the word from a root "to cut," and the reference is to the +primitive rite of cutting victims into parts, between which the parties +to an agreement passed, cf. the Greek [Greek: horkia temnein], and the +account (Gen. xv. 17) of the covenant between God and Abraham, where "a +smoking furnace and burning lamp passed between the pieces" of the +victims Abraham had sacrificed; (2) connecting it with an +Assyrio-Babylonian _biritu_, fetter, alliance. _B[)e]r[=i]th_ was +translated in the Septuagint by [Greek: diatheke], which in classical +Greek had the meaning of "will"; hence the Vulgate, in the Psalms and +the New Testament, translates the word by _testamentum_, but elsewhere +in the Old Testament by _foedus_ or _pactum_; similarly Wycliffe's +version gives "testament" and "covenant" respectively. The books of +Scripture dealing with the old or Mosaic, and new or Christian +dispensation are sometimes known as the Books of the Old and the New +Covenant. The word appears in the system of theology developed by +Johannes Cocceius (q.v.), and known as the "Covenant" or "Federal" +Theology, based on the two Covenants of Works or Life made by God with +Adam, on condition of obedience, and of grace or redemption, made with +Christ. In Scottish ecclesiastical history, covenant appears in the two +agreements signed by the members of the Scottish Church in defence of +their religious and ecclesiastical systems (see COVENANTERS). + + + + +COVENANT, in law, is the English equivalent of the Lat. _conventio_, +which, although not technical, was the most general word in Roman law +for "agreement." It was frequently used along with _pactum_, also a +general term, but applied especially to agreements to settle a question +without carrying it before the courts of law. + +The word "covenant" has been used in a variety of senses in English law. + +1. In its strict sense, covenant means an agreement _under seal_, that +something has or has not already been done, or shall or shall not be +done hereafter (Shep. _Touchstone_, 160, 162). It is most commonly used +with reference to sales or leases of land, but is sometimes applied to +any promise or stipulation, whether under seal or not. The person who +makes, and is bound to perform, the promise or stipulation is the +covenantor: the person in whose favour it is made is the covenantee. + +2. Covenants have been subdivided into numerous classes, only a few of +which need to be described. It is unnecessary to do more than mention +affirmative and negative covenants, joint or several, alternative or +disjunctive covenants, dependent or independent covenants. As to +collateral covenants, covenants "running with the land," and covenants +in leases (including "usual," "proper" and "restrictive" covenants), see +LANDLORD and TENANT. But there are other classes as to which something +must be said. + +A covenant is said to be _express_ when it is created by the express +words of the parties to the deed declaratory of their intention. It is +not indispensable that the word "covenant" should be used. Any word +which clearly indicates the intention of the parties to covenant will +suffice. An _implied_ covenant, or _covenant in law_, "depends for its +existence on the intendment and construction of law. There are some +words which of themselves do not import an express covenant, yet, being +made use of in certain contracts, have a similar operation and are +called covenants in law; and they are as effectually binding on the +parties as if expressed in the most unequivocal terms" (Platt on +_Covenants_, p. 40). Thus, the word "demise," used in a lease of deed, +raises the implication of a covenant both for "quiet enjoyment" and for +title to let; and it has been judicially suggested that a covenant for +quiet enjoyment may be implied from any word or words of like import +(_Budd-Scott_ v. _Daniell_, 1902, 2 K.B. p. 359). The Conveyancing Act +1881 provides (S 7) that in a conveyance for valuable consideration, +other than a mortgage, there shall be implied, as against the person who +conveys and is expressed to convey as "beneficial owner," certain +_qualified_ covenants--i.e. covenants extending only to the acts or +omissions of the vendor, persons through whom he derives title otherwise +than by purchase for value, and persons claiming under them--for "right +to convey," "quiet enjoyment," "freedom from incumbrances" and "further +assurance." Of these statutory covenants for title the only one which +requires explanation is the covenant for further assurance. It imports +an agreement on the part of the covenantor to do such reasonable acts, +in addition to those already performed, as may be necessary for the +completion of the transfer made (or intended to be made) at the +requirements of the covenantee (Platt on _Covenants_, p. 341). All these +statutory implied covenants "run with the land" (see LANDLORD and +TENANT). Where a mortgagor conveys, and is expressed to convey, as +"beneficial owner," there are implied _absolute_ covenants--i.e. +covenants amounting to a warranty against and for the acts and omissions +of the whole world--that he has a right to convey, that the mortgagee +shall have quiet enjoyment of the property after default, free from +incumbrances and for further assurance. Special provisions as to implied +covenants by the lessor in leases are made in England by S 7 (B) of the +Conveyancing Act 1881 and in Ireland by the Land Act (Ireland) 1860, S +41. The distinction between _real_ and _personal_ covenants is that the +former do, while the latter do not, run with the land. An _inherent_ +covenant is another name for a _real_ covenant (Shep. _Touchstone_, 176; +Platt, 60). When a covenant relates to an act already done, it is +usually termed a covenant _executed_; where the performance is future, +the covenant is termed _executory_. The _covenant for seisin_ was an +assurance to the grantee that the grantor had the estate which he +purported to convey. In England it is now included in the covenant for +right to convey; but is still in separate use in several states in +America. The _covenant to stand seised to uses_ was an assurance by +means of which, under the Statute of Uses [1536] (see USES), a +conveyance of an estate might be effected. When such a covenant is made, +the legal estate in the land passes at once to the covenantee under the +statute. The consideration for the covenant must be relationship by +blood or marriage. It is still occasionally though very rarely employed. +The _covenant not_ to _sue_ belongs to the law of contract and needs no +explanation. + + Most of the classes of covenants above mentioned are in use in the + United States. In New York, Michigan, Minnesota, Oregon, Wisconsin and + Wyoming the implication of covenants for title has been, with certain + exceptions, prohibited by statute. In Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, + Illinois, Indiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, + Pennsylvania and Texas the words _grant_, _bargain_ and _sell_, in + conveyances in fee, unless specially restricted, amount to qualified + covenants that the grantor was seised in fee, free from incumbrances, + and for quiet enjoyment (4 Kent, _Commentaries_, S 473; Bouvier, _Law + Dictionary_, s.v. Covenant). In some of the states a _covenant of + non-claim_, or of _warranty_, an assurance by the grantor that neither + he nor his heirs, nor any other person shall claim any title in the + premises conveyed, is in general use. + +3. An _action of covenant_ lay for breaking covenant. As to the history +of this action see Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_, ii. +106; and Holmes, _The Common Law_, p. 272. There was also a _writ of +covenant_. But this remedy had fallen into disuse before 1830 (see Platt +on _Covenants_, p. 543), and was abolished by the Common Law Procedure +Acts. Since the Judicature Acts, an action on a covenant follows the +same course as, and is indistinguishable from, any ordinary action for +breach of contract. The remedy is by damages, decree of specific +performance or injunction to prevent the breach. + + The term "covenant" is unknown to Scots law. But its place is filled + to some extent by the doctrine of "warrandice." Many of the British + colonies have legislated, as to the implication of covenants for + title, on the lines of the English Conveyancing Act 1881; e.g. + Tasmania, Conveyancing and Law of Property Act 1884 (47 Vict. No. 10). + + As to covenants in restraint of trade see RESTRAINT. + + AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the authorities cited in the text see: + _English Law_; Goodeve, _Law of Real Property_ (5th ed., London, + 1906); C. Foa, _Landlord and Tenant_ (3rd ed., London, 1901); + Hamilton, _Law of Covenants_ (London); Fawcett, _Law of Landlord and + Tenant_ (3rd ed., London, 1905). _American Law: Rawle, Law of + Covenants for Title_ (Boston, 1887); _Encyclopaedia of American Law_ + (3rd ed., 1890), vol. viii., tit. "Covenants." (A. W. R.) + + + + +COVENANTERS, the name given to a party which, originating in the +Reformation movement, played an important part in the history of +Scotland, and to a lesser extent in that of England, during the 17th +century. The Covenanters were thus named because in a series of _bands_ +or _covenants_ they bound themselves to maintain the Presbyterian +doctrine and polity as the sole religion of their country. The first +"godly band" is dated December 1557; but more important is the covenant +of 1581, drawn up by John Craig in consequence of the strenuous efforts +which the Roman Catholics were making to regain their hold upon +Scotland, and called the King's Confession or National Covenant. Based +upon the Confession of Faith of 1560, this document denounced the pope +and the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church in no measured terms. It +was adopted by the General Assembly, signed by King James VI. and his +household, and enjoined on persons of all ranks and classes; and was +again subscribed in 1590 and 1596. In 1637 Scotland was in a state of +turmoil. Charles I. and Archbishop Laud had just met with a reverse in +their efforts to impose the English liturgy upon the Scots; and fearing +further measures on the part of the king, it occurred to Archibald +Johnston, Lord Warriston, to revive the National Covenant of 1581. +Additional matter intended to suit the document to the special +circumstances of the time was added, and the covenant was adopted and +signed by a large gathering in Greyfriars' churchyard, Edinburgh, on the +28th of February 1638, after which copies were sent throughout the +country for additional signatures. The subscribers engaged by oath to +maintain religion in the state in which it existed in 1580, and to +reject all innovations introduced since that time, while professed +expressions of loyalty to the king were added. The General Assembly of +1638 was composed of ardent Covenanters, and in 1640 the covenant was +adopted by the parliament, and its subscription was required from all +citizens. Before this date the Covenanters were usually referred to as +_Supplicants_, but from about this time the former designation began to +prevail. + +A further development took place in 1643. The leaders of the English +parliament, worsted in the Civil War, implored the aid of the Scots, +which was promised on condition that the Scottish system of church +government was adopted in England. After some haggling a document called +the Solemn League and Covenant was drawn up. This was practically a +treaty between England and Scotland for the preservation of the reformed +religion in Scotland, the reformation of religion in England and Ireland +"according to the word of God and the example of the best reformed +churches," and the extirpation of popery and prelacy. It was subscribed +by many in both kingdoms and also in Ireland, and was approved by the +English parliament, and with some slight modifications by the +Westminster Assembly of Divines. Charles I. refused to accept it when he +surrendered himself to the Scots in 1646, but he made important +concessions in this direction in the "Engagement" made with the Scots in +December 1647. Charles II. before landing in Scotland in June 1650 +declared by a solemn oath his approbation of both covenants, and this +was renewed on the occasion of his coronation at Scone in the following +January. + +From 1638 to 1651 the Covenanters were the dominant party in Scotland, +directing her policy both at home and abroad. Their power, however, +which had been seriously weakened by Cromwell's victory at Dunbar in +September 1651, was practically destroyed when Charles II. was restored +nine years later. Firmly seated upon the throne Charles renounced the +covenants, which in 1662 were declared unlawful oaths, and were to be +abjured by all persons holding public offices. Episcopacy was restored, +the court of high commission was revived, and ministers who refused to +recognize the authority of the bishops were expelled from their livings. +Gathering around them many of the Covenanters who clung tenaciously to +their standards of faith, these ministers began to preach in the fields, +and a period of persecution marked by savage hatred and great brutality +began. Further oppressive measures were directed against the +Covenanters, who took up arms about 1665, and the struggle soon assumed +the proportions of a rebellion. The forces of the crown under John +Graham of Claverhouse and others were sent against them, and although +the insurgents gained isolated successes, in general they were worsted +and were treated with great barbarity. They maintained, however, their +cherished covenants with a zeal which persecution only intensified; in +1680 the more extreme members of the party signed a document known as +the "Sanquhar Declaration," and were afterwards called Cameronians from +the name of their leader, Richard Cameron (q.v.). They renounced their +allegiance to King James and were greatly disappointed when their +standards found no place in the religious settlement of 1689, continuing +to hold the belief that the covenants should be made obligatory upon the +entire nation. The Covenanters had a martyrology of their own, and the +halo of romance has been cast around their exploits and their +sufferings. Their story, however, especially during the time of their +political predominance, is part of the general history of Scotland +(q.v.). + + The texts of the National Covenant and the Solemn League and Covenant + are printed in S. R. Gardiner's _Constitutional Documents of the + Puritan Revolution_ (Oxford, 1899). See also J. H. Burton, _History of + Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1905); A. Lang, _History of Scotland_ + (Edinburgh, 1900); S. R. Gardiner, _History of England_ (London, + 1883-1884); G. Grub, _Ecclesiastical History of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, + 1861); J. Macpherson, _History of the Church in Scotland_ (Paisley, + 1901); and J. K. Hewison, _The Covenanters_ (1908). + + + + +COVENT GARDEN, formerly an open space north of the Strand, London, +England, now occupied by the principal flower, fruit and vegetable +market in the metropolis. This was originally the so-called "convent +garden" belonging to the abbey of St Peter, Westminster. In the first +half of the 17th century the site of the garden was laid out as a square +by Inigo Jones, with a piazza on two sides; and as early as 1656 it was +becoming a market place for the same commodities as are now sold in it. +Covent Garden Theatre (1858) is the chief seat of grand opera in London. +The site has carried a theatre since 1733, but earlier buildings were +burnt in 1809 and 1856. + + + + +COVENTRY, SIR JOHN (d. 1682), son of John Coventry, the second son of +Thomas, Lord Keeper Coventry, was returned to the Long Parliament in +1640 as member for Evesham. During the Civil War he served for the king, +and at the Restoration was created a knight. In 1667, and in the +following parliaments of 1678, 1679 and 1681, he was elected for +Weymouth, and opposed the government. On the 21st of December 1670, +owing to a jest made by Coventry in the House of Commons on the subject +of the king's amours, Sir Thomas Sandys, an officer of the guards, with +other accomplices, by the order of Monmouth, and (it was said) with the +approval of the king himself, waylaid him as he was returning home to +Suffolk Street and slit his nose to the bone. The outrage created an +extraordinary sensation, and in consequence a measure known as the +"Coventry Act" was passed, declaring assaults accompanied by personal +mutilation a felony without benefit of clergy. Sir John died in 1682. +Sir William Coventry, his uncle, speaks slightingly of him, ridicules +his vanity and wishes him out of the House of Commons to be "out of +harm's way." + + + + +COVENTRY, THOMAS COVENTRY, 1ST BARON (1578-1640), lord keeper of +England, eldest son of Sir Thomas Coventry, judge of the common pleas (a +descendant of John Coventry, lord mayor of London in the reign of Henry +VI.), and of Margaret Jeffreys of Earls Croome, or Croome D'Abitot, in +Worcestershire, was born in 1578. He entered Balliol College, Oxford, in +1592, and the Inner Temple in 1594, becoming bencher of the society in +1614, reader in 1616, and holding the office of treasurer from 1617 till +1621. His exceptional legal abilities were rewarded early with official +promotion. On the 16th of November 1616 he was made recorder of London +in spite of Bacon's opposition, who, although allowing him to be "a well +trained and an honest man," objected that he was "bred by my Lord Coke +and seasoned in his ways."[1] On the 14th of March 1617 he was appointed +solicitor-general and was knighted; was returned for Droitwich to the +parliament of 1621; and on the 11th of January in that year was made +attorney-general. He took part in the proceedings against Bacon for +corruption, and was manager for the Commons in the impeachment of Edward +Floyd for insulting the elector and electress palatine. + +On the 1st of November 1625 he was made lord keeper of the great seal; +in this capacity he delivered the king's reprimand to the Commons on the +29th of March 1626, when he declared that "liberty of counsel" alone +belonged to them and not "liberty of control." On the 10th of April 1628 +he received the title of Baron Coventry of Aylesborough in +Worcestershire. At the opening of parliament in 1628 he threatened that +the king would use his prerogative if further thwarted in the matter of +supplies. In the subsequent debates, however, while strongly supporting +the king's prerogative against the claims of the parliament to executive +power, he favoured a policy of moderation and compromise. He defended +the right of the council to commit to prison without showing cause, and +to issue "general" warrants; though he allowed it should only be +employed in special circumstances, disapproved of the king's sudden +dissolution of parliament, and agreed to the liberation on bail of the +seven imprisoned members on condition of their giving security for their +good behaviour. He showed less subservience than Bacon to Buckingham, +and his resistance to the latter's pretensions to the office of lord +high constable greatly incensed the duke. Buckingham taunted Coventry +with having gained his place by his favour; to which the lord keeper +replied, "Did I conceive I had my place by your favour, I would +presently unmake myself by returning the seal to his Majesty."[2] After +this defiance Buckingham's sudden death alone probably prevented +Coventry's displacement. He passed sentence of death on Lord Audley in +1631, drafted and enforced the proclamation of the 20th of June 1632 +ordering the country gentlemen to leave London, and in 1634 joined in +Laud's attack on the earl of Portland for peculation. The same year, in +an address to the judges, he supported the proposed levy of ship-money +on the inland as well as the maritime counties on the plea of the +necessity of effectually arming, "so that they might not be enforced to +fight," "the wooden walls" being in his opinion "the best walls of this +kingdom."[3] In the Star Chamber Coventry was one of Lilburne's judges +in 1637, but he generally showed conspicuous moderation, inclining to +leniency in the cases of Richard Chambers in 1629 for seditious +speeches, and of Henry Sherfield in 1632 for breaking painted glass in a +church. He prevented also the hanging of men for resistance to +impressment, and pointed out its illegality, since the men were not +subject to martial law. While contributing thirty horse to the Scottish +expedition in 1638, and lending the king L10,000 in 1639, he gave no +support to the forced loan levied upon the city in the latter year. He +died on the 14th of January 1640. + +Lord Coventry held the great seal for nearly fifteen years, and was +enabled to collect a large fortune. He was an able judge, and he issued +some important orders in chancery, probably alluded to by Wood, who +ascribes to him a tract on "The Fees of all law Officers."[4] Whitelocke +accuses him of mediocrity,[4] but his contemporaries in general have +united in extolling his judicial ability, his quick despatch of business +and his sound and sterling character. Clarendon in particular praises +his statesmanship, and compares his capacity with Lord Strafford's, +adding, however, that he seldom spoke in the council except on legal +business and had little influence in political affairs; to the latter +circumstance he owed his exceptional popularity. He describes him as +having "in the plain way of speaking and delivery a strange power of +making himself believed," as a man of "not only firm gravity but a +severity and even some morosity," as "rather exceedingly liked than +passionately loved." + +Lord Coventry married (1) Sarah, daughter of Sir Edward Sebright of +Besford in Worcestershire, by whom besides a daughter he had one son, +Thomas, who succeeded him as 2nd baron, and (2) Elizabeth, daughter of +John Aldersley of Spurstow, Cheshire, and widow of William Pitchford, by +whom he had four sons, John, Francis, Henry and Sir William Coventry, +the statesman. + +Thomas Coventry, 5th baron (d. 1699), was created an earl in 1697 with a +special limitation, on failure of his own male issue, to that of Walter, +youngest brother of the lord keeper, from whom the present earl of +Coventry is descended. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Spedding's _Bacon_. vi. 97. + + [2] Hacket's _Life of Bishop Williams_, ii. 19. + + [3] Rushworth (1680), part ii. vol. i. 294. + + [4] _Ath. Oxon._ ii. 650. + + [5] There is an adverse opinion also expressed in Pepys's _Diary_, + August 26, 1666, probably based on little real knowledge. + + + + +COVENTRY, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1628-1686), English statesman, son of the lord +keeper, Thomas, Lord Coventry, by his second wife Elizabeth Aldersley, +was born about 1628. He matriculated at Queen's College, Oxford, at the +age of fourteen. Owing to the outbreak of the Civil War he was obliged +to quit his studies, but according to Sir John Bramston "he had a good +tutor who made him a scholar, and he travelled and got the French +language in good perfection." "He was young whilst the war continued," +wrote Clarendon, "yet he had put himself before the end of it into the +army and had the command of a foot company and shortly after travelled +into France." Here he remained till all hopes of obtaining foreign +assistance and of raising a new army had to be laid aside, when he +returned to England and kept aloof from the various royalist intrigues. +When, however, a new prospect of a restoration appeared in 1660, +Coventry hastened to Breda, was appointed secretary to James, duke of +York, lord high admiral of England, and headed the royal procession when +Charles entered London in triumph. + +He was returned to the Restoration parliament of 1661 for Great +Yarmouth, became commissioner for the navy in May 1662 and in 1663 was +made D.C.L. at Oxford. His great talents were very soon recognized in +parliament, and his influence as an official was considerable. His +appointment was rather that of secretary to the admiralty than of +personal assistant to the duke of York,[1] and was one of large gains. +Wood states that he collected a fortune of L60,000. Accusations of +corruption in his naval administration, and especially during the Dutch +war, were brought against him, but there is nothing to show that he ever +transgressed the limits sanctioned by usage and custom in obtaining his +emoluments. Pepys in his diary invariably testifies to the excellence of +his administration and to his zeal for reform and economy. His ability +and energy, however, did little to avert the naval collapse, owing +chiefly to financial mismanagement and to the ill-advised appointments +to command. Coventry denied all responsibility for the Dutch War in +1665, which Clarendon sought to place upon his shoulders, and his +repudiation is supported by Pepys; it was, moreover, contrary to his +well-known political opinion. The war greatly increased his influence, +and shortly after the victory off Lowestoft, on the 3rd of June 1665, he +was knighted and made a privy councillor (26th of June) and was +subsequently admitted to the committee on foreign affairs. In 1667 he +was appointed to the board of treasury to effect financial reforms. "I +perceive," writes Pepys on the 23rd of August 1667, "Sir William +Coventry is the man and nothing done till he comes," and on his removal +in 1669 the duke of Albemarle, no friendly or partial critic, declares +that "nothing now would be well done." His appointment, however, came +too late to ward off the naval disaster at Chatham the same year and the +national bankruptcy in 1672. + +Meanwhile Coventry's rising influence had been from the first the cause +of increasing jealousy to the old chancellor Clarendon, who especially +disliked and discouraged the younger generation. Coventry resented this +repression and thought ill of the conduct of the administration. He +became the chief mover in the successful attack made upon Clarendon, but +refused to take any part in his impeachment. Two days after Clarendon's +resignation (on the 31st of August), Coventry announced his intention of +leaving the duke's service and of terminating his connexion with the +navy.[2] As the principal agent in effecting Clarendon's fall he +naturally acquired new power and influence, and the general opinion +pointed to him as his successor as first minister of the crown. Personal +merit, patriotism and conspicuous ability, however, were poor passports +to place and power in Charles II.'s reign. Coventry retained merely his +appointment at the treasury, and the brilliant but unscrupulous and +incapable duke of Buckingham, a favourite of the king, succeeded to Lord +Clarendon. The relations between the two men soon became unfriendly. +Buckingham ridiculed Sir William's steady attention to business, and was +annoyed at his opposition to Clarendon's impeachment. Coventry rapidly +lost influence, was excluded from the cabinet council, and six months +after Clarendon's fall complains he has scarcely a friend at court. +Finally, in March 1669, Buckingham having written a play in which Sir +William was ridiculed, the latter sent him a challenge. Notice of the +challenge reached the authorities through the duke's second, and Sir +William was imprisoned in the Tower on the 3rd of March and subsequently +expelled from the privy council. He was superseded in the treasury on +the 11th of March by Buckingham's favourite, Sir Thomas Osborne, +afterwards earl of Danby and duke of Leeds, and was at last released +from the Tower on the 21st in disgrace. The real cause of his dismissal +was clearly the final adoption by Charles of the policy of subservience +to France and desertion of Holland and Protestant interests. Six weeks +before Coventry's fall, the conference between Charles, James, +Arlington, Clifford and Arundel had taken place, which resulted a year +and a half later in the disgraceful treaty of Dover. To such schemes Sir +William, with his steady hostility to France and active devotion to +Protestantism, was doubtless a formidable opponent. He now withdrew +definitely from official life, still retaining, however, his ascendancy +in the House of Commons, and leading the party which condemned and +criticized the reactionary and fatal policy of the government, his +credit and reputation being rather enhanced than diminished by his +dismissal.[3] + +In 1673 was published a pamphlet which went through five editions the +same year, entitled _England's appeal from the Private Cabal at +Whitehall to the Great Council of the Nation ... by a true Lover of his +Country_, an anonymous work universally ascribed to Sir William, which +forcibly reflects his opinions on the French entanglement. In the great +matter of the Indulgence, while refusing to discuss the limits of +prerogative and liberty, he argued that the dispensing power of the +crown could not be valid during the session of parliament, and +criticized the manner of the declaration while approving its ostensible +object. He supported the Test Act, but maintained a statesmanlike +moderation amidst the tide of indignation rising against the government, +and refused to take part in the personal attacks upon ministers, drawing +upon himself the same unpopularity as his nephew Halifax incurred later. +In the same year he warmly denounced the alliance with France. During +the summer of 1674 he was again received at court. In 1675 he supported +the bill to exclude Roman Catholics from both Houses, and also the +measure to close the House of Commons to placemen; and he showed great +activity in his opposition to the French connexion, especially +stigmatizing the encouragement given by the government to the levying of +troops for the French service. In May 1677 he voted for the Dutch +alliance. Like most of his contemporaries he accepted the story of the +popish plot in 1678. Coventry several times refused the highest court +appointments, and he was not included in Sir W. Temple's new-modelled +council in April 1679. In the exclusion question he favoured at first a +policy of limitations, and on his nephew Halifax, who on his retirement +became the leader of the moderate party, he enjoined prudence and +patience, and greatly regretted the violence of the opposition which +eventually excited a reaction and ruined everything. He refused to stand +for the new parliament, and retired to his country residence at Minster +Lovell near Witney, in Oxfordshire. He died unmarried on the 23rd of +June 1686, at Somerhill near Tunbridge Wells, where he had gone to take +the waters, and was buried at Penshurst, where a monument was erected to +his memory. In his will he ordered his funeral to be at small expense, +and left L2000 to the French Protestant refugees in England, besides +L3000 for the liberation of captives in Algiers. He had shortly before +his death already paid for the liberation of sixty slaves. He was much +beloved and respected in his family circle, his nephew, Henry Savile, +alluding to him in affectionate terms as "our dearest uncle" and +"incomparable friend." + +Though Sir William Coventry never filled that place in the national +administration to which his merit and exceptional ability clearly +entitled him, his public life together with his correspondence are +sufficient to distinguish him from amongst his contemporaries as a +statesman of the first rank. Lord Halifax obviously derived from his +honoured mentor those principles of government which, by means of his +own brilliant intellectual gifts, originality and imaginative insight, +gained further force and influence. Halifax owed to him his interest in +the navy and his grasp of the necessity to a country of a powerful +maritime force. He drew his antagonism to France, his religious +tolerance, wide religious views but firm Protestantism doubtless from +the same source. Sir William was the original "Trimmer." Writing to his +nephew Viscount Weymouth, while denying the authorship of _The Character +of a Trimmer_, he says:--"I have not been ashamed to own myself to be a +trimmer ... one who would sit upright and not overturn the boat by +swaying too much to either side." He shared the Trimmer's dislike of +party, urging Halifax in the exclusion contest "not to be thrust by the +opposition of his enemies into another party, but that he keep upon a +national bottom which at length will prevail." His prudence is expressed +in his "perpetual unwillingness to do things which I cannot undo." "A +singular independence of spirit, a breadth of mind which refused to be +contracted by party formulas, a sanity which was proof against the +contagion of national delirium, were equally characteristic of uncle and +nephew."[4] Sir William Coventry's conceptions of statesmanship, under +the guiding hand of his nephew, largely inspired the future revolution +settlement, and continued to be an essential condition of English +political growth and progress. + +Besides the tract already mentioned Coventry was the author of _A Letter +to Dr Burnet giving an Account of Cardinal Pool's Secret Powers ..._ +(1685). _The Character of a Trimmer_, often ascribed to him, is now +known to have been written by Lord Halifax. "Notes concerning the Poor," +and an essay "concerning the decay of rents and the remedy," are among +the Malet Papers (_Hist. MSS. Comm._ Ser. 5th Rep. app. 320 (a)) and +_Add. MSS._ Brit. Mus. (cal. 1882-1887); an "Essay concerning France" +(4th Rep. app. 229 (b)) and a "Discourse on the Management of the Navy" +(230b) are among the MSS. of the marquess of Bath, also a catalogue of +his library (233(a)). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--No adequate life of Sir William Coventry has been + written; the most satisfactory appreciation of his character and + abilities is to be found in the several passages relating to him in + the _Life of George Savile, Marquis of Halifax_, by Miss A. C. + Foxcroft (1898); see also _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 3 and 4 Rep. (Longleat + Collection), 5 Rep. (_Malet Collection_ and see Index) now in the + Brit. Mus. add. Cal. (1882-1887), Some of his papers being also at + Devonshire House; _MSS. of Marquis of Ormond_, iii. of _J. M. + Heathcote and Miscellaneous Collections_; Clarendon's _Life and + Continuation_ (Oxford, 1857); _Calendar of Clarendon Papers; Burnet's + Hist, of His Own Times_ (Oxford, 1823); _Hallam's Constitutional + Hist_. (1854), chap. xi.; John Evelyn's _Memoirs_; Pepys's _Diary_ and + _Pepysiana_ (ed. H. B. Wheatley, 1903); _Calendar of State Papers, + Domestic; Savile Correspondence_ (Camden Society, 1858, vol. lxxi.); + A. Grey's _Debates_; Sir John Bramston's _Autobiography_ (Camden Soc., + 1845); Wood's _Athenae Oxonienses_, iv. 190; _Saturday Review_ (Oct. + 11, 1873). (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Pepysiana_, by H. B. Wheatley (1903), 154. + + [2] Foxcroft, _Life of Sir G. Savile_, i. 54. + + [3] _Savile Correspondence_ (Camden Soc.), 295. + + [4] Foxcroft's _Life of Sir G. Savile_, i. 36. + + + + +COVENTRY, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Warwickshire, +England; 94 m. N.W. from London by the London & North Western railway. +Pop. (1901) 69,978. The Coventry canal communicates with the Trent and +Mersey and Birmingham canals, and the midland system generally. Coventry +stands on a gentle eminence, with higher ground lying to the west, and +is watered by the Sherbourne and the Radford Brook, feeders of the Avon, +which unite within the town. Of its ancient fortifications two gates and +some portions of the wall are still extant, and several of the older +streets are picturesque from the number of half-timbered houses +projecting over the footways. + +The most remarkable buildings are the churches; of these the oldest are +St Michael's, one of the finest specimens of Perpendicular architecture +in England, with a beautiful steeple rising to a height of 303 ft.; Holy +Trinity church, a cruciform structure with a lofty steeple at the +intersection; and St John's, or Bablake church, which is nearly a +parallelogram on the ground plan, but cruciform in the clerestory with a +central tower. Christ church dates only from 1832, but it is attached to +the ancient spire of the Grey Friars' church. Of secular buildings the +most interesting is St Mary's hall, erected by the united gilds in the +early part of the 15th century. The principal chamber, situated above a +fine crypt, is 76 ft. long, 30 ft. wide and 34 ft. high; its roof is of +carved oak, and in the north end there is a large window of old stained +glass, with a curious piece of tapestry beneath nearly as old as the +building. In the treasury is preserved a valuable collection of ancient +muniments. A statue of Sir Thomas White, lord mayor of London +(1532-1533), founder of St John's College, Oxford, was erected in 1883. +The cemetery, laid out by Sir Joseph Paxton, the architect and landscape +gardener, and enlarged in 1887, is particularly beautiful. The +educational institutions include a well-endowed free grammar school, +founded in the reign of Elizabeth, in modern buildings (1885), a +technical school, school of art, endowed charity schools, and a county +reformatory for girls; and among the charitable foundations, which are +numerous and valuable, Bond's hospital for old men and Ford's hospital +for old women are remarkable as fine specimens of ancient timber work. +Swanswell and Spenser Parks were opened in 1883, and a recreation ground +in 1880. + +Coventry was formerly noted for its woollens, and subsequently acquired +such a reputation for its dyeing that the expression "as true as +Coventry blue" became proverbial. Existing industries are the making of +motor cars, cycles and their accessories, for which Coventry is one of +the chief centres in Great Britain; sewing machines are also produced; +and carpet-weaving and dyeing, art metal working and watch making are +carried on. An ancient fair is held in Whit-week. A county of itself +till 1843, the town became a county borough in 1888. The corporation +consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. The parliamentary +borough returns one member. In 1894 a suffragan bishopric of Coventry +was established under the see of Worcester, but no longer exists. Area, +4149 acres. + +The village which afterwards became important as Coventry (_Coventreu_, +_Coventre_) owed its existence to the foundation of a Benedictine +monastery by Earl Leofric and his wife Godgyfu, the famous Lady Godiva +(q.v.), in 1043. The manor, which in 1066 belonged to the latter, +descended to the earls of Chester and to Robert de Montalt, and from him +passed to Isabella queen of Edward II. and the crown. Ranulf, earl of +Chester, granted the earliest extant charter to the town in 1153, by +which his burgesses were to hold of him in free burgage as they held of +his father, and to have their portmote. This, with further privileges, +was confirmed by Henry II. in 1177, and by nearly every succeeding +sovereign until the 17th century. In 1345 Edward III. gave Coventry a +corporation, mayor and bailiffs empowered to hold pleas and keep the +town prison. Edward the Black Prince granted the mayor and bailiffs the +right to hold the town in fee farm of L50 and to build a wall. In 1452 +Henry VI. formed the city and surrounding hamlets into a county, and +James I. incorporated Coventry in 1622. It first sent two +representatives to parliament in 1295, but the returns were irregular. +The prior's market on Fridays was probably of Saxon origin; a second +market was granted in 1348, while fairs, still held, were obtained in +1217 for the octave of Holy Trinity, and in 1348 and in 1442 for eight +days from the Friday after Corpus Christi. As early as 1216 Coventry was +important for its trade in wool, cloth and caps, its gilds later being +particularly numerous and wealthy. In 1568 Flemish weavers introduced +new methods, but the trade was destroyed in the wars of the 17th +century. During the middle of the 16th century there was a flourishing +manufacture of blue thread, but this decayed before 1581; in the 18th +century the manufacture of ribbon was introduced. + +The popular phrase "to send to Coventry" (i.e. to refuse to associate +with a person) is of uncertain derivation. The _New English Dictionary_ +selects the period of the Civil War of the 17th century as that in which +the origin of the phrase is probably to be found. Clarendon (_History of +the Great Rebellion_, 1647) states that the citizens of Birmingham rose +against certain small parties of the king's supporters, and sent the +prisoners they captured to Coventry, which was then strongly +parliamentarian. + + See _Victoria County History, Warwick_; William Dugdale, _The + Antiquities of Coventre, illustrated from records_ (Coventry, 1765). + + + + +COVER (from the Fr. _couvert_, from _couvrir_, to cover, Lat. +_cooperire_), that which hides, shuts in or conceals, a lid to a box or +vessel, &c., the binding of a book or wrapper of a parcel; as a hunting +term, the wood or undergrowth which shelters game. As a commercial term, +the word means in its widest sense a security against loss, but is +employed more particularly in connexion with stock exchange transactions +to signify a "deposit made with a broker to secure him from being out of +pocket in the event of the stocks falling against his client and the +client not paying the difference" (_In re Cronmire_, 1898, 2 Q.B. 383). +It is a mode of speculation engaged in almost entirely by persons who +wish to limit their risk to a small amount, and, as a rule, the +transactions are largely carried out in England with "outside" brokers, +i.e. those dealers in securities who are not members of the Stock +Exchange. The deposit is so much per cent or per share, usually 1% on +the market value of the securities up to about twice the amount of the +turn of the market; the client being able to close the transaction at +any time during the currency of the cover, but the broker only when the +cover is exhausted or has "run off." Cover is not money deposited to +abide the event of a wager, but as security against a debt which may +arise from a gaming contract, and it may be recovered back, if +unappropriated. + + + + +COVERDALE, MILES (1488?-1569), English translator of the Bible and +bishop of Exeter, was born of Yorkshire parents about 1488, studied +philosophy and theology at Cambridge, was ordained priest at Norwich in +1514, and then entered the convent of Austin friars at Cambridge. Here +he came under the influence of the prior, Robert Barnes, made the +acquaintance of Sir Thomas More and of Thomas Cromwell, and began a +thorough study of the Scriptures. He was one of those who met at the +White Horse tavern to discuss theological questions, and when Barnes was +arrested on a charge of heresy, Coverdale went up to London to assist +him in drawing up his defence. Soon afterwards he left the convent, +assumed the habit of a secular priest, and began to preach against +confession and the worship of images. In 1531 he graduated bachelor of +canon law at Cambridge, but from 1528 to 1534 he prudently spent most of +his time abroad. No corroboration has, however, been found for Foxe's +statement that in 1529 he was at Hamburg assisting Tyndale in his +translation of the Pentateuch. In 1534 he published two translations of +his own, the first Dulichius's _Vom alten und newen Gott_, and the +second a _Paraphrase upon the Psalms_, and in 1535 he completed his +translation of the Bible. The venture seems to have been projected by +Jacob van Meteren, who apparently employed Coverdale to do the +translation, and Froschover of Zurich to do the printing. No perfect +copy is known to exist, and the five or six which alone have title-pages +give no name of publisher or place of publication. The volume is +dedicated to the king of England, where Convocation at Cranmer's +instance had, in December 1534, petitioned for an authorized English +version of the Scriptures. As a work of scholarship it does not rank +particularly high. Some of the title-pages state that it had been +translated out of "Douche" (i.e. German) "and Latyn": and Coverdale +mentions that he used five interpreters, which are supposed to have been +the Vulgate, the Latin version of Pagninus, Luther's translation, the +Zurich version, and Tyndale's Pentateuch and New Testament. There is no +definite mention of the original Greek and Hebrew texts; but it has +considerable literary merit, many of Coverdale's phrases are retained in +the authorized version, and it was the first complete Bible to be +printed in English. Two fresh editions were issued in 1537, but none of +them received official sanction. Coverdale was, however, employed by +Cromwell to assist in the production of the Great Bible of 1539, which +was ordered to be placed in all English churches. The work was done at +Paris until the French government stopped it, when Coverdale and his +colleagues returned to England early in 1539 to complete it. He was also +employed in the same year in assisting at the suppression of +superstitious usages, but the reaction of 1540 drove him once more +abroad. His Bible was prohibited by proclamation in 1542, while +Coverdale himself defied the Six Articles by marrying Elizabeth +Macheson, sister-in-law to Dr John MacAlpine. + +For a time Coverdale lived at Tubingen, where he was created D.D. In +1545 he was pastor and schoolmaster at Bergzabern in the duchy of +Pfalz-Zweibrucken. In March 1548 he was at Frankfort, when the new +English Order of Communion reached him; he at once translated it into +German and Latin and sent a copy to Calvin, whose wife had befriended +Coverdale at Strassburg. Calvin, however, does not seem to have approved +of it so highly as Coverdale. + +Coverdale was already on his way back to England, and in October 1548 he +was staying at Windsor Castle, where Cranmer and some other divines, +inaccurately called the Windsor Commission, were preparing the First +Book of Common Prayer. His first appointment had been as almoner to +Queen Catherine Parr, then wife of Lord Seymour; and he preached her +funeral sermon in September 1548. He was also chaplain to the young king +and took an active part in the reforming measures of his reign. He was +one of the most effective preachers of the time. A sermon by him at St +Paul's on the second Sunday in Lent, 1549, was immediately followed by +the pulling down of "the sacrament at the high altar." A few weeks later +he preached at the penance of some Anabaptists, and in January 1550 he +was put on a commission to prosecute Anabaptists and all who infringed +the Book of Common Prayer. In 1549 he wrote a dedication to Edward for a +translation of the second volume of Erasmus's _Paraphrases_; and in 1550 +he translated Otto Wermueller's _Precious Pearl_, for which Protector +Somerset, who had derived spiritual comfort from the book while in the +Tower, wrote a preface. He was much in request at funerals: he preached +at Sir James Wilford's in November 1550, and at Lord Wentworth's before +a great concourse in Westminster Abbey in March 1551. + +Perhaps it was his gift of oratory which suggested his appointment as +bishop of the refractory men of Devon and Cornwall. He had already, in +August 1549, at some risk, gone down with Lord Russell to turn the +hearts of the rebels by preaching and persuasion, and two years later he +was appointed bishop of Exeter by letters patent, on the compulsory +retirement of his predecessor, Veysey, who had reached an almost +mythical age. He was an active prelate, and perhaps the vigorous +Protestantism of the West in Elizabeth's reign was partly due to his +persuasive powers. He sat on the commission for the reform of the canon +law, and was in constant attendance during the parliaments of 1552 and +1553. On Mary's accession he was at once deprived on the score of his +marriage, and Veysey in spite of his age was restored. Coverdale was +called before the privy council on the 1st of September, and required to +find sureties; but he was not further molested, and when Christian III. +of Denmark at the instance of Coverdale's brother-in-law, MacAlpine, +interceded in his favour, he was in February 1555 permitted to leave for +Denmark with two servants, and his baggage unsearched; one of these +"servants" is said to have been his wife. He declined Christian's offer +of a living in Denmark, and preferred to preach at Wesel to the numerous +English refugees there, until he was invited by Duke Wolfgang to resume +his labours at Bergzabern. He was at Geneva in December 1558, and is +said to have participated in the preparation of the Geneva version of +the Bible. + +In 1559 Coverdale returned to England and resumed his preaching at St +Paul's and elsewhere. Clothed in a plain black gown, he assisted at +Parker's consecration, in spite of the facts that he had himself been +deprived, and did not resume his bishopric, and that his original +appointment had been by the uncanonical method of letters patent. +Conscientious objections were probably responsible for his +non-restoration to the see of Exeter, and his refusal of that of +Llandaff in 1563. He objected to vestments, and in his living of St +Magnus close to London Bridge, which he received in 1563, he took other +liberties with the Act of Uniformity. His bishop, Grindal, was his +friend, and his vagaries were overlooked until 1566, when he resigned +his living rather than conform. He still preached occasionally, and +always drew large audiences. He died in February 1568, and was buried on +the 19th in St Bartholomew's behind the Exchange. When this church was +pulled down in 1840 to make room for the new Exchange, his remains were +removed to St Magnus. + + Coverdale's works, most of them translations, number twenty-six in + all; nearly all, with his letters, were published in a collected + edition by the Parker Soc., 2 vols., 1846. An excellent account is + given in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ of his life, with authorities, to + which may be added R. W. Dixon's _Church History_, Bishop and + Gasquet's _Edward VI. and the Book of Common Prayer_; Acts of the + Privy Council; Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; _Lit. Rem. of Edward + VI._ (Roxburghe Club); Whittingham's _Brief Discourse of Troubles at + Frankfort_; Pocock's _Troubles connected with the Prayer-Book_ (Camden + Soc.). (A. F. P.) + + + + +COVERTURE (a covering, an old French form of the modern _couverture_), a +term in English law applied to the condition of a woman during marriage, +when she is supposed to be under the cover, influence and protection of +her husband, and so immune in certain cases from punishment for crime +committed in the presence and on the presumed coercion of her husband. +(See further HUSBAND AND WIFE.) + + + + +COVILHA, a town of Portugal, in the district of Castello Branco, +formerly included in the province of Beira; on the eastern slope of the +Serra da Estrella, and on the Abrantes-Guarda railway. Pop. (1900) +15,469. Covilha, which has been often compared with a collection of +swallows' nests clinging to the rugged granitic mountain side, is shaped +like an amphitheatre of closely crowded houses, overlooking the river +Zezere and its wild valley from a height of 2180 ft. Over 4000 +operatives are employed in the manufacture of _saragoca_, a coarse brown +cloth worn by the peasantry throughout Portugal. The village of Unhaes +da Serra (1507), 6 m. W.S.W., is noted for its sulphurous springs and +baths. + + + + +COVILHAM (COVILHAO, COVILHA), PERO or PEDRO DE Portuguese explorer and +diplomatist (fl. 1487-1525), was a native of Covilha in Beira. In early +life he had gone to Castile and entered the service of Alphonso, duke of +Seville; later, when war broke out between Castile and Portugal, he +returned to his own country, and attached himself, first as a "groom," +then as a "squire," to King Alphonso V. and his successor John II. On +the 7th of May 1487, he was despatched, in company with Alphonso de +Payva, on a mission of exploration in the Levant and adjoining regions +of Asia and Africa, with the special object of learning where "cinnamon +and other spices could be found," as well as of discovering the land of +Prester John, by "overland" routes. Bartholomeu Diaz, at this very time, +went out to find the Prester's country, as well as the termination of +the African continent and the ocean route to India, by sea. Covilham and +Payva were provided with a "letter of credence for all the countries of +the world" and with a "map for navigating, taken from the map of the +world" and compiled by Bishop Calcadilha, and doctors Rodrigo and +Moyses. The first two of these were prominent members of the commission +which advised the Portuguese government to reject the proposals of +Columbus. The explorers started from Santarem and travelled by Barcelona +to Naples, where their bills of exchange were paid by the sons of Cosimo +de' Medici; thence they passed to Rhodes, where they lodged with two +other Portuguese, and so to Alexandria and Cairo, where they posed as +merchants. In company with certain Moors from Fez and Tlemcen they now +went by way of Tor to Suakin and Aden, where (as it was now monsoon +time) they parted, Covilham proceeding to India and Payva to +Ethiopia--the two companions agreeing to meet again in Cairo. Covilham +thus arrived at Cannanore and Calicut, whence he retraced his course to +Goa and Ormuz, the Red Sea and Cairo, making an excursion on his way +down the East African coast to Sofala, which he was probably the first +European to visit. At Cairo he heard of Payva's death, and met with two +Portuguese Jews--Rabbi Abraham of Beja, and Joseph, a shoe-maker of +Lamego--who had been sent by King John with letters for Covilham and +Payva. By Joseph of Lamego Covilham replied with an account of his +Indian and African journeys, and of his observations on the cinnamon, +pepper and clove trade at Calicut, together with advice as to the ocean +way to India. This he truly represented as quite practicable: "to this +they (of Portugal) could navigate by their coast and the seas of +Guinea." The first objective in the eastern ocean, he added, was Sofala +or the Island of the Moon, our Madagascar--"from each of these lands +one can fetch the coast of Calicut." With this information Joseph +returned to Portugal, while Covilham, with Abraham of Beja, again +visited Aden and Ormuz. At the latter he left the rabbi; and himself +came back to Jidda, the port of the Arabian holy land, and penetrated +(as he told Alvarez many years later) even to Mecca and Medina. Finally, +by Mount Sinai, Tor and the Red Sea, he reached Zeila, whence he struck +inland to the court of Prester John (i.e. Abyssinia). Here he was +honourably received; lands and lordships were bestowed upon him; but he +was not permitted to leave. When the Portuguese embassy under Rodrigo de +Lima, including Father Francisco Alvarez, entered Abyssinia in 1520, +Covilham wept with joy at the sight of his fellow-countrymen. It was +then forty years since he had left Portugal, and over thirty since he +had been a prisoner of state in "Ethiopia." Alvarez, who professed to +know him well, and to have heard the story of his life, both "in +confession and out of it," praises his power of vivid description "as if +things were present before him," and his extraordinary knowledge of "all +spoken languages of Christians, Moors and Gentiles." His services as an +interpreter were valuable to Rodrigo de Lima's embassy; but he never +succeeded in escaping from Abyssinia. + + See Francisco Alvarez, _Verdadera Informacam das terras do Preste + Joam_, esp. chs. 73, 89, 98, 102-103, 105 (pp. 177, 224, 254, 264, + 265-270, 275, of the Hakluyt Society's English edition, _The + Portuguese Embassy to Abyssinia ... 1520-1727_, London, 1881); an + abstract of this, with some inaccuracies, is given in Major's _Prince + Henry the Navigator_ (London, 1868), pp. 339-340. + + + + +COVIN (from the Fr. _covine_, or _couvine_, from Lat. _convenire_, to +come together), an association of persons, so used in the Statute of +Labourers of 1360, which, _inter alia_, declared void "all alliances and +covins of masons and carpenters." The more common use of the term in +English law was for a secret agreement between persons to cheat and +defraud, but the word is now obsolete, and has been superseded by +"collusion" or "conspiracy to cheat and defraud." + + + + +COVINGTON, a city and one of the two county-seats of Kenton county, +Kentucky, U.S.A., on the Ohio river opposite Cincinnati, with which it +is connected by bridges; and at the mouth of the Licking river (also +spanned by bridges), opposite Newport, Ky. Pop. (1890) 37,371; (1900) +42,938, of whom 5223 were foreign-born and 2478 were negroes; (1910) +53,270. In 1900 it ranked second in population among the cities of +Kentucky. The city is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio, and the +Louisville & Nashville railways, by interurban electric railways, and by +steamboat lines to the Ohio river ports. It is built on a plain +commanding good views and partly shut in by neighbouring hills. Its +streets, mostly named from eminent Kentuckians, are paved chiefly with +asphalt, macadam and brick. There are numerous fine residences and +several attractive public buildings, including that of the United States +government--modern Gothic in style--the court-house and city hall +combined, and the public library. Covington is the seat of a Roman +Catholic bishopric, and its cathedral, in the flamboyant Gothic style, +is one of the finest church buildings in the state. In the city are the +Academy of Notre Dame and St Joseph's high school for boys, both Roman +Catholic. The principal charitable institutions are the hospital of +Saint Elizabeth, a German orphan asylum, a Protestant children's home, a +home for aged women and a Wayfarers' Rest. Covington is the trade centre +of an extensive district engaged in agriculture and stock raising, and +as a manufacturing centre it ranked second in the state in 1905 (value +of factory products $6,099,715), its products including tobacco, cotton +goods, structural iron and steel, foundry and machine shop products, +liquors and cordage. A settlement was established here in 1812, and +three years later a town was laid out and named in honour of Gen. +Leonard Covington (1768-1813), who was mortally wounded at Chrystler's +Field during the War of 1812. In 1834 Covington was chartered as a city; +and in 1908 it annexed Central Covington (pop. in 1900, 2155). + + + + +COWARD, a term of contempt for one who, before danger, pain or trouble, +shows fear, whether physical or moral. The derivation of the word has +been obscured by a connexion in sense with the verb "cow," to instil +fear into, which is derived from old Norse _kuga_, a word of similar +meaning, and with the verb "cower," to crouch, which is also +Scandinavian in origin.[1] The true derivation is from the French _coe_, +an old form of _queue_, a tail, from Lat. _cauda_, hence _couart_ or +_couard_. The reference to "tail" is either to the expression "turn +tail" in flight, or to the habit of animals dropping the tail between +the legs when frightened; in heraldry, a lion in this position is a +"lion coward." In the fable of _Reynard the Fox_ the name of the hare is +Coart, Kywart, Cuwaert or other variants. + + + + +COWBRIDGE, a market town and a municipal and contributory parliamentary +borough of Glamorganshire, Wales, with a station on the Taff Vale +railway branch from Llantrisant to Aberthaw on the coast, distant by +rail 162-1/2 m. from London, 12 m. W. of Cardiff, 7 m. S.E. of Bridgend, +and 6 m. S. of Llantrisant station. The population in 1901 was 1202, a +decrease of over 12% since 1891. Less than one-third of the number was +Welsh-speaking. The town mainly consists of one long street running east +and west, and is in a wide valley through which runs the river Thaw +(Welsh, _Ddawan_), here crossed by a stone bridge. + +Cowbridge is probably situated on the Roman road from Cardiff westwards, +which seems to have kept nearly the course of the present main road. +Roman coins have been discovered here. It has in fact been suggested, +mainly on etymological grounds, that the town occupies the site of the +Roman _Bovium_: the modern Welsh name, y Bontfaen ("stone bridge") is +probably a corruption of the medieval, Pont y fon, the precise +equivalent of "Cowbridge," which is first found in documents of the +second half of the 13th century as Covbruge and Cubrigg. Others place +Bovium on a vicinal road, at Boverton near Llantwit Major, about 6 m. to +the south near the coast, though the most likely site is near Ewenny, 5 +m. to the west of Cowbridge. After the Norman conquest of Glamorgan, the +town grew up as an appanage of the castle of St Quentin, which occupies +a commanding position half a mile south-west of the town. It was walled +round before the 13th century. A tower is mentioned in 1487 when it was +granted away by the burgesses. Leland in his itinerary (c. 1535) +describes the town wall as three-quarters of a mile round and as having +three gates. There was even then a considerable suburb on the west bank +of the river and outside the walls. The south wall and gateway are still +standing. + +The town was a borough by prescription until 1682, when it received a +charter of incorporation from Charles II. confirming its previous +privileges. Under the Unreformed Corporations Act of 1883 the +corporation was dissolved, but on the petition of the inhabitants a new +charter was granted in March 1887. During the Tudor and Stuart periods +Cowbridge was almost if not quite the chief town of Glamorgan, its +importance being largely due to its central and accessible position in a +rich agricultural district where a large number of the county gentry +lived. The great sessions were held here alternately with Cardiff and +Swansea from 1542 till their abolition in 1830, and the quarter sessions +were held here once a year down to 1850. From 1536 to 1832 it was one of +the eight contributory boroughs within the county which returned a +member to parliament, but since 1832 it has been contributory with +Cardiff and Llantrisant in returning a member. It has a separate +commission of the peace. Sir Edward Stradling (1529-1609) established a +grammar school here, but died before endowing it; it was refounded in +1685 by Sir Leoline Jenkins, who provided that it should be administered +by Jesus College, Oxford, which body erected the present buildings in +1847. It has throughout its existence been one of the leading schools in +Wales. An intermediate school for girls was established here by the +county in 1896. The church of St Mary (formerly chapelry to +Llanblethian) is of early English style and has a fine embattled tower, +of the same military type as the towers of Llamblethian and Ewenny. +There are three Nonconformist chapels. There are a town hall and market +place. The town is now wholly dependent on agriculture, and has good +markets and cattle fairs, that on the 4th of May being a charter fair. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A connexion has also been imagined with cow (O. Eng. _cu_; common + in Scandinavian languages, and of similar root to Skr. _go_, whence + also Gr. [Greek: bous], Lat. _bos_), the female bovine animal, on + account of its timidity. + + + + +COWDENBEATH, a police burgh, Fifeshire, Scotland, 5-3/4 m. N.E. of +Dunfermline by the North British railway. Pop. (1891) 4249; (1901) 7908. +The principal industry is coal-mining, and the public buildings include +churches, schools and a hall. Meetings in connexion with the adoption +and promulgation of the Covenant were held in the old parish church of +Beath. + + + + +COWELL, JOHN (1554-1611), English jurist, was born at Ernsborough, +Devonshire. He was educated at Eton, and King's College, Cambridge, +ultimately becoming professor of civil law in that university, and +master of Trinity Hall. In 1607 he compiled a law dictionary, _The +Interpreter_, in which he exalted the king's prerogative so much that he +was prosecuted before the House of Commons by Sir Edward Coke, and saved +from imprisonment only by the interposition of James I. His book was +burnt by order of the House of Commons. Dr Cowell also wrote a work +entitled _Institutiones Juris Anglicani_. He died at Oxford on the 11th +of October 1611. + + + + +COWEN, FREDERIC HYMEN (1852- ), English musical composer, was born at +Kingston, Jamaica, on the 29th of January 1852. At four years old he was +brought to England, where his father became treasurer to the opera at +Her Majesty's theatre, and private secretary to the earl of Dudley. His +first teacher was Henry Russell, and his first published composition +appeared when he was but six years old. He studied the piano with +Benedict, and composition with Goss; in 1865 he was at Leipzig under +Hauptmann, Moscheles, Reinecke and Plaidy. Returning home on the +outbreak of the Austro-Prussian War, he appeared as a composer for the +orchestra in an overture played at the Promenade Concerts at Covent +Garden in September 1866. In the following autumn he went to Berlin, +where he was under Kiel, at Stern's conservatorium. A symphony and a +piano concerto were given in St James's Hall in 1869, and from that time +Cowen has been recognized as primarily a composer, his talents as a +pianist being subordinate, although his public appearances were numerous +for some time afterwards. His cantata, _The Rose Maiden_, was given in +London in 1870, his second symphony by the Liverpool Philharmonic +Society in 1872, and his first festival work, _The Corsair_, in 1876 at +Birmingham. In that year his opera, _Pauline_, was given by the Carl +Rosa Company with moderate success. In 1884 he conducted five concerts +of the Philharmonic Society, and in 1888, on the resignation of Arthur +Sullivan, became the regular conductor of the society, resigning the +post in 1892. In the year of his appointment, 1888, he went to Melbourne +as the conductor of the daily concerts given in connexion with the +Exhibition there. In 1896 Cowen was appointed conductor of the Liverpool +Philharmonic Society and of the Manchester orchestra, in succession to +Sir Charles Halle. In 1899 he was reappointed conductor of the +Philharmonic Society. His works include:--Operettas: _Garibaldi_ (1860) +and _One Too Many_ (1874); operas: _Pauline_ (1876), _Thorgrim_ (1890), +_Signa_ (Milan, 1893), and _Harold_ (1895); oratorios: _The Deluge_ +(1878), _St Ursula_ (1881), _Ruth_ (1887), _Song of Thanksgiving_ +(1888), _The Transfiguration_ (1895); cantatas: _The Rose Maiden_ +(1870), _The Corsair_ (1876), _The Sleeping Beauty_ (1885), _St John's +Eve_ (1889), _The Water Lily_ (1893), _Ode to the Passions_ (1898), +besides short cantatas for female voices; a large number of songs, +ranging from the popular "ballad" to more artistic lyrics, anthems, +part-songs, duets, &c.; six symphonies, among which No 3, the +"Scandinavian," has had the greatest success; four overtures; suites, +_The Language of Flowers_ (1880), _In the Olden Times_ (1883), _In +Fairyland_ (1896); four English dances (1896); a concerto for piano and +orchestra, and a fantasia for the same played by M. Paderewski (1900); a +quartet in C minor, and a trio in A minor, both early works; pianoforte +pieces, &c. Cowen is never so happy as when treating of fantastic or +fairy subjects; and whether in his cantatas for female voices, his +charming _Sleeping Beauty_, his _Water Lily_ or his pretty overture, +_The Butterfly's Ball_ (1901), he succeeds wonderfully in finding +graceful expression for the poetical idea. His dance music, such as is +to be found in various orchestral suites, is refined, original and +admirably instrumented; and if he is seldom as successful in portraying +the graver aspects of emotion, the vogue of his semi-sacred songs has +been widespread. + + + + +COWEN, JOSEPH (1831-1900), English politician and journalist, son of Sir +Joseph Cowen, a prominent citizen and mine-owner of Newcastle-on-Tyne, +was born in 1831, and was educated at Edinburgh University. In 1874 he +was elected member of parliament for the borough on the death of his +father, who had held the seat as a Liberal since 1865. Joseph Cowen was +at that time a strong Radical on domestic questions, an advocate of +co-operation, an admirer of Garibaldi, Mazzini and Kossuth, a +sympathizer with Irish Nationalism, and one who in speech, dress and +manner identified himself with the North-country mining class. Short in +stature and uncouth in appearance, his individuality first shocked and +then by its earnestness impressed the House of Commons; and his sturdy +independence of party ties, combined with a gift of rough but genuine +eloquence (of which his speech on the Royal Title Bill of 1876 was an +example), rapidly made him one of the best-known public men in the +country. He was, moreover, an Imperialist and a Colonial Federationist +at a time when Liberalism was tied and bound to the Manchester +traditions; and, to the consternation of the official wire-pullers, he +vigorously supported Disraeli's foreign policy, and in 1881 opposed the +Gladstonian settlement with the Boers. His independence (which his +detractors attributed in some degree to his alleged susceptibility to +Tory compliments) brought him into collision both with the Liberal +caucus and with the party organization in Newcastle itself, but Cowen's +personal popularity and his remarkable powers as an orator triumphed in +his own birthplace, and he was again elected in 1885 in spite of Liberal +opposition. Shortly afterwards, however, he retired both from parliament +and from public life, professing his disgust at the party intrigues of +politics, and devoted himself to conducting his newspaper, the +_Newcastle Daily Chronicle_, and to his private business as a +mine-owner. In this capacity he exercised a wide influence on local +opinion, and the revolt of the Newcastle electorate in later years +against doctrinaire Radicalism was largely due to his constant preaching +of a broader outlook on national affairs. He continued behind the scenes +to play a powerful part in forming North-country opinion until his death +on the 18th of February 1900. + + His letters were published by his daughter in 1909. + + + + +COWES, a seaport and watering-place in the Isle of Wight, England, 12 m. +S.S.E. of Southampton. West Cowes is separated from East Cowes by the +picturesque estuary of the river Medina, the two towns (each of which is +an urban district) lying on opposite sides of its mouth at the apex of +the northern coast of the island. Pop. (1901) West Cowes, 8652; East +Cowes, 3196. The port between them is the chief on the island, and is +the headquarters of the Royal Yacht Squadron (founded in 1812); it is in +regular steamship communication with Southampton and Portsmouth. West +Cowes is served by the Isle of Wight Central railway. A steam ferry and +a floating bridge across the Medina, here 600 yds. broad, unite the +towns. Behind the harbour the houses rise picturesquely on gentle wooded +slopes, and numerous villas adorn the vicinity. The towns owe their +origin to two forts or castles, built on each side of the mouth of the +Medina by Henry VIII. in 1540, for the defence of the coast; the eastern +one has disappeared, but the west castle remains and is used as the +club-house of the Yacht Squadron. The marine parade of West Cowes, and +the public promenade called the Green, are close to the castle. The +industrial population is chiefly employed in the shipbuilding yards, in +the manufacture of ships' fittings, and in engineering works. The +harbour is under an elective body of commissioners. On the opposite side +of the Medina a broad carriageway leads to East Cowes Castle, a handsome +edifice built by John Nash, the favourite architect of George IV., in +1798, and immediately beyond it are the grounds surrounding Osborne +House (see OSBORNE), built in 1845 after the property had been purchased +by Queen Victoria, the church of St Mildred, Whippingham, lying a mile +to the south. + + + + +COWL (through Fr. _coule_, from Lat. _cucullus_ or _cuculla_, a +covering; the word is found in various forms in most European languages, +cf. Ger. _Kugel_ or _Kigel_, Dutch _kovel_, Irish _cochal_ or _cochull_; +the ultimate origin may be the root _kal_, found in Lat. _clam_, +secretly, and Gr. [Greek: kalyptein], to hide, cover up), an outer +garment worn by both sexes in the middle ages; a part of the monastic +dress, hence the phrase "to take the cowl," signifying entry upon the +religious life. The _cucullus_ worn by the early Egyptian anchorites was +a hood covering the head and neck. Later generations lengthened the +garment until it reached to the heels, and St Benedict issued a rule +restricting its length to two cubits. Chapter 55 of his _Institute_ +prescribes the following dress in temperate climates: a cowl and tunic, +thick in winter and thin in summer, with a scapular for working hours +and shoes and stockings, all of simple material and make. In the 14th +century the cowl and the frock were frequently confounded, but the +council of Vienne defined the former as "a habit long and full without +sleeves," and the latter as "a long habit with long and wide sleeves." +While the term thus seems strictly to imply a hooded gown it is often +applied to the hood alone. It is also used to describe a loose vestment +worn over the frock in the winter season and during the night office. + +The word "cowl" is also applied to a hood-shaped covering to a chimney +or ventilating shaft, to help down-draught, and to clear the up-current +of foul air (see VENTILATION). + + + + +COWLEY, ABRAHAM (1618-1667), English poet, was born in the city of +London late in 1618. His father, a wealthy citizen, who died shortly +before his birth, was a stationer. His mother was wholly given to works +of devotion, but it happened that there lay in her parlour a copy of +_The Faery Queen_. This became the favourite reading of her son, and he +had twice devoured it all before he was sent to school. As early as +1628, that is, in his tenth year, he composed his _Tragicall History of +Piramus and Thisbe_, an epical romance written in a six-line stanza, of +his own invention. It is not too much to say that this work is the most +astonishing feat of imaginative precocity on record; it is marked by no +great faults of immaturity, and possesses constructive merits of a very +high order. Two years later the child wrote another and still more +ambitious poem, _Constantia and Philetus_, being sent about the same +time to Westminster school. Here he displayed the most extraordinary +mental precocity and versatility, and wrote in his thirteenth year yet +another poem, the _Elegy on the Death of Dudley, Lord Carlton_. These +three poems of considerable size, and some smaller ones, were collected +in 1633, and published in a volume entitled _Poetical Blossoms_, +dedicated to the head master of the school, and prefaced by many +laudatory verses by schoolfellows. The author at once became famous, +although he had not, even yet, completed his fifteenth year. His next +composition was a pastoral comedy, entitled _Love's Riddle_, a +marvellous production for a boy of sixteen, airy, correct and harmonious +in language, and rapid in movement. The style is not without resemblance +to that of Randolph, whose earliest works, however, were at that time +only just printed. In 1637 Cowley was elected into Trinity College, +Cambridge, where he betook himself with enthusiasm to the study of all +kinds of learning, and early distinguished himself as a ripe scholar. It +was about this time that he composed his scriptural epic on the history +of King David, one book of which still exists in the Latin original, the +rest being superseded in favour of an English version in four books, +called the _Davideis_, which he published a long time after. This his +most grave and important work is remarkable as having suggested to +Milton several points which he afterwards made use of. The epic, written +in a very dreary and turgid manner, but in good rhymed heroic verse, +deals with the adventures of King David from his boyhood to the smiting +of Amalek by Saul, where it abruptly closes. In 1638 _Love's Riddle_ and +a Latin comedy, the _Naufragium Joculare_, were printed, and in 1641 the +passage of Prince Charles through Cambridge gave occasion to the +production of another dramatic work, _The Guardian_, which was acted +before the royal visitor with much success. During the civil war this +play was privately performed at Dublin, but it was not printed till +1650. It is bright and amusing, in the style common to the "sons" of Ben +Jonson, the university wits who wrote more for the closet than the +public stage. + +The learned quiet of the young poet's life was broken up by the Civil +War; he warmly espoused the royalist side. He became a fellow of Trinity +College, Cambridge, but was ejected by the Parliamentarians in 1643. He +made his way to Oxford, where he enjoyed the friendship of Lord +Falkland, and was tossed, in the tumult of affairs, into the personal +confidence of the royal family itself. After the battle of Marston Moor +he followed the queen to Paris, and the exile so commenced lasted twelve +years. This period was spent almost entirely in the royal service, +"bearing a share in the distresses of the royal family, or labouring in +their affairs. To this purpose he performed several dangerous journeys +into Jersey, Scotland, Flanders, Holland, or wherever else the king's +troubles required his attendance. But the chief testimony of his +fidelity was the laborious service he underwent in maintaining the +constant correspondence between the late king and the queen his wife. In +that weighty trust he behaved himself with indefatigable integrity and +unsuspected secrecy; for he ciphered and deciphered with his own hand +the greatest part of all the letters that passed between their +majesties, and managed a vast intelligence in many other parts, which +for some years together took up all his days, and two or three nights +every week." In spite of these labours he did not refrain from literary +industry. During his exile he met with the works of Pindar, and +determined to reproduce their lofty lyric passion in English. At the +same time he occupied himself in writing a history of the Civil War, +which he completed as far as the battle of Newbury, but unfortunately +afterwards destroyed. In 1647 a collection of his love verses, entitled +_The Mistress_, was published, and in the next year a volume of wretched +satires, _The Four Ages of England_, was brought out under his name, +with the composition of which he had nothing to do. In spite of the +troubles of the times, so fatal to poetic fame, his reputation steadily +increased, and when, on his return to England in 1656, he published a +volume of his collected poetical works, he found himself without a rival +in public esteem. This volume included the later works already +mentioned, the _Pindarique Odes_, the _Davideis_, the _Mistress_ and +some _Miscellanies_. Among the latter are to be found Cowley's most +vital pieces. This section of his works opens with the famous +aspiration-- + + "What shall I do to be for ever known, + And make the coming age my own?" + +It contains elegies on Wotton, Vandyck, Falkland, William Hervey and +Crashaw, the last two being among Cowley's finest poems, brilliant, +sonorous and original; the amusing ballad of _The Chronicle_, giving a +fictitious catalogue of his supposed amours; various gnomic pieces; and +some charming paraphrases from Anacreon. The _Pindarique Odes_ contain +weighty lines and passages, buried in irregular and inharmonious masses +of moral verbiage. Not more than one or two are good throughout, but a +full posy of beauties may easily be culled from them. The long cadences +of the Alexandrines with which most of the strophes close, continued to +echo in English poetry from Dryden down to Gray, but the _Odes_ +themselves, which were found to be obscure by the poet's contemporaries, +immediately fell into disesteem. _The Mistress_ was the most popular +poetic reading of the age, and is now the least read of all Cowley's +works. It was the last and most violent expression of the amatory +affectation of the 17th century, an affectation which had been endurable +in Donne and other early writers because it had been the vehicle of +sincere emotion, but was unendurable in Cowley because in him it +represented nothing but a perfunctory exercise, a mere exhibition of +literary calisthenics. He appears to have been of a cold, or at least of +a timid, disposition; in the face of these elaborately erotic volumes, +we are told that to the end of his days he never summoned up courage to +speak of love to a single woman in real life. The "Leonora" of _The +Chronicle_ is said to have been the only woman he ever loved, and she +married the brother of his biographer, Sprat. + +Soon after his return to England he was seized in mistake for another +person, and only obtained his liberty on a bail of L1000. In 1658 he +revised and altered his play of _The Guardian_, and prepared it for the +press under the title of _The Cutter of Coleman Street_, but it did not +appear until 1663. Late in 1658 Oliver Cromwell died, and Cowley took +advantage of the confusion of affairs to escape to Paris, where he +remained until the Restoration brought him back in Charles's train. He +published in 1663 _Verses upon several occasions_, in which _The +Complaint_ is included. + +Wearied with the broils and fatigues of a political life, Cowley +obtained permission to retire into the country; through his friend, Lord +St Albans, he obtained a property near Chertsey, and here, devoting +himself to the study of botany, and buried in his books, he lived in +comparative solitude until his death. He took a great and practical +interest in experimental science, and he was one of those who were most +prominent in advocating the foundation of an academy for the protection +of scientific enterprise. Cowley's pamphlet on _The Advancement of +Experimental Philosophy_, 1661, led directly to the foundation of the +Royal Society, to which body Cowley, in March 1667, at the suggestion of +Evelyn, addressed an ode which is the latest and one of the strongest of +his poems. He died in the Porch House, in Chertsey, on the 28th of July +1667, in consequence of having caught a cold while superintending his +farm-labourers in the meadows late on a summer evening. On the 3rd of +August Cowley was buried in Westminster Abbey beside the ashes of +Chaucer and Spenser, where in 1675 the duke of Buckingham erected a +monument to his memory. His _Poemata Latina_, including six books +"Plantarum," were printed in 1668. + +Throughout their parallel lives the fame of Cowley completely eclipsed +that of Milton, but posterity instantly and finally reversed the +judgment of their contemporaries. The poetry of Cowley rapidly fell into +a neglect as unjust as the earlier popularity had been. As a prose +writer, especially as an essayist, he holds, and will not lose, a high +position in literature; as a poet it is hardly possible that he can +enjoy more than a very partial revival. The want of nature, the obvious +and awkward art, the defective melody of his poems, destroy the interest +that their ingenuity and occasional majesty would otherwise excite. He +had lofty views of the mission of a poet and an insatiable ambition, but +his chief claim to poetic life is the dowry of sonorous lyric style +which he passed down to Dryden and his successors of the 18th century. + + The works of Cowley were collected in 1668, when Thomas Sprat, + afterwards bishop of Rochester, brought out a splendid edition in + folio, to which he prefixed a graceful and elegant life of the poet. + There were many reprints of this collection, which formed the standard + edition till 1881, when it was superseded by A. B. Grosart's privately + printed edition in two volumes, for the Chertsey Worthies library. The + Essays have frequently been revived with approval. (E. G.) + + + + +COWLEY, HANNAH (1743-1809), English dramatist and poet, daughter of +Philip Parkhouse, a bookseller at Tiverton, Devonshire, was born in +1743. When about twenty-five years old she married Mr Cowley, of the +East India Company's service, who died in 1797. Some years after her +marriage, being at the theatre with her husband, she expressed the +opinion that she could write as good a piece as the one being performed, +and within a fortnight she had written her first play, _The Runaway_. +She sent it to Garrick, who produced it at Drury Lane in 1776. Between +then and 1795 she wrote twelve more plays, all of which (with one +exception) were produced at Drury Lane or Covent Garden; and _The +Belle's Stratagem_ (1782), with one or two others, still survives in the +list of acting plays. Among other, pieces were _Albina_, _Countess +Raimond_, _A Bold Stroke for a Husband_, _More Ways than One_, and _A +School for Greybeards, or The Mourning Bride_. Mrs Cowley was the author +of a number of indifferent poems, mainly historical, and under the name +of "Anna Matilda," which has since become proverbial, she carried on a +sentimental correspondence in the _World_ with Robert Merry. She died at +Tiverton on the 11th of March 1809. + + + + +COWLEY, HENRY RICHARD CHARLES WELLESLEY, 1ST EARL (1804-1884), British +diplomatist, was the eldest son of Henry Wellesley, 1st Baron Cowley +(1773-1847), and Charlotte, daughter of Charles, 1st Earl Cadogan, and +was consequently a nephew of the duke of Wellington and of the marquess +Wellesley. Born on the 17th of June 1804, he entered the diplomatic +service in 1824, receiving his first important appointment in 1848, when +he became minister plenipotentiary to the Swiss cantons; and in the same +year he was sent to Frankfort to watch the proceedings of the German +parliament. This was followed by his appointment as envoy extraordinary +to the new Germanic confederation, a position which he only held for a +short time, as he was chosen in 1852 to succeed the 1st marquess of +Normanby as the British ambassador in Paris. Baron Cowley, as Wellesley +had been since his father's death in 1847, held this important post for +fifteen years, and the story of his diplomatic life in Paris cannot be +separated from the general history of England and France. As minister +during the greater part of the reign of Napoleon III., he conducted the +delicate negotiations between the two countries during the time of those +eastern complications which preceded and followed the Crimean War, and +also during the excitement and unrest produced by the attempt made in +1858 by Felice Orsini to assassinate the emperor of the French; while +his diplomatic skill was no less in evidence during the war between +France and Austria and the subsequent course of events in Italy. In 1857 +he had been created Earl Cowley and Viscount Dangan; in 1866 he was made +a knight of the Garter; and having assisted Richard Cobden to conclude +the commercial treaty between Great Britain and France in 1860, he +retired in 1867 from a position which he had filled with distinction to +himself and with benefit to his country. In 1863 Cowley had inherited +the estate of Draycot in Wiltshire from his kinsman the 5th earl of +Mornington, and he lived in retirement until his death on the 15th of +July 1884. He had married in 1833 Olivia Cecilia (d. 1885), daughter of +Charlotte, baroness de Ros and Lord Henry Fitzgerald, by whom he had +three sons and two daughters, and was succeeded in his titles by his +eldest son, William Henry, 2nd Earl Cowley (1834-1895), father of Henry +Arthur Mornington, 3rd earl (b. 1866). + + + + +COWLEY FATHERS, the name commonly given to the members of the Society of +Mission Priests of St John the Evangelist, an Anglican religious +community, the headquarters of which are in England, at Cowley St John, +close to Oxford. The society was founded in 1865 by the Rev. R. M. +Benson "for the cultivation of a life dedicated to God according to the +principles of poverty, chastity and obedience." The society, which is +occupied both with educational and missionary work, has a house in +London and branch houses at Bombay and Poona in India, at Cape Town and +at St Cuthbert's, Kaffraria, in South Africa; and at Boston in the +United States of America. The costume of the Cowley Fathers consists of +a black frock or cassock confined by a black cord and a long black +cloak. + + + + +COWPENS, a town of Spartanburg county, South Carolina, U.S.A., in the N. +part of the state. Pop. (1900) 692; (1910) 1101. It is served by the +Southern railway. In colonial days cattle were rounded up and branded +here--whence the name. Seven miles N. of the town is the field of the +battle of Cowpens, fought on the 17th of January 1781, during the War of +American Independence, between the Americans under Gen. Daniel Morgan +and the British under Gen. Banastre Tarleton, the British being +defeated. A monument was erected on the battlefield in 1859, but was +much defaced during the Civil War. The town of Cowpens was founded in +1876, and was incorporated in 1880. + + + + +COWPER, WILLIAM COWPER, 1ST EARL (c. 1665-1723), lord chancellor of +England, was the son of Sir William Cowper, Bart., of Ratling Court, +Kent, a Whig member of parliament of some mark in the two last Stuart +reigns. Educated at St Albans school, Cowper was called to the bar in +1688; having promptly given his allegiance to the prince of Orange on +his landing in England, he was made recorder of Colchester in 1694, and +in 1695 entered parliament as member for Hertford. He enjoyed a large +practice at the bar, and had the reputation of being one of the most +effective parliamentary orators of his generation. He lost his seat in +parliament in 1702 owing to the unpopularity caused by the trial of his +brother Spencer on a charge of murder. In 1705 he was appointed lord +keeper of the great seal, and took his seat on the woolsack without a +peerage. In the following year he conducted the negotiations between the +English and Scottish commissioners for arranging the union with +Scotland. In November of the same year (1706) he succeeded to his +father's baronetcy; and on the 14th of December he was raised to the +peerage as Baron Cowper of Wingham, Kent. + +When the union with Scotland came into operation in May 1707 the queen +in council named Cowper lord high chancellor of Great Britain, he being +the first to hold this office. He presided at the trial of Dr +Sacheverell in 1710, but resigned the seal when Harley and Bolingbroke +took office in the same year. On the death of Queen Anne, George I. +appointed Cowper one of the lords justices for governing the country +during the king's absence, and a few weeks later he again became lord +chancellor. A paper which he drew up for the guidance of the new king on +constitutional matters, entitled _An Impartial History of Parties_, +marks the advance of English opinion towards party government in the +modern sense. It was published by Lord Campbell in his _Lives of the +Lord Chancellors_. Cowper supported the impeachment of Lord Oxford for +high treason in 1715, and in 1716 presided as lord high steward at the +trials of the peers charged with complicity in the Jacobite rising, his +sentences on whom have been censured as unnecessarily severe. He warmly +supported the septennial bill in the same year. On the 18th of March +1718 he was created Viscount Fordwich and Earl Cowper, and a month later +he resigned office on the plea of ill-health, but probably in reality +because George I. accused him of espousing the prince of Wales's side in +his quarrel with the king. Taking the lead against his former +colleagues, Cowper opposed the proposal brought forward in 1719 to limit +the number of peers, and also the bill of pains and penalties against +Atterbury in 1723. In his last years he was accused, but probably +without reason, of active sympathy with the Jacobites. He died at his +residence, Colne Green, built by himself on the site of the present +mansion of Panshanger on the 10th of October 1723. + +Cowper was not a great lawyer, but Burnet says that "he managed the +court of chancery with impartial justice and great despatch"; the most +eminent of his contemporaries agreed in extolling his oratory and his +virtues. He was twice married--first, about 1686, to Judith, daughter +and heiress of Sir Robert Booth, a London merchant; and secondly, in +1706, to Mary, daughter of John Clavering, of Chopwell, Durham. Swift +(_Examiner_, xvii., xxii.) alludes to an allegation that Cowper had been +guilty of bigamy, a slander for which there appears to have been no +solid foundation. His younger brother, Spencer Cowper (1669-1728), was +tried for the murder of Sarah Stout in 1699, but was acquitted; the +lady, who had fallen in love with Cowper, having in fact committed +suicide on account of his inattention. He was one of the managers of the +impeachment of Sacheverell; was attorney-general to the prince of Wales +(1714), chief justice of Chester (1717), and judge of the common pleas +(1727). He was grandfather of William Cowper, the poet. + +The 1st earl left two sons and two daughters by his second wife. The +eldest son, William (1709-1764), who succeeded to the title, assumed the +name of Clavering in addition to that of Cowper on the death of his +maternal uncle. His wife was a daughter of the earl of Grantham, and +grand-daughter of the earl of Ossory. The son of this marriage, George +Nassau, 3rd Earl Cowper (1738-1789), inherited the estates of the earl +of Grantham; and in 1778 he was created by the emperor Joseph II. a +prince of the Holy Roman Empire. The 5th earl (1778-1837) married a +daughter of Lord Melbourne, the prime minister, by whom he had two sons; +and his widow married as her second husband Lord Palmerston, who devised +his property of Broadlands to her second son, William Francis +Cowper-Temple (1811-1888), who was created Baron Mount Temple in 1880. +The elder son, George Augustus Frederick (1806-1856), 6th Earl Cowper, +married Anne Florence, daughter of Thomas Philip, earl de Grey; and this +lady at her father's death became _suo jure_ baroness Lucas of Cradwell. +Francis Thomas de Grey, 7th Earl Cowper (1834-1905), in addition to the +other family titles, became in 1871 10th Baron Dingwall in the peerage +of Scotland, and 8th Baron Butler of Moore Park in the peerage of +Ireland as heir-general of Thomas, earl of Ossory, son of the 1st duke +of Ormonde; the attainder of 1715 affecting those titles having been +reversed in July 1871. On the death of his mother he also inherited the +barony of Lucas of Cradwell. On the death without issue in 1905 of the +7th earl, who was lord lieutenant of Ireland 1880-1882, the earldom and +barony of Cowper, together with the viscountcy of Fordwich, became +extinct; the barony of Butler fell into abeyance among his sisters and +their heirs, and the baronies of Lucas and Dingwall devolved on his +nephew, Auberon Thomas Herbert (b. 1876). + + See _Private Diary of Earl Cowper_, edited by E. C. Hawtrey for the + Roxburghe Club (Eton, 1833); _The Diary of Mary, Countess Cowper_, + edited by the Hon. Spencer Cowper (London, 1864); Lord Campbell, + _Lives of the Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal_ (8 + vols., London, 1845-1869); Edward Foss, _The Judges of England_ (9 + vols., London, 1848-1864); Gilbert Burnet, _History of his Own Time_ + (6 vols., Oxford, 1833); T. B. Howell, _State Trials_, vol. xii.-xv. + (33 vols., London, 1809-1828); G. E. C., _Complete Peerage_ (London, + 1889). (R. J. M.) + + + + +COWPER, WILLIAM (1731-1800), English poet, was born in the rectory (now +rebuilt) of Great Berkhampstead, Hertfordshire, on the 26th of November +(O.S. 15th) 1731, his father the Rev. John Cowper being rector of the +parish as well as a chaplain to George II. On both the father's and the +mother's side he was of ancient lineage. The father could trace his +family back to the time of Edward IV. when the Cowpers were Sussex +landowners, while his mother, Ann, daughter of Roger Donne of Ludham +Hall, Norfolk, was of the same race as the poet Donne, and the family +claimed to have Plantagenet blood in its veins. Of more human interest +were Cowper's immediate predecessors. His grandfather was that Spencer +Cowper who, after being tried for his life on a charge of murder, lived +to be a judge of the court of common pleas, while his elder brother +became lord chancellor and Earl Cowper, a title which became extinct in +1905. Here is the poet's genealogical tree. + + John Cooper,[1] Alderman of London (d. 1609). + | + Sir William Cowper, Bart. (d. 1642). + | + John Cowper (died in prison 1643). + | + Sir William Cowper, 2nd Bart. (d. 1706). + _____________|__________ + | | + William, Earl Cowper, Spencer Cowper, + Lord Chancellor (d. 1723). Judge (1669-1728). + _________________________________|___________ + | | | + William Cowper Rev. John Cowper Ashley Cowper + (d. 1740). (d. 1756). (d. 1788). + | | + | ________|________ + William Cowper, | | + the poet Lady Hesketh. Theodora. + (1731-1800). + +The Rev. John Cowper was twice married. Cowper's mother, to whom the +memorable lines were written beginning "Oh that these lips had +language," was his first wife. She died in 1737 at the age of +thirty-four, when the poet was but six years old, and she is buried in +Berkhampstead church. Cowper's stepmother is buried in Bath, and a +tablet on the walls of the cathedral commemorates her memory. The +father, who appears to have been a conscientious clergyman with no +special interest in his sons, died in 1756 and was buried in the Cowper +tomb at Panshanger. Only one other of his seven children grew to +manhood--John, who was born in 1737. + +The poet appears to have attended a dame's school in earliest infancy, +but on his mother's death, when he was six years old, he was sent to +boarding-school, to a Dr Pitman at Markyate, a village 6 m. from +Berkhampstead. From 1738 to 1741 he was placed in the care of an +oculist, as he suffered from inflammation of the eyes. In the latter +year he was sent to Westminster school, where he had Warren Hastings, +Impey, Lloyd, Churchill and Colman for schoolfellows. It was at the +Markyate school that he suffered the tyranny that he commemorated in +_Tirocinium_. His days at Westminster, Southey thinks, were "probably +the happiest in his life," but a boy of nervous temperament is always +unhappy at school. At the age of eighteen Cowper entered a solicitor's +office in Ely Place, Holborn. Here he had Thurlow, the future lord +chancellor, as a fellow-clerk, and it is stated that Thurlow promised to +help his less pushful comrade in the days of realized ambition. Three +years in Ely Place were rendered happy by frequent visits to his uncle +Ashley's house in Southampton Row, where he fell deeply in love with his +cousin Theodora Cowper. At twenty-one years of age he took chambers in +the Middle Temple, where we first hear of the dejection of spirits that +accompanied him periodically through manhood. He was called to the bar +in 1754. In 1759 he removed to the Inner Temple and was made a +commissioner of bankrupts. His devotion to his cousin, however, was a +source of unhappiness. Her father, possibly influenced by Cowper's +melancholy tendencies, perhaps possessed by prejudices against the +marriage of cousins, interposed, and the lovers were separated--as it +turned out for ever. During three years he was a member of the Nonsense +Club with his two schoolfellows from Westminster, Churchill and Lloyd, +and he wrote sundry verses in magazines and translated two books of +Voltaire's _Henriade_. A crisis occurred in Cowper's life when his +cousin Major Cowper nominated him to a clerkship in the House of Lords. +It involved a preliminary appearance at the bar of the house. The +prospect drove him insane, and he attempted suicide; he purchased +poison, he placed a penknife at his heart, but hesitated to apply either +measure of self-destruction. He has told, in dramatic manner, of his +more desperate endeavour to hang himself with a garter. Here he all but +succeeded. His friends were informed, and he was sent to a private +lunatic asylum at St Albans, where he remained for eighteen months under +the charge of Dr Nathaniel Cotton, the author of _Visions_. Upon his +recovery he removed to Huntingdon in order to be near his brother John, +who was a fellow of St Benet's College, Cambridge. John had visited his +brother at St Albans and arranged this. An attempt to secure suitable +lodgings nearer to Cambridge had been ineffectual. In June 1765 he +reached Huntingdon, and his life here was essentially happy. His illness +had broken him off from all his old friends save only his cousin Lady +Hesketh, Theodora's sister, but new acquaintances were made, the Unwins +being the most valued. This family consisted of Morley Unwin (a +clergyman), his wife Mary, and his son (William) and daughter +(Susannah). The son struck up a warm friendship which his family shared. +Cowper entered the circle as a boarder in November (1765). All went +serenely until in July 1767 Morley Unwin was thrown from his horse and +killed. A very short time before this event the Unwins had received a +visit from the Rev. John Newton (q.v.), the curate of Olney in +Buckinghamshire, with whom they became friends. Newton suggested that +the widow and her children with Cowper should take up their abode in +Olney. This was achieved in the closing months of 1767. Here Cowper was +to reside for nineteen years, and he was to render the town and its +neighbourhood memorable by his presence and by his poetry. His residence +in the Market Place was converted into a Cowper Museum a hundred years +after his death, in 1900. Here his life went on its placid course, +interrupted only by the death of his brother in 1770, until 1773, when +he became again deranged. It can scarcely be doubted that this second +attack interrupted the contemplated marriage of Cowper with Mary Unwin, +although Southey could find no evidence of the circumstance and Newton +was not informed of it. J. C. Bailey brings final evidence of this (_The +Poems of Cowper_, page 15). The fact was kept secret in later years in +order to spare the feelings of Theodora Cowper, who thought that her +cousin had remained as faithful as she had done to their early love. + +It was not until 1776 that the poet's mind cleared again. In 1779 he +made his first appearance as an author by the _Olney Hymns_, written in +conjunction with Newton, Cowper's verses being indicated by a "C." Mrs +Unwin suggested secular verse, and Cowper wrote much, and in 1782 when +he was fifty-one years old there appeared _Poems of William Cowper of +the Inner Temple, Esq.: London, Printed for J. Johnson, No. 72 St Paul's +Churchyard_. The volume contained "Table Talk," "The Progress of Error," +"Truth," "Expostulation" and much else that survives to be read in our +day by virtue of the poet's finer work. This finer work was the outcome +of his friendship with Lady Austen, a widow who, on a visit to her +sister, the wife of the vicar of the neighbouring village of Clifton, +made the acquaintance of Cowper and Mrs Unwin. The three became great +friends. Lady Austen determined to give up her house in London and to +settle in Olney. She suggested _The Task_ and inspired _John Gilpin_ and +_The Royal George_. But in 1784 the friendship was at an end, doubtless +through Mrs Unwin's jealousy of Lady Austen. Cowper's second volume +appeared in 1785;--_The Task: A Poem in Six Books. By William Cowper of +the Inner Temple, Esq.; To which are added by the same author An Epistle +to Joseph Hill, Esq., Tirocinium or a Review of Schools, and the History +of John Gilpin: London, Printed for J. Johnson, No. 72 St Paul's Church +Yard; 1785._ His first book had been a failure, one critic even +declaring that "Mr Cowper was certainly a good, pious man, but without +one spark of poetic fire." This second book was an instantaneous +success, and indeed marks an epoch in literary history. But before its +publication--in 1784--the poet had commenced the translation of Homer. +In 1786 his life at Olney was cheered by Lady Hesketh taking up a +temporary residence there. The cousins met after an interval of +twenty-three years, and Lady Hesketh was to be Cowper's good angel to +the end, even though her letters disclose a considerable impatience with +Mrs Unwin. At the end of 1786 a removal was made to Weston Underwood, +the neighbouring village which Cowper had frequently visited as the +guest of his Roman Catholic friends the Throckmortons. This was to be +his home for yet another ten years. Here he completed his translation of +Homer, materially assisted by Mr Throckmorton's chaplain Dr Gregson. +There are six more months of insanity to record in 1787. In 1790, a year +before the _Homer_ was published, commenced his friendship with his +cousin John Johnson, known to all biographers of the poet as "Johnny of +Norfolk." Johnson also aspired to be a poet, and visited his cousin +armed with a manuscript. Cowper discouraged the poetry, but loved the +writer, and the two became great friends. New friends were wanted, for +in 1792 Mrs Unwin had a paralytic stroke, and henceforth she was a +hopeless invalid. A new and valued friend of this period was Hayley, +famous in his own day as a poet and in history for his association with +Romney and Cowper. He was drawn to Cowper by the fact that both were +contemplating an edition of "Milton," Cowper having received a +commission to edit, writing notes and translating the Latin and Italian +poems. The work was never completed. In 1794 Cowper was again insane and +his lifework was over. In the following year a removal took place into +Norfolk under the loving care of John Johnson. Johnson took Cowper and +Mary Unwin to North Tuddenham, thence to Mundesley, then to Dunham +Lodge, near Swaffham, and finally in October 1796 they moved to East +Dereham. In December of that year Mrs Unwin died. Cowper lingered on, +dying on the 25th of April 1800. The poet is buried near Mrs Unwin in +East Dereham church. + +Cowper is among the poets who are epoch-makers. He brought a new spirit +into English verse, and redeemed it from the artificiality and the +rhetoric of many of his predecessors. With him began the "enthusiasm of +humanity" that was afterwards to become so marked in the poetry of Burns +and Shelley, Wordsworth and Byron. With him began the deep sympathy with +nature, and love of animal life, which was to characterize so much of +later poetry. + +Although Cowper cannot rank among the world's greatest poets or even +among the most distinguished of poets of his own country, his place is a +very high one. He had what is a rare quality among English poets, the +gift of humour, which was very singularly absent from others who +possessed many other of the higher qualities of the intellect. Certain +of his poems, moreover,--for example, "To Mary," "The Receipt of my +Mother's Portrait," and the ballad "On the Loss of the Royal +George,"--will, it may safely be affirmed, continue to be familiar to +each successive generation in a way that pertains to few things in +literature. Added to this, one may note Cowper's distinction as a +letter-writer. He ranks among the half-dozen greatest letter-writers in +the English language, and he was perhaps the only great letter-writer +with whom the felicity was due to the power of what he has seen rather +than what he has read. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The first important life of Cowper was by Hayley in + 1803. In its complete form it appeared in 4 volumes in 1806 and was + reprinted in 1809 and 1812. It was reprinted again by the Rev. T. S. + Grimshawe with the Correspondence in 8 volumes in 1835. Robert + Southey's much more valuable _Life and Letters_ appeared also in 15 + volumes in 1834-1837. The _Private Correspondence_, edited by John + Johnson, appeared in 2 volumes in 1824 and again in 1835. The + _Complete Correspondence_, edited by Thomas Wright, was published in + 1904, but more correspondence appeared in _Notes and Queries_, July, + August and September 1904, and in _The Poems of William Cowper_, + edited by J. C. Bailey (1905). Edward Dowden unearthed new + correspondence with William Hayley in _The Atlantic Monthly_ (1907). + Short lives of Cowper have appeared in many quarters, from Thomas + Taylor's (1833) to Goldwin Smith's in the "English Men of Letters" + series (1880). Another brief biography of great merit is attached to + the Globe edition of Cowper's _Works_. Essays by Leslie Stephen, + Stopford Brooke, Whitwell Elwin, George Eliot and Walter Bagehot + deserve attention. See also St Beuve's _Causeries du Lundi_ (1868), + vol. xi.; _Letters of Lady Hesketh to John Johnson_ (1901); _John + Newton_, by the Rev. Josiah Bull (1868); _Cowper and Mary Unwin_, by + Caroline Gearey (1900); and _A Concordance to the Poetic Works of + William Cowper_, by John Neave (1887). (C. K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Alderman Cooper thus spelt his name and all the family from that + day to this, including the poet, have so pronounced it. + + + + +COWRY, the popular name of the shells of the _Cypraeida_, a family of +mollusks. Upwards of 100 species are recognized, and they are widely +distributed over the world--their habitat being the shallow water along +the sea-shore. The best known is the money cowry or _Cypraea moneta_, a +small shell about half an inch in length, white and straw-coloured +without and blue within, which derives its distinctive name from the +fact that in various countries it has been employed as a kind of +currency. (See SHELL-MONEY.) In Africa among those tribes, such as the +Niam-Niam, who do not recognize their monetary value, the shells are in +demand as fashionable decorations, just as in Germany they were in use +as an ornament for horses' harness, and were popular enough to acquire +several native names, such as _Brustharnisch_ or breastplates, and +_Otterkopfchen_ or little adders' heads. Besides the _Cypraea moneta_ +various species are employed in this decorative use. The _Cypraea +aurora_ is a mark of chieftainship among the natives of the Friendly +Islands; the _Cypraea annulus_ is a favourite with the Asiatic +islanders; and several of the larger kinds have been used in Europe for +the carving of cameos. The tiger cowry, _Cypraea tigris_, so well known +as a mantelpiece ornament in England and America, is commonly used by +the natives of the Sandwich Islands to sink their nets; and they have +also an ingenious plan of cementing portions of several shells into a +smooth oval ball which they then employ as a bait to catch the +cuttle-fish. While the species already mentioned occur in myriads in +their respective habitats, the _Cypraea princeps_ and the _Cypraea +umbilicata_ are extremely rare. + + + + +COW-TREE, or MILK-TREE, _Brosimum Galactodendron_ (natural order +Moraceae), a native of Venezuela. As in other members of the order, the +stem contains a milky latex, which flows out in considerable quantities +when a notch is cut in it. The "milk" is sweet and pleasant tasting. +Another species, _B. Alicastrum_, the bread-nut tree, a native of +central America and Jamaica, bears a fruit which is cooked and eaten. +The bread-fruit (_Artocarpus_) is an allied genus of the same natural +order. + + + + +COX, DAVID (1783-1859), English painter, was born on the 29th of April +1783, in a small house attached to the forge of his father, a +hardworking master smith, in a mean suburb of Birmingham. Turning his +hand to what he could get to do, Joseph Cox, the father, was both +blacksmith and whitesmith, and when the war with France began took to +the making of bayonets and horse shoes, on wholesale commission, and +immediately the boy David was thought able to assist he was taken from +the poor elementary school in the neighbourhood, and set to the anvil. +The attempt to turn the boy to this kind of labour had, however, been +made too early; it was too heavy for his strength, and he was sent to +what was called by the cyclops of Birmingham a "toy trade," making +lacquered buckles, painted lockets, tin snuff-boxes and other "fancy" +articles. Here David very soon acquired some power of painting +miniatures, and his talents might have been misdirected had his master, +Fieldler by name, not released him from his apprenticeship by dying by +his own hand; and David found an opening as colour-grinder and +scene-painter's fag in the theatre then leased, with several others, by +the father of Macready, the tragedian. + +This obscure step, not one of promotion at the time, was really the most +important incident in the uneventful career of Cox. The boy, who had +inherited a rather weakly body, and had been trained with care by a +pious mother, while intellectually negative and unable to cope with any +kind of learning whatever, had endless perseverance, great strength of +application, and all through life remained genial, gentle, simple-minded +and modest, his penetration and self-reliance being wholly professional, +inspired by his love of nature and his knowledge of his subject. Not +very quick, and with little versatility, he went step by step in one +line of study from the time he began to get the smallest remuneration +for his pictures to the age of seventy-five, when he painted large in +oil very much the same class of subjects he had of old produced small in +water-colours, with the same impressive and unaffectedly noble +sentiment, only increased by the mastery of almost infinite practice. He +was never led astray by fictitious splendour of any kind, except once +indeed in 1825, when he imitated Turner, and produced a classic subject +he called "Carthage, Aeneas, and Achates." He never visited Venice or +Egypt, or crossed the Channel except for a week or two in Belgium and +Paris, and never even went to Scotland for painting purposes. +Bettws-y-Coed and its neighbourhood was everything to him, and +characteristics most truly English were beloved by him with a sort of +filial instinct. So completely did he love the country, that even +London, where it was his interest to live, had few attractions, and did +not retain him long. + +This residence in the metropolis which began in 1804 was, however, of +the most essential educational advantage to him. The Water-Colour +Society was established the year after he arrived, and was mainly +supported by landscape-painters. He was not, of course, admitted at +first into membership, not till 1813, before which time an attempt to +establish a rival exhibition had been made. In this Cox joined, the +result being very serious to him, an entire failure entailing the +seizure and forced sale of all the pictures. At that time the tightest +economy was the rule with him, and to save the trifling cost of new +strainers or stretching boards, he covered up one picture by another. +When these works were prepared for re-sale, fifty years afterwards, some +of them yielded picture after picture, peeled off the boards like the +waistcoats from the body of the gravedigger in Hamlet! + +While lodging near Astley's Circus he married his landlady's daughter, +and then took a modest cottage at Dulwich, where he gradually left off +scene-painting and became teacher, giving lessons at ten shillings a +lesson. This entailed walking to the pupils' homes, and the gift of the +paintings done before the pupils. These have since been frequently sold +for large sums, but his own price, when lucky enough to sell his best +works, was never over a few pounds, and more frequently about fifteen +shillings. Sometimes, indeed, he sold them in quantities at two pounds a +dozen to be resold to country teachers. By and by he resisted the +leaving of the work done to the pupil, but with little advantage to +himself, as he saw no end to the accumulation of his own productions, +and actually tore them up, and threw them into areas, or pushed them +into drains during his trudge homeward. A number of years after he +pointed out a particular drain to a friend, and said, "Many a work of +mine has gone down that way to the Thames!" + +Shortly after he had turned thirty, his stay in London suddenly ended. +He was offered the enormous sum of L100 per annum, by a ladies' college +in Hereford, and thither he went. This sum he supplemented by teaching +in the Hereford grammar school for many years, at six guineas a year, +and in other schools at better pay, but still, and up to his fortieth +year, we find his prices for pictures from eight to twenty-five +shillings. Cox has no history apart from his productions, and these +particulars as to his remuneration possess an interest almost dramatic +when we contrast them with the enormous sums realized by his later +works, and with the "honours and observance, troops of friends," that +accompanied old age with him, when settled down in his own home at +Harborne, near his native town, where he died on the 7th of June 1859. + +Cox's second short residence in London, dating from 1835 to 1840, marks +the period of his highest powers. During those years, and for twelve +years after, his productiveness kept pace with his mastery, and it would +be difficult to overrate the impressiveness of effect, and high feeling, +within the narrow range of subject displayed by many of these works. He +was now surrounded by dealers, and wealth flowed in upon him. Still he +remained the same, a man with few wants and scarcely any enjoyments +except those furnished by his brush and his colours. The home at +Harborne was a pleasant one, but the approach to the front was useless +as the door was kept fastened up, the only entrance being through the +garden at the back, and the principal room appropriated as his studio he +was content to reach by a narrow stair from the kitchen. Neither in it +nor elsewhere was there any luxury or even taste visible:--no +_bric-a-brac_, no objects of interest, few or no books, no pictures +except landscapes by his friends. When in winter, after his wife's +death, the fire went out, and the cold at last surprised him, he lifted +his easel into the little dining-room and began again. A union of his +friends was formed in 1855 to procure a portrait of him, which was +painted by Sir J. Watson Gordon; and an exhibition of his works was +opened in London in 1858 and again another in 1859. This was actually +open when the news of his death arrived. + +The number of David Cox's works, great and small, is enormous. He +produced hundreds annually for perhaps forty-five years. Before his +death and for ten years thereafter, their prices were remarkable, as +witness the following obtained at auction--"Going to the Mill," L1575; +"Old Mill at Bettws-y-Coed," L1575; "Outskirts of a Wood, with Gipsies," +L2305; "Peace and War," L3430. + + See Hall, _Biography of David Cox_ (1881). (W. B. Sc.) + + + + +COX, SIR GEORGE WILLIAM (1827-1902), English divine and scholar, was +born on the 10th of January 1827, at Benares, India, and was educated at +Rugby and Trinity College, Oxford. In 1850 he was ordained, and in 1860 +took a mastership at Cheltenham College, which he held for only a year. +He had already contributed to the _Edinburgh Review_, and had published +in 1850 _Poems, Legendary and Historical_ (with E. A. Freeman), and in +1853 a _Life of St Boniface_. From 1861 he devoted himself entirely to +literary work, chiefly in connexion with history and comparative +mythology. Many of his works were avowedly popular in character, and the +most important, the _History of Greece_, has been superseded and is now +of little value. His studies in mythology were inspired by Max Muller, +but his treatment of the subjects was his own. He was an extreme +supporter of the solar and nebular theory as the explanation of myths. +He also edited (with W. T. Brande) _A Dictionary of Science, Literature +and Art_ (1875). Sir George Cox (who succeeded to the baronetcy in 1877) +was a Broad Churchman, and a prominent supporter of Bishop Colenso in +1863-1865; and five years after Colenso's death he published (1888) his +_Life_ of the bishop. He was himself nominated to the see of Natal, but +was refused consecration. In 1881 he was made vicar of Scrayingham, +York, but resigned the living in 1897. In 1896 he was given a civil list +pension. He died at Walmer on the 9th of February 1902. + + WORKS.--_Tales from Greek Mythology_ (1861); _A Manual of Mythology_ + (1867); _Latin and Teutonic Christendom_ (1870); _The Mythology of the + Aryan Nations_ (1870, new ed., 1882); _History of Greece_ (1874); + _General History of Greece_ (1876); _History of the Establishment of + British Rule in India_, and _An Introduction to the Science of + Comparative Mythology_ (1881); _Lives of Greek Statesmen_ (1885); + _Concise History of England_ (1887). + + + + +COX, JACOB DOLSON (1828-1900), American general, political leader and +educationalist, was born on the 27th of October 1828 in Montreal, +Canada. His father, a shipbuilder of German descent (Koch), and his +mother, a descendant of William Brewster, were natives of New York City, +where the boy grew up, studying law in an office in 1842-1844, and +working in a broker's office in 1844-1846, and where, under the +influence of Charles G. Finney (1792-1875), whose daughter he afterwards +married, he prepared himself for the ministry. He graduated at Oberlin +College in 1851, having in the meantime given up his theological studies +in rebellion at Finney's dogmatism. In 1851-1853 he was superintendent +of schools at Warren, Ohio; in 1853 was admitted to the Ohio bar, being +at that time an anti-slavery Whig; and in 1859 was elected to the state +senate, in which with Garfield and James Monroe (1821-1898) he formed +the "Radical Triumvirate," Cox himself presenting a petition for a +personal liberty law and urging woman's rights, especially larger +property rights to married women. Appointed by Governor Dennison one of +three brigadiers-general of militia in 1860, he eagerly undertook the +study of tactics, strategy and military history. He rendered great +assistance in raising troops for the Union service in 1861, enlisted +himself in spite of poor health and a family of six small children, and +in April was commissioned a brigadier-general, U.S.V. He took part in +the West Virginia campaign of 1861, served in the Kanawha region, in +supreme command after Rosecrans's relief in the spring, until August +1862, when his troops were ordered to join Burnside's 9th Corps in +Virginia. After the death at his side of General Reno in the battle of +South Mountain, and during Antietam, Cox commanded the corps, and at the +close of the campaign (6th Oct. 1862) he was appointed major-general, +U.S.V., but the appointment was not confirmed. In April-December 1863 he +was head of the department of Ohio. In 1864 he took part in the Atlanta +campaign under Sherman, as a divisional and subsequently +corps-commander: at the battle of Franklin he commanded the 23rd Corps, +and he served at Nashville also. He led an expedition following Sherman +into the Carolinas and fought two successful actions with Bragg at +Kinston, N.C. He was governor of Ohio in 1866-1867, and as such +advocated the colonization of the freedmen in a restricted area, and +sympathized with President Johnson's programme of Reconstruction and +worked for a compromise between Johnson and his opponents, although he +finally deserted Johnson. In 1868 he was chairman of the Republican +national convention which nominated Grant. He was secretary of the +interior in 1869-1870; opposed the confirmation of the treaty for the +annexation of Santo Domingo, negotiated by O. E. Babcock and urged by +President Grant; introduced the merit system in his department, and +resigned in October 1870 because of pressure put on him by politicians +piqued at his prohibition of campaign levies on his clerks, and because +of the interference of Grant in favour of William McGarrahan's attempt +by legal proceedings to obtain from Cox a patent to certain California +mining lands. He took up legal practice in Cincinnati, became president +in 1873, and until 1877 was receiver, of the Toledo & Wabash & Western. +In 1877-1879 he was a representative in Congress. From 1881 to 1897 he +was dean of the Cincinnati law school, and from 1885 to 1889 president +of the University of Cincinnati. He died at Magnolia, Massachusetts, on +the 4th of August 1900. A successful lawyer, and in his later years a +prominent microscopist, who won a gold medal of honour for +microphotography at the Antwerp Exposition of 1891, he is best known as +one of the greatest "civilian" generals of the Civil War, and, with the +possible exception of J. C. Ropes, the highest American authority of his +time on military history, particularly the history of the American Civil +War. He wrote _Atlanta_ (New York, 1882) and _The March to the Sea, +Franklin and Nashville_ (New York, 1882), both in the series _Campaigns +of the Civil War_; _The Second Battle of Bull Run, as Connected with +the Fitz-John Porter Case_ (Cincinnati, 1882); and the valuable +_Military Reminiscences of the Civil War_ (2 vols., New York, 1900) +published posthumously. + + See J. R. Ewing, _Public Services of Jacob Dolson Cox_ (Washington, + 1902), a Johns Hopkins University dissertation; and W. C. Cochran, + "Early Life and Military Services of General Jacob Dolson Cox," in + _Bibliotheca Sacra_, vol. 58 (Oberlin, Ohio, 1901). + + + + +COX, KENYON (1856- ), American painter, was born at Warren, Ohio, on +the 27th of October 1856, being the son of Gen. Jacob Dolson Cox. He was +a pupil of Carolus-Duran and of J. L. Gerome in Paris from 1877 to 1882, +when he opened a studio in New York, subsequently teaching with much +success in the Art Students' League. His earlier work was mainly of the +nude drawn with great academic correctness in somewhat conventional +colour. Receiving little encouragement for such pictures, he turned to +mural decorative work, in which he achieved prominence. Among his +better-known examples are the frieze for the court room of the Appellate +Court, New York, and decorations for the Walker Art Gallery, Bowdoin +College; for the Capitol at Saint Paul, Minnesota, and for other public +and private buildings. He wrote with much authority on art topics, and +is the author of the critical reviews, _Old Masters and New_ (1905) and +_Painters and Sculptors_ (1907), besides some poems. He became a +National Academician in 1903. His wife, _nee_ Louise H. King (b. 1865), +whom he married in 1892, also became a figure and portrait-painter of +note. + + + + +COX, RICHARD (1500?-1581), dean of Westminster and bishop of Ely, was +born of obscure parentage at Whaddon, Buckinghamshire, in 1499 or 1500. +He was educated at the Benedictine priory of St Leonard Snelshall near +Whaddon, at Eton, and at King's College, Cambridge, where he graduated +B.A. in 1524. At Wolsey's invitation he became a member of the +cardinal's new foundation at Oxford, was incorporated B.A. in 1525, and +created M.A. in 1526. In 1530 he was engaged in persuading the more +unruly members of the university to approve of the king's divorce. A +premature expression of Lutheran views is said to have caused his +departure from Oxford and even his imprisonment, but the records are +silent on these sufferings which do not harmonize with his appointment +as master of the royal foundation at Eton. In 1533 he appears as author +of an ode on the coronation of Anne Boleyn, in 1535 he graduated B.D. at +Cambridge, proceeding D.D. in 1537, and in the same year subscribing the +Institution of a Christian Man. In 1540 he was one of the fifteen +divines to whom were referred crucial questions on the sacraments and +the seat of authority in the Church; his answers (printed in Pocock's +_Burnet_, iii. 443-496) indicate a mind tending away from Catholicism, +but susceptible to "the king's doctrine"; and, indeed, Cox was one of +the divines by whom Henry said the "King's Book" had been drawn up when +he wished to impress upon the Regent Arran that it was not exclusively +his own doing. Moreover, he was present at the examination of Barnes, +subscribed the divorce of Anne of Cleves, and in that year of reaction +became archdeacon and prebendary of Ely and canon of Westminster. He was +employed on other royal business in 1541, was nominated to the projected +bishopric of Southwell, and was made king's chaplain in 1542. In 1543 he +was employed to ferret out the "Prebendaries' Plot" against Cranmer, and +became the archbishop's chancellor. In December he was appointed dean of +Oseney (afterwards Christ Church) Oxford, and in July was made almoner +to Prince Edward, in whose education he took an active part. He was +present at Dr Crome's recantation in 1546, denounced it as insincere and +insufficient, and severely handled him before the privy council. + +After Edward's accession, Cox's opinions took a more Protestant turn, +and he became one of the most active agents of the Reformation. He was +consulted on the compilation of the Communion office in 1548, and the +first and second books of Common Prayer, and sat on the commission for +the reform of the canon law. As chancellor of the university of Oxford +(1547-1552) he promoted foreign divines such as Peter Martyr, and was a +moving spirit of the two commissions which sought with some success to +eradicate everything savouring of popery from the books, MSS., +ornaments and endowments of the university, and earned Cox the sobriquet +of its cancellor rather than its chancellor. He received other rewards, +a canonry of Windsor (1548), the rectory of Harrow (1547) and the +deanery of Westminster (1549). He lost these preferments on Mary's +accession, and was for a fortnight in August 1553 confined to the +Marshalsea. He was not of the stuff of which martyrs are made; he +remained in obscurity until after the failure of Wyatt's rebellion, and +then in May 1554 escaped in the same ship as the future archbishop +Sandys, to Antwerp. Thence in March 1555 he made his way to Frankfort, +where he played an important part in the first struggle between +Anglicanism and Puritanism. The exiles had, under the influence of Knox +and Whittingham, adopted Calvinistic doctrine and a form of service far +more Puritanical than the Prayer-Book of 1552. Cox stood up for that +service, and the exiles were divided into Knoxians and Coxians. Knox +attacked Cox as a pluralist, Cox accused Knox of treason to the emperor +Charles V. This proved the more dangerous charge: Knox and his followers +were expelled, and the Prayer-Book of 1552 was restored. + +In 1559 Cox returned to England, and was elected bishop of Norwich, but +the queen changed her mind and Cox's destination to Ely, where he +remained twenty-one years. He was an honest, but narrow-minded +ecclesiastic, who held what views he did hold intolerantly, and was +always wanting more power to constrain those who differed from him (see +his letter in _Hatfield MSS._ i. 308). While he refused to minister in +the queen's chapel because of the crucifix and lights there, and was a +bitter enemy to the Roman Catholics, he had little more patience with +the Puritans. He was grasping, or at least tenacious of his rights in +money matters, and was often brought into conflict with courtiers who +coveted episcopal lands. The queen herself intervened, when he refused +to grant Ely House to her favourite, Sir Christopher Hatton; but the +well-known letter beginning "Proud Prelate" and threatening to unfrock +him seems to be an impudent forgery which first saw the light in the +_Annual Register_ for 1761. It hardly, however, misrepresents the +queen's meaning, and Cox was forced to give way. These and other trials +led him to resign his see in 1580, and it is significant that it +remained vacant for nineteen years. Cox died on the 22nd of July 1581: a +monument erected to his memory twenty years later in Ely cathedral was +defaced, owing, it was said, to his evil repute. Strype (Whitgift, i. 2) +gives Cox's hot temper and marriage as reasons why he was not made +archbishop in 1583 in preference to Whitgift, who had been his chaplain; +but Cox had been dead two years in 1583. His first wife's name is +unknown; she was the mother of his five children, of whom Joanna married +the eldest son of Archbishop Parker. His second wife was the widow of +William Turner (d. 1568), the botanist and dean of Wells. + + Voluminous details about Cox's life are given in Strype's Works, + Parker Soc. Publ., and Cooper's _Athenae Cantab._ i. 437-445. See also + Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Acts of the Privy Council; Cal. + Dom. State Papers; Cal. Hatfield MSS.; Lit. Rem. of Edward VI.; + Whittingham's _Troubles at Frankfort_; Machyn's _Diary_; Pocock's + _Burnet_; Bentham's _Ely_; Willis's _Cathedrals_; Le Neve's _Fasti_; + R. W. Dixon's _Church History_. (A. F. P.) + + + + +COX, SAMUEL (1826-1893), English nonconformist divine, was born in +London on the 19th of April 1826. For some years he worked as an +apprentice in the London docks, and then entered the Baptist College at +Stepney. In 1851 he became pastor of a Baptist church at Southsea, +removing in 1855 to Ryde, and in 1863 to Nottingham. He was president of +the Baptist Association in 1873 and received the degree of D.D. from St +Andrews in 1882. Cox had distinct gifts as a biblical expositor and was +the founder and first editor of a monthly journal _The Expositor_ +(1875-1884). Among the best known of his numerous theological +publications are _Salvator Mundi_ (1877), _A Commentary on the Book of +Job_ (1880), _The Larger Hope_ (1883). + + + + +COX, SAMUEL HANSON (1793-1880), American Presbyterian divine, was born +at Rahway, N.J., on the 25th of August 1793, of Quaker stock. He was +pastor of the Presbyterian church at Mendham, N.J., in 1817-1821, and of +two churches in New York from 1821 to 1834. He helped to found the +University of the City of New York, and from 1834 to 1837 was professor +of pastoral theology at Auburn. The next seventeen years were passed in +active ministry at Brooklyn, whence in 1854, owing to a throat +affection, he removed to Owego, N.Y. He died at Bronxville, N.Y., on the +2nd of October 1880. Cox was a fine orator, and a speech made in Exeter +Hall in 1833, in which he put the responsibility for slavery in America +on the British government, made a great impression. It was he who +described the appellation D.D. as a couple of "semi-lunar fardels." + +His son, ARTHUR CLEVELAND COXE (1818-1896), who changed the spelling of +the family name, graduated at the University of the City of New York in +1838 and at the General Theological Seminary in 1841. He was rector of +St John's Church, Hartford, in 1843-1854, of Grace Church, Baltimore, in +1854-1863, and of Calvary Church, New York City, in 1863. In 1863 he +became assistant bishop and in 1865 bishop of western New York. He was +strongly influenced by the Oxford Movement. Bishop Coxe wrote spirited +defences of Anglican orders and published several volumes of verse, +notably _Christian Ballads_ (1845). + + + + +COXCIE, MICHAEL (1499-1592), Flemish painter, was born at Malines, and +studied under Bernard van Orley, who probably induced him to visit +Italy. At Rome in 1532 he painted the chapel of Cardinal Enckenvoort in +the church of Santa Maria dell' Anima; and Vasari, who knew him, says +with truth "that he fairly acquired the manner of an Italian." But +Coxcie's principal occupation was designing for engravers; and the fable +of Psyche in thirty-two sheets by Agostino Veneziano and the Master of +the Die are favourable specimens of his skill. During a subsequent +residence in the Netherlands Coxcie greatly extended his practice in +this branch of art. But his productions were till lately concealed under +an interlaced monogram M.C.O.K.X.I.N. Coxcie returned in 1539 to +Malines, where he matriculated, and painted for the chapel of the gild +of St Luke the wings of an altarpiece now in Sanct Veit of Prague. The +centre of this altarpiece, by Mabuse, represents St Luke portraying the +Virgin; the side pieces contain the Martyrdom of St Vitus and the Vision +of St John in Patmos. At van Orley's death in 1541 Coxcie succeeded to +the office of court painter to the regent Mary of Hungary, for whom he +decorated the castle of Binche. He was subsequently patronized by +Charles V., who often coupled his works with those of Titian; by Philip +II., who paid him royally for a copy of van Eyck's "Agnus Dei"; and by +the duke of Alva, who once protected him from the insults of Spanish +soldiery at Malines. There are large and capital works of his +(1587-1588) in St Rombaud of Malines, in Ste Gudule of Brussels, and in +the museums of Brussels and Antwerp. His style is Raphaelesque grafted +on the Flemish, but his imitation of Raphael, whilst it distantly +recalls Giulio Romano, is never free from affectation and stiffness. He +died at Malines on the 5th of March 1592. + + + + +COXE, HENRY OCTAVIUS (1811-1881), English librarian and scholar, was +born at Bucklebury, in Berkshire, on the 20th of September 1811. He was +educated at Westminster school and Worcester College, Oxford. +Immediately on taking his degree in 1833, he began work in the +manuscript department of the British Museum, became in 1838 +sub-librarian of the Bodleian, at Oxford, and in 1860 succeeded Dr +Bandinel as head librarian, an office he held until his death in 1881. +Having proved himself an able palaeographer, he was sent out by the +British government in 1857 to inspect the libraries in the monasteries +of the Levant. He discovered some valuable manuscripts, but the monks +were too wise to part with their treasures. One valuable result of his +travels was the detection of the forgery attempted by Constantine +Simonides. He was the author of various catalogues, and under his +direction that of the Bodleian, in more than 720 volumes, was completed. +He published _Rogeri de Wendover Chronica_, 5 vols. (1841-1844); the +_Black Prince, an historical poem written in French by Chandos Herald_ +(1842); and _Report on the Greek Manuscripts yet remaining in the +Libraries of the Levant_ (1858). He was not only an accurate librarian +but an active and hardworking clergyman, and was for the last +twenty-five years of his life in charge of the parish of Wytham, near +Oxford. He was likewise honorary fellow of Worcester and Corpus Christi +Colleges. He died on the 8th of July 1881. + + + + +COXE, WILLIAM (1747-1828), English historian, son of Dr William Coxe, +physician to the royal household, was born in London on the 7th of March +1747. Educated at Marylebone grammar school and at Eton College, he +proceeded to King's College, Cambridge, and was elected a fellow of this +society in 1768. In 1771 he took holy orders, and afterwards visited +many parts of Europe as tutor and travelling companion to various +noblemen and gentlemen. In 1786 he was appointed vicar of +Kingston-on-Thames, and in 1788 rector of Bemerton, Wiltshire. He also +held the rectory of Stourton from 1801 to 1811 and that of Fovant from +1811 until his death. In 1791 he was made prebendary of Salisbury, and +in 1804 archdeacon of Wiltshire. He married in 1803 Eleanora, daughter +of William Shairp, consul-general for Russia, and widow of Thomas +Yeldham of St Petersburg. He died on the 8th of June 1828. + +During a long residence at Bemerton Coxe was mainly occupied in literary +work. His _Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole_ (London, 1798), _Memoirs of +Horatio, Lord Walpole_ (London, 1802), _Memoirs of John, duke of +Marlborough_ (London, 1818-1819), _Private and Original Correspondence +of Charles Talbot, duke of Shrewsbury_ (London, 1821), _Memoirs of the +Administrations of Henry Pelham_ (London, 1829), are very valuable for +the history of the 18th century. His _History of the House of Austria_ +(London, 1807, new ed. 1853 and 1873), and _Memoirs of the Bourbon Kings +of Spain_ (London, 1813), give evidence of careful and painstaking work +on the part of the author. The style, however, as in all his works, is +remarkably dull. His other works are mainly accounts of his travels: +_Sketches of the Natural, Political and Civil State of Switzerland_ +(London, 1779), _Account of the Russian Discoveries between Asia and +America_ (London, 1780), _Account of Prisons and Hospitals in Russia, +Sweden and Denmark_ (London, 1781), _Travels into Poland, Russia, Sweden +and Denmark_ (London, 1784), _Travels in Switzerland_ (London, 1789), +_Letter on Secret Tribunals of Westphalia_ (London, 1796), _Historical +Tour in Monmouthshire_ (London, 1801). He also edited Gay's _Fables_, +and wrote a _Life of John Gay_ (Salisbury, 1797), _Anecdotes of G. F. +Handel and J. C. Smith_ (London, 1798), and a few other works of minor +importance. Some of his books have been translated into French, and +several have gone through two or more editions. + + + + +COXSWAIN (properly "cockswain," and pronounced _cox'n_, usually +shortened to "cox"; from "cock," a small boat, and _swain_, a servant), +in the navy, a petty officer in charge of a ship's boat and its crew, +who steers; the coxswain of the captain's gig takes a special rank among +petty officers. In the National Lifeboat Institution of Great Britain +the "coxswain" is a paid permanent official on each station, who has +charge of the lifeboat and house, is responsible for its care, and +steers and takes command when afloat. The word is also used, generally, +of any one who steers a boat. + + + + +COXWELL, HENRY TRACEY (1819-1900), English aeronaut, was born at +Wouldham, Kent, on the 2nd of March 1819, the son of a naval officer. He +was educated for the army, but became a dentist. From a boy he had been +greatly interested in ballooning, then in its infancy, but his own first +ascent was not made until 1844. In 1848 he became a professional +aeronaut, making numerous public ascents in the chief continental +cities. Returning to London, he gave exhibitions from the Cremorne and +subsequently from the Surrey Gardens. By 1861 he had made over 400 +ascents. In 1862 in company with Dr James Glaisher, he attained the +greatest height on record, about 7 m. His companion became insensible, +and he himself, unable to use his frost-bitten hands, opened the +gas-valve with his teeth, and made an extremely rapid but safe descent. +The result of this and other aerial voyages by Coxwell and Glaisher was +the making of some important contributions to the science of +meteorology. Coxwell was most pertinacious in urging the practical +utility of employing balloons in time of war. He says: "I had hammered +away in _The Times_ for little less than a decade before there was a +real military trial of ballooning for military purposes at Aldershot." +His last ascent was made in 1885, and he died on the 5th of January +1900. + + See his _My Life and Balloon Experiences_ (1887). + + + + +COYOTE, the Indian name for a North American member of the dog family, +also known as the prairie-wolf, and scientifically as _Canis latrans_. +Ranging from Canada in the north to Guatemala in the south, and chiefly +frequenting the open plains on both sides of the chain of the Rocky +Mountains, the coyote, under all its various local phases, is a smaller +animal than the true wolf, and may apparently be regarded as the New +World representative of the jackals, or perhaps, like the Indian wolf +(_C. pallipes_), as a type intermediate between wolves and jackals. In +addition to its inferior size, the coyote is also shorter in the leg +than the wolf, and carries a more luxuriant coat of hair. The average +length is about 40 in., and the general tone of colour tawny mingled +with black and white above and whitish below, the tail having a black +tip and likewise a dark gland-patch near the root of the upper surface. +There is, however, considerable local variation both in the matter of +size and of colour from the typical coyote of Iowa, which measures about +50 in. in total length and is of a full rich tint. The coyote of the +deserts of eastern California, Nevada and Utah is, for instance, a +smaller and paler-coloured animal, whose length is usually about 42 in. +On this and other local variations a number of nominal species have been +founded; but it is preferable to regard them in the light of +geographical phases or races, such as the above-mentioned _C. latrans +estor_ of Nevada and Utah, _C. l. mearnsi_ of Arizona and Sonora, and +_C. l. frustor_ of Oklahoma and the Arkansas River district. + +It is to distinguish them from the grey, or timber, wolves that coyotes +have received the name of "prairie-wolves"; the two titles indicating +the nature of the respective habitats of the two species. Coyotes are +creatures of slinking and stealthy habits, living in burrows in the +plains, and hunting in packs at night, when they utter yapping cries and +blood-curdling yells as they gallop. Hares ("jack-rabbits"), chipmunks +or ground-squirrels, and mice form a large portion of their food; but +coyotes also kill the fawns of deer and prongbuck, as well as sage-hens +and other kinds of game-birds. "In the flat lands," write Messrs Witmer +Stone and W. E. Cram, in their _American Animals_ (1902), "they dig +burrows for themselves or else take possession of those already made by +badgers and prairie-dogs. Here in the spring the half-dozen or more +coyote pups are brought forth; and it is said that at this season the +old ones systematically drive any large game they may be chasing as near +to their burrow, where the young coyotes are waiting to be fed, as +possible before killing it, in order to save the labour of dragging it +any great distance. When out after jack-rabbits two coyotes usually work +together. When a jack-rabbit starts up before them, one of the coyotes +bounds away in pursuit while the other squats on his haunches and waits +his turn, knowing full well that the hare prefers to run in a circle, +and will soon come round again, when the second wolf takes up the chase +and the other rests in his turn.... When hunting antelope (prongbuck) +and deer the coyotes spread out their pack into a wide circle, +endeavouring to surround their game and keep it running inside their +ring until exhausted. Sage-hens, grouse and small birds the coyote hunts +successfully alone, quartering over the ground like a trained pointer +until he succeeds in locating his bird, when he drops flat in the grass +and creeps forward like a cat until close enough for the final spring." + +When hard put to it for food, coyotes will, it is reported, eat hips, +juniper-berries and other wild fruits. (R. L.*) + + + + +COYPEL, the name of a French family of painters. Noel Coypel +(1628-1707), also called, from the fact that he was much influenced by +Poussin, COYPEL LE POUSSIN, was the son of an unsuccessful artist. +Having been employed by Charles Errard to paint some of the pictures +required for the Louvre, and having afterwards gained considerable fame +by other pictures produced at the command of the king, in 1672 he was +appointed director of the French Academy at Rome. After four years he +returned to France; and not long after he became director of the Academy +of Painting. The Martyrdom of St James in Notre Dame is perhaps his +finest work. + +His son, ANTOINE COYPEL (1661-1772), was still more celebrated than his +father. Antoine studied under his father, with whom he spent four years +at Rome. At the age of eighteen he was admitted into the Academy of +Painting, of which he became professor and rector in 1707, and director +in 1714. In 1716 he was appointed king's painter, and he was ennobled in +the following year. Antoine Coypel received a careful literary +education, the effects of which appear in his works; but the graceful +imagination displayed by his pictures is marred by the fact that he was +not superior to the artificial taste of his age. He was a clever etcher, +and engraved several of his own works. His _Discours prononces dans les +conferences de l' Academie royale de Peinture, &c._; appeared in 1741. + +Antoine's half-brother, NOEL NICHOLAS COYPEL (1692-1734), was also an +exceedingly popular artist; and his son, Charles Antoine (1694-1752), +was painter to the king and director of the Academy of Painting. The +latter published interesting academical lectures in _Le Mercure_ and +wrote several plays which were acted at court, but were never published. + + + + +COYPU, the native name of a large South American aquatic rodent mammal, +known very generally among European residents in the country as nutria +(the Spanish word for otter) and scientifically as _Myocastor_ (or +_Myopotamus_) _coypu_. Its large size, aquatic habits, partially webbed +hind-toes, and the smooth, broad, orange-coloured incisors, are +sufficient to distinguish this rodent from the other members of the +family _Capromyidae_. Coypu are abundant in the fresh waters of South +America, even small ponds being often tenanted by one or more pairs. +Should the water dry up, the coypu seek fresh homes. Although subsisting +to a considerable extent on aquatic plants, these rodents frequently +come ashore to feed, especially in the evening. Several young are +produced at a birth, which are carried on their mother's back when +swimming. The fur is of some commercial value, although rather stiff and +harsh; its colour being reddish-brown. (See RODENTIA.) + + + + +COYSEVOX, CHARLES ANTOINE (1640-1720), French sculptor, was born at +Lyons on the 29th of September 1640, and belonged to a family which had +emigrated from Spain. The name should be pronounced Coezevo. He was only +seventeen when he produced a statue of the Madonna of considerable +merit; and having studied under Lerambert and trained himself by taking +copies in marble from the Greek masterpieces (among others from the +Venus de Medici and the Castor and Pollux), he was engaged by the bishop +of Strassburg, Cardinal Furstenberg, to adorn with statuary his chateau +at Saverne (Zabern). In 1666 he married Marguerite Quillerier, +Lerambert's niece, who died a year after the marriage. In 1671, after +four years spent on Saverne, which was subsequently destroyed by fire in +1780, he returned to Paris. In 1676 his bust of the painter Le Brun +obtained admission for him to the Academie Royale. A year later he +married Claude Bourdict. + +In consequence of the influence exercised by Le Brun between the years +1677 and 1685, he was employed by Louis XIV. in producing much of the +decoration and a large number of statues for Versailles; and he +afterwards worked, between 1701 and 1709, with no less facility and +success, for the palace at Marly, subsequently destroyed in the +Revolution. + +Among his works are the "Mercury and Fame," first at Marly and +afterwards in the gardens of the Tuileries; "Neptune and Amphitrite," in +the gardens at Marly; "Justice and Force," at Versailles; and statues, +in which the likenesses are said to have been remarkably successful, of +most of the celebrated men of his age, including Louis XIV. and Louis +XV. at Versailles, Colbert (at Saint-Eustache), Mazarin (in the church +des Quatre-Nations), Conde the Great (in the Louvre), Maria Theresa of +Austria, Turenne, Vauban, Cardinals de Bouillon and de Polignac, +Fenelon, Racine, Bossuet (in the Louvre), the comte d'Harcourt, Cardinal +Furstenberg and Charles Le Brun (in the Louvre). Coysevox died in Paris +on the 10th of October 1720. + +Besides the works given above he carved about a dozen memorials, +including those to Colbert (at Saint-Eustache), to Cardinal Mazarin (in +the Louvre), and to the painter Le Brun (in the church of Saint +Nicholas-du-Chardon). + + +Among the pupils of Coysevox were Nicolas and Guillaume Coustou. + + See Henry Jouin, _A. Coysevox, sa vie, son oeuvre_ (1883); Jean du + Seigneur, _Revue universelle des arts_, vol. i. (1855), pp. 32 et seq. + + + + +CRAB (Ger. _Krabbe_, _Krebs_), a name applied to the Crustacea of the +order _Brachyura_, and to other forms, especially of the order +_Anomura_, which resemble them more or less closely in appearance and +habits. + +The _Brachyura_, or true crabs, are distinguished from the long-tailed +lobsters and shrimps which form the order _Macrura_, by the fact that +the abdomen or tail is of small size and is carried folded up under the +body. In most of them the body is transversely oval or triangular in +outline and more or less flattened, and is covered by a hard shell, the +carapace. There are five pairs of legs. The first pair end in nippers or +chelae and are usually much more massive than the others which are used +in walking or swimming. The eyes are set on movable stalks and can be +withdrawn into sockets in the front part of the carapace. There are six +pairs of jaws and foot-jaws (maxillipeds) enclosed within a "buccal +cavern," the opening of which is covered by the broad and flattened +third pair of foot-jaws. The abdomen is usually narrow and triangular in +the males, but in the females it is broad and rounded and bears +appendages to which the eggs are attached after spawning (fig. 1). + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Side view of Crab (Morse), the abdomen extended +and carrying a mass of eggs beneath it; e, eggs.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Zoea of Common Shore-Crab in its second stage. +r, Rostral spine; s, Dorsal spine; m, Maxillipeds; t, Buds of thoracic +feet; a, Abdomen. (Spence Bate.)] + +As in most Crustacea, the young of nearly all crabs, when newly hatched, +are very different from their parents. The first larval stage is known +as a Zoea, this name having been given to it when it was believed by +naturalists to be a distinct and independent species of animal. The Zoea +is a minute transparent organism, swimming at the surface of the sea. It +has a rounded body, armed with long spines, and a long segmented tail. +The eyes are large but not set on stalks, the legs are not yet +developed, and the foot-jaws form swimming paddles. After casting its +skin several times as it grows in size, the young crab passes into a +stage known as the _Megalopa_ (fig. 2), also formerly regarded as an +independent animal, in which the body and limbs are more crab-like, but +the abdomen is large and not filled up. After a further moult the +animal assumes a form very similar to that of the adult. There are a few +crabs, living on land or in fresh water, which do not pass through a +metamorphosis but leave the egg as miniature adults. + +Most crabs live in the sea, and even the land-crabs, which are abundant +in tropical countries, nearly all visit the sea occasionally and pass +through their early stages in it. Many shore-crabs living between +tide-marks are more or less amphibious, and the river-crab of southern +Europe or Lenten crab (_Potamon edule_, better known as _Thelphusa +fluviatilis_) is an example of the freshwater crabs which are abundant +in most of the warmer regions of the world. As a rule, crabs breathe by +gills, which are lodged in a pair of cavities at the sides of the +carapace, but in the true land-crabs the cavities become enlarged and +modified so as to act as lungs for breathing air. + +Walking or crawling is the usual mode of locomotion, and the peculiar +sidelong gait familiar to most people in the common shore-crab, is +characteristic of most members of the group. The crabs of the family +_Portunidae_, and some others, swim with great dexterity by means of +their flattened paddle-shaped feet. + +Like many other Crustacea, crabs are often omnivorous and act as the +scavengers of the sea, but many are predatory in their habits and some +are content with a vegetable diet. + +Though no crab, perhaps, is truly parasitic, some live in relations of +"commensalism" with other animals. The best known examples of this are +the little "mussel-crabs" (_Pinnotheridae_) which live within the shells +of mussels and other bivalve mollusca and probably share the food of +their hosts. Some crabs live among corals, and one species at least +gives rise to hollow swellings on the branches of a coral like the +"galls" which are formed on plants by certain insects. Another crab +(_Melia tesselata_) carries in each of its claws a living sea-anemone +which it uses as an animated weapon of defence and an implement for the +capture of prey. Many of the sluggish spider-crabs (_Maiidae_) have +their shells covered by a forest of growing sea-weeds, zoophytes and +sponges, which are "planted" there by the crab itself, and which afford +it a very effective disguise. + +Many of the larger crabs are sought for as food by man. The most +important and valuable are the edible crab of British and European +coasts (_Cancer pagurus_) and the blue crab of the Atlantic coast of the +United States (_Callinectes sapidus_). + +Among the _Anomura_, the best known are the hermit-crabs, which live in +the empty shells of Gasteropod Mollusca, which they carry about with +them as portable dwellings. In these, the abdomen is soft-skinned and +spirally twisted so as to fit into the shells which they inhabit. The +common hermit-crab of the British coasts (_Pagurus_ or _Eupagurus +Bernhardus_) is sometimes called the soldier-crab from its pugnacity. +Small specimens are found between tide-marks inhabiting the shells of +periwinkles and other small molluscs, but the full-grown specimens live +in deeper water and are usually found in the shell of the whelk +(_Buccinum_). As the crab grows it changes its dwelling from time to +time, often having to fight with its fellows for the possession of an +empty shell. Sometimes an annelid worm lives inside the shell along with +the hermit and often the outside is covered with zoophytes. In some +species, as in the British _Eupagurus prideauxi_, a sea-anemone is +constantly found attached to the shell, profiting by the active +locomotion of the crab and probably sharing the crumbs of its food, +while it affords its host protection by its stinging powers. + +In tropical countries the hermit-crabs of the family _Coenobitidae_ live +on land, often at considerable distances from the sea, to which, +however, they return for the purpose of hatching out their spawn. The +large robber-crab or cocoa-nut crab of the Indo-Pacific islands (_Birgus +latro_), which belongs to this family, has given up the habit of +carrying a portable dwelling, and the upper surface of its abdomen has +become covered by shelly plates. The stories of its climbing palm-trees +to get the fruit were long doubted, but it has been seen, and even +photographed in the act. (W. T. CA.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Gecarcinus ruricola_ (Violet Land Crab).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Portunus puber_ (Velvet Swimming Crab).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5. _Podophthalmus vigil_ (Sentinel Spinous Crab).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--_Eupagurus Bernhardus_ (Soldier Crab).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Pinnotheres pisum_ (Pea Crab).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Corystes Cassivelaunus_ (Masked Crab).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Eupagurus angulatus_ (a Hermit Crab).] + + + + +CRABBE, GEORGE (1754-1832), English poet, was born at Aldeburgh in +Suffolk on the 24th of December 1754. His family was partly of Norfolk, +partly of Suffolk origin, and the name was doubtless originally derived +from "crab." His grandfather, Robert Crabbe, was the first of the family +to settle at Aldeburgh, where he held the appointment of collector of +customs. He died in 1734, leaving one son, George, who practised many +occupations, including that of a schoolmaster, in the adjoining village +of Orford. Finally the poet's father obtained a small post in the +customs of Aldeburgh, married Mary Lodwick, the widow of a publican, and +had six children, of whom George was the eldest. + +The sea has swept away the small cottage that was George Crabbe's +birthplace, but one may still visit the quay at Slaughden, some +half-mile from the town, where the father worked and the son was at a +later date to work with him. At first attending a dame's school in +Aldeburgh, when nine or ten years of age he was sent to a +boarding-school at Bungay, and at twelve to a school at Stowmarket, +where he remained two years. His father dreamt of the medical profession +for his clever boy, and so in 1768 he went to Wickham Brook near +Newmarket as an apothecary's assistant. In 1771 we find him assisting a +surgeon at Woodbridge, and it was while here that he met Sarah Elmy. +Crabbe was now only eighteen years of age, but he became "engaged" to +this lady in 1772. It was not until 1783 that the pair were married. The +intervening years were made up of painful struggle, in which, however, +not only the affection but the purse of his betrothed assisted him. +About the time of Crabbe's return from Woodbridge to Aldeburgh he +published at Ipswich his first work, a poem entitled _Inebriety_ (1775). +He found his father fallen on evil days. There was no money to assist +him to a partnership, and surgery for the moment seemed out of the +question. For a few weeks Crabbe worked as a common labourer, rolling +butter casks on Slaughden quay. Before the year was out, however, the +young man bought on credit "the shattered furniture of an apothecary's +shop and the drugs that stocked it." This was at Aldeburgh. A year later +Crabbe installed a deputy in the surgery and paid his first visit to +London. He lodged in Whitechapel, took lessons in midwifery and walked +the hospitals. Returning to Aldeburgh after nine months--in 1777--he +found his practice gone. Even as a doctor for the poor he was an utter +failure, poetry having probably taken too firm a hold upon his mind. At +times he suffered hunger, so utterly unable was he to earn a livelihood. +After three years of this, in 1780 Crabbe paid his second visit to +London, enabled thereto by the loan of five pounds from Dudley Lang, a +local magnate. This visit to London, which was undertaken by sea on +board the "Unity" smack, made for Crabbe a successful career. His poem +_The Candidate_, issued soon after his arrival, helped not at all. For a +time he almost starved, and was only saved, it is clear, by gifts of +money from his sweetheart Sarah Elmy. He importuned the great, and the +publishers also. Everywhere he was refused, but at length a letter which +reached Edmund Burke in March 1781 led to the careful consideration on +the part of that great man of Crabbe's many manuscripts. Burke advised +the publication of _The Library_, which appeared in 1781. He invited him +to Beaconsfield, and made interest in the right quarters to secure +Crabbe's entry into the church. He was ordained in December 1781 and was +appointed curate to the rector of Aldeburgh. + +Crabbe was not happy in his new post. The Aldeburgh folk could not +reverence as priest a man they had known as a day labourer. Crabbe again +appealed to Burke, who persuaded the duke of Rutland to make him his +chaplain (1782), and Crabbe took up his residence in Belvoir Castle, +accompanying his new patron to London, when Lord Chancellor Thurlow (who +told him he was "as like Parson Adams as twelve to the dozen") gave him +the two livings of Frome St Quentin and Evershot in Dorsetshire, worth +together about L200 a year. In May 1783 Crabbe's poem _The Village_ was +published by Dodsley, and in December of this year he married Sarah +Elmy. Crabbe continued his duties as ducal chaplain, being in the main a +non-resident priest so far as his Dorsetshire parishes were concerned. +In 1785 he published _The Newspaper_. Shortly after this he moved with +his wife from Belvoir Castle to the parsonage of Stathern, where he took +the duties of the non-resident vicar Thomas Parke, archdeacon of +Stamford. Crabbe was at Stathern for four years. In 1789, through the +persuasion of the duchess of Rutland (now a widow, the duke having died +in Dublin as lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1787), Thurlow gave Crabbe +the two livings of Muston in Leicestershire and West Allington in +Lincolnshire. At Muston parsonage Crabbe resided for twelve years, +divided by a long interval. He had been four years at Muston when his +wife inherited certain interests in a property of her uncle's that +placed her and her husband in possession of Ducking Hall, Parham, +Suffolk. Here he took up his residence from 1793 to 1796, leaving +curates in charge of his two livings. In 1796 the loss of their son +Edmund led the Crabbes to remove from Parham to Great Glemham Hall, +Suffolk, where they lived until 1801. In that year Crabbe went to live +at Rendham, a village in the same neighbourhood. In 1805 he returned to +Muston. In 1807 he broke a silence of more than twenty years by the +publication of _The Parish Register_, in 1810 of _The Borough_, and in +1812 of _Tales in Verse_. In 1813 Crabbe's wife died, and in 1814 he was +given the living of Trowbridge, Wiltshire, by the duke of Rutland, a son +of his early patron, who, it is interesting to recall, wanted the living +of Muston for a cousin of Lord Byron. From 1814 to his death in 1832 +Crabbe resided at Trowbridge. + +These last years were the most prosperous of his life. He was a constant +visitor to London, and in friendship with all the literary celebrities +of the time. "Crabbe seemed to grow young again," remarks his +biographer, M. Rene Huchon. He certainly carried on a succession of mild +flirtations, and one of his parishioners, Charlotte Ridout, would have +married him. The elderly widower had proposed to her and had been +accepted in 1814, but he drew out of the engagement in 1816. He proposed +to yet another friend, Elizabeth Charter, somewhat later. In his visits +to London Crabbe was the guest of Samuel Rogers, in St James's Place, +and was a frequent visitor to Holland House, where he met his brother +poets Moore and Campbell. In 1817 his _Tales of the Hall_ were +completed, and John Murray offered L3000 for the copyright, Crabbe's +previous works being included. The offer after much negotiation was +accepted, but Crabbe's popularity was now on the wane. + +In 1822 Crabbe went to Edinburgh on a visit to Sir Walter Scott. The +adventure, complicated as it was by the visit of George IV. about the +same time, is most amusingly described in Lockhart's biography of Scott, +although one episode--that of the broken wine-glass--is discredited by +Crabbe's biographer, M. Huchon. Crabbe died at Trowbridge on the 3rd of +February 1832, and was buried in Trowbridge church, where an ornate +monument was placed over his tomb in August 1833. + +Never was any poet at the same time so great and continuous a favourite +with the critics, and yet so conspicuously allowed to fall into oblivion +by the public. All the poets of his earlier and his later years, Cowper, +Scott, Byron, Shelley in particular, have been reprinted again and +again. With Crabbe it was long quite otherwise. His works were collected +into eight volumes, the first containing his life by his son, in 1832. +The edition was intended to continue with some of his prose writings, +but the reception of the eight volumes was not sufficiently encouraging. +A reprint, however, in one volume was made in 1847, and it has been +reproduced since in 1854, 1867 and 1901. The exhaustion of the +copyright, however, did no good for Crabbe's reputation, and it was not +until the end of the century that sundry volumes of "selections" from +his poems appeared; Edward FitzGerald, of Omar Khayyam fame, always a +loyal admirer, made a "Selection," privately printed by Quaritch, in +1879. A "Selection" by Bernard Holland appeared in 1899, another by C. +H. Herford in 1902 and a third by Deane in 1903. The _Complete Works_ +were published by the Cambridge University Press in three volumes, +edited by A. W. Ward, in 1906. + +Crabbe's poems have been praised by many competent pens, by Edward +FitzGerald in his _Letters_, by Cardinal Newman in his _Apologia_, and +by Sir Leslie Stephen in his _Hours in a Library_, most notably. His +verses comforted the last hours of Charles James Fox and of Sir Walter +Scott, while Thomas Hardy has acknowledged their influence on the +realism of his novels. But his works have ceased to command a wide +public interest. He just failed of being the artist in words who is able +to make the same appeal in all ages. Yet to-day his poems will well +repay perusal. His stories are profoundly poignant and when once read +are never forgotten. He is one of the great realists of English fiction, +for even considered as a novelist he makes fascinating reading. He is +more than this: for there is true poetry in Crabbe, although his most +distinctively lyric note was attained when he wrote under the influence +of opium, to which he became much addicted in his later years. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_The Works of Crabbe_ (8 vols., Murray, 1834; 1 vol., + Murray, 1901), and the _Works_ in the Cambridge Press Classics, edited + by A. W. Ward (1906), have already been referred to. The life by + Crabbe's son in one volume, _The Life of the Rev. George Crabbe, + LL.B., by his son the Rev. George Crabbe, A.M._ (1834), has not been + separately reprinted as it deserves to be. A recent biography is + _George Crabbe and His Times, 1754-1832; A Critical and Biographical + Study_, by Rene Huchon, translated from the French by Frederick Clarke + (1907). Brief biographies by T. H. Kebbel ("Great Writers" series) and + by Canon Ainger ("English Men of Letters" series) also deserve + attention. (C. K. S.) + + + + +CRACKER (from "crack," a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. _krachen_, Dutch +_kraken_, meaning to break with a sharp sound), that which "cracks"; it +is, therefore, applied (1) to a firework so constructed that it explodes +with several reports and jumps at each explosion, when placed on the +ground (see FIREWORKS); (2) to a roll of coloured and ornamented paper +containing sweets, small articles of cheap jewelry, paper caps and other +trifles, together with a strip of card with a fulminant which explodes +with a "crack" on being pulled; (3) to a thin crisp biscuit (q.v.); in +America the general name for a biscuit. In the southern states of +America, "cracker" is a term of contempt for the "poor" or "mean +whites," particularly of Georgia and Florida; the term is an old one and +dates back to the Revolution, and is supposed to be derived from the +"cracked corn" which formed the staple food of the class to whom the +term refers. + + + + +CRACOW (Pol. _Krakov_; Ger. _Krakau_), a town and episcopal see of +Austria, in Galicia, 212 m. W. by N. of Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900) +91,310, of which 21,000 were Jews, 5000 Germans and the remainder Poles. +Although in regard to its population it is only the second place in +Galicia, Cracow is the most interesting town in the whole of Poland. No +other Polish town possesses so many old and historic buildings, none of +them contains so many national relics, or has been so closely associated +with the development and destinies of Poland as Cracow. And the ancient +capital is still the intellectual centre of the Polish nation. + +Cracow is situated in a fertile plain on the left bank of the Vistula +(which becomes navigable here) and occupies a position of great +strategical importance. It consists of the old inner town and seven +suburbs. The only relics of the fortifications of the old town, whose +place is now occupied by shady promenades, is the Florian's Gate and the +Rondell, a circular structure, built in 1498. Cracow has 39 +churches--about half the number it formerly had--and 25 convents for +monks and nuns. Of these the most important is the Stanislaus cathedral, +in Gothic style, consecrated in 1359, and built on the Wawel, the rocky +eminence to the S.W. of the old town. Here the kings of Poland were +crowned, and this church is also the Pantheon of the Polish nation, the +burial place of its kings and its great men. Here lie the remains of +John Sobieski, of Thaddaeus Kosciuszko, of Joseph Poniatowski and of +Adam Mickiewicz. Here also are conserved the remains of St Stanislaus, +the patron saint of the Poles, who, as bishop of Cracow, was slain +before the altar by King Boleslaus in 1079. The cathedral is adorned +with many valuable objects of art, paintings and sculptures, by such +artists as Veit Stoss, Guido Reni, Peter Vischer, Thorwaldsen, &c. Part +of the ancient Polish regalia is also kept here. The Gothic church of St +Mary, founded in 1223, rebuilt in the 14th century with several chapels +added in the 15th and 16th centuries, was restored in 1889-1893, and +decorated with paintings from the designs by Matejko. It contains a huge +high altar, the masterpiece of Veit Stoss, who was a native of Cracow, +executed in 1477-1489; a colossal stone crucifix, dating from the end +of the 15th century, and several sumptuous tombs of noble families from +the 16th and 17th centuries. The Dominican church, a Gothic building of +the 13th century, but practically rebuilt after a fire in 1850; the +Franciscan church, also of the 13th century, also much modernized; the +church of St Florian of the 12th century, rebuilt in 1768, which +contains the late-Gothic altar by Veit Stoss, executed in 1518, during +his last sojourn in Cracow; the church of St Peter, with a colossal +dome, built in 1597, after the model of that of St Peter at Rome, and +the beautiful Augustinian church in the suburb of Kazimierz, are all +worth mentioning. Of the principal secular buildings, the royal castle +(_Zamek Krolowsk_), a huge building, begun in the 13th century, and +successively enlarged by Casimir the Great and by Sigismund I. Jagiello +(1510-1533), is situated on the Wawel, and was until 1610 the residence +of the Polish kings. It suffered much from fires and other disasters, +and from 1846 onward was used as a barracks and a military hospital; it +has now, however, been cleared out and restored. The Jagellonian +university, now housed in a magnificent Gothic building erected in +1881-1887, was attended in 1901 by 1255 students, and had 175 professors +and lecturers. The language of instruction is Polish. It is the second +oldest university in Europe--the oldest being that of Prague--and was +famous during the 15th and 16th centuries. It was founded by Casimir the +Great in 1364, and completed by Ladislaus Jagiello in 1400. Its rich +library is now housed in the old university buildings, erected in the +15th century, in the beautiful Gothic court of which a bronze statue of +Copernicus was placed in 1900. The Polish Academy of Science, founded in +1872, is housed in the new university buildings. In the Ring-Platz, or +the principal square, opposite the church of St Mary, is the _Tuchhaus_ +(cloth-hall, Pol. _Sukiennice_), a building erected in 1257, several +times renovated and enlarged, most recently in 1879, which contains the +Polish national museum of art. Behind it is a Gothic tower, the only +relic of the old town hall, demolished in 1820. The Czartoryski museum +contains a large collection of objects of art, a rich library and a +precious collection of manuscripts, relating to the history of Poland. + +Among the manufactures of the town are machinery, agricultural +implements, chemicals, soap, tobacco, &c. But Cracow is more important +as a trading than as an industrial centre. Its position on the Vistula +and at the junction of several railways makes it the natural mart for +the exchange of the products of Silesia, Hungary and Russian and +Austrian Poland. Its trade in timber, salt, textiles, cattle, wine and +agricultural produce of all kinds is very considerable. In the +neighbourhood of Cracow there are mines of coal and zinc, and not far +away lies the village of Krzeszowice with sulphur baths. About 2-1/2 m. +N.W. lies the Kosciuszko Hill, a mound of earth 100 ft. high, thrown up +in 1820-1823 on the Borislava hill (1093 ft.), in honour of Thaddaeus +Kosciuszko, the hero of Poland. On the opposite bank of the Vistula, +united to Cracow by a bridge, lies the town of Podgorze (pop. 18,142); +near it is the Krakus Hill, smaller than the Kosciuszko Hill, and a +thousand years older than it, erected in honour of Krakus, the founder +of Cracow. About 8 m. S.E. of Cracow is situated Wieliczka (q.v.), with +its famous salt mines. + +_History._--Tradition assigns the foundation of Cracow to the mythical +Krak, a Polish prince who is said to have built a stronghold here about +A.D. 700. Its early history is, however, entirely obscure. In the latter +part of the 10th century it was annexed to the Bohemian principality, +but was recaptured by Boleslaus Chrobry, who made it the seat of a +bishopric, and it became the capital of one of the most important of the +principalities into which Poland was divided from the 12th century +onwards. The city was practically ruined during the first Tatar invasion +in 1241, but the introduction of German colonists restored its +prosperity, and in 1257 it received "Magdeburg rights," i.e. a civic +constitution modelled on that of Magdeburg. In this year the _Tuchhalle_ +was built. The town, however, had yet to pass through many vicissitudes. +It suffered again from Tatar invasions; in 1290 it was captured by +Wenceslaus II. of Bohemia and was held by the Bohemians until, in 1305, +the Polish king Ladislaus Lokietek recovered it from Wenceslaus III. +Ladislaus made it his capital, and from this time until 1764 it remained +the coronation and burial place of the Polish kings, even after the +royal residence had been removed by Siegmund III. (1587-1632) to Warsaw. +On the third partition of Poland in 1795 Austria took possession of +Cracow; but in 1809 Napoleon wrested it from that power, and +incorporated it with the duchy of Warsaw, which was placed under the +rule of the king of Saxony. In the campaign of 1812 the emperor +Alexander made himself master of this and the other territory which +formed the duchy of Warsaw. At the general settlement of the affairs of +Europe by the great powers in 1815, it was agreed that Cracow and the +adjoining territory should be formed into a free state; and, by the +Final Act of the congress signed at Vienna in 1815, "the town of Cracow, +with its territory, is declared to be for ever a free, independent and +strictly neutral city, under the protection of Russia, Austria and +Prussia." In February 1846, however, an insurrection broke out in +Cracow, apparently a ramification of a widely spread conspiracy +throughout Poland. The senate and the other authorities of Cracow were +unable to subdue the rebels or to maintain order, and, at their request, +the city was occupied by a corps of Austrian troops for the protection +of the inhabitants. The three powers, Russia, Austria and Prussia, made +this a pretext for extinguishing this independent state; and as the +outcome of a conference at Vienna (November 1846) the three courts, +contrary to the assurance previously given, and in opposition to the +expressed views of the British and French governments, decided to +extinguish the state of Cracow and to incorporate it with the dominions +of Austria. + + + + +CRADDOCK, CHARLES EGBERT (1850- ), the pen-name of MARY NOAILLES +MURFREE, American author, who was born near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, on +the 24th of January 1850, the great-granddaughter of Col. Hardy Murfree. +She was crippled in childhood by paralysis. She attended school in +Nashville and Philadelphia. Spending her summers in the mountains of +eastern Tennessee, she came to know the primitive people there with +whose life her writings deal. She contributed to _Appleton's Journal_, +and, first in 1878, to _The Atlantic Monthly_. No one, apparently, +suspected that the author of these stories was a woman, and her identity +was not disclosed until 1885, a year after the publication of her first +volume of short stories, _In the Tennessee Mountains_. She deals mainly +with the narrow, stern life of the Tennessee mountaineers, who, left +behind in the advance of civilization, live amid traditions and customs, +and speak a dialect, peculiarly their own; and her work abounds in +exquisite descriptions of scenery. Among her other books are: _Where the +Battle was Fought_ (1884), a novel dealing with the old aristocratic +southern life; _Down the Ravine_ (1885) and _The Story of Keedon Bluffs_ +(1887) for young people; _The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains_ +(1885), a novel; _In the Clouds_ (1886), a novel; _The Despot of +Broomsedge Cove_ (1888), a novel; _In the "Stranger-People's" Country_ +(1891); _His Vanished Star_ (1894), a novel; _The Mystery of Witch-Face +Mountain and Other Stories_ (1895); _The Phantoms of the Footbridge and +Other Stories_ (1895); _The Young Mountaineers_ (1897), short stories; +_The Juggler_ (1897); _The Story of Old Fort Loudon_ (1899); _The +Bushwhackers and Other Stories_ (1899); _The Champion_ (1902); _A +Spectre of Power_ (1903); _The Frontiersman_ (1904); _The Storm Centre_ +(1905); _The Amulet_ (1906); _The Windfall_ (1907); and _Fair +Mississippian_ (1908). + + + + +CRADLE (of uncertain etymology, possibly connected with "crate" and +"creel," i.e. basket; the derivation from a Celtic word, with a sense of +rocking, is scouted by the _New English Dictionary_), a child's bed of +wood, wicker or iron, with enclosed sides, slung upon pivots or mounted +on rockers. It is a very ancient piece of furniture, but the date when +it first assumed its characteristic swinging or rocking form is by no +means clear. A miniature in an illuminated _Histoire de la belle +Helaine_ in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris (end of the 14th or +beginning of the 15th century) shows an infant sleeping in a tiny +four-post bed slung upon rockers. In its oldest forms the cradle is an +oblong oak box without a lid--originally the rockers appear to have +been detachable--but, like all other household appliances, it has been +subject to changes of fashion alike in shape and adornment. It has been +panelled and carved, supported on Renaissance pillars, inlaid with +marqueterie or mounted in gilded bronze. The original simple shape +persisted for two or three centuries--even the hood made its appearance +very early. In the 18th century, however, cradles were often very +elaborate--indeed in France they had begun to be so much earlier, but +the richly carved and upholstered examples were used chiefly for +purposes of state, being in fact miniature _lits de parade_. In modern +times they have become lighter and simpler, the old hood being very +often replaced by a draped curtain dependent from a carved or shaped +upright. About the middle of the 19th century iron cradles were +introduced, along with iron bedsteads. A number of undoubted historic +cradles have been preserved, together with many others with doubtful +attributions. Two alleged cradles of Henry V. exist; one which claims to +have been used by the unhappy earl of Derwentwater is in the Victoria +and Albert Museum in London; the other is at Windsor Castle. That of +Henry IV. of France, now in the Chateau de Pau, is mounted upon a large +tortoiseshell. That of the king of Rome ("Napoleon II.") was designed by +Prud'hon, and along with that of the comte de Chambord is preserved in +the Garde Meuble. In England a cradle is now often called a "bassinet" +(i.e. little basket), and the "cot" has to some extent taken its place. +By analogy, the word "cradle" is also applied to various sorts of +framework in engineering, and to a rocking-tool used in engraving. + + + + +CRADOCK, a town of South Africa, capital of a division of the Cape +province, in the upper valley of the Great Fish river, 181 m. by rail N. +by E. of Port Elizabeth. Pop. (1904) 7762. It is one of the chief +centres of the wool industry of the Cape, and does also a large trade in +ostrich feathers, mohair, &c. The town enjoys a reputation as one of the +best health resorts in the province. It stands at an altitude of 2856 +ft.; the climate is very dry, the average annual rainfall being 14.50 +in. The mean maximum temperature is 77.6 deg. F. Three miles N. of the +town are sulphur baths (temp. 100 deg. F.) used for the treatment of +rheumatism. In the neighbouring district survive a few herds of zebras, +now protected by the game laws. The town dates from the beginning of the +19th century and is named after Sir John Cradock, governor of the Cape +1811-1813. The division has an area of 3048 sq. m. and a pop. (1904) of +18,803, of whom 41% are white. + + + + +CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. +Ger. _Kraft_), a word confined in English only, of the Teutonic +languages in which it occurs, to intellectual power, and used as a +synonym of "art." It then means skill or ingenuity, especially in the +manual arts, hence its use in the expression "Arts and Crafts" (q.v.), +and it is thus applied to the trade or profession in which such skill is +displayed, to an association of workmen of a particular trade, a trade +gild, and in particular to Freemasons, "the craft"; the word appears +also in words such as "handicraft" or "craftsman." Skill applied to +outwit or deceive gives the common sense of cunning or trickery, and it +is this meaning which is implied in such combined words as +"priestcraft," "witchcraft" and the like. A more particular use of the +word is in the nautical sense of vessels of transport by water; this is +probably a colloquially shortened form either of "vessels of a +fisherman's, lighterman's &c., craft," i.e. "art," or of "vessels of a +heavier or lighter craft," i.e. burden or capacity; in both cases the +qualifying words are dropped and the word comes to be used of vessels in +general. + + + + +CRAG (a Celtic word, cf. Gael. _creag_, Manx _creg_, and Welsh and +modern Scots _craig_), a steep rock. The word appears in many +place-names in the north of England and in Scotland, and is also +connected with "carrick," a word of similar meaning, also found in +place-names. In geology, the term is applied to the strata in which a +shelly sand deposit is found, and, in the expression "crag and tail," to +a formation of hills, in which one side is precipitous and lofty and the +other slopes or "tails" gradually away, as in the Castle Rock in +Edinburgh. + + + + +CRAGGS, JAMES (1657-1721), English politician, was a son of Anthony +Craggs of Holbeck, Durham, and was baptized on the 10th of June 1657. +After following various callings in London, Craggs, who was a person of +considerable financial ability, entered the service of the duchess of +Marlborough, and through her influence became in 1702 member of +parliament for Grampound, retaining his seat until 1713. He was in +business as an army clothier and held several official positions, +becoming joint postmaster-general in 1715; and, making the most of his +opportunities in all these capacities, he amassed a great deal of money. +Craggs also increased his wealth by mixing in the affairs of the South +Sea Company, but after his death an act of parliament confiscated all +the property which he had acquired since December 1719. He left an +enormous fortune when he died on the 16th of March 1721. It is possible +that Craggs committed suicide. + +His son, JAMES CRAGGS the younger (1686-1721), was born at Westminster +on the 9th of April 1686. Part of his early life was spent abroad, where +he made the acquaintance of George Louis, elector of Hanover, afterwards +King George I. In 1713 he became member of parliament for Tregoney, in +1717 secretary-at-war, and in the following year one of the principal +secretaries of state. Craggs was implicated in the South Sea Bubble, but +not so deeply as his father, whom he predeceased, dying on the 16th of +February 1721. Among Craggs's friends were Pope, who wrote the epitaph +on his monument in Westminster Abbey, Addison and Gay. + + + + +CRAIG, JOHN (1512?-1600), Scottish reformer, born about 1512, was the +son of Craig of Craigston, Aberdeenshire, who was killed at Flodden in +1513. After an education at St Andrews, and acting as tutor to the +children of Lord Darcy, the English warden of the North, he became a +Dominican, but was soon in trouble as a heretic. In 1536 he made his way +to England, but failing to obtain the preferment he desired at +Cambridge, he went on to Italy, where the influence of Cardinal Pole, +who was himself accused of heresy, secured him the post of master of the +novices in the Dominican convent at Bologna. For some years he was busy +travelling in the Levant in the interests of his order, but a perusal of +Calvin's _Institutes_ revived his heretical tendencies, and he was +condemned to be burnt. Like the English scholar and statesman, Thomas +Wilson, he owed his escape to the riot which broke out on the death of +Paul IV. on the 18th of August 1559, when the mob burst open the prison +of the Inquisition. After various adventures he reached Vienna, where he +preached, and was protected by the semi-Lutheran archduke (afterwards +the emperor) Maximilian II. + +In 1560 he returned to Scotland, where in 1561 he was ordained minister +of Holyrood, and in 1562 Knox's colleague in the High Church. His +defence of church property and privilege against the predatory instincts +of the nobles and the pretensions of the state brought him into conflict +with Lethington and others; but he seems to have condoned, if he was not +privy to, Riccio's murder. At first he refused to publish the banns of +marriage between Mary and Bothwell, though in the end he yielded with a +protest that he "abhorred and detested the marriage." He had been +associated with Knox in various commissions for the organization of the +church, but he wished to compromise between the two extreme parties. +From 1571-1579 Craig was in the north, whither he had been sent to +"illuminate those dark places in Mar, Buchan and Aberdeen." In 1579 he +was appointed chaplain to the young James VI., and returned to +Edinburgh. In 1581 episcopacy was abolished as a result of the report of +a commission on which Craig had sat; he also assisted at the composition +of the _Second Book of Discipline_ and the National Covenant of 1580, +and in 1581 compiled "Ane Shorte and Generale Confession" called the +"King's Confession," which was imposed on all parish ministers and +graduates and became the basis of the Covenant of 1638. He approved of +the Ruthven raid, and admonished James in terms which made him weep, but +produced no alteration in his conduct, and before long Craig was +denouncing the supremacy of Arran. But he was averse from the violence +of Melville, and was willing to admit the royal supremacy "as far as the +word of God allows." James VI., like Henry VIII., accepted this +compromise, and the oath in this form was taken by Craig, the royal +chaplains and some others. In 1592 was published Craig's _Catechism_. He +died on the 12th of December 1600. + + See T. G. Law's Pref. to Craig's _Catechism_ (1885); Bain's _Cal. + Scottish State Papers_; Reg. P. C. Scotl.; Hew Scott's _Fasti Eccles._ + Scot.; Knox's, Calderwood's and Grub's _Eccles. Histories_; McCrie's + _Life of Melville_; Hay Fleming's _Mary, Queen of Scots_; Bannatyne's + _Memorials_. (A. F. P.) + + + + +CRAIG, SIR THOMAS (c. 1538-1608), Scottish jurist and poet, was born +about 1538. It is probable that he was the eldest son of William Craig +of Craigfintray, or Craigston, in Aberdeenshire, but beyond the fact +that he was in some way related to the Craigfintray family nothing +regarding his birth is known with certainty. He was educated at St +Andrews, where he took the B.A. degree in 1555. From St Andrews he went +to France, to study the canon and the civil law. He returned to Scotland +about 1561, and was admitted advocate in February 1563. In 1564 he was +appointed justice-depute by the justice-general, Archibald, earl of +Argyll; and in this capacity he presided at many of the criminal trials +of the period. In 1573 he was appointed sheriff-depute of Edinburgh, and +in 1606 procurator for the church. He never became a lord of session, a +circumstance that was unquestionably due to his own choice. It is said +that he refused the honour of knighthood which the king wished to confer +on him in 1604, when he came to London as one of the Scottish +commissioners regarding the union between the kingdoms--the only +political object he seems to have cared about; but in accordance with +James's commands he has always been styled and reputed a knight. Craig +was married to Helen, daughter of Heriot of Lumphoy in Midlothian, by +whom he had four sons and three daughters. His eldest son, Sir Lewis +Craig (1569-1622), was raised to the bench in 1604, and among his other +descendants are several well-known names in the list of Scottish +lawyers. He died on the 26th of February 1608. + +Except his poems, the only one of Craig's works which appeared during +his lifetime was his _Jus feudale_ (1603; ed. R. Burnet, 1655; Leipzig, +1716; ed. J. Baillie 1732). The object of this treatise was to +assimilate the laws of England and Scotland, but, instead of this, it +was an important factor in building up and solidifying the law of +Scotland into a separate system. Other works were _De unione regnorum +Britanniae tractatus, De jure successionis regni Angliae_ and _De +hominio disputatio_. Translations of the last two have been published, +and in 1910 an edition of the _De Unione_ appeared, with translation and +notes by C. S. Terry. Craig's first poem, an _Epithalamium_ in honour of +the marriage of Mary queen of Scots and Darnley, appeared in 1565. Most +of his poems have been reprinted in the _Delitiae poetarum Scotorum_. + + See P. F. Tytler, _Life of Craig_ (1823); Life prefixed to Baillie's + edition of the _Jus feudale_. + + + + +CRAIGIE, PEARL MARY TERESA (1867-1906), Anglo-American novelist and +dramatist, who wrote under the pen-name of "JOHN OLIVER HOBBES," was +born at Boston, U.S.A., on the 3rd of November 1867. She was the elder +daughter of John Morgan Richards, and was educated in London and Paris. +When she was nineteen she married Reginald Walpole Craigie, by whom she +had one son, John Churchill Craigie: but the marriage proved an unhappy +one, and was dissolved on her petition in July 1895. She was brought up +as a Nonconformist, but in 1892 was received into the Roman Catholic +Church, of which she remained a devout and serious member. Her first +little book, the brilliant and epigrammatic _Some Emotions and a Moral_, +was published in 1891 in Mr Fisher Unwin's "Pseudonym Library," and was +followed by _The Sinner's Comedy_ (1892), _A Study in Temptations_ +(1893), _A Bundle of Life_ (1894), _The Gods, Some Mortals, and Lord +Wickenham_. _The Herb Moon_ (1896), a country love story, was followed +by _The School for Saints_ (1897), with a sequel, _Robert Orange_ +(1900). Mrs Craigie had already written a one-act "proverb," _Journeys +end in Lovers Meeting_, produced by Ellen Terry in 1894, and a three-act +tragedy, "Osbern and Ursyne," printed in the _Anglo-Saxon Review_ +(1899), when her successful piece, _The Ambassador_, was produced at the +St James's Theatre in 1898. _A Repentance_ (one act, 1899) and _The +Wisdom of the Wise_ (1900) were produced at the same theatre, and _The +Flute of Pan_ (1904) first at Manchester and then at the Shaftesbury +theatre; she was also part author of _The Bishop's Move_ (Garrick +Theatre, 1902). Later books are _The Serious Wooing_ (1901), _Love and +the Soul Hunters_ (1902), _Tales about Temperament_ (1902), _The +Vineyard_ (1904). Mrs Craigie died suddenly of heart failure in London +on the 13th of August 1906. + + + + +CRAIK, DINAH MARIA (1826-1887), English novelist, better known by her +maiden name of Mulock, and still better as "the author of _John Halifax, +Gentleman_," was the daughter of Thomas Mulock, an eccentric religious +enthusiast of Irish extraction, and was born on the 20th of April 1826 +at Stoke-upon-Trent, in Staffordshire, where her father was the minister +of a small congregation. She settled in London about 1846, determined to +obtain a livelihood by her pen, and, beginning with fiction for +children, advanced steadily until _John Halifax, Gentleman_ (1857), +placed her in the front rank of the women novelists of her day. _A Life +for a Life_ (1859), though inferior, maintained a high position, but she +afterwards wrote little of importance except some very charming tales +for children. Her most remarkable novels, after those mentioned above, +were _The Ogilvies_ (1849), _Olive_ (1850), _The Head of the Family_ +(1851), _Agatha's Husband_ (1853). There is much passion and power in +these early works, and all that Mrs Craik wrote was characterized by +high principle and deep feeling. Some of the short stories in _Avillion +and other Tales_ also exhibit a fine imagination. She published some +poems distinguished by genuine lyrical spirit, narratives of tours in +Ireland and Cornwall, and _A Woman's Thoughts about Women_. She married +Mr G. L. Craik, a partner in the house of Macmillan & Company, in 1864, +and died at Shortlands, near Bromley, Kent, on the 12th of October 1887. + + + + +CRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE (1798-1866), English man of letters, the son of a +schoolmaster, was born at Kennoway, Fifeshire, in 1798. He studied at +the university of St Andrews with the intention of entering the church, +but, altering his plans, became the editor of a local newspaper, and +went to London in 1824 to devote himself to literature. He became +connected with a short-lived literary paper called the _Verulam_; in +1831 he published his _Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties_ among +the works of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge; he +contributed a considerable number of biographical and historical +articles to the _Penny Cyclopaedia_; and he edited the _Pictorial +History of England_, himself writing much of the work. In 1844 he +published his _History of Literature and Learning in England from the +Norman Conquest to the Present Time_, illustrated by extracts. Craik is +best known for his abridged version of this work, _The History of +English Literature and the English Language_ (1861), which passed +through several editions. In the next year appeared his _Spenser and his +Poetry_, an abstract of Spenser's poems, with historical and +biographical notes and frequent quotations; and in 1847 his _Bacon, his +Writings and his Philosophy_, a work of a similar kind. The two +last-mentioned works appeared among _Knight's Weekly Volumes_. Two years +later Craik obtained the chair of history and English literature at +Queen's College, Belfast, a position which he held till his death, which +took place on the 25th of June 1866. He had married Miss Jeannette +Dempster (d. 1856) in 1826, and his daughter, Georgiana Marion Craik +(Mrs A. W. May), wrote over thirty novels, of which _Lost and Won_ +(1859) was the best. Besides the works already noticed, Craik published +the _History of British Commerce from the Earliest Times_ (1844), +_Romance of the Peerage_ (1848-1850) and _The English of Shakespeare_ +(1856). + + + + +CRAIL (formerly KAREL), a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, +2 m. from Fife Ness, the most easterly point of the county, and 11 m. +S.E. of St Andrews by the North British railway, but 2 m. nearer by +road. Pop. (1901) 1077. It is said to have been a town of some note as +early as the 9th century; and its castle, of which there are hardly any +remains, was the residence of David I. and other Scottish kings. It was +constituted a royal burgh by a charter of Robert Bruce in 1306, and had +its privileges confirmed by Robert II. in 1371, by Mary in 1553, and by +Charles I. in 1635. Of its priory, dedicated to St Rufus, a few ruins +still exist. The church of Maelrubha, the patron saint of Crail, is an +edifice of great antiquity. Many of the ordinary houses are massive and +quaint. The public buildings include a library and reading-room and town +hall. The chief industries comprise fisheries, especially for crabs, +shipping and brewing. It is growing in favour as a summer resort. It +unites with St Andrews, the two Anstruthers, Kilrenny, Pittenweem and +Cupar in returning one member to parliament. + +Balcomie Castle, about 2 m. to the N.E., dates from the 14th century. +Here Mary of Guise landed in 1538, a few days before her marriage to +James V. in St Andrews cathedral. In the 18th century it passed through +the hands of various proprietors and was ultimately shorn of much of its +original size and grandeur. The East Neuk is a term applied more +particularly to the country round Fife Ness, and more generally to all +of the peninsula east of an imaginary line drawn from St Andrews to +Elie. For fully half the year the cottages of its villages are damp with +the haar, or dense mist, borne on the east wind from the North Sea. + + + + +CRAILSHEIM, or KRAILSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of +Wurttemberg, on the Jagst, a tributary of the Neckar, at the junction of +railways to Heilbronn and Furth. Pop. (1900) 5251. There are two +Evangelical churches and a Roman Catholic church, and a handsome town +hall, with a tower 225 ft. high. The industrial establishments include +extensive tanneries and machine workshops, and there is a brisk trade in +cattle and agricultural produce. + +Crailsheim was incorporated as a town in 1338, successfully withstood a +siege by the forces of several Swabian imperial cities (1379-1380), a +feat which is annually celebrated, passed later into the possession of +the burgraves of Nuremberg, and came in 1791 to Prussia, in 1806 to +Bavaria and 1810 to Wurttemberg. + + + + +CRAIOVA, or KRAJOVA, the capital of the department of Doljiu, Rumania, +situated near the left bank of the river Jiu, and on the main Walachian +railway from Verciorova to Bucharest. Pop. (1900) 45,438. A branch +railway to Calafat facilitates the export trade with Bulgaria. Craiova +is the chief commercial town west of Bucharest; the surrounding uplands +are very rich in grain, pasturage and vegetable products, and contain +extensive forests. The town has rope and carriage factories, and close +by is a large tannery, worked by convict labour, and supplying the army. +The principal trade is in cattle, cereals, fish, linen, pottery, glue +and leather. In the town, which is the headquarters of the First Army +Corps, there are military and commercial academies, an appeal court and +a chamber of commerce, besides many churches, Greek Orthodox, Roman +Catholic, and Protestant, with synagogues for the Jews. + +Craiova, which occupied the site of the Roman Castra Nova, was formerly +the capital of Little Walachia. Its ancient _bans_ or military governors +were, next to the princes, the chief dignitaries of Walachia, and the +district is still styled the banat of Craiova. Among the holders of this +office were Michael the Brave (1593-1601), and several members of the +celebrated BASSARAB family (q.v.). The bans had the right of coining +money stamped with their own effigies, and hence arose the name of +_bani_ (centimes). The Rumanian franc, or _leu_ ("lion"), so called from +the image it bore, came likewise from Craiova. In 1397 Craiova was the +scene of a victory won by Prince Mircea over Bayezid I. sultan of the +Turks; and in October 1853, of an engagement between Turks and Russians. + + + + +CRAMBO, an old rhyming game which, according to Strutt (_Sports and +Pastimes_), was played as early as the 14th century under the name of +the _ABC of Aristotle_. In the days of the Stuarts it was very popular, +and is frequently mentioned in the writings of the time. Thus Congreve's +_Love for Love_, i. 1, contains the passage, "Get the Maids to Crambo in +an Evening, and learn the knack of Rhiming." Crambo, or capping the +rhyme, is now played by one player thinking of a word and telling the +others what it rhymes with, the others not naming the actual word they +guess but its meaning. Thus one says "I know a word that rhymes with +_bird_." A second asks "Is it ridiculous?" "No, it is not absurd." "Is +it a part of speech?" "No, it is not a word." This proceeds until the +right word is guessed. + + +In _Dumb Crambo_ the guessers, instead of naming the word, express its +meaning by dumb show, a rhyme being given them as a clue. + + + + +CRAMER, JOHANN BAPTIST (1771-1858), English musician, of German +extraction, was born in Mannheim, on the 24th of February 1771. He was +the son of Wilhelm Cramer (1743-1799). a famous London violinist and +musical conductor, one of a numerous family who were identified with the +progress of music during the 18th and 19th centuries. Johann Baptist was +brought to London as a child, and it was in London that the greater part +of his musical efforts was exercised. From 1782 to 1784 he studied the +pianoforte under Muzio Clementi, and soon became known as a professional +pianist both in London and on the continent; he enjoyed a world-wide +reputation, and was particularly appreciated by Beethoven. He died in +London on the 16th of April 1858. Apart from his pianoforte-playing +Cramer is important as a composer, and as principal founder in 1824 of +the London music-publishing house of Cramer & Co. He wrote a number of +sonatas, &c., for pianoforte, and other compositions; but his _Etudes_ +is the work by which he lives as a composer. These "studies" have +appeared in numerous editions, from 1810 onwards, and became the staple +pieces in the training of pianists. + + + + +CRAMER, JOHN ANTONY (1793-1848), English classical scholar and +geographer, was born at Mitlodi in Switzerland. He was educated at +Westminster and Christ Church, Oxford. He resided in Oxford till 1844, +during which time he held many important offices, being public orator, +principal of New Inn Hall (which he rebuilt at his own expense), and +professor of modern history. In 1844 he was appointed to the deanery of +Carlisle, which he held until his death at Scarborough on the 24th of +August 1848. His works are of considerable importance: _A Dissertation +on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps_, published anonymously with H. +L. Wickham (2nd ed., 1828), "a scholar-like work of first-rate ability"; +geographical and historical descriptions of _Ancient Italy_ (1826), +_Ancient Greece_ (1828), _Asia Minor_ (1832); _Travels of Nicander +Nucius of Corcyra_ [Greek traveller of the 16th century] _in England_ +(1841); _Catenae Graecorum Patrum in Novum Testamentum_ (1838-1844); +_Anecdota Graeca_ (from the MSS. of the royal library in Paris, +1839-1841). + + + + +CRAMER, KARL VON (1818-1902), Bavarian politician, had a very remarkable +career, rising gradually from a mere workman in a factory at Doos near +Nuremberg to the post of manager, and finally becoming part proprietor +of the establishment. Leaving business in 1870 he devoted his time +entirely to politics. From 1848 he had been a member of the Bavarian +second chamber, at first representing the district of Erlangen-Furth, +and afterwards Nuremberg, which city also sent him after the war of 1866 +as its deputy to the German customs parliament, and from 1871 to 1874 to +the first German _Reichstag_. He sat in these bodies as a member of the +Progressive party (_Fortschrittspartei_), and in Bavaria was one of the +leaders of the Liberal (_Freisinnige_) party. His eloquence had a great +hold upon the masses. As a parliamentarian he was very clear-headed, and +thoroughly understood how to lead a party. For many years he was the +reporter of the finance committee of the chamber. In 1882, on account of +his great services in connexion with the Bavarian National Exhibition of +Nuremberg, the order of the crown of Bavaria was conferred upon him, +carrying with it the honour of nobility. He died at Nuremberg on the +31st of December 1902. + + + + +CRAMP, CHARLES HENRY (1828- ), American shipbuilder, was born in +Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 9th of May 1828, of German descent, +his family name having been Krampf. He was the eldest of eleven children +of William Cramp (1807-1869), a pioneer American shipbuilder, who in +1830 established shipyards on the Delaware river near Philadelphia. The +son was educated at the Philadelphia Central high school, after which he +was employed in his father's shipyards and made himself master of every +detail of ship construction. He showed especial aptitude as a naval +architect and designer, and after becoming his father's partner in 1849 +it was to that branch of the work that he devoted himself. His +inventive capacity and resourcefulness, together with the complete +success of his innovations in naval construction, soon gave him high +rank as an authority on shipbuilding, and made his influence in that +industry widely felt. In the Mexican War he designed surf boats for the +landing of troops at Vera Cruz; during the Civil War he designed and +built several ironclads for the United States navy, notably the "New +Ironsides" in 1862, and the light-draught monitors used in the Carolina +sounds; and after 1887 constructed wholly or in part from his own +designs many of the most powerful ships in the "new" navy, including the +cruisers "Columbia," "Minneapolis" and "Brooklyn," and the battleships +"Indiana," "Iowa," "Massachusetts," "Alabama" and "Maine." In every +progressive step in ocean shipbuilding, in the transformation from sail +to steam, and from wood to iron and steel, Cramp had a prominent part. +His fame as a shipbuilder extended to Europe, and he built warships for +several foreign navies, among others the "Retvizan" and the "Variag" for +the Russian government. He also constructed a number of freight and +passenger steamships for several trans-Atlantic lines. + + See A. C. Buel, _Memoirs of C. H. Cramp_ (Philadelphia, 1906). + + + + +CRAMP, a painful spasmodic contraction of muscles, most frequently +occurring in the limbs, but also apt to affect certain internal organs. +This disorder belongs to the class of diseases known as local spasms, of +which other varieties exist in such affections as spasmodic asthma and +colic. The cause of these painful seizures resides in the nervous +system, and operates either directly from the great nerve centres, or, +as is generally the case, indirectly by reflex action, as, for example, +when attacks are brought on by some derangement of the digestive organs. + +In its most common form, that of cramp in the limbs, this disorder comes +on suddenly, often during sleep, the patient being aroused by an +agonizing feeling of pain in the calf of the leg or back of the thigh, +accompanied in many instances with a sensation of sickness or faintness +from the intensity of the suffering. During the paroxysm the muscular +fibres affected can often be felt gathered up into a hard knot. The +attack in general lasts but a few seconds, and then suddenly departs, +the spasmodic contraction of the muscles ceasing entirely, or, on the +other hand, relief may come more gradually during a period of minutes or +even hours. A liability to cramp is often associated with a rheumatic or +gouty tendency, but occasional attacks are common enough apart from +this, and are often induced by some peculiar posture which a limb has +assumed during sleep. Exposure of the limbs to cold will also bring on +cramp, and to this is probably to be ascribed its frequent occurrence in +swimmers. Cramp of the extremities is also well known as one of the most +distressing accompaniments of cholera. It is likewise of frequent +occurrence in the process of parturition, just before delivery. + +This painful disorder can be greatly relieved and often entirely removed +by firmly grasping or briskly rubbing the affected part with the hand, +or by anything which makes an impression on the nerves, such as warm +applications. Even a sudden and vigorous movement of the limb will often +succeed in terminating the attack. + +What is termed cramp of the stomach, or gastralgia, usually occurs as a +symptom in connexion with some form of gastric disorder, such as +aggravated dyspepsia, or actual organic disease of the mucous membrane +of the stomach. + +The disease known as _Writer's Cramp_, or _Scrivener's Palsy_, is a +spasm which affects certain muscles when engaged in the performance of +acts, the result of education and long usage, and which does not occur +when the same muscles are employed in acts of a different kind. This +disorder owes its name to the relative frequency with which it is met in +persons who write much, although it is by no means confined to them, but +is liable to occur in individuals of almost any handicraft. It was +termed by Dr Duchenne _Functional Spasm_. + +The symptoms are in the first instance a gradually increasing difficulty +experienced in conducting the movements required for executing the work +in hand. Taking, for example, the case of writers, there is a feeling +that the pen cannot be moved with the same freedom as before, and the +handwriting is more or less altered in consequence. At an early stage of +the disease the difficulty may be to a large extent overcome by +persevering efforts, but ultimately, when the attempt is persisted in, +the muscles of the fingers, and occasionally also those of the forearm, +are seized with spasm or cramp, so that the act of writing is rendered +impossible. Sometimes the fingers, instead of being cramped, move in a +disorderly manner and the pen cannot be grasped, while in other rare +instances a kind of paralysis affects the muscles of the fingers, and +they are powerless to make the movements necessary for holding the pen. +It is to be noted that it is only in the act of writing that these +phenomena present themselves, and that for all other movements the +fingers and arms possess their natural power. The same symptoms are +observed and the same remarks apply _mutatis mutandis_ in the case of +musicians, artists, compositors, seamstresses, tailors and many +mechanics in whom this affection may occur. Indeed, although actually a +rare disease, no muscle or group of muscles in the body which is +specially called into action in any particular occupation is exempt from +liability to this functional spasm. + +The exact pathology of writer's cramp has not been worked out, but it is +now generally accepted that the disease is not a local one of muscles or +nerves, but that it is an affection of the central nervous system. The +complaint never occurs under thirty years of age, and is more frequent +in males than females. Occasionally there is an inherited tendency to +the disease, but more usually there is a history of alcoholism in the +parents, or some neuropathic heredity. In its treatment the first +requisite is absolute cessation from the employment which caused it. +Usually, however, complete rest of the arm is undesirable, and recovery +takes place more speedily if other actions of a different kind are +regularly practised. If a return to the same work is a necessity, then +Sir W. R. Gowers insists on some modification of method in performing +the act, as writing from the shoulder instead of the wrist. + + + + +CRAMP-RINGS, rings anciently worn as a cure for cramp and +"falling-sickness" or epilepsy. The legend is that the first one was +presented to Edward the Confessor by a pilgrim on his return from +Jerusalem, its miraculous properties being explained to the king. At his +death it passed into the keeping of the abbot of Westminster, by whom it +was used medically and was known as St Edward's Ring. From that time the +belief grew that the successors of Edward inherited his powers, and that +the rings blessed by them worked cures. Hence arose the custom for the +successive sovereigns of England each year on Good Friday formally to +bless a number of cramp-rings. A service was held; prayers and psalms +were said; and water "in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost" was +poured over the rings, which were always of gold or silver, and made +from the metal that the king offered to the Cross on Good Friday. The +ceremony survived to the reign of Queen Mary, but the belief in the +curative powers of similar circlets of sacred metal has lingered on even +to the present day. + + For an account of the ceremony see F. G. Waldron, _The Literary + Museum_ (London, 1792); see also _Notes and Queries_, vol. vii., 1853; + vol. ix., 1878. + + + + +CRANACH, LUCAS (1472-1553), German painter, was born at Cronach in upper +Franconia, and learnt the art of drawing from his father. It has not +been possible to trace his descent or the name of his parents. We are +not informed as to the school in which he was taught, and it is a mere +guess that he took lessons from the south German masters to whom Mathew +Grunewald owed his education. But Grunewald practised at Bamberg and +Aschaffenburg, and Bamberg is the capital of the diocese in which +Cronach lies. According to Gunderam, the tutor of Cranach's children, +Cranach signalized his talents as a painter before the close of the 15th +century. He then drew upon himself the attention of the elector of +Saxony, who attached him to his person in 1504. The records of +Wittenberg confirm Gunderam's statement to this extent that Cranach's +name appears for the first time in the public accounts on the 24th of +June 1504, when he drew 50 gulden for the salary of half a year, as +_pictor ducalis_. The only clue to Cranach's settlement previous to his +Wittenberg appointment is afforded by the knowledge that he owned a +house at Gotha, and that Barbara Brengbier, his wife, was the daughter +of a burgher of that city. + +Of his skill as an artist we have sufficient evidence in a picture dated +1504. But as to the development of his manner prior to that date we are +altogether in ignorance. In contrast with this obscurity is the light +thrown upon Cranach after 1504. We find him active in several branches +of his profession,--sometimes a mere house-painter, more frequently +producing portraits and altar-pieces, a designer on wood, an engraver of +copper-plates, and draughtsman for the dies of the electoral mint. Early +in the days of his official employment he startled his master's +courtiers by the realism with which he painted still life, game and +antlers on the walls of the country palaces at Coburg and Lochau; his +pictures of deer and wild boar were considered striking, and the duke +fostered his passion for this form of art by taking him out to the +hunting field, where he sketched "his grace" running the stag, or Duke +John sticking a boar. Before 1508 he had painted several altar-pieces +for the Schlosskirche at Wittenberg in competition with Durer, Burgkmair +and others; the duke and his brother John were portrayed in various +attitudes and a number of the best woodcuts and copper-plates were +published. Great honour accrued to Cranach when he went in 1509 to the +Netherlands, and took sittings from the emperor Maximilian and the boy +who afterwards became Charles V. Till 1508 Cranach signed his works with +the initials of his name. In that year the elector gave him the winged +snake as a motto, and this motto or _Kleinod_, as it was called, +superseded the initials on all his pictures after that date. Somewhat +later the duke conferred on him the monopoly of the sale of medicines at +Wittenberg, and a printer's patent with exclusive privileges as to +copyright in Bibles. The presses of Cranach were used by Luther. His +chemist's shop was open for centuries, and only perished by fire in +1871. Relations of friendship united the painter with the Reformers at a +very early period; yet it is difficult to fix the time of his first +acquaintance with Luther. The oldest notice of Cranach in the Reformer's +correspondence dates from 1520. In a letter written from Worms in 1521, +Luther calls him his gossip, warmly alluding to his "Gevatterin," the +artist's wife. His first engraved portrait by Cranach represents an +Augustinian friar, and is dated 1520. Five years later the friar dropped +the cowl, and Cranach was present as "one of the council" at the +betrothal festival of Luther and Catherine Bora. The death at short +intervals of the electors Frederick and John (1525 and 1532) brought no +change in the prosperous situation of the painter; he remained a +favourite with John Frederick I., under whose administration he twice +(1537 and 1540) filled the office of burgomaster of Wittenberg. But 1547 +witnessed a remarkable change in these relations. John Frederick was +taken prisoner at the battle of Muhlberg, and Wittenberg was subjected +to stress of siege. As Cranach wrote from his house at the corner of the +market-place to the grand-master Albert of Brandenburg at Konigsberg to +tell him of John Frederick's capture, he showed his attachment by +saying, "I cannot conceal from your Grace that we have been robbed of +our dear prince, who from his youth upwards has been a true prince to +us, but God will help him out of prison, for the Kaiser is bold enough +to revive the Papacy, which God will certainly not allow." During the +siege Charles bethought him of Cranach, whom he remembered from his +childhood and summoned him to his camp at Pistritz. Cranach came, +reminded his majesty of his early sittings as a boy, and begged on his +knees for kind treatment to the elector. Three years afterwards, when +all the dignitaries of the Empire met at Augsburg to receive commands +from the emperor, and when Titian at Charles's bidding came to take the +likeness of Philip of Spain, John Frederick asked Cranach to visit the +Swabian capital; and here for a few months he was numbered amongst the +household of the captive elector, whom he afterwards accompanied home in +1552. He died on the 16th of October 1553 at Weimar, where the house in +which he lived still stands in the market-place. + +The oldest extant picture of Cranach, the "Rest of the Virgin 365 +during the Flight into Egypt," marked with the initials L.C., and the +date of 1504, is by far the most graceful creation of his pencil. The +scene is laid on the margin of a forest of pines, and discloses the +habits of a painter familiar with the mountain scenery of Thuringia. +There is more of gloom in landscapes of a later time; and this would +point to a defect in the taste of Cranach, whose stag hunts are +otherwise not unpleasing. Cranach's art in its prime was doubtless +influenced by causes which but slightly affected the art of the +Italians, but weighed with potent consequence on that of the Netherlands +and Germany. The business of booksellers who sold woodcuts and +engravings at fairs and markets in Germany naturally satisfied a craving +which arose out of the paucity of wall-paintings in churches and secular +edifices. Drawing for woodcuts and engraving of copper-plates became the +occupation of artists of note, and the talents devoted in Italy to +productions of the brush were here monopolized for designs on wood or on +copper. We have thus to account for the comparative unproductiveness as +painters of Durer and Holbein, and at the same time to explain the +shallowness apparent in many of the later works of Cranach; but we +attribute to the same cause also the tendency in Cranach to neglect +effective colour and light and shade for strong contrasts of flat tint. +Constant attention to mere contour and to black and white appears to +have affected his sight, and caused those curious transitions of pallid +light into inky grey which often characterize his studies of flesh; +whilst the mere outlining of form in black became a natural substitute +for modelling and chiaroscuro. There are, no doubt, some few pictures by +Cranach in which the flesh-tints display brightness and enamelled +surface, but they are quite exceptional. As a composer Cranach was not +greatly gifted. His ideal of the human shape was low; but he showed some +freshness in the delineation of incident, though he not unfrequently +bordered on coarseness. His copper-plates and woodcuts are certainly the +best outcome of his art; and the earlier they are in date the more +conspicuous is their power. Striking evidence of this is the "St +Christopher" of 1506, or the plate of "Elector Frederick praying before +the Madonna" (1509). It is curious to watch the changes which mark the +development of his instincts as an artist during the struggles of the +Reformation. At first we find him painting Madonnas. His first woodcut +(1505) represents the Virgin and three saints in prayer before a +crucifix. Later on he composes the marriage of St Catherine, a series of +martyrdoms, and scenes from the Passion. After 1517 he illustrates +occasionally the old gospel themes, but he also gives expression to some +of the thoughts of the Reformers. In a picture of 1518 at Leipzig, where +a dying man offers "his soul to God, his body to earth, and his worldly +goods to his relations," the soul rises to meet the Trinity in heaven, +and salvation is clearly shown to depend on faith and not on good works. +Again sin and grace become a familiar subject of pictorial delineation. +Adam is observed sitting between John the Baptist and a prophet at the +foot of a tree. To the left God produces the tables of the law, Adam and +Eve partake of the forbidden fruit, the brazen serpent is reared aloft, +and punishment supervenes in the shape of death and the realm of Satan. +To the right, the Conception, Crucifixion and Resurrection symbolize +redemption, and this is duly impressed on Adam by John the Baptist, who +points to the sacrifice of the crucified Saviour. There are two examples +of this composition in the galleries of Gotha and Prague, both of them +dated 1529. One of the latest pictures with which the name of Cranach is +connected is the altarpiece which Cranach's son completed in 1555, and +which is now in the _Stadtkirche_ (city church) at Weimar. It represents +Christ in two forms, to the left trampling on Death and Satan, to the +right crucified, with blood flowing from the lance wound. John the +Baptist points to the suffering Christ, whilst the blood-stream falls on +the head of Cranach, and Luther reads from his book the words, "The +blood of Christ cleanseth from all sin." Cranach sometimes composed +gospel subjects with feeling and dignity. "The Woman taken in Adultery" +at Munich is a favourable specimen of his skill, and various repetitions +of Christ receiving little children show the kindliness of his +disposition. But he was not exclusively a religious painter. He was +equally successful, and often comically naave, in mythological scenes, +as where Cupid, who has stolen a honeycomb, complains to Venus that he +has been stung by a bee (Weimar, 1530; Berlin, 1534), or where Hercules +sits at the spinning-wheel mocked by Omphale and her maids. Humour and +pathos are combined at times with strong effect in pictures such as the +"Jealousy" (Augsburg, 1527; Vienna, 1530), where women and children are +huddled into telling groups as they watch the strife of men wildly +fighting around them. Very realistic must have been a lost canvas of +1545, in which hares were catching and roasting sportsmen. In 1546, +possibly under Italian influence, Cranach composed the "Fons Juventutis" +of the Berlin Gallery, executed by his son, a picture in which hags are +seen entering a Renaissance fountain, and are received as they issue +from it with all the charms of youth by knights and pages. + +Cranach's chief occupation was that of portrait-painting, and we are +indebted to him chiefly for the preservation of the features of all the +German Reformers and their princely adherents. But he sometimes +condescended to depict such noted followers of the papacy as Albert of +Brandenburg, archbishop elector of Mainz, Anthony Granvelle and the duke +of Alva. A dozen likenesses of Frederick III. and his brother John are +found to bear the date of 1532. It is characteristic of Cranach's +readiness, and a proof that he possessed ample material for mechanical +reproduction, that he received payment at Wittenberg in 1533. for "sixty +pairs of portraits of the elector and his brother" in one day. Amongst +existing likenesses we should notice as the best that of Albert, elector +of Mainz, in the Berlin museum, and that of John, elector of Saxony, at +Dresden. + +Cranach had three sons, all artists:--John Lucas, who died at Bologna in +1536; Hans Cranach, whose life is obscure; and Lucas, born in 1515, who +died in 1586. + + See Heller, _Leben und Werke Lukas Cranachs_ (2nd ed., Bamberg, 1844); + Chr. Schuchard, _Lukas Cranachs des alteren Leben und Werke_ (3 vols., + Leipzig, 1851-1871); Warnecke, _Cranach der altere_ (Gorlitz, 1879); + M. B. Lindau, _Lucas Cranach_ (1883); Lippmann, _Lukas Cranach, + Sammlung, &c._ (Berlin, 1895), reproductions of his most notable + woodcuts and engravings; Woermann, _Verzeichnis der Dresdener + Cranach-Ausstellung von 1899_ (Dresden, 1899); Flechsig, _Tafelbilder + Cranach's des altern und seiner Werkstatt_ (Leipzig, 1900); Muther, + _Lukas Cranach_ (Berlin, 1902); Michaelson, _L. Cranach der altere_ + (Leipzig, 1902). (J. A. C.) + + + + +CRANBERRY, the fruit of plants of the genus _Oxycoccus_, (natural order +Vacciniaceae), often considered part of the genus _Vaccinium. O. +palustris_ (or _Vaccinium Oxycoccus_), the common cranberry plant, is +found in marshy land in northern and central Europe and North America. +Its stems are wiry, creeping and of varying length; the leaves are +evergreen, dark and shining above, glaucous below, revolute at the +margin, ovate, lanceolate or elliptical in shape, and not more than half +an inch long; the flowers, which appear in May or June, are small and +stalked, and have a four-lobed, rose-tinted corolla, purplish filaments, +and anther-cells forming two long tubes. The berries ripen in August and +September; they are pear-shaped and about the size of currants, are +crimson in colour and often spotted, and have an acid and astringent +taste. The American species, _O. macrocarpus_, is found wild from Maine +to the Carolinas. It attains a greater size than _O. palustris_, and +bears bigger and finer berries, which are of three principal sorts, the +_cherry_ or round, the _bugle_ or oblong, and the _pear_ or bell-shaped, +and vary in hue from light pink to dark purple, or may be mottled red +and white. _O. erythrocarpus_ is a species indigenous in the mountains +from Virginia to Georgia, and is remarkable for the excellent flavour of +its berry. + +Air and moisture are the chief requisites for the thriving of the +cranberry plant. It is cultivated in America on a soil of peat or +vegetable mould, free from loam and clay, and cleared of turf, and +having a surface layer of clean sand. The sand, which needs renewal +every two or three years, is necessary for the vigorous existence of the +plants, and serves both to keep the underlying soil cool and damp, and +to check the growth of grass and weeds. The ground must be thoroughly +drained, and should be provided with a supply of water and a dam for +flooding the plants during winter to protect them from frost, and +occasionally at other seasons to destroy insect pests; but the use of +spring water should be avoided. The flavour of the fruit is found to be +improved by growing the plants in a soil enriched with well-rotted dung, +and by supplying them with less moisture than they obtain in their +natural habitats. Propagation is effected by means of cuttings, of which +the wood should be wiry in texture, and the leaves of a greenish-brown +colour. In America, where, in the vicinity of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, +the cultivation of the cranberry commenced early in the last century, +wide tracts of waste land have been utilized for that purpose--low, +easily flooded, marshy ground, worth originally not more than from $10 +to $20 an acre, having been made to yield annually $200 or $300 worth of +the fruit per acre. The yield varies between 50 and 400 bushels an acre, +but 100 bushels, or about 35 barrels, is estimated to be the average +production when the plants have begun to bear well. The approximate +cranberry crop of the United States from 1890 to 1899 varied from +410,000 to 1,000,000 bushels. + +Cranberries should be gathered when ripe and dry, otherwise they do not +keep well. The darkest-coloured berries are those which are most +esteemed. The picking of the fruit begins in New Jersey in October, at +the close of the blackberry and whortleberry season, and often lasts +until the coming in of cold weather. From 3 to 4 bushels a day may be +collected by good workers. New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Baltimore +are the leading American markets for cranberries, whence they are +exported to the West Indies, England and France in great quantities. +England was formerly supplied by Lincolnshire and Norfolk with abundance +of the common cranberry, which it now largely imports from Sweden and +Russia. The fruit is much used for pies and tarts, and also for making +an acid summer beverage. The cowberry, or red whortleberry, _Vaccinium +Vitis-Idaea_, is sometimes sold for the cranberry. The Tasmanian and the +Australian cranberries are the produce respectively of _Astroloma +humifusum_ and _Lissanthe sapida_, plants of the order _Epacridaceae_. + + For literature of the subject see the _Proceedings of the American + Cranberry Growers' Association_ (Trenton, N. J.). There is a good + article on the American cranberry in L. H. Bailey's _Cyclopaedia of + American Horticulture_ (1900). + + + + +CRANBROOK, GATHORNE GATHORNE-HARDY, 1ST EARL OF (1814-1906), British +statesman, was born at Bradford on the 1st of October 1814, the son of +John Hardy, and belonged to a Yorkshire family. Entering upon active +political life in 1847, eleven years after his graduation at Oxford, and +nine years after his call to the bar, he offered himself as a candidate +for Bradford, but was unsuccessful. In 1856 he was returned for +Leominster, and in 1865 defeated Mr Gladstone at Oxford. In 1866 he +became president of the Poor Law Board in Lord Derby's new +administration. When in 1867 Mr Walpole resigned, from dissatisfaction +with Mr Disraeli's Reform Bill, Mr Hardy succeeded him at the home +office. In 1874 he was secretary for war; and when in 1878 Lord +Salisbury took the foreign office upon the resignation of Lord Derby, +Viscount Cranbrook (as Mr Hardy became within a month afterwards) +succeeded him at the India office. At the same time he had assumed the +additional family surname of Gathorne, which had been that of his +mother. In Lord Salisbury's administrations of 1885 and 1886 Lord +Cranbrook was president of the council, and upon his retirement from +public life concurrently with the resignation of the cabinet in 1892 he +was raised to an earldom. He died on the 30th of October 1906, being +succeeded as 2nd earl by his son John Stewart Gathorne-Hardy, previously +known as Lord Medway (b. 1839), who from 1868 to 1880 sat in parliament +as a conservative for Rye, and from 1884 to 1892 for a division of Kent. + + See _Gathorne Hardy, 1st earl of Cranbrook, a memoir with extracts + from his correspondence_, edited by the Hon. A. E. Gathorne-Hardy + (1910). + + + + +CRANBROOK, a market-town in the southern parliamentary division of Kent, +England, 45 m. S.E. of London on a branch of the South-Eastern & Chatham +railway from Paddock Wood. Pop. (1901) 3949. It lies on the Crane brook, +a feeder of the river Beult, in a pleasant district, hilly and well +wooded. It has a fine church (mainly Perpendicular) dedicated to St +Dunstan, which is remarkable for a baptistery, built in the early part +of the 18th century, and some ancient stained glass. As the centre of +the agricultural district of the Kentish Weald, it carries on an +extensive trade in malt, hops and general goods; but its present +condition is in striking contrast to the activity it displayed from the +14th to the 17th century, when it was one of the principal seats of the +broadcloth manufacture. Remains of some of the old factories still +exist. The town has a grammar school of Elizabethan foundation, which +now ranks as one of the smaller public schools. In the neighbourhood are +the ruins of the old mansion house of Sissinghurst, or Saxenhurst, built +in the time of Edward VI. + + + + +CRANDALL, PRUDENCE (1803-1889), American school-teacher, was born, of +Quaker parentage, at Hopkinton, Rhode Island, on the 3rd of September +1803. She was educated in the Friends' school at Providence, R. I., +taught school at Plainfield, Conn., and in 1831 established a private +academy for girls at Canterbury, Windham county, Connecticut. By +admitting a negro girl she lost her white patrons, and in March 1833, on +the advice of William Lloyd Garrison and Samuel J. May (1797-1871), she +opened a school for "young ladies and little misses of colour." For this +she was bitterly denounced, not only in Canterbury but throughout +Connecticut, and was persecuted, boycotted and socially ostracized; +measures were taken in the Canterbury town-meeting to break up the +school, and finally in May 1833 the state legislature passed the +notorious Connecticut "Black Law," prohibiting the establishment of +schools for non-resident negroes in any city or township of Connecticut, +without the consent of the local authorities. Miss Crandall, refusing to +submit, was arrested, tried and convicted in the lower courts, whose +verdict, however, was reversed on a technicality by the court of appeals +in July 1834. Thereupon the local opposition to her redoubled, and she +was finally in September 1834 forced to close her school. Soon afterward +she married the Rev. Calvin Philleo. She died at Elk Falls, Kansas, on +the 28th of January 1889. The Connecticut Black Law was repealed in +1838. Miss Crandall's attempt to educate negro girls at Canterbury +attracted the attention of the whole country; and the episode is of +considerable significance as showing the attitude of a New England +community toward the negro at that time. + + See J. C. Kimball's _Connecticut Canterbury Tale_ (Hartford, Conn., + 1889), and Samuel J. May's _Recollections of Our Anti-Slavery + Conflict_ (Boston, 1869). + + + + +CRANE, STEPHEN (1870-1900), American writer, was born at Newark, New +Jersey, on the 1st of November 1870, and was educated at Lafayette +College and Syracuse University. His first story, _Maggie, a Girl of the +Streets_, was published in 1891, but his greatest success was made with +_The Red Badge of Courage_ (1896), a brilliant and highly realistic, +though of course imaginary, description of the experiences of a private +in the Civil War. He was also the author of various other stories, and +acted as a war correspondent in the Greco-Turkish War (1897) and the +Spanish American War (1898). His health became seriously affected in +Cuba, and on his return he settled down in England. He died at +Badenweiler, Germany, on the 5th of June 1900. + + + + +CRANE, WALTER (1845- ), English artist, second son of Thomas Crane, +portrait painter and miniaturist, was born in Liverpool on the 15th of +August 1845. The family soon removed to Torquay, where the boy gained +his early artistic impressions, and, when he was twelve years old, to +London. He early came under the influence of the Pre-Raphaelites, and +was a diligent student of Ruskin. A set of coloured page designs to +illustrate Tennyson's "Lady of Shalott" gained the approval of William +James Linton, the wood-engraver, to whom Walter Crane was apprenticed +for three years (1859-1862). As a wood-engraver he had abundant +opportunity for the minute study of the contemporary artists whose work +passed through his hands, of Rossetti, Millais, Tenniel and F. Sandys, +and of the masters of the Italian Renaissance, but he was more +influenced by the Elgin marbles in the British Museum. A further and +important element in the development of his talent, was the study of +Japanese colour-prints, the methods of which he imitated in a series of +toy-books, which started a new fashion. In 1862 a picture of his, "The +Lady of Shalott," was exhibited at the Royal Academy, but the Academy +steadily refused his maturer work; and after the opening of the +Grosvenor Gallery in 1877 he ceased to send pictures to Burlington +House. In 1864 he began to illustrate for Mr Edmund Evans, the colour +printer, a series of sixpenny toy-books of nursery rhymes, displaying +admirable fancy and beauty of design, though he was limited to the use +of three colours. He was allowed more freedom in a delightful series +begun in 1873, _The Frog Prince, &c._, which showed markedly the +influence of Japanese art, and of a long visit to Italy following on his +marriage in 1871. _The Baby's Opera_ was a book of English nursery songs +planned in 1877 with Mr Evans, and a third series of children's books +with the collective title, _A Romance of the Three R's_, provided a +regular course of instruction in art for the nursery. In his early "Lady +of Shalott" the artist had shown his preoccupation with unity of design +in book illustration by printing in the words of the poem himself, in +the view that this union of the calligrapher's and the decorator's art +was one secret of the beauty of the old illuminated books. He followed +the same course in _The First of May: A Fairy Masque_ by his friend John +R. Wise, text and decoration being in this case reproduced by +photogravure. The "Goose Girl" illustration taken from his beautiful +_Household Stories from Grimm_ (1882) was reproduced in tapestry by +William Morris, and is now in the South Kensington Museum. _Flora's +Feast, A Masque of Flowers_ had lithographic reproductions of Mr Crane's +line drawings washed in with water colour; he also decorated in colour +_The Wonder Book_ of Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Margaret Deland's _Old +Garden_; in 1894 he collaborated with William Morris in the page +decoration of _The Story of the Glittering Plain_, published at the +Kelmscott press, which was executed in the style of 16th-century Italian +and German woodcuts; but in purely decorative interest the finest of his +works in book illustration is Spenser's _Faerie Queene_ (12 pts., +1894-1896) and the _Shepheard's Calendar_. The poems which form the text +of _Queen Summer_ (1891), _Renascence_ (1891), and _The Sirens Three_ +(1886) are by the artist himself. + +In the early 'eighties under Morris's influence he was closely +associated with the Socialist movement. He did as much as Morris himself +to bring art into the daily life of all classes. With this object in +view he devoted much attention to designs for textile stuffs, for +wall-papers, and to house decoration; but he also used his art for the +direct advancement of the Socialist cause. For a long time he provided +the weekly cartoons for the Socialist organs, _Justice_ and _The +Commonweal_. Many of these were collected as _Cartoons for the Cause_. +He devoted much time and energy to the work of the Art Workers' Guild, +and to the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, founded by him in 1888. +His own easel pictures, chiefly allegorical in subject, among them "The +Bridge of Life" (1884) and "The Mower" (1891), were exhibited regularly +at the Grosvenor Gallery and later at the New Gallery. "Neptune's +Horses," which, with many other of Mr Crane's pictures, came into the +possession of Herr Ernst Seeger of Berlin, was exhibited at the New +Gallery in 1893, and with it may be classed his "The Rainbow and the +Wave." + +His varied work includes examples of plaster relief, tiles, stained +glass, pottery, wall-paper and textile designs, in all of which he +applied the principle that in purely decorative design "the artist works +freest and best without direct reference to nature, and should have +learned the forms he makes use of by heart." An exhibition of his work +of different kinds was held at the Fine Art Society's galleries in Bond +Street in 1891, and taken over to the United States in the same year by +the artist himself. It was afterwards exhibited in the chief German, +Austrian and Scandinavian towns, arousing great interest throughout the +continent. + +Mr Crane became an associate of the Water Colour Society in 1888; he was +an examiner of the science and art department at South Kensington; +director of design at the Manchester Municipal school (1894); art +director of Reading College (1896); and in 1898 for a short time +principal of the Royal College of Art. His lectures at Manchester were +published with illustrated drawings as _The Bases of Design_ (1898) and +_Line and Form_ (1900). _The Decorative Illustration of Books, Old and +New_ (2nd ed., London and New York, 1900) is a further contribution to +theory. + + A well-known portrait of Mr Crane by G. F. Watts, R.A., was exhibited + at the New Gallery in 1893. There is a comprehensive and sumptuously + illustrated book on _The Art of Walter Crane_, by P. G. Konody; a + monograph (1902) by Otto von Schleinitz in the _Kunstler Monographien_ + series (Bielefeld and Leipzig); and an account of himself by the + artist in the Easter number of 1898 of the _Art Journal_. + + + + +CRANE, WILLIAM HENRY (1845- ), American actor, was born on the 30th of +April 1845, in Leicester, Massachusetts, and made his first appearance +at Utica, New York, in Donizetti's _Daughter of the Regiment_ in 1863. +Later he had a great success as Le Blanc the Notary, in the burlesque +_Evangeline_ (1873). He made his first hit in the legitimate drama with +Stuart Robson (1836-1903), in _The Comedy of Errors_ and other +Shakespearian plays, and in _The Henrietta_ (1881) by Bronson Howard +(1842-1908). This partnership lasted for twelve years, and subsequently +Crane appeared in various eccentric character parts in such plays as +_The Senator_ and _David Harum_. In 1904 he turned to more serious work +and played Isidore Izard in _Business is Business_, an adaptation from +Octave Mirbeau's _Les Affaires sont les affaires_. + + + + +CRANE (in Dutch, _Kraan_; O. Ger. _Kraen_; cognate, as also the Lat. +_grus_, and consequently the Fr. _grue_ and Span. _grulla_, with the Gr. +[Greek: geranos]), the _Grus communis_ or _G. cinerea_ of +ornithologists, one of the largest wading-birds, and formerly a native +of England, where William Turner, in 1544, said that he had very often +seen its young ("_earum pipiones saepissime vidi_"). Notwithstanding the +protection afforded it by sundry acts of parliament, it has long since +ceased from breeding in England. Sir T. Browne (ob. 1682) speaks of it +as being found in the open parts of Norfolk in winter. In Ray's time it +was only known as occurring at the same season in large flocks in the +fens of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire; and though mention is made of +cranes' eggs and young in the fen-laws passed at a court held at Revesby +in 1780, this was most likely but the formal repetition of an older +edict; for in 1768 Pennant wrote that after the strictest inquiry he +found the inhabitants of those counties to be wholly unacquainted with +the bird. The crane, however, no doubt then appeared in Britain, as it +does now, at uncertain intervals and in unwonted places, having strayed +from the migrating bands whose movements have been remarked from almost +the earliest ages. Indeed, the crane's aerial journeys are of a very +extended kind; and on its way from beyond the borders of the Tropic of +Cancer to within the Arctic Circle, or on the return voyage, its flocks +may be descried passing overhead at a marvellous height, or halting for +rest and refreshment on the wide meadows that border some great river, +while the seeming order with which its ranks are marshalled during +flight has long attracted attention. The crane takes up its winter +quarters under the burning sun of Central Africa and India, but early in +spring returns northward. Not a few examples reach the chill polar soils +of Lapland and Siberia, but some tarry in the south of Europe and breed +in Spain, and, it is supposed, in Turkey. The greater number, however, +occupy the intermediate zone and pass the summer in Russia, north +Germany, and Scandinavia. Soon after their arrival in these countries +the flocks break up into pairs, whose nuptial ceremonies are accompanied +by loud and frequent trumpetings, and the respective breeding-places of +each are chosen. + +The nest is formed with little art on the ground in large open marshes, +where the herbage is not very high--a tolerably dry spot being selected +and used apparently year after year. Here the eggs, which are of a rich +brown colour with dark spots, and always two in number, are laid. The +young are able to run soon after they are hatched, and are at first +clothed with tawny down. In the course of the summer they assume nearly +the same grey plumage that their parents wear, except that the elongated +plumes, which in the adults form a graceful covering of the hinder +parts of the body, are comparatively undeveloped, and the clear black, +white and red (the last being due to a patch of papillose skin of that +colour) of the head and neck are as yet indistinct. During this time +they keep in the marshes, but as autumn approaches the different +families unite by the rivers and lakes, and ultimately form the enormous +bands which after much more trumpeting set out on their southward +journey. + +The crane's power of uttering its sonorous and peculiar trumpet-like +notes is commonly ascribed to the formation of its trachea, which on +quitting the lower end of the neck passes backward between the branches +of the furcula and is received into a hollow space formed by the bony +walls of the carina or keel of the sternum. Herein it makes three turns, +and then runs upwards and backwards to the lungs. The apparatus on the +whole much resembles that found in the whooping swans (_Cygnus musicus_, +_C. buccinator_ and others), though differing in some not unimportant +details; but at the same time somewhat similar convolutions of the +trachea occur in other birds which do not possess, so far as is known, +the faculty of trumpeting. The crane emits its notes both during flight +and while on the ground. In the latter case the neck and bill are +uplifted and the mouth kept open during the utterance of the blast, +which may be often heard from birds in confinement, especially at the +beginning of the year. + +As usually happens in similar cases, the name of the once familiar +British species is now used in a general sense, and applied to all +others which are allied to it. Though by former systematists placed near +or even among the herons, there is no doubt that the cranes have only a +superficial resemblance and no real affinity to the _Ardeidae_. In fact +the _Gruidae_ form a somewhat isolated group. Huxley included them +together with the _Rallidae_ in his _Geranomorphae_; but a more extended +view of their various characters would probably assign them rather as +relatives of the Bustards--not that it must be thought that the two +families have not been for a very long time distinct. _Grus_, indeed, is +a very ancient form, its remains appearing in the Miocene of France and +Greece, as well as in the Pliocene and Post-pliocene of North America. +In France, too, during the "Reindeer Period" there existed a huge +species--the _G. primigenia_ of Alphonse Milne-Edwards--which has +doubtless been long extinct. At the present time cranes inhabit all the +great zoogeographical regions of the earth, except the Neotropical, and +some sixteen or seventeen species are discriminated. In Europe, besides +the _G. communis_ already mentioned, the Numidian or demoiselle-crane +(_G. virgo_) is distinguished from every other by its long white +ear-tufts. This bird is also widely distributed throughout Asia and +Africa, and is said to have occurred in Orkney as a straggler. The +eastern part of the Palaearctic Region is inhabited by four other +species that do not frequent Europe (_G. antigone_, _G. japonensis_, _G. +monachus_, and _G. leucogeranus_), of which the last is perhaps the +finest of the family, with nearly the whole plumage of a snowy white. +The Indian Region, besides being visited in winter by four of the +species already named, has two that are peculiar to it (_G. torquata_ +and _G. indica_, both commonly confounded under the name of _G. +antigone_). The Australian Region possesses a large species known to the +colonists as the "native companion" (_G. australis_), while the Nearctic +is tenanted by three species (_G. americana_, _G. canadensis_ and _G. +fraterculus_), to say nothing of the possibility of a fourth (_G. +schlegeli_), a little-known and somewhat obscure bird, finding its +habitat here. In the Ethiopian Region are two species (_G. paradisea_ +and _G. carunculata_), which do not occur out of Africa, as well as +three others forming the group known as "crowned cranes"--differing much +from other members of the family, and justifiably placed in a separate +genus, _Balearica_. One of these (_B. pavonina_) inhabits northern and +western Africa, while another (_B. regulorum_) is confined to the +eastern and southern parts of that continent. The third (_B. ceciliae_), +from the White Nile, has been described by Dr P. Chalmers Mitchell +(_P.Z.S._, 1904). + + With regard to the literature of this species, a paper "On the + Breeding of the Crane in Lapland" (_Ibis_, 1859, p. 191), by John + Wolley, is one of the most pleasing contributions to natural history + ever written, and an admirably succinct account of all the different + species was communicated by Blyth to _The Field_ in 1873 (vol. xl. p. + 631, vol. xli. pp. 7, 61, 136, 189, 248, 384, 408, 418). A beautiful + picture representing a flock of cranes resting by the Rhine during one + of their annual migrations is to be found in Wolf's _Zoological + Sketches_. (A. N.) + + + + +CRANES (so called from the resemblance to the long neck of the bird, cf. +Gr. [Greek: geranos], Fr. _grue_), machines by means of which heavy +bodies may be lifted, and also displaced horizontally, within certain +defined limits. Strictly speaking, the name alludes to the arm or jib +from which the load to be moved is suspended, but it is now used in a +wider sense to include the whole mechanism by which a load is raised +vertically and moved horizontally. Machines used for lifting only are +not called cranes, but winches, lifts or hoists, while the term elevator +or conveyor is commonly given to appliances which continuously, not in +separate loads, move materials like grain or coal in a vertical, +horizontal or diagonal direction (see CONVEYORS). The use of cranes is +of great antiquity, but it is only since the great industrial +development of the 19th century, and the introduction of other motive +powers than hand labour, that the crane has acquired the important and +indispensable position it now occupies. In all places where finished +goods are handled, or manufactured goods are made, cranes of various +forms are in universal use. + + + Classification. + +Cranes may be divided into two main classes--revolving and +non-revolving. In the first the load can be lifted vertically, and then +moved round a central pivot, so as to be deposited at any convenient +point within the range. The type of this class is the ordinary jib +crane. In the second class there are, in addition to the lifting motion, +two horizontal movements at right angles to one another. The type of +this class is the overhead traveller. The two classes obviously +represent respectively systems of polar and rectangular coordinates. Jib +cranes can be subdivided into fixed cranes and portable cranes; in the +former the central-post or pivot is firmly fixed in a permanent +position, while in the latter the whole crane is mounted on wheels, so +that it may be transported from place to place. + + + Motive powers. + +The different kinds of motive power used to actuate cranes--manual, +steam, hydraulic, electric--give a further classification. Hand cranes +are extremely useful where the load is not excessive, and the quantities +to be dealt with are not great; also where speed is not important, and +first cost is an essential consideration. The net effective work of +lifting that can be performed by a man turning a handle may be taken, +for intermittent work, as being on an average about 5000 foot-lb per +minute; this is equivalent to 1 ton lifted about 2-1/4 ft. per minute, so +that four men can by a crane raise 1 ton 9 ft. in a minute or 9 tons 1 +ft. per minute. It is at once evident that hand power is only suitable +for cranes of moderate power, or in cases where heavy loads have to be +lifted only very occasionally. This point is dwelt upon, because the +speed limitations of the hand-crane are often overlooked by engineers. +Steam is an extremely useful motive power for all cranes that are not +worked off a central power station. The steam crane has the immense +advantage of being completely self-contained. It can be moved (by its +own locomotive power, if desired) long distances without requiring any +complicated means of conveying power to it; and it is rapid in work, +fairly economical, and can be adapted to the most varying circumstances. +Where, however, there are a number of cranes all belonging to the same +installation, and these are placed so as to be conveniently worked from +a central power station, and where the work is rapid, heavy and +continuous, as is the case at large ports, docks and railway or other +warehouses, experience has shown that it is best to produce the power in +a generating station and distribute it to the cranes. Down to the +closing decades of the 19th century hydraulic power was practically the +only system available for working cranes from a power station. The +hydraulic crane is rapid in action, very smooth and silent in working, +easy to handle, and not excessive in cost or upkeep,--advantages which +have secured its adoption in every part of the world. Electricity as a +motive power for cranes is of more recent introduction. The electric +transmission of energy can be performed with an efficiency not reached +by any other method, and the electric motor readily adapts itself to +cranes. When they are worked from a power station the great advantage is +gained that the same plant which drives them can be used for many other +purposes, such as working machine tools and supplying current for +lighting. For dock-side jib cranes the use of electric power is making +rapid strides. For overhead travellers in workshops, and for most of the +cranes which fall into our second class, electricity as a motive power +has already displaced nearly every other method. Cranes driven by +shafting, or by mechanical power, have been largely superseded by +electric cranes, principally on account of the much greater economy of +transmission. For many years the best workshop travellers were those +driven by quick running ropes; these performed admirable service, but +they have given place to the more modern electric traveller. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + + Lifting mechanisms. + + The principal motion in a crane is naturally the hoisting or lifting + motion. This is effected by slinging the load to an eye or hook, and + elevating the hook vertically. There are three typical methods: (1) A + direct pull may be applied to the hook, either by screws, or by a + cylinder fitted with piston and rod and actuated by direct hydraulic + or other pressure, as shown diagrammatically in fig. 1. These methods + are used in exceptional cases, but present the obvious difficulty of + giving a very short range of lift. (2) The hook may be attached to a + rope or chain, and the pulling cylinder connected with a system of + pulleys around which the rope is led; by these means the lift can be + very largely increased. Various arrangements are adopted; the one + indicated in fig. 2 gives a lift of load four times the stroke of the + cylinder. This second method forms the basis of the lifting gear in + all hydraulic cranes. (3) The lifting rope or chain is led over pulley + to a lifting barrel, upon which it is coiled as the barrel is rotated + by the source of power (fig. 3). Sometimes, especially in the case of + overhead travelling cranes for very heavy loads, the chain is a + special pitch chain, formed of flat links pinned together, and the + barrel is reduced to a wheel provided with teeth, or "sprockets," + which engage in the links. In this case the chain is not coiled, but + simply passes over the lifting wheel, the free end hanging loose. All + the methods in this third category require a rotating lifting or + barrel shaft, and this is the important difference between them and + the hydraulic cranes mentioned above. Cranes fitted with rotating + hydraulic engines may be considered as coming under the third + category. + + When the loads are heavy the above mechanisms are supplemented by + systems of purchase blocks suspended from the jib or the traveller + crab; and in barrel cranes trains of rotating gearing are interposed + between the motor, or manual handle, and the barrel (fig. 3). + + + Brakes. + + When a load is lifted, work has to be done in overcoming the action of + gravity and the friction of the mechanism; when it is lowered, energy + is given out. To control the speed and absorb this energy, brakes have + to be provided. The hydraulic crane has a great advantage in + possessing an almost ideal brake, for by simply throttling the exhaust + from the lifting cylinder the speed of descent can be regulated within + very wide limits and with perfect safety. Barrel cranes are usually + fitted with band brakes, consisting of a brake rim with a friction + band placed round it, the band being tightened as required. In + ordinary cases conduction and convection suffice to dissipate the heat + generated by the brake, but when a great deal of lowering has to be + rapidly performed, or heavy loads have to be lowered to a great depth, + special arrangements have to be provided. An excellent brake for very + large cranes is Matthew's hydraulic brake, in which water is passed + from end to end of cylinders fitted with reciprocating pistons, + cooling jackets being provided. In electric cranes a useful method is + to arrange the connexions so that the lifting motor acts as a dynamo, + and, driven by the energy of the falling load, generates a current + which is converted into heat by being passed through resistances. That + the quantity of heat to be got rid of may become very considerable is + seen when it is considered that the energy of a load of 60 tons + descending through 50 ft. is equivalent to an amount of heat + sufficient to raise nearly 6 gallons of water from 60 deg. F. to + boiling point. Crane brakes are usually under the direct control of + the driver, and they are generally arranged in one of two ways. In the + first, the pressure is applied by a handle or treadle, and is removed + by a spring or weight; this is called "braking on." In the second, or + "braking off" method, the brake is automatically applied by a spring + or weight, and is released either mechanically or, in the case of + electric cranes, by the pull of a solenoid or magnet which is + energized by the current passing through the motor. When the motor + starts the brake is released; when it stops, or the current ceases, + the brake goes on. The first method is in general use for steam + cranes; it allows for a far greater range of power in the brake, but + is not automatic, as is the second. + + In free-barrel cranes the lifting barrel is connected to the revolving + shaft by a powerful friction clutch; this, when interlocked with the + brake and controller, renders electric cranes exceedingly rapid in + working, as the barrel can be detached and lowering performed at a + very high speed, without waiting for the lifting motor to come to rest + in order to be reversed. This method of working is very suitable for + electric dock-side cranes of capacities up to about 5 or 7 tons, and + for overhead travellers where the height of lift is moderate. Where + high speed lowering is not required it is usual to employ a reversing + motor and keep it always in gear. + + In steam cranes it is usual to work all the motions from one double + cylinder engine. In order to enable two or more motions to be worked + together, or independently as required, reversing friction cones are + used for the subsidiary motions, especially the slewing motion. With + the exception of a few special cranes in which friction wheels are + employed, it is universally the practice, in steam cranes, to connect + the engine shaft with the barrel shaft by spur toothed gearing, the + gear being connected or disconnected by sliding pinions. In electric + cranes the motor is connected to the barrel, either in a similar + manner by spur gear or by worm gear. The toothed wheels give a + slightly better efficiency, but the worm gear is somewhat smoother in + its action and entirely silent; the noise of gearing can, however, be + considerably reduced by careful machining of the teeth, as is now + always done, and also by the use of pinions made of rawhide leather or + other non-resonant material. When quick-running metal pinions are used + they are arranged to run in closed oil-baths. Leather pinions must be + protected from rats, which eat them freely. Worm wheel gearing is of + very high efficiency if made very quick in pitch, with properly formed + teeth perfectly lubricated, and with the end thrust of the worm taken + on ball bearings. Much attention has been paid to the improvement of + the mechanical details of the lifting and other motions of cranes, and + in important installations the gearing is now usually made of cast + steel. In revolving cranes ease of slewing can be greatly increased by + the use of a live ring of conical rollers. + + + Power required. + + Electric motors for barrel cranes are not essentially different from + those used for other purposes, but in proportioning the sizes the + intermittent output has to be taken into consideration. This fact has + led to the introduction of the "crane rated" motor, with a given "load + factor." This latter gives the ratio of the length of the working + periods to the whole time; e.g. a motor rated for a quarter load + factor means that the motor is capable of exerting its full normal + horse-power for three minutes out of every twelve, the pause being + nine minutes, or one minute out of every four, the pause being three + minutes. The actual load factor to be chosen depends on the nature of + the work and the kind of crane. A dock-side crane unloading cargo with + high lifts following one another in rapid succession will require a + higher load factor than a workshop traveller with a very short lift + and only a very occasional maximum load; and a traveller with a very + long longitudinal travel will require a higher load factor for the + travelling motor than for the lifting motor. In practice, the load + factor for electric crane motors varies from 1/3 to 1/6. In steam + cranes much the same principle obtains in proportioning the boiler; + e.g. the engines of a 10-ton steam crane have cylinders capable of + indicating about 60 horse-power when working at full speed, but it is + found that, in consequence of the intermittent working, sufficient + steam can be supplied with a boiler whose heating surface is only 1/3 + to 1/4 of that necessary for the above power, when developed + continuously by a stationary engine. + + In well-designed, quick-running cranes the mechanical efficiency of + the lifting gear may be taken as about 85%; a good electric jib crane + will give an efficiency of 72%, i.e. when actually lifting at full + speed the mechanical work of lifting represents about 72% of the + electric energy put into the lifting motor. A very convenient rule is + to allow one brake horse-power of motor for every 10 foot-tons of work + done at the hook: this is equivalent to an efficiency of 66-2/3%, and + is well on the safe side. + + The motor in most common use for electric cranes is the series wound, + continuous current motor, which has many advantages. It has a very + large starting torque, which enables it to overcome the inertia of + getting the load into motion, and it lifts heavy loads at a slower + speed and lighter loads at a quicker one, behaving, under the action + of the controller in a somewhat similar manner to that in which the + cylinders of the steam crane respond to the action of the stop-valve. + Three-phase motors are also much used for crane-driving, and it is + probable that improvements in single and two-phase motors will + eventually largely increase their use for this class of work. + + Tests of the comparative efficiencies of hydraulic and electric cranes + tend to show that, although they do not vary to any very considerable + extent with full load, yet the efficiency of the hydraulic crane falls + away very much more rapidly than that of the electric crane when + working on smaller loads. This drawback can be corrected to a slight + extent by furnishing the hydraulic crane with more than one cylinder, + and thus compounding it, but the arrangement does not give the same + economical range of load as in an electric crane. In first cost the + hydraulic crane has the advantage, but the power mains are much less + expensive and more convenient to arrange in the electric crane. + + + Speed. + + The limit of speed of lift of hand cranes has already been mentioned; + for steam jib cranes average practice is represented by the formula V + = 30 + 200/T, where V is the speed of lift in feet per minute, and T + the load in tons. Where electric or hydraulic cranes are worked from a + central station the speed is greater, and may be roughly represented + by V = 5 + 300/T; e.g. a 30-cwt. crane would lift with a speed of + about 200 ft. per minute, and 100-ton crane with a speed of about 8 + ft. per minute, but these speeds vary with local circumstances. The + lifting speed of electric travellers is generally less, because the + lift is generally much shorter, and may in ordinary cases be taken as + V = 3 + 85/T. The cross-traversing speed of travellers varies from 60 + to 120 ft. per minute, and the longitudinal from 100 to 300 ft. per + minute. The speed of these two motions depends much on the length of + the span and of the longitudinal run, and on the nature of the work to + be done; in certain cases, e.g. foundries, it is desirable to be able + to lift, on occasions, at an extremely slow speed. In addition to the + brakes on the lifting gear of cranes it is found necessary, especially + in quick-running electric cranes, to provide a brake on the subsidiary + motions, and also devices to stop the motor at the end of the lift or + travel, so as to prevent over-running. + + There are many other important points of crane construction too + numerous to mention here, but it may be said generally that the advent + of electricity has tended to increase speeds, and in consequence great + attention is paid to all details that reduce friction and wear, such + as roller and ball bearings and improved methods of lubrication; and, + as in all other quick-running machinery, great stress has to be laid + on accuracy of workmanship. The machinery, thus being of a higher + class, requires more protection, and cranes that work in the open are + now fitted with elaborate crane-houses or cabins, furnished with + weather-tight doors and windows, and more care is taken to provide + proper platforms, hand-rails and ladders of access, and also guards + for the revolving parts of gearing. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + + Fixed Cranes. + + _Typical Forms of Cranes._--Fig. 4 is a diagram of a fixed hand + revolving jib crane, of moderate size, as used in railway goods yards + and similar places. It consists of a heavy base, which is securely + bolted to the foundation, and which carries the strong crane-post, or + pillar, around which the crane revolves. The revolving part is made + with two side frames of cast iron or steel plates, and to these the + lifting gear is attached. The load is suspended from the crane jib; + this jib is attached at the lower end to the side frames, and the + upper end is supported by tie-rods, connected to the framework, the + whole revolving together. This simple form of crane thus embodies the + essential elements of foundation, post, framework, jib, tie-rods and + gearing. + + Fig. 5 shows another type of fixed crane, known as a derrick crane. + Here the crane-post is extended into a long mast and is furnished with + pivots at the top and bottom; the mast is supported by two "back + ties," and these are connected to the socket of the bottom pivot by + the "sleepers." This is a very good and comparatively cheap form of + crane, where a long and variable radius is required, but it cannot + slew through a complete circle. Derrick cranes are made of all powers, + from the timber 1-ton hand derrick to the steel 150-ton derrick used + in shipbuilding yards. The derrick crane introduces a problem for + which many solutions have been sought, that of preventing the load + from being lifted or lowered when the jib is pivoted up or down to + alter the radius. To keep the load level, there are various devices + for automatically coupling the jib-raising and the load-lowering + motions. + + Somewhat allied to the derrick are the sheer legs (fig. 6). Here the + place of the jib is taken by two inclined legs joined together at the + top and pivoted at the bottom; a third back-leg is connected at the + top to the other two, and at the bottom is coupled to a nut which runs + on a long horizontal screw. This horizontal movement of the lower end + of the back leg allows the whole arrangement to assume the position + shown in fig. 7, so that a load can be taken out of a vessel and + deposited on a quay wall. The same effect can be produced by + shortening the back leg by a screw placed in the direction of its + length. Sheer legs are generally built in very large sizes, and their + use is practically confined to marine work. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.] + + Another type of fixed crane is the "Fairbairn" crane, shown in fig. 8. + Here the jib, superstructure and post are all united in one piece, + which revolves in a foundation well, being supported at the bottom by + a toe-step and near the ground level by horizontal rollers. This type + of crane used to be in great favour, in consequence of the great + clearance it gives under the jib, but it is expensive and requires + very heavy foundations. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.] + + The so-called "hammer-headed" crane (fig. 9) consists of a steel + braced tower, on which revolves a large horizontal double cantilever; + the forward part of this cantilever or jib carries the lifting crab, + and the jib is extended backwards in order to form a support for the + machinery and counter-balance. Besides the motions of lifting and + revolving, there is provided a so-called "racking" motion, by which + the lifting crab, with the load suspended, can be moved in and out + along the jib without altering the level of the load. Such horizontal + movement of the load is a marked feature of later crane design; it + first became prominent in the so-called "Titan" cranes, mentioned + below (fig. 14). Hammer-headed cranes are generally constructed in + large sizes, up to 200 tons. + + Another type of fixed revolving crane is the foundry or smithy crane + (fig. 10). It has the horizontal racking motion mentioned above, and + revolves either on upper and lower pivots supported by the structure + of the workshop, or on a fixed pillar secured to a heavy foundation. + The type is often used in foundries, or to serve heavy hammers in a + smithy, whence the name. + + + Portable cranes. + + Portable cranes are of many kinds. Obviously, nearly every kind of + crane can be made portable by mounting it on a carriage, fitted with + wheels; it is even not unusual to make the Scottish derrick portable + by using three trucks, one under the mast, and the others under the + two back legs. + + Fig. 11 represents a portable steam jib crane; it contains the same + elements as the fixed crane (fig. 4), but the foundation bed is + mounted on a truck which is carried on railway or road wheels. With + portable cranes means must be provided to ensure the requisite + stability against overturning; this is done by weighting the tail of + the revolving part with heavy weights, and in steam cranes the boiler + is so placed as also to form part of the counterbalance. Where the + rail-gauge is narrow and great weight is not desired, blocking girders + are provided across the under side of the truck; these are arranged so + that, by means of wedges or screws, they can be made to increase the + base. In connexion with the stability of portable cranes, it may be + mentioned that accidents more often arise from overturning backwards + than forwards. In the latter case the overturning tendency begins as + soon as the load leaves the ground, but ceases as soon as the load + again touches the ground and thus relieves the crane of the extra + weight, whereas overturning backwards is caused either by the reaction + of a chain breaking or by excessive counterweight. When portable + cranes are fitted with springs and axle-boxes, drawgear and buffers, + so that they can be coupled to an ordinary railway train, they are + called "breakdown" or "wrecking" cranes. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.] + + Dock-side jib cranes for working general cargo are almost always made + portable, in order to enable them to be placed in correct position in + regard to the hatchways of the vessels which they serve. Fig. 12 shows + an ordinary hydraulic dock-side jib crane. This type is usually fitted + with a very high jib, so as to lift goods in and out of high-sided + vessels. The hydraulic lifting cylinders are placed inside the + revolving steel mast or post, and the cabin for the driver is arranged + high up in the front of the post, so as to give a good view of the + work. The pressure is conveyed to the crane by means of jointed + "walking" pipes, or flexible hose, connected to hydrants placed at + regular intervals along the quay. It is often very desirable to have + the quay space as little obstructed by the cranes as possible, so as + not to interfere with railway traffic; this has led to the + introduction of cranes mounted on high trucks or gantries, sometimes + also called "portal" cranes. Where warehouses or station buildings run + parallel to the quay line, the high truck is often extended, so as to + span the whole quay; on one side the "long leg" runs on a rail at the + quay edge, and on the other the "short leg" runs on a runway placed on + the building. Cranes of this type are called "half-portal" cranes. + Fig. 13 shows an electric crane of this class. They give the minimum + of interference with quay space and have rapidly come into favour. + Where the face of the warehouse is sufficiently close to the water to + permit of the crane rope plumbing the hatches without requiring a jib + of excessive radius, it is a very convenient plan to place the whole + crane on the warehouse roof. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.] + + A special form of jib crane, designed to meet a particular purpose, is + the "Titan" (fig. 14) largely used in the construction of piers and + breakwaters. It contains all the essential elements of the + hammer-headed crane, of which it may be considered to be the parent; + in fact, the only essential difference is that the Titan is portable + and the hammer-head crane fixed. The Titan was the first type of large + portable crane in which full use was made of a truly horizontal + movement of the load; for the purpose for which the type is designed, + viz. setting concrete blocks in courses, this motion is almost a + necessity. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.] + + + Non-revolving cranes. + + As types of non-revolving cranes, fig. 15 shows an overhead traveller + worked by hand, and fig. 16 a somewhat similar machine worked by + electric power. The principal component parts of a traveller are the + main cross girders forming the _bridge_, the two _end carriages_ on + which the bridge rests, the _running wheels_ which enable the end + carriages to travel on the longitudinal gantry girders or _runway_, + and the _crab_ or _jenny_, which carries the hoisting mechanism, and + moves across the span on rails placed on the bridge girders. There are + numerous and important variations of these two types, but the above + contain the elements out of which most cranes of the class are built. + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.] + + One variation is illustrated in fig. 17, and is called a "Goliath" or + "Wellington." It is practically a traveller mounted on high legs, so + as to permit of its being travelled on rails placed on the ground + level, instead of on an elevated gantry. Of other variations and + combinations of types, fig. 18 shows a modern design of crane intended + to command the maximum of yard space, and having some of the + characteristics both of the Goliath and of the revolving jib crane, + and fig. 19 depicts a combination of a traveller and a hanging jib + crane. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.] + + + Transporters. + + When the cross traverse motion of a traveller crab is suppressed, and + the longitudinal travelling motion is increased in importance we come + to a type of crane, the use of which is rapidly increasing; it goes by + the name of "transporter." Transporters can only move the load to any + point on a vertical surface (generally a plane surface); they have a + lifting motion and a movement of translation. They are of two kinds: + (1) those in which the motive power and lifting gear are + self-contained on the crab; and (2) those in which the motive power is + placed in a fixed position. A transporter of the first class is shown + in fig. 20. From the lower flange of a suspended runway, made of a + single I section, run wheels, from the axles of which the transporter + is suspended. The latter consists of a framework carrying the hoisting + barrel, with its driving motor and gearing, and a travelling motor, + which is geared to the running wheels in such a manner as to be able + to propel the whole machine; a seat is provided for the driver who + manipulates the controllers. A transporter of this kind, when fitted + with a grab, is a very efficient machine for taking coal from barges + and depositing it in a coal store. + + In the other class of transporter the load is not usually moved + through such long distances. It consists essentially of a jib made of + single I-sections, and supported by tie-rods (fig. 21), the load to be + lifted being suspended from a small travelling carriage which runs on + the lower flange. The lifting gear is located in any convenient fixed + position. In order that only one motor may be used, and also that the + load may be lifted by a single part of rope, various devices have been + invented. The jib is usually inclined, so as to enable the travel to + be performed by gravity in one direction, and the object of the + transporter mechanism is to ensure that pulling in or slacking out the + lifting rope shall perform the cycle of operations in the following + order:--Supposing the load is ready to be lifted out of a vessel on to + a quay, the pull of the lifting rope raises the load, the travelling + jenny being meanwhile locked in position. On arriving at a certain + height the lift ceases and the jenny is released, and by the continued + pull of the rope, it runs up the jib; on arriving at an adjustable + stop, the jenny is again locked, and the load can be lowered out; the + hook can then be raised, when the jenny is automatically unlocked, and + on paying out the rope the jenny gravitates to its first position, + when the load is lowered and the cycle repeated. The jibs of + transporters are often made to slide forward, or lift up, so as to be + out of the way when not in use. Transporters are largely used for + dealing with general cargo between vessels and warehouses, and also + for coaling vessels; they have a great advantage in not interfering + with the rigging of vessels. + + [Illustration: FIG. 21.] + + Nearly all recent advances in crane design are the result of the + introduction of the electric motor. It is now possible to apply motive + power exactly where it is wanted, and to do so economically, so that + the crane designer has a perfectly free hand in adding the various + motions required by the special circumstances of each case. + + The literature which deals specially with cranes is not a large one, + but there are some good German text-books on the subject, amongst + which may be mentioned _Die Hebezeuge_ by Ernst (4th ed., Berlin, + 1903), and _Cranes_, by Anton Bottcher, translated with additions by + A. Tolhausen (London, 1908). (W. P.*) + + + + +CRANIOMETRY. The application of precise methods of measurement marks a +definite phase in the development of most branches of modern science, +and thus craniometry, a comprehensive expression for all methods of +measuring the skull (cranium), provides a striking landmark in the +progress of anthropological studies. The origin of craniometry appears +to be twofold. Certain artists made measurements of heads and skulls +with a view to attaining greater accuracy in their representation of +those parts of the human frame. Bernard de Palissy and A. Durer may be +mentioned as pioneers in such researches. Again, it is clearly shown in +the literature of this subject, that anatomists were led to employ +methods of measurement in their study of the human skull. The +determining cause of this improvement in method is curious, for it +appeared at the end of a famous anatomical controversy of the later +middle ages, namely the dispute as to whether the Galenic anatomy was +based on the study of the human body or upon those of apes. In the +description of the dissection of a chimpanzee (in 1680) Tyson explains +that the measurements he made of the skull of that animal were devised +with a view to exhibiting the difference between this and the human +skull. + +The artists did not carry their researches very far. The anatomists on +the contrary continued to make measurements, and in 1764 Daubenton +published a noteworthy contribution to craniometry. Six years later, +Pieter Camper, distinguished both as an artist and as an anatomist, +published some lectures containing an account of his craniometrical +methods, and these may be fairly claimed as having laid the foundation +of all subsequent work. That work has been described above as +anthropological, but as the studies thus defined are very varied in +extent, it is necessary to consider the subdivisions into which they +naturally fall. + +In the first place (and omitting further reference to the contributions +of artists), it has been explained that the measurements were first made +with a view to elucidating the comparison of the skulls of men with +those of other animals. This wide comparison constitutes the first +subdivision of craniometric studies. And craniometric methods have +rendered the results of comparison much more clear and comprehensible +than was formerly the case. It is further remarkable that among the +first measurements employed angular determinations occur, and indeed the +name of Camper is chiefly perpetuated in anthropological literature by +the "facial angle" invented by that artist-anatomist (fig. 1). It +appears impossible to improve on the simple terms in which Camper +describes the general results of the employment of this angle for +comparative purposes, as will appear from the following brief extract +from the translation of the original work: "The two extremities of the +facial line are from 70 to 80 degrees from the negro to the Grecian +antique: make it under 70, and you describe an ourang or an ape: lessen +it still more, and you have the head of a dog. Increase the minimum, and +you form a fowl, a snipe for example, the facial line of which is nearly +parallel with the horizon." (Camper's Works, p. 42, translated by Cogan, +1821.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Skull and head of a young orang-utan, and of +a negro, showing the lines including the facial angle (MGND) devised by +Pieter Camper.] + +In the 19th century the names of notable contributors to the literature +of craniometry quickly increase in number; while it is impossible to +analyse each contribution, or even record a complete list of the names +of the authors, it must be added that for the purposes of far-reaching +comparisons of the lower animals with mankind, craniometric methods were +used by P. P. Broca in France and by T. H. Huxley (figs. 2 and 3) in +England, with such genius and success as have not yet been surpassed. + +The second division of craniometric studies includes those in which the +skulls of the higher and lower races of mankind are compared. And in +this domain, the advent of accurate numerical methods of recording +observations brought about great advances. In describing the facial +angle, it will be seen that the modern European, the Greek of classical +antiquity and the Negro are compared. Thus it is that Camper's name +appears as that of a pioneer in this second main division of the +subject. Broca and Huxley cultivated similar comparative racial fields +of research, but to these names that of Anders Retzius of Stockholm must +be added here. The chief claim of Retzius to distinction rests on the +merits of his system of comparing various dimensions of the skull, and +of a classification based on such comparisons. These indices will be +further defined below. It is convenient to mention here that the first +aim of all these investigators was to obtain from the skull reliable +data having reference to the conformation or size of the brain once +contained within it. Only in later days did the tendency to overlook +this, the fundamental aim and end of craniometry, make its appearance; +such nevertheless was the case, much to the detriment of craniometric +science, which for a time seems to have become purely empirical. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The spheno-ethmoidal, spheno-maxillary and +foramino-basal angles are shown in the crania of:--A, a New Britain +native (male); B, a gorilla (male) C, a dog. _N.Pr.B_, Spheno-ethmoidal +angle; _P.Pr.B_, Spheno-maxillary angle; _Pr.B.Op_, Foramino-basal +angle. The spheno-ethmoidal and spheno-maxillary angles were first +employed by Huxley.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--The spheno-ethmoidal, spheno-maxillary and +foramino-basal angles are shown in the crania of:--A, a New Guinea +native (male); B, a European woman. _N.Pr.B_, Spheno-ethmoidal angle; +_P.Pr.B_, Spheno-maxillary angle; _Pr.B.Op_, Foramina-basal angle.] + +The third subdivision of craniometric researches is one in which the +field of comparison is still further narrowed. For herein the various +sub-racial types such as the dark and fair Europeans are brought +together for the purposes of comparison or contrast. But although the +range of research is thus narrowed and restricted, the guiding +principles and the methods remain unchanged. In this department of +craniometry, Anders Retzius has gained the foremost place among the +pioneers of research. Retzius's name is, as already mentioned, +associated not with any particular angle or angular measurement, but +rather with a method of expressing as a formula two cranial dimensions +which have been measured and which are to be compared. Thus for instance +one skull may be so proportioned that its greatest width measures 75% of +its greatest length (i.e. its width is to its length as three to four). + +[Illustration: From Tylor's _Anthropology_, by permission of Macmillan & +Co., Ltd. + +FIG. 4.--Top view of skulls. (A) Negro, index 70, dolichocephalic; (B) +European, index 80, mesaticephalic; (C) Samoyed, index 85, +brachycephalic.] + +This ratio (of 75%) is termed the cephalic or breadth-index, which in +such an instance would be described as equal to 75. A skull providing a +breadth-index of 75 will naturally possess very different proportions +from another which provides a corresponding index equal to 85. And in +fact this particular index in human skulls varies from about 58 to 90 in +undistorted examples (fig. 4). Such is the general scheme of Retzius's +system of classification of skulls by means of indices, and one of his +earliest applications of the method was to the inhabitants of Sweden. +One striking result was to exhibit a most marked contrast in respect of +the breadth-index of the skull, between the Lapps and their Scandinavian +neighbours, and thus a craniometric difference was added to the list of +characters (such as stature, hair-colour and complexion) whereby these +two types were already distinguished. Since the publication of Retzius's +studies, the cephalic or breadth-index of the skull has retained a +premier position among its almost innumerable successors, though it is +of historical interest to note that, while Retzius had undoubtedly +devised the method of comparing "breadth-indices," he always qualified +the results of its use by reference to other data. These qualifications +were overlooked by the immediate successors of Retzius, much to the +disadvantage of craniometry. In addition to the researches on the skull +forms of Lapps and Swedes, others dealing with the comparison of Finns +and Swedes (by Retzius) as well as the investigation of the form of +skull in Basques and Guanches (by Broca) possess historic interest. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Callipers used in Craniometry, Professor +Martin's (P. Hermann, Zurich) model.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Flower's Craniometer as modified by Dr W. L. H. +Duckworth.] + +Thus far little or nothing has been said with regard to instruments. +Camper devised a four-sided open frame with cross-wires, through which +skulls were viewed and by means of which accurate drawings could be +projected on to paper. The methods of Retzius as here described require +the aid of callipers of various sorts, and such instruments were quickly +devised and applied to the special needs of the case. Such instruments +are still in use, and two forms of simple craniometer are shown in the +accompanying illustrations (figs. 5 and 6). For the more accurate +comparison required in the study of various European types, delicate +instruments for measuring angles were invented by Anthelme in Paris +(1836) and John Grattan in Belfast (1853). These instruments enabled the +observer to transmit to the plane surface of a sheet of drawing paper a +correct tracing of the contour of the specimen under investigation. A +further modification was devised by the talented Dr Busk in the year +1861, and since that date the number and forms of these instruments have +been greatly multiplied. With reference to contributors to the advance +of knowledge in this particular department of craniometry, there should +be added to the foregoing names those of Huxley, Sir W. H. Flower and +Sir W. Turner in England, J. L. A. de Quatrefages in France, J. C. G. +Lucae and H. Welcker in Germany. Moreover, the methods have also been +multiplied, so that in addition to angular and linear measurements, +those of the capacity or cubical contents of the cranium and those of +the curvature of its surface demand reference. The masterly work of +Cleland claims special mention in this connexion. And finally while two +dimensions are combined in the cephalic index of Retzius, the +combination of three dimensions (in a formula called a modulus) +distinguishes some recent work, although the employment of the modulus +is actually a return to a system devised in 1859 by Karl E. von Baer. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--The facial angle of the Frankfort Agreement is +shown in the crania of:--A, a New Britain native (male) 62 deg.; B, a +gorilla (male) 50 deg.; C, a dog 42 deg.. This angle has now replaced +the facial angle of Camper (cf. fig. 1).] + +The fourth subdivision of craniometry is closely allied to that which +has just been described, and it deals with the comparison of the +prehistoric and the recent types of mankind. The methods are exactly +similar to those employed in the comparison of living races; but in some +particular instances where the prehistoric individual is represented +only by a comparatively minute portion of the skull, some special +modifications of the usual procedures have been necessitated. In this +field the works of W. His and L. Rutimeyer on the prehistoric races of +Switzerland, those of Ecker (South Germany), of Broca in France, of +Thurnam and Davis in England, must be cited. G. Schwalbe, Kramberger, W. +J. Sollas and H. Klaatsch are the most recent contributors to this +department of craniometry. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--The facial angle of the Frankfort Agreement is +shown in the crania of:--A, a Guinea native (male) 75 deg.; B, a European +(woman) 93 deg.; C, a new-born infant (93 deg.).] + +Thus the complexity of craniometric studies has inevitably increased. In +the hands of von Torok of Budapest, as in those of M. Benedikt of Vienna +at an earlier date, the number of measurements regarded as necessary for +the complete "diagnosis" of a skull has reached a colossal total. Of the +trend and progress of craniometry at the present day, three particular +developments are noteworthy. First come the attempts made at various +times to co-ordinate the systems of measurements so as to ensure +uniformity among all observers; of these attempts two, viz. that of the +German anthropologists at Frankfort in 1882 (figs. 7 and 8), and that of +the Anthropometric Committee of the British Association (1906) seem to +require at least a record. In the second place, the application of the +methods of statistical science in dealing with large numbers of +craniometric data has been richly rewarded in Prof. Karl Pearson's +hands. Thirdly, and in connexion with such methods, there may be +mentioned the extension of these systems of measurement, and of the +methods of dealing with them on statistical principles, to the study of +large numbers of the skulls of domestic and feral animals, such as white +rats or the varieties of the horse. And lastly no account of craniometry +would be complete without mention of the revolt, headed by the Italian +anthropologist Sergi, against metrical methods of all kinds. It cannot, +however, be alleged that the substitutes offered by the adherents of +Sergi's principles encourage others to forsake the more orthodox +numerical methods. + + LITERATURE.--Tyson, _The Anatomy of a Pygmie_ (London, 1699); + Daubenton, "Sur la difference de la situation du tron occipital dans + l'homme et dans les animaux," _Comptes rendus de l'academie des + sciences_ (Paris, 1764); Camper, _Works_ (1770, translated by Cogan, + 1821); Broca, _Memoires_ (1862 and following years); Huxley, _Journal + of Anatomy and Physiology_, vol. 1 (1867); Retzius, _Uber die + Schadelformen der Nordbewohner_ (Stockholm, 1842); Anthelme, + _Physiologie de la pensee_ (Paris, 1836); Grattan, _Ulster Journal of + Archaeology_, vol. 1 (1853); Busk, "A System of Craniometry," + _Transactions of the Ethnological Society_ (1861); Flower, Catalogue + of the Hunterian Museum, _Osteology_, part 1 (London, 1879); Turner, + "'Challenger' Reports," _Zoology_, vol. x. pt. 29, "Human Crania" + (1884); de Quatrefages, _Crania ethnica_ (Paris, 1873); Lucae, + _Architectur des menschlichen Schadels_ (Frankfort, 1855); Welcker, + _Bau und Wachsthum des menschlichen Schadels_ (1862); Cleland, "An + Inquiry into the Variations of the Human Skull," _Phil. Trans. Roy. + Society_ (1870), vol. 160, pp. 117 et seq.; von Baer, "Crania + selecta," Academie imperiale des sciences de S. Petersbourg (1859); + His and Rutimeyer, _Crania Helvetica_ (Basel, 1866); Ecker, _Crania + Germaniae meridionalis_ (1865); Thurnam and Davis, _Crania + Britannica_; von Torok, _Craniometrie_ (Stuttgart, 1890); Benedikt, + _Manuel technique et pratique d'anthropometrie cranio-cephalique_ + (Paris, 1889); Pearson, _Biometrika_, from vol. 1 (in 1902) onwards; + Sergi, "The Varieties of the Human Species," English translation, + Smithsonian Institution (Washington, 1894); Schwalbe, "Der + Neanderthalschadel," _Bonner Jahrbucher_, Heft 106; also _Sonderheft + der Zeitschrift fur Morphologie und Anthropologie_; Kramberger, _Der + palaolithische Mensch von Krapina_ (Nagele, Stuttgart, 1901); Sollas, + "The Cranial Characters of the Neanderthal Race," _Phil. Transactions + of the Royal Society_, vol. 199, Series B, p. 298, 1908; Klaatsch, + "Bericht uber einen anthropologischen Streifzug nach London," + _Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie_, Heft 6, 1903, p. 875. + + _Handbooks._--Topinard, _Elements d'anthropologie generale_ (Paris, + 1885); Schmidt, _Anthropologische Methoden_ (Leipzig, 1888); + Duckworth, _Morphology and Anthropology_ (Cambridge, 1904). + + _Journals._--_Bulletins de la Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris_, + _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and + Ireland_, _Archiv fur Anthropologie_, _Zeitschrift fur Morphologie und + Anthropologie_. (W. L. H. D.) + + + + +CRANK, a word of somewhat obscure etymology, probably connected with a +root meaning "crooked," and appearing in the Ger. _krank_, ill, a +figurative use of the original word; among other words in English +containing the same original meaning are "cringe" and "crinkle." In +mechanics, a crank is a device by which reciprocating motion is +converted into circular motion or vice versa, consisting of a +_crank-arm_, one end of which is fastened rigidly at right angles to the +rotating shaft or axis, while the other end bears a _crank-pin_, +projecting from it at right angles and parallel to the shaft. When the +reciprocating part of a machine, as the piston and piston-rod of a steam +engine, is linked to this crank by a _crank-rod_ or _connecting rod_, +one end of which works on the crank-pin and the other on a pin in the +end of the reciprocating part, the to-and-fro motion of the latter +imparts a circular motion to the shaft and vice versa. The crank, +instead of being made up as described above, may be formed by bending +the shaft to the required shape, as sometimes in the handle of a winch. +A _bell-crank_, so called because of its use in bell-hanging to change +the direction of motion of the wires from horizontal to vertical or vice +versa, consists of two arms rigidly connected at an angle, say of 90 +deg., to each other and pivoted on a pin placed at the point of +junction. + +Crank is also the name given to a labour machine used in prisons as a +means of punishment (see TREAD-MILL). Other uses of the word, connected +with the primary meaning, are for a crooked path, a crevice or chink; +and a freakish turn of thought or speech, as in Milton's phrase "quips +and cranks." It is also used as a slang expression, American in origin, +for a harmless lunatic, or a faddist, whose enthusiasm for some one +idea or hobby becomes a monomania. "Crank" or "crank-sided" is a +nautical term used of a ship which by reason of her build or from want +of balance is liable to overturn. This strictly nautical sense is often +confused with "crank" or "cranky," that is, rickety or shaky, probably +derived direct from the German _krank_, weak or ill. + + + + +CRANMER, THOMAS (1489-1556), archbishop of Canterbury, born at Aslacton +or Aslockton in Nottinghamshire on the 2nd of July 1489, was the second +son of Thomas Cranmer and of his wife Anne Hatfield. He received his +early education, according to Morice his secretary, from "a marvellous +severe and cruel schoolmaster," whose discipline must have been severe +indeed to deserve this special mention in an age when no schoolmaster +bore the rod in vain. The same authority tells us that he was initiated +by his father in those field sports, such as hunting and hawking, which +formed one of his recreations in after life. To early training he also +owed the skilful horsemanship for which he was conspicuous. At the age +of fourteen he was sent by his mother, who had in 1501 become a widow, +to Cambridge. Little is known with certainty of his university career +beyond the facts that he became a fellow of Jesus College in 1510 or +1511, that he had soon after to vacate his fellowship, owing to his +marriage to "Black Joan," a relative of the landlady of the Dolphin Inn, +and that he was reinstated in it on the death of his wife, which +occurred in childbirth before the lapse of the year of grace allowed by +the statutes. During the brief period of his married life he held the +appointment of lecturer at Buckingham Hall, now Magdalene College. The +fact of his marrying would seem to show that he did not at the time +intend to enter the church; possibly the death of his wife caused him to +qualify for holy orders. He was ordained in 1523, and soon after he took +his doctor's degree in divinity. According to Strype, he was invited +about this time to become a fellow of the college founded by Cardinal +Wolsey at Oxford; but Dean Hook shows that there is some reason to doubt +this. If the offer was made, it was declined, and Cranmer continued at +Cambridge filling the offices of lecturer in divinity at his own college +and of public examiner in divinity to the university. It is interesting, +in view of his later efforts to spread the knowledge of the Bible among +the people, to know that in the capacity of examiner he insisted on a +thorough acquaintance with the Holy Scriptures, and rejected several +candidates who were deficient in this qualification. + +It was a somewhat curious concurrence of circumstances that transferred +Cranmer, almost at one step, from the quiet seclusion of the university +to the din and bustle of the court. In August 1529 the plague known as +the sweating sickness, which prevailed throughout the country, was +specially severe at Cambridge, and all who had it in their power forsook +the town for the country. Cranmer went with two of his pupils named +Cressy, related to him through their mother, to their father's house at +Waltham in Essex. The king (Henry VIII.) happened at the time to be +visiting in the immediate neighbourhood, and two of his chief +counsellors, Gardiner, secretary of state, afterwards bishop of +Winchester, and Edward Fox, the lord high almoner, afterwards bishop of +Hereford, were lodged at Cressy's house. Meeting with Cranmer, they were +naturally led to discuss the king's meditated divorce from Catherine of +Aragon. Cranmer suggested that if the canonists and the universities +should decide that marriage with a deceased brother's widow was illegal, +and if it were proved that Catherine had been married to Prince Arthur, +her marriage to Henry could be declared null and void by the ordinary +ecclesiastical courts. The necessity of an appeal to Rome was thus +dispensed with, and this point was at once seen by the king, who, when +Cranmer's opinion was reported to him, is said to have ordered him to be +summoned in these terms: "I will speak to him. Let him be sent for out +of hand. This man, I trow, has got the right sow by the ear." + +At their first interview Cranmer was commanded by the king to lay aside +all other pursuits and to devote himself to the question of the divorce. +He was to draw up a written treatise, stating the course he proposed, +and defending it by arguments from scripture, the fathers and the +decrees of general councils. His material interests certainly did not +suffer by compliance. He was commended to the hospitality of Anne +Boleyn's father, the earl of Wiltshire, in whose house at Durham Place +he resided for some time; the king appointed him archdeacon of Taunton +and one of his chaplains; and he also held a parochial benefice, the +name of which is unknown. When the treatise was finished Cranmer was +called upon to defend its argument before the universities of Oxford and +Cambridge, which he visited, accompanied by Fox and Gardiner. +Immediately afterwards he was sent to plead the cause before a more +powerful if not a higher tribunal. An embassy, with the earl of +Wiltshire at its head, was despatched to Rome in 1530, that "the matter +of the divorce should be disputed and ventilated," and Cranmer was an +important member of it. He was received by the Pope with marked +courtesy, and was appointed "Grand Penitentiary of England," but his +argument, if he ever had the opportunity of stating it, did not lead to +any practical decision of the question. + +Cranmer returned in September 1530, but in January 1531 he received a +second commission from the king appointing him "Conciliarius Regius et +ad Caesarem Orator." In the summer of 1531 he accordingly proceeded to +Germany as sole ambassador to the emperor. He was also to sound the +Lutheran princes with a view to an alliance, and to obtain the removal +of some restrictions on English trade. At Nuremberg he became acquainted +with Osiander, whose somewhat isolated theological position he probably +found to be in many points analogous to his own. Both were convinced +that the old order must change; neither saw clearly what the new order +should be to which it was to give place. They had frequent interviews, +which had doubtless an important influence on Cranmer's opinions. But +Osiander's house had another attraction of a different kind from +theological sympathy. His niece Margaret won the heart of Cranmer, and +in 1532 they were married. Hook finds in the fact of the marriage +corroboration of Cranmer's statement that he never expected or desired +the primacy; and it seems probable enough that, if he had foreseen how +soon the primacy was to be forced upon him, he would have avoided a +disqualification which it was difficult to conceal and dangerous to +disclose. + +Expected or not, the primacy was forced upon him within a very few +months of his marriage. In August 1532 Archbishop Warham died, and the +king almost immediately afterwards intimated to Cranmer, who had +accompanied the emperor in his campaign against the Turks, his +nomination to the vacant see. Cranmer's conduct was certainly consistent +with his profession that he did not desire, as he had not expected, the +dangerous promotion. He sent his wife to England, but delayed his own +return in the vain hope that another appointment might be made. The +papal bulls of confirmation were dated February and March 1533, and the +consecration took place on the 30th March. One peculiarity of the +ceremony had occasioned considerable discussion. It was the custom for +the archbishop elect to take two oaths, the first of episcopal +allegiance to the pope, and the second in recognition of the royal +supremacy. The latter was so wide in its scope that it might fairly be +held to supersede the former in so far as the two were inconsistent. +Cranmer, however, was not satisfied with this. He had a special protest +recorded, in which he formally declared that he swore allegiance to the +pope only in so far as that was consistent with his supreme duty to the +king. The morality of this course has been much canvassed, though it +seems really to involve nothing more than an express declaration of what +the two oaths implied. It was the course that would readily suggest +itself to a man of timid nature who wished to secure himself against +such a fate as Wolsey's. It showed weakness, but it added nothing to +whatever immorality there might be in successively taking two +incompatible oaths. + +In the last as in the first step of Cranmer's promotion Henry had been +actuated by one and the same motive. The business of the divorce--or +rather, of the legitimation of Anne Boleyn's expected issue--had now +become very urgent, and in the new archbishop he had an agent who might +be expected to forward it with the needful haste. The celerity and skill +with which Cranmer did the work intrusted to him must have fully +satisfied his master. During the first week of April Convocation sat +almost from day to day to determine questions of fact and law in +relation to Catherine's marriage with Henry as affected by her previous +marriage with his brother Arthur. Decisions favourable to the object of +the king were given on these questions, though even the despotism of the +most despotic of the Tudors failed to secure absolute unanimity. The +next step was taken by Cranmer, who wrote a letter to the king, praying +to be allowed to remove the anxiety of loyal subjects as to a possible +case of disputed succession, by finally determining the validity of the +marriage in his archiepiscopal court. There is evidence that the request +was prompted by the king, and his consent was given as a matter of +course. Queen Catherine was residing at Ampthill in Bedfordshire, and to +suit her convenience the court was held at the priory of Dunstable in +the immediate neighbourhood. Declining to appear, she was declared +contumacious, and on the 23rd of May the archbishop gave judgment +declaring the marriage null and void from the first, and so leaving the +king free to marry whom he pleased. The Act of Appeals had already +prohibited any appeal from the archbishop's court. Five days later he +pronounced the marriage between Henry and Anne--which had been secretly +celebrated about the 25th of January 1533--to be valid. On the 1st of +June he crowned Anne as queen, and on the 10th of September stood +godfather to her child, the future Queen Elizabeth. + +The breach with Rome and the subjection of the church in England to the +royal supremacy had been practically achieved before Cranmer's +appointment as archbishop: and he had little to do with the other +constitutional changes of Henry's reign. But his position as chief +minister of Henry's ecclesiastical jurisdiction forced him into +unpleasant prominence in connexion with the king's matrimonial +experiences. In 1536 he was required to revise his own sentence in +favour of the validity of Henry's marriage with Anne Boleyn; and on the +17th of May the marriage was declared invalid. The ground on which this +sentence is pronounced is fairly clear. Anne's sister, Mary Boleyn, had +been Henry VIII.'s mistress; this by canon law was a bar to his marriage +with Anne--a bar which had been removed by papal dispensation in 1527, +but now the papal power to dispense in such cases had been repudiated, +and the original objection revived. The sentence was grotesquely legal +and unjust. With Anne's condemnation by the House of Lords Cranmer had +nothing to do. He interceded for her in vain with the king, as he had +done in the cases of Fisher, More and the monks of Christchurch. His +share in the divorce of Anne of Cleves was less prominent than that of +Gardiner, though he did preside over the Convocation in which nearly all +the dignitaries of the church signified their approval of that measure. +To his next and last interposition in the matrimonial affairs of the +king no discredit attaches itself. When he was made cognizant of the +charges against Catherine Howard, his duty to communicate them to the +king was obvious, though painful. + +Meanwhile Cranmer was actively carrying out the policy which has +associated his name more closely, perhaps, than that of any other +ecclesiastic with the Reformation in England. Its most important feature +on the theological as distinct from the political side was the endeavour +to promote the circulation of the Bible in the vernacular, by +encouraging translation and procuring an order in 1538 that a copy of +the Bible in English should be set up in every church in a convenient +place for reading. Only second in importance to this was the +re-adjustment of the creed and liturgy of the church, which formed +Cranmer's principal work during the latter half of his life. The +progress of the archbishop's opinion towards that middle Protestantism, +if it may be so called, which he did so much to impress on the +formularies of the Church of England, was gradual, as a brief +enumeration of the successive steps in that progress will show. In 1538 +an embassy of German divines visited England with the design, among +other things, of forming a common confession for the two countries. This +proved impracticable, but the frequent conferences Cranmer had with the +theologians composing the embassy had doubtless a great influence in +modifying his views. Both in parliament and in Convocation he opposed +the Six Articles of 1539, but he stood almost alone. During the period +between 1540 and 1543 the archbishop was engaged at the head of a +commission in the revision of the "Bishop's Book" (1537) or +_Institutions of a Christian Man_, and the preparation of the _Necessary +Erudition_ (1543) known as the "King's Book," which was a modification +of the former work in the direction of Roman Catholic doctrine. In June +1545 was issued his Litany, which was substantially the same as that now +in use, and shows his mastery of a rhythmical English style. + +The course taken by Cranmer in promoting the Reformation exposed him to +the bitter hostility of the reactionary party or "men of the old +learning," of whom Gardiner and Bonner were leaders, and on various +occasions--notably in 1543 and 1545--conspiracies were formed in the +council or elsewhere to effect his overthrow. The king, however, +remained true to him, and all the conspiracies signally failed. It +illustrates a favourable trait in the archbishop's character that he +forgave all the conspirators. He was, as his secretary Morice testifies, +"a man that delighted not in revenging." + +Cranmer was present with Henry VIII. when he died (1547). By the will of +the king he was nominated one of a council of regency composed of +sixteen persons, but he acquiesced in the arrangement by which Somerset +became lord protector. He officiated at the coronation of the boy king +Edward VI., and is supposed to have instituted a sinister change in the +order of the ceremony, by which the right of the monarch to reign was +made to appear to depend upon inheritance alone, without the concurrent +consent of the people. But Edward's title had been expressly sanctioned +by act of parliament, so that there was no more room for election in his +case than in that of George I., and the real motive of the changes was +to shorten the weary ceremony for the frail child. + +During this reign the work of the Reformation made rapid progress, the +sympathies both of the Protector and of the young king being decidedly +Protestant. Cranmer was therefore enabled without let or hindrance to +complete the preparation of the church formularies, on which he had been +for some time engaged. In 1547 appeared the _Homilies_ prepared under +his direction. Four of them are attributed to the archbishop +himself--those on Salvation, Faith, Good Works and the Reading of +Scripture. His translation of the German Catechism of Justus Jonas, +known as Cranmer's Catechism, appeared in the following year. Important, +as showing his views on a cardinal doctrine, was the _Defence of the +True and Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrament_, which he published in +1550. It was immediately answered from the side of the "old learning" by +Gardiner. The first prayer-book of Edward VI. was finished in November +1548, and received legal sanction in March 1549; the second was +completed and sanctioned in April 1552. The archbishop did much of the +work of compilation personally. The forty-two articles of Edward VI. +published in 1553 owe their form and style almost entirely to the hand +of Cranmer. The last great undertaking in which he was employed was the +revision of his codification of the canon law, which had been all but +completed before the death of Henry. The task was one eminently well +suited to his powers, and the execution of it was marked by great skill +in definition and arrangement. It never received any authoritative +sanction, Edward VI. dying before the proclamation establishing it could +be made, and it remained unpublished until 1571, when a Latin +translation by Dr Walter Haddon and Sir John Cheke appeared under the +title _Reformatio legum ecclesiasticarum_. It laid down the lawfulness +and necessity of persecution to the death for heresy in the most +absolute terms; and Cranmer himself condemned Joan Bocher to the flames. +But he naturally loathed persecution, and was as tolerant as any in that +age. + +Cranmer stood by the dying bed of Edward as he had stood by that of his +father, and he there suffered himself to be persuaded to take a step +against his own convictions. He had pledged himself to respect the +testamentary disposition of Henry VIII. by which the succession devolved +upon Mary, and now he violated his oath by signing Edward's "device" of +the crown to Lady Jane Grey. On grounds of policy and morality alike +the act was quite indefensible; but it is perhaps some palliation of his +perjury that it was committed to satisfy the last urgent wish of a dying +man, and that he alone remained true to the nine days' queen when the +others who had with him signed Edward's device deserted her. On the +accession of Mary he was summoned to the council--most of whom had +signed the same device--reprimanded for his conduct, and ordered to +confine himself to his palace at Lambeth until the queen's pleasure was +known. He refused to follow the advice of his friends and avoid the fate +that was clearly impending over him by flight to the continent. Any +chance of safety that lay in the friendliness of a strong party in the +council was more than nullified by the bitter personal enmity of the +queen, who could not forgive his share in her mother's divorce and her +own disgrace. On the 14th of September 1553 he was sent to the Tower, +where Ridley and Latimer were also confined. The immediate occasion of +his imprisonment was a strongly worded declaration he had written a few +days previously against the mass, the celebration of which, he heard, +had been re-established at Canterbury. He had not taken steps to publish +this, but by some unknown channel a copy reached the council, and it +could not be ignored. In November, with Lady Jane Grey, her husband, and +two other Dudleys, Cranmer was condemned for treason. Renard thought he +would be executed, but so true a Romanist as Mary could scarcely have an +ecclesiastic put to death in consequence of a sentence by a secular +court, and Cranmer was reserved for treatment as a heretic by the +highest of clerical tribunals, which could not act until parliament had +restored the papal jurisdiction. Accordingly in March 1554 he and his +two illustrious fellow-prisoners, Ridley and Latimer, were removed to +Oxford, where they were confined in the Bocardo or common prison. Ridley +and Latimer were unflinching, and suffered bravely at the stake on the +16th of October 1555. Cranmer had been tried by a papal commission, over +which Bishop Brooks of Gloucester presided, in September 1555. Brooks +had no power to give sentence, but reported to Rome, where Cranmer was +summoned, but not permitted, to attend. On the 25th of November he was +pronounced contumacious by the pope and excommunicated, and a commission +was sent to England to degrade him from his office of archbishop. This +was done with the usual humiliating ceremonies in Christ Church, Oxford, +on the 14th of February 1556, and he was then handed over to the secular +power. About the same time Cranmer subscribed the first two of his +"recantations." His difficulty consisted in the fact that, like all +Anglicans of the 16th century, he recognized no right of private +judgment, but believed that the state, as represented by monarchy, +parliament and Convocation, had an absolute right to determine the +national faith and to impose it on every Englishman. All these +authorities had now legally established Roman Catholicism as the +national faith, and Cranmer had no logical ground on which to resist. +His early "recantations" are merely recognitions of his lifelong +conviction of this right of the state. But his dilemma on this point led +him into further doubts, and he was eventually induced to revile his +whole career and the Reformation. This is what the government wanted. +Northumberland's recantation had done much to discredit the Reformation, +Cranmer's, it was hoped, would complete the work. Hence the enormous +effect of Cranmer's recovery at the final scene. On the 21st of March he +was taken to St Mary's church, and asked to repeat his recantation in +the hearing of the people as he had promised. To the surprise of all he +declared with dignity and emphasis that what he had recently done +troubled him more than anything he ever did or said in his whole life; +that he renounced and refused all his recantations as things written +with his hand, contrary to the truth which he thought in his heart; and +that as his hand had offended, his hand should be first burned when he +came to the fire. As he had said, his right hand was steadfastly exposed +to the flames. The calm cheerfulness and resolution with which he met +his fate show that he felt that he had cleared his conscience, and that +his recantation of his recantations was a repentance that needed not to +be repented of. + +It was a noble end to what, in spite of its besetting sin of infirmity +of moral purpose, was a not ignoble life. The key to his character is +well given in what Hooper said of him in a letter to Bullinger, that he +was "too fearful about what might happen to him." This weakness was the +worst blot on Cranmer's character, but it was due in some measure to his +painful capacity for seeing both sides of a question at the same time, a +temperament fatal to martyrdom. As a theologian it is difficult to class +him. As early as 1538 he had repudiated the doctrine of +Transubstantiation; by 1550 he had rejected also the Real Presence +(Pref. to his _Answer to Dr Richard Smith_). But here he used the term +"real" somewhat unguardedly, for in his _Defence_ he asserts a real +presence, but defines it as exclusively a spiritual presence; and he +repudiates the idea that the bread and wine were "bare tokens." His +views on church polity were dominated by his implicit belief in the +divine right of kings (not of course the divine _hereditary_ right of +kings) which the Anglicans felt it necessary to set up against the +divine right of popes. He set practically no limits to the +ecclesiastical authority of kings; they were as fully the +representatives of the church as the state, and Cranmer hardly +distinguished between the two. Church and state to him were one. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._ vols. iv.-xx.: _Acts + of the Privy Council, 1542-1556_; _Cal. of State Papers, Dom. and + Foreign_; Foxe's _Acts and Monuments_; Strype's _Memorials of Cranmer_ + (1694); _Anecdotes and Character of Archbishop Cranmer_, by Ralph + Morice, and two contemporary biographies (Camden Society's + publications); _Remains of Thomas Cranmer_, by Jenkyns (1833); _Lives + of Cranmer_, by Gilpin (1784), Todd (1831), Le Bas, in Hook's _Lives + of the Archbishops of Canterbury_, vols. vi. and vii. (1868), by Canon + Mason (1897), A. D. Innes (1900) and A. F. Pollard (1904); Froude's + _History_; R. W. Dixon's _History_; J. Gairdner's _History of the + Church, 1485-1558_; Bishop Cranmer's _Recantacyons_, ed. Gairdner + (1885). R. E. Chester Waters's _Chesters of Chicheley_ (1877) contains + a vast amount of genealogical information about Cranmer which has only + been used by one of his biographers. (A. F. P.) + + + + +CRANNOG (Celt. _crann_, a tree), the term applied in Scotland and +Ireland to the stockaded islands so numerous in ancient times in the +lochs of both countries. The existence of these lake-dwellings in +Scotland was first made known by John Mackinlay, a fellow of the Society +of Antiquaries of Scotland, in a letter sent to George Chalmers, the +author of _Caledonia_, in 1813, describing two crannogs, or fortified +islands in Bute. The crannog of Lagore, the first discovered in Ireland, +was examined and described by Sir William Wilde in 1840. But it was not +until after the discovery of the pile-villages of the Swiss lakes, in +1853, had drawn public attention to the subject of lake-dwellings, that +the crannogs of Scotland and Ireland were systematically investigated. + +The results of these investigations show that they have little in common +with the Swiss lake-dwellings, except that they are placed in lakes. Few +examples are known in England, although over a hundred and fifty have +been examined in Ireland, and more than half that number in Scotland. As +a rule they have been constructed on islets or shallows in the lochs, +which have been adapted for occupation, and fortified by single or +double lines of stockaded defences drawn round the margin. To enlarge +the area, or raise the surface-level where that was necessary, layers of +logs, brushwood, heather and ferns were piled on the shallow, and +consolidated with gravel and stones. Over all there was laid a layer of +earth, a floor of logs or a pavement of flagstones. In rare instances +the body of the work is entirely of stones, the stockaded defence and +the huts within its enclosure being the only parts constructed of +timber. Occasionally a bridge of logs, or a causeway of stones, formed a +communication with the shore, but often the only means of getting to and +from the island was by canoes hollowed out of a single tree. Remains of +huts of logs, or of wattled work, are often found within the enclosure. +Three crannogs in Dowalton Loch, Wigtownshire, examined by Lord Lovaine +in 1863, were found to be constructed of layers of fern and birch and +hazel branches, mixed with boulders and penetrated by oak piles, while +above all there was a surface layer of stones and soil. The remains of +the stockade round the margin were of vertical piles mortised into +horizontal bars, and secured by pegs in the mortised holes. The crannog +of Lochlee, near Tarbolton, Ayrshire, explored by Dr R. Munro in 1878, +was 100 ft. in diameter, and had a double row of piles, bound by +horizontal stretchers with square mortise-holes, enclosing an area 60 +ft. in diameter. In the centre was a space 40 ft. square, bounded by the +remains of a wooden wall and paved inside with split logs. A partition +divided it into two equal parts, one of which had a doorway opening to +the south, and close by it an extensive refuse-heap. In the middle of +the other part was a stone-paved hearth, with remains of three former +hearths underneath. The substructure was built up from the bottom of the +loch, partly of brushwood but chiefly of logs and trunks of trees with +the branches lopped off, placed in layers, each disposed transversely or +obliquely across the one below it. A crannog in Loch-an-Dhugael, +Balinakill, Argyllshire, described by the same explorer in 1893, +revealed a substructure similar to that at Lochlee, with a double row of +piles enclosing an area 45 to 50 ft. in diameter, within which was a +circular construction 32 ft. in diameter, which had been supported by a +large central post and about twenty uprights ranged round the +circumference. + +From their common feature of a substructure of brushwood and logs built +up from the bottom, the crannogs have been classed as fascine-dwellings, +to distinguish them from the typical pile-dwellings of the earlier +periods in Switzerland, whose platforms are supported by piles driven +into the bed of the lake. The crannog of Cloonfinlough in Connaught had +a triple stockade of oak piles, connected by horizontal stretchers and +enclosing an area 130 ft. in diameter, laid with trunks of oak trees. In +the crannog of Lagore, county Meath, there were about 150 cartloads of +bones, chiefly of oxen, deer, sheep and swine, the refuse of the food of +the occupants. In the crannog of Lisnacroghera, county Antrim, iron +swords, with sheaths of thin bronze ornamented with scrolls +characteristic of the Late Celtic style, iron daggers, an iron +spear-head 16-1/2 in. in length, and pieces of what are called large +caldrons of iron, were found. Among the few remains of lacustrine +settlements in England and Wales, some are suggestive of the typical +crannog structure. The most important of these is the Glastonbury lake +village, excavated by Mr A. Bulleid and Mr St George Gray. It consists +of more than sixty separate dwellings, grouped within a triangular +palisaded defence, formed in the midst of a marsh now partially +reclaimed. The dwellings were circular, from 18 to 35 ft. in diameter, +the substructure formed of logs and brushwood mingled with stones and +clay, and outlined by piles driven into the bottom of the shallow lake. +The walls of the houses seem to have been made of wattle-work, supported +by posts sometimes not more than a single foot apart. The floors are of +clay, with a hearth of stones in the centre, often showing several +renewals over the original. The relics recovered show unmistakably that +the occupation must be dated within the Iron Age, but probably +pre-Roman, as no evidence of contact with Roman civilization has been +discovered. The stage of civilization indicated is nevertheless not a +low one. Besides the implements and weapons of iron there are fibulae +and brooches of bronze, weaving combs and spindle-whorls, a bronze +mirror and tweezers, wheel-made pottery as well as hand-made, ornamented +with Late Celtic patterns, a bowl of thin bronze decorated with bosses, +the nave of a wooden wheel with holes for twelve spokes, and a dug-out +canoe. Another site in Holderness, Yorkshire, examined by Mr Boynton in +1881, yielded evidence of fascine construction, with suggestions of +occupation in the latter part of the Bronze Age. Similar indications are +adduced by Professor Boyd Dawkins from the site on Barton Mere. On the +other hand, the implements and weapons found in the Scottish and Irish +crannogs are usually of iron, or, if objects of bronze and stone are +found, they are commonly such as were in use in the Iron Age. Crannogs +are frequently referred to in the Irish annals. Under the year 848 the +_Annals of the Four Masters_ record the burning of the island of Lough +Gabhor (the crannog of Lagore), and the same stronghold is noticed as +again destroyed by the Danes in 933. Under the year 1246 it is recorded +that Turlough O'Connor made his escape from the crannog of Lough Leisi, +and drowned his keepers. Many other entries occur in the succeeding +centuries. In the register of the privy council of Scotland, April 14, +1608, it is ordered that "the haill houssis of defence, strongholds, and +_crannokis_ in the Yllis (the western isles) pertaining to Angus +M'Conneill of Dunnyvaig and Hector M'Cloyne of Dowart sal be delyverit +to His Majestie." Judging from the historical evidence of their late +continuance, and from the character of the relics found in them, the +crannogs may be included among the latest prehistoric strongholds, +reaching their greatest development in early historic times, and +surviving through the middle ages. In Ireland, Sir William Wilde has +assigned their range approximately to the period between the 9th and +16th centuries; while Dr Munro holds that the vast majority of them, +both in Ireland and in Scotland, were not only inhabited, but +constructed during the Iron Age, and that their period of greatest +development was as far posterior to Roman civilization as that of the +Swiss _Pfahlbauten_ was anterior to it. (See LAKE DWELLINGS.) + + AUTHORITIES.--Dr R. Munro, _The Lake Dwellings of Europe: being the + Rhind Lectures in Archaeology for 1888_ (with a bibliography of the + subject) (London, 1890); _Ancient Scottish Lake-Dwellings or Crannogs_ + (Edinburgh, 1882); Col. W. G. Wood-Martin, _The Lake-Dwellings of + Ireland, or Ancient Lacustrine Habitations of Erin, commonly called + Crannogs_ (Dublin, 1886); Sir W. Wilde, _Descriptive Catalogue of the + Antiquities in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy_, article + "Crannogs," pp. 220-233 (Dublin, 1857); John Stuart, "Scottish + Artificial Islands or Crannogs," in the _Proceedings of the Society of + Antiquaries of Scotland_, vol. vi. (Edinburgh, 1865); A. Bulleid, "The + Lake Village near Glastonbury," in _Proceedings of the Somersetshire + Archaeological Society_, vol. xl. (1894). (J. AN.) + + + + +CRANSAC, a town of southern France, in the department of Aveyron, 28m. +N.W. of Rodez by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 4988; commune, 6953. The town +is a coal-mining centre and has cold mineral springs, known in the +middle ages. There are iron-mines in the neighbourhood. Hills to the +north of the town contain disused coal-mines which have been on fire for +centuries. About 5 m. to the south is the fine Renaissance chateau of +Bournazel, built for the most part by Jean de Buisson, baron of +Bournazel, about 1545. The barony of Bournazel became a marquisate in +1624. + + + + +CRANSTON, a city of Providence county, Rhode Island, U.S.A., adjoining +the city of Providence on the S. Pop. (1890) 8099; (1900) 13,343; (1910) +21,107; area, 30 sq. m. It is served by the New York, New Haven & +Hartford railway. The surface of the E. part is level, that of the W. +part is somewhat rolling. Within the city are several villages, +including Arlington, Auburn, Edgewood, Fiskeville and Oaklawn. The +inhabitants of the country districts are engaged largely in the growing +of hay, Indian corn, rye, oats and market-garden produce; in the several +villages cotton and print goods, fuses for electrical machinery, and +automatic fire-protection sprinklers are manufactured. The value of +Cranston's factory product increased from $1,402,359 in 1900 to +$2,130,969 in 1905, or 52%. The state has a farm of 667 acres in the S. +part of the city; on this are the state prison, the Providence county +jail, the state workhouse and the house of correction, the state +almshouse, the state hospital for the insane, the Sockanosset school for +boys, and the Oaklawn school for girls--the last two being departments +of the state reform school. The post-office address of all these state +institutions is Howard. Cranston was settled as a part of Providence +about 1640 by associates of Roger Williams, and in 1754 was incorporated +as a separate township, but in 1868, in 1873 and in 1892 portions of it +were reannexed to Providence. The township is said to have been named in +honour of Samuel Cranston (1659-1727), governor of Rhode Island from +1698 until his death. It was incorporated as a city in 1910. + + + + +CRANTOR, a Greek philosopher of the Old Academy, was born, probably +about the middle of the 4th century B.C., at Soli in Cilicia. He was a +fellow-pupil of Polemo in the school of Xenocrates at Athens, and was +the first commentator on Plato. He is said to have written some poems +which he sealed up and deposited in the temple of Athens at Soli (Diog. +Laertius iv. 5. 25). Of his celebrated work _On Grief_ ([Greek: Peri +penthous]), a letter of condolence to his friend Hippocles on the death +of his children, numerous extracts have been preserved in Plutarch's +_Consolatio ad Apollonium_ and in the _De consolatione_ of Cicero, who +speaks of it (_Acad._ ii. 44. 135) in the highest terms (_aureolus et ad +verbum ediscendus_). Crantor paid especial attention to ethics, and +arranged "good" things in the following order--virtue, health, pleasure, +riches. + + See F. Kayser, _De Crantore Academico_ (1841); M. H. E. Meier, + _Opuscula academica_, ii. (1863); F. Susemihl, _Geschichte der + griechischen Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit_, i. (1891), p. 118. + + + + +CRANWORTH, ROBERT MONSEY ROLFE, BARON (1790-1868), lord chancellor of +England, elder son of the Rev. E. Rolfe, was born at Cranworth, Norfolk, +on the 18th of December 1790. Educated at Bury St Edmunds, Winchester, +and Trinity College, Cambridge, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's +Inn in 1816, and attached himself to the chancery courts. He represented +Penryn and Falmouth in parliament from 1832 till his promotion to the +bench as baron of the exchequer in 1839. In 1850 he was appointed a +vice-chancellor and created Baron Cranworth, and in 1852 he became lord +chancellor in Aberdeen's ministry. He continued to hold the +chancellorship in the administration of Palmerston until the latter's +resignation in 1857. He was not reappointed when Palmerston returned to +office in 1859, but on the retirement of Lord Westbury in 1865 he +accepted the great seal for a second time, and held it till the fall of +the Russell administration in 1866. Cranworth died in London on the 26th +of July 1868. Never a very zealous law reformer, Cranworth's name is +associated in the statute book with only one small measure on +conveyancing. But as a judge he will continue to hold first rank. His +judgments were marked by sound common sense, while he himself was +remarkably free from the prejudices of his profession. Few men of his +day enjoyed greater personal popularity than Cranworth. He left no issue +and the title became extinct on his death. + + See _The Times_, 27th of July 1868; E. Manson, _The Builders of our + Law_ (1904); E. Foss, _The Judges of England_ (1848-1864); J. B. + Atlay, _Lives of the Chancellors_, vol. ii. (1908). + + + + +CRAPE (an anglicized version of the Fr. _crepe_), a silk fabric of a +gauzy texture, having a peculiar crisp or crimpy appearance. It is woven +of hard spun silk yarn "in the gum" or natural condition. There are two +distinct varieties of the textile--soft, Canton or Oriental crape, and +hard or crisped crape. The wavy appearance of Canton crape results from +the peculiar manner in which the weft is prepared, the yarn from two +bobbins being twisted together in the reverse way. The fabric when woven +is smooth and even, having no _crepe_ appearance, but when the gum is +subsequently extracted by boiling it at once becomes soft, and the weft, +losing its twist, gives the fabric the waved structure which constitutes +its distinguishing feature. Canton crapes are used, either white or +coloured, for ladies' scarves and shawls, bonnet trimmings, &c. The +Chinese and Japanese excel in the manufacture of soft crapes. The crisp +and elastic structure of hard crape is not produced either in the +spinning or in the weaving, but is due to processes through which the +gauze passes after it is woven. What the details of these processes are +is known to only a few manufacturers, who so jealously guard their +secret that, in some cases, the different stages in the manufacture are +conducted in towns far removed from each other. Commercially they are +distinguished as single, double, three-ply and four-ply crapes, +according to the nature of the yarn used in their manufacture. They are +almost exclusively dyed black and used in mourning dress, and among +Roman Catholic communities for nuns' veils, &c. In Great Britain hard +crapes are made at Braintree in Essex, Norwich, Yarmouth, Manchester and +Glasgow. The crape formerly made at Norwich was made with a silk warp +and worsted weft, and is said to have afterwards degenerated into +bombazine. A very successful imitation of real crape is made in +Manchester of cotton yarn, and sold under the name of Victoria crape. + + + + +CRASH, a technical textile term applied to a species of narrow towels, +from 14 to 20 in. wide. The name is probably of Russian origin, the +simplest and coarsest type of the cloth being known as "Russia crash." +The latter is made from grey flax or tow yarns, and sometimes from +boiled yarns. The simple term "crash" is given to all these narrow +cloths, but the above distinction is very convenient, as also are the +following: grey, boiled, bleached, plain, twilled and fancy crash. A +large variety obtains with and without fancy borders, while of late +years cotton has been introduced as warp, as well as mixed and jute +yarns for weft. After the cloth has passed through all the finishing +operations, it is cut up into lengths of about 3 yds., the two ends sewn +together and it is then ready to be placed over a suspended roller; for +this reason it is often termed "roller towelling." + + + + +CRASHAW, RICHARD (1613-1650), English poet, styled "the divine," was +born in London about 1613. He was the son of a strongly anti-papistical +divine, Dr William Crashaw (1572-1626), who distinguished himself, even +in those times, by the excessive acerbity of his writings against the +Catholics. In spite of these opinions, however, he was attracted by +Catholic devotion, for he translated several Latin hymns of the Jesuits. +Richard Crashaw was originally put to school at Charterhouse, but in +July 1631 he was admitted to Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he took +the degree of B.A. in 1634. The publication of Herbert's _Temple_ in +1633 seems to have finally determined the bias of his genius in favour +of religious poetry, and next year he published his first book, +_Epigrammatum sacrorum liber_, a volume of Latin verses. In March 1636 +he removed to Peterhouse, was made a fellow of that college in 1637, and +proceeded M.A. in 1638. It was about this time that he made the +acquaintance and secured the lasting friendship of Abraham Cowley. He +was also on terms of intimacy with the Anglican monk Nicholas Ferrar, +and frequently visited him at his religious house at Little Gidding. In +1641 he is said to have gone to Oxford, but only for a short time; for +when in 1643 Cowley left Cambridge to seek a refuge at Oxford, Crashaw +remained behind, and was forcibly ejected from his fellowship in 1644. +In the confusion of the civil wars he escaped to France, where he +finally embraced the Catholic religion, towards which he had long been +tending. + +During his exile his religious and secular poems were collected by an +anonymous friend, and published under the title of _Steps to the Temple_ +and _The Delights of the Muses_, in one volume, in 1646. The first part +includes the hymn to St Teresa and the version of Marini's _Sospetto d' +Herode_. This same year Cowley found him in great destitution at Paris, +and induced Queen Henrietta Maria to extend towards him what influence +she still possessed. At her introduction he proceeded to Italy, where he +became attendant to Cardinal Palotta at Rome. In 1648 he published two +Latin hymns at Paris. He remained until 1649 in the service of the +cardinal, to whom he had a great personal attachment; but his retinue +contained persons whose violent and licentious behaviour was a source of +ceaseless vexation to the sensitive English mystic. At last his +denunciation of their excesses became so public that the animosity of +those persons was excited against him, and in order to shield him from +their revenge he was sent by the cardinal in 1650 to Loretto, where he +was made a canon of the Holy House. In less than three weeks, however, +he sickened of fever, and died on the 25th of August, not without grave +suspicion of having been poisoned. He was buried in the Lady chapel at +Loretto. A collection of his religious poems, entitled _Carmen Deo +nostro_, was brought out in Paris in 1652, dedicated at the dead poet's +desire to the faithful friend of his sufferings, the countess of +Denbigh. The book is illustrated by thirteen engravings after Crashaw's +own designs. + +Crashaw excelled in all manner of graceful accomplishments; besides +being an excellent Latinist and Hellenist, he had an intimate knowledge +of Italian and Spanish; and his skill in music, painting and engraving +was no less admired in his lifetime than his skill in poetry. Cowley +embalmed his memory in an elegy that ranks among the very finest in our +language, in which he, a Protestant, well expressed the feeling left on +the minds of contemporaries by the character of the young Catholic +poet:-- + + "His faith, perhaps, in some nice tenets might + Be wrong; his life, I'm sure, was in the right: + And I, myself, a Catholic will be, + So far at least, dear saint, to pray to thee!" + +The poetry of Crashaw will be best appreciated by those who can with +most success free themselves from the bondage of a traditional sense of +the dignity of language. The custom of his age permitted the use of +images and phrases which we now justly condemn as incongruous and +unseemly, and the fervent fancy of Crashaw carried this licence to +excess. At the same time his verse is studded with fiery beauties and +sudden felicities of language, unsurpassed by any lyrist between his own +time and Shelley's. There is no religious poetry in English so full at +once of gross and awkward images and imaginative touches of the most +ethereal beauty. The temper of his intellect seems to have been delicate +and weak, fiery and uncertain; he has a morbid, almost hysterical, +passion about him, even when his ardour is most exquisitely expressed, +and his adoring addresses to the saints have an effeminate falsetto that +makes their ecstasy almost repulsive. The faults and beauties of his +very peculiar style can be studied nowhere to more advantage than in the +_Hymn to Saint Teresa_. Among the secular poems of Crashaw the best are +_Music's Duel_, which deals with that strife between the musician and +the nightingale which has inspired so many poets, and _Wishes to his +supposed Mistress_. In his latest sacred poems, included in the _Carmen +Deo nostro_, sudden and eminent beauties are not wanting, but the +mysticism has become more pronounced, and the ecclesiastical mannerism +more harsh and repellent. The themes of Crashaw's verses are as distinct +as possible from those of Shelley's, but it may, on the whole, be said +that at his best moments he reminds the reader more closely of the +author of _Epipsychidion_ than of any earlier or later poet. + + Crashaw's works were first collected, in one volume, in 1858 by W. B. + Turnbull. In 1872 an edition, in 2 volumes, was printed for private + subscription by the Rev. A. B. Grosart. A complete edition was edited + (1904) for the Cambridge University Press by Mr A. R. Waller. + (E. G.) + + + + +CRASSULACEAE, in botany, a natural order of dicotyledons, containing 13 +genera and nearly 500 species; of cosmopolitan distribution, but most +strongly developed in South Africa. The plants are herbs or small +shrubs, generally with thick fleshy stems and leaves, adapted for life +in dry, especially rocky places. The fleshy leaves are often reduced to +a more or less cylindrical structure, as in the stonecrops (_Sedum_), or +form closely crowded rosettes as in the house-leek (_Sempervivum_). +Correlated with their life in dry situations, the bulk of the tissue is +succulent, forming a water-store, which is protected from loss by +evaporation by a thickly cuticularized epidermis covered with a waxy +secretion which gives a glaucous appearance to the plant. The flowers +are generally arranged in terminal or axillary clusters, and are +markedly regular with the same number of parts in each series. This +number is, however, very variable, and often not constant in one and the +same species. The sepals and petals are free or more or less united, the +stamens as many or twice as many as the petals; the carpels, usually +free, are equal to the petals in number, and form in the fruit follicles +with two or more seeds. Opposite each carpel is a small scale which +functions as a nectary. Means of vegetative propagation are general. +Many species spread by means of a creeping much-branched rootstock, or +as in house-leek, by runners which perish after producing a terminal +leaf-rosette. In other cases small portions of the stem or leaves give +rise to new plants by budding, as in _Bryophyllum_, where buds develop +at the edges of the leaf and form new plants. + +[Illustration: Stonecrop (_Sedum acre_) slightly reduced. 1, Horizontal +plan of arrangement of flower of stonecrop; 2, flower of _Sedum +rubens_.] + +The order is almost absent from Australia and Polynesia, and has but few +representatives in South America; it is otherwise very generally +distributed. The largest genus, _Sedum_, contains about 140 species in +the temperate and colder parts of the northern hemisphere; eight occur +wild in Britain, including _S. Telephium_ (orpine) and _S. acre_ (common +stonecrop) (see fig.). The species are easily cultivated and will thrive +in almost any soil. They are readily propagated by seeds, cuttings or +divisions. _Crassula_ has about 100 species, chiefly at the Cape. +_Cotyledon_, a widely distributed genus with about 90 species, is +represented in the British Isles by _C. Umbilicus_, pennywort, or +navelwort, which takes its name from the succulent peltate leaves. It +grows profusely on dry rocks and walls, especially on the western +coasts, and bears a spike of drooping greenish cup-shaped flowers. The +_Echeveria_ of gardens is now included in this genus. _Sempervivum_ has +about 50 species in the mountains of central and southern Europe, in the +Himalayas, Abyssinia, and the Canaries and Madeira; _S. tectorum_, +common house-leek, is seen often growing on tops of walls and +house-roofs. The hardy species will grow well in dry sandy soil, and are +suitable for rockeries, old walls or edgings. They are readily +propagated by offsets or by seed. + +The order is closely allied to Saxifragaceae, from which it is +distinguished by its fleshy habit and the larger number of carpels. + + + + +CRASSUS (literally "dense," "thick," "fat"), a family name in the Roman +gens Licinia (plebeian). The most important of the name are the +following: + +1. PUBLIUS LICINIUS CRASSUS, surnamed _Dives Mucianus_, Roman statesman, +orator and jurist, consul, 131 B.C. He was the son of P. Mucius Scaevola +(consul 175) and was adopted by a P. Licinius Crassus Dives. An intimate +friend of Tiberius Gracchus, he was chosen after his death to take his +place on the agrarian commission (see GRACCHUS). In 131 when Crassus was +consul with L. Valerius Flaccus, Aristonicus, an illegitimate son of +Eumenes II. of Pergamum, laid claim to the kingdom, which had been +bequeathed by Attalus III. to Rome. Both consuls were anxious to obtain +the command against him; Crassus was pontifex maximus, and Flaccus a +flamen of Mars. Crassus declared that Flaccus could not neglect his +sacred office, and imposed a conditional fine on him in the event of his +leaving Rome. The popular assembly remitted the fine, but Flaccus was +ordered to obey the pontifex maximus. Crassus accordingly proceeded to +Asia, although in doing so he violated the rule which forbade the +pontifex maximus to leave Italy. Nothing is known of his military +operations. But in the following year, when he was making preparations +to return, he was surprised near Leucae. He was himself taken prisoner +by a Thracian band, and provoked his captors, who were ignorant of his +identity, to put him to death. Crassus does not seem to have possessed +much military ability, but he was greatly distinguished for his +knowledge of law and his accomplished oratory. He had acquired such a +mastery of the Greek language that, when he presided over the courts in +Asia, he was able to answer each suitor in ordinary Greek or any of the +dialects in use. + + Cicero, _De oratore_, i. 50; _Philippics_, xi. 8; Plutarch, _Tib. + Gracchus_, 21; Livy, _Epit._ 59; Val. Max. iii. 2. 12, viii. 7. 6; + Vell. Pat. ii. 4; Justin xxxvi. 4; Orosius v. 10. + +2. LUCIUS LICINIUS CRASSUS (140-91 B.C.), the orator, of unknown +parentage. At the age of nineteen (or twenty-one) he made his reputation +by a speech against C. Papirius Carbo, the friend of the Gracchi. The +law passed by him and his colleague Q. Mucius Scaevola during their +consulship (95), to prevent those passing as Roman citizens who had no +right to the title, was one of the prime causes of the Social War +(Cicero, _Pro Balbo_, xxi., _De officiis_, iii. 11). During his +censorship Crassus suppressed the newly founded schools of Latin +rhetoricians (Aulus Gellius xv. 11). He died from excitement caused by +his passionate speech against the consul L. Marcius Philippus, who had +insulted the Senate. Crassus is one of the chief speakers in the _De +oratore_ of Cicero, who has also preserved a few fragments of his +speeches. + +3. PUBLIUS LICINIUS CRASSUS, called _Dives_, father of the triumvir. +Little is known of him before he became consul in 97, except that he +proposed a law regulating the expenses of the table, which met with +general approval. During his consulship the practice of magic arts was +condemned by a decree of the senate, and human sacrifice was abolished. +He was subsequently governor of Spain for some years, during which he +gained several successes over the Lusitanians, and on his return in 93 +was honoured with a triumph. After the Social War, as censor with L. +Julius Caesar, he had the task of enrolling in new tribes certain of the +Latins and Italians as a reward for their loyalty to the Romans, but the +proceedings seem to have been interrupted by certain irregularities. +They also forbade the introduction of foreign wines and unguents. +Crassus committed suicide in 87, to avoid falling into the hands of the +Marian party. + + Plutarch, Crassus, 4; Aulus Gellius ii. 24; Macrobius, _Saturnalia_, + ii. 13; Livy, _Epit._ 80; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxx. 3; Appian, _Bell. + Civ._ i. 72; Festus, under _Referri_. + +4. MARCUS LICINIUS CRASSUS (c. 115-53 B.C.), the Triumvir, surnamed +_Dives_ (rich) on account of his great wealth. His wealth was acquired +by traffic in slaves, the working of silver mines, and judicious +purchases of lands and houses, especially those of proscribed citizens. +The proscription of Cinna obliged him to flee to Spain; but after +Cinna's death he passed into Africa, and thence to Italy, where he +ingratiated himself with Sulla. Having been sent against Spartacus, he +gained a decisive victory, and was honoured with a minor triumph. Soon +afterwards he was elected consul with Pompey, and (70) displayed his +wealth by entertaining the populace at 10,000 tables, and distributing +sufficient corn to last each family three months. In 65 he was censor, +and in 60 he joined Pompey and Caesar in the coalition known as the +first triumvirate. In 55 he was again consul with Pompey, and a law was +passed, assigning the provinces of the two Spains and Syria to the two +consuls for five years. Crassus was satisfied with Syria, which promised +to be an inexhaustible source of wealth. Having crossed the Euphrates he +hastened to make himself master of Parthia; but he was defeated at +Carrhae (53 B.C.) and taken prisoner by Surenas, the Parthian general, +who put him to death by pouring molten gold down his throat. His head +was cut off and sent to Orodes, the Parthian king. Crassus was a man of +only moderate abilities, and owed his importance to his great wealth. + + See Plutarch's _Life_; also CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS; POMPEY; ROME: + _History_, II. "The Republic." + + + + +CRATER, the cavity at the mouth of a volcanic duct, usually +funnel-shaped or presenting the form of a bowl, whence the name, from +the Gr. [Greek: krater], a bowl. A volcanic hill may have a single +crater at, or near, its summit, or it may have several minor craters on +its flanks: the latter are sometimes called "adventitious craters" or +"craterlets." Much of the loose ejected material, falling in the +neighbourhood of the vent, rolls down the inner wall of the crater, and +thus produces a stratification with an inward dip. The crater in an +active volcano is kept open by intermittent explosions, but in a volcano +which has become dormant or extinct the vent may become plugged, and the +bowl-shaped cavity may subsequently be filled with water, forming a +crater-lake, or as it is called in the Eifel a _Maar_. In some basaltic +cones, like those of the Sandwich Islands, the crater may be a broad +shallow pit, having almost perpendicular walls, with horizontal +stratification. Such hollows are consequently called pit-craters. The +name _caldera_ (Sp. for cauldron) was suggested for such pits by Capt. +C. E. Dutton, who regarded them as having been formed by subsidence of +the walls. The term caldera is often applied to bowl-shaped craters in +Spanish-speaking countries. (See VOLCANO.) + + + + +CRATES, Athenian actor and author of comedies, flourished about 470 B.C. +He was regarded as the founder of Greek comedy proper, since he +abandoned political lampoons on individuals, and introduced more general +subjects and a well-developed plot (Aristotle, _Poetica_, 5). He is +stated to have been the first to represent the drunkard on the stage +(Aristophanes, _Knights_, 37 ff.). + + Fragments in Meineke, _Poetarum Comicorum Graecorum fragmenta_, i. + + + + +CRATES, the name of two Greek philosophers. + +1. CRATES, of Athens, successor of Polemo as leader of the Old Academy. + +2. CRATES, of Thebes, a Cynic philosopher of the latter half of the 4th +century. He was the famous pupil of Diogenes, and the last great +representative of Cynicism. It is said that he lost his ample fortune +owing to the Macedonian invasion, but a more probable story is that he +sacrificed it in accordance with his principles, directing the banker, +to whom he entrusted it, to give it to his sons if they should prove +fools, but to the poor if his sons should prove philosophers. He gave up +his life to the attainment of virtue and the propagation of ascetic +self-control. His habit of entering houses for this purpose, uninvited, +earned him the nickname [Greek: Thyrepanoiktes] ("Door-opener"). His +marriage with Hipparchia, daughter of a wealthy Thracian family, was in +curious contrast to the prosaic character of his life. Attracted by the +nobility of his character and undeterred by his poverty and ugliness, +she insisted on becoming his wife in defiance of her father's commands. +The date of his death is unknown, though he seems to have lived into the +3rd century. His writings were few. According to Diogenes Laertius, he +was the author of a number of letters on philosophical subjects; but +those extant under the name of Crates (R. Hercher, _Epistolographi +Graeci_, 1873) are, spurious, the work of later rhetoricians. Diogenes +Laertius credits him with a short poem, [Greek: Paignia], and several +philosophic tragedies. Plutarch's life of Crates is lost. The great +importance of Crates' work is that he formed the link between Cynicism +and the Stoics, Zeno of Citium being his pupil. + + See N. Postumus, _De Cratete Cynico_ (1823); F. Mullach, _Frag. + Philosophorum Graecorum_, ii. (1867); E. Wellmann in Ersch and + Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_; Diog. Laert. vi. 85-93, 96-98. + + + + +CRATES, of Mallus in Cilicia, a Greek grammarian and Stoic philosopher +of the 2nd century B.C., leader of the literary school and head of the +library of Pergamum. His principles were opposed to those of +Aristarchus, the leader of the Alexandrian school. He was the chief +representative of the allegorical theory of exegesis, and maintained +that Homer intended to express scientific or philosophical truths in the +form of poetry. About 170 B.C. he visited Rome as ambassador of Attalus +II., king of Pergamum; and having broken his leg and been compelled to +stay there for some time, he delivered lectures which gave the first +impulse to the study of grammar and criticism among the Romans +(Suetonius, _De grammaticis_, 2). His chief work was a critical and +exegetical commentary on Homer. + + See C. Wachsmuth, _De Cratete Mallota_ (1860), containing an account + of the life, pupils and writings of Crates; J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of + Class. Schol._ i. 156 (ed. 2, 1906). + + + + +CRATINUS (c. 520-423 B.C.), Athenian comic poet, chief representative of +the old, and founder of political, comedy. Hardly anything is known of +his life, and only fragments of his works have been preserved. But a +good idea of their character can be gained from the opinions of his +contemporaries, especially Aristophanes. His comedies were chiefly +distinguished by their direct and vigorous political satire, a marked +exception being the burlesque [Greek: Odysseis], dealing with the story +of Odysseus in the cave of Polyphemus, probably written while a law was +in force forbidding all political references on the stage. They were +also remarkable for the absence of the parabasis and chorus. Persius +calls the author "the bold," and even Pericles at the height of his +power did not escape his vehement attacks, as in the _Nemesis_ and +_Archilochi_, the last-named a lament for the loss of the recently +deceased Cimon, with whose conservative sentiments Cratinus was in +sympathy. The _Panoptae_ was a satire on the sophists and omniscient +speculative philosophers of the day. Of his last comedy the plot has +come down to us. It was occasioned by the sneers of Aristophanes and +others, who declared that he was no better than a doting drunkard. +Roused by the taunt, Cratinus put forth all his strength, and in 423 +B.C. produced the [Greek: Pytine], or _Bottle_, which gained the first +prize over the _Clouds_ of Aristophanes. In this comedy, good-humouredly +making fun of his own weakness, Cratinus represents the comic muse as +the faithful wife of his youth. His guilty fondness for a rival--the +bottle--has aroused her jealousy. She demands a divorce from the archon; +but her husband's love is not dead and he returns penitent to her side. +In Grenfell and Hunt's _Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, iv. (1904), containing a +further instalment of their edition of the Behnesa papyri discovered by +them in 1896-1897, one of the greatest curiosities is a scrap of paper +bearing the argument of a play by Cratinus,--the _Dionysalexandros_ +(i.e. Dionysus in the part of Paris), aimed against Pericles; and the +epitome reveals something of its wit and point. The style of Cratinus +has been likened to that of Aeschylus; and Aristophanes, in the +_Knights_, compares him to a rushing torrent. He appears to have been +fond of lofty diction and bold figures, and was most successful in the +lyrical parts of his dramas, his choruses being the popular festal songs +of his day. According to the statement of a doubtful authority, which is +not borne out by Aristotle, Cratinus increased the number of actors in +comedy to three. He wrote 21 comedies and gained the prize nine times. + + Fragments in Meineke, _Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum_, or Kock, + _Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta_. A younger Cratinus flourished in the + time of Alexander the Great. It is considered that some of the + comedies ascribed to the elder Cratinus were really the work of the + younger. + + + + +CRATIPPUS (fl. c. 375 B.C.), Greek historian. There are only three or +four references to him in ancient literature, and his importance is due +to the fact that he has been identified by several scholars (e.g. Blass) +with the author of the historical fragment discovered by Grenfell and +Hunt, and published by them in _Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, vol. v. It may be +regarded as a fairly certain inference from a passage in Plutarch (_De +Gloria Atheniensium_, p. 345 E, ed. Bernardakis, ii. p. 455) that he was +an Athenian writer, intermediate in date between Thucydides and +Xenophon, and that his work continued the narrative of Thucydides, from +the point at which the latter historian stopped (410 B.C.) down to the +battle of Cnidus (394 B.C.). + + The fragments are published in C. Muller's _Fragmenta Historicorum + Graecorum_. For authorities see under THEOPOMPUS. + + + + +CRATIPPUS, of Mitylene (1st century B.C.), Peripatetic philosopher, +contemporary with Cicero, whose son he taught at Athens, and by whom he +is praised in the _De officiis_ as the greatest of his school. He was +the friend of Pompey also and shared his flight after the battle of +Pharsalia, for the purpose, it is said, of convincing him of the justice +of providence. Brutus, while at Athens after the assassination of +Caesar, attended his lectures. The freedom of Rome was conferred upon +him by Caesar, at the request of Cicero. The only work attributed to him +is a treatise on divination, but his reputation may be gauged by the +fact that in 44 B.C. the Areopagus invited him to succeed Andronicus of +Rhodes as scholarch. He seems to have held that, while motion, sense and +appetite cannot exist apart from the body, thought reaches its greatest +power when most free from bodily influence, and that divination is due +to the direct action of the divine mind on that faculty of the human +soul which is not dependent on the body. + + Cicero, _De divinatione_, i. 3, 32, 50, ii. 48, 52; _De officiis_, i. + 1, iii. 2; Plutarch, _Cicero_, 24. + + + + +CRAU (from a Celtic root meaning "stone"), a region of southern France, +comprised in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, and bounded W. by the +canal from Arles to Port du Bouc and the Rhone, N. by the chain of the +Alpines separating it from an analogous region, the Petite Crau, E. by +the hills around Salon and Istres, S. by the gulf of Fos, an inlet of +the Mediterranean Sea. Covering an area of about 200 sq. m., the Crau is +a low-lying, waterless plain, owing its formation to a sudden +inundation, according to some authorities, of the Rhone and the Durance, +according to others of the Durance alone. Its surface is formed chiefly +of stones varying in size from an egg to a man's head; these, mixed with +a proportion of fine soil, overlie a subsoil formed of stones cemented +into a hard mass by deposits of calcareous mud, beneath which lies a bed +of loose stones, once the sea-bed. Naturally sterile and poor in lime, +the Crau is adapted for agriculture by the process of warping, carried +out by means of the Canal de Craponne, which dates from the middle of +the 16th century; about one-quarter of the region in the north and east +has thus been covered by the rich deposits of the waters of the Durance. +The soil also responds in places to deep cultivation and the application +of artificial manures. By these aids, uncultivated land, which before +supplied only rough and scanty pasture for a few sheep, has been fitted +for the growth of the vine, olive and other fruits; where irrigation is +practicable, water-meadows have been formed. The dryness of the climate +is unfavourable to the production of cereals. + + + + +CRAUCK, GUSTAVE (1827-1905), French sculptor, was born and died at +Valenciennes, where a special museum for his works was erected in his +honour. Though little known to the world at large during his long life, +he ranks among the best modern sculptors of France. At Paris his +"Coligny" monument is in the rue de Rivoli; his "Victory" in the Place +des Arts et Metiers; and "Twilight" in the Avenue de l'Observatoire. +Among his finest works is his "Combat du Centaure," on which he was +engaged for thirty years, the figure of the Lapith having been modelled +after the athlete, Eugene Sandow. In 1907 an exhibition of his works was +held in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. + + + + +CRAUFURD, QUINTIN (1743-1819), British author, was born at Kilwinnock on +the 22nd of September 1743. In early life he went to India, where he +entered the service of the East India Company. Returning to Europe +before the age of forty with a handsome fortune, he settled in Paris, +where he gave himself to the cultivation of literature and art, and +formed a good library and collection of paintings, coins and other +objects of antiquarian interest. Craufurd was on intimate terms with the +French court, especially with Marie Antoinette, and was one of those who +arranged the flight to Varennes. He escaped to Brussels, but in 1792 he +returned to Paris in the hope of rescuing the royal prisoners. He lived +among the French _emigres_ until the peace of Amiens made it possible to +return to Paris. Through Talleyrand's influence he was able to remain in +Paris after the war was renewed, and he died there on the 23rd of +November 1819. + + He wrote, among other works, _The History, Religion, Learning and + Manners of the Hindus_ (1790), _Secret History of the King of France + and his Escape from Paris_ (first published in 1885), _Researches + concerning the Laws, Theology, Learning and Commerce of Ancient and + Modern India_ (1817), _History of the Bastille_ (1798), _On Pericles + and the Arts in Greece_ (1815), _Essay on Swift and his Influence on + the British Government_ (1808), _Notice sur Marie Antoinette_ (1809), + _Memoires de Mme du Hausset_ (1808). + + + + +CRAUFURD, ROBERT (1764-1812), British major-general, was born at Newark, +Ayrshire, on the 5th of May 1764, and entered the 25th Foot in 1779. As +captain in the 75th regiment he first saw active service against Tippoo +Sahib in 1790-92. The next year he was employed, under his brother +Charles, with the Austrian armies operating against the French. +Returning to England in 1797, he soon saw further service, as a +lieutenant-colonel, on Lake's staff in the Irish rebellion. A year later +he was British commissioner on Suvarov's staff when the Russians invaded +Switzerland, and at the end of 1799 was in the Helder expedition. From +1801 to 1805 Lieutenant-Colonel Craufurd sat in parliament for East +Retford, but in 1807 he resumed active service with Whitelock in the +unfortunate Buenos Aires expedition. He was almost the only one of the +senior officers who added to his reputation in this affair, and in 1808 +he received a brigade command under Sir John Moore. His regiments were +heavily engaged in the earlier part of the famous retreat, but were not +present at Corunna, having been detached to Vigo, whence they returned +to England. Later in 1809, once more in the Peninsula, Brigadier-General +Craufurd was three marches or more in rear of Wellesley's army when a +report came in that a great battle was in progress. The march which +followed is one almost unparalleled in military annals. The three +battalions of the "Light Brigade" (43rd, 52nd and 95th) started in full +marching order, and arrived at the front on the day after the battle of +Talavera, having covered 62 m. in twenty-six hours. Beginning their +career with this famous march, these regiments and their chief, under +whom served such men as Charles and William Napier, Shaw and Colborne, +soon became celebrated as one of the best corps of troops in Europe, and +every engagement added to their laurels. Craufurd's operations on the +Coa and Agueda in 1810 were daring to the point of rashness, but he knew +the quality of the men he led better than his critics did, and though +Wellington censured him for his conduct, he at the same time increased +his force to a division by the addition of two picked regiments of +Portuguese _Cacadores_. The conduct of the renowned "Light Division" at +Busaco is described by Napier in one of his most vivid passages. The +winter of 1810-1811 Craufurd spent in England, and his division was +commanded in the interim by another officer, who did not display much +ability. He reappeared on the field of the battle of Fuentes d'Onoro +amidst the cheers of his men, and nothing could show his genius for war +better than his conduct on this day, in covering the strange +readjustment of his line which Wellington was compelled to make in the +face of the enemy. A little later he obtained major-general's rank; and +on the 19th of January 1812, as he stood on the glacis of Ciudad +Rodrigo, directing the stormers of the Light Division, he fell mortally +wounded. His body was carried out of action by his staff officer, +Lieutenant Shaw of the 43rd (see SHAW KENNEDY), and, after lingering +four days, he died. He was buried in the breach of the fortress where he +had met his death, and a monument in St Paul's cathedral commemorates +Craufurd and Mackinnon, the two generals killed at the storming of +Ciudad Rodrigo. The exploits of Craufurd and the Light Division are +amongst the most cherished traditions of the British and Portuguese +armies. One of the quickest and most brilliant, if not the very first, +of Wellington's generals, he had a fiery temper, which rendered him a +difficult man to deal with, but to the day of his death he possessed the +confidence and affection of his men in an extraordinary degree. + +His elder brother, Lieutenant-General Sir CHARLES CRAUFURD (1761-1821), +entered the 1st Dragoon Guards in 1778. Made captain in the Queen's Bays +in 1785, he became the equerry and intimate friend of the duke of York. +He studied in Germany for some time, and, with his brother Robert's +assistance, translated Tielcke's book on the Seven Years' War (_The +Remarkable Events of the War between Prussia, Austria and Russia from +1756 to 1763_). As aide-de-camp he accompanied the duke of York to the +French War in 1793, and was at once sent as commissioner to the Austrian +headquarters, with which he was present at Neerwinden, Caesar's Camp, +Famars, Landrecies, &c. Major in 1793, and lieutenant-colonel in 1794, +he returned to the English army in the latter year, and on one occasion +distinguished himself at the head of two squadrons, taking 3 guns and +1000 prisoners. When the British army left the continent Craufurd was +again attached to the Austrian army, and was present at the actions on +the Lahn, the combat of Neumarkt, and the battle of Amberg. At the last +battle a severe wound rendered him incapable of further service, and cut +short a promising career. He succeeded his brother Robert as member of +parliament for East Retford (1806-1812). He died in 1821, having become +a lieutenant-general and a G.C.B. + + + + +CRAVAT (from the Fr. _cravate_, a corruption of "Croat"), the name given +by the French in the reign of Louis XIV. to the scarf worn by the +Croatian soldiers enlisted in the royal Croatian regiment. Made of linen +or muslin with broad edges of lace, it became fashionable, and the name +was applied both in England and France to various forms of neckerchief +worn at different times, from the loosely tied lace cravat with long +flowing ends, called a "Steinkirk" from the battle of 1692 of that name, +to the elaborately folded and lightly starched linen or cambric +neckcloth worn during the period of Beau Brummell. + + + + +CRAVEN, PAULINE MARIE ARMANDE AGLAE (1808-1891), French author, the +daughter of an _emigre_ Breton nobleman, was born in London on the 12th +of April 1808. Her father, the comte Auguste de la Ferronays, was a +close friend of the duc de Berri, whom he accompanied on his return to +France in 1814. He and his wife were attached to the court of Charles X. +at the Tuileries, but a momentary quarrel with the duc de Berri made +retirement imperative to the count's sense of honour. He was appointed +ambassador at St Petersburg, and in 1827 became foreign minister in +Paris. Pauline was thus brought up in brilliant surroundings, but her +strongest impressions were those which she derived from the group of +Catholic thinkers gathered round Lamennais, and her ardent piety +furnishes the key of her life. In 1828 her father was sent to Rome, and +Pauline, at the suggestion of Alexis Rio, the art critic, made her first +literary essay with a description of the emotions she experienced on a +visit to the catacombs. At the revolution of July, M. de la Ferronays +resigned his position, and retired with his family to Naples. Here +Pauline met her future husband, Augustus Craven, who was then attache to +the British embassy. His father, Keppel Richard Craven, the well-known +supporter of Queen Caroline, objected to his son's marriage with a +Catholic; but his scruples were overcome, and immediately after the +marriage (1834) Augustus Craven was received into the Roman Catholic +Church. Mrs Craven, whose family life as revealed in the _Recit d'une +soeur_ was especially tender and intimate, suffered several severe +bereavements in the years following on her marriage. The Cravens lived +abroad until 1851, when the death of Keppel Craven made his son +practically independent of his diplomatic career, in which he had not +been conspicuously successful. He stood unsuccessfully for election to +parliament for Dublin in 1852, and from that time retired into private +life. They went to live at Naples in 1853, and Mrs Craven began to write +the history of the family life of the la Ferronays between 1830 and +1836, its incidents being grouped round the love story of her brother +Albert and his wife Alexandrine. This book, the _Recit d'une soeur_ +(1866, Eng. trans. 1868), was enthusiastically received and was awarded +a prize by the French Academy. Straitened circumstances made it +desirable for Mrs Craven to earn money by her pen. _Anne Severin_ +appeared in 1868, _Fleurange_ in 1871, _Le Mot d'enigme_ in 1874, _Le +Valbriant_ (Eng. trans., _Lucia_) in 1886. Among her miscellaneous works +may be mentioned _La Soeur Natalie Narischkin_ (1876), _Deux Incidents +de la question catholique en Angleterre_ (1875), _Lady Georgiana +Fullerton, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (1888). Mrs Craven's charming +personality won her many friends. She was a frequent guest with Lord +Palmerston, Lord Ellesmere and Lord Granville. She died in Paris on the +1st of April 1891. Her husband, who died in 1884, translated the +correspondence of Lord Palmerston and of the Prince Consort into French. + + + See _Memoir of Mrs Augustus Craven_ (1894), by her friend Mrs Mary + Catherine Bishop; also _Paolina Craven_, by T. F. Ravaschieri Fieschi + (1892). There is a biography of Mrs Craven's father, "En Emigration," + in Etienne Lamy's _Temoins des jours passes_ (1907). + + + + +CRAVEN, WILLIAM CRAVEN, EARL OF (1608-1697), eldest son of Sir William +Craven, lord mayor of London, and of Elizabeth, daughter of Alderman +William Whitmore, was born in June 1608, matriculated at Trinity +College, Oxford, in 1623, and joined the society of the Middle Temple in +1624. He had already inherited his father's vast fortune by the latter's +death in 1618, and before he came of age he had distinguished himself in +the military service of the princes of Orange. Returning home he was +knighted and created Baron Craven of Hampstead Marshall in Berkshire in +1627. He early showed enthusiasm for the cause of the unfortunate king +and queen of Bohemia, driven from their dominions, and in 1632 joined +Frederick in a military expedition to recover the Palatinate, meeting +Gustavus Adolphus at Hochst, whose praise he gained by being the first, +though wounded, to mount the breach at the capture of Kreuznach on the +22nd of February. The Swedish king, however, refused to allow the +elector an independent command for the defence of the Palatinate, and +Craven returned to England. In May 1633 he was placed on the council of +Wales. In 1637 he took part in a second expedition in aid of the +palatine family on the Lower Rhine, with the young elector Charles Louis +and his brother Rupert, and offered as a contribution the sum of +L30,000, but their forces were defeated near Wessel and Craven wounded +and taken prisoner together with Rupert. He purchased his freedom in +1639, and then joined the small court of the exiled queen Elizabeth at +the Hague and at Rhenen, supplying her generously with funds on the +cessation of her English pension owing to the outbreak of the Civil War. +He contributed also large sums in aid of Charles I., and, after his +execution, of Charles II., the amount bestowed upon the latter being +alone computed at L50,000,[1] notwithstanding that since 1651 the +greater part of his estates had been confiscated by the parliament and +his house at Caversham reduced to ruins.[2] At the Restoration he +accompanied Charles to England, regained his estates, and was rewarded +with offices and honours. He was made colonel of several regiments +including the Coldstream, and in 1667 lieutenant-general and also high +steward of Cambridge University. In 1666 he became a privy councillor, +but was not included later in 1679 in Sir William Temple's remodelled +council.[3] In 1668 he became a governor of the Charterhouse, was +appointed lord-lieutenant of Middlesex, and master of the Trinity House +in 1670; and in 1673 a commissioner for Tangier. He was one of the lords +proprietors of Carolina and a member of the Fishery Committee. + +In March 1664 he was created viscount and earl of Craven. Meanwhile his +devotion to the interests of the queen of Bohemia was unceasing, and on +her return to England he offered her hospitality at his house in Drury +Lane, where she remained till February 1662. At her death, within a +fortnight afterwards, she bequeathed to Craven her papers and her +valuable collection of portraits, but there is no foundation for the +belief entertained later that she had married him. In 1682 he became the +guardian of Ruperta, the natural daughter of his old comrade in arms, +Prince Rupert. He was again made a privy councillor and +lieutenant-general of the forces by James on his accession, and at the +age of eighty was in command of the Coldstreams at Whitehall on the 17th +of December 1688 when the Dutch troops arrived. He refused to withdraw +them at the bidding of Count Solms, the Dutch commander, but obeyed +later James's own orders to retire. His public career now closed and he +filled no office after the revolution. Although his claims upon the +gratitude of the Stuart royal family were immense, Craven had never been +considered a possible candidate for high political place. His ability +was probably small, and he is spoken of with little respect in the +_Verney Papers_ and by the electress Sophia in her _Memoirs_. The latter +retails some foolish observations made by Craven, and Pepys was +disgusted at his coarse and stupid jests at the Fishery Board, where his +"very confused and very ridiculous proceedings" are also censured.[4] +His military prowess, however, his generosity and his public spirit are +undoubted. He showed great activity during the plague and fire of +London. He was a patron of letters and a member of the Royal Society. He +inherited Combe Abbey near Coventry from his father, and purchased +Hampstead Marshall in Berkshire, where he built a house on the model of +Heidelberg Castle. + +He died unmarried on the 9th of April 1697, when the earldom became +extinct, the barony passing by special remainder to his cousin William, +2nd Baron Craven; the present earl of Craven (the earldom being revived +in 1801) is descended from John, a younger brother of the latter. The +first Lord Craven's brother John, who was created Baron Craven of Ryton +in Shropshire and who died in 1648, was the founder of the Craven +scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge universities, of which the first +was awarded in 1649. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_ (and + Errata); _Lives of the Princesses of England (Elizabeth, eldest + daughter of James I.)_, vol. vi., by M. A. E. Green (1854); _Memoirs + of Elizabeth Stuart_, by Miss Benger (1825); _Memoiren der Herzogin + Sophie_, ed. by A. Kocher in _Publ. aus den k. preussischen + Staatsarchiven_, Bd. iv. (1879); "Briefe der Elisabeth Stuart" in + _Bibliothek des litterarischen Vereins_ (Stuttgart, 1903), 155, 157; + G. E. C.'s _Complete Peerage_ (1889), ii. 404; _Lives and Characters + of the Most Illustrious Persons_ (1713), p. 546; Macaulay's _Hist. of + England_, ii. 584 (1858); _Verney Papers_ (Camden Soc., 1853); _Cal. + of St. Pap. Dom._; Tracts relating to the confiscation of his estate + in Cat. of the British Museum. Much information also doubtless exists + in the Craven MSS. at Combe Abbey. (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Verney Papers_, 189 note. + + [2] Evelyn's _Diary_, June 8th, 1654. + + [3] _Hist. MSS. Com.; Various Collections_, ii. 394. + + [4] _Diary_, Oct. 18th and Nov. 18th, 1664, and March 10th, 1665. + + + + +CRAWFORD, EARLS OF. The house of Lindsay, of which the earl of Crawford +is the head, traces its descent back to the barons of Crawford who +flourished in the 12th century, and has included a number of men who +have played leading parts in the history of Scotland. It is said that +"though other families in Scotland may have been of more historic, none +can in genealogical importance equal that of Lindsay," and the Lindsays +claim that "the predecessors of the 1st earl of Crawford were barons at +the period of the earliest parliamentary records, and that, in fact, +they were never enrolled in the modern sense of the term, but were among +the _pares_, of which kings are _primi_, from the commencement of +recorded history." Again we are told, "the earldom of Crawford, +therefore, like those of Douglas, of Moray, Ross, March and others of +the earlier times of feudalism, formed a petty principality, an +_imperium in imperio_." Moreover, the earls "had also a _concilium_, or +petty parliament, consisting of the great vassals of the earldom, with +whose advice they acted on great and important occasions." + +Sir James Lindsay (d. 1396), 9th lord of Crawford in Lanarkshire, was +the only son of Sir James Lindsay, the 8th lord (d. c. 1357), and was +related to King Robert II.; he was descended from Sir Alexander Lindsay +of Luffness (d. 1309), who obtained Crawford and other estates in 1297 +and who was high chamberlain of Scotland. The 9th lord fought at +Otterburn, and Froissart tells of his wanderings after the fight. He was +succeeded by his cousin, Sir David Lindsay (c. 1360-1407), son of Sir +Alexander Lindsay of Glenesk (d. 1382), and in 1398 Sir David, who +married a daughter of Robert II., was made earl of Crawford. + +The most important of the early earls of Crawford are the 4th and the +5th earls. Alexander Lindsay, the 4th earl (d. 1454), called the "tiger +earl," was, like his father David the 3rd earl, who was killed in 1446, +one of the most powerful of the Scottish nobles; for some time he was in +arms against King James II., but he submitted in 1452. His son David, +the 5th earl (c. 1440-1495), was lord high admiral and lord chamberlain; +he went frequently as an ambassador to England and was created duke of +Montrose in 1488, but the title did not descend to his son. Montrose +fought for James III. at the battle of Sauchieburn, and his son John, +the 6th earl (d. 1513), was slain at Flodden. + +David Lindsay, 8th earl of Crawford (d. 1542), son of Alexander, the 7th +earl (d. 1517), had a son Alexander, master of Crawford (d. 1542), +called the "wicked master," who quarrelled with his father and tried to +kill him. Consequently he was sentenced to death, and the 8th earl +conveyed the earldom to his kinsman, David Lindsay of Edzell (d. 1558), +a descendant of the 3rd earl of Crawford, thus excluding Alexander and +his descendants, and in 1542 David became 9th earl of Crawford. But the +9th earl, although he had at least two sons, named the wicked master's +son David as his heir, and consequently in 1558 the earldom came back to +the elder line of the Lindsays, the 9th earl being called the +"interpolated earl." + +David Lindsay, 10th earl of Crawford (d. 1574), was a supporter of Mary +Queen of Scots; he was succeeded by his son David (c. 1547-1607) as 11th +earl. This David, a grandson of Cardinal Beaton, was concerned in some +of the risings under James VI.; he was converted to Roman Catholicism +and was in communication with the Spaniards about an invasion of +England. After his death the earldom passed to his son David (d. 1621), +a lawless ruffian, and then to his brother, Sir Henry Lindsay or +Charteris (d. 1623), who became 13th earl of Crawford. Sir Henry's three +sons became in turn earls of Crawford, the youngest, Ludovic, succeeding +in 1639. + +Ludovic Lindsay, 16th earl of Crawford (1600-1652), took part in the +strange plot of 1641 called the "incident." Having joined Charles I. at +Nottingham in 1642, he fought at Edgehill, at Newbury and elsewhere +during the Civil War; in 1644, just after Marston Moor, the Scottish +parliament declared he had forfeited his earldom, and, following the +lines laid down when this was regranted in 1642, it was given to John +Lindsay, 1st earl of Lindsay. Ludovic was taken prisoner at Newcastle in +1644 and was condemned to death, but the sentence was not carried out, +and in 1645 he was released by Montrose, under whom he served until the +surrender of the king at Newark. Later he was in Ireland and in Spain +and he died probably in France in 1652. He left no issue. + +The earl of Lindsay, who thus supplanted his kinsman, belonged to the +family of Lindsay of the Byres, a branch of the Lindsays descended from +Sir David Lindsay of Crawford (d. c. 1355), the grandfather of the 1st +earl of Crawford. Sir David's descendant, Sir John Lindsay of the Byres +(d. 1482), was created a lord of parliament as Lord Lindsay of the Byres +in 1445, and his son David, the 2nd lord (d. 1490), fought for James +III. at the battle of Sauchieburn. The most prominent member of this +line was Patrick, 6th Lord Lindsay of the Byres (d. 1589), a son of John +the 5th lord (d. 1563), who was a temperate member of the reforming +party. Patrick was one of the first of the Scottish nobles to join the +reformers, and he was also one of the most violent. He fought against +the regent, Mary of Lorraine, and the French; then during a temporary +reconciliation he assisted Mary, queen of Scots, to crush the northern +rebels at Corrichie in 1562, but again among the enemies of the queen he +took part in the murder of David Rizzio and signed the bond against +Bothwell, whom he wished to meet in single combat after the affair at +Carberry Hill in 1565. Lindsay, who was a brother-in-law and ally of the +regent Murray, carried Mary to Lochleven castle and obtained her +signature to the deed of abdication; he fought against her at Langside, +and after Murray's murder he was one of the chiefs of the party which +supported the throne of James VI. In 1578, however, he was among those +who tried to drive Morton from power, and in 1582 he helped to seize the +person of the king in the plot called the "raid of Ruthven," afterwards +escaping to England. Lindsay had returned to Scotland when he died on +the 11th of December 1589. His successor was his son, James the 7th lord +(d. 1601). + +Patrick's great-grandson, John Lindsay, 17th earl of Crawford and 1st +earl of Lindsay (c. 1598-1678), was the son of Robert Lindsay, 9th Lord +Lindsay of the Byres, whom he succeeded as 10th lord in 1616. In 1633 he +was created earl of Lindsay, and having become a leader of the +Covenanters he marched with the Scottish army into England in 1644 and +was present at Marston Moor; in 1644 also he obtained the earldom of +Crawford in the manner already mentioned. In the same year he became +lord high treasurer of Scotland, and in 1645 president of the +parliament. Having fought against Montrose at Kilsyth, the earl of +Crawford-Lindsay, as he was called, changed sides, and in 1647 he signed +the "engagement" for the release of Charles I., losing all his offices +by the act of classes when his enemy, the marquess of Argyll, obtained +the upper hand. After the defeat of the Scots at Dunbar, however, +Crawford regained his influence in Scottish politics, but from 1651 to +1660 he was a prisoner in England. In 1661 he was restored to his former +dignities, but his refusal to abjure the covenant compelled him to +resign them two years later. His son, William, 18th earl of Crawford and +2nd earl of Lindsay (1644-1698), was, like his father, an ardent +covenanter; in 1690 he was president of the Convention parliament. Mr +Andrew Lang says this earl was "very poor, very presbyterian, and his +letters, almost alone among those of the statesmen of the period, are +rich in the texts and unctuous style of an older generation." + +William's grandson, John Lindsay, 20th earl of Crawford and 4th earl of +Lindsay (1702-1749), won a high reputation as a soldier. He held a +command in the Russian army, seeing service against the Turk, and he +also served against the same foe under Prince Eugene. Having returned to +the English army he led the life-guards at Dettingen and distinguished +himself at Fontenoy; later he served against France in the Netherlands. +He left no sons when he died in December 1749, and his kinsman, George +Crawford-Lindsay, 4th Viscount Garnock (c. 1723-1781), a descendant of +the 17th earl, became 21st earl of Crawford and 5th earl of Lindsay. +When George's son, George, the 22nd earl (1758-1808), died unmarried in +January 1808, the earldoms of Crawford and Lindsay were separated, +George's kinsman, David Lindsay (d. 1809), a descendant of the 4th Lord +Lindsay of the Byres, becoming 7th earl of Lindsay. Both David and his +successor Patrick (d. 1839) died without sons, and in 1878 the House of +Lords decided that Sir John Trotter Bethune, Bart. (1827-1894), also a +descendant of the 4th Lord Lindsay of the Byres, was entitled to the +earldom. In 1894 John's cousin, David Clark Bethune (b. 1832), became +11th earl of Lindsay. + +The earldom of Crawford remained dormant from 1808, when this separation +took place, until 1848, when the House of Lords adjudged it to James +Lindsay, 7th earl of Balcarres. + +The earls of Balcarres are descended from John Lindsay, Lord Menmuir +(1552-1598), a younger son of David Lindsay, 9th earl of Crawford. John, +who bought the estate of Balcarres in Fifeshire, became a lord of +session as Lord Menmuir in 1581; he was a member of the Scottish privy +council and one of the commissioners of the treasury called the +Octavians. He had great influence with James VI., helping the king to +restore episcopacy after he had become, in 1595, keeper of the privy +seal and a secretary of state. Menmuir, a man of great intellectual +attainments, left two sons, the younger, David, succeeding to the family +estates on his brother's death in 1601. David (c. 1586-1641), a notable +alchemist, was created Lord Lindsay of Balcarres in 1633, and in 1651 +his son Alexander was made earl of Balcarres. + +Alexander Lindsay, 1st earl of Balcarres (1618-1659), the "Rupert of the +Covenant," fought against Charles I. at Marston Moor, at Alford and at +Kilsyth, but later he joined the royalists, signing the "engagement" for +the release of the king in 1647, and having been created earl of +Balcarres took part in Glencairn's rising in 1653. Richard Baxter speaks +very highly of the earl, who died at Breda in August 1659. His son +Charles (d. 1662) became 2nd earl of Balcarres, and another son, Colin +(c. 1654-1722), became 3rd earl. Colin, who was perhaps the most trusted +of the advisers of James II., wrote some valuable _Memoirs touching the +Revolution in Scotland, 1688-1690_; these were first published in 1714, +and were edited for the Bannatyne Club by the 25th earl of Crawford in +1841. Having been allowed to return to Scotland after an exile in +France, the earl joined the Jacobite rising in 1715. His successor was +his son Alexander, the 4th earl (d. 1736), who was followed by another +son, James, the 5th earl (1691-1768), who fought for the Stuarts at +Sheriffmuir. Afterwards James was pardoned and entered the English army, +serving under George II. at Dettingen. This earl wrote some _Memoirs of +the Lindsays_, which were completed by his son Alexander, the 6th earl +(1752-1825). Alexander was with the English troops in America during the +struggle for independence, and was governor of Jamaica from 1794 to +1801, filling a difficult position with great credit to himself. He +became a general in 1803, and died at Haigh Hall, near Wigan, which he +had received through his wife, Elizabeth Dalrymple (1759-1816), on the +27th of May 1825. This earl did not claim the earldom of Crawford, +although he became earl _de jure_ in 1808, but in 1843 his son James +Lindsay (1783-1869) did so, and in 1848 the claim was allowed by the +House of Lords. James was thus 24th earl of Crawford and 7th earl of +Balcarres; in 1826 he had been created a peer of the United Kingdom as +Baron Wigan of Haigh Hall. + +His son, Alexander William Crawford Lindsay, 25th earl of Crawford +(1812-1880), was born at Muncaster Castle, Cumberland, on the 16th of +October 1812, and educated at Eton and Cambridge. He travelled much in +Europe and the East, and was most learned in genealogy and history. His +more important works include _Lives of the Lindsays_ (3 vols., 1849), +_Letters on Egypt, Edom and the Holy Land_ (1838), _Sketches of the +History of Christian Art_ (1847 and 1882), _Etruscan Inscriptions +Analysed_ (1872), and _The Earldom of Mar during 500 years_ (1882). He +succeeded to the title in September 1869, and died at Florence on the +13th of December 1880. A year later it was discovered that the family +vault at Dunecht had been broken into and the body stolen. It was not +until the 18th of July 1882 that the police, acting on the confession of +an eye-witness of the desecration, found the remains, which were then +reinterred at Haigh Hall, Wigan. + +His only son, James Ludovic Lindsay, 26th earl of Crawford (1847- ), +British astronomer and orientalist, was born at St Germain-en-Laye, +France, on the 28th of July 1847. Educated at Eton and Trinity College, +Cambridge, he devoted himself to astronomy, in which he early achieved +distinction. In 1870 he went to Cadiz to observe the eclipse of the sun, +and, in 1874, to Mauritius to observe the transit of Venus. In the +interval, with the assistance of his father, he had built an observatory +at Dunecht, Aberdeenshire, which in 1888 he presented, together with his +unique library of astronomical and mathematical works, to the New Royal +Observatory on Blackford Hill, Edinburgh, where they were installed in +1895. His services to science were recognized by his election to the +presidentship of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1878 and 1879 in +succession to Sir William Huggins, and to the fellowship of the Royal +Society in 1878. He also received the degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh +University in 1882, and in the following year was nominated honorary +associate of the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences. An enthusiastic +bibliophile, he became a trustee of the British Museum, and acted for a +term as president of the Library Association. To the free library of +Wigan, Lancashire, he gave a series of oriental and English MSS. of the +9th to the 19th centuries in illustration of the progress of +handwriting, while for the use of specialists and students he issued the +invaluable _Bibliotheca Lindesiana_. He represented Wigan in the House +of Commons from 1874 till his succession to the title in 1880. + +Another title held by the Lindsays was that of Spynie, Sir Alexander +Lindsay (c. 1555-1607), created Baron Spynie in 1590, being a younger +son of the 10th earl of Crawford. The 2nd Lord Spynie was Alexander's +son, Alexander (d. 1646), who served in Germany under Gustavus Adolphus +and assisted Charles I. in Scotland during the Civil War; and the 3rd +lord was the latter's son, George. When George, a royalist who was taken +prisoner at the battle of Worcester, died in 1671 this title became +extinct. + +The dukedom of Montrose, which had lapsed on the death of the 5th earl +of Crawford in 1495 and had been revived in 1707 in the Graham family, +was claimed in 1848 by the 24th earl of Crawford, but in 1853 the House +of Lords gave judgment against the earl. + +The Lindsays have furnished the Scottish church with several prelates. +John Lindsay (d. 1335) was bishop of Glasgow; Alexander Lindsay (d. +1639) was bishop of Dunkeld until he was deposed in 1638; David Lindsay +(d. c. 1641) was bishop of Brechin and then of Edinburgh until he, too, +was deposed in 1638; and a similar fate attended Patrick Lindsay +(1566-1644), bishop of Ross from 1613 to 1633 and archbishop of Glasgow +from 1633 to 1638. Perhaps the most famous of the Lindsay prelates was +David Lindsay (c. 1531-1613), a nephew of the 9th earl of Crawford. +David, who married James VI. to Anne of Denmark at Upsala, was one of +the leaders of the Kirk party; he became bishop of Ross under the new +scheme for establishing episcopacy in 1600. + + See Lord Lindsay (25th earl of Crawford), _Lives of the Lindsays_ + (1849); A. Jervise, _History and Traditions of the Land of the + Lindsays_ (1882); G. E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898); H. + T. Folkard, _A Lindsay Record_ (1899); and Sir J. B. Paul's edition of + the _Scots Peerage_ of Sir R. Douglas, vol. iii. (1906). + + + + +CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION (1854-1909), American author, was born at Bagni +di Lucca, Italy, on the 2nd of August 1854, being the son of the +American sculptor Thomas Crawford (q.v.), and the nephew of Julia Ward +Howe, the American poet. He studied successively at St Paul's school, +Concord, New Hampshire; Cambridge University; Heidelberg; and Rome. In +1879 he went to India, where he studied Sanskrit and edited the +Allahabad _Indian Herald_. Returning to America he continued to study +Sanskrit at Harvard University for a year, contributed to various +periodicals, and in 1882 produced his first novel, _Mr Isaacs_, a +brilliant sketch of modern Anglo-Indian life mingled with a touch of +Oriental mystery. This book had an immediate success, and its author's +promise was confirmed by the publication of _Dr Claudius_ (1883). After +a brief residence in New York and Boston, in 1883 he returned to Italy, +where he made his permanent home. This accounts perhaps for the fact +that, in spite of his nationality, Marion Crawford's books stand apart +from any distinctively American current in literature. Year by year he +published a number of successful novels: _A Roman Singer_ (1884), _An +American Politician_ (1884), _To Leeward_ (1884), _Zoroaster_ (1885), _A +Tale of a Lonely Parish_ (1886), _Marzio's Crucifix_ (1887), +_Saracinesca_ (1887), _Paul Patoff_ (1887), _With the Immortals_ (1888), +_Greifenstein_ (1889), _Sant' Ilario_ (1889), _A Cigarette-maker's +Romance_ (1890), _Khaled_ (1891), _The Witch of Prague_ (1891), _The +Three Fates_ (1892), _The Children of the King_ (1892), _Don Orsino_ +(1892), _Marion Darche_ (1893), _Pietro Ghisleri_ (1893), _Katharine +Lauderdale_ (1894), _Love in Idleness_ (1894), _The Ralstons_, (1894), +_Casa Braccio_ (1895), _Adam Johnston's Son_ (1895), _Taquisara_ (1896), +_A Rose of Yesterday_ (1897), _Corleone_ (1897), _Via Crucis_ (1899), +_In the Palace of the King_ (1900), _Marietta_ (1901), _Cecilia_ (1902), +_Whosoever Shall Offend_ (1904), _Soprano_ (1905), _A Lady of Rome_ +(1906). He also published the historical works, _Ave Roma Immortalis_ +(1898), _Rulers of the South_ (1900)--renamed _Sicily, Calabria and +Malta_ in 1904,--and _Gleanings from Venetian History_ (1905). In these +his intimate knowledge of local Italian history combines with the +romancist's imaginative faculty to excellent effect. But his place in +contemporary literature depends on his novels. He was a gifted narrator, +and his books of fiction, full of historic vitality and dramatic +characterization, became widely popular among readers to whom the +realism of "problems" or the eccentricities of subjective analysis were +repellent, for he could unfold a romantic story in an attractive way, +setting his plot amid picturesque surroundings, and gratifying the +reader's intelligence by a style at once straightforward and +accomplished. The _Saracinesca_ series shows him perhaps at his best. _A +Cigarette-maker's Romance_ was dramatized, and had considerable +popularity on the stage as well as in its novel form; and in 1902 an +original play from his pen, _Francesco da Rimini_, was produced in Paris +by Sarah Bernhardt. He died at Sorrento on the 9th of April 1909. + + + + +CRAWFORD, THOMAS (1814-1857), American sculptor, was born of Irish +parents in New York on the 22nd of March 1814. He showed at an early age +great taste for art, and learnt to draw and to carve in wood. In his +nineteenth year he entered the studio of a firm of monumental sculptors +in his native city; and in the summer of 1835 he went to Rome and became +a pupil of Thorwaldsen. The first work which made him generally known as +a man of genius was his group of "Orpheus entering Hades in Search of +Eurydice," executed in 1839. This was followed by other poetical +sculptures, among which were the "Babes in the Wood," "Flora," "Hebe and +Ganymede," "Sappho," "Vesta," the "Dancers," and the "Hunter." Among his +statues and busts are especially noteworthy the bust of Josiah Quincy, +executed for Harvard University (now in the Boston Athenaeum), the +equestrian statue of Washington at Richmond, Virginia, the statue of +Beethoven in the Boston music hall, statues of Channing and Henry Clay, +and the colossal figure of "Armed Liberty" for the Capitol at +Washington. For this building he executed also the figures for the +pediment and began the bas-reliefs for the bronze doors, which were +afterwards completed by W. H. Rinehart. The groups of the pediment +symbolize the progress of civilization in America. Crawford's works +include a large number of bas-reliefs of Scriptural subjects taken from +both the Old and the New Testaments. He made Rome his home, but he +visited several times his native land--first in 1844 (in which year he +married Louisa Ward), next in 1849, and lastly in 1856. He died in +London on the 10th of October 1857. + + See _Das Lincoln Monument, eine Rede des Senator Charles Sumner_, to + which are appended the biographies of several sculptors, including + that of Thomas Crawford (Frankfort a. M., 1868); Thomas Hicks, _Eulogy + on Thomas Crawford_ (New York, 1865). + + + + +CRAWFORD, WILLIAM HARRIS (1772-1834), American statesman, was born in +Amherst county, Virginia, on the 24th of February 1772. When he was +seven his parents moved into Edgefield district, South Carolina, and +four years later into Columbus county, Georgia. The death of his father +in 1788 left the family in reduced circumstances, and William made what +he could by teaching school for six years. He then studied at Carmel +Academy for two years, was principal, for a time, of one of the largest +schools in Augusta, and in 1798 was admitted to the bar. From 1800 to +1802, with Horatio Marbury, he prepared a digest of the laws of Georgia +from 1755 to 1800. From 1803 to 1807 he was a member of the State House +of Representatives, becoming during this period the leader of one of two +personal-political factions in the state that long continued in bitter +strife, occasioning his fighting two duels, in one of which he killed +his antagonist, and in the other was wounded in his wrist. From 1807 to +1813 he was a member of the United States Senate, of which he was +president _pro tempore_ from March 1812 to March 1813. In 1813 he +declined the offer of the post of secretary of war, but from that year +until 1815 was minister to the court of France. He was then secretary of +war in 1815-1816, and secretary of the treasury from 1816 to 1825. In +1816 in the congressional caucus which nominated James Monroe for the +presidency Crawford was a strong opposing candidate, a majority being at +first in his favour, but when the vote was finally cast 65 were for +Monroe and 54 for Crawford. In 1824, when the congressional caucus was +fast becoming extinct, Crawford, being prepared to control it, insisted +that it should be held, but of 216 Republicans only 66 attended; of +these, 64 voted for Crawford. Three other candidates, however, Andrew +Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and Henry Clay, were otherwise put in the +field. During the campaign Crawford was stricken with paralysis, and +when the electoral vote was cast Jackson received 99, Adams 84, Crawford +41, and Clay 37. It remained for the house of representatives to choose +from Jackson, Adams and Crawford, and through Clay's influence Adams +became president. Crawford was invited by Adams to continue as secretary +of the treasury, but declined. He recovered his health sufficiently to +become (in 1827) a circuit judge in his own state, but died while on +circuit, in Elberton, Georgia, on the 15th of September 1834. In his day +he was undoubtedly one of the foremost political leaders of the country, +but his reputation has not stood the test of time. He was of imposing +presence and had great conversational powers; but his inflexible +integrity was not sufficiently tempered by tact and civility to admit of +his winning general popularity. Consequently, although a skilful +political organizer, he incurred the bitter enmity of other leaders of +his time--Jackson, Adams and Calhoun. He won the admiration of Albert +Gallatin and others by his powerful support of the movement in 1811 to +recharter the Bank of the United States; he earned the condemnation of +posterity by his authorship in 1820 of the four-years-term law, which +limited the term of service of thousands of public officials to four +years, and did much to develop the "spoils system." He was a Liberal +Democrat, and advised the calling of a constitutional convention as +preferable to nullification or secession. + + + + +CRAWFORDSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Montgomery county, +Indiana, U.S.A., situated about 40 m. N.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) +6089; (1900) 6649, including 230 negroes and 221 foreign-born; (1910) +9371. It is served by the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the +Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Vandalia railways, +and by interurban electric lines. Wabash College, founded here in 1832 +by Presbyterian missionaries but now non-sectarian, had in 1908 27 +instructors, 345 students, and a library of 43,000 volumes. Among +manufactures are flour, iron, wagons and carriages, acetylene lights, +wire and nails, matches, brick paving blocks, and electrical machinery. +North-east of the city there are valuable mineral springs, from which +the city obtains its water-supply. Crawfordsville, named in honour of W. +H. Crawford, was first settled about 1820, was laid out as a town in +1823, and was chartered as a city in 1863. It was for many years the +home of Gen. Lew Wallace. + + + + +CRAWFURD, JOHN (1783-1868), Scottish orientalist, was born in the island +of Islay, Scotland, on the 13th of August 1783. After studying at +Edinburgh he became surgeon in the East India Company's service. He +afterwards resided for some time at Penang, and during the British +occupation of Java from 1811 to 1817 his local knowledge made him +invaluable to the government. In 1821 he served as envoy to Siam and +Cochin-China, and in 1823 became governor of Singapore. His last +political service in the East was a difficult mission to Burma in 1827. +In 1861 he was elected president of the Ethnological Society. He died at +South Kensington on the 11th of May 1868. + + Crawfurd wrote a _History of the Indian Archipelago_ (1820), + _Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries_ + (1856), _Journal of an Embassy to the Court of Ava in 1827_ (1829), + _Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochin-China, + exhibiting a view of the actual State of these Kingdoms_ (1830), + _Inquiry into the System of Taxation in India, Letters on the Interior + of India_, an attack on the newspaper stamp-tax and the duty on paper + entitled _Taxes on Knowledge_ (1836), and a valuable Malay grammar and + dictionary (1852). + + + + +CRAYER, GASPARD DE (1582-1669), Flemish painter, was born at Antwerp, +and learnt the art of painting from Raphael Coxcie. He matriculated in +the guild of St Luke at Brussels in 1607, resided in the capital of +Brabant till after 1660, and finally settled at Ghent. Amongst the +numerous pictures which he painted in Ghent, one in the town museum +represents the martyrdom of St Blaise, and bears the inscription A deg. +1668 aet. 86. Crayer was one of the most productive yet one of the most +conscientious artists of the later Flemish school, second to Rubens in +vigour and below Vandyck in refinement, but nearly equalling both in +most of the essentials of painting. He was well known and always well +treated by Albert and Isabella, governors of the Netherlands. The +cardinal-infant Ferdinand made him a court-painter. His pictures abound +in the churches and museums of Brussels and Ghent; and there is scarcely +a country chapel in Flanders or Brabant that cannot boast of one or more +of his canvases. But he was equally respected beyond his native country; +and some important pictures of his composition are to be found as far +south as Aix in Provence and as far east as Amberg in the Upper +Palatinate. His skill as a decorative artist is shown in the panels +executed for a triumphal arch at the entry of Cardinal Ferdinand into +the Flemish capital, some of which are publicly exhibited in the museum +of Ghent. Crayer died at Ghent. His best works are the "Miraculous +Draught of Fishes" in the gallery of Brussels, the "Judgment of Solomon" +in the gallery of Ghent, and "Madonnas with Saints" in the Louvre, the +Munich Pinakothek, and the Belvedere at Vienna. His portrait by Vandyck +was engraved by P. Pontius. + + + + +CRAYFISH (Fr. _ecrevisse_), the name of freshwater crustaceans closely +allied to and resembling the lobsters, and, like them, belonging to the +order Macrura. They are divided into two families, the _Astacidae_ and +_Parastacidae_, inhabiting respectively the northern and the southern +hemispheres. + +The crayfishes of England and Ireland (_Astacus_, or _Potamobius_, +_pallipes_) are generally about 3 or 4 in. long, of a dull green or +brownish colour above and paler brown or yellowish below. They are +abundant in some rivers, especially where the rocks are of a calcareous +nature, sheltering under stones or in burrows which they dig for +themselves in the banks and coming out at night in search of food. They +are omnivorous feeders, killing and eating insects, snails, frogs and +other animals, and devouring any carrion that comes in their way. It is +stated that they sometimes come on land in search of vegetable food. + +[Illustration: Crayfish (_Cambarus_ sp.) from the Mississippi River. +(After Morse.)] + +On the continent of Europe, _Astacus pallipes_ occurs chiefly in the +west and south, being found in France, Spain, Italy and the Balkan +Peninsula. It is known in France as _ecrevisse a pattes blanches_ and in +Germany as _Steinkrebs_, and is little used as food. The larger _Astacus +fluviatilis_ (_ecrevisse a pattes rouges_, _Edelkrebs_) is not found in +Britain, but occurs in France and Germany, southern Sweden, Russia, &c. +It is distinguished, among other characters, by the red colour of the +under side of the large claws. It is the species most highly esteemed +for the table. Other species of the genus are found in central and +eastern Europe and as far east as Turkestan. Farther east a gap occurs +in the distribution and no crayfishes are met with till the basin of the +Amur is reached, where a group of species occurs, extending into +northern Japan. In North America, west of the Rocky Mountains, the genus +_Astacus_ again appears, but east of the watershed it is replaced by the +genus _Cambarus_, which is represented by very numerous species, ranging +from the Great Lakes to Mexico. Several blind species inhabit the +subterranean waters of caves. The best known is _Cambarus pellucidus_, +found in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. + +The area of distribution occupied by the southern crayfishes or +_Parastacidae_ is separated by a broad equatorial zone from that of the +northern group, unless, as has been asserted, the two come into contact +or overlap in Central America. None is found in any part of Africa, +though a species occurs in Madagascar. They are absent also from the +oriental region of zoologists, but reappear in Australia and New +Zealand. Some of the Australian species, such as the "Murray River +lobster" (_Astacopsis spinifer_), are of large size and are used for +food. In South America crayfishes are found in southern Brazil, +Argentina and Chile. (W. T. CA.) + + + + +CRAYON (Fr. _craie_, chalk, from Lat. _creta_), a coloured material for +drawing, employed generally in the form of pencils, but sometimes also +as a powder, and consisting of native earthy and stony friable +substances, or of artificially prepared mixtures of a base of pipe or +china clay with Prussian blue, orpiment, vermilion, umber and other +pigments. Calcined gypsum, talc and compounds of magnesium, bismuth and +lead are occasionally used as bases. The required shades of tints are +obtained by adding varying amounts of colouring matter to equal +quantities of the base. Crayons are used by the artist to make groupings +of colours and to secure landscape and other effects with ease and +rapidity. The outline as well as the rest of the picture is drawn in +crayon. The colours are softened off and blended by the finger, with the +assistance of a stump of leather or paper; and shading is produced by +cross-hatching and stippling. The art of painting in crayon or pastel is +supposed to have originated in Germany in the 17th century. By Johann +Alexander Thiele (1685-1752) it was carried to great perfection, and in +France it was early practised with much success. Amongst the earlier +pastellists may be mentioned Rosalba Carriera (1675-1757), W. Hoare +(1707-1792), F. Cotes (1726-1770), and J. Russell (1744-1806); and in +recent years the art has been successfully revived. (See PASTEL.) + + + + +CREASY, SIR EDWARD SHEPHERD (1812-1878), English historian, was born at +Bexley in Kent, and educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge. He +became a fellow of King's College in 1834, and having been called to the +bar at Lincoln's Inn three years later, was made assistant judge at the +Westminster sessions court. In 1840 he was appointed professor of modern +and ancient history in the university of London, and in 1860 became +chief justice of Ceylon and a knight. Broken down in health he returned +to England in 1870, and after a further but short stay in Ceylon died in +London on the 27th of January 1878. Creasy's most popular work is his +_Fifteen decisive Battles of the World_, which, first published in 1851, +has passed through many editions. He also wrote _The History of the +Ottoman Turks_ (London, 1854-1856); _History of England_ (London, +1869-1870); _Rise and Progress of the English Constitution_ (London, +1853, and other editions); _Historical and Critical Account of the +several Invasions of England_ (London, 1852); a novel entitled _Old Love +and the New_ (London, 1870); and various other works. + + + + +CREATIANISM AND TRADUCIANISM. Traducianism is the doctrine about the +origin of the soul which was taught by Tertullian in his _De +anima_--that souls are generated from souls in the same way and at the +same time as bodies from bodies: creatianism is the doctrine that God +creates a soul for each body that is generated. The Pelagians taunted +the upholders of original sin with holding Tertullian's opinion, and +called them Traduciani (from _tradux_: vid. Du Cange s. vv.), a name +which was perhaps suggested by a metaphor in _De an._ 19, where the soul +is described "velut surculus quidam ex matrice Adam in propaginem +deducta." Hence we have formed "traducianist," "traducianism," and by +analogy "creatianist," "creatianism." Augustine denied that traducianism +was necessarily connected with the doctrine of original sin, and to the +end of his life was unable to decide for or against it. His letter to +Jerome (_Epist. Clas._ iii. 166) is a most valuable statement of his +difficulties. Jerome condemned it, and said that creatianism was the +opinion of the Church, though he admitted that most of the Western +Christians held traducianism. The question has never been +authoritatively determined, but creatianism, which had always prevailed +in the East, became the general opinion of the medieval theologians, and +Peter Lombard's _creando infundit animas Deus et infundendo creat_ was +an accepted formula. Luther, like Augustine, was undecided, but +Lutherans have as a rule been traducianists. Calvin favoured +creatianism. + + Peter Lombard's phrase perhaps shows that even in his time it was felt + that some union of the two opinions was needed, and Augustine's + toleration pointed in the same direction, for the traducianism he + thought possible was one in which God _operatur institutas + administrando non novas instituendo naturas_ (_Ep._ 166. 5. 11). + Modern psychologists teach that while "personality" can be discerned + in its "becoming," nothing is known of its origin. Lotze, however, who + may be taken as representing the believers in the immanence of the + divine Being, puts forth--but as a "dim conjecture"--something very + like creatianism (_Microcosmus_, bk. iii. chap. v. ad fin.). It is + still, as in the days of Augustine, a question whether a more exact + division of man into body, soul _and spirit_ may help to throw light + on this subject. + + See indices to _Augustine_, vol. xi., and _Jerome_, vol. xi. in + Migne's _Patrologia_, s.v. "Anima"; Franz Delitzsch, _Biblical + Psychology_, ii. S 7; G. P. Fisher, _History of Chr. Doct._ pp. 187 + ff.; A. Harnack, _History of Dogma_ (passim; see Index); Liddon, + _Elements of Religion_, Lect. iii.; Mason, _Faith of the Gospel_, iv. + SS 3, 4, 9, 10. (A. N.*) + + + + +CREBILLON, PROSPER JOLYOT DE (1674-1762), French tragic poet, was born +on the 13th of January 1674 at Dijon, where his father, Melchior Jolyot, +was notary-royal. Having been educated at the Jesuits' school of the +town, and at the College Mazarin, he became an advocate, and was placed +in the office of a lawyer named Prieur at Paris. With the encouragement +of his master, son of an old friend of Scarron's, he produced a _Mort +des enfants de Brutus_, which, however, he failed to bring upon the +stage. But in 1705 he succeeded with _Idomenee_; in 1707 his _Atree et +Thyeste_ was repeatedly acted at court; _Electre_ appeared in 1709; and +in 1711 he produced his finest play, the _Rhadamiste et Zenobie_, which +is his masterpiece and held the stage for a long period, although the +plot is so complicated as to be almost incomprehensible. But his +_Xerxes_ (1714) was only once played, and his _Semiramis_ (1717) was an +absolute failure. In 1707 Crebillon had married a girl without fortune, +who had since died, leaving him two young children. His father also had +died, insolvent. His three years' attendance at court had been +fruitless. Envy had circulated innumerable slanders against him. +Oppressed with melancholy, he removed to a garret, where he surrounded +himself with a number of dogs, cats and ravens, which he had befriended; +he became utterly careless of cleanliness or food, and solaced himself +with constant smoking. But in 1731, in spite of his long seclusion, he +was elected member of the French Academy; in 1735 he was appointed royal +censor; and in 1745 Mme de Pompadour presented him with a pension of +1000 francs and a post in the royal library. He returned to the stage in +1726 with a successful play, _Pyrrhus_; in 1748 his _Catilina_ was +played with great success before the court; and in 1754, when he was +eighty years old, appeared his last tragedy, _Le Triumvirat_. Crebillon +died on the 17th of June 1754. The enemies of Voltaire maintained that +Crebillon was his superior as a tragic poet. The spirit of rivalry thus +provoked induced Voltaire to take the subjects of no less than five of +Crebillon's tragedies--_Semiramis_, _Electre_, _Catilina_, _Le +Triumvirat_, _Atree_--as subjects for tragedies of his own. The +so-called _Eloge de Crebillon_ (1762), really a depreciation, which +appeared in the year of the poet's death, is generally attributed to +Voltaire, though he strenuously denied the authorship. Crebillon's drama +is marked by a force too often gained at the expense of scenes of +unnatural horror; his pieces show lack of culture and a want of care +which displays itself even in the mechanism of his verse, though fine +isolated passages are not infrequent. + + There are numerous editions of his works, among which may be noticed: + _OEuvres_ (1772), with preface and "eloge," by Joseph de la Porte; + _OEuvres_ (1828), containing D'Alembert's _Eloge de Crebillon_ (1775); + and _Theatre complet_ (1885) with a notice by Auguste Vitu. A complete + bibliography is given by Maurice Dutrait, in his _Etude sur la vie et + le theatre de Crebillon_ (1895). + +His only son, CLAUDE PROSPER JOLYOT CREBILLON (1707-1777), French +novelist, was born at Paris on the 14th of February 1707. His life was +spent almost entirely in Paris, but the publication of _L'Ecumoire, ou +Tanzai et Neadarne, histoire japonaise_ (1734), which contained veiled +attacks on the bull _Unigenitus_, the cardinal de Rohan and the duchesse +du Maine, brought Crebillon into disgrace. He was first imprisoned and +afterwards forced to live in exile for five years at Sens and elsewhere. +With Alexis Piron and Charles Colle he founded in 1752 the gay society +which met regularly to dine at the famous "Caveau," where many good +stories were elaborated. From 1759 onwards he was to be found at the +Wednesday dinners of the Pelletier, at which Garrick, Sterne and Wilkes +were sometimes guests. He married in 1748 an English lady of noble +family, Lady Henrietta Maria Stafford, who had been his mistress from +1744. Their life is said to have been passed in much affection and +mutual fidelity; and there could be no greater contrast than that +between Crebillon's private life and the tone of his novels, the +immorality of which lent irony to the author's tenure of the office of +censor, bestowed on him in 1759 through the favour of Mme de Pompadour. +He died in Paris on the 12th of April 1777. The most famous of his +numerous novels are: _Les Amours de Zeokinizul, roi des Kofirans_ +(1740), in which "Zeokinizul" and "Kofirans" may be translated Louis +XIV. and the French respectively; and _Le Sopha, conte moral_ (1740), +where the moral is supplied in the title only. This last novel is given +by some authorities as the reason for his imprisonment. + + His _OEuvres_ were collected and printed in 1772. See a notice of + Crebillon prefixed to O. Uzanne's edition of his _Contes dialogues_ in + the series of _Conteurs du XVIII^e siecle_. Crebillon's novels might + be pronounced immoral to the last degree if it were not that two + writers slightly later in date surpassed even his achievements in this + particular. Andre Robert de Nerciat (1739-1800) produced under a false + name a number of licentious tales, and was followed by Donatien, + marquis de Sade. + + + + +CRECHE (Fr. for a "crib" or cradle), the name given to a day-nursery, a +public institution for the feeding and care of infants while the mothers +are engaged in work outside their homes, or are otherwise prevented from +giving them proper attention. Infants are usually admitted when over a +month old, and are kept till they are capable of looking after +themselves. The advantages of such institutions are that the attention +of skilled and trained nurses is given to the children, the food is +better and more adapted to their needs than that given in their homes, +the surroundings are cleaner and healthier, and habits of discipline and +cleanliness are instilled, which, in many cases, react on the mothers. +The nurseries are usually under medical supervision, and the small fees +charged, which average in London from 3d. to 4d. a day, and on the +continent of Europe about 2d., are much less than the cost to the mother +who places her young children under the care of neighbours when at work +or away from home. Institutions of this kind were started in France in +1844, and have been established in the majority of the large towns on +the continent of Europe. In the industrial centres of France and Germany +they have helped to check infantile mortality. The state or municipality +in nearly every case grants subsidies, but few are maintained entirely +by public authorities; voluntary contributions are depended upon for the +main support, and the organization and management are left in the hands +of private societies and charitable institutions, although some outside +official supervision with regard to the number of infants admitted to +each institution, air-space, and ventilation and general hygienic +conditions is considered useful. In Great Britain the establishment of +such institutions has been left almost entirely to private initiative; +and in comparison with the continent the provision is inadequate and +unsatisfactory, Paris having nearly double the proportion of +accommodation for infants to the population that is provided in London. +The National Society of Day Nurseries was founded in 1901 for the +purpose of providing a bureau where information may be found of good +methods of founding and managing a creche. + + See the _Report of the Consultative Committee upon the School + Attendance of Children below the Age of Five_, issued by the Board of + Education (1908). + + + + +CRECY (Cressy), a town of northern France, in the department of Somme, +on the Maye, 12 m. N. by E. of Abbeville by road. It is famous in +history for the great victory gained here on the 26th of August 1346 by +the English under Edward III. over the French of King Philip of Valois. +After its campaign in northern France, the English army retired into +Ponthieu, and encamped on the 25th of August at Crecy, the French king +in the meantime marching from Abbeville on Braye. Early on the 26th +Edward's army took up its position for battle, and Philip's, hearing of +this, moved to attack him, though the French army marched in much +disorder, and on arrival formed only an imperfect line of battle. The +English lay on the forward slope of a hillside, with their right in +front of the village of Crecy, their left resting on Wadicourt. Two of +the three divisions or "battles" were in first line, that of the young +prince of Wales (the Black Prince) on the right, that of the earls of +Northampton and Arundel on the left; the third, under the king's own +command, in reserve, and the baggage was packed to the rear. Each battle +consisted of a centre of dismounted knights and men-at-arms, and two +wings of archers. The total force was 3900 men-at-arms, 11,000 English +archers, and 5000 Welsh light troops (Froissart, first edition, the +second gives a different estimate). The French were far stronger, having +at least 12,000 men-at-arms, 6000 mercenary crossbowmen (Genoese), +perhaps 20,000 of the _milice des communes_, besides a certain number of +foot of the feudal levy. Along with these served a Luxemburg contingent +of horse under John, king of Bohemia, and other feudatories of the Holy +Roman Empire, and the whole force was probably about 60,000 strong. + +[Illustration: CRECY (Map of the Battle)] + +The day was far advanced when the French came upon the English position. +Philip, near Estrees, decided to halt and bivouac, deferring the battle +until the army was better closed up, but the indiscipline of his army +committed him to an immediate action, and he ordered forward the Genoese +crossbowmen, while a line of men-at-arms deployed for battle behind +them; the rest of the army was still marching in an irregular column of +route along the road from Abbeville. A sudden thunderstorm caused a +short delay, then the archers and the crossbowmen opened the battle. +Here, for the first time in continental warfare, the English long-bow +proved its worth. After a brief contest the crossbowmen, completely +outmatched, were driven back with enormous loss. Thereupon the first +line of French knights behind them charged down upon the "faint-hearted +rabble" of their own fugitives, and soon the first two lines of the +French were a mere mob of horse and foot struggling with each other. The +archers did not neglect the opportunity, and shot coolly and rapidly +into the helpless target in front of them. The second attack was made by +another large body of knights which had arrived, and served but to +increase the number of the casualties, though here and there a few +charged up to the English line and fell near it, among them the blind +king of Bohemia, who with a party of devoted knights penetrated, and was +killed amongst, the ranks of the prince of Wales's men-at-arms. The +battle was now one long series of desperate but ill-conducted charges, a +fresh onslaught being made as each new corps of troops appeared on the +scene. The English archers on the flanks of the two first line battles +had been wheeled up, the centres of dismounted men-at-arms held back, so +that the whole line resembled a "herse" or harrow with three points +formed by the archers (see sketch). Each successive body of the French +sought to come to close quarters with the men-at-arms, and exposed +themselves therefore at short range to the arrows on either flank. Under +these circumstances there could be but one issue of the battle. Though +sixteen distinct attacks were made, and the fighting lasted until long +after dark, no impression was made on the English line. At one moment +the prince was so far in danger that his barons sent to the king for +aid. Even then Edward was not disquieted and he sent a mere handful of +knights to the prince's battle, saying, "Let the boy win his spurs." The +left battle of the English, hitherto somewhat to the rear, moved up into +line with the prince, and the French attack slackened. By midnight the +army of France was practically annihilated; 1542 men of gentle blood +were left dead on the field and counted by Edward's heralds, the losses +of the remainder are unknown. Some fifty of the victors fell in the +battle. The story that the Black Prince adopted from the fallen king of +Bohemia the crest and motto now borne by the princes of Wales lacks +foundation (see JOHN, KING OF BOHEMIA). A memorial to the French and +their allies was erected, by public subscription in France, Luxemburg +and Bohemia, in 1905. + + See H. B. George, _Battles of English History_ (London, 1895), and C. + W. C. Oman, _A History of the Art of War; The Middle Ages_ (London, + 1898). + + + + +CREDENCE, or CREDENCE TABLE, a small side-table, originally an article +of furniture placed near the high table in royal or noble houses, at +which the ceremony of the _praegustatio_, Italian _credenziare_, the +"assay" or tasting of food and drink for poisons was performed by an +official of the household, the _praegustator_ or _credentiarius_ as he +was called in Medieval Latin. Both the ceremony and the table were known +as _credentia_ (Lat. _credere_, to believe, trust), Ital. _credenza_, +Fr. _credence_. After the need for the ceremony had disappeared the name +still survived, and the table developed a back and several shelves for +the display of plate, and gradually merged into the buffet (q.v.). It +is, however, as an article of ecclesiastical furniture that the credence +table is most familiar. It takes the form of a small table of wood or +stone, sometimes fixed and sometimes merely a shelf above or near the +piscina. It usually stands on the south or Epistle side of the altar, +and on it are placed, in the Roman Catholic Church, the cruets +containing the wine and water, the chalice, the candlesticks to be +carried by the acolytes, and other objects to be used in the ceremony of +the Mass. The use of such a table, to which earlier the name of +_paratorium_ or _oblationarium_ was given, appears to have come into use +when the personal presentation of the oblations at the Mass became +obsolete. When the pope celebrates Mass a special credence table on the +Gospel side of the altar is used, and the ceremony of tasting for poison +in the unconsecrated elements is still observed. In some churches in +England the old credence tables still exist, as at the church of St +Cross near Winchester, where there is a fine stone 15th-century example; +more frequent are examples of the stone shelf near the piscina. There +are some carved wooden ones surviving, one type being with a +semicircular top and three legs placed in a triangle with a lower shelf. +The formal use of the credence table for the unconsecrated elements and +the holy vessels before the celebration has been revived in the English +Church. + + + + +CREDENTIALS (_lettres de creance_), a document which ambassadors, +ministers plenipotentiary, and charges d'affaires hand to the government +to which they are accredited, for the purpose, chiefly, of communicating +to the latter the envoy's diplomatic rank. It also contains a request +that full credence be accorded to his official statements. Until his +credentials have been presented and found in proper order, an envoy +receives no official recognition. The credentials of an ambassador or +minister plenipotentiary are signed by the chief of the state, those of +a charge d'affaires by the foreign minister. + + + + +CREDI, LORENZO DI (1459-1537), Italian artist, whose surname was +Barducci, was born at Florence. He was the least gifted of three artists +who began life as journeymen with Andrea del Verrocchio. Though he was +the companion and friend of Leonardo da Vinci and Perugino, and closely +allied in style to both, he had neither the genius of the one nor the +facility of the other. We admire in Da Vinci's heads a heavenly +contentment and smile, in his technical execution great gloss and +smoothness of finish. Credi's faces disclose a smiling beatitude; his +pigments have the polish of enamel. But Da Vinci imparted life to his +creations and modulation to his colours, and these are qualities which +hardly existed in Credi. Perugino displayed a well-known form of +tenderness in heads, moulded on the models of the old Umbrian school. +Peculiarities of movement and attitude become stereotyped in his +compositions; but when put on his mettle, he could still exhibit power, +passion, pathos. Credi often repeated himself in Perugino's way; but +being of a pious and resigned spirit, he generally embodied in his +pictures a feeling which is yielding and gentle to the verge of +coldness. Credi had a respectable local practice at Florence. He was +consulted on most occasions when the opinion of his profession was +required on public grounds, e.g. in 1491 as to the fronting, and in 1498 +as to the lantern of the Florentine cathedral, in 1504 as to the place +due to Michelangelo's "David." He never painted frescoes; at rare +intervals only he produced large ecclesiastical pictures. The greater +part of his time was spent on easel pieces, upon which he expended +minute and patient labour. But he worked with such industry that numbers +of his Madonnas exist in European galleries. The best of his +altar-pieces is that which represents the Virgin and Child with Saints +in the cathedral of Pistoia. A fine example of his easel rounds is in +the gallery of Mainz. Credi rivalled Fra Bartolommeo in his attachment +to Savonarola; but he felt no inclination for the retirement of a +monastery. Still, in his old age, and after he had outlived the perils +of the siege of Florence (1527), he withdrew on an annuity into the +hospital of Santa Maria Nuova, where he died. The National Gallery, +London, has two pictures of the Virgin and Child by him. + + + + +CREDIT (Lat. _credere_, to believe), in a general sense, belief or +trust. The word is used also to express the repute which a person has, +or the estimation in which he is held. In a commercial sense credit is +the promise to pay at a future time for valuable consideration in the +present: hence, a reputation of solvency and ability to make such +payments is also termed credit. In bookkeeping credit is the side of the +account on which payments are entered; hence, sometimes, the payments +themselves. + + The part which credit plays in the production and exchange of wealth + is discussed in all economic text-books, but special reference may be + made to K. Knies, _Geld und Kredit_ (1873-1879), and H. D. Macleod, + _Theory of Credit_ (1889-1891). See also Hartley Withers, _The Meaning + of Money_ (1909). + + + + +CREDIT FONCIER, in France, an institution for advancing money on +mortgage of real securities. Due to a great extent to the initiative of +the economist L. Wolowski, it was created by virtue of a governmental +decree of the 28th of February 1852. This decree empowered the issue of +loans at a low rate of interest, secured by mortgage bonds, extending +over a long period, and repayable by annuities, including instalments of +capital. On its inception it had a capital of 25,000,000 francs and took +the title of Banque Fonciere de Paris. The parent institution in Paris +was followed by similar institutions in Nevers and Marseilles. These two +were afterwards amalgamated with the first under the title of Credit +Foncier de France. The capital was increased to 60,000,000 francs, the +government giving a subvention of 10,000,000 francs, and exercising +control over the bank by directly appointing the governor and two +deputy-governors. The administration was vested in a council chosen by +the shareholders, but its decisions have no validity without the +approval of the governor. The Credit Foncier has the right to issue +bonds, repayable in fifty or sixty years, and bearing a fixed rate of +interest. A certain number of the bonds carry prizes. The loans must not +exceed half the estimated value of the property mortgaged, upon which +the bank has the first mortgage. The bank also makes advances to local +bodies, departmental and communal, for short or long periods, and with +or without mortgage. Its capital amounts to L13,500,000. Its charter was +renewed in 1881 for a period of ninety-nine years. + +In 1860 the Credit Foncier lent its support to the foundation of an +organization for supplying capital and credit for agricultural and +allied industries. This Credit Agricole rendered but trifling services +to agriculture, however, and soon threw itself into speculation. Between +1873 and 1876 it lent enormous sums to the Egyptian government, +obtaining the money by opening credit with the Credit Foncier and +depositing with it the securities of the Egyptian government. On the +failure of the Egyptian government to meet its payments the Credit +Agricole went into liquidation, and the Credit Foncier suffered severely +in consequence. The impracticability of the credit system to aid +agriculture as worked by the Credit Agricole was very marked, and, as a +consequence, the financing of agricultural associations is now entirely +in the hands of the Banque de France. + +The _Credit Mobilier_ is an institution for advancing loans on personal +or movable estate. It was constituted in 1871, on the liquidation of the +Societe Generale de Credit Mobilier, founded in 1852, which it absorbed. + + + + +CREDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA, a construction company whose operations in +connexion with the building of the Union Pacific Railroad gave rise to +the most serious political scandal in the history of the United States +Congress. The company was originally chartered as the Pennsylvania +Fiscal Agency in 1859. In March 1864 a controlling interest in the stock +was secured by Thomas Durant, vice-president of the Union Pacific +Railroad Company, and the Pennsylvania legislature authorized the +adoption of the name Credit Mobilier of America. Durant proposed to +utilize it as a construction company, pay it an extravagant sum for the +work, and thus secure for the stockholders of the Union Pacific, who now +controlled the Credit Mobilier, the bonds loaned by the United States +government. The net proceeds from the government and the first mortgage +bonds issued to the construction company were $50,863,172.05, slightly +more than enough to pay the entire cost of construction. According to +the report of the Wilson Congressional Committee, the Credit Mobilier +received in addition, in the form of stock, income bonds, and land grant +bonds, $23,000,000--a profit of about 48%. The defenders of the company +assert that several items of expense were not included in this report, +and that the real net profit was considerably smaller, although they +admit that it was still unusually large. The work extended over the +years 1865-1867. During the winter of 1867-1868, when adverse +legislation by Congress was feared, it is alleged that Oakes Ames +(q.v.), a representative from Massachusetts and principal promoter of +the Credit Mobilier, distributed a number of shares among congressmen +and senators to influence their attitude. Shares were sold at par when a +few dividends repaid a purchaser at this price. Some in fact received +dividends without any initial outlay at all. As the result of a lawsuit +between Ames and H. S. McComb, some private letters were brought out in +September 1872 which gave publicity to the entire proceedings. The House +appointed two investigating committees, the Poland and the Wilson +committees, and on the report of the former (1873) Ames and James Brooks +of New York were formally censured by the House, the former for +disposing of the stock and the latter for improperly using his official +position to secure part of it. Charges were also made against Schuyler +Colfax, then vice-president but Speaker of the House at the time of the +transaction, James A. Garfield, William D. Kelley (1814-1880), John A. +Logan, and several other members either of the House or of the Senate. +The Senate later appointed a special committee to investigate the +charges against its members. This committee, on the 27th of February +1873, recommended the expulsion from the Senate of James W. Patterson, +of New Hampshire; but as his term expired within five days no action was +taken. The evidence was exaggerated by the Democrats for partisan +purposes, but the investigation showed clearly that many of those +accused were at least indiscreet if not dishonest. The company itself +was merely a type of the construction companies by which it was the +custom to build railways between 1860 and about 1880. + + See J. B. Crawford, _The Credit Mobilier of America_ (Boston, 1880), + and R. Hazard, _The Credit Mobilier of America_ (Providence, 1881), + both of which defend Ames; also the histories of the Union Pacific + Railroad Company by J. P. Davis (Chicago, 1894) and H. K. White + (Chicago, 1895); and for a succinct and impartial account, James Ford + Rhodes, _History of the United States_, vol. vii. (New York, 1906). + The Poland and Wilson reports are to be found in _House of + Representatives Reports_, 42nd Congress, 3rd session, Nos. 77 and 78, + and the report of the Senate Committee in _Senate Reports_, 42nd + Congress, 3rd session, No. 519. + + + + +CREDITON, a market town in the South Molton parliamentary division of +Devonshire, England, 8 m. N.W. of Exeter by the London & South-Western +railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3974. It is situated in the +narrow vale of the river Creedy near its junction with the Exe, between +two steep hills, and is divided into two parts, the east or old town and +the west or new town. The church of Holy Cross, formerly collegiate, is +a noble Perpendicular building with Early English and other early +portions, and a fine central tower. The grammar school, founded by +Edward VI. and refounded by Elizabeth, has exhibitions to Oxford and +Cambridge universities. Shoe-making, tanning, agricultural trade, +tin-plating, and the manufacture of confectionery and cider have +superseded the former large woollen and serge industries. In 1897 +Crediton was made the seat of a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of +Exeter. + +The first indication of settlement at Crediton (_Credington_, +_Cryditon_, _Kirton_) is the tradition that Winfrith or Boniface was +born there in 680. Perhaps in his memory (for the great extent of the +parish shows that it was thinly populated) it became in 909 the seat of +the first bishopric in Devonshire. It was probably only a village in +1049, when Leofric, bishop of Crediton, requested Leo IX. to transfer +the see to Exeter, as Crediton was "an open town and much exposed to the +incursions of pirates." At the Domesday Survey much of the land was +still uncultivated, but its prosperity increased, and in 1269 each of +the twelve prebends of the collegiate church had a house and farmland +within the parish. The bishops, to whom the manor belonged until the +Reformation, had difficulty in enforcing their warren and other rights; +in 1351 Bishop Grandison obtained an exemplification of judgments of +1282 declaring that he had pleas of withernam, view of frank pledge, the +gallows and assize of bread and ale. Two years later there was a serious +riot against the increase of copyhold. Perhaps it was at this time that +the prescriptive borough of Crediton arose. The jury of the borough are +mentioned in 1275, and Crediton returned two members to parliament in +1306-1307, though never afterwards represented. A borough seal dated +1469 is extant, but the corporation is not mentioned in the grant made +by Edward VI. of the church to twelve principal inhabitants. The borough +and manor were granted by Elizabeth to William Killigrew in 1595, but +there is no indication of town organization then or in 1630, and in the +18th century Crediton was governed by commissioners. In 1231 the bishop +obtained a fair, still held, on the vigil, feast and morrow of St +Lawrence. This was important as the wool trade was established by 1249 +and certainly continued until 1630, when the market for kersies is +mentioned in conjunction with a saying "as fine as Kirton spinning." + + + See Rev. Preb. Smith, "Early History of Credition," in _Devonshire + Association for the Advancement of Science, Literature and Art, + Transactions_, vol. xiv. (Plymouth, 1882); Richard J. King, "The + Church of St Mary and of the Holy Cross, Credition," in _Exeter + Diocesan Architectural Society, Transactions_, vol. iv. (Exeter, + 1878). + + + + +CREDNER, CARL FRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1809-1876), German geologist, was born +at Waltershausen near Gotha, on the 13th of March 1809. He investigated +the geology of the Thuringer Waldes, of which he published a map in +1846. He was author of a work entitled _Uber die Gliederung der oberen +Juraformation und der Wealden-Bildung im nordwestlichen Deutschland_ +(Prague, 1863), also of a geological map of Hanover (1865). He died at +Halle on the 28th of September 1876. + +His son, CARL HERMANN CREDNER (1841- ), was born at Gotha on the 1st +of October 1841, educated at Breslau and Gottingen, and took the degree +of Ph.D. at Breslau in 1864. In 1870 he was appointed professor of +geology in the university of Leipzig, and in 1872 director of the +Geological Survey of Saxony. He is author of numerous publications on +the geology of Saxony, and of an important work, _Elemente der Geologie_ +(2 vols., 1872; 7th ed., 1891), regarded as the standard manual in +Germany. He has also written memoirs on Saurians and Labyrinthodonts. + + + + +CREE, a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. They are +still a considerable tribe, numbering some 15,000, and living chiefly in +Manitoba and Assiniboia, about Lake Winnipeg and the Saskatchewan river. +They gave trouble by their constant attacks upon the Sioux and +Blackfeet, but are now peaceable and orderly. + + See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907). + + + + +CREECH, THOMAS (1659-1700), English classical scholar, was born at +Blandford, Dorsetshire, in 1659. He received his early education from +Thomas Curgenven, master of Sherborne school. In 1675 he entered Wadham +College, Oxford, and obtained a fellowship in 1683 at All Souls'. He was +headmaster of Sherborne school from 1694 to 1696, and in 1699 he +received a college living, but in June 1700 he hanged himself. The +immediate cause of the act was said to be a money difficulty, though +according to some it was a love disappointment; both of these +circumstances no doubt had their share in a catastrophe primarily due to +an already pronounced melancholia. Creech's fame rests on his +translation of Lucretius (1682) in rhymed heroic couplets, in which, +according to Otway, the pure ore of the original "somewhat seems +refined." He also published a version of Horace (1684), and translated +the _Idylls of Theocritus_ (1684), the _Thirteenth Satire_ of Juvenal +(1693), the _Astronomicon_ of Manilius (1697), and parts of Plutarch, +Virgil and Ovid. + + + + +CREEDS (Lat. _credo_, I believe), or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH. We are +accustomed to regard the whole conception of creeds, i.e. reasoned +statements of religious belief, as inseparably connected with the +history of Christianity. But the new study of comparative religion has +something to teach us even here. The saying _lex orandi lex credendi_ is +true of all times and of all peoples. And since we must reckon praise as +the highest form of prayer, such an early Christian hymn as is found in +1 Tim. iii. 16 must be acknowledged to be of the nature of a creed: "He +who was manifested in the flesh, justified in the spirit, seen of +angels, preached among the nations, believed on in the world, received +up in glory." It justifies the expansion of the second article of the +developed Christian creed from the standpoint of the earliest Christian +tradition. It also supplies a reason for including in our survey of +creeds some reference to pre-Christian hymns and beliefs. The pendulum +has swung back. Rather than despise the faulty presentation of truth +which we find in heathen religions and their more or less degraded +rites, we follow the apostle Paul in his endeavour to trace in them +attempts "to feel after God" (Acts vii. 27). Augustine, the great +teacher of the West, was true to the spirit of the great Alexandrians, +when he wrote (_Ep._ 166): "Let every good and true Christian understand +that truth, wherever he finds it, belongs to _his_ Lord." + +We are not concerned with the question whether the earliest forms of +recorded religious consciousness such as animism, or totemism, or +fetishism, were themselves degradations of a primitive revelation or +not.[1] We are only concerned with the fact of experience that the human +soul yearns to express its belief. The hymn to the rising and setting +sun in the _Book of the Dead_ (ch. 15), which is said by Egyptologists +to be the oldest poem in the world, carries us back at once to the dawn +of history. + + "Hail to thee, Ra, the self-existent.... Glorious is + thine uprising from the horizon. Both worlds are + illumined by thy rays.... Hail to thee, Ra, when thou + returnest home in renewed beauty, crowned and almighty." + +In a later hymn Amen-Ra is confessed as "the good god beloved, maker of +men, creator of beasts, maker of things below and above, lord of mercy +most loving." A similar note is struck in the Indian Vedas. In the more +ethical religion of the Avesta the creator is more clearly distinguished +from the creature: "I desire to approach Ahura and Mithra with my +praise, the lofty eternal, and the holy two."[2] The Persian poet is not +far from the kingdom into which Hebrew psalmists and prophets entered. + +The whole history of the Jewish religion is centred in the gradual +purification of the idea of God. The morality of the Jews did not +outgrow their religion, but their interest was always ethical and not +speculative. The highest strains of the psalmists and the most fervent +appeals of the prophets were progressively directed to the great end of +praising and preaching the One true God, everlasting, with sincere and +pure devotion. The creed of the Jew, to this day, is summed up in the +well-remembered words, which have been ever on his lips, living or +dying: "Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord" (Deut. vi. 4). + +The definiteness and persistence of this creed, which of course is the +strength also of Mahommedanism, presents a contrast to the fluid +character of the statements in the Vedas, and to the chaos of +conflicting opinions of philosophers among the Greeks and Romans. As Dr +J. R. Illingworth has said very concisely: "The physical speculations of +the Ionians and Atomists rendered a God superfluous, and the +metaphysical and logical reasoning of the Eleatics declared Him to be +unknowable."[3] Plato regarding the world as an embodiment of eternal, +archetypal ideas, which he groups under the central idea of Good, +identified with the divine reason, at the same time uses the ordinary +language of the day, and speaks of God and the gods, feeling his way +towards the conception of a personal God, which, to quote Dr Illingworth +again, neither he nor Aristotle could reach because they had not "a +clear conception of human personality." They were followed by an age of +philosophizing which did little to advance speculation. The Stoics, for +example, were more successful in criticizing the current creed than in +explaining the underlying truth which they recognized in polytheism. The +final goal of Greek philosophy was only reached when the great thinkers +of the early Christian Church, who had been trained in the schools of +Alexandria and Athens, used its modes of thought in their analysis of +the Christian idea of God. "In this sense the doctrine of the Trinity +was the synthesis, and summary, of all that was highest in the Hebrew +and Hellenic conceptions of God, fused into union by the electric touch +of the Incarnation."[4] + +Space does not permit enlargement on this theme, but enough has been +said to introduce the direct study of the ancient creeds of Christendom. + +I. THE ANCIENT CREEDS OF CHRISTENDOM.--The three creeds which may be +called oecumenical, although the measure of their acceptance by the +universal church has not been uniform, represent three distinct types +provided for the use of the catechumen, the communicant, and the church +teacher respectively. The Apostles' Creed is the ancient baptismal +creed, held in common both by East and West, in its final western form. +The Nicene Creed is the baptismal creed of an eastern church enlarged in +order to combine theological interpretation with the facts of the +historic faith. Its use in the Eucharist of the undivided Church has +been continued since the great schism, although the Eastern Church +protests against the interpolation of the words "And the Son" in clause +9. The Athanasian Creed is an instruction designed to confute heresies +which were current in the 5th century. + + + Apostles' Creed. + +1. _The Apostles' Creed._--The increased interest which has been shown +in the history of all creed-forms since the latter part of the 19th +century is due in a great measure to the work of the veteran pioneer, +Professor P. Caspari of Christiania, who began the herculean task of +classifying the enormous number of creed-forms which have been recovered +from obscure pages of early Christian literature. In England we owe much +to Professors C. A. Heurtley and Swainson. In Germany the monumental +work of Professor Kattenbusch has overshadowed all other books on the +subject, providing even his most ardent critics with an indispensable +record of the literature of the subject. + +The majority of critics agree that the only trace of a formal creed in +the New Testament is the simple confession of Jesus as the Lord, _or_ +the Son of God (Rom. x. 9; 1 Cor. xii. 3). While the apostles were +agreed on an outline of teaching (Rom. vi. 17) which included the +doctrine of God, the person and work of Christ, and the person and work +of the Holy Spirit, it does not appear that they provided any summary, +which would cover this ground, as an authoritative statement of their +belief. The tradition which St Paul received included, so to speak, the +germ of the central prayer in the Eucharist (1 Cor. xi. 23 ff.), and no +doubt included also teaching on conduct, "the way of a Christian life" +(1 Thess. iv. 1; Gal. v. 21). The creed in all its forms lies behind +worship, which it preserves from idolatry, and behind ethics, to which +it supplies a motive power which the pre-Christian system so manifestly +lacked. Whether the first creed of the primitive Church was of the +simple Christological character which confession of Jesus as the Lord +expresses, or of an enlarged type based on the baptismal formula (Matt. +xxviii. 19), makes no difference to the statement that the faith which +overcame the world derived its energy from convictions which strove for +utterance. "With the heart man believeth unto righteousness, and with +the mouth confession is made unto salvation" (Rom. x. 10). + +When St Paul reminds Timothy (1 Tim. vi. 13) of his confession before +many witnesses he does not seem to imply more than confession of Christ +as king. He calls it "the beautiful confession" to which Christ Jesus +had borne witness before Pontius Pilate, and charges Timothy before God, +who quickeneth all things, to keep this commandment. Some writers, +notably Professor Zahn,[5] piecing together this text with 2 Tim. i. 13, +ii. 8, iv. 1, 2, reconstructs a primitive Apostles' Creed of Antioch, +the city from which St Paul started on his missionary journeys. But +there is no mention of a third article in the creed, beyond a reference +to the Holy Ghost in the context of 2 Tim. i. 14, which would prove the +apostolic use of a Trinitarian confession imaginable as the parent of +the later Eastern and Western forms. The eunuch's creed interpolated in +Acts viii. 57, "I believe that Jesus is the Son of God," since the +reading was known to Irenaeus, probably represents the form of baptismal +confession used in some church of Asia Minor, and supplies us with the +type of a primitive creed. This theory is confirmed by the evidence of +the Johannine epistles (1 John iv. 15, v. 5; cf. Heb. iv. 14). + +From this point of view it is easy to explain the occurrence of +creed-like phrases in the New Testament as fragments of early hymns (1 +Tim. iii. 16) or reminiscences of oral teaching (1 Cor. xv. 1 ff.). The +following form which Seeberg gives as the creed of St Paul is an +artificial combination of fragments of oral teaching, which naturally +reappear in the teaching of St Peter, but finds no attestation in the +later creeds of particular churches which would prove its claim to be +their parent form: + + "The living God who created all things sent His Son Jesus Christ, born + of the seed of David, who died for our sins according to the + scriptures, and was buried, who was raised on the third day according + to the scriptures, and appeared to Cephas and the XII., who sat at the + right hand of God in the heavens, all rule and authority and power + being made subject unto Him, and is coming on the clouds of heaven + with power and great glory." + +The evidence of the apostolic fathers is disappointing. Clement (_Cor._ +lviii. 2) supplies only parallels to the baptismal formula (Matt. +xxviii. 19). Polycarp (_Ep._ 7) echoes St John. But Ignatius might seem +to offer in the following passage some confirmation of Zahn's theory of +a primitive creed of Antioch (_Trall._ 9): "Be ye deaf, therefore, when +any man speaketh to you apart from Jesus Christ, who was of the race of +David, who was the Son of Mary, who was truly born and ate and drank, +was truly persecuted under Pontius Pilate, was truly crucified and died +in the sight of those in heaven and those on earth and those under the +earth; who, moreover, was truly raised from the dead, His Father having +raised Him, who in the like fashion will so raise us also who believe on +Him--His Father, I say, will raise us--in Christ Jesus, apart from whom +we have not true life." + +The differences, however, which divide this from the later creed forms +are scarcely less noticeable than their agreement, and the evidence of +the Ignatian epistles generally (_Eph_. xviii.; _Smyrn._ i.), while it +confirms the conclusion that instruction was given in Antioch on all +points characteristic of the developed creed, e.g. the Miraculous Birth, +Crucifixion, Resurrection, the Catholic Church, forgiveness of sins, the +hope of resurrection, does not prove that this teaching was as yet +combined in a Trinitarian form which classified the latter clauses under +the work of the Holy Ghost. + +At this point a word must be said on the important question of +interpretation. While we may hope for eventual agreement on the history +of the different types of creed forms, there can be no hope of agreement +on the interpretation of the words Holy Spirit between Unitarian and +Trinitarian critics. Writers who follow Harnack explain "holy spirit" as +the gift of impersonal influence, and between wide limits of difference +agree in regarding Christ as Son of God by adoption and not by nature. +Amid the chaos of conflicting opinions as to the original teaching of +Jesus, the Gospel within the Gospel, the central question "What think ye +of Christ?" emerges as the test of all theories. "No man can say that +Jesus is the Lord save in the Holy Ghost" (1 Cor. xii. 3). Belief in the +fact of the Incarnation of the eternal Word, as it is stated in the +words of Ignatius quoted above, or in any of the later creeds, stands or +falls with belief in the Holy Ghost as the guide alike of their +convictions and destinies, no mere impersonal influence, but a living +voice. + +If the essence of Christianity is winnowed down to a bare imitation of +the Man Jesus, and his religion is accepted as Buddhists accept the +religion of Buddha, still it cannot be denied that the early Christians +put their trust in Christ rather than his religion. "I am the life," not +"I teach the life," "I am the truth," not merely "I teach the truth," +are not additions of Johannine theology but the central aspect of the +presentation of Christ as the good physician, healer of souls and +bodies, which the most rigid scrutiny of the Synoptic Gospels leaves as +the residuum of accepted fact about Jesus of Nazareth. To say more would +be out of place in this article, but enough has been said to introduce +the exhaustive discussion by Kattenbusch (ii. 471-728) of the meaning of +the theological teaching both of the New Testament and of the earliest +creeds. + +To return within our proper limits. Kattenbusch, with whom Harnack is in +general agreement, regards the Old Roman Creed, which comes to light in +the 4th century, as the parent of all developed forms, whether Eastern +or Western. Marcellus, the exiled bishop of Ancyra, is quoted by +Epiphanius as presenting it to Bishop Julius of Rome c. A.D. 340. +Ussher's recognition of the fact that this profession of faith by +Marcellus was the creed of Rome, not of Ancyra, is the starting-point of +modern discussions of the history of the creeds. Some sixty years later +Rufinus, a priest of Aquileia, wrote a commentary on the creed of his +native city and compared it with the Roman Creed. His Latin text is +probably as ancient as the Greek text of Marcellus, because the Roman +Church must always have been bilingual in its early days. It was as +follows: + + I. 1. I believe in God (the) Father almighty; + II. 2. And in Christ Jesus His only Son our Lord, + 3. who was born of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary, + 4. crucified under Pontius Pilate and buried + 5. the third day He rose from the dead, + 6. He ascended into heaven, + 7. sitteth at the right hand of the Father, + 8. thence He shall come to judge living and dead. + III. 9. And in the Holy Ghost, + 10. (the) holy Church, + 11. (the) remission of sins, + 12. (the) resurrection of the flesh. + +This Old Roman Creed may be traced back in the writings of Bishops Felix +and Dionysus (3rd century), and in the writings of Tertullian in the 2nd +century. + +Tertullian calls the creed the "token" which the African Church shares +with the Roman (_de Praescr._ 36): "The Roman Church has made a common +token with the African Churches, has recognized one God, creator of the +universe, and Christ Jesus, of the Virgin Mary, Son of God the Creator, +and the resurrection of the flesh." The reference is to the earthenware +token which two friends broke in order that they might commend a +stranger for hospitality by sending with him the broken half. Their +creed became the passport by which Christians in strange cities could +obtain admission to assemblies for worship and to common meals. The +passage quoted is obviously a condensed quotation of the Roman Creed, +which reappears also in the following (_de Virg. vel._ i.): + + "The rule of faith is one altogether ... of believing in one God + Almighty, maker of the world, and in His Son Jesus Christ, born of + Mary the Virgin, crucified under Pontius Pilate; the third day raised + from the dead, received in the heavens, sitting now at the right hand + of the Father, about to come and judge quick and dead through the + resurrection also of the flesh." + +There are many references in Tertullian to the teaching of the Gnostic +Marcion, whose breach with the Roman Church may be dated A.D. 145. He +seems to have still held to the Roman creed interpreted in his own way. +An ingenious conjecture by Zahn enables us to add the words "holy +Church" to our reconstruction of the creed from the writings of +Tertullian. In his revised New Testament Marcion speaks of "the covenant +which is the mother of us all, which begets us in the holy Church, to +which we have vowed allegiance." He uses a word used by Ignatius of the +oath taken on confession of the Christian faith. It follows that the +words "holy Church" were contained in the Roman Creed.[6] + +While all critics agree in tracing back this form to the earliest years +of the 2nd century, and regard it as the archetype of all similar +Western creeds, there is great diversity of opinion on its relation to +Eastern forms. Kattenbusch maintains that the Roman Creed reached Gaul +and Africa in the course of the 2nd century, and perhaps all districts +of the West that possessed Christian congregations, also the western end +of Asia Minor possibly in connexion with Polycarp's visit to Rome A.D. +154. He finds that materials fail for Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, +Syria, Palestine, Egypt. Further, he holds that all the Eastern creeds +which are known to us as existing in the 4th century, or may be traced +back to the 3rd, lead to Antioch as their starting-point. He concludes +that the Roman Creed was accepted at Antioch after the fall of Paul of +Samosata in A.D. 272, and was adapted to the dogmatic requirements of +the time, all the later creeds of Palestine, Asia Minor and Egypt being +dependent on it. + +On the other hand, Kunze, Loofs, Sanday, and Zahn find evidence of the +existence of an Eastern type of creed of equal or greater antiquity and +distinguished from the Roman by such phrases as "One" (God), "Maker of +heaven and earth," "suffered," "shall come again in glory." Thus Kunze +reconstructs a creed of Antioch for the 3rd century, and argues that it +is independent of the Roman Creed. + + +_Creed of Antioch._ + + I. 1. I believe in one and one only true God, Father Almighty, maker + of all things, visible and invisible. + + II. 2. And in our Lord Jesus Christ, His Son, the only-begotten and + first born of all creation, begotten of Him before all the + ages, through whom also the ages were established, and all + things came into existence; + 3. Who for our sakes, came down, and was born of Mary the Virgin. + 4. And crucified under Pontius Pilate, and buried, + 5. And the third day rose according to the scriptures, + 6. and ascended into heaven. + 7. + 8. And is coming again to judge quick and dead. + 9. [The beginning of the third article has not been recorded.] + 10. + 11. Remission of sins. + 12. Resurrection of the dead, life everlasting. + +Along similar lines Loofs selects phrases as typical of creeds which go +back to a date preceding the Nicene Council. + +A. Creed of Eusebius of Caesarea, presented to the Nicene Council. + +B. Revised Creed of Cyril of Jerusalem. + +C. Creed of Antioch quoted by Cassian. + +D. Creed of Antioch quoted in the Apostolic Constitutions. + +E. Creed of Lucian the Martyr (Antioch). + +F. Creed of Arius (Alexandria). + + 1. One (God), A, B, C, D, E, F. + Maker of heaven and earth and of all things visible and invisible + (or a like phrase), A, B, C, D, E. + 2. Lord Jesus Christ, His Son, the only begotten (or a like phrase), + A, B, C, D, E, F. + 3. Crucified under Pontius Pilate, B, C, D (A, E, F omit because + they are theological creeds. Loofs thinks that the baptismal + creeds on which they are based may have contained the words). + 5. Rose the third day, A, B, D, E (F omits "the third day" being + a theological creed; the translation of C is uncertain). + 6. Went up, A, B, D, E, F. + + and ... and ... and, A, B, C, D, E, F. + 8. And is coming, B, C, D, E, F; and is about to come, A; + + again, A, C, D, E, F(B?); + in glory, A, B; with glory, D, E. + 10. + Catholic, B, D, F (A, C, E?) + 12. + life eternal, B, C; + life of the age to come, D, F. + +Sanday (_Journal Theol. Studies_, iii. 1) does not attempt a +reconstruction on this elaborate scale, but contents himself with +pointing out evidence, which Kattenbusch seems to him to have missed, +for the existence of creeds of Egypt, Cappadocia and Palestine before +the time of Aurelian. He criticizes Harnack's theory that there existed +in the East, that is, in Asia Minor, or in Asia Minor and Syria as far +back as the beginning of the 2nd century, a Christological instruction +([Greek: mathema]) organically related to the second article of the +Roman Creed, and formulas which taught that the "One God" was "Creator +of heaven and earth," and referred to the holy prophetic spirit, and +lasted on till they influenced the course of creed-development in the +4th century. He asks, is it not simpler to believe that there was a +definite type in the background? + +Another English student, the Rev. T. Barns, engaged specially in work +upon the history of the creed of Cappadocia, points out the importance +of the extraordinary influence of Firmilian of Caesarea in the affairs +of the church of Antioch in the early part of the 3rd century. He is led +to argue that the creed of Antioch came rather from Cappadocia than +Rome. Whether his conclusion is justified or not, it helps to show how +strongly the trend of contemporary research is setting against the +theory of Kattenbusch that the Roman Creed when adopted at Antioch +became the parent of all Eastern forms. It does not, however, militate +against the possibility that the Roman Creed was carried from Rome to +Asia Minor and to Palestine in the 2nd century. It is evidently +impossible to arrive at a final decision until much more spade work has +been done in the investigation of early Eastern creeds. Connolly's study +of the early Syrian creed (_Zeitschrift fur die neutestamentliche +Wissenschaft_, 1906, p. 202) deserves careful consideration. His +reconstruction of the creed of Aphraates is interesting in relation to +the other traces of a Syriac creed form existing prior to the 4th +century. + + [I believe] in God the Lord of all, that made the heavens and the + earth and the seas and all that in them is; [And in our Lord Jesus + Christ] [the Son of God,] God, Son of God, King, Son of the King, + Light from Light, (Son and Counsellor, and Guide, and Way, and + Saviour, and Shepherd, and Gatherer, and Door, and Pearl, and Lamb,) + and first-born of all creatures, who came and put on a body from Mary + the Virgin (of the seed of the house of David, from the Holy Spirit), + and put on our manhood, and suffered, _or_ and was crucified, went + down to the place of the dead, _or_ to Sheol, and lived again, and + rose the third day, and ascended to the height, _or_ to heaven, and + sat on the right hand of His Father, and He is the Judge of the dead + and of the living, who sitteth on the throne; [And in the Holy + Spirit;] [And I believe] in the coming to life of the dead; [and] in + the mystery of Baptism (of the remission of sins). + +The probable battle-ground of the future between the opposing theories +lies in the writings of Irenaeus. He has most of the characteristic +expressions of the Eastern creeds. He inserts "one" in clause 1 and 2. +He has the phrases "Maker of heaven and earth," "suffered," and +"crucified," with "under Pontius Pilate" after instead of before it. +Probably also he had "in glory" in clause 8. But there is always the +possibility to be faced that Irenaeus drew his creed from Rome rather +than Asia Minor. Kattenbusch does not shrink from suggesting that he +shows acquaintance with the Roman Creed, and that Justin Martyr also +knew it, in which case all the so-called Eastern characteristics have +been imprinted on the original Roman form, and are not derived from an +Eastern archetype. But the ordinary reader need not feel concern about +the future victory of either theory. The plain fact is that the same +facts were taught in Palestine, Asia Minor and Gaul, whether gathered up +in a parallel creed form or not. The contrast which Rufinus draws +between the Roman Creed and others, both of the East and the West, is +justified. In comparison with them it was guarded more carefully from +change.[7] We have yet to inquire how it received the additions which +distinguish the derived form now in use as the baptismal creed of all +Western Christendom. Some had already found an entrance into Western +creeds. We find "suffered" in the creed of Milan, "descended into hell" +in the creed of Aquileia, the Danubian lands and Syria; the words "God" +and "almighty" were shortly added to clause 7 in the Spanish creed; +"life everlasting" had stood from an early date in the African creed. +The creed of Caesarius of Arles (d. 543) proves that these variations +had all been united in one Gallican creed together with "catholic" and +"communion of saints," but this Gallican form still lacked "Maker of +heaven and earth" and the additions in clause 7. + +Two newly-discovered creeds help us greatly to narrow down the limits of +the problem. The creed of Niceta of Remesiana in Dacia proves that c. +A.D. 400 the Dacian church had added to the Roman Creed "maker of heaven +and earth," "suffered," "dead," "Catholic," "communion of saints" and +"life everlasting." Parallel to it is the Faith of St Jerome discovered +in 1903 by Dom. Morin.[8] + + _The Faith of St Jerome_. + + "I believe in one God the Father almighty, maker of things visible and + invisible. I believe in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, born of + God, God of God, Light of Light, almighty of almighty, true God of + true God, born before the ages, not made, by whom all things were made + in heaven and in earth. Who for our salvation descended from heaven, + was conceived of the Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered by + suffering under Pontius Pilate, under Herod the King, crucified, + buried, descended into hell, trod down the sting of death, rose again + the third day, appeared to the apostles. After this He ascended into + heaven, sitteth at the right of God the Father, thence shall come to + judge the quick and the dead. And I believe in the Holy Ghost, God not + unbegotten nor begotten, not created nor made, but co-eternal with the + Father and the Son. I believe (that there is) remission of sins in the + holy catholic church, communion of saints, resurrection of the flesh + unto eternal life. Amen." + +This creed may be the form which Jerome mentions in one of his letters +(_Ep._ 17, n. 4) as sent to Cyril of Jerusalem. It is important as +connecting the creeds of East and West. Since Jerome was born in +Pannonia we may conjecture that he is inserting Nicene phrases from the +Jerusalem creed into his baptismal creed, and that this form added to +Niceta's creed proves that the creed of the Danube lands possessed the +clauses "maker of heaven and earth" and "communion of saints." + +The first occurrence of the completed form is in a treatise +(_Scarapsus_) of the Benedictine missionary Pirminius, abbot of +Reichenau (c. A.D. 730). The difficulty hitherto has been to trace the +source from which the clause "maker of heaven and earth" has come into +it. It has been known that the forms in use in the south of France +approximated to it but without those words. In the 6th century we find +creed forms in use in Gaul which include them, but include also other +variations distinguishing them from the form which we seek. The missing +link which has hitherto been lacking in the evidence has been found by +Barns in the influence of Celtic missionaries who streamed across from +Europe until they came in touch with the remnants of the Old Latin +Christianity of the Danube. The chief documents of the date A.D. 700, +which contain forms almost identical with the received text, are +connected with monasteries founded by Columban and his friends: Bobbio, +Luxeuil, S. Gallen, Reichenau. From one of these monasteries the +received text seems to have been taken to Rome. Certainly it was from +Rome that it was spread. We can trace the use of the received text along +the line of the journeys both of Pirminius and Boniface, and there is +little doubt that they received it from the Roman Church, with which +Boniface was in frequent communication. Pope Gregory II. sent him +instructions to use what seems to have been an official Roman order of +Baptism, which would doubtless include a Roman form of creed. Pirminius, +who was far from being an original writer, made great use of a treatise +by Martin of Braga, but substituted a Roman form of Renunciation, and +refers to the Roman rite of Unction in a way which leads us to suppose +that the form of creed which he substituted for Martin's form was also +Roman. It seems clear, therefore, that the received text was either made +or accepted in Rome, c. A.D. 700, and disseminated through the +Benedictine missionaries. At the end of the 8th century Charlemagne +inquired of the bishops of his empire as to current forms. The reply of +Amalarius of Trier is important because it shows that he not only used +the received text, but also connected it with the Roman order of +Baptism. The emperor's wish for uniformity doubtless led in a measure to +its eventual triumph over all other forms. + + + Nicene Creed. + +2. _The Nicene Creed_ of the liturgies, often called the +Constantinopolitan creed, is the old baptismal creed of Jerusalem +revised by the insertion of Nicene terms. The idea that the council +merely added to the last section has been disproved by Hort's famous +dissertation in 1876.[9] The text of the creed of the Nicene Council was +based on the creed of Eusebius of Caesarea, and a comparison of the four +creeds side by side proves to demonstration their distinctness, in spite +of the tendency of copyists to confuse and assimilate the forms.[10] + + _Creed of Eusebius, A.D. 325 | _Revision by the Council of Nicaea, + (Caesarea)._ | A.D. 325._ + | + We believe | We believe + I. | I. + 1. In one God the Father | 1. In one God the Father Almighty, + Almighty, the maker of all | visible the maker of all things + things visible and invisible. | and invisible. + | + II. | II. + 2. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, | 2. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, + the Word of God. | the Son of God, begotten of the + | Father, only begotten, that is + God of God, Light of Light, | of the substance of the Father, + (Life of Life,) only begotten | God of God, Light of Light, very + Son (first-born of all | God of very God, begotten not + creation, before all worlds | made, of one substance with the + begotten of God the Father), | Father, by whom all things were + by whom all things were made; | made, both those in heaven and + all things were made; | those on earth. + 3. Who for our Salvation was | 3. Who for us men and for our + incarnate (and lived as a | salvation came down and was + citizen amongst men), | incarnate, was made man, + 4. And Suffered, | 4. And suffered, + 5. And rose the third day, | 5. And rose the third day, + 6. And ascended (to the Father), | 6. Ascended into Heaven, + 7. And shall come again (in glory)| 7. Is coming to judge quick and + to judge quick and dead. | dead. + | + III. | III. + 8. And (we believe) in (one) Holy | 8. And in the Holy Ghost. + Ghost. | + | + | _Revision by Cyril, A.D. 362. + | Council of Constantinople, A.D. + _Creed of Jerusalem, A.D. 348._ | 381. Council of Chalcedon, A.D. + | 451._ + | + I (or We) believe | We believe + I. | I. + 1. In one God the Father, | 1. In one God the Father Almighty, + Almighty, maker of heaven | maker of heaven and earth, and + and earth, and of all things | of all things visible and + visible and invisible. | invisible. + | + II. | II. + 2. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, | 2. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, + the only begotten Son of God, | the only begotten Son of God, + begotten of His Father, | begotten of His Father before + | all worlds, [God of God,] + | Light of Light, + very God before all worlds, | very God of very God, + | begotten, not made, being of + | one substance with the Father, + by whom all things were made; | by whom all things were made; + 3. | 3. Who for us men and for our + | salvation came down from + was incarnate, | heaven and incarnate of the + | Holy Ghost and the Virgin + and was made Man, | Mary, and was made Man. + 4. Crucified and buried. | 4. And was crucified also for us + | under Pontius Pilate, and + | suffered and + 5. Rose again the third day, | 5. He rose again the third day, + | according to the Scriptures, + 6. And ascended into heaven and | 6. And ascended into heaven and + _sat_ on the right hand of | sitteth on the right hand of + the Father, | the Father, + 7. And shall come _in glory_ | 7. And He shall come again to + to judge the quick and the | judge the quick and the + dead, whose kingdom shall | dead, whose kingdom shall + have no end. | have no end. + | + III. | III. + 8. And in _One_ Holy Ghost, | 8. And in the Holy Ghost, the + _the Paraclete_, | Lord and Giver of Life. who + | proceedeth from the Father + | [_and the Son_], who with the + | Father and the Son together is + | worshipped and glorified, + who spake _in_ the Prophets, | who spake by the Prophets, + 9. And in one baptism of | 9. In the Catholic and Apostolic + repentance for remission of | Church. + sins, | + 10. And in one holy Catholic | 10. We acknowledge one baptism + Church, | for remission of sins. + 11. And in resurrection _of the | 11. We look for the resurrection + flesh_, | of the dead, + 12. And in life eternal. | 12. And in the life of the world + | to come. + +The revised Jerusalem Creed was quoted by Epiphanius in his treatise +_The Anchored One_, c. A.D. 374, some years before the council of +Constantinople (A.D. 381). We gather that it had already been introduced +into Cyprus as a baptismal creed. Hort's identification of it as the +work of Cyril of Jerusalem is now generally accepted. On his return from +exile in A.D. 362 Cyril would find "a natural occasion for the revision +of the public creed by the skilful insertion of some of the conciliar +language, including the term which proclaimed the restoration of full +communion with the champions of Nicaea, and other phrases and clauses +adapted for impressing on the people positive truth." Some of Cyril's +personal preferences expressed in his catechetical lectures find +expression, e.g. "resurrection of the _dead_" for "flesh." + +The weak point in Hort's theory was the suggestion that the creed was +brought before the council by Cyril in self justification. The election +of Meletius of Antioch as the first president of the council carried +with it the vindication of his old ally Cyril. Kunze's suggestion is far +more probable that it was used at the baptism of Nektarius, praetor of +the city, who was elected third president of the council while yet +unbaptized. Unfortunately the acts of the council have been lost, but +they were quoted at the council of Chalcedon in A.D. 451, and the +revised Jerusalem Creed was quoted as "the faith of the 150 Fathers," +that is, as confirmed in some way by the council of Constantinople, +while at the time it was distinguished from "the faith of the 318 +Fathers" of Nicaea. One of the signatories of the Definition of Faith +made at Chalcedon, in which both creeds were quoted in full, Kalemikus, +bishop of Apamea in Bithynia, refers to the council of Constantinople as +having been held at the ordination of the most pious Nektarius the +bishop. Obviously there was some connexion in his mind between the creed +and the ordination. + +The reasons which brought the revised creed into prominence at Chalcedon +are still obscure. It is possible that Leo's letter to Flavian gave the +impulse to put it forward because it contained a parallel to words which +Leo quoted from the Old Roman Creed, "born of the Holy Ghost and the +Virgin Mary," "crucified and buried," which do not occur in the first +Nicene Creed. If, as is probable, it was from the election of Nektarius +the baptismal creed of Constantinople, we may even ask whether the pope +did not refer to it when he wrote emphatically of the "common and +indistinguishable confession" of all the faithful. Kattenbusch supposes +that Anatolius, bishop of Constantinople, or his archdeacon Aetius, who +read the creed at the 2nd session of the council, took up the idea that +through its likeness to the Roman Creed it would be a useful weapon +against Eutyches and others who were held to interpret the Nicene Creed +in an Apollinarian sense. But Kunze thinks that it was not used as a +base of operations against Eutyches because there is some evidence that +Monophysites were willing to accept it. Certainly it won its way to +general acceptance in the East as the creed of the church of the +imperial city; regarded as an improved recension of the Nicene Faith. +The history of the introduction of the creed into liturgies is still +obscure. Peter Fullo, bishop of Antioch, was the first to use it in the +East, and in the West a council held by King Reccared at Toledo in 589. +The theory of Probst that it had been used in Rome before this time has +not been confirmed. King Reccared's council is usually credited with the +introduction of the words "And the Son" into clause 9 of the creed. But +some MSS.[11] omit them in the creed-text while inserting them in a +canon of the faith drawn up at the time. Probably they were interpolated +in the creed by mistake of copyists. When attention was called to the +interpolation in the 9th century it became one cause of the schism +between East and West. Charlemagne was unable to persuade Pope Leo III. +to alter the text used in Rome by including the words. But it was so +altered by the pope's successor. + +The interpolation really witnessed to a deep-lying difference between +Eastern and Western theology. Eastern theologians expressed the +mysterious relationship of the Holy Spirit to the Father and the Son in +such phrases as "Who proceedeth from the Father and receiveth from the +Son," rightly making the Godhead of the Father the foundation and +primary source of the eternally derived Godhead of the Son and the +Spirit. Western theologians approached the problem from another point of +view. Hilary, starting from the thought of Divine self-consciousness as +the explanation of the coinherence of the Father in the Son and the Son +in the Father, says that the Spirit receives of both. Augustine teaches +that the Father and the Son are the one principle of the Being of the +Spirit. From this it is a short step to say with the _Quicumque vult_ +that the Spirit proceeds from the Son, while guarding the idea that the +Father is the one fountain of Deity. Since Eastern theologians would be +willing to say "proceeds from the Father through the Son," it is clear +that the two views are not irreconcilable. + + + Athanasian Creed. + +3. _The Athanasian Creed_, so called because in many MSS. it bears the +title "The Faith of S. Athanasius," is more accurately designated by its +first words _Quicumque vult_.[12] Its history has been the subject of +much controversy for years past, but no longer presents an insoluble +problem. Critics indeed agree on the main outline. Until 1870 the +standard work on the subject was Waterland's _Critical History of the +Athanasian Creed_, first published in 1723. Having traced "the opinions +of the learned moderns" from Gerard Vossius, A.D. 1642, "who led the way +to a more strict and critical inquiry," Waterland passed in review all +the known MSS. and commentaries, and after a searching investigation +concluded that the creed was written in Gaul between 420 and 430, +probably by Hilary of Arles. + +In 1870 the controversy on the use of the creed in the Book of Common +Prayer led to fresh investigation of the MSS., and a theory known as the +"Two-portion theory" was started by C. A. Swainson, developed by J. R. +Lumby, and adopted by Harnack. Swainson thought that the _Quicumque_ was +brought into its present shape in the 9th century. The so-called +profession of Denebert, bishop-elect of Worcester, in A.D. 798 presented +to the archbishop of Canterbury (which includes clauses 1, 3-6, 20-22, +24, 25), and the Treves fragment (a portion of a sermon in _Paris bibl. +nat. Lat._ 3836, _saec._ viii., which quoted clauses 27-34, 36-40), +seemed to him to represent the component parts of the creed as they +existed separately. He conjectured that they were brought together in +the province of Rheims c. 860. + +This theory, however, depended upon unverified assumptions, such as the +supposed silence of theologians about the creed at the beginning of the +9th century; the suggestion that the completed creed would have been +useful to them if they had known it as a weapon against the heresy of +Adoptianism; the assertion that no MS. containing the complete text was +of earlier date than c. 813. This was Lumby's revised date, but the +progress of palaeographical studies has made it possible to demonstrate +that MSS. of the 8th century do exist which contain the complete creed. + +The two-portion theory was vigorously attacked by G. D. W. Ommanney, who +was successful in the discovery of new documents, notably early +commentaries, which contained the text of the creed embedded in them, +and thus supplied independent testimony to the fact that the creed was +becoming fairly widely known at the end of the 8th century. Other new +MSS. and commentaries were found and collated by the Rev. A. E. Burn and +Dom Morin. In 1897 Loofs, summing up the researches of 25 years in his +article _Athanasianum_ (_Realencyclopadie f. prot. Theol. u. Kirche_, +3rd ed. ii. p. 177), declared that the two-portion theory was dead. + +This conclusion has never been seriously challenged. It has been greatly +strengthened by the discovery of a MS. which was presented by Bishop +Leidrad of Lyons with an autograph inscription to the altar of St +Stephen in that town, some time before 814. As M. Delisle at once +pointed out (_Notices et extraits des manuscrits_, 1898), this MS. +supplies a fixed date from which palaeographers can work in dating MSS. +The _Quicumque_ occurs in a collection of materials forming an +introduction to the psalter. The suggestion has been made that Leidrad +intended to use the _Quicumque_ in his campaign against the Adoptianists +in 798. But the phrases of the creed seem to have needed sharpening +against the Nestorian tendency of the Adoptianists. It is more probable +that Leidrad was interested in the growing use of the creed as a +canticle, and was consulted in the preparation of the famous Golden +Psalter, now at Vienna, which contains the same collection of documents +as an introduction. This MS. may now without hesitation be assigned to +the date 772-788. The earliest known MS. is at Milan (_Cod. Ambros._ O, +212, _sup._), and is dated by Traube as early as c. 700. + +There is a reference to the _Quicumque_ in the first canon of the fourth +council of Toledo of the year 633, which quotes part or the whole of +clauses 4, 20-22, 28 f., 31, 33, 35 f., 40. The council also quoted +phrases from the so-called _Creed of Damasus_, a document of the 4th +century, which in some cases they preferred to the phrases of the +_Quicumque_. Their quotations form a connecting link in the chain of +evidence by which the use of the creed may be traced back to the +writings of Caesarius, bishop of Arles (503-543). Dom Morin has now +demonstrated ("Le Symbole d'Athanase et son premier temoin S. Cesaire +d'Arles," _Rev. Benedictine_, Oct. 1901) that Caesarius used the creed +continually as a sort of elementary catechism. The fact that it exactly +reproduces both the qualities and the literary defects of Caesarius is a +strong argument in favour of Morin's suggestion that he may have been +the author. Further, Caesarius was in the habit of putting some words of +a distinguished writer at the head of his compositions, which would +account for the fact that the name of Athanasius was subsequently +attached to the creed. + +The use, however, of the _Quicumque_ by Caesarius as a catechism may be +explained by the suggestion that it had been taught him in his youth, so +that his style had been moulded by it. He was not an original thinker. +Moreover, the creed is quoted by his rival Avitus, bishop of Vienne +490-523, who quotes clause 22, as from the Rule of Catholic Faith, but +was not likely to value a composition of Caesarius so highly. Morin does +not deal fully with the arguments from internal evidence which point +back to the beginning of the 5th century as the date of the creed. If +the creed-phrases needed sharpening against the revived Nestorian error +of the Adoptianists, it is scarcely likely to have been written during +the generation following the condemnation of Nestorius in 431. Burn +suggests that it was written to meet the Sabellian and Apollinarian +errors of the Spanish heretic Priscillian, possibly by Honoratus, bishop +of Arles (d. 429). He suggests further that the _Creed of Damasus_ was +the reply of that pope to Priscillian's appeal. This would explain the +quotation of the two documents together by the council of Toledo, since +the heresy lasted on for a long time in Spain. But the theory has been +carried to extravagant lengths by Kunstle, who thinks that the creed was +written in Spain in the 5th century, and soon taken to the monastery of +Lerins. There are phrases in the writings of Vincentius of Lerins and of +Faustus, bishop of Riez, which are parallel to the teaching of the +creed, though they cannot with any confidence be called quotations. They +tend in any case to prove that the _Quicumque_ comes to us from the +school of Lerins, of which Honoratus was the first abbot, and to which +Caesarius also belonged. + +The earliest use of the _Quicumque_ was in sermons, in which the clauses +were quoted, as by the council of Toledo without reference to the creed +as a whole. From the 8th century, if not from earlier times, +commentaries were written on it. The writer of the Oratorian Commentary +(Theodulf of Orleans?) addressing a synod which instructed him to +provide an exposition of this work on the faith, writes of it, as "here +and there recited in our churches, and continually made the subject of +meditation by our priests." It was soon used as a canticle. Angilbert, +abbot of St Riquier (c. 814), records that it was sung by his school in +procession on rogation days. It passed into the office of Prime, +apparently first at Fleury. In the first Prayer Book of Edward VI. it +was "sung or said" after the Benedictus on the greater feasts, and this +use was extended in the second Prayer Book. In 1662 the rubric was +altered and it was substituted for the Apostles' Creed. It has no place +in the offices of the Eastern Orthodox Church, but is found, without the +words "And the Son" of clause 22, in the appendix of many modern +editions. In the Russian service books it appears at the beginning of +the psalter. + +The controversy on its use in modern times has turned mainly on the +interpretation of the warning clauses. No new translation can put an end +to the difficulty. While it is true that the Church has never condemned +individuals, and that the warnings refer only to those who have received +the faith, and do not touch the question of the unbaptized, there is a +growing feeling that they go beyond the teaching of Holy Scripture on +the responsibility of intellect in matters of faith.[13] + +On the other hand the creed is a valuable statement of Catholic faith on +the Trinity and the Incarnation, and its use for students and teachers +at least is by no means obsolete. The special characteristic of its +theology is in the first part where it owes most to the teaching of +Augustine, who in his striving after self-knowledge analysed the mystery +of his own triune personality and illustrated it with psychological +images, "I exist and I am conscious that I exist, and I love the +existence and the consciousness; and all this independently of any +external influence." Such a riper analysis of the mystery of his own +personality enabled him to arrive at a clearer conception of the idea of +divine personality, "whose triunity has nothing potential or unrealized +about it; whose triune elements are eternally actualized, by no outward +influence, but from within; a Trinity in Unity."[14] + +II. MODERN CONFESSIONS OF FAITH.--The second great creed-making epoch of +Church history opens in the 16th century with the Confession of +Augsburg. The famous theses which Luther nailed to the door of the +church at Wittenberg in 1517 cannot be called a confession, but they +expressed a protest which could not rest there. Some reconstruction of +popular beliefs was needed by many consciences. There is a striking +contrast between the crudeness of much and widely accepted medieval +theology and the decrees of the council of Trent. Even from the Roman +Catholic standpoint such a need was felt. Luther himself had a gift of +words which through his catechisms made the reformed theology popular in +Germany. In 1530 it became necessary to define his position against both +Romanists and Zwinglians. + + + Augsburg confession. + +1. _The Confession of Augsburg_ was drawn up by Melanchthon, revised by +Luther, and presented to the emperor Charles V. at the diet of Augsburg. +Some 21 of its articles dealt with doctrine, 7 with ecclesiastical +abuses. It expounded in terse and significant teaching the doctrine (1) +of God, (2) of original sin, (3) of the Son of God, (4) of +justification..., (21) of the worship of saints. The abuses which it was +maintained had been corrected by Lutheranism were discussed in articles +(1) on Communion in both kinds, (2) on the marriage of clergy, (3) on +the Mass, &c. (see AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF). + +The main difference between these, the first of a long series of +articles of religion and the ancient creeds, lies in the fact that they +are manifestoes embodying creeds and answering more than one purpose. +This is the reason of their frequent failure to convey any sense of +proportion in the expression of truth. The disciplinary question of +clerical marriage is not of the same primary importance as the doctrinal +questions involved in the restoration of the cup to the laity, or +discussed in the subsequent article on the mass. As has been well said +by a learned Baptist theologian, Dr Green: "It was by a true divine +instinct that the early theologians made Christ Himself, in His +divine-human personality, their centre of the creeds."[15] The +fundamental questions of Christianity, exhibited in the Apostles' Creed, +should be marked off as standing on a higher plane than others. In this +respect catechisms of modern times, from Luther's down to the recent +Evangelical catechism of the Free Churches, and including from their +respective points of view both the catechism of the Church of England +and the catechism of the council of Trent, are markedly superior to +articles and synodical decrees. The failure of the latter was really +inevitable. In the 16th century a spirit of universal questioning was +rife, and it is this utter unsettlement of opinion which is reflected in +the discussions of doubts on matters only remotely connected with "the +faith once for all delivered unto the saints" (Jude 3). Moreover, fresh +complications arose from the confusion in which the question of the +duties and rights of the civil power was entangled. In an age when the +foundations of the system on which society had rested for centuries were +seriously shaken, such subjects as the right of the magistrate to +interfere with the belief of the individual, and the limits of his +authority over conscience, naturally assumed a prominence hitherto +unknown.[16] + +2. _Other Lutheran Formularies._--For the purpose of classification it +will be convenient to discuss Lutheran, Zwinglian and Calvinistic +confessions separately. + + + Lutheran. + +An elaborate _Apology_ for the confession of Augsburg was drawn up by +Melanchthon in reply to Roman Catholic criticisms. This, together with +the confession, the articles of Schmalkalden, drawn up by Luther in +1536, Luther's catechisms, and the Formula of Concord which was an +attempt to settle doctrinal divisions promulgated in 1580, sum up what +is called "the confessional theology of Lutheranism." Of less influence +in the subsequent history of Lutheranism, but of interest as used by +Archbishop Parker in the preparation of the Elizabethan articles of +1563, is the confession of Wurttemberg. It was presented to the council +of Trent by the ambassador of the state of Wurttemberg in 1552. Its +thirty-five articles contain a moderate statement of Lutheran teaching. + + + Zwinglian and Calvinist. + +3. _Zwinglian and Calvinistic Confessions._--The confession of the Four +Cities, Strassburg, Constance, Memmingen and London, was drawn up by M. +Bucer and was presented to Charles V. at Augsburg in 1530. These cities +were inclined to follow Zwingli in his sacramental teaching which was +more fully expressed in the Confession of Basel (1534) and the First +Helvetic Confession (1536). Calvin's views were expressed in the +Gallican Confession, containing forty articles, which was drawn up in +1559, and was presented both to Francis II. of France and to Charles IX. +On the same lines the Belgian Confession of 1561, written by Guido de +Bres in French, and translated into Dutch was widely accepted in the +Netherlands and confirmed by the synod of Dort (1619). The second +Helvetic Confession was the work of Bullinger, published at the request +of the Elector Palatine Frederick III. in 1566, and was held in repute +in Switzerland, Poland and France as well as the Palatinate. It was +sanctioned in Scotland and was well received in England. + +These confessions teach the root idea of Calvin's theology, the +immeasurable awfulness of God, His eternity, and the immutability of His +decrees. Such strict Calvinism was the strength also of the Westminster +Confession (see below), but was soon weakened in Germany. This same +Elector Frederick invited two young divines, Zacharias Ursinus and +Caspar Olevianus, to prepare the afterwards celebrated Heidelberg +catechism, which in 1563 superseded Calvin's catechism in the +Palatinate. While Calvin began sternly with the question: "What is the +chief end of human life?" Ans.: "That men may know God by whom they were +created,"--the Heidelberg catechism has: "What is thy only comfort in +life and death?" Ans.: "That I with body and soul, both in life and +death, am not my own, but belong to my faithful Saviour Jesus Christ." +This catechism has been called the charter of the German Reformed +Church. It contains three divisions dealing with (1) man's sin, misery, +redemption, (2) the Trinity, (3) thankfulness, under which is included +all practical Christian life lived in gratitude for mercies received. + + + Articles of religion. + +4. _English Articles of Religion._--The ten articles of 1536 were drawn +up by Convocation at the bidding of Henry VIII. "to stablysh Christian +Quietnes and Unitie." They exhibit a traditional character, a compromise +between the old and the new learning. Thus the doctrine of the Real +Presence is asserted, but no mention is made of Transubstantiation. +Medieval ceremonies are described as useful but without power to remit +sins. Two years later, after negotiations with the Lutheran princes, a +conference on theological matters was held at Lambeth with Lutheran +envoys. Thirteen articles were drawn up, which, though never published +(they were found among Cranmer's papers at the beginning of the 19th +century), had some influence on the forty-two articles. Some of them +were taken from the confession of Augsburg, but the sections on Baptism, +the Eucharist and penance, show that the English theologians desired to +lay more emphasis on the character of sacraments as channels of grace. +The Statute of the Six Articles (1539), "the whip with six strings," was +the outcome of the retrograde policy which distinguished the latter +years of Henry VIII. + +With the accession of Edward VI. liturgical reforms were set on foot +before an attempt was made to systematize doctrinal teaching. But as +early as 1549 Cranmer had in hand "Articles of Religion" to which he +required all preachers and lecturers to subscribe. In 1552 they were +revised by other bishops and were laid before the council and the royal +chaplains. They were then published as "Articles agreed on by the +bishops and other learned men in the Synod of London." But there is +considerable doubt whether they really received the sanction of +Convocation (Gibson, p. 15). They were not devised as a complete scheme +of doctrine, but only as a guide in dealing with current errors of (i.) +the Medievalists and (ii.) the Anabaptists. Under (i.) they condemned +the doctrine of the school authors on congruous merit (Art. xii.), the +doctrine of grace _ex opere operato_ (xxvi.). Transubstantiation +(xxix.). Under (ii.) they laid stress on the fundamental articles of the +faith (Art. i.-iv.), affirmed the Three Creeds (vii.), since many +Anabaptists held Arian and Socinian opinions which were rife in +Switzerland, Italy and Poland, condemning also their views on original +sin (viii.), community of goods (xxxvii.), and on other subjects in +articles which do not mention them by name. + +The revision undertaken in 1563 by Archbishop Parker, aided by Edm. +Guest, bishop of Rochester, shows "an attempt to give greater +completeness to the formulary," and to make clearer the Catholic +position of the Church of England. For the clause (Art. xxviii.) which +denied the Real Presence was substituted one by Guest with the desire +"not to deny the reality of the presence of the Body of Christ in the +Supper, but only the grossness and sensibleness in the receiving +thereof." At the same time the substitution of "Romish doctrine" for +"doctrine of School authors" (Art. xxii.) marks an effort to define the +line of the Church of England sharply against current Roman teaching. +The revision was passed by Convocation and again revised in 1571, when +the queen had been excommunicated by papal bull, and an act was passed +ordering all clergy to subscribe to them. They have remained unchanged +ever since, though the terms of subscription have been modified. + +An attempt was made to add nine articles of a strong Calvinistic tone, +which were drawn up by Dr Whitaker, regius professor of divinity at +Cambridge, and submitted to Archbishop Whitgift. They were rejected both +by Queen Elizabeth, and, after the Hampton Court Conference petitioned +about them, by King James I. + +The first Scottish confession dates from 1560. It is a memorial of the +intellectual power and enthusiasm of John Knox. It exhibits the leading +features of the Reformed theology, but "disclaims Divine authority for +any fixed form of church government or worship." It also asks that "if +anyone shall note in this our confession any articles or sentence +repugnant of God's Holy Word, that it would please him of his gentleness +and for Christian charity's sake, to admonish of the same in writing," +promising that if the teaching cannot be proved, to reform it. Between +this and the Westminster Confession must be noted the first Baptist +confession, published in Amsterdam in 1611. It shows the influence of +Arminian theology against Calvinism, which was vigorously upheld in the +_Quin-particular_ formula, put forward by the synod of Dort in 1619 to +uphold the five points of Calvinism, after heated discussion, in which +English delegates took part, of the problems of divine omniscience and +human free-will. + + + Westminster Confession. + +5. _The Westminster Confession_ (1648), with its two catechisms, is +perhaps the ablest of the reformed confessions from the standpoint of +Calvinism. Its keynote is sovereignty. "The Decrees of God are His +eternal Purpose according to the Counsel of His Will, whereby for His +Own Glory He hath foreordained whatsoever comes to pass." Man's part is +to accept them with submission. As the Anglican divines soon ceased to +attend the assembly, and the Independents were few in number, it was the +work of Presbyterians only, the Scottish members carrying their proposal +to make it an independent document and not a mere revision of the +Thirty-nine Articles. After discussions lasting for two years it was +debated in parliament, finished on the 22nd of March 1648, and was +adopted by the Scottish parliament in the following year. It is the only +confession which has been imposed by authority of parliament on the +whole of the United Kingdom. This lasted in England for ten years. In +Scotland its influence has continued to the present day, contributing +not a little to mould the high qualities of religious insight and +courage and perseverance which have honourably distinguished Scottish +Presbyterians all the world over. This was the last great effort in +constructive theology of the Reformation period. When Cromwell before +his death in 1658 allowed a conference to prepare a new confession of +faith for the whole commonwealth, the Westminster Confession was +accepted as a whole with an added statement on church order and +discipline. We must note, however, that the Baptist divines who were +excluded from the Westminster Assembly issued a declaration of their +principles under the title, "A Confession of Faith of seven +Congregations or Churches in London which are commonly but unjustly +called Anabaptists, for the Vindication of the Truth and Information of +the Ignorant." + +Two other declarations may be quoted to show how necessary such +confessions are even to religious societies which refuse to be bound by +them. In 1675 Robert Barclay published an "Apology for the Society of +Friends," in which he declared what they held concerning revelation, +scripture, the fall, redemption, the inward light, freedom of +conscience. + +In 1833 the Congregational Union published a Declaration or Confession +of Faith, Church Order and Discipline. It was prepared by Dr George +Redford of Worcester, and was presented, not as a scholastic or critical +confession of faith, but merely such a statement as any intelligent +member of the body might offer as containing its leading principles. It +deals with the Bible as the final appeal in controversy, the doctrines +of God, man, sin, the Incarnation, the Resurrection of our Lord Jesus +Christ, "both the Son of man and the Son of God," the work of the Holy +Spirit, justification by faith, the perpetual obligation of Baptism and +the Lord's Supper, final judgment, the law of Christian fellowship. The +same principles have been lucidly stated in the Evangelical Free Church +catechism. + + + Greek church. + +6. _Confessions in the Eastern Orthodox Church._--The Eastern Church has +no general doctrinal tests beyond the Nicene Creed, but from time to +time synods have approved expositions of the faith such as the +Athanasian Creed (without the words "And the Son"), and the Orthodox +Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic Eastern Church. This was the +work of Petrus Mogilas, metropolitan of Kiev, and other theologians. It +was written in 1640 in Russian, was translated into Greek, and approved +by the council of Jassy and the patriarchs of Constantinople, +Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. It was affirmed by the council of +Jerusalem in 1672, which also affirmed the Confession of Dositheus, +patriarch of Jerusalem. Both of these confessions were drawn up to +confute the teaching of a remarkable man who had been patriarch of +Constantinople, Cyril Lucar. He was a student of Western theology, a +correspondent of Archbishop Laud, and had travelled in Germany and +Switzerland. In 1629 he published a confession in which he attempted to +incorporate ideas of the reformers while preserving the leading ideas of +Eastern traditional theology. The controversy chiefly turned on the +question of the necessity of episcopacy. Dositheus taught that the +existence of bishops is as necessary to the Church as "breath to a man +and the sun to the world." Christ is the universal and perpetual Head of +the Church, but he exercises his rule by means of "the holy Fathers," +that is, the bishops whom the Holy Ghost has appointed to be in charge +of local churches. + +Mention may also be made of the longer catechism of the Orthodox +Catholic Church compiled by Philaret, metropolitan of Moscow, revised +and adopted by the Russian Holy Synod in 1839. The Church is defined as +"a divinely-instituted community of men, united by the orthodox faith, +the law of God, the hierarchy and the sacraments." + + + Roman Catholic. + +7. _Roman Catholic Formularies._--For our present purpose the distinctive +features of Roman Catholicism may be said to be summed up in the decrees +of the council of Trent and the creed of Pope Pius IV. The council sat at +intervals from 1545-1563, but there was a marked divergence between the +opinions advocated by prominent members of the council and its final +decrees. Cardinal Pole had to leave the council because he advocated the +doctrine of justification by faith. Even at the later sessions the +cardinal of Lorraine with the French prelates supported the German +representatives in requests for the cup for the laity, the permission of +the marriage of priests, and the revision of the breviary. Finally the +decisions of the council were promulgated in a declaration of XII. +articles, usually called the Creed of Pius IV., which reaffirmed the +Nicene Creed, and dealt with the preservation of the apostolic and +ecclesiastical traditions, the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures +"according to the sense which our Holy Mother Church has held," the seven +sacraments, the offering of the mass, transubstantiation, purgatory, the +veneration of saints, relics, images, the efficacy of indulgences, the +supremacy of the Roman Church and of the bishop of Rome as vicar of +Christ. To this summary of doctrine should be added the dogmas of the +immaculate conception of the Blessed Virgin declared in 1854, and of +papal infallibility decreed by the Vatican council of 1870. + +_Conclusion._--In this survey of Christian confessions it has been +impossible to do more than barely name many which deserve discussion. +This is a subject which has grown in importance and is likely to grow +further. The very intensity of that phase of modern thought which +declaims fervently against all creeds, and would maintain what George +Eliot called "the right of the individual to general haziness," is +likely to draw all Christian thinkers nearer to one another in sympathy +through acceptance of the Apostles' Creed as the common basis of +Christian thought. In the words of Hilary of Poitiers, "Faith gathers +strength through opposition." + +The question at once arises. Can the simple historic faith be maintained +without adding theological interpretations, those arid wastes of dogma +in which the springs of faith and reverence run dry? The answer is No. +We cannot ask to be as if through nineteen centuries no one had ever +asked a question about the relation of the Lord Jesus Christ to the +Father and the Holy Spirit. If we could come back to the Bible and use +biblical terms only, as Cyril of Jerusalem wished in his early days, we +know from experience that the old errors would reappear in the form of +new questions, and that we should have to pass through the dreary +wilderness of controversy from implicit to explicit dogma, from "I +believe that Jesus is the Lord" to the confession that the Only Begotten +Son is "of one substance with the Father." In the words of Hilary again: + + "Faithful souls would be contented with the word of God which bids us: + 'Go teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of + the Son and of the Holy Ghost.' But also we are drawn by the faults of + our heretical opponents to do things unlawful, to scale heights + inaccessible, to speak out what is unspeakable, to presume where we + ought not. And whereas it is by faith alone that we should worship the + Father and reverence the Son, and be filled with the Spirit, we are + now obliged to strain our weak human language in the utterance of + things beyond its scope; forced into this evil procedure by the evil + procedure of our foes. Hence what should be matter of silent religious + meditation must now needs be imperilled by exposition in words." + +The province of reverent theology is to aid accurate thinking by the use +of metaphysical or psychological terms. Its definitions are no more an +end in themselves than an analysis of good drinking water, which by +itself leaves us thirsty but encourages us to drink. So the Nicene Creed +is the analysis of the river of the water of life of which the Sermon on +the Mount is a description, flowing on from age to age, freely offered +to the thirsty souls of men. + +This justification of the ancient creeds carries with it the +justification of later confessions so far as they answered questions +which would be fatal to religion if they were not answered. As Principal +Stewart puts it very clearly: "The answer given is based on the +philosophy or science of the period. It does not necessarily form part +of the religion itself, but is the best which with the materials at its +command, in its own defence and in its love for truth, the religion (and +its advocates) can give. But the answers may be superseded by better +answers, or they may be rendered unnecessary because the questions are +no longer asked. Thus the Calvinism of the 16th and 17th centuries +elaborated answers to questions, which if no attempt had been made to +answer them, would have perplexed earnest souls and condemned the +system; but many parts of the system are now obsolete, because the +conditions which suggested the questions which they sought to answer no +longer exist or have no longer any interest or importance." + + LITERATURE.--See J. Pearson, _Exposition of the Creed_ (new ed., + 1849); A. E. Burn, _Introduction to the Creeds_ (1899), and _The + Athanasian Creed_ in vol. iv. of _Texts and Studies_ (1896); H. B. + Swete, _The Apostles' Creed_ (1899); F. Kattenbusch, _Das apostolische + Symbol_ (1894-1900); C. A. Heurtley, _Harmonia Symbolica_ (1858): C. + P. Caspari, _Quellen zur Geschichte des Taufsymbols und der + Glaubensregel_ (Christiania, 1866); and _Alte und neue Quellen_ + (1879). T. Zahn, _Das apostolische Symbolum_ (1893); C. A. Swainson, + _The Nicene and Apostles' Creed_ (1875); G. D. W. Ommanney, _The + Athanasian Creed_ (1897); B. F. Westcott, _The Historic Faith_ (1882); + J. Jayne, _The Athanasian Creed_ (1905); J. A. Robinson, _The + Athanasian Creed_ (1905); E. C. S. Gibson, _The Three Creeds_ (1908); + F. J. A. Hort, _Two Dissertations_ (1876); D. Waterland, _Crit. Hist._ + edited by E. King (Oxford, 1870); F. Loofs and A. Harnack articles in + Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ ("Athanasianum" and + "Konstantino-politanisches Symbol") (1896), &c.; K. Kunstle, + _Antipriscilliana_ (Freiburg i. B., 1905); A. Stewart, _Croall + Lectures_ (in the press); S. G. Green, _The Christian Creed_ (1898); + P. Hall, _Harmony of Protestant Confessions_ (London, 1842); F. + Kattenbusch, _Confessionskunde_ (Freiburg i. B., 1890); Winex's + _Confessions of Christendom_ (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1865); A. + Seeberg, _Der Katechismus der Urchristenheit_ (Leipzig, 1903); F. + Wiegand, _Die Stellung des apostolischen Symbols_ (Leipzig, 1899); H. + Goodwin, _The Foundations of the Creed_ (London, 1889); T. H. Bindley, + _The Oecumenical Documents of the Faith_ (London, 1906); J. Kunze, + _Das nicanisch-konstantinopolitanische Symbol_; S. Baeumer, _Das + apostolische Glaubensbekenntnis_ (Mainz, 1893); B. Doxholt, _Das + Taufsymbol. der alten Kirche_ (Paderborn, 1898); L. Hahn, _Bibliothek + der Symbole u. Glaubensregeln_ (Breslau, 1897); A. C. McGiffert, _The + Apostles' Creed_ (Edinburgh, 1902); and F. Loofs, _Symbolik_ (Leipzig, + 1902). (A. E. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Jevons, _Introd. to the History of Religion_, p. 394. + + [2] _Sacred Books of the East_, xxxi. + + [3] _Personality, Human and Divine_ (cheap edition), p. 36. + + [4] Ib. p. 38. + + [5] _Der Katechismus der Urchristenheit_, p. 85. Zahn's reasoned + argument stands in contrast to the blind reliance on tradition shown + by Macdonald, _The Symbol of the Apostles_, and the fanciful + reconstruction of the primitive creed by Baeumer, Harnack or Seeberg. + + [6] McGiffert, on the other hand, argues that the Roman Creed was + composed to meet the errors of Marcion, p. 58 ff. He omits, however, + to mention this, which is Zahn's strongest argument. + + [7] It is probable that "one" has dropped out of the first clause. + Zahn acutely suggests that it was omitted in the time of Zephyrinus + to counteract Monarchian teaching such as the formula: "believe in + one God, Jesus Christ." + + [8] _Anecdota Maredsolana_, iii. iii. p. 199. + + [9] Dorholt has shown that Petavius (d. 1652) was the first to remark + that the so-called Constantinopolitan form was quoted by Epiphanius + before the Council met, but was not able to explain the fact. + + [10] Burn, "Note on the Old Latin text," _Journal of Theol. Studies._ + + [11] e.g. Cod. Escurial J.c. 12, _saec._ x. xi. In Cod. Matritensis, + p. 21 (1872), _saec._ x. xi., and Cod. Matritensis 10041 (begun in + the year A.D. 948), the words are omitted under the heading council of + Constantinople but inserted under the heading council of Toledo, in + the former MS., above the line and in a later hand, which shows + conclusively how the interpolation crept in. + + [12] The first person who doubted the authorship seems to have been + Joachim Camerarius, 1551, who was so fiercely attacked in consequence + that he omitted the passage from his Latin edition. _Zeitschrift fur + K.G._ x. (1889), p. 497. + + [13] In response to an invitation issued by the archbishop of + Canterbury, acting on a resolution of the Lambeth Conference of 1908, + a committee of eminent scholars met in April and May 1909 for the + purpose of preparing a new translation. Their report, issued on the + 18th of October, stated that they had "endeavoured to represent the + Latin original more exactly in a large number of cases." The general + effect of the new version is to make the creed more comprehensible, + e.g. by the substitution of "infinite" and "reasoning" for such + archaisms as "incomprehensible" and "reasonable." The sense of the + damnatory clauses has, however, not been weakened. [Ed.] + + [14] Illingworth, _Personality, Human and Divine_, p. 40. + + [15] _The Christian Creed and the Creeds of Christendom_, p. 181. + + [16] Gibson, _The Thirty-nine Articles_, p. 2. + + + + +CREEK (Mid. Eng. _crike_ or _creke_, common to many N. European +languages), a small inlet on a low coast, an inlet in a river formed by +the mouth of a small stream, a shallow narrow harbour for small vessels. +In America and Australia especially there are many long streams which +can be everywhere forded and sometimes dry up, and are navigable only at +their tidal estuaries, mere brooks in width which are of great economic +importance. They form complete river-systems, and are the only supply of +surface water over many thousand square miles. They are at some seasons +a mere chain of "water-holes," but occasionally they are strongly +flooded. Since exploration began at the coast and advanced inland, it is +probable that the explorers, advancing up the narrow inlets or "creeks," +used the same word for the streams which flowed into these as they +followed their courses upward into the country. The early settlers would +use the same word for that portion of the stream which flowed through +their own land, and in Australia particularly the word has the same +local meaning as brook in England. On a map the whole system is called a +river, e.g. the river Wakefield in South Australia gives its name to +Port Wakefield, but the stream is always locally called "the creek." + + + + +CREEK or MUSKOGEE (MUSCOGEE) INDIANS (Algonquin _maskoki_, "creeks," in +reference to the many creeks and rivulets running through their +country), a confederacy of North American Indians, who formerly occupied +most of Alabama and Georgia. The confederacy seems to have been in +existence in 1540, and then included the Muskogee, the ruling tribe, +whose language was generally spoken, the Alabama, the Hichiti, Koasati +and others of the Muskogean stock, with the Yuchi and the Natchez, a +large number of Shawano and the Seminoles of Florida as a branch. The +Creeks were agriculturists living in villages of log houses. They were +brave fighters, but during the 18th century only had one struggle, of +little importance, with the settlers. The Creek War of 1813-14 was, +however, serious. The confederacy was completely defeated in three +hard-fought battles, and the peace treaty which followed involved the +cession to the United States government of most of the Creek country. In +the Civil War the Creeks were divided in their allegiance and suffered +heavily in the campaigns. The so-called Creek nation is now settled in +Oklahoma, but independent government virtually ceased in 1906. In 1904 +they numbered some 16,000, some two-thirds being of pure or mixed Creek +blood. + + + + +CREETOWN, a seaport of Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 991. It +is situated near the head of Wigtown Bay, 18 m. W. of Castle Douglas, +but 23-1/2 m. by the Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Railway. The granite +quarries in the vicinity constitute the leading industry, the stone for +the Liverpool docks and other public works having been obtained from +them. The village dates from 1785, and it became a burgh of barony in +1792. Sir Walter Scott laid part of the scene of _Guy Mannering_ in this +neighbourhood. Dr Thomas Brown, the metaphysician (1778-1820), was a +native of the parish (Kirkmabreck) in which Creetown lies. + + + + +CREEVEY, THOMAS (1768-1838), English politician, son of William Creevey, +a Liverpool merchant, was born in that city in March 1768. He went to +Queen's College, Cambridge, and graduated as seventh wrangler in 1789. +The same year he became a student at the Inner Temple, and was called to +the bar in 1794. In 1802 he entered parliament through the duke of +Norfolk's nomination as member for Thetford, and married a widow with +six children, Mrs Ord, who had a life interest in a comfortable income. +Creevey was a Whig and a follower of Fox, and his active intellect and +social qualities procured him a considerable intimacy with the leaders +of this political circle. In 1806, when the brief "All the Talents" +ministry was formed, he was given the office of secretary to the Board +of Control; in 1830, when next his party came into power, Creevey, who +had lost his seat in parliament, was appointed by Lord Grey treasurer of +the ordnance; and subsequently Lord Melbourne made him treasurer of +Greenwich hospital. After 1818, when his wife died, he had very slender +means of his own, but he was popular with his friends and was well +looked after by them; Greville, writing of him in 1829, remarks that +"old Creevey is a living proof that a man may be perfectly happy and +exceedingly poor. I think he is the only man I know in society who +possesses nothing." He died in February 1838. He is remembered through +the _Creevey Papers_, published in 1903 under the editorship of Sir +Herbert Maxwell, which, consisting partly of Creevey's own journals and +partly of correspondence, give a lively and valuable picture of the +political and social life of the late Georgian era, and are +characterized by an almost Pepysian outspokenness. They are a useful +addition and correction to the _Croker Papers_, written from a Tory +point of view. For thirty-six years Creevey had kept a "copious diary," +and had preserved a vast miscellaneous correspondence with such people +as Lord Brougham, and his step-daughter, Elizabeth Ord, had assisted +him, by keeping his letters to her, in compiling material avowedly for a +collection of Creevey Papers in the future. At his death it was found +that he had left his mistress, with whom he had lived for four years, +his sole executrix and legatee, and Greville notes in his _Memoirs_ the +anxiety of Brougham and others to get the papers into their hands and +suppress them. The diary, mentioned above, did not survive, perhaps +through Brougham's success, and the papers from which Sir Herbert +Maxwell made his selection came into his hands from Mrs Blackett Ord, +whose husband was the grandson of Creevey's eldest step-daughter. + + + + +CREFELD, or KREFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, +on the left side of and 3 m. distant from the Rhine, 32 m. N.W. from +Cologne, and 15 m. N.W. from Dusseldorf, with which it is connected by a +light electric railway. Pop. (1875) 62,905; (1905) 110,410. The town is +one of the finest in the Rhine provinces, being well and regularly +built, and possessing several handsome squares and attractive public +gardens. A striking point about the inner town is that it forms a large +rectangle, enclosed by four wide boulevards or "walls." This feature, +rare in German towns, is due to the fact that Crefeld was always an +"open place," and that therefore the circular form of a fortress town +could be dispensed with. It has six Roman Catholic and four Evangelical +churches (of which the Gothic Friedenskirche with a lofty spire, and the +modern church of St Joseph, in the Romanesque style, are alone worth +special mention); there are also a Mennonite and an Old Catholic church. +The town hall, decorated with frescoes by P. Janssen (b. 1844), and the +Kaiser Wilhelm Museum are the most noteworthy secular buildings. In the +promenades are monuments to Moltke, Bismarck and Karl Wilhelm, the +composer of the _Wacht am Rhein_. Among the schools and scientific +institutions of the town the most important is the higher grade +technical school for the study of the textile industries, which is +attended by students from all parts of the world. Connected with this +are subsidiary schools, notably one for dyeing and finishing. + +Crefeld is the most important seat of the silk and velvet manufactures +in Germany, and in this industry the larger part of the population of +town and neighbourhood is employed. There are upwards of 12,000 silk +power-looms in operation, and the value of the annual output in this +branch alone is estimated at L3,000,000. A special feature is the +manufacture of silk for covering umbrellas; while of its velvet +manufacture that of velvet ribbon is the chief. The other industries of +the town, notably dyeing, stuff-printing and stamping, are very +considerable, and there are also engineering and machine shops, +chemical, cellulose, soap, and other factories, breweries, distilleries +and tanneries. The surrounding fertile district is almost entirely laid +out in market gardens. Crefeld is an important railway centre, and has +direct communication with Cologne, Rheydt, Munchen-Gladbach and Holland +(via Zevenaar). + +Crefeld is first mentioned in records of the 12th century. From the +emperor Charles IV. it received market rights in 1361 and the status of +a town in 1373. It belonged to the counts of Mors, and was annexed to +Prussia, with the countship, in 1702. It remained a place of little +importance until the 17th century, when religious persecution drove to +it a number of Calvinists and Separatists from Julich and Berg (followed +later by Mennonites), who introduced the manufacture of linen. The +number of such immigrants still further increased in the 18th century, +when, the silk industry having been introduced from Holland, the town +rapidly developed. The French occupation in 1795 and the resulting +restriction of trade weighed for a while heavily upon the new industry; +but with the termination of the war and the re-establishment of Prussian +rule the old prosperity returned. + + + + +CREIGHTON, MANDELL (1843-1901), English historian and bishop of London, +was born at Carlisle on the 5th of July 1843, being the eldest son of +Robert Creighton, a well-to-do upholsterer of that city. He was educated +at Durham grammar school and at Merton College, Oxford, where he was +elected to a postmastership in 1862. He obtained a first-class in +_literae humaniores_, and a second in law and modern history in 1866. In +the same year he became tutor and fellow of Merton. He was ordained +deacon, on his fellowship, in 1870, and priest in 1873; in 1872 he had +married Louise, daughter of Robert von Glehn, a London merchant (herself +a writer of several successful books of history). Meanwhile he had +published several small historical works; but his college and university +duties left little time for writing, and in 1875 he accepted the +vicarage of Embleton, a parish on the coast of Northumberland, near +Dunstanburgh, with an ancient and beautiful church and a fortified +parsonage house, and within reach of the fine library in Bamburgh Keep. +Here he remained for nearly ten years, acquiring that experience of +parochial work which afterwards stood him in good stead, taking private +pupils, studying and writing, as well as taking an active part in +diocesan business. Here too he planned and wrote the first two volumes +of his chief historical work, the _History of the Papacy_; and it was in +part this which led to his being elected in 1884 to the newly-founded +Dixie professorship of ecclesiastical history at Cambridge, where he +went into residence early in 1885. At Cambridge his influence at once +made itself felt, especially in the reorganization of the historical +school. His lectures and conversation classes were extraordinarily good, +possessing as he did the rare gift of kindling the enthusiasm without +curbing the individuality of his pupils. In 1886 he combined with other +leading historians to found the _English Historical Review_, of which he +was editor for five years. Meanwhile the vacations were spent at +Worcester, where he had been nominated a canon residentiary in 1885. In +1891 he was made canon of Windsor; but he never went into residence, +being appointed in the same year to the see of Peterborough. He threw +himself with characteristic energy into his new work, visiting, +preaching and lecturing in every part of his diocese. He also found time +to preach and lecture elsewhere, and to deliver remarkable speeches at +social functions; he worked hard with Archbishop Benson on the Parish +Councils Bill (1894); he became the first president of the Church +Historical Society (1894), and continued in that office till his death; +he took part in the Laud Commemoration (1895); he represented the +English Church at the coronation of the tsar (1896). He even found time +for academical work, delivering the Hulsean lectures (1893-1894) and the +Rede lecture (1894) at Cambridge, and the Romanes lecture at Oxford +(1896). + +In 1897, on the translation of Dr Temple to Canterbury, Bishop Creighton +was transferred to London. During Dr Temple's episcopate ritual +irregularities of all kinds had grown up, which left a very difficult +task to his successor, more especially in view of the growing public +agitation on the subject, of which he had to bear the brunt. As was only +natural, his studied fairness did not satisfy partisans on either side; +and his efforts towards conciliation laid him open to much +misunderstanding. His administration, none the less, did much to preserve +peace. He strained every nerve to induce his clergy to accept his ruling +on the questions of the reservation of the Sacrament and of the +ceremonial use of incense in accordance with the archbishop's judgment in +the Lincoln case; but when, during his last illness, a prosecutor brought +proceedings against the clergy of five recalcitrant churches, the bishop, +on the advice of his archdeacons, interposed his veto. One other effort +on behalf of peace may be mentioned. In accordance with a vote of the +diocesan conference, the bishop arranged the "Round Table Conference" +between representative members of various parties, held at Fulham in +October 1900, on "the doctrine of the Holy Eucharist and its expression +in ritual," and a report of its proceedings was published with a preface +by him. The true work of his episcopate was, however, positive, not +negative. He was an excellent administrator; and his wide knowledge, +broad sympathies, and sound common sense, though they placed him outside +the point of view common to most of his clergy, made him an invaluable +guide in correcting their too often indiscreet zeal. He fully realized +the special position of the English Church in Christendom, and firmly +maintained its essential teaching. Yet he was no narrow Anglican. His +love for the English Church never blinded him to its faults, and no man +was less insular than he. As he was a historian before he became a +bishop, so it was his historical sense which determined his general +attitude as a bishop. It was this, together with a certain native taste +for ecclesiastical pomp, which made him--while condemning the +unhistorical extravagances of the ultra-ritualists--himself a ritualist. +He was the first bishop of London, since the Reformation, to +"pontificate" in a mitre as well as the cope, and though no man could +have been less essentially "sacerdotal" he was always careful of correct +ceremonial usage. His interests and his sympathies, however, extended far +beyond the limits of the church. He took a foremost part in almost every +good work in his diocese, social or educational, political or religious; +while he found time also to cultivate friendly relations with thinking +men and women of all schools, and to help all and sundry who came to him +for advice and assistance. It was this multiplicity of activities and +interests that proved fatal to him. By degrees the work, and especially +the routine work, began to tell on him. He fell seriously ill in the late +summer of 1900, and died on the 14th of January 1901. He was buried in St +Paul's cathedral, where a statue surmounts his tomb. + +He was a man of striking presence and distinguished by a fine courtesy +of manner. His irrepressible and often daring humour, together with his +frank distaste for much conventional religious phraseology, was a +stumbling-block to some pious people. But beneath it all lay a deep +seriousness of purpose and a firm faith in what to him were the +fundamental truths of religion. + +Bishop Creighton's principal published works are: _History of the Papacy +during the Period of the Reformation_ (5 vols., 1882-1897, new ed.); +_History of the Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack of Rome_ (6 +vols., 1897); _The Early Renaissance in England_ (1895); _Cardinal +Wolsey_ (1895); _Life of Simon de Montfort_ (1876, new ed. 1895); _Queen +Elizabeth_ (1896). He also edited the series of _Epochs of English +History_, for which he wrote "The Age of Elizabeth" (13th ed., 1897); +_Historical Lectures and Addresses by Mandell Creighton, &c._, edited by +Mrs Creighton, were published in 1903. + + See _Life and Letters of Mandell Creighton, &c._, by his wife (2 + vols., 1904); and the article "Creighton and Stubbs" in _Church + Quarterly Review_ for Oct. 1905. + + + + +CREIL, a town of northern France, in the department of Oise, 32 m. N. of +Paris on the Northern railway, on which it is an important junction. +Pop. (1906) 9234. The town is situated on the Oise, on which it has a +busy port. The manufacture of machinery, heavy iron goods and nails, and +copper and iron founding, are important industries, and there are +important metallurgical and engineering works at Montataire, about 2 m. +distant; bricks and tiles and glass are also manufactured, and the +Northern railway has workshops here. The church (12th to 15th centuries) +is in the Gothic style. There are some traces of a castle in which +Charles VI. resided during the period of his madness. Creil played a +part of some importance in the wars of the 14th, 15th and 16th +centuries. + + + + +CRELL (or KRELL), NICHOLAS (c. 1551-1601), chancellor of the elector of +Saxony, was born at Leipzig, and educated at the university of his native +town. About 1580 he entered the service of Christian, the eldest son of +Augustus I., elector of Saxony, and when Christian succeeded his father +as elector in 1586, became his most influential counsellor. Crell's +religious views were Calvinistic or Crypto-Calvinistic, and both before +and after his appointment as chancellor in 1589 he sought to substitute +his own form of faith for the Lutheranism which was the accepted religion +of electoral Saxony. Calvinists were appointed to many important +ecclesiastical and educational offices; a translation of the Bible with +Calvinistic annotations was brought out; and other measures were taken by +Crell to attain his end. In foreign politics, also, he sought to change +the traditional policy of Saxony, acting in unison with John Casimir, +administrator of the Rhenish Palatinate, and promising assistance to +Henry IV. of France. These proceedings, coupled with the jealousy felt at +Crell's high position and autocratic conduct, made the chancellor very +unpopular, and when the elector died in October 1591 he was deprived of +his offices and thrown into prison by order of Frederick William, duke of +Saxe-Altenburg, the regent for the young elector Christian II. His trial +was delayed until 1595, and then, owing partly to the interference of the +imperial court of justice (_Reichskammergericht_), dragged on for six +years. At length it was referred by the emperor Rudolph II. to a court +of appeal at Prague, and sentence of death was passed. This was carried +out at Dresden on the 9th of October 1601. + + See A. V. Richard, _Der kurfurstliche sachsische Kanzler Dr Nicolaus + Krell_ (Frankfort, 1860); B. Bohnenstadt, _Das Prozessverfahren gegen + den kursachsischen Kanzler Dr Nikolaus Krell_ (Halle, 1901); F. + Brandes, _Der Kanzler Krell, ein Opfer des Orthodoxismus_ (Leipzig, + 1873); and E. L. T. Henke, _Caspar Peucer und Nicolaus Krell_ + (Marburg, 1865). + + + + +CREMA, a town and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of +Cremona, 26 m. N.E. by rail from the town of Cremona. Pop. (1901) town, +8027; commune, 9609. It is situated on the right bank of the Serio, 240 +ft. above sea-level, in the centre of a rich agricultural district. The +cathedral has a fine Lombard Gothic facade of the second half of the +14th century; the campanile belongs to the same period; the rest of the +church has been restored in the baroque style. The clock tower opposite +dates from the period of Venetian dominion in the 16th and 17th +centuries. The castle, which was one of the strongest in Italy, was +demolished in 1809. The church of S. Maria, 3/4 m. E. of the town, was +begun in 1490 by Giov. Batt. Battaggio; it is in the form of a Greek +cross, with a central dome, and the exterior is a fine specimen of +polychrome Lombard work (E. Gussalli in _Rassegna d' arte_, 1905, p. +17). + +The date of the foundation of Crema is uncertain. In the 10th century it +appears to have been the principal place of the territory known as Isola +Fulcheria. In the 12th century it was allied with Milan and attacked by +Cremona, but was taken and sacked by Barbarossa in 1160. It was rebuilt +in 1185. It fell under the Visconti in 1338, and joined the Lombard +republic in 1447; but was taken by the Venetians in 1449, and, except +from 1509 to 1529, remained under their dominion until 1797. + + + + +CREMATION (Lat. _cremare_, to burn), the burning of human corpses. This +method of disposal of the dead may be said to have been the general +practice of the ancient world, with the important exceptions of Egypt, +where bodies were embalmed, Judaea, where they were buried in +sepulchres, and China, where they were buried in the earth. In Greece, +for instance, so well ascertained was the law that only suicides, +unteethed children, and persons struck by lightning were denied the +right to be burned. At Rome, one of the XII. Tables said, "Hominem +mortuum in urbe ne sepelito, neve urito"; and in fact, from the close of +the republic to the end of the 4th Christian century, burning on the +pyre or rogus was the general rule.[1] Whether in any of these cases +cremation was adopted or rejected for sanitary or for superstitious +reasons, it is difficult to say. Embalming would probably not succeed in +climates less warm and dry than the Egyptian. The scarcity of fuel might +also be a consideration. The Chinese are influenced by the doctrine of +Feng-Shui, or incomprehensible wind water; they must have a properly +placed grave in their own land, and with this view their corpses are +sent home from long distances abroad. Even the Jews used cremation in +the vale of Tophet when a plague came; and the modern Jews of Berlin and +the Spanish and Portuguese Jews at Mile End cemetery were among the +first to welcome the lately revived process. Probably also, some nations +had religious objections to the pollution of the sacred principle of +fire, and therefore practised exposure, suspension, throwing into the +sea, cave-burial, desiccation or envelopment.[2] Some at least of these +methods must obviously have been suggested simply by the readiest means +at hand. Cremation is still practised over a great part of Asia and +America, but not always in the same form. Thus, the ashes may be stored +in urns, or buried in the earth, or thrown to the wind, or (as among the +Digger Indians) smeared with gum on the heads of the mourners. In one +case the three processes of embalming, burning and burying are gone +through; and in another, if a member of the tribe die at a great +distance from home, some of his money and clothes are nevertheless +burned by the family. As food, weapons, &c., are sometimes buried with +the body, so they are sometimes burned with the body, the whole ashes +being collected.[3] The Siamese have a singular institution, according +to which, before burning, the embalmed body lies in a temple for a +period determined by the rank of the dead man,--the king for six months, +and so downwards. If the poor relatives cannot afford fuel and the other +necessary preparations, they bury the body, but exhume it for burning +when an opportunity occurs. + +There can be little doubt that the practice of cremation in modern +Europe was at first stopped, and has since been prevented in great +measure, by the Christian doctrine of the resurrection of the body; +partly also by the notion that the Christian's body was redeemed and +purified.[4] Some clergymen, however, as the late Mr Haweis in his +_Ashes to Ashes, a Cremation Prelude_ (London, 1874), have been +prominent in favour of cremation. The objection of the clergy was +disposed of by the philanthropist Lord Shaftesbury when he asked, "What +would in such a case become of the blessed martyrs?" The very general +practice of burying bodies in the precincts of a church in order that +the dead might take benefit from the prayers of persons resorting to the +church, and the religious ceremony which precedes both European burials +and Asiatic cremations, have given the question a religious aspect. It +is, however, in the ultimate resort, really a sanitary one. The +disgusting results of pit-burial made cemeteries necessary. But +cemeteries are equally liable to overcrowding, and are often nearer to +inhabited houses than the old churchyards. It is possible, no doubt, to +make a cemetery safe approximately by selecting a soil which is dry, +close and porous, by careful drainage, and by rigid enforcement of the +rules prescribing a certain depth (8 to 10 ft.) and a certain +superficies (4 yds.) for graves. But a great mass of sanitary objections +may be brought against even recent cemeteries in various countries. A +dense clay, the best soil for preventing the levitation of gas, is the +worst for the process of decomposition. The danger is strikingly +illustrated in the careful planting of trees and shrubs to absorb the +carbonic acid. Vault-burial in metallic coffins, even when sawdust +charcoal is used, is still more dangerous than ordinary burial. It must +also be remembered that the cemetery system can only be temporary. The +soil is gradually filled with bones; houses crowd round; the law itself +permits the reopening of graves at the expiry of fourteen years. We +shall not, indeed, as Browne says, "be knaved out of our graves to have +our skulls made drinking bowls and our bones turned into pipes!" But on +this ground of sentiment cremation would certainly prevent any +interruption of that "sweet sleep and calm rest" which the old prayer +that the earth might lie lightly has associated with the grave. And in +the meantime we should escape the horror of putrefaction and of the +"small cold worm that fretteth the enshrouded form." + +In Europe Christian burial was long associated entirely with the +ordinary practice of committing the corpse to the grave. But in the +middle of the 19th century many distinguished physicians and chemists, +especially in Italy, began prominently to advocate cremation. In 1874, a +congress called to consider the matter at Milan resolved to petition the +Chamber of Deputies for a clause in the new sanitary code, permitting +cremation under the supervision of the syndics of the commune. In +Switzerland Dr Vegmann Ercolani was the champion of the cause (see his +_Cremation the most Rational Method of Disposing of the Dead_, 4th ed., +Zurich, 1874). So long ago as 1797 cremation was seriously discussed by +the French Assembly under the Directory, and the events of the +Franco-Prussian War again brought the subject under the notice of the +medical press and the sanitary authorities. The military experiments at +Sedan, Chalons and Metz, of burying large numbers of bodies with +quicklime, or pitch and straw, were not successful, but very dangerous. +The matter was considered by the municipal council of Paris in connexion +with the new cemetery at Mery-sur-Oise; and the prefect of the Seine in +1874 sent a circular asking information to all the cremation societies +in Europe. In Britain the subject had slumbered for two centuries, since +in 1658 Sir Thomas Browne published his quaint _Hydriotaphia, or +Urn-burial_, which was mainly founded on the _De funere Romanorum_ of +the learned Kirchmannus. In 1817 Dr J. Jamieson gave a sketch of the +"Origin of Cremation" (_Proc. Royal Soc. Edin._, 1817), and for many +years prior to 1874 Dr Lord, medical officer of health for Hampstead, +continued to urge the practical necessity for the introduction of the +system. + +It was Sir Henry Thompson, however, who first brought the question +prominently before the public. Thompson's problem was--"Given a dead +body, to resolve it into carbonic acid, water and ammonia, rapidly, +safely and not unpleasantly." To solve this problem, experiments were +made by Dr Polli at the Milan gas works, fully described in Dr Pietra +Santa's book, _La Cremation des morts en France et a l'etranger_, and by +Professor Brunetti, who exhibited an apparatus at the Vienna Exhibition +of 1873, and who stated his results in _La Cremazione dei cadaveri_ +(Padua, 1873). Polli obtained complete incineration or calcination of +dogs by the use of coal-gas mixed with atmospheric air, applied to a +cylindrical retort of refracting clay, so as to consume the gaseous +products of combustion. The process was complete in two hours, and the +ashes weighed about 5% of the weight before cremation. Brunetti used an +oblong furnace of refracting brick with side-doors to regulate the +draught, and above a cast-iron dome with movable shutters. The body was +placed on a metallic plate suspended on iron wire. The gas generated +escaped by the shutters, and in two hours carbonization was complete. +The heat was then raised and concentrated, and at the end of four hours +the operation was over; 180 lb. of wood costing 2s. 4d. sterling was +burned. In a reverberating furnace used by Sir Henry Thompson a body, +weighing 144 lb., was reduced in fifty minutes to about 4 lb. of lime +dust. The noxious gases, which were undoubtedly produced during the +first five minutes of combustion, passed through a flue into a second +furnace and were entirely consumed. In the ordinary Siemens regenerative +furnace (which was adapted by Reclam in Germany for cremation, and also +by Sir Henry Thompson) only the hot-blast was used, the body supplying +hydrogen and carbon; or a stream of heated hydrocarbon mixed with heated +air was sent from a gasometer supplied with coal, charcoal, peat or +wood,--the brick or iron-cased chamber being thus heated to a high +degree before cremation begins. + +Steps were at once taken to form an English society to promote the +practice of cremation. A declaration of its objects was drawn up and +signed on the 13th January 1874 by the following persons--Shirley +Brooks, William Eassie, Ernest Hart, the Rev. H. R. Haweis, G. H. +Hawkins, John Cordy Jeaffreson, F. Lehmann, C. F. Lord, W. Shaen, A. +Strahan, (Sir) Henry Thompson, Major Vaughan, Rev. C. Voysey and (Sir) +T. Spencer Wells; and they frequently met to consider the necessary +steps in order to attain their object. The laws and regulations having +been thoroughly discussed, the membership of the society was constituted +by an annual contribution for expenses, and a subscription to the +following declaration:-- + + "We disapprove the present custom of burying the dead, and desire to + substitute some mode which shall rapidly resolve the body into its + component elements by a process which cannot offend the living, and + shall render the remains absolutely innocuous. Until some better + method is devised, we desire to adopt that usually known as + cremation." + +Finally, on 29th April a meeting was held, a council was formed, and Sir +H. Thompson was elected president and chairman. Mr Eassie (who in 1875 +published a valuable work on _Cremation of the Dead_) was at the same +time appointed honorary secretary.[5] In 1875 the following were +added:--Mrs Rose Mary Crawshay, Mr Higford Burr, Rev. J. Long, Mr W. +Robinson and the Rev. Brooke Lambert. Subsequently followed Lord +Bramwell, Sir Chas. Cameron, Dr Farquharson, Sir Douglas Galton, Lord +Playfair, Mr Martin Ridley Smith, Mr James A. Budgett, Mr Edmund Yates, +Mr J. S. Fletcher, Mr J. C. Swinburne-Hanham, the duke of Westminster +(on Lord Bramwell's death), and Sir Arthur Arnold. These may be +considered the pioneers of the movement for reform. + +On account of difficulties and prejudices[6] the council was unable to +purchase a freehold until 1878, when an acre was obtained at Woking, not +far distant from the cemetery. At this time the furnace employed by +Professor Gorini of Lodi, Italy, appeared to be the best for working +with on a small scale; and he was invited to visit England to +superintend its erection. This was completed in 1879, and the body of a +horse was cremated rapidly and completely without any smoke or effluvia +from the chimney. No sooner was this successful step taken than the +president received a communication from the Home Office, which resulted +in a personal interview with the home secretary; the issue of which was +that if the society desired to avoid direct hostile action, an assurance +must be given that no cremation should be attempted without leave first +obtained from the minister. This of course was given, no further +building took place, and the society's labours were confined to +employing means to diffuse information on the subject. Sir Spencer Wells +brought it before the annual meeting of the British Medical Association +in 1880, when a petition to the home secretary for permission to adopt +cremation was largely signed by the leading men in town and country, but +without any immediate result. The next important development was an +application to the council in 1882, by Captain Hanham in Dorsetshire, to +undertake the cremation of two deceased relatives who had left express +instructions to that effect. The home secretary was applied to, and +refused. The bodies were preserved, and Captain Hanham erected a +crematorium on his estate, and the cremation took place there. He +himself, dying a year later, was cremated also; in both cases the result +was attained under the supervision of Mr J. C. Swinburne-Hanham, who +succeeded Mr Eassie in 1888 as honorary secretary to the society. The +government took no notice. But in 1883 a cremation was performed in +Wales by a man on the body of his child, and legal proceedings were +taken against him. Mr Justice Stephen, in February 1884, delivered his +well-known judgment at the Assizes there, declaring cremation to be a +legal procedure, provided no nuisance were caused thereby to others. The +council of the society at once declared themselves absolved from their +promise to the Home Office, and publicly offered to perform cremation, +laying down strict rules for careful inquiry into the cause of death in +every case. They stated that they were fully aware that the chief +practical objection to cremation was that it removed traces of poison or +violence which might have caused death. Declining to trust the very +imperfect statement generally made respecting the cause of death in the +ordinary death certificate (unless a coroner's inquest had been held), +they adopted a system of very stringent inquiry, the result of which in +each case was to be submitted to the president, to be investigated and +approved by him before cremation could take place, with the right to +decline or require an inquest if he thought proper; and this course has +been followed ever since the first cremation. + +It was on 26th March 1885 that the first cremation at Woking took place, +the subject being a lady.[7] In 1888 it became necessary, nearly 100 +bodies having been by this date cremated, to build a large hall for +religious service, as well as waiting-rooms, in connexion with the +crematorium there. The dukes of Bedford and Westminster headed the +appeal for funds, each with L105. The former (the 9th duke of Bedford) +especially took great interest in the progress of the society, and +offered to furnish further donations to any extent necessary. During the +next two years he generously defrayed costs to the amount of L3500, and +built a smaller crematorium adjacent for himself and family. The latter +building was first used on the 18th of January 1891, a few days after +the duke's own death. The number of cremations slowly increased year by +year, and the total at the end of 1900 was 1824. Many of these were +persons of distinction--by rank, or by attainments in art, literature +and science, or in public life. + + + Death certification. + +The council next turned their attention to the need for a national system +of death certification, to be enforced by law as an essential and +much-needed reform in connexion with cremation. On the 6th of January 1893 +the duke of Westminster introduced a deputation to the secretary of state +for the home department, Mr Asquith, and the president of the Cremation +Society opened the case, showing that no less than 7% of the burials in +England took place without any certificate, while in some districts it was +far greater. In consequence of this the home secretary appointed a select +committee of the House of Commons, which was presided over by Sir Walter +Foster, of the Local Government Board, to "inquire into the sufficiency of +the existing law as to the disposal of the dead ... and especially for +detecting the causes of death due to poison, violence, and criminal +neglect." After a prolonged inquiry and careful consideration of the +evidence, a full report and conclusions drawn therefrom were unanimously +agreed to, and published as a blue-book in the autumn of 1893.[8] + + The following conclusions are quoted from this volume:--Page iii. "So + far as affording a record of the true cause of death and the detection + of it in cases where death may have been due to violence, poison, or + where criminal neglect is concerned, the class of certified deaths + leaves much to be desired." Page iv. Certification is extremely + important as a deterrent of crime, and numerous proofs are given at + length in support of the statement.... "Contrast this class with that + of uncertified deaths, when the result is such as to force upon your + Committee the conviction that vastly more deaths occur annually from + foul play and criminal neglect than the law recognizes." Page vii. + Great uncertainty in resorting to the coroner's court, and want of + system in connexion with the practice of it, are affirmed to exist. + Page x. It is stated that the opportunity for perpetrating crime is + great in the considerable class of uncertified cases ... "in short, + the existing procedure plays into the hands of the criminal classes." + "Your Committee are much impressed with the serious possibilities + implied in a system which permits death and burial to take place + without the production of satisfactory medical evidence of the cause + of death." Page xii. "Your Committee have arrived at the conclusion + that the appointment of medical officials, who should investigate all + cases of death which are not certified by a medical practitioner in + attendance, is a proposal which deserves their support." + + In considering cremation, the committee reported as follows:--Page + xxii. "Your Committee are of opinion that there is only one question + in connexion with this method of disposing of a dead body to which it + is necessary for them to refer. That question is the supposed danger + to the community arising from the fact that with the destruction of + the body the possibility of obtaining evidence of the cause of death + by _post-mortem_ examination also disappears." The mode of proceeding + adopted by the Cremation Society of England having been described, + "your Committee are of opinion that with the precautions adopted in + connexion with cremation, as carried out by the Cremation Society, + there is little probability that cases of crime would escape + detection, but inasmuch as these precautions are purely voluntary, + your Committee consider that in the interests of public safety such + regulations should be enforced by law." + +The Cremation Society felt that this report much strengthened the case +for legislation amending the law of death certification. In August 1894 +the president of the society laid the results of the select committee +before the British Medical Association at Bristol, and a unanimous vote +was obtained in favour of the suggestions made by it. In November a +second deputation waited on Mr Asquith, in which the president of the +society begged him to carry out the system recommended. The home +secretary replied that the business belonged to the department of the +Local Government Board, and that it was already dealing with the +question and bringing it to a satisfactory solution. Soon afterwards, +however, the government changed, other questions became pressing and +further consideration of the subject was postponed. + + With reference to the recommendations of the select committee before + mentioned, the regulations necessary for registration of death and the + disposal of the dead may be outlined as follows:--(1) That no body + should be buried, cremated, or otherwise disposed of without a medical + certificate of death signed, after personal knowledge and observation, + or by information obtained after investigation made by a qualified + medical officer appointed for the purpose. (2) A qualified medical man + should be appointed as official certifier in every parish, or district + of neighbouring parishes, his duty being to inquire into all cases of + death and report the cause in writing, together with such other + details as may be deemed necessary. This would naturally fall within + the duties of the medical officer of health for the district, and + registration should be made at his office. (3) If the circumstances of + death obviously demand a coroner's inquest, the case should be + transferred to his court and the cause determined, with or without + autopsy. If there appears to be no ground for holding an inquest, and + autopsy be necessary to the furnishing of a certificate, the official + certifier should make it, and state the result in his report. (4) No + person or company should be henceforth permitted to construct or use + an apparatus for cremating human bodies without license from the Local + Government Board or other authority. (5) No crematory should be so + employed unless the site, construction, and system of management have + been approved after survey by an officer appointed by government for + the purpose. But the licence to construct or use a crematory should + not be withheld if guarantees are given that the conditions required + are or will be complied with. All such crematories to be subject at + all times to inspection by an officer appointed by the government. (6) + The burning of a human body, otherwise than in an officially + recognized crematory, should be illegal, and punishable by penalty. + (7) No human body should be cremated unless the official examiner + added the words "Cremation permitted." This he should be bound to do + if, after due inquiry, he can certify that the deceased has died from + natural causes, and not from ill-treatment, poison or violence. + +The Cremation Act 1902 (2 Ed. VII. ch. 8), and the regulations[9] made +thereunder by the home secretary, have since given legislative effect to +some of the foregoing recommendations and have laid down a code of laws +applicable and binding where cremation is resorted to. But the +amendments in the law of death certification generally, so long pressed +for by the Cremation Society of England and recommended by the select +committee, are none the less necessary. + +Undoubtedly in populous communities and in crowded districts the burial +of dead bodies is liable to be a source of danger to the living. As +early as 1840 a commission had been appointed, including some of the +earliest authorities on sanitary science,--namely, Drs Southwood Smith, +Chadwick, Milroy, Sutherland, Waller Lewis and others,--to conduct a +searching inquiry into the state of the burial-grounds of London and +large provincial towns. By the report[10] the existence of such a danger +was strikingly demonstrated, and intramural interments were in +consequence made illegal. The advocates of burial then declared that +interment in certain light soils would safely and efficiently decompose +the putrefying elements which begin to be developed the moment death +takes place, and which rapidly become dangerous to the living, still +more so in the case of deaths from contagious disease. But these light +dry soils and elevated spots are precisely those best adapted for human +habitation; to say nothing of their value for food-production. Granted +the efficiency of such burial, it only effects in the course of a few +years what exposure to a high temperature accomplishes with absolute +safety in an hour. In a densely populated country the struggle between +the claims of the dead and the living to occupy the choicest sites +becomes a serious matter. All decaying animal remains give off +effluvia--gases--which are transferred through the medium of the +atmosphere to become converted into vegetable growth of some +kind--trees, crops, garden produce, grass, &c. Every plant absorbs these +gases by its leaves, each one of which is provided with hundreds of +stomata--open mouths--by which they fix or utilize the carbon to form +woody fibre, and give off free oxygen to the atmosphere. Thus it is that +the air we breathe is kept pure by the constant interaction between the +animal and vegetable kingdoms. It may be taken as certain that the +gaseous products arising from a cremated body--amounting, although +invisible, to no less than 97% of its weight, 3% only remaining as +solids, in the form of a pure white ash--become in the course of a few +hours integral and active elements in some form of vegetable life. The +result of this reasoning has been that, by slow degrees, crematoria have +been constructed at many of the populous cities in Great Britain and +abroad (see _Statistics_ below). + +The subject of employing cremation for the bodies of those who die of +contagious disease is a most important one. Sir H. Thompson advocated +this course in a paper read before the International Congress of Hygiene +held in London in 1891; and a resolution strongly approving the practice +was carried unanimously at a large meeting of experts and medical +officers of health. Such diseases are small-pox, scarlet fever, +diphtheria, consumption, malignant cholera, enteric, relapsing and +puerperal fevers, the annual number of deaths from which in the United +Kingdom is upwards of 80,000. Complete disinfection takes place by means +of the high temperature to which the body is exposed. At the present day +it is compulsory to report any case in the foregoing list, whenever it +occurs, to the medical officer of health for the district; and it is +customary to disinfect the rooms themselves, as well as the clothes and +furniture used by the patient if the case be fatal; but the body, which +is the source and origin of the evil, and is itself loaded with the +germs of a specific poison, is left to the chances which attach to its +preservation in that condition, when buried in a fit or unfit soil or +situation. + +The process of preparing a body for cremation requires a brief notice. +The plan generally adopted is to place it (in the usual shroud) in a +light pine shell, discarding all heavy oak or other coffin, and to +introduce it into the furnace in that manner. Thus there is no handling +or exposure of the body after it reaches the crematorium. The type of +furnace in general use is on the reverberatory principle, the body being +consumed in a separate chamber heated to over 2000 deg. Fahr. by a coke +fire. In a few instances a furnace burning ordinary illuminating gas +instead of coke is in use. (H. TH.) + +_Statistics._--The following statistics show the history of modern +cremation and its progress at home and abroad:-- + + _Foreign Countries._--The first experiment in Italy was made by + Brunetti in 1869, his second and third in 1870. Gorini and Polli + published their first cases in 1872. Brunetti exhibited his at Vienna + in 1873. All were performed in the open air. The next in Europe was a + single case at Breslau in 1874. Soon after, an English lady was + cremated in a closed apparatus (Siemens) at Dresden. The next + cremation in a closed receptacle took place at Milan in 1876. In the + same year a Cremation Society was formed, a handsome building was + erected, and two Gorini furnaces were at work in 1880. In 1899 the + total number of cremations was 1355. In Italy 28 crematoria exist, + viz. at Alessandria, Asti, Bologna, Bra, Brescia, Como, Cremona, + Florence, Genoa, Leghorn, Lodi, Mantua, Milan, Modena, Novara, Padua, + Perugia, Pisa, Pistoia, Rome, San Remo, Siena, Spezia, Turin, Udine, + Verona and Venice. The total number of cremations in Italy in 1906 was + 440. + + In Germany the first crematorium was erected at Gotha; it was opened + in 1878, and the total cremations down to September 1st, 1907, + numbered 4584. At Ohlsdorf, Hamburg, the crematorium was opened in + November 1892, and the total cremations down to September 1st, 1907, + numbered 2521. At Heidelberg the crematorium was opened in 1891, and + the total cremations down to September 1st, 1907, numbered 1741. + Throughout the German empire there are, in addition to the above, + crematoria at Bremen, Eisenach, Jena, Karlsruhe, Mannheim, Mainz, + Offenbach, Heilbronn, Ulm, Chemnitz and Stuttgart, besides over eighty + societies for promoting cremation. The total number of cremations + which took place in Germany in 1906 was 2057, making a total of 13,614 + down to September 1st, 1907. + + Other societies exist in Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Sweden, Norway and + Switzerland. At the crematorium at Copenhagen 77 bodies were cremated + in 1906, the total being 500. The Stockholm crematorium was opened in + October 1887, and the cremations in 1906 numbered 56. The Gothenburg + crematorium (also in Sweden) was opened in January 1890, and the + cremations there in 1906 were 14. Switzerland has four crematoria, + viz. at Basel, Geneva, Zurich and St Gallen--524 cremations took place + in that country in 1906. + + In Paris a cremation society was founded in 1880, and in 1886-1887 a + large crematorium was constructed by the municipal council at Pere + Lachaise, containing three Gorini furnaces. It was first used in + October 1887 for two men who died of small-pox. The demand became + large; an improved furnace was soon devised, the unclaimed bodies at + the hospitals and the remains at the dissecting rooms being cremated + there, besides a large number of embryos. In 1906 the number, + including the last-named class, was 6906. The total number of + incinerations at Pere Lachaise down to December 31st, 1906 (including + both classes) was 86,962; but the employment of cremation for the + purposes named has deterred a resort to it by many. Had a separate + establishment been organized for the public, its success would have + been greater. A magnificent edifice has been constructed by the + municipality of Paris for the conservation of the ashes of persons who + have been cremated. Crematoria have been established also at Rouen, + Rheims and Marseilles, and the construction of crematoria in other of + the great provincial centres of France was in contemplation. + + In Buenos Aires, since 1844, the bodies of all persons dying of + contagious disease are cremated, and there is also a separate + establishment for the use of the public. + + At Tokio in Japan no fewer than 22 crematoria exist, and about an + equal number of cremations and burials in earth take place. + + At Calcutta a crematorium was opened in 1906. + + At Montreal, Canada, there is a crematorium which began operations in + 1902, and completed 44 cremations up to the 31st of December 1905. + + _United States._--There were 33 crematoria in the United States on + September 1st, 1907. At Fresh Pond, New York, erected in 1885, the + total number of cremations to December 31st, 1906, being 8514. At + Buffalo, N.Y., the first cremation taking place in 1885, and the total + number down to December 31st, 1905, being 787. At Troy (Earl + Crematorium), N. Y., the first cremation taking place in 1890, and the + total number down to December 31st, 1905, 249. At Swinburne Island, + N.Y., cremations beginning in 1890, total to December 31st, 1905, 123. + At Waterville, N.Y., cremations beginning in 1893, total to December + 31st, 1906, 62. At St Louis, Missouri, cremations beginning in 1888, + total to September 1st, 1907, 2151. At Philadelphia, Penn., cremations + beginning in 1888, total to September 1st, 1907, 1685. At San + Francisco, Cal., "Odd Fellows," opened in 1895, total to December + 31st, 1906, 6151. Also at San Francisco, Cal., "Cypress Lawn," opened + in 1893, total to December 31st, 1905, 1492. At Los Angeles, Cal., No. + 1, Rosedale, opened in 1887, total to December 31st, 1905, 866; No. 2, + Evergreen, opened in 1902, total to December 31st, 1905, 413; No. 3, + Gower Street, opened in 1907 with 54 down to September 1st. At Boston, + Mass., opened in 1893, total to September 1st, 1907, 2493. At + Cincinnati, Ohio, opened in 1887, total to September 1st, 1907, 1245. + At Chicago, opened in 1893, total to September 1st, 1907, 2188. At + Detroit, Michigan, opened in 1887, total to December 31st, 1905, 689. + At Pittsburg, Penn., opened in 1886, total to September 1st, 1907, + 377. At Baltimore, opened in 1889, total to December 31st, 1905, 263. + At Lancaster, Penn., opened in 1884, total to December 31st, 1906, + 106. At Davenport, Iowa, opened in 1891, total to September 1st, 1907, + 331. At Milwaukee, opened in 1896, total to October 1905, 442. At + Washington, opened in 1897, total to December 31st, 1905, 275. The Le + Moyne (Washington, Pa.) crematory, the first in the United States, was + erected by Dr F. Julius le Moyne in 1876, for private use. The first + cremation was that of the baron de Palin, of New York, December 6th, + 1876. Dr F. Julius le Moyne died October 1879, and his remains were + cremated in his own crematory. Total number of cremations (to 1907) + 41. At Pasadena, Cal., opened in 1895, total to September 1st, 1907, + 491. At St. Paul, Minn., opened in 1897, total to December 31st, 1905, + 145. At Fort Wayne, Ind., opened in 1897, total to September 1st, + 1907, 41. At Cambridge, Mass., opened in 1900, total to September 1st, + 1907, 1090. At Cleveland, Ohio, opened in 1901, total to December + 31st, 1905, 283. At Denver, Col., opened in 1904, total to December + 31st, 1905, 109. At Indianapolis, opened in 1904, total to December + 31st, 1905, 32. At Oakland, Cal., opened in 1902, total to September + 1st, 1907, 2196. At Portland, Ore., opened in 1901, total to December + 31st, 1905, 327. At Seattle, Washington, opened in 1905, with 21 to + the end of that year. + + _United Kingdom._--There were 13 crematoria in operation in the United + Kingdom on September 1st, 1907. The oldest is that at Woking, Surrey, + which was first used for the cremation of human remains in 1885. In + that year three cremations took place there, the number gradually + increasing each year until in 1901 301 bodies were cremated. Up to + September 1st, 1907, the total number of cremations at Woking was + 2939. Then followed the crematorium at Manchester, opened in 1892 with + 90 in 1906 and a total of 1085; at Glasgow, opened in 1895 with 45 in + 1906 and a total of 252; at Liverpool, opened in 1896, with 46 in 1906 + and a total of 374; at Hull, opened in 1901 (the first municipal + crematorium), with 17 in 1906 and a total of 116; at Darlington, also + opened in 1901, with 13 in 1906 and a total of 33. The Leicester + Corporation crematorium was opened in 1902, with 12 in 1906 and a + total of 50. Next in order came the Golder's Green crematorium, + Hampstead, London, which was opened in December 1902. In 1906 298 + cremations took place there, making a total of 1091. After this + followed the Birmingham crematorium, opened in 1903, with 21 in 1906 + and a total of 84; the City of London crematorium at Little Ilford, + opened in 1905, with 23 for 1906 and a total of 46; the Leeds + crematorium, opened in 1905, with 15 in 1906 and a total of 42; the + Bradford Corporation crematorium, opened in 1905, with 13 in 1906, and + a total of 20; and the Sheffield Corporation crematorium, opened in + 1905, with 6 in 1906 and a total of 26. Thus there were 739 + cremations in the United Kingdom in 1906, making a total at the above + crematoria down to September 1st, 1907, of 6158. The Golder's Green + crematorium, situated on the northern boundary of Hampstead Heath, + stands in its own grounds of 12 acres, and is but 35 minutes' drive + from Oxford Circus. London thus has two crematoria within driving + distance of its centre, and the Woking crematorium within easy reach + of the south-west suburbs. (J. C. S.-H.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Macrobius says it was disused in the reign of the younger + Theodosius (Gibbon v. 411). + + [2] The Colchians, says Sir Thos. Browne, made their graves in the + air, i.e. on trees. + + [3] In the case of a great man there was often a burnt offering of + animals and even of slaves (see Caesar, _De bell. Gall._ iv.). + + [4] A temple of the Holy Ghost (see Tertullian, _De anima_, c. 51, + cited in Muller, _Lex. des Kirchenrechts_, s.v. "Begrabniss"). + + [5] This was the first society formed in Europe for the promotion of + cremation. + + [6] For a full account of these, see _Modern Cremation: Its History + and Practice to the Present Date_, by Sir H. Thompson, Bart., + F.R.C.S., &c. (4th ed., Smith, Elder, Waterloo Place, 1901). + + [7] _The Times_, 27th March 1885. + + [8] _Reports on Death Certification_ (1893), Eyre & Spottiswoode, + London (373,472). + + [9] _Statutory Rules and Orders_, 1903, No. 286, Eyre & Spottiswoode. + + [10] _A Special Inquiry into the Practice of Interment in Towns_, by + Edwin Chadwick (London, 1843), is replete with evidence, and should + be read by those who desire to pursue the inquiry further. + + + + +CREMER, JAKOBUS JAN (1837-1880), Dutch novelist, born at Arnhem in +September 1837, started life as a painter, but soon exchanged the brush +for the pen. The great success of his first novelettes (_Betuwsche +Novellen_ and _Overbetuwsche Novellen_), published about 1855--reprinted +many times since, and translated into German and French--showed Cremer +the wisdom of his new departure. These short stories of Dutch provincial +life are written in the quaint dialect of the Betuwe, the large flat +Gelderland island, formed by the Rhine, the name recalling the presumed +earliest inhabitants, the Batavi. Cremer is strongest in his delineation +of character. His picturesque humour, coming out, perhaps, most forcibly +in his numerous readings of the Betuwe novelettes, soon procured him the +name of the "Dutch Fritz Reuter." In his later novels Cremer abandons +both the language and the slight love-stories of the Betuwe, depicting +the Dutch life of other centres in the national tongue. The principal +are: _Anna Rooze_ (1867), _Dokter Helmond en zijn Vrouw_ (1870), _Hanna +de Freule_ (1873), _Daniel Sils_, &c. Cremer was less successful as a +playwright, and his two comedies, _Peasant and Nobleman_ and _Emma +Bertholt_, did not enhance his fame; nor did a volume of poems, +published in 1873. He died at the Hague in June 1880. His collected +novels have appeared at Leiden. An English novel, founded by Albert +Vandam upon _Anna Rooze_, considered by many his best work, was +published in London (1877, 3 vols.) under the title of _An Everyday +Heroine_. + + + + +CREMERA (mod. _Fosso della Valchetta_), a small stream in Etruria which +falls into the Tiber about 6 m. N. of Rome. The identification with the +Fosso della Valchetta is fixed as correct by the account in Livy ii. 49, +which shows that the Saxa Rubra were not far off, and this we know to be +the Roman name of the post station of Prima Porta, about 7 m. from Rome +on the Via Flaminia. It is famous for the defeat of the three hundred +Fabii, who had established a fortified post on its banks. + + + + +CREMIEUX, ISAAC MOISE [known as ADOLPHE] (1796-1880), French statesman, +was born at Nimes, of a rich Jewish family. He began life as an advocate +in his native town. After the revolution of 1830 he came to Paris, +formed connexions with numerous political personages, even with King +Louis Philippe, and became a brilliant defender of Liberal ideas in the +law courts and in the press,--witness his _Eloge funebre_ of the bishop +Gregoire (1830), his _Memoire_ for the political rehabilitation of +Marshal Ney (1833), and his plea for the accused of April (1835). +Elected deputy in 1842, he was one of the leaders in the campaign +against the Guizot ministry, and his eloquence contributed greatly to +the success of his party. On the 24th of February 1848 he was chosen by +the Republicans as a member of the provisional government, and as +minister of justice he secured the decrees abolishing the death penalty +for political offences, and making the office of judge immovable. When +the conflict between the Republicans and Socialists broke out he +resigned office, but continued to sit in the constituent assembly. At +first he supported Louis Napoleon, but when he discovered the prince's +imperial ambitions he broke with him. Arrested and imprisoned on the 2nd +of December 1851, he remained in private life until November 1869, when +he was elected as a Republican deputy by Paris. On the 4th of September +1870 he was again chosen member of the government of national defence, +and resumed the ministry of justice. He then formed part of the +Delegation of Tours, but took no part in the completion of the +organization of defence. He resigned with his colleagues on the 14th of +February 1871. Eight months later he was elected deputy, then life +senator in 1875. He died on the 10th of February 1880. Cremieux did much +to better the condition of the Jews. He was president of the Universal +Israelite Alliance, and while in the government of the national defence +he secured the franchise for the Jews in Algeria. This famous _Decret +Cremieux_ was the origin of the anti-Semitic movement in Algiers. +Cremieux published a _Recueil_ of his political cases (1869), and the +_Actes de la delegation de Tours et de Bordeaux_ (2 vols., 1871). + + + + +CREMONA, LUIGI (1830-1903), Italian mathematician, was born at Pavia on +the 7th of December 1830. In 1848, when Milan and Venice rose against +Austria, Cremona, then only a lad of seventeen, joined the ranks of the +Italian volunteers, and remained with them, fighting on behalf of his +country's freedom, till, in 1849, the capitulation of Venice put an end +to the hopeless campaign. He then returned to Pavia, where he pursued +his studies at the university under Francesco Brioschi, and determined +to seek a career as teacher of mathematics. His first appointment was as +elementary mathematical master at the gymnasium and lyceum of Cremona, +and he afterwards obtained a similar post at Milan. In 1860 he was +appointed to the professorship of higher geometry at the university of +Bologna, and in 1866 to that of higher geometry and graphical statics at +the higher technical college of Milan. In this same year he competed for +the Steiner prize of the Berlin Academy, with a treatise entitled +"Memoria sulle superficie de terzo ordine," and shared the award with J. +C. F. Sturm. Two years later the same prize was conferred on him without +competition. In 1873 he was called to Rome to organize the college of +engineering, and was also appointed professor of higher mathematics at +the university. Cremona's reputation had now become European, and in +1879 he was elected a corresponding member of the Royal Society. In the +same year he was made a senator of the kingdom of Italy. He died on the +10th of June 1903. + +As early as 1856 Cremona had begun to contribute to the _Annali di +scienze matematiche e fisiche_, and to the _Annali di matematica_, of +which he became afterwards joint editor. Papers by him have appeared in +the mathematical journals of Italy, France, Germany and England, and he +has published several important works, many of which have been +translated into other languages. His manual on _Graphical Statics_ and +his _Elements of Projective Geometry_ (translated by C. Leudesdorf), +have been published in English by the Clarendon Press. His life was +devoted to the study of higher geometry and reforming the more advanced +mathematical teaching of Italy. His reputation mainly rests on his +_Introduzione ad una teoria geometrica delle curve piane_, which +proclaims him as a follower of the Steinerian or synthetical school of +geometricians. He notably enriched our knowledge of curves and surfaces. + + + + +CREMONA, a city and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, the capital of the +province of Cremona, situated on the N. bank of the Po, 155 ft. above +sea-level, 60 m. by rail S.E. of Milan. Pop. (1901) town, 31,655; +commune, 39,344. It is oval in shape, and retains its medieval +fortifications. The line of the streets is as a rule irregular, but the +town as a whole is not very picturesque. + +The finest building is the cathedral, in the Lombard Romanesque style, +begun in 1107 and consecrated in 1190. The wheel window of the main +facade dates from 1274. The transepts, added in the 13th and 14th +centuries (before 1370), have picturesque brick facades, with fine +terra-cotta ornamentation. The great Torrazzo, a tower 397 ft. high, +which stands by the cathedral, and is connected with it by a series of +galleries, dates from 1267-1291. It is square below, with an octagonal +summit of a slightly later period. The main facade of the cathedral was +largely altered in 1491, to which date the statues upon it belong; the +portico in front was added in 1497. The building would be much improved +by isolation, which it is hoped may be effected. The interior is fine, +and is covered with frescoes by Cremonese masters of the 16th century +(Boccaccio Boccaccino, Romanino, Pordenone, the Campi, &c.), which are +not of first-rate importance. The choir has fine stalls of 1489-1490, +upon one of which there is a view of the facade of the cathedral before +its alteration in 1491. The treasury contains a richly worked silver +crucifix 9 ft. high, of 1478, the base of which was added in 1774-1775. +It contains 408 statues and busts altogether, the central three of which +belong to an earlier cross of 1231. Adjacent to the cathedral is the +octagonal baptistery of 1167, 92 ft. in height and 75 ft. in external +diameter, also in the Lombard Romanesque style. The so-called Campo +Santo, close to the baptistery, contains a mosaic pavement with +emblematic figures belonging probably to the 8th and 9th centuries, and +running under the cathedral. Of the other churches, S. Michele has a +simple and good Lombard Romanesque 13th-century facade, and a plain +interior of the 10th century; and S. Agata a good campanile in the +former style. Many of them contain paintings by the later Cremonese +masters, especially Galeazzo Campi (d. 1536) and his sons Giulio and +Antonio. The latter are especially well represented in S. Sigismondo, 1-1/2 +m. outside the town to the E. On the side of the Piazza del Comune +opposite to the cathedral are two 13th-century Gothic palaces in brick, +the Palazzo Comunale and the former Palazzo dei Giureconsulti, now the +seat of the commissioners for the water regulation of the district. +Another palace of the same period is now occupied by the Archivio +Notarile. The modern Palazzo Ponzoni contains a museum and a technical +institute. In front of it is a statue of the composer Amilcare +Ponchielli, who was a native of Cremona. The Palazzo Fodri, now the +Monte di Pieta, has a beautiful 15th-century frieze of terra-cotta +bas-reliefs, as have some other palaces in private hands. + +Cremona was founded by the Romans in 218 B.C. (the same year as +Placentia) as an outpost against the Gallic tribes. It was strengthened +in 190 B.C. by the sending of 6000 new settlers and soon became one of +the most flourishing towns of upper Italy. It probably acquired +municipal rights in 90 B.C., but Augustus, owing to the fact that it did +not support him, assigned a part of its territory to his veterans in 41 +B.C., and henceforth it is once more called _colonia_. It remained +prosperous (we may note that Virgil came here to school from Mantua) +until it was taken and destroyed by the troops of Vespasian after the +second battle of Betriacum (Bedriacum) in A.D. 69; the temple of Mefitis +alone being left standing (see Tacitus, _Hist._ iii. 15 seq.). One of +the bronze plates which decorated the exterior of the war-chest of the +_legio III. Macedonica_, one of the legions which had been defeated at +Betriacum, has been found near Cremona itself (F. Barnabei in _Notiz. +scavi_, 1887, p. 210). Vespasian ordered its immediate reconstruction, +but it never recovered its former prosperity, though its position on the +N. bank of the Po, at the meeting-point of roads from Placentia, Mantua +(the Via Postumia in both cases), Brixellum (where the roads from +Cremona and Mantua to Parma met and crossed the river), Laus Pompeia and +Brixia, still gave it considerable importance. It was destroyed once +more by the Lombards under Agilulf in A.D. 605, and rebuilt in 615, and +was ruled by dukes; but in the 9th century the bishops of Cremona began +to acquire considerable temporal power. Landulf, a German to whom the +see was granted by Henry II., was driven out in 1022, and his palace +destroyed, but other Germans were invested with the see afterwards. The +commune of Cremona is first mentioned in a document of 1098, recording +its investiture by the countess Matilda with the territory known as +Isola Fulcheria. It had to sustain many wars with its neighbours in +order to maintain itself in its new possessions. In the war of the +Lombard League against Barbarossa, Cremona, after having shared in the +destruction of Crema in 1160 and Milan in 1162, finally joined the +league, but took no part in the battle of Legnano, and thus procured +itself the odium of both sides. In the Guelph and Ghibelline struggles +Cremona took the latter side, and defeated Parma decisively in 1250. It +was during this period that Cremona erected its finest buildings. There +was, however, a Guelph reaction in 1264; the city was taken and sacked +by Henry VII. in 1311, and was a prey to struggles between the two +parties, until Galeazzo Visconti took possession of it in 1322. In 1406 +it fell under the sway of Cabrino Fondulo, who received with great +festivities both the emperor Sigismund and Pope John XXIII., the latter +on his way to the council at Constance; he, however, handed it over to +Filippo Maria Visconti in 1419. In 1499 it was occupied by Venetians, +but in 1512 it came under Massimiliano Sforza. In 1535, like the rest of +Lombardy, it fell under Spanish domination, and was compelled to +furnish large money contributions. The population fell to 10,000 in +1668. The surprise of the French garrison on the 2nd of February 1702, +by the Imperialists under Prince Eugene, was a celebrated incident of +the War of the Spanish Succession. The Imperialists were driven from +Cremona after a sharp struggle, but captured Marshal Villeroi, the +French commander. Hence the celebrated verse: + + "Francais, rendons grace a Bellone; + Notre bonheur est sans egal; + Nous avons conserve Cremonee, + Et perdu notre general." + +In the 18th century the prosperity of Cremona revived. In the Italian +republic it was the capital of the department of the upper Po. Like the +rest of Lombardy it fell under Austria in 1814, and became Italian in +1859. + + See _Guida di Cremona_ (Cremona, 1904). (T. AS.) + + + + +CREMORNE GARDENS, formerly a popular resort by the side of the Thames in +Chelsea, London, England. Originally the property of the earl of +Huntingdon (c. 1750), father of Steele's "Aspasia," who built a mansion +here, the property passed through various hands into those of Thomas +Dawson, Baron Dartrey and Viscount Cremorne (1725-1813), who greatly +beautified it. It was subsequently sold and converted into a proprietary +place of entertainment, being popular as such from 1845 to 1877. It +never, however, acquired the fashionable fame of Vauxhall, and finally +became so great an annoyance to residents in the neighbourhood that a +renewal of its licence was refused; and the site of the gardens was soon +built over. The name survives in Cremorne Road. + + + + +CRENELLE (an O. Fr. word for "notch," mod. _creneau_; the origin is +obscure; cf. "cranny"), a term generally considered to mean an embrasure +of a battlement, but really applying to the whole system of defence by +battlements. In medieval times no one could "crenellate" a building +without special licence from his supreme lord. + + + + +CREODONTA, a group of primitive early Tertiary Carnivora, characterized +by their small brains, the non-union in most cases of the scaphoid and +lunar bones of the carpus, and the general absence of a distinct pair of +"sectorial" teeth (see CARNIVORA). In many respects the Lower Eocene +creodonts come very close to the primitive ungulates, or Condylarthra +(see PHENACODUS), from which, however, they are distinguished by the +approximation in the form of the skull to the carnivorous type, the more +trenchant teeth (at least in most cases) and the more claw-like +character of the terminal joints of the toes. The general character of +the dentition in the more typical forms, such as _Hyaenodon_ (see fig.), +recalls that of the carnivorous marsupials, this being especially the +case with the Patagonian species, which have been separated as a +distinct group under the name of Sparassodonta (q.v.). The skull, +however, is not of the marsupial type, and in the European forms at any +rate there is a complete replacement of the milk-molars by pre-molars, +while the minute structure of the enamel of the teeth is of the +carnivorous as distinct from the marsupial type. The head is large in +proportion to the body, the lumbar region is unusually rigid, owing to +the complexity of the articulations, and the tail and hind-limbs are +relatively long and powerful. In life the tail probably passed almost +imperceptibly into the body, as in the Tasmanian thylacine. + +[Illustration: Dentition of _Hyaenodon leptorhynchus_, from the Lower +Oligocene of France. The last upper molar is concealed by the +penultimate tooth.] + +That the Creodonta are the ancestors of the modern Carnivora is now +generally admitted. They are apparently the most generalized and +primitive of all (placental?) mammals, and probably the direct +descendants of the mammal-like anomodont or theromorphous reptiles of +the Triassic epoch; the evolution from that group having perhaps taken +place in Africa or in the lost area connecting that continent with +India. The relationship of the creodonts to the carnivorous marsupials +is not yet determined, but it seems scarcely probable that the +remarkable resemblance existing between the teeth of the two groups can +be solely due to parallelism; and it has been suggested by Dr L. Wortman +that both creodonts and marsupials are descended from a common +non-placental stock. In other words, the latter are a side-branch from +the anomodont-creodont line of descent. Dr C. W. Andrews has pointed out +that certain of the Egyptian creodonts appear to have been aquatic or +subaquatic in their habits; and it is possible that from such types are +derived the true seals, or _Phocidae_. + +With the exception of Australasia, and perhaps South Africa, creodonts +(on the supposition that the Patagonian forms are rightly included) +appear to have had a nearly world-wide distribution. In Europe and North +America they date from the Lowest Eocene and lived till the early +Oligocene, while in India they apparently survived till a much later +epoch. Some of the Oligocene forms, alike as regards dentition, the +union of the scaphoid and lunar of the carpus, and the complexity of the +brain, approximated to modern Carnivora. + +As regards classification Mr W. D. Matthew includes in the typical +family _Hyaenodontidae_ not only the widely spread genera _Hyaenodon_ +and _Pterodon_, but likewise _Sinopa_ (_Stypolophus_), _Cynohyaenodon_ +and _Proviverra_; but _Viverravus_ (_Didymictis_) and _Vulpavus_ +(_Miacis_) are assigned to a separate family (_Viverravidae_). It is +these latter forms which come nearest to modern Carnivora, most of them +being of Oligocene age. The American and European _Oxyaena_ apparently +represents a family by itself, as does the American _Oxyclaena_; and +_Palaeonictis_ and _Patriofelis_ are assigned to yet another family; +while the North American Lower Eocene and Eocene _Arctocyon_ typifies a +family characterized by the somewhat bear-like type of dentition. +_Mesonyx_ is also a very distinct type, from the North American Eocene +and Oligocene. Some of the species of _Patriofelis_ and _Hyaenodon_ +attained the size of a tiger, although with long civet-like skulls. In +the earlier forms the claws often retained somewhat of a hoof-like +character. + +The South American _Borhyaenidae_ include _Borhyaena_, _Prothylacinus_, +_Amphiproviverra_, and allied forms from the Santa Cruz beds of +Patagonia, and have been referred to a distinct group, the +Sparassodonta, mainly on account of the alleged replacement of some only +of the milk-molars by premolars. By their first describer, Dr F. +Ameghino, they were regarded as nearly related to the marsupials, to +which group they were definitely referred in 1905 by Mr W. J. Sinclair, +by whom they are considered near akin to _Thylacinus_, but this view +seems to be disproved by the investigations of Mr C. S. Tomes into the +structure of the dental enamel. + +It should be added that Dr J. L. Wortman transfers _Viverravus_ and its +allies, together with _Palaeonictis_, to the true Carnivora, the latter +genus being regarded as the ancestral type of the sabre-toothed cats +(see MACHAERODUS). + + AUTHORITIES.--J. L. Wortman, "Eocene Mammalia in the Peabody Museum, + pt. i. Carnivora," _Amer. J. Sci._ vols. xi.-xiv. (1901-1902); W. D. + Matthew, "Additional Observations on the Creodonta," _Bull. Amer. + Mus._ vol. xiv. p. i. (1901); C. W. Andrews, _Descriptive Catalogue of + the Tertiary Vertebrata of the Fayum_, British Museum (1906); W. J. + Sinclair, "The Marsupial Fauna of the Santa Cruz Beds," _Proc. Amer. + Phil. Soc._ vol. xlix. p. 73 (1905). (R. L.*) + + + + +CREOLE (the Fr. form of _criollo_, a West Indian, probably a negro +corruption of the Span, _criadillo_, the dim. of _criado_, one bred or +reared, from _criar_, to breed, a derivative of the Lat. _creare_, to +create), a word used originally (16th century) to denote persons born in +the West Indies of Spanish parents, as distinguished from immigrants +direct from Spain, aboriginals, negroes or mulattos. It is now used of +the descendants of non-aboriginal races born and settled in the West +Indies, in various parts of the American mainland and in Mauritius, +Reunion and some other places colonized by Spain, Portugal, France, or +(in the case of the West Indies) by England. In a similar sense the name +is used of animals and plants. The use of the word by some writers as +necessarily implying a person of mixed blood is totally erroneous; in +itself "creole" has no distinction of colour; a Creole may be a person +of European, negro, or mixed extraction--or even a horse. + +Local variations occur in the use of the word as applied to people. In +the West Indies it designates the descendants of any European race; in +the United States the French-speaking native portion of the white race +in Louisiana, whether of French or Spanish origin. The French Canadians +are never termed creoles, nor is the word now used of the South +Americans of Spanish or Portuguese descent, but in Mexico whites of pure +Spanish extraction are still called creoles. In all the countries named, +when a non-white creole is indicated the word negro is added. In +Mauritius, Reunion, &c., on the other hand, creole is commonly used to +designate the black population, but is also occasionally used of the +inhabitants of European descent. The difference in type between the +white creoles and the European races from whom they have sprung, a +difference often considerable, is due principally to changed +environment--especially to the tropical or semi-tropical climate of the +lands they inhabit. The many patois founded on French and Spanish, and +used chiefly by creole negroes, are spoken of as creole languages, a +term extended by some writers to include similar dialects spoken in +countries where the word creole is rarely used. + + See G. W. Cable, _The Creoles of Louisiana_ (1884); A. Coelho, "Os + Dialetos romanicos on neo latinos na Africa, Asia e America," _Bol. + Soc. Geo. Lisboa_ (1884-1886), with bibliography. For the Creole + French of Haiti see an article by Sir H. H. Johnston in _The Times_, + April 10th, 1909. + + + + +CREON, in Greek legend, son of Lycaethus, king of Corinth and father of +Glauce or Creusa, the second wife of Jason. + + + + +CREON, in Greek legend, son of Menoeceus, king of Thebes after the death +of Laius, the husband of his sister Jocasta. Thebes was then suffering +from the visitation of the Sphinx, and Creon offered his crown and the +hand of the widowed queen to whoever should solve the fatal riddle. +Oedipus, the son of Laius, ignorant of his parentage, successfully +accomplished the task and married Jocasta, his mother. By her he had two +sons, Eteocles and Polyneices, who agreed after their father's death to +reign in alternative years. Eteocles first ascended the throne, being +the elder, but at the end of the year refused to resign, whereupon his +brother attacked him at the head of an army of Argives. The war was to +be decided by a single combat between the brothers, but both fell. +Creon, who had resumed the government during the minority of Leodamas, +the son of Eteocles, commanded that the Argives, and above all +Polyneices, the cause of all the bloodshed, should not receive the rites +of sepulture, and that any one who infringed this decree should be +buried alive. Antigone, the sister of Polyneices, refused to obey, and +sprinkled dust upon her brother's corpse. The threatened penalty was +inflicted; but Creon's crime did not escape unpunished. His son, Haemon, +the lover of Antigone, killed himself on her grave; and he himself was +slain by Theseus. According to another account he was put to death by +Lycus, the son or descendant of a former ruler of Thebes (Euripides, +_Herc. Fur._ 31; Apollodorus iii. 5, 7; Pausanias ix. 5). + + + + +CREOPHYLUS of Samos, one of the earliest Greek epic poets. According to +an epigram of Callimachus (quoted in Strabo xiv. p. 638) he was the +author of a poem called [Greek: Oichalias halosis], which told the story +of the conquest of Oechalia by Heracles. Creophylus was said to have +been a friend or relative of Homer, who, according to another +tradition, was himself the author of the [Greek: Halosis], and presented +it to Creophylus in return for the latter's hospitality. + + See F. G. Welcker, _Der epische Cyclus_ (1865-1882). + + + + +CREOSOTE, CREASOTE or KREASOTE (from Gr. [Greek: kreas], flesh, and +[Greek: sozein], to preserve), a product of the distillation of coal, +bone oil, shale oil, and wood-tar (more especially that made from +beech-wood). The creosote is extracted from the distillate by means of +alkali, separated from the filtered alkaline solution by sulphuric acid, +and then distilled with dilute alkali; the distillate is again treated +with alkali and acid, till its purification is effected; it is then +redistilled at 200 deg. C., and dried by means of calcium chloride. It +is a highly refractive, colourless, oily liquid, and was first obtained +in 1832 by K. Reichenbach from beech-wood tar. It consists mainly of a +mixture of phenol, cresol, guaiacol, creosol, xylenol, dimethyl +guaiacol, ethyl guaiacol, and various methyl ethers of pyrogallol. +Creosote has a strong odour and hot taste, and burns with a smoky flame. +It dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, resins, and many acids and colouring +matters; and is soluble in alcohol, ether, and carbon disulphide, and in +80 parts by volume of water. It is distinguished from carbolic acid by +the following properties:--it rotates the plane of polarized light to +the right, forms with collodion a transparent fluid, and is nearly +insoluble in glycerin; whereas carbolic acid has no effect on polarized +light, gives with about two-thirds of its volume of collodion a +gelatinous mass, and is soluble in all proportions in glycerin; further, +alcohol and ferric chloride produce with creosote a green solution, +turned brown by water, with carbolic acid a brown, and on the addition +of water a blue solution. Creosote, like carbolic acid, is a powerful +antiseptic, and readily coagulates albuminous matter; wood-smoke and +pyroligneous acid or wood-vinegar owe to its presence their efficacy in +preserving animal and vegetable substances from putrefaction. + +_Creosote oil_ is the name generally applied to the fraction of the coal +tar distillate which boils between 200 deg. and 300 deg. C. (see COAL +TAR). It is a greenish-yellow fluorescent liquid, usually containing +phenol, cresol, naphthalene, anthracene, pyridine, quinoline, acridine +and other substances. Its chief use is for the preservation of timber. + +_Pharmacology and Therapeutics._--Creosote derived from wood-tar is +given medicinally in doses of from one to five minims, either suspended +in mucilage, or in capsules. It should always be administered after a +meal, when the gastric contents dilute it and prevent irritation. +Creosote and carbolic acid (q.v.) have a very similar pharmacology; but +there is one conspicuous exception. Beech-wood creosote alone should be +used in medicine, as its composition renders it much more valuable than +other creosotes. Its constituents circulate unchanged in the blood and +are excreted by the lungs. Although carbolic acid has no value in +phthisis (pulmonary tuberculosis) or in any other bacterial condition of +the lungs, creosote, having volatile constituents which are excreted in +the expired air and which are powerfully antiseptic, may well be of much +value in these conditions. In phthisis creosote is now superseded by +both its carbonate (creosotal)--given in the same doses--which causes +less gastric disturbance, and by guaiacol itself, which may be given in +doses up to thirty minims in capsules. The phosphate (phosote or +phosphote), phosphite (phosphotal), and valerianate (eosote) also find +application. Similarly the carbonate of guaiacol may be given in doses +even as large as a drachm. Creosote may also be used as an inhalation +with a steam atomizer. It is applicable not only in phthisis but in +bronchiectasis, bronchitis, broncho-pneumonia, lobar pneumonia and all +other bacterial lung diseases. Like carbolic acid, creosote may be used +in toothache, and the local antiseptic and anaesthetic action which it +shares with that substance is often of value in relieving gastric pain +due to simple ulcer or cancer, and in those forms of vomiting which are +due to gastric irritation. + + For the determination and separation of the various constituents of + creosote see F. Tiemann, _Ber._ (1881), 14, p. 2005; A. Behal and C. + Choay, _Comptes rendus_ (1893), 116, p. 197; and L. F. Kebler, _Amer. + Jour. Pharm._ (1899), p. 409. + + + + +CREPUSCULAR (from Lat. _crepusculum_, twilight), of or belonging to the +twilight, hence indistinct or glimmering; in zoology the word is used of +animals that appear before sunrise or nightfall. + + + + +CREQUY, a French family which originated in Picardy, and took its name +from a small lordship in the present Pas-de-Calais. Its genealogy goes +back to the 10th century, and from it originated the noble houses of +Blecourt, Canaples, Heilly and Royon. Henri de Crequy was killed at the +siege of Damietta in 1240; Jacques de Crequy, marshal of Guienne, was +killed at Agincourt with his brothers Jean and Raoul; Jean de Crequy, +lord of Canaples, was in the Burgundian service, and took part in the +defence of Paris against Joan of Arc in 1429, received the order of the +Golden Fleece in 1431, and was ambassador to Aragon and France; Antoine +de Crequy was one of the boldest captains of Francis I., and died in +consequence of an accident at the siege of Hesdin in 1523. Jean VIII., +sire de Crequy, prince de Poix, seigneur de Canaples (d. 1555), left +three sons, the eldest of whom, Antoine de Crequy (1535-1574), inherited +the family estates on the death of his brothers at St Quentin in 1557. +He was raised to the cardinalate, and his nephew and heir, Antoine de +Blanchefort, assumed the name and arms of Crequy. + +Charles I. de Blanchefort, marquis de Crequy, prince de Poix, duc de +Lesdiguieres (1578-1638), marshal of France, son of the last-named, saw +his first fighting before Laon in 1594, and was wounded at the capture +of Saint Jean d'Angely in 1621. In the next year he became a marshal of +France. He served through the Piedmontese campaign in aid of Savoy in +1624 as second in command to the constable, Francois de Bonne, duc de +Lesdiguieres, whose daughter Madeleine he had married in 1595. He +inherited in 1626 the estates and title of his father-in-law, who had +induced him, after the death of his first wife, to marry her half-sister +Francoise. He was also lieutenant-general of Dauphine. In 1633 he was +ambassador to Rome, and in 1636 to Venice. He fought in the Italian +campaigns of 1630, 1635, 1636 and 1637, when he helped to defeat the +Spaniards at Monte Baldo. He was killed on the 17th of March 1638 in an +attempt to raise the siege of Crema, a fortress in the Milanese. He had +a quarrel extending over years with Philip, the bastard of Savoy, which +ended in a duel fatal to Philip in 1599; and in 1620 he defended +Saint-Aignan, who was his prisoner of war, against a prosecution +threatened by Louis XIII. Some of his letters are preserved in the +Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, and his life was written by N. Chorier +(Grenoble, 1683). + +His eldest son, Francois, comte de Sault, due de Lesdiguieres +(1600-1677), governor and lieutenant-general of Dauphine, took the name +and arms of Bonne. The younger, Charles II. de Crequy, seigneur de +Canaples, was killed at the siege of Chambery in 1630, leaving three +sons--Charles III., sieur de Blanchefort, prince de Poix, duc de Crequy +(1623?-1687); Alphonse de Crequy, comte de Canaples (d. 1711), who +became on the extinction of the elder branch of the family in 1702 duc +de Lesdiguieres, and eventually succeeded also to his younger brother's +honours; and Francois, chevalier de Crequy and marquis de Marines, +marshal of France (1625-1687). + +The last-named was born in 1625, and as a boy took part in the Thirty +Years' War, distinguishing himself so greatly that at the age of +twenty-six he was made a _marechal de camp_, and a lieutenant-general +before he was thirty. He was regarded as the most brilliant of the +younger officers, and won the favour of Louis XIV. by his fidelity to +the court during the second Fronde. In 1667 he served on the Rhine, and +in 1668 he commanded the covering army during Louis XIV.'s siege of +Lille, after the surrender of which the king rewarded him with the +marshalate. In 1670 he overran the duchy of Lorraine. Shortly after this +Turenne, his old commander, was made marshal-general, and all the +marshals were placed under his orders. Many resented this, and Crequy, +in particular, whose career of uninterrupted success had made him +over-confident, went into exile rather than serve under Turenne. After +the death of Turenne and the retirement of Conde, he became the most +important general officer in the army, but his over-confidence was +punished by the severe defeat of Conzer Bruck (1675) and the surrender +of Trier and his own captivity which followed. But in the later +campaigns of this war (see DUTCH WARS) he showed himself again a cool, +daring and successful commander, and, carrying on the tradition of +Turenne and Conde, he was in his turn the pattern of the younger +generals of the stamp of Luxembourg and Villars. He died in Paris on the +3rd of February 1687. + +Alphonse de Crequy had not the talent of his brothers, and lost his +various appointments in France. He went to London in 1672, where he +became closely allied with Saint Evremond, and was one of the intimates +of King Charles II. + +Charles III. de Crequy served in the campaigns of 1642 and 1645 in the +Thirty Years' War, and in Catalonia in 1649. In 1646, after the siege of +Orbitello, he was made lieutenant-general by Louis. By faithful service +during the king's minority he had won the gratitude of Anne of Austria +and of Mazarin, and in 1652 he became duc de Crequy and a peer of +France. The latter half of his life was spent at court, where he held +the office of first gentleman of the royal chamber, which had been +bought for him by his grandfather. In 1659 he was sent to Spain with +gifts for the infanta Maria Theresa, and on a similar errand to Bavaria +in 1680 before the marriage of the dauphin. He was ambassador to Rome +from 1662 to 1665, and to England in 1677; and became governor of Paris +in 1675. He died in Paris on the 13th of February 1687. His only +daughter, Madeleine, married Charles de la Tremoille (1655-1709). + +The marshal Francois de Crequy had two sons, whose brilliant military +abilities bade fair to rival his own. The elder, Francois Joseph, +marquis de Crequy (1662-1702), already held the grade of +lieutenant-general when he was killed at Luzzara on the 13th of August +1702; and Nicolas Charles, sire de Crequy, was killed before Tournai in +1696 at the age of twenty-seven. + +A younger branch of the Crequy family, that of Hemont, was represented +by Louis Marie, marquis de Crequy (1705-1741), author of the _Principes +philosophiques des saints solitaires d'Egypte_ (1779), and husband of +the marquise separately noticed below, and became extinct with the death +in 1801 of his son, Charles Marie, who had some military reputation. + + For a detailed genealogy of the family and its alliances see Moreri, + _Dictionnaire historique; Annuaire de la noblesse francaise_ (1856 and + 1867). There is much information about the Crequys in the _Memoires_ + of Saint-Simon. + + + + +CREQUY, RENEE CAROLINE DE FROULLAY, MARQUISE DE (1714-1803), was born on +the 19th of October 1714, at the chateau of Monfleaux (Mayenne), the +daughter of Lieutenant-General Charles Francois de Froullay. She was +educated by her maternal grandmother, and married in 1737 Louis Marie, +marquis de Crequy (see above), who died four years after the marriage. +Madame de Crequy devoted herself to the care of her only son, who +rewarded her with an ingratitude which was the chief sorrow of her life. +In 1755 she began to receive in Paris, among her intimates being +D'Alembert and J. J. Rousseau. She had none of the frivolity generally +associated with the women of her time and class, and presently became +extremely religious with inclinations to Jansenism. D'Alembert's visits +ceased when she adopted religion, and she was nearly seventy when she +formed the great friendship of her life with Senac de Meilhan, whom she +met in 1781, and with whom she carried on a correspondence (edited by +Edouard Fournier, with a preface by Sainte-Beuve in 1856). She commented +on and criticized Meilhan's works and helped his reputation. She was +arrested in 1793 and imprisoned in the convent of Les Oiseaux until the +fall of Robespierre (July 1794). The well-known _Souvenirs de la +marquise de Crequy_ (1710-1803), printed in 7 volumes, 1834-1835, and +purporting to be addressed to her grandson, Tancrede de Crequy, was the +production of a Breton adventurer, Cousin de Courchamps. The first two +volumes appeared in English in 1834 and were severely criticized in the +_Quarterly Review_. + + See the notice prefixed by Sainte-Beuve to the _Lettres_; P. L. Jacob, + _Enigmes et decouvertes bibliographiques_ (Paris, 1866); Querard, + _Supercheries litteraires_, s.v. "Crequy"; _L'Ombre de la marquise de + Crequy aux lecteurs des souvenirs_ (1836) exposes the forgery of the + _Memoires_. + + + + +CRESCAS, HASDAI BEN ABRAHAM (1340-1410), Spanish philosopher. His work, +_The Light of the Lord_ (_'Or 'Adonai_), deeply affected Spinoza, and +thus his philosophy became of wide importance. Maimonides (q.v.) had +brought Jewish thought entirely under the domination of Aristotle. The +work of Crescas, though it had no immediate success, ended in effecting +its liberation. He refused to base Judaism on speculative philosophy +alone; there was a deep emotional side to his thought. Thus he based +Judaism on love, not on knowledge; love was the bond between God and +man, and man's fundamental duty was love as expressed in obedience to +God's will. Spinoza derived from Crescas his distinction between +attributes and properties; he shared Crescas's views on creation and +free will, and in the whole trend of his thought the influence of +Crescas is strongly marked. + + See E. G. Hirsch, _Jewish Encyclopaedia_, iv. 350. (I. A.) + + + + +CRESCENT (Lat. _crescens_, growing), originally the waxing moon, hence a +name applied to the shape of the moon in its first quarter. The crescent +is employed as a charge in heraldry, with its horns vertical; when they +are turned to the dexter side of the shield, it is called increscent, +when to the sinister, decrescent. A crescent is used as a difference to +denote the second son of a house; thus the earls of Harrington place a +crescent upon a crescent, as descending from the second son of a second +son. An order of the crescent was instituted by Charles I. of Naples and +Sicily in 1268, and revived by Rene of Anjou in 1464. A Turkish order or +decoration of the crescent was instituted by Sultan Selim III. in 1799, +in memory of the diamond crescent which he had presented to Nelson after +the battle of the Nile, and which Nelson wore on his coat as if it were +an order. + +The crescent is the military and religious symbol of the Ottoman Turks. +According to the story told by Hesychius of Miletus, during the siege of +Byzantium by Philip of Macedon the moon suddenly appeared, the dogs +began to bark and aroused the inhabitants, who were thus enabled to +frustrate the enemy's scheme of undermining the walls. The grateful +Byzantines erected a statue to "torch-bearing" Hecate, and adopted the +lunar crescent as the badge of the city. It is generally supposed that +it was in turn adopted by the Turks after the capture of Constantinople +in 1453, either as a badge of triumph, or to commemorate a partial +eclipse of the moon on the night of the final attack. In reality, it +seems to have been used by them long before that event. Ala ud-din, the +Seljuk sultan of Iconium (1245-1254), and Ertoghrul, his lieutenant and +the founder of the Ottoman branch of the Turkish race, assumed it as a +device, and it appeared on the standard of the janissaries of Sultan +Orkhan (1326-1360). Since the new moon is associated with special acts +of devotion in Turkey--where, as in England, there is a popular +superstition that it is unlucky to see it through glass--it may +originally have been adopted in consequence of its religious +significance. According to Professor Ridgeway, however, the Turkish +crescent, like that seen on modern horse-trappings, has nothing to do +with the new moon, but is the result of the base-to-base conjunction of +two claw or tusk amulets, an example of which has been brought to light +during the excavations of the site of the temple of Artemis Orthia at +Sparta (see _Athenaeum_, March 21, 1908). There is nothing distinctively +Turkish in the combination of crescent and star which appears on the +Turkish national standard; the latter is shown by coins and inscriptions +to have been an ancient Illyrian symbol, and is of course common in +knightly and decorative orders. It is doubtful whether any opposition +between crescent and cross, as symbols of Islam and Christianity, was +ever intended by the Turks; and it is an historical error to attribute +the crescent to the Saracens of crusading times or the Moors in Spain. + +Crescent is also the name of a Turkish musical instrument. In +architecture, a crescent is a street following the arc of a circle; the +name in this sense was first used in the Royal Crescent at Bath. + + + + +CRESCIMBENI, GIOVANNI MARIO (1663-1728), Italian critic and poet, was +born at Macerata in 1663. Having been educated by a French priest at +Rome, he entered the Jesuits' college of his native town, where he +produced a tragedy on the story of Darius, and versified the +_Pharsalia_. In 1679 he received the degree of doctor of laws, and in +1680 he removed again to Rome. The study of Filicaja and Leonico having +convinced him that he and all his contemporaries were working in a wrong +direction, he resolved to attempt a general reform. In 1690, in +conjunction with fourteen others, he founded the celebrated academy of +the Arcadians, and began the contest against false taste and its +adherents. The academy was most successful; branch societies were opened +in all the principal cities of Italy; and the influence of Marini, +opposed by the simplicity and elegance of such models as Costanzo, soon +died away. Crescimbeni officiated as secretary to the Arcadians for +thirty-eight years. In 1705 he was made canon of Santa Maria; in 1715 he +obtained the chief curacy attached to the same church; and about two +months before he died (1728) he was admitted a member of the order of +Jesus. + + His principal work is the _Istoria della volgar poesia_ (Rome, 1698), + an estimate of all the poets of Italy, past and contemporary, which + may yet be consulted with advantage. The most important of his + numerous other publications are the _Commentarij_ (5 vols., Rome, + 1702-1711), and _La Bellezza della volgar poezia_ (Rome, 1700). + + + + +CRESILAS, a Cretan sculptor of Cydonia. He was a contemporary of +Pheidias, and one of the sculptors who vied in producing statues of +amazons at Ephesus (see GREEK ART) about 450 B.C. As his amazon was +wounded (_volnerata_; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxiv. 75), we may safely +identify it with the figure, of which several copies are extant, who is +carefully removing her blood-stained garment from a wound under the +right breast. Another work of Cresilas of which copies survive is the +portrait of Pericles, the earliest Greek portrait which has been with +certainty identified, and which fully confirms the statement of ancient +critics that Cresilas was an artist who idealized and added nobility to +men of noble type. An extant portrait of Anacreon is also derived from +Cresilas. + + + + +CRESOLS or METHYL PHENOLS, C7H8O or C6H4.CH3.OH. The three isomeric +cresols are found in the tar obtained in the destructive distillation of +coal, beech-wood and pine. The crude cresol obtained from tar cannot be +separated into its different constituents by fractional distillation, +since the boiling points of the three isomers are very close together. +The pure substances are best obtained by fusion of the corresponding +toluene sulphonic acids with potash. + +Ortho-cresol, CH3(1).C6H4.OH(2), occurs as sulphate in the urine of the +horse. It may be prepared by fusion of ortho-toluene sulphonic acid with +potash; by the action of phosphorus pentoxide on carvacrol; or by the +action of zinc chloride on camphor. It is a crystalline solid, which +melts at 30 deg. C. and boils at 190.8 deg. C. Fusion with alkalis +converts it into salicylic acid. + +Meta-cresol, CH3(1).C6H4.OH(3), is formed when thymol +(para-isopropyl-meta-cresol) is heated with phosphorus pentoxide. +Propylene is liberated during the reaction, and the phosphoric acid +ester of meta-cresol which is formed is then fused with potash. It can +also be prepared by distilling meta-oxyuvitic acid with lime, or by the +action of air on boiling toluene in the presence of aluminium chloride +(C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts, _Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1888 [6], 14, p. 436). +It solidifies in a freezing mixture, on the addition of a crystal of +phenol, and then melts at 3 deg.-4 deg. C. It boils at 202 deg..8 C. Its +aqueous solution is coloured bluish-violet by ferric chloride. + +Para-cresol, CH3(1).C6H4.OH(4), occurs as sulphate in the urine of the +horse. It is also found in horse's liver, being one of the putrefaction +products of tyrosine. It may be prepared by the fusion of para-toluene +sulphonic acid with potash; by the action of nitrous acid on +para-toluidine; or by heating para-oxyphenyl acetic acid with lime. It +crystallizes in prisms which melt at 36 deg. C. and boil at 201 deg..8 +C. It is soluble in water, and the aqueous solution gives a blue +coloration with ferric chloride. When treated with hydrochloric acid and +potassium chlorate, no chlorinated quinones are obtained (M. S. +Southworth, _Ann._ (1873), 168, p. 271), a behaviour which distinguishes +it from ortho- and meta-cresol. + + On the composition of commercial cresylic acid see A. H. Allen, _Jour. + Soc. Chem. Industry_ (1890), 9, p. 141. See also CREOSOTE. + + + + +CRESPI, DANIELE (1590-1630), Italian historical painter, was born near +Milan, and studied under Giovanni Battista Crespi and Giulio Procaccini. +He was an excellent colourist; his drawing was correct and vigorous, and +he grouped his compositions with much ability. His best work, a series +of pictures from the life of Saint Bruno, is in the monastery of the +Carthusians at Milan. Among the most famous of his paintings is a +"Stoning of St Stephen" at Brera, and there are several excellent +examples of his work in the city of his birth and at Pavia. + + + + +CRESPI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1557-1663), called Il Cerano, Italian +painter, sculptor, and architect, was born at Cerano in the Milanese. He +was a scholar of considerable attainments, and held a position of +dignity in his native city. He was head of the Milanese Academy founded +by Cardinal Frederigo Borromeo, and he was the teacher of Guercino. He +is most famous as a painter; and, though his figures are neither natural +nor graceful, his colouring is good, and his designs full of ideal +beauty. + + + + +CRESPI, GIUSEPPE MARIA (1665-1747), Italian painter, called "Lo +Spagnuolo" from his fondness for rich apparel, was born at Bologna, and +was trained under Angelo Toni, Domenico Canuti and Carlo Cignani. He +then went through a course of copying from Correggio and Barocci; this +he followed up with a journey to Venice for the sake of Titian and Paul +Veronese; and late in life he proclaimed himself a follower of Guercino +and Pietro da Cortona. He was a good colourist and a facile executant, +and was wont to employ the camera obscura with great success in the +treatment of light and shadow; but he was careless and unconscientious. +He was a clever portrait-painter and a brilliant caricaturist; and his +etchings after Rembrandt and Salvator are in some demand. His greatest +work, a "Massacre of the Innocents," is at Bologna; but the Dresden +gallery possesses twelve examples of him, among which is his celebrated +series of the Seven Sacraments. + + + + +CRESS, in botany. "Garden Cress" (_Lepidium sativum_) is an annual plant +(nat. ord. Cruciferae), known as a cultivated plant at the present day +in Europe, North Africa, western Asia and India, but its origin is +obscure. Alphonse de Candolle (_L'Origine des plantes cultivees_) says +its cultivation must date from ancient times and be widely diffused, for +very different names for it exist in the Arab, Persian, Albanian, +Hindustani and Bengali tongues. He considered the plant to be of Persian +origin, whence it may have spread after the Sanskrit epoch (there is no +Sanskrit name for it) into the gardens of India, Syria, Greece and North +Africa. It is used in salads, the young plants being cut and eaten while +still in the seed-leaf, forming, along with plants of the white mustard +in the same stage of growth, what is commonly called "small salad." The +seeds should be sown thickly broadcast or in rows in succession every +ten or fourteen days, according to the demand. The sowings may be made +in the open ground from March till October, the earliest under +hand-glasses, and the summer ones in a cool moist situation, where water +from trees, shrubs, walls, &c., cannot fall on or near them. The grit +thrown up by falling water pierces the tender tissues of the cress, and +cannot be thoroughly removed by washing. During winter they must be +raised on a slight hotbed, or in shallow boxes or pans placed in any of +the glass-houses where there is a temperature of 60 deg. or 65 deg.. +Cress is subject to the attack of a fungus (_Pythium debaryanum_) if +kept too close and moist. The pest very quickly infects a whole sowing. +There is no cure for it; preventive measures should therefore be taken +by keeping the sowings fairly dry and well ventilated. The seed should +be sown on new soil, and should not be covered. + +The "Golden" or "Australian" cress is a dwarf, yellowish-green, +mild-flavoured sort, which is cut and eaten when a little more advanced +in growth but while still young and tender. It should be sown at +intervals of a month from March onwards, the autumn sowing, for winter +and spring use, being made in a sheltered situation. + +The "curled" or "Normandy" cress is a very hardy sort, of good flavour. +In this, which is allowed to grow like parsley, the leaves are picked +for use while young; and, being finely cut and curled, they are well +adapted for garnishing. It should be sown thinly, in drills, in good +soil in the open borders, in March, April and May, and for winter and +spring use at the foot of a south wall early in September, and about the +middle of October. + +_Water-cress._--"Water-cress" (_Nasturtium officinale_) is a member of +the same natural order, and a native of Great Britain. Although now so +largely used, it does not appear to have been cultivated in England +prior to the 19th century, though in Germany, especially near Erfurt, it +had been grown long previously. Its flavour is due to an essential oil +containing sulphur. Water-cress is largely cultivated in shallow +ditches, prepared in wet, low-lying meadows, means being provided for +flooding the ditches at will. Where the amount of water available is +limited, the ditches are arranged at successively higher levels, so as +to allow of the volume admitted to the upper ditch being passed +successively to the others. The ditches are usually puddled with clay, +which is covered to the depth of 9 to 12 in. with well-manured soil. + +A stock of plants may be raised in two ways--by cuttings, and by seeds. +If a stock is to be raised from cuttings, the desired quantity of young +shoots is gathered--those sold in bunches for salad serve the purpose +well--and reduced where necessary to about 3 in. in length, the basal +and frequently rooted portion being rejected. They are dibbled thickly +into one of the ditches, and only enough water admitted to just cover +the soil. If the start is made in late spring, the cuttings will be +rooted in a week. They are allowed to remain for another week or two, +and are then taken up and dropped about 9 in. apart into the other +ditches, which have been slightly flooded to receive them. There is no +need to plant them--the young roots will very soon be securely anchored. +The volume of water is increased as the plants grow. If raised from +seed, the seed-bed is prepared as for cuttings, and seed sown either in +drills or broadcast. No flooding is done until the seedlings are up. +Water is then admitted, the level being raised as the plants grow. When +5 or 6 in. high, they are taken up and dropped into their permanent +quarters precisely like those raised from cuttings. + +Cultivated as above described, the plants afford frequent cuttings of +large clean cress of excellent flavour for market purposes. Sooner or +later growth will become less vigorous and flowering shoots will be +produced. This will be accompanied by a pronounced deterioration of the +remaining vegetative shoots. These signs will be interpreted by the +grower to mean that his plants, as a market crop, are worn out. He will +therefore take steps to repeat the routine of culture above described. +In the winter the ditches are flooded to protect the cress from frost. + +The best-flavoured water-cress is produced in the pure water of running +streams over chalk or gravel soil. Should the water be contaminated by +sewage or other undesirable matter, the plants not only absorb some of +the impurities but also serve to anchor much of the solid particles +washed as scum among them. This is extremely difficult to dislodge by +washing, and renders the cress a source of danger as food. + +Water-cress for domestic use may be raised as a kitchen-garden crop if +frequently watered overhead. Beds to afford cress during the summer +should be made in broad trenches on a border facing north. It may also +be raised in pots or pans stood in saucers of water and frequently +watered overhead. + +In recent years in America attention has been paid to the injury done to +water-cress beds by the "water-cress sow-bug" (_Mancasellus +brachyurus_), and the "water-cress leaf-beetle" (_Phaedon aeruginosa_). +Another species of _Phaedon_ is known in England as "blue beetle" or +"mustard beetle," and is a pest also of mustard, cabbage and kohlrabi +(see F. H. Chittenden, in _Bulletin_ 66, part ii. of Bureau of +Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, 1907). + +The name "nasturtium" is applied in gardens, but incorrectly, to species +of _Tropaeolum_. + + + + +CRESSENT, CHARLES (1685-1768), French furniture-maker, sculptor and +_fondeur-ciseleur_. As the second son of Francois Cressent, _sculpteur +du roi_, and grandson of Charles Cressent, a furniture-maker of Amiens, +who also became a sculptor, he inherited the tastes and aptitudes which +were likely to make a finished designer and craftsman. Even more +important perhaps was the fact that he was a pupil of Andre Charles +Boulle. Trained in such surroundings, it is not surprising that he +should have reached a degree of achievement which has to a great extent +justified the claim that he was the best decorative artist of the 18th +century. Cressent's distinction is closely connected with the regency, +but his earlier work had affinities with the school of Boulle, while his +later pieces were full of originality. He was an artist in the widest +sense of the word. He not only designed and made furniture, but created +the magnificent gilded enrichments which are so characteristic of his +work. He was likewise a sculptor, and among his plastic work is known to +have been a bronze bust of Louis, duc d'Orleans, the son of the regent, +for whom Cressent had made one of the finest examples of French +furniture of the 18th century--the famous _medaillier_ now in the +Bibliotheque Nationale. Cressent's bronze mounts were executed with a +sharpness of finish and a grace and vigour of outline which were hardly +excelled by his great contemporary Jacques Caffieri. His female figures +placed at the corners of tables are indeed among the most delicious +achievements of the great days of the French metal worker. Much of +Cressent's work survives, and can be identified; the Louvre and the +Wallace collection are especially rich in it, and his commode at +Hertford House with gilt handles representing Chinese dragons is perhaps +the most elaborate piece he ever produced. The work of identification is +rendered comparatively easy in his case by the fact that he published +catalogues of three sales of his work. These catalogues are highly +characteristic of the man, who shared in no small degree the personal +_bravoura_ of Cellini, and could sometimes execute almost as well. He +did not hesitate to describe himself as the author of "a clock worthy to +be placed in the very finest cabinets," "the most distinguished +bronzes," or pieces of "the most elegant form adorned with bronzes of +extra richness." He worked much in marqueterie, both in tortoiseshell +and in brilliant coloured woods. He was indeed an artist to whom colour +appealed with especial force. The very type and exemplar of the +"feeling" of the regency, he is worthy to have given his own name to +some of the fashions which he deduced from it. + + + + +CRESSWELL, SIR CRESSWELL (1794-1863), English judge, was a descendant of +an old Northumberland family, and was born at Newcastle in 1794. He was +educated at the Charterhouse and at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He +graduated B.A. in 1814, and M.A. four years later. Having chosen the +profession of the law he studied at the Middle Temple, and was called to +the bar in 1819. He joined the northern circuit, and was not long in +earning a distinguished position among his professional brethren. In +1837 he entered parliament as Conservative member for Liverpool, and he +soon gained a reputation as an acute and learned debater on all +constitutional questions. In January 1842 he was made a judge of the +court of common pleas, being knighted at the same time; and this post he +occupied for sixteen years. When the new court for probate, divorce and +matrimonial causes was established (1858), Sir Cresswell Cresswell was +requested by the Liberal government to become its first judge and +undertake the arduous task of its organization. Although he had already +earned a right to retire, and possessed large private wealth, he +accepted this new task, and during the rest of his life devoted himself +to it most assiduously and conscientiously, with complete satisfaction +to the public. In one case only, out of the very large number on which +he pronounced judgment, was his decision reversed. His death was sudden. +By a fall from his horse on the 11th of July 1863 his knee-cap was +injured. He was recovering from this when on the 29th of the same month +he died of disease of the heart. + + See Foss's _Lives of the Judges_; E. Manson, _Builders of our Law_ + (1904). + + + + +CRESSY, HUGH PAULINUS DE (c. 1605-1674), English Benedictine monk, whose +religious name was Serenus, was born at Wakefield, Yorkshire, about +1605. He went to Oxford at the age of fourteen, and in 1626 became a +fellow of Merton College. Having taken orders, he rose to the dignity of +dean of Leighlin, Ireland, and canon of Windsor. He also acted as +chaplain to Lord Wentworth, afterwards the celebrated earl of Strafford. +For some time he travelled abroad as tutor to Lord Falmouth, and in +1646, during a visit to Rome, joined the Roman Catholic Church. In the +following year he published his _Exomologesis_ (Paris, 1647), or account +of his conversion, which was highly valued by Roman Catholics as an +answer to William Chillingworth's attacks. Cressy entered the +Benedictine Order in 1649, and for four years resided at Somerset House +as chaplain to Catherine of Braganza, wife of Charles II. He died at +West Grinstead on the 10th of August 1674. Cressy's chief work, _The +Church History of Brittanny or England, from the beginning of +Christianity to the Norman Conquest_ (1st vol. only published, Rouen, +1668), gives an exhaustive account of the foundation of monasteries +during the Saxon heptarchy, and asserts that they followed the +Benedictine rule, differing in this respect from many historians. The +work was much criticized by Lord Clarendon, but defended by Antony a +Wood in his _Athenae Oxoniensis_, who supports Cressy's statement that +it was compiled from original MSS. and from the _Annales Ecclesiae +Britannicae_ of Michael Alford, _Dugdale's Monasticon_, and the _Decem +Scriptores Historiae Anglicanae_. The second part of the history, which +has never been printed, was discovered at Douai in 1856. To Roman +Catholics Cressy's name is familiar as the editor of Walter Hilton's +_Scale of Perfection_ (London, 1659); of Father A. Baker's _Sancta +Sophia_ (2 vols., Douai, 1657); and of Juliana of Norwich's _Sixteen +Revelations on the Love of God_ (1670). These books, which would have +been lost but for Cressy's zeal, have been frequently reprinted, and +have been favourably regarded by a section of the Anglican Church. + + For a complete list of Cressy's works see J. Gillow's _Bibl. Dict. of + Eng. Catholics_, vol. i. + + + + +CREST, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Drome, on +the right bank of the Drome, 20 m. S.S.E. of Valence by rail. Pop. +(1906) town, 3971; commune, 5660. It carries on silk-worm breeding, +silk-spinning, and the manufacture of woollens, paper, leather and +cement. There is trade in truffles. On the rock which commands the town +stands a huge keep, the sole survival of a castle (12th century) to +which Crest was indebted for its importance in the middle ages and the +Religious Wars. The rest of the castle was destroyed in the first half +of the 17th century, after which the keep was used as a state prison. +Crest ranked for a time as the capital of the duchy of Valentinois, and +in that capacity belonged before the Revolution to the prince of Monaco. +The communal charter, graven on stone and dating from the 12th century, +is preserved in the public archives. Ten miles south-east of Crest lies +the picturesque Forest of Saon. + + + + +CREST (Lat. _crista_, a plume or tuft), the "comb" on an animal's head, +and so any feathery tuft or excrescence, the "cone" of a helmet (by +transference, the helmet itself), and the top or summit of anything. In +heraldry (q.v.) a crest is a device, originally borne as a cognizance on +a knight's helmet, placed on a wreath above helmet and shield in +armorial bearings, and used separately on a seal or on articles of +property. + +_Cresting_, in architecture, is an ornamental finish in the wall or +ridge of a building, which is common on the continent of Europe. An +example occurs at Exeter cathedral, the ridge of which is ornamented +with a range of small _fleurs-de-lis_ in lead. + + + + +CRESTON, a city and the county-seat of Union county, Iowa, U.S.A., about +60 m. S.W. of Des Moines, at the crossing of the main line and two +branches of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway. Pop. (1890) 7200; +(1900) 7752; (1905, state census) 8382 (753 foreign-born); (1910) 6924. +The city is on the crest of the divide between the Mississippi and the +Missouri basins at an altitude of about 1310 ft.--whence its name. It is +situated in a fine farming and stock-raising region, for which it is a +shipping point. The site was chosen in 1869 by the Burlington & Missouri +River Railroad Company (subsequently merged in the Chicago, Burlington & +Quincy Railroad Company) for the location of its shops. Creston was +incorporated as a town in 1869, and was chartered as a city in 1871. + + + + +CRESWICK, THOMAS (1811-1869), English landscape-painter, was born at +Sheffield, and educated at Hazelwood, near Birmingham. At Birmingham he +first began to paint. His earliest appearance as an exhibitor was in +1827, at the Society of British Artists in London; in the ensuing year +he sent to the Royal Academy the two pictures named "Llyn Gwynant, +Morning," and "Carnarvon Castle." About the same time he settled in +London; and in 1836 he took a house in Bayswater. He soon attracted some +attention as a landscape-painter, and had a career of uniform and +encouraging, though not signal success. In 1842 he was elected an +associate, and in 1850 a full member of the Royal Academy, which, for +several years before his death, numbered hardly any other full members +representing this branch of art. In his early practice he set an +example, then too much needed, of diligent study of nature out of doors, +painting on the spot all the substantial part of several of his +pictures. English and Welsh streams may be said to have formed his +favourite subjects, and generally British rural scenery, mostly under +its cheerful, calm and pleasurable aspects, in open daylight. This he +rendered with elegant and equable skill, colour rather grey in tint, +especially in his later years, and more than average technical +accomplishment; his works have little to excite, but would, in most +conditions of public taste, retain their power to attract. Creswick was +industrious and extremely prolific; he produced, besides a steady +outpouring of paintings, numerous illustrations for books. He was +personally genial--a dark, bulky man, somewhat heavy and graceless in +aspect in his later years. He died at his house in Bayswater, Linden +Grove, on the 28th of December 1869, after a few years of declining +health. Among his principal works may be named "England" (1847); "Home +by the Sands, and a Squally Day" (1848); "Passing Showers" (1849); "The +Wind on Shore, a First Glimpse of the Sea, and Old Trees" (1850); "A +Mountain Lake, Moonrise" (1852); "Changeable Weather" (1865); also the +"London Road, a Hundred Years ago"; "The Weald of Kent"; the "Valley +Mill" (a Cornish subject); a "Shady Glen"; the "Windings of a River"; +the "Shade of the Beech Trees"; the "Course of the Greta"; the "Wharfe"; +"Glendalough," and other Irish subjects, 1836 to 1840; the "Forest +Farm." Frith for figures, and Ansdell for animals, occasionally worked +in collaboration with Creswick. + + In 1873 T. O. Barlow, the engraver, published a catalogue of + Creswick's works. + + + + +CRESWICK, a borough of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia. 85-1/2 m. by +rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 3060. It is the centre of a mining, +pastoral and agricultural district. Gold is found both in alluvial and +quartz formations, the quartz being especially rich. The surrounding +country is fertile and well-timbered, and there is a government +plantation and nursery in connexion with the forests department. + + + + +CRETACEOUS SYSTEM, in geology, the group of stratified rocks which +normally occupy a position above the Jurassic system and below the +oldest Tertiary deposits; therefore it is in this system that the +closing records of the great Mesozoic era are to be found. The name +furnishes an excellent illustration of the inconvenience of employing a +local lithological feature in the descriptive title of a wide-ranging +rock-system. The white chalk (Lat. _creta_), which gives its name to the +system, was first studied in the Anglo-Parisian basin, where it takes a +prominent place; but even in this limited area there is a considerable +thickness and variety of rocks which are not chalky, and the Cretaceous +system as a whole contains a remarkable diversity of types of sediment. + +_Classification._--The earlier subdivisions of the Cretaceous rocks were +founded upon the uncertain ground of similarity in lithological +characters, assisted by observed stratigraphical sequence. This method +yielded poor results even in a circumscribed area like Great Britain, +and it breaks down utterly when applied to the correlation of rocks of +similar age in Europe and elsewhere. Study of the fossils, however, has +elicited the fact that certain forms characterize certain "zones," which +are preceded and succeeded by other zones each bearing a peculiar +species or distinctive assemblage of species. By these means the +Cretaceous rocks of the world have now been correlated zone with zone, +with a degree of exactitude proportional to the palaeontological +information gained in the several areas of occurrence. + +The Cretaceous system falls naturally into two divisions, an upper and a +lower, in all but a few limited regions. In the table on page 288 the +names of the principal stages are enumerated; these are capable of +world-wide application. The sub-stages are of more local value, and too +much importance must not be attached to them for the correlation of +distant deposits. The general table is designed to show the relative +position in the system of some of the more important and better-known +formations; but it must be remembered that the Cretaceous rocks of +Europe can now be classified in considerable detail by their fossils, +the most accurate group for this purpose being the cephalopods. The +smaller table was compiled by T. C. Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury to +show the main subdivisions of the North American Cretaceous rocks. The +correlation of the minor subdivisions of Europe and America are only +approximate. + +[Illustration: Distribution of Cretaceous Rocks] + +_Relation of the Cretaceous Strata to the Systems above and below._--In +central and northern Europe the boundary between the Cretaceous and +Tertiary strata is sharply defined by a fairly general unconformity, +except in the Danian and Montian beds, where there is a certain +commingling of Tertiary with Cretaceous fossils. The relations with the +underlying Jurassic rocks are not so clearly defined, partly because the +earliest Cretaceous rocks are obscured by too great a thickness of +younger strata, and partly because the lowest observable rocks of the +system are not the oldest, but are higher members of the system that +have overlapped on to much older rocks. However, in the south of +England, in the Alpine area, and in part of N.W. Germany the passage +from Jurassic to Cretaceous is so gradual that there is some divergence +of opinion as to the best position for the line of separation. In the +Alpine region this passage is formed by marine beds, in the other two by +brackish-water deposits. In a like manner the Potomac beds of N. America +grade downwards into the Jurassic; while in the Laramie formation an +upward passage is observed into the Eocene deposits. There is a very +general unconformity and break between the Lower and Upper Cretaceous; +this has led Chamberlin and Salisbury to suggest that the Lower +Cretaceous should be regarded as a separate period with the title +"Comanchean." + +_Physiographical Conditions and Types of Deposit._--With the opening of +the Cretaceous in Europe there commenced a period of marine +transgression; in the central and western European region this took +place from the S. towards the N., slow at first and local in effect, but +becoming more decided at the beginning of the upper division. During the +earlier portion of the period, S. England, Belgium and Hanover were +covered by a great series of estuarine sands and clays, termed the +Wealden formation (q.v.), the delta of a large river or rivers flowing +probably from the N.W. Meanwhile, in the rest of Europe alternations of +marine and estuarine deposits were being laid down; but over the Alpine +region lay the open sea, where there flourished coral reefs and great +banks of clam-like molluscs. The sea gradually encroached upon the +estuarine Wealden area, and at the time of the Aptian deposits uniform +marine conditions prevailed from western Europe through Russia into +Asia. This extension of the sea is illustrated in England by the overlap +of the Gault over the Lower Greens and on to the older rocks, and by +similar occurrences in N. France and Germany. + +Almost throughout the Upper Cretaceous period the marine invasion +continued, varied here and there by slight movements in the opposite +sense which did not, however, interfere with the quiet general advance +of the sea. This marine extension made itself felt over the old central +plateau of France, the N. of Great Britain, the Spanish peninsula, the +Armorican peninsula, and also in the Bavarian Jura and Bohemia; it +affected the northern part of Africa and East Africa; in N. America the +sea spread over the entire length of the Rocky Mountain region; and in +Brazil, eastern Asia and western Australia, Upper Cretaceous deposits +are found resting directly upon much older rocks. Indeed, at this time +there happened one of the greatest changes in the distribution of land +and water that have been recorded in geological history. + +We have seen that in early Cretaceous times marine limestones were being +formed in southern Europe, while estuarine sands and muds were being +laid down in the Anglo-German delta, and that beds of intermediate +character were being made in parts of N. France and Germany. During +later Cretaceous times this striking difference between the northern and +southern facies was maintained, notwithstanding the fact that the later +deposits were of marine origin in both regions. In the northern region +the gradual deepening and accompanying extension of the sea caused the +sandy deposits to become finer grained in N.W. Europe. The sandy beds +and clays then gave way to marly deposits, and in these early stages +glauconitic grains are very characteristically present both in the sand +and in the marls. In their turn these marly deposits in the +Anglo-Parisian basin were succeeded gradually and somewhat +intermittently by the purer, soft limestone of the chalk sea, and by +limestones, similar in character, in N. France, extra-Alpine Germany, S. +Scandinavia, Denmark and Russia. Meanwhile, the S. European deposits +maintained the characters already indicated; limestones (not chalk) +prevailed, except in certain Alpine and Carpathian tracts where detrital +sandstones were being laid down. + +The great difference between the lithological characters of the northern +and southern deposits is accompanied by an equally striking difference +between their respective organic contents. In the north, the genera +_Inoceramus_ and _Belemnitella_ are particularly abundant. In the south, +the remarkable, large, clam-like, aberrant pelecypods, the +_Hippuritidae_, _Rudistes_, _Caprotina_, &c., attained an extraordinary +development; they form great lenticular banks, like the clam banks of +warm seas, or like our modern oyster-beds; they appear in successive +species in the different stages of the Cretaceous system of the south, +and can be used for marking palaeontological horizons as the cephalopods +are used elsewhere. Certain genera of ammonites, _Haploceras_, +_Lytoceras_, _Phylloceras_, rare in the north, are common in the south; +and the southern facies is further characterized by the peculiar group +of swollen belemnites (_Dumontia_), by the gasteropods _Actionella_, +_Nerinea_, &c., and by reef-building corals. The southern facies is far +more widespread and typical of the period than is the chalk; it not only +covers all southern Europe, but spreads eastwards far into Asia and +round the Mediterranean basin into Africa. It is found again in Texas, +Alabama, Mexico, the West Indies and Colombia; though limestones of the +chalk type are found in Texas, New Zealand, and locally in one or two +other places. The marine deposits are organically formed limestones, in +which foraminifera and large bivalve mollusca play a leading part, marls +and sandstones; dolomite and oolitic and pisolitic limestones are also +known. + + +-----------+--------------------------------+---------------------+-----------------------+ + | | European Classification. | | Germany, &c., several | + | +--------------+-----------------+ Britain. | other parts of Europe.| + | | Stages. | Sub-stages. | | | + +-----------+--------------+-----------------+---------------------+-----------------------+ + | | | | | | + | |Montian. |(placed by some | | Marls and pisolitic | + | | |in the Tertiary).| | Limestone of Meudon. | + | | | | | | + | |Danian. | |Chalk of Trimingham. | Limestone of Saltholm | + | | |Maestrichtian | | and Faxo (Denmark). | + | | | (Dordonian). |Upper Chalk with | | + | |Aturian. \ | | Flints. |Upper Quader Sandstone.| + | | | |Campanian. | | | + | Upper | Senonian. | | | | + |Cretaceous.| | |Santonian. | | Quader Marls and | + | |Emscherian./ | | | Planer Marls. | + | | |Coniacian. | | | + | | | |Middle Chalk without | | + | | |Angoumian. | Flints. | Upper Planer. | \ + | |Turonian. | | | | \ + | | |Ligerian. | | | | + | | | | | | | + | | |Carentonian. |Grey Chalk. | Lr. Planer and Lr. | | + | |Cenomanian. | |Chalk marl. | Quader. | Hippurite + | | |Rothomagian. |Cambridge Greensand. | | limestones + | | | +---------------------+ Tourtia of Mons, &c. | of + +-----------+--------------+-----------------| Selbornian. +-----------------------+ Southern + | | | | | | France + | | | | Gault and Upper | | and + | | | | Greensand. | | Mediterranean + | |Albian. |Gault. | | Flammen mergel. Clay | Region + | | | +---------------------+ of N. Germany. | | + | | |Gargasian. | | Urgonian | | + | |Aptian. | |Lower Greensand. | Requienia | | + | Lower | |Bedoulian. | | (caprotina) Kalk | / + |Cretaceous.| | | | or Schrattenkalk. | / + | |Barremian. | |Weald Clay | | + | | |Hauterivian. | and | | + | |Neocomian. | |Hastings sands. | North | + | | |Valangian. | | German | + | | | | Marine | Hills | + | | |Berriasian. | Beds of | formation | + | | | | Specton. | | + | | | | | | + | | | | | | + +-----------+--------------+-----------------+---------------------+-----------------------+ + + + +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+ + | | Upper Cretaceous. : Lower Cretaceous. | + +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+ + | | Aptychenkalk in E. Alps ... Cretaceous Flysch... : ... Cretaceous Flysch ... | + | | Biancone of S. Alps. : Carpathian and Vienna Sandstones, | + | Alpine | : Gosau formation of E. Alps. | + | Region. | : Seewan beds of N. Alps. | + | | : Scaglia of S. Alps. | + +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+ + | Africa. | Nubian Sandstone of ... : ... N. Africa and Syria. | + | | Uitenhage Beds S. Africa. : Pondoland Beds S. Africa. | + +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+ + | India. | Oomia and Utatur Group. : Arialoor Beds (Deccan Trap). | + +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+ + |Australia. | Rolling Down Formation. : Desert Sandstone. | + +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+ + | New | Thick conglomeratic Series with Bitumous coals. : Waipara Beds and Limestones, Chalk, | + | Zealand. | : with Flints, Marls and Greensand. | + +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+ + |S. America.| Puegiredon Series. Belgrano ... : ... Series. San Martin Series. | + +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+ + | Japan. | Torinosa Limestone and Ryoseki Series. : Izumi Sandstone and Hokkaido Series.| + +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+ + |Greenland. | Kome Group. : Atani Group. Patoot Group (part). | + +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+ + + _Note to Tables._ + + Montian from Mons in Belgium. + Danian " Denmark = _Garumnien_ of Leymerie. + Aturian " Adour. + Maestrichtian " Maestricht. + Campanian " Champagne. + Emscherian " Emscher river in Westphalia. + Santonian " Saintonge. + Coniacian " Cognac. + Senonian " Sens in department of Yonne. + Turonian " Touraine. + Angoumian " Angoumois. + Ligerian " the Loire. + Cenomanian " Le Mans (Cenomanum). + Carentonian " Charente. + Rothomagian " Rouen (_Rothomagus_). + Albian " dept. of Aube. + Selbornian " Selborne in Hampshire. + Aptian " Apt in Vaucluse. + Gargasian " Gargas near Apt. + Bedoulian " la Bedoule (Var) = _Rhodanien_ of Renevie + Barremian " Barreme in Basses Alpes. + Hauterivian " Hauterive on Lake of Neuchatel. + Valangian " Chateau de Valangin near Neuchatel. + Neocomian " Neuchatel (_Neocomum_). + Berriasian " Berrias (_Ardeche_) near Besseges. + Urgonian " Orgon near Arles. + +The Cretaceous seas were probably comparatively shallow; this was +certainly the case where the deposits are sandy, and in the regions +occupied by the hippuritic fauna. Much discussion has taken place as to +the depth of the chalk sea. Stress has been laid upon the resemblance of +this deposit to the modern deep-sea globigerina-ooze; but on the whole +the evidence is in favour of moderate depth, perhaps not more than 1000 +fathoms; the freedom of the deposit from detrital matter being regarded +as due to the low elevation of the surrounding land, and the main lines +of drainage being in other directions. Sandy and shore deposits are +common throughout the system in every region. Besides the Weald, there +were great lacustrine and terrestrial deposits in N. America (the +Potomac, Kootenay, Morrison, Dakota and Laramie formations) as well as +in N. Spain, and in parts of Germany, &c. The general distribution of +land and sea is indicated in the map. + +_Earth Movements and Vulcanicity._--During the greater part of the +Cretaceous period crustal movements had been small and local in effect, +but towards the close a series of great deformative movements was +inaugurated and continued into the next period. These movements make it +possible to discriminate between the Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks, +because the conditions of sedimentation were profoundly modified by +them, and in most parts of the world there resulted a distinct break in +the sequence of fossil remains. Great tracts of our modern continental +land areas gradually emerged, and several mountainous tracts began to be +elevated, such as the Appalachians, parts of the Cordilleras, and the +Rocky Mountains, and their northern continuation, and indeed the greater +part of the western N. American continent was intensely affected; the +uplifting was associated with extensive faulting. Volcanic activity was +in abeyance in Europe and in much of Asia, but in America there were +many eruptions and intrusions of igneous rock towards the close of the +period. Diabases and peridotites had been formed during the Lower +Cretaceous in the San Luis Obispo region. Great masses of ash and +conglomerate occur in the Crow's Nest Pass in Canada; porphyries and +porphyritic tuffs of later Cretaceous age are important in the Andes; +while similar rocks are found in the Lower Cretaceous of New Zealand. It +is, however, in the Deccan lava flows of India that we find eruptions on +a scale more vast than any that have been recorded either before or +since. These outpourings of lava cover 200,000 sq. m. and are from 4000 +to 6000 ft. thick. They lie upon an eroded Cenomanian surface and are to +some extent interbedded with Upper Cretaceous sediments. + + +-----------+---------------+------------+----------------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+ + | |Atlantic Coast.|Eastern Gulf| Western Gulf | Western Interior. | Pacific Coast.| European. | + | | | Region. | Region. | | | | + +-----------+---------------+------------+----------------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+ + | / | Manasquan. | | |Denver, Livingstone,| | | + | | | | ...... | ...... | (possibly Eocene).| Not | | + | | | | | | &c. | differentiated| | + | | | Rancocas. | | | Laramie. | or wanting. | Danian. | + | | +---------------+------------+----------------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+ + | | | | Ripley. | | Montana Series | | | + |CRETACEOUS | Monmouth. | | Montana Series | 2. Fox Hills. | | Senonian. | + | | | | Selma. | Navarro. | 1. Fort Pierre and| | | + | Upper | | | | Belly River. | | | + |Cretaceous.| Matawan. | Eutaw. | Colorado Series| Colorado Series. | | | + | | | | | 2. Austin | 2. Niobrara. | Chico. | Turonian. | + | | | | | 1. Eagle Ford | 1. Benton. | | | + | | +---------------+------------+----------------|--------------------+ +-------------+ + | | | | | Dakota. | Dakota. | | Cenomanian. | + | | | ...... | ...... | Woodbine. | | | Albian. | + | | | | | | | | Unconformity| + | \ | | U n c o|n f o r m i t y.| | | in places.| + | |...............|............|................|....................|...............|.............| + | / | | | | | Horsetown | Aptian. | + | | | | | Washita. | | | | + | | | | | | | Knoxville. | Urgonian. | + | | | | Tuskaloosa | Fredericksburg.| Kootenay and | \__ ___/ | | + |COMANCHEAN | | Series. | | Morrison (or | \/ | Neocomian. | + | | |Potomac Series.| | | Como). | Shastan. | Wealden. | + | Lower | 4. Raritan. | | | | | | + |Cretaceous.| 3. Patapsco. | | Trinity. | | | | + | | | | | | | | | + | | | Jurassic?| | | | | | + | \ | 2. Arundel | | | | | | + | | 1. Patuxent | | | | | | + +-----------+---------------+------------+----------------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+ + +_Economic Products of Cretaceous Rocks._--Coal is one of the most +important products of the rocks of this system. The principal Cretaceous +coal-bearing area is in the western interior of N. America, where an +enormous amount of coal--mostly lignitic, but in places converted into +anthracite--lies in the rocks at the foot of the Rocky Mountains; most +of this is of Laramie age. Similar beds occur locally in Montana. Coal +seams of Lower Cretaceous age are found in the Black Hills (S. Dakota), +Alaska, Greenland, and in New Zealand; and the "Upper Quader" of +Lowenberg in Silesia also contains coal seams. Coals also occur in the +brackish and fresh-water deposits of Carinthia, Dalmatia and Istria, +while unimportant lignitic beds are known in many other regions. The +Fort Pierre beds are oil-bearing at Boulder, Colorado; and the Trinity +formation bears asphalt and bitumen. Important clay deposits are worked +in the Raritan formation of New Jersey, &c., and pottery clays are found +in the Lowenberg district in Germany. The Washita beds yield the +well-known hone stone. Great beds of gypsum exist in the Cretaceous +rocks of S. America. Near Salzburg a variety of the hippuritic limestone +is quarried for marble. Lithographic stone occurs in the Pyrenees. The +economic products peculiar to the chalk are mentioned in the article +CHALK. Beds of iron ore are found in the Lower Cretaceous of Germany and +England. + +_The Life of the Cretaceous Period._--The fossils from the Cretaceous +series comprise marine, fresh-water and terrestrial animals and plants. +Foremost in interest and importance is the appearance in the Lower +Potomac (Lower Cretaceous) of eastern and central N. America of the +earliest representatives of angiospermous dicotyledons, and undoubted +monocotyledons, the progenitors of our modern flowering plants. The +angiosperms spread outward from the Atlantic coast region of N. America, +and first appeared in Europe in the Aptian of Portugal; towards the +close of the Lower Cretaceous period they occupied parts of Greenland, +the remaining land areas of N. America, and were steadily advancing in +every quarter of the globe. At first the Jurassic plants, the Cycads, +ferns and conifers, lived on and were the dominant plant forms. +Gradually, however, they took a subordinate place, and by the close of +the Cretaceous period the angiosperms had gained the upper hand. The +earliest of these fossil angiosperms is not in a true sense a primitive +form, and no records of such types have yet been discovered. Some of the +early forms of the Lower Cretaceous are distinctly similar to modern +genera, such as _Ficus_, _Sassafras_ and _Aralia_; others bore leaves +closely resembling our elm, maple, willow, oak, eucalyptus, &c. Before +the close of the period many other representatives of living genera had +appeared, beech, walnut, tamarisk, plane, laurel (_Laurus_), cinnamon, +ivy, ilex, viburnum, buckthorn, breadfruit, oleander and others; there +were also junipers, thujas, pines and sequoias and monocotyledons such +as _Potamogeton_ and _Arundo_. This flora was widely spread and uniform; +there was great similarity between that of Europe and N. America, and in +parts of the United States (Virginia and Maryland) the plants were very +like those in Greenland. The general aspect of the flora was +sub-tropical; the eucalyptus and other plants then common in Europe and +N. America are now confined to the southern hemisphere. + +The marine fauna comprised foraminifera which must have swarmed in the +Chalk and some of the limestone seas; their shells have formed great +thickness of rock. Common forms are the genera _Alveolina_, +_Cristellaria_, _Rotalia_, _Textularia_, _Orbitolina_, _Globigerina_. +Radiolarians were doubtless abundant, but their remains are rare. +Sponges with calcareous (_Peronidilla_, _Barroisia_) and siliceous +skeletons (_Siphonia_, _Coeloptychium_, _Ventriculites_) were very +numerous in certain of the Cretaceous waters. Corals were comparatively +rare, _Trochosmilia_, _Parasmilia_, _Holocystis_ being typical genera; +reefs were formed in the Maestricht beds of Denmark and Faxoe, in the +Neocomian and Turonian of France, in the Turonian of the Alps and +Pyrenees, and also in the Gosau beds and in the Utatur group of India. +Sea-urchins were a conspicuous feature, and many nearly allied forms are +still living; _Cidaris_, _Micraster_, _Discoidea_ are examples. Crinoids +were represented by _Marsupites_, _Uintacrinus_ and _Bourgueticrinus_; +starfish (_Calliderma_ and _Pentagonaster_) were not uncommon. Polyzoa +were abundant; brachiopods were fairly common, though subordinate to the +pelecypods; they were mostly rhynchonellids and terebratulids, which +lived side by side with the ancient forms, like _Crania_ and _Discina_. +The bivalve mollusca were very important during this period, +_Inoceramus_, _Ostrea_, _Spondylus_, _Gervillia_, _Exogyra_, _Pecten_, +_Trigonia_ being particularly abundant in the northern seas, while in +the southern waters the remarkable _Hippurites_, _Radiolites_, +_Caprotina_, _Caprina_, _Monopleura_ and _Requienia_ prevailed. +Gasteropods were well represented and included many modern genera. +Cephalopods were important as a group, but the ammonites, so vigorous in +the foregoing period, were declining and were assuming curious +degenerate forms, often with a tendency to uncoil the shell; +_Baculites_, _Hoplites_, _Turrilites_, _Ptychoceras_, _Hamites_ are some +of the typical genera, while _Belemnites_ and _Belemnitella_ were +abundant in the northern seas. + +The vertebrate fauna of the Cretaceous period differed in many features +from that of the present day; mammals appear to have been only poorly +represented by puny forms, related to Triassic and Jurassic types; they +were mainly marsupials (_Batodon_, _Cimolestes_) with a few +monotreme-like forms; carnivores, rodents and ungulates were still +unknown. As in Jurassic times, reptiles were the dominant forms, and not +a few genera lived on from the former period into the Cretaceous; but, +on the whole, the reptilian assemblage was no longer so varied, and most +of the distinctive mesozoic types had passed away before the close of +this period. Dinosaurs were represented by herbivorous and carnivorous +genera as in the Jurassic period, but the latter were less abundant than +before. The _Iguanodon_ of the Sussex-Weald and Bernissart in Belgium is +perhaps the best-known genus; but there were many others, their remains +being particularly abundant and well-preserved in the Cretaceous +deposits of N. America. _Titanosaurus_, _Acanthopholis_, _Megalosaurus_ +and _Hypsilophodon_ may be mentioned, some of these being of great size, +while _Diclonius_ was a curious duck-billed creature; but most +remarkable in appearance must have been the horned Dinosaurs, _Ceratops_ +and _Triceratops_, gross, unwieldy creatures, 25 to 30 ft. long, whose +huge heads were grotesquely armed with horns and bony frills. + +Coincident, perhaps, with the widespread extension of the sea was the +development of aquatic habits and structures suitable thereto amongst +all the reptilian groups including also the birds. The foremost place +was undoubtedly taken by the pythonomorphs or sea-serpents, including +_Mosasaurus_ and many others; these were enormously elongated creatures, +reaching up to 75 ft., with swimming flappers and powerful swimming +tails, and they lived a predatory life in the open sea. Ichthyosaurians +soon disappeared from Cretaceous waters; but the plesiosaurians +(_Cimoliosaurus_ and others) reached their maximum development in this +period. The remarkable flying lizards, pterosaurs, likewise attained +their great development and then passed away; they ranged in size from +that of a pigeon to creatures with a wing-spread of 25 ft.; notable +genera are _Pteranodon_, _Ornithocheirus_, _Nyctiosaurus_. Ordinary +lizard-like forms were represented by _Coniosaurus_, _Dolichosaurus_, +&c.; and true crocodiles, _Goniopholis_, _Suchosaurus_, appeared in this +period, and continued to approximate to modern genera. The earliest +known river turtles are found in the Belly River deposits of Canada; +marine turtles also made their first appearance and were widely +represented, some of them, _Archelon_ and _Protostega_, being of great +size. True snakes appeared later in the period. + +The birds, as far as existing evidence goes, were aquatic; some, like +_Ichthyornis_, were built for powerful flight; others, like +_Hesperornis_, were flightless. _Enaliornis_ is a form well known from +the Cambridge Greensand. They were toothed birds having structural +affinities with the Dinosaurs and Pterodactyles. + +Fish remains of this period show that a marked change was taking place; +teleosteans (with bony internal skeleton) were taking a more prominent +place, and although ganoids were still represented (_Macropoma_, +_Lepidotus_, _Amiopris_, &c.) they had quite ceased to be the dominant +types before the close of Cretaceous times. Sharks and rays were of the +modern types, though distinct in species. Amongst the early forms of +Cretaceous teleosteans may be mentioned _Elopopsis_, _Ichthyodectes_, +_Diplomystus_ (herring), _Haplopteryx_ and _Urenchelys_ (eel). + + For further information see the articles CHALK; GREENSAND; WEALDEN. + Sir A. Geikie's _Text-book of Geology_, vol. ii. (4th ed., 1903), + contains in addition to a full general account of the system very full + references to the literature. + + + + +CRETE (Gr. [Greek: Krete]; Turk. _Kirid_, Ital. _Candia_), after Sicily, +Sardinia and Cyprus the largest island in the Mediterranean, situated +between 34 deg. 50' and 35 deg. 40' N. lat. and between 23 deg. 30' and +26 deg. 20' E. long. Its north-eastern extremity, Cape Sidero, is +distant about 110 m. from Cape Krio in Asia Minor, the interval being +partly filled by the islands of Carpathos and Rhodes; its north-western, +Cape Grabusa, is within 60 m. of Cape Malea in the Morea. Crete thus +forms the natural limit between the Mediterranean and the Archipelago. +The island is of elongated form; its length from E. to W. is 160 m., its +breadth from N. to S. varies from 35 to 7-1/2 m., its area is 3330 sq. +m. The northern coast-line is much indented. On the W. two narrow +mountainous promontories, the western terminating in Cape Grabusa or +Busa (ancient Corycus), the eastern in Cape Spada, shut in the Bay of +Kisamos; beyond the Bay of Canea, to the E., the rocky peninsula of +Akrotiri shelters the magnificent natural harbour of Suda (8-1/2 sq. +m.), the only completely protected anchorage for large vessels which the +island affords. Farther E. are the bays of Candia and Malea, the deep +Mirabello Bay and the Bay of Sitia. The south coast is less broken, and +possesses no natural harbours, the mountains in many parts rising almost +like a wall from the sea; in the centre is Cape Lithinos, the +southernmost point of the island, partly sheltering the Bay of Messara +on the W. Immediately to the E. of Cape Lithinos is the small bay of +Kali Limenes or Fair Havens, where the ship conveying St Paul took +refuge (Acts xxvii. 8). Of the islands in the neighbourhood of the +Cretan coast the largest is Gavdo (ancient Clauda, Acts xxvii. 16), +about 25 m. from the south coast at Sphakia, in the middle ages the see +of a bishop. On the N. side the small island of Dia, or Standia, about 8 +m. from Candia, offers a convenient shelter against northerly gales. +Three small islands on the northern coast--Grabusa at the N.W. +extremity, Suda, at the entrance to Suda harbour, and Spinalonga, in +Mirabello Bay--remained for some time in the possession of Venice after +the conquest of Crete by the Turks. Grabusa, long regarded as an +impregnable fortress, was surrendered in 1692, Suda (where the flags of +Turkey and the four protecting powers are now hoisted) and Spinalonga in +1715. + +[Illustration: Map of Crete] + +_Natural Features._--The greater part of the island is occupied by +ranges of mountains which form four principal groups. In the western +portion rises the massive range of the White Mountains (_Aspra Vouna_), +directly overhanging the southern coast with spurs projecting towards +the W. and N.W. (highest summit, Hagios Theodoros, 7882 ft.). In the +centre is the smaller, almost detached mass of Psiloriti ([Greek: +Hypsiloreition], ancient Ida), culminating in Stavros (8193 ft.), the +highest summit in the island. To the E. are the Lassithi mountains with +Aphenti Christos (7165 ft.), and farther E. the mountains of Sitia with +Aphenti Kavousi (4850 ft.). The Kophino mountains (3888 ft.) separate +the central plain of Messara from the southern coast. The isolated peak +of Iuktas (about 2700 ft.), nearly due S. of Candia, was regarded with +veneration in antiquity as the burial-place of Zeus. The principal +groups are for the greater part of the year covered with snow, which +remains in the deeper clefts throughout the summer; the intervals +between them are filled by connecting chains which sometimes reach the +height of 3000 ft. The largest plain is that of Monofatsi and Messara, a +fertile tract extending between Mt. Psiloriti and the Kophino range, +about 37 m. in length and 10 m. in breadth. The smaller plain, or rather +slope, adjoining Canea and the valley of Alikianu, through which the +Platanos (ancient Iardanos) flows, are of great beauty and fertility. A +peculiar feature is presented by the level upland basins which furnish +abundant pasturage during the summer months; the more remarkable are the +Omalo in the White Mountains (about 4000 ft.) drained by subterranean +outlets ([Greek: katabothra]), Nida ([Greek: eis ten Idan]) in Psiloriti +(between 5000 and 6000 ft.), and the Lassithi plain (about 3000 ft.), a +more extensive area, on which are several villages. Another remarkable +characteristic is found in the deep narrow ravines ([Greek: pharangia]), +bordered by precipitous cliffs, which traverse the mountainous +districts; into some of these the daylight scarcely penetrates. Numerous +large caves exist in the mountains; among the most remarkable are the +famous Idaean cave in Psiloriti, the caves of Melidoni, in Mylopotamo, +and Sarchu, in Malevisi, which sheltered hundreds of refugees after the +insurrection of 1866, and the Dictaean cave in Lassithi, the birth-place +of Zeus. The so-called Labyrinth, near the ruins of Gortyna, was a +subterranean quarry from which the city was built. The principal rivers +are the Metropoli Potamos and the Anapothiari, which drain the plain of +Monofatsi and enter the southern sea E. and W. respectively of the +Kophino range; the Platanos, which flows northwards from the White +Mountains into the Bay of Canea; and the Mylopotamo (ancient Oaxes) +flowing northwards from Psiloriti to the sea E. of Retimo. + + _Geology._[1]--The metamorphic rocks of western Crete form a series + some 9000 to 10,000 ft. in thickness, of very varied composition. They + include gypsum, dolomite, conglomerates, phyllites, and a basic series + of eruptive rocks (gabbros, peridotites, serpentines). Glaucophane + rocks are widely spread. In the centre of the folds fossiliferous beds + with crinoids have been found, and the black slates at the top of the + series contain _Myophoria_ and other fossils, indicating that the + rocks are of Triassic age. It is, however, not impossible that the + metamorphic series includes also some of the Lias. The later beds of + the island belong to the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary systems. At + the western foot of the Ida massif calcareous beds with corals, + brachiopods (_Rhynchonella inconstans_, &c.) have been found, the + fossils indicating the horizon of the Kimmeridge clay. Lower + Cretaceous limestones and schists, with radiolarian cherts, arc + extensively developed; and in many parts of the island Upper + Cretaceous limestones with _Rudistes_ and Eocene beds with nummulites + have been found. All these are involved in the earth movements to + which the mountains of the island owe their formation, but the Miocene + beds (with _Clypeaster_) and later deposits lie almost undisturbed + upon the coasts and the low-lying ground. With the Jurassic beds is + associated an extensive series of eruptive rocks (gabbro, peridotite, + serpentine, diorite, granite, &c.); they are chiefly of Jurassic age, + but the eruptions may have continued into the Lower Cretaceous. + + The structure of the island is complex. In the west the folds run from + north to south, curving gradually westward towards the southern and + western coasts; but in the east the folds appear to run from west to + east, and to be the continuation of the Dinaric folds of the Balkan + peninsula. The structure is further complicated by a great + thrust-plane which has brought the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous beds + upon the Upper Cretaceous and Eocene beds. + +_Vegetation._--The forests which once covered the mountains have for the +most part disappeared and the slopes are now desolate wastes. The +cypress still grows wild in the higher regions; the lower hills and the +valleys, which are extremely fertile, are covered with olive woods. +Oranges and lemons also abound, and are of excellent quality, furnishing +almost the whole supply of continental Greece and Constantinople. +Chestnut woods are found in the Selino district, and forests of the +valonia oak in that of Retimo; in some parts the carob tree is abundant +and supplies an important article of consumption. Pears, apples, +quinces, mulberries and other fruit-trees flourish, as well as vines; +the Cretan wines, however, no longer enjoy the reputation which they +possessed in the time of the Venetians. Tobacco and cotton succeed well +in the plains and low grounds, though not at present cultivated to any +great extent. + +_Animals._--Of the wild animals of Crete, the wild goat or _agrimi +(Capra aegagrus)_ alone need be mentioned; it is still found in +considerable numbers on the higher summits of Psiloriti and the White +Mountains. The same species is found in the Caucasus and Mount Taurus, +and is distinct from the ibex or bouquetin of the Alps. Crete, like +several other large islands, enjoys immunity from dangerous serpents--a +privilege ascribed by popular belief to the intercession of Titus, the +companion of St Paul, who according to tradition was the first bishop of +the island, and became in consequence its patron saint. Wolves also are +not found in the island, though common in Greece and Asia Minor. The +native breed of mules is remarkably fine. + +_Population._--The population of Crete under the Venetians was estimated +at about 250,000. After the Turkish conquest it greatly diminished, but +afterwards gradually rose, till it was supposed to have attained to +about 260,000, of whom about half were Mahommedans, at the time of the +outbreak of the Greek revolution in 1821. The ravages of the war from +1821 to 1830, and the emigration that followed, caused a great +diminution, and the population was estimated by Pashley in 1836 at only +about 130,000. In the next generation it again materially increased; it +was calculated by Spratt in 1865 as amounting to 210,000. According to +the census taken in 1881, the complete publication of which was +interdicted by the Turkish authorities, the population of the island was +279,165, or 35.78 to the square kilometre. Of this total, 141,602 were +males, 137,563 females; 33,173 were literate, 242,114 illiterate; +205,010 were orthodox Christians, 73,234 Moslems, and 921 of other +religious persuasions. The Moslem element predominated in the principal +towns, of which the population was--Candia, 21,368; Canea, 13,812; +Retimo, 9274. According to the census taken in June 1900, the population +of the island was 301,273, the Christians having increased to 267,266, +while the Moslems had diminished to 33,281. The Moslems, as well as the +Christians, are of Greek origin and speak Greek. + +_Towns._--The three principal towns are on the northern coast and +possess small harbours suitable for vessels of light draught. Candia, +the former capital and the see of the archbishop of Crete (pop. in 1900, +22,501), is officially styled Herakleion; it is surrounded by remarkable +Venetian fortifications and possesses a museum with a valuable +collection of objects found at Cnossus, Phaestus, the Idaean cave and +elsewhere. It has been occupied since 1897 by British troops. Canea +(Xavia), the seat of government since 1840 (pop. 20,972), is built in +the Italian style; its walls and interesting galley-slips recall the +Venetian period. The residence of the high commissioner and the +consulates of the powers are in the suburb of Halepa. Retimo [Greek: +Rethumnos] is, like Canea, the see of a bishop (pop. 9311). The other +towns, Hierapetra, Sitia, Kisamos, Selino and Sphakia, are unimportant. + + _Production and Industries._--Owing to the volcanic nature of its + soil, Crete is probably rich in minerals. Recent experiments lead to + the conclusion that iron, lead, manganese, lignite and sulphur exist + in considerable abundance. Copper and zinc have also been found. A + large number of applications for mining concessions have been received + since the establishment of the autonomous government. The principal + wealth of the island is derived from its olive groves; notwithstanding + the destruction of many thousands of trees during each successive + insurrection, the production is apparently undiminished, and will + probably increase very considerably owing to the planting of young + trees and the improved methods of cultivation which the Government is + endeavouring to promote. The orange and lemon groves have also + suffered considerably, but new varieties of the orange tree are now + being introduced, and an impulse will be given to the export trade in + this fruit by the removal of the restriction on its importation into + Greece. Agriculture is still in a primitive condition; notwithstanding + the fertility of the arable land the supply of cereals is far below + the requirements of the population. A great portion of the central + plain of Monofatsi, the principal grain-producing district, is lying + fallow owing to the exodus of the Moslem peasantry. The cultivation of + silk cocoons, formerly a flourishing industry, has greatly declined in + recent years, but efforts are now being made to revive it. There are + few manufactures. Soap is produced at fifteen factories in the + principal towns, and there are two distilleries of cognac at Candia. + + _Commerce._--The expansion of Cretan commerce has been retarded by + many drawbacks, such as the unsatisfactory condition of the harbours, + the want of direct steamship lines to England and other countries, and + the deficiency of internal communications. The total value of imports + in the four years 1901-1904 was L1,756,888, of exports L1,386,777; + excess of imports over exports, L370,111. Exports in 1904 were valued + at L419,642, the principal items being agricultural products (oranges, + lemons, carobs, almonds, grapes, valonia, &c.), value L153,858, olives + and products of olives (oil, soap, &c.), L134,788, and wines and + liquors, L48,544. The countries which accept the largest share of + Cretan produce are Turkey, England, Egypt, Austria and Russia. Imports + in 1904 were valued at L549,665, including agricultural products + (mainly flour and corn), value L162,535, and textiles, L129,349. + Cereals are imported from the Black Sea and Danube ports, ready-made + clothing from Austria and Germany, articles of luxury from Austria and + France, and cotton textiles from England. Imports are charged 8%, + exports 1% _ad valorem_ duty. According to a law published in 1899, + Turkish merchandise became subjected to the same rates as that of + foreign nations. + +_Constitution and Government._--During the past half-century the affairs +of Crete have repeatedly occupied the attention of Europe. Owing to the +existence of a strong Mussulman minority among its inhabitants, the +warlike character of the natives, and the mountainous configuration of +the country, which enabled a portion of the Christian population to +maintain itself in a state of partial independence, the island has +constantly been the scene of prolonged and sanguinary struggles in which +the numerical superiority of the Christians was counterbalanced by the +aid rendered to the Moslems by the Ottoman troops. This unhappy state of +affairs was aggravated and perpetuated by the intrigues set on foot at +Constantinople against successive governors of the island, the conflicts +between the Palace and the Porte, the duplicity of the Turkish +authorities, the dissensions of the representatives of the great powers, +the machinations of Greek agitators, the rivalry of Cretan politicians, +and prolonged financial mismanagement. A long series of +insurrections--those of 1821, 1833, 1841, 1858, 1866-1868, 1878, 1889 +and 1896 may be especially mentioned--culminated in the general +rebellion of 1897, which led to the interference of Greece, the +intervention of the great powers, the expulsion of the Turkish +authorities, and the establishment of an autonomous Cretan government +under the suzerainty of the sultan. According to the autonomous +constitution of 1899 the supreme power was vested in Prince George of +Greece, acting as high commissioner of the protecting powers. The +authority thus conferred was confided exclusively to the prince, and was +declared liable to modification by law in the case of his successor. The +modified constitution of February 1907 curtailed the large exceptional +legislative and administrative powers then accorded. The high +commissioner is irresponsible, but his decrees, except in certain +specified cases, must be countersigned by a member of his council. He +convokes, prorogues and dissolves the chamber, sanctions laws, exercises +the right of pardon in case of political offences, represents the island +in its foreign relations and is chief of its military forces. The +chamber ([Greek: boule]), which is elected in the proportion of one +deputy to every 5000 inhabitants, meets annually for a session of two +months. New elections are held every two years. The chamber exercises a +complete financial control, and no taxes can be imposed without its +consent. The high commissioner is aided in the administration by a +cabinet of three members, styled "councillors" ([Greek: symbouloi]), who +superintend the departments of justice, finance, education, public +security and the interior. The councillors, who are nominated and +dismissed by the high commissioner, are responsible to the chamber, +which may impeach them before a special tribunal for any illegal act or +neglect of duty. + +In general the Cretan constitution is characterized by a conservative +spirit, and contrasts with the ultra-democratic systems established in +Greece and the Balkan States. A further point of difference is the more +liberal payment of public functionaries in Crete. For administrative +purposes the departmental divisions existing under the Turkish +government have been retained. There are 5 _nomoi_ or prefectures +(formerly _sanjaks_) each under a prefect ([Greek: nomarchos]), and 23 +eparchies (formerly _kazas_) each under a sub-prefect ([Greek: +eparchos]). All these functionaries are nominated by the high +commissioner. The prefects are assisted by departmental councils. The +system of municipal and communal government remains practically +unchanged. The island is divided into 86 communes, each with a mayor, an +assistant-mayor, and a communal council elected by the people. The +councils assess within certain limits the communal taxes, maintain +roads, bridges, &c., and generally superintend local affairs. Public +order is maintained by a force of gendarmerie ([Greek: chorophulake]) +organized and at first commanded by Italian officers, who were replaced +by Greek officers in December 1906. The constitution authorizes the +formation of a militia ([Greek: politophulake]) to be enrolled by +conscription, but in existing circumstances the embodiment of this force +seems unnecessary. + +_Justice._--The administration of justice is on the French model. A +supreme court of appeal, which also discharges the functions of a court +of cassation, sits at Canea. There are two assize courts at Canea and +Candia respectively with jurisdiction in regard to serious offences +([Greek: kakourgemata ]). Minor offences ([Greek: plemmelemata]) and +civil causes are tried by courts of first instance in each of the five +departments. There are 26 justices of peace, to whose decision are +referred slight contraventions of the law ([Greek: ptaismata]) and civil +causes in which the amount claimed is below 600 francs. These +functionaries also hold monthly sessions in the various communes. The +judges are chosen without regard to religious belief, and precautions +have been taken to render them independent of political parties. They +are appointed, promoted, transferred or removed by order of the council +of justice, a body composed of the five highest judicial dignitaries, +sitting at Canea. An order for the removal of a judge must be based upon +a conviction for some specified offence before a court of law. The jury +system has not been introduced. The Greek penal code has been adopted +with some modifications. The Ottoman civil code is maintained for the +present, but it is proposed to establish a code recently drawn up by +Greek jurists which is mainly based on Italian and Saxon law. The +Mussulman cadis retain their jurisdiction in regard to religious +affairs, marriage, divorce, the wardship of minors and inheritance. + +_Religion and Education._--The vast majority of the Christian population +belongs to the Orthodox (Greek) Church, which is governed by a synod of +seven bishops under the presidency of the metropolitan of Candia. The +Cretan Church is not, strictly speaking, autocephalous, being dependent +on the patriarchate of Constantinople. There were in 1907 3500 Greek +churches in the island with 53 monasteries and 3 nunneries; 55 mosques, +4 Roman Catholic churches and 4 synagogues. Education is nominally +compulsory. In 1907 there were 547 primary schools (527 Christian and 20 +Mahommedan), and 31 secondary schools (all Christian). About L20,000 is +granted annually by the state for the purposes of education. + + _Finance._--Owing to the havoc wrought during repeated insurrections, + the impoverishment of the peasants, the desolation of the districts + formerly inhabited by the Moslem agricultural population, and the + drain of gold resulting from the sale of Moslem lands and emigration + of the former proprietors, together with other causes, the financial + situation has been unsatisfactory. Notwithstanding the advance of + L160,000 made by the four protecting powers after the institution of + autonomous government and the profits (L61,937) derived from the issue + of a new currency in 1900, there was at the beginning of 1906 an + accumulated deficit of L23,470, which represents the floating debt. In + addition to the above-mentioned debt to the powers, the state + contracted a loan of L60,000 in 1901 to acquire the rights and + privileges of the Ottoman Debt, to which the salt monopoly has been + conceded for 20 years. In the budgets for 1905 and 1906 considerable + economies were effected by the curtailment of salaries, the abolition + of various posts, and the reduction of the estimates for education and + public works. The estimated revenue and expenditure for 1906 were as + follows:-- + + Revenue. Expenditure. + Drachmae (gold). Drachmae (gold). + + Direct taxes 1,494,000 High Commissioner 200,000 + Indirect taxes 1,715,000 Financial + administration 694,670 + Stamp dues 351,700 Interior (including + gendarmerie) 1,678,566 + Other sources 780,967 Education and Justice 1,453,500 + --------- --------- + 4,341,667 4,026,736 + --------- --------- + + The salary of the high commissioner was reduced in 1907 to 100,000 + drachmae. + + Improved communications are much needed for the transport of + agricultural produce, but the state of the treasury does not admit of + more than a nominal expenditure on road-making and other public works. + On these the average yearly expenditure between 1898 and 1905 was + L13,404. The prosperity of the island depends on the development of + agriculture, the acquirement of industrious habits by the people, and + the abandonment of political agitation. The Cretans were in 1906 more + lightly taxed than any other people in Europe. The tithe had been + replaced by an export tax on exported agricultural produce levied at + the custom-houses, and the smaller peasant proprietors and shepherds + of the mountainous districts were practically exempt from any + contribution to the state. The communal tax did not exceed on the + average two francs annually for each family. The poorer communes are + aided by a state subvention. (J. D. B.) + + +_Archaeology._ + + Early, Middle and Late "Minoan" periods. + +The recent exploration and excavation of early sites in Crete have +entirely revolutionized our knowledge of its remote past, and afforded +the most astonishing evidence of the existence of a highly advanced +civilization going far back behind the historic period. Great "Minoan" +palaces have been brought to light at Cnossus and Phaestus, together +with a minor but highly interesting royal abode at Hagia Triada near +Phaestus. "Minoan" towns, some of considerable extent, have been +discovered at Cnossus itself, at Gournia, Palaikastro, and at Zakro. The +cave sanctuary of the Dictaean Zeus has been explored, and throughout +the whole length and breadth of the island a mass of early materials has +now been collected. The comparative evidence afforded by the discovery +of Egyptian relics shows that the Great Age of the Cretan palaces covers +the close of the third and the first half of the second millennium +before our era. But the contents of early tombs and dwellings and +indications supplied by such objects as stone vases and seal-stones show +that the Cretans had already attained to a considerable degree of +culture, and had opened out communication with the Nile valley in the +time of the earliest Egyptian dynasties. This more primitive phase of +the indigenous culture, of which several distinct stages are traceable, +is known as the Early Minoan, and roughly corresponds with the first +half of the third millennium B.C. The succeeding period, to which the +first palaces are due and to which the name of Middle Minoan is +appropriately given, roughly coincides with the Middle Empire of Egypt. +An extraordinary perfection was at this time attained in many branches +of art, notably in the painted pottery, often with polychrome +decoration, of a class known as "Kamares" from its first discovery in a +cave of that name on Mount Ida. Imported specimens of this ware were +found by Flinders Petrie among XIIth Dynasty remains at Kahun. The +beginnings of a school of wall painting also go back to the Middle +Minoan period, and metal technique and such arts as gem engraving show +great advance. By the close of this period a manufactory of fine faience +was attached to the palace of Cnossus. The succeeding Late Minoan +period, best illustrated by the later palace at Cnossus and that at +Hagia Triada, corresponds in Egypt with the Hyksos period and the +earlier part of the New Empire. In the first phase of this the Minoan +civilization attains its acme, and the succeeding style already shows +much that may be described as rococo. The later phase, which follows on +the destruction of the Cnossian palace, and corresponds with the +diffused Mycenaean style of mainland Greece and elsewhere, is already +partly decadent. Late Minoan art in its finest aspect is best +illustrated by the animated ivory figures, wall paintings, and _gesso +duro_ reliefs at Cnossus, by the painted stucco designs at Hagia Triada, +and the steatite vases found on the same site with zones in reliefs +exhibiting life-like scenes of warriors, toreadors, gladiators, +wrestlers and pugilists, and of a festal throng perhaps representing a +kind of "harvest home." Of the more conventional side of Late Minoan +life a graphic illustration is supplied by the remains of miniature wall +paintings found in the palace of Cnossus, showing groups of court ladies +in curiously modern costumes, seated on the terraces and balustrades of +a sanctuary. A grand "palace style" of vase painting was at the same +time evolved, in harmony with the general decoration of the royal halls. + + + Minoan script. + +It had been held till lately that the great civilization of prehistoric +Greece, as first revealed to us by Schliemann's discoveries at Mycenae, +was not possessed of the art of writing. In 1893, however, Arthur Evans +observed some signs on seal-stones from Crete which led him to believe +that a hieroglyphic system of writing had existed in Minoan times. +Explorations carried out by him in Crete from 1894 onwards, for the +purpose of investigating the prehistoric civilization of the island, +fully corroborated this belief, and showed that a linear as well as a +semi-pictorial form of writing was diffused in the island at a very +early period ("Cretan Pictographs and Prae-Phoenician Script," _Journ. +of Hellenic Studies_, xiv. pt. 11). In 1895 he obtained a libation-table +from the Dictaean cave with a linear dedication in the prehistoric +writing ("Further Discoveries," &c., _J.H.S._ xvii.). Finally in 1900 +all scepticism in the learned world was set at rest by his discovery in +the palace of Cnossus of whole archives consisting of clay tablets +inscribed both in the pictographic (hieroglyphic) and linear forms of +the Minoan script (Evans, "Palace of Knossos," _Reports of Excavation, +1900-1905_; _Scripta Minoa_, vol. i., 1909). Supplementary finds of +inscribed tablets have since been found at Hagia Triada (F. Halbherr, +_Rapporto, &c., Monumenti antichi_, 1903) and elsewhere (Palaikastro, +Zakro and Gournia). It thus appears that a highly developed system of +writing existed in Minoan Crete some two thousand years earlier than the +first introduction under Phoenician influence of Greek letters. In this, +as in so many other respects, the old Cretan tradition receives striking +confirmation. According to the Cretan version preserved by Diodorus (v. +74), the Phoenicians did not invent letters but simply altered their +forms. + + + Earlier pictographic script. + +There is evidence that the use in Crete of both linear and pictorial +signs existed in the Early Minoan period, contemporary with the first +Egyptian dynasties. It is, however, during the Middle Minoan age, the +centre point of which corresponds with the XIIth Egyptian dynasty, +according to the Sothic system of dating, c. 2000-1850 B.C., that a +systematized pictographic or hieroglyphic script makes its appearance +which is common both to signets and clay tablets. During the Third +Middle Minoan period, the lower limits of which approach 1600 B.C., this +pictographic script finally gives way to a still more developed linear +system--which is itself divided into an earlier and a later class. The +earlier class (A) is already found in the temple repositories of Cnossus +belonging to the age immediately preceding the great remodelling of the +palace, and this class is specially well represented in the tablets of +Hagia Triada (M.M. iii. and L.M. i.). The later class (B) of the linear +script is that used on the great bulk of the clay tablets of the +Cnossian palace, amounting in number to nearly 2000. + +These clay archives are almost exclusively inventories and business +documents. Their general purport is shown in many cases by pictorial +figures relating to various objects which appear on them--such as +chariots and horses, ingots and metal vases, arms and implements, stores +of corn, &c., flocks and herds. Many showing human figures apparently +contain lists of personal names. A decimal system of numeration was +used, with numbers going up to 10,000. But the script itself is as yet +undeciphered, though it is clear that certain words have changing +suffixes, and that there were many compound words. The script also +recurs on walls in the shape of graffiti, and on vases, sometimes +ink-written; and from the number of seals originally attached to +perishable documents it is probable that parchment or some similar +material was also used. In the easternmost district of Crete, where the +aboriginal "Eteocretan" element survived to historic times (Praesus, +Palaikastro), later inscriptions have been discovered belonging to the +5th and succeeding centuries B.C., written in Greek letters but in the +indigenous language (Comparetti, _Mon. Ant._ iii. 451 sqq.; R. S. +Conway, _British School Annual_, viii. 125 sqq. and ib. xl.). In 1908 a +remarkable discovery was made by the Italian Mission at Phaestus of a +clay disk with imprinted hieroglyphic characters belonging to a +non-Cretan system and probably from W. Anatolia. + + + Character of Minoan religion. + +The remains of several shrines within the building, and the religious +element perceptible in the frescoes, show that a considerable part of +the Palace of Cnossus was devoted to purposes of cult. It is clear that +the rulers, as so commonly in ancient states, fulfilled priestly as well +as royal functions. The evidence supplied by this and other Cretan sites +shows that the principal Minoan divinity was a kind of _Magna Mater_, a +Great Mother or nature goddess, with whom was associated a male +satellite. The cult in fact corresponds in its main outlines with the +early religious conceptions of Syria and a large part of Anatolia--a +correspondence probably explained by a considerable amount of ethnic +affinity existing between a large section of the primitive Cretan +population and that of southern Asia Minor. The Minoan goddess is +sometimes seen in her chthonic form with serpents, sometimes in a more +celestial aspect with doves, at times with lions. One part of her +religious being survives in that of the later Rhea, another in that of +Aphrodite, one of whose epithets, _Ariadne_ ( = the exceeding holy), +takes us back to the earliest Cnossian tradition. Under her native name, +Britomartis ( = the sweet maiden) or Dictynna, she approaches Artemis +and Leto, again associated with an infant god, and this Cretan virgin +goddess was worshipped in Aegina under the name of Aphaea. It is +noteworthy that whereas, in Greece proper, Zeus attains a supreme +position, the old superiority of the Mother Goddess is still visible in +the Cretan traditions of Rhea and Dictynna and the infant Zeus. + +Although images of the divinities were certainly known, the principal +objects of cult in the Minoan age were of the aniconic class; in many +cases these were natural objects, such as rocks and mountain peaks, with +their cave sanctuaries, like those of Ida or of Dicte. Trees and +curiously shaped stones were also worshipped, and artificial pillars of +wood or stone. These latter, as in the well-known case of the Lion's +Gate at Mycenae, often appear with guardian animals as their supporters. +The essential feature of this cult is the bringing down of the celestial +spirit by proper incantations and ritual into these fetish objects, the +dove perched on a column sometimes indicating its descent. It is a +primitive cult similar to that of Early Canaan, illustrated by the +pillow stone set up by Jacob, which was literally "Bethel" or the "House +of God." The story of the _baetylus_, or stone swallowed by Saturn under +the belief that it was his son, the Cretan Zeus, seems to cover the same +idea and has been derived from the same Semitic word. + +A special form of this "baetylic" cult in Minoan Crete was the +representation of the two principal divinities in their fetish form by +double axes. Shrines of the Double Axes have been found in the palace of +Cnossus itself, at Hagia Triada, and in a small palace at Gournia, and +many specimens of the sacred emblem occurred in the Cave Sanctuary of +Dicte, the mythical birthplace of the Cretan Zeus. Complete scenes of +worship in which libations are poured before the Sacred Axes are, +moreover, given on a fine painted sarcophagus found at Hagia Triada. + + + Labyrinth and Minotaur. + +The same cult survived to later times in Caria in the case of Zeus +Labrandeus, whose name is derived from _labrys_, the native name for the +double axe, and it had already been suggested on philological grounds +that the Cretan "labyrinthos" was formed from a kindred form of the same +word. The discovery that the great Minoan foundation at Cnossus was at +once a palace and a sanctuary of the Double Axe and its associated +divinities has now supplied a striking and it may well be thought an +overwhelming confirmation of this view. We can hardly any longer +hesitate to recognize in this vast building, with its winding corridors +and subterranean ducts, the Labyrinth of later tradition; and as a +matter of fact a maze pattern recalling the conventional representation +of the Labyrinth in Greek art actually formed the decoration of one of +the corridors of the palace. It is difficult, moreover, not to connect +the repeated wall-paintings and reliefs of the palace illustrating the +cruel bull sports of the Minoan arena, in which girls as well as youths +took part, with the legend of the Minotaur, or bull of Minos, for whose +grisly meals Athens was forced to pay annual tribute of her sons and +daughters. It appears certain from the associations in which they are +found at Cnossus, that these Minoan bull sports formed part of a +religious ceremony. Actual figures of a monster with a bull's head and +man's body occurred on seals of Minoan fabric found on this and other +Cretan sites. + + + Historic substratum of Cretan myths. + +It is abundantly evident that whatever mythic element may have been +interwoven with the old traditions of the spot, they have a solid +substratum of reality. With such remains before us it is no longer +sufficient to relegate Minos to the regions of sun-myths. His legendary +presentation as the "Friend of God," like Abraham, to whom as to Moses +the law was revealed on the holy mountain, calls up indeed just such a +priest-king of antiquity as the palace-sanctuary of Cnossus itself +presupposes. It seems possible even that the ancient tradition which +recorded an earlier or later king of the name of Minos may, as suggested +above, cover a dynastic title. The earlier and later palaces at Cnossus +and Phaestus, and the interrupted phases of each, seem to point to a +succession of dynasties, to which, as to its civilization as a whole, it +is certainly convenient to apply the name "Minoan." It is interesting, +as bringing out the personal element in the traditional royal seat, that +an inscribed sealing belonging to the earliest period of the later +palace of Cnossus bears on it the impression of two official signets +with portrait heads of a man and of a boy, recalling the "associations" +on the coinage of imperial Rome. It is clear that the later traditions +in many respects accurately summed up the performances of the "Minoan" +dynast who carried out the great buildings now brought to light. The +palace, with its wonderful works of art, executed for Minos by the +craftsman Daedalus, has ceased to belong to the realms of fancy. The +extraordinary architectural skill, the sanitary and hydraulic science +revealed in details of the building, bring us at the same time face to +face with the power of mechanical invention with which Daedalus was +credited. The elaborate method and bureaucratic control visible in the +clay documents of the palace point to a highly developed legal +organization. The powerful fleet and maritime empire which Minos was +said to have established will no doubt receive fuller illustration when +the sea-town of Cnossus comes to be explored. The appearance of ships on +some of the most important seal-impressions is not needed, however, to +show how widely Minoan influence made itself felt in the neighbouring +Mediterranean regions. + + + Early relations with Egypt. + + The Kefts and Philistines. + + Early relations with Cyprus and N. Aegean. + +The Nilotic influence visible in the vases, seals and other fabrics of +the Early Minoan age, seems to imply a maritime activity on the part of +the islanders going back to the days of the first Egyptian dynasties. In +a deposit at Kahun, belonging to the XIIth Dynasty, c. 2000 B.C., were +already found imported polychrome vases of "Middle Minoan" fabric. In +the same way the important part played by Cretan enterprise in the days +of the New Egyptian empire is illustrated by repeated finds of Late +Minoan pottery on Egyptian sites. A series of monuments, moreover, +belonging to the early part of the XVIIIth Dynasty show the +representatives of the Kefts or peoples of "The Ring" and of the "Lands +to the West" in the fashionable costume of the Cnossian court, bearing +precious vessels and other objects of typical Minoan forms. Farther to +the east the recent excavations on the old Philistine sites like Gezer +have brought to light swords and vases of Cretan manufacture in the +later palace style. The principal Philistine tribe is indeed known in +the biblical records as the Cherethims or Cretans, and the Minoan name +and the cult of the Cretan Zeus were preserved at Gaza to the latest +classical days. Similar evidence of Minoan contact, and indeed of +wholesale colonization from the Aegean side, recurs in Cyprus. The +culture of the more northerly Aegean islands, best revealed to us by the +excavations of the British School at Phylakopi in Melos, also attest a +growing influence from the Cretan side, which, about the time of the +later palace at Cnossus, becomes finally predominant. + + + Minoan influence on mainland of Greece. + +Turning to the mainland of Greece we see that the astonishing remains of +a highly developed prehistoric civilization, which Schliemann first +brought to light in 1876 at Mycenae, and which from those discoveries +received the general name of "Mycenaean," in the main represent a +transmarine offshoot from the Minoan stock. The earlier remains both at +Mycenae and Tiryns, still imperfectly investigated, show that this +Cretan influence goes back to the Middle Minoan age, with its +characteristic style of polychrome vase decoration. The contents of the +royal tombs, on the other hand, reveal a wholesale correspondence with +the fabrics of the first, and, to a less degree, the second Late Minoan +age, as illustrated by the relics belonging to the Middle Period of the +later palace at Cnossus and by those of the royal villa at Hagia Triada. +The chronological centre of the great beehive tombs seems to be slightly +lower. The ceiling of that of Orchomenos, and the painted vases and gold +cups from the Vaphio tomb by Sparta, with their marvellous reliefs +showing scenes of bull-hunting, represent the late palace style at +Cnossus in its final development. + +The leading characteristics of this mainland civilization are thus +indistinguishable from the Minoan. The funeral rites are similar, and +the religious representations show an identical form of worship. At the +same time the local traditions and conditions differentiate the +continental from the insular branch. In Crete, in the later period, when +the rulers could trust to the "wooden walls" of the Minoan navy, there +is no parallel for the massive fortifications that we see at Tiryns or +Mycenae. The colder winter climate of mainland Greece dictated the use +of fixed hearths, whereas in the Cretan palaces these seem to have been +of a portable kind, and the different usage in this respect again +reacted on the respective forms of the principal hall or "Megaron." + + + Minoan influences in N. Greece. + +Minoan culture under its mainland aspect left its traces on the +Acropolis at Athens,--a corroboration of the tradition which made the +Athenians send their tribute children to Minos. Similar traces extend +through a large part of northern Greece from Cephallenia and Leucadia to +Thessaly, and are specially well marked at Iolcus (near mod. Volo), the +legendary embarking place of the Argonauts. This circumstance deserves +attention owing to the special connexion traditionally existing between +the Minyans of Iolcus and those of Orchomenus, the point of all others +on this side where the early Cretan influence seems most to have taken +root. The Minoan remains at Orchomenus which are traceable to the latest +period go far to substantiate the philological comparison between the +name of Minyas, the traditional ancestor of this ancient race, and that +of Minos. + + + Adriatic and Italian extension. + +Still farther to the north-west a distinct Minoan influence is +perceptible in the old Illyrian lands east of the Adriatic, and its +traces reappear in the neighbourhood of Venice. It is well marked +throughout southern Italy from Taranto to Naples. It was with Sicily, +however, that the later history of Minos and his great craftsman +Daedalus was in a special way connected by ancient tradition. Here, as +in Crete, Daedalus executed great works like the temple of Eryx, and it +was on Sicilian soil that Minos, engaged in a western campaign, was said +to have met with a violent death at the hands of the native king Kokalos +(Cocalus) and his daughters. His name is preserved in the Sicilian +Minoa, and his tomb was pointed out in the neighbourhood of Agrigentum, +with a shrine above dedicated to his native Aphrodite, the lady of the +dove; and in this connexion it must be observed that the cult of Eryx +perpetuates to much later times the characteristic features of the +worship of the Cretan Nature goddess, as now revealed to us in the +palace of Cnossus and elsewhere. These ancient indications of a Minoan +connexion with Sicily have now received interesting confirmation in the +numerous discoveries, principally due to the recent excavations of P. +Orsi, of arms and painted vases of Late Minoan fabric in Bronze Age +tombs of the provinces of Syracuse and Girgenti (Agrigentum) belonging +to the late Bronze Age. Some of these objects, such as certain forms of +swords and vases, seem to be of local fabric, but derived from originals +going back to the beginning of the Late Minoan age. + + + Minoan crisis: c. 1400 B.C. + +The abiding tradition of the Cretan aborigines, as preserved by +Herodotus (vii. 171), ascribes the eventual settlement of the Greeks in +Crete to a widespread desolation that had fallen on the central regions. +It is certain that by the beginning of the 14th century B.C., when the +signs of already decadent Minoan art are perceptible in the imported +pottery found in the palace of Akhenaton at Tell el-Amarna, some heavy +blows had fallen on the island power. Shortly before this date the +palaces both of Cnossus and Phaestus had undergone a great destruction, +and though during the ensuing period both these royal residences were +partially reoccupied it was for the most part at any rate by poorer +denizens, and their great days as palaces were over for ever. Elsewhere +at Cnossus, in the smaller palace to the west, the royal villa and the +town houses, we find the evidence of a similar catastrophe followed by +an imperfect recovery, and the phenomenon meets us again at Palaikastro +and other early settlements in the east of Crete. At the same time, to +whatever cause this serious setback of Minoan civilization was owing, it +would be very unsafe to infer as yet any large displacement of the +original inhabitants by the invading swarms from the mainland or +elsewhere. The evidence of a partial restoration of the domestic quarter +of the palace of Cnossus tends to show a certain measure of dynastic +continuity. There is evidence, moreover, that the script and with it the +indigenous language did not die out during this period, and that +therefore the days of Hellenic settlement at Cnossus were not yet. The +recent exploration of a cemetery belonging to the close of the great +palace period, and in a greater degree to the age succeeding the +catastrophe, has now conclusively shown that there was no real break in +the continuity of Minoan culture. This third Late Minoan period--the +beginning of which may be fixed about 1400--is an age of stagnation and +decline, but the point of departure continued to be the models supplied +by the age that had preceded it. Art was still by no means extinct, and +its forms and decorative elements are simply later derivatives of the +great palace style. Not only the native form of writing, but the +household arrangements, sepulchral usages, and religious rites remain +substantially the same. The third Late Minoan age corresponds generally +with the Late Mycenaean stage in the Aegean world (see AEGEAN +CIVILIZATION). It is an age indeed in which the culture as a whole, +though following a lower level, attains the greatest amount of +uniformity. From Sicily and even the Spanish coast to the Troad, +southern Asia Minor, Cyprus and Palestine,--from the Nile valley to the +mouth of the Po, very similar forms were now diffused. Here and there, +as in Cyprus, we watch the development of some local schools. How far +Crete itself continued to preserve the hegemony which may reasonably be +ascribed to it at an earlier age must remain doubtful. It is certain +that towards the close of this third and concluding Late Minoan period +in the island certain mainland types of swords and safety-pins make +their appearance, which are symptomatic of the great invasion from that +side that was now impending or had already begun. + + +_Principal Minoan Sites._ + +It will be convenient here to give a general view of the more important +Minoan remains recently excavated on various Cretan sites. + + _Cnossus._--The palace of Cnossus is on the hill of Kephala about 4 m. + inland from Candia. As a scene of human settlement this site is of + immense antiquity. The successive "Minoan" strata, which go well back + into the fourth millennium B.C., reach down to a depth of about 17 ft. + But below this again is a human deposit, from 20 to 26 ft. in + thickness, representing a long and gradual course of Neolithic or + Later Stone-Age development. Assuming that the lower strata were + formed at approximately the same rate as the upper, we have an + antiquity of from 12,000 to 14,000 years indicated for the first + Neolithic settlement on this spot. The hill itself, like a Tell of + Babylonia, is mainly formed of the debris of human settlements. The + palace was approached from the west by a paved Minoan Way + communicating with a considerable building on the opposite hill. This + road was flanked by magazines, some belonging to the royal armoury, + and abutted on a paved area with stepped seats on two sides (theatral + area). The palace itself approximately formed a square with a large + paved court in the centre. It had a N.S. orientation. The principal + entrance was to the north, but what appears to have been the royal + entrance opened on a paved court on the west side. This entrance + communicated with a corridor showing frescoes of a processional + character. The west side of the palace contained a series of 18 + magazines with great store jars and cists and large hoards of clay + documents. A remarkable feature of this quarter is a small council + chamber with a gypsum throne of curiously Gothic aspect and lower + stone benches round. The walls of the throne room show frescoes with + sacred griffins confronting each other in a Nile landscape, and a + small bath chamber--perhaps of ritual use--is attached. This quarter + of the palace shows the double axe sign constantly repeated on its + walls and pillars, and remains of miniature wall-paintings showing + pillar shrines, in some cases with double axes stuck into the wooden + columns. Here too were found the repositories of an early shrine + containing exquisite faience figures and reliefs, including a snake + goddess--another aspect of the native divinity--and her votaries. The + central object of cult in this shrine was apparently a marble cross. + Near the north-west angle of the palace was a larger bath chamber, and + by the N. entrance were remains of great reliefs of bull-hunting + scenes in painted _gesso duro_. South of the central court were found + parts of a relief in the same material, showing a personage with a + fleur-de-lis crown and collar. The east wing of the palace was the + really residential part. Here was what seems to have been the basement + of a very large hall or "Megaron," approached directly from the + central court, and near this were found further reliefs, fresco + representations of scenes of the bull-ring with female as well as male + toreadors, and remains of a magnificent gaming-board of gold-plated + ivory with intarsia work of crystal plaques set on silver plates and + blue enamel (_cyanus_). The true domestic quarter lay to the south of + the great hall, and was approached from the central court by a + descending staircase, of which three flights and traces of a fourth + are preserved. This gives access to a whole series of halls and + private rooms (halls "of the Colonnades," "of the Double Axes," + "Queen's Megaron" with bath-room attached and remains of the fish + fresco, "Treasury" with ivory figures and other objects of art), + together with extensive remains of an upper storey. The drainage + system here, including a water-closet, is of the most complete and + modern kind. Near this domestic quarter was found a small shrine of + the Double Axes, with cult objects and offertory vessels in their + places. The traces of an earlier "Middle Minoan" palace beneath the + later floor-levels are most visible on the east side, with splendid + ceramic remains. Here also are early magazines with huge store jars. + At the foot of the slope on this side, forming the eastern boundary of + the palace, are massive supporting walls and a bastion with descending + flights of steps, and a water-channel devised with extraordinary + hydraulic science (Evans, "Palace of Knossos," "Reports of Excavations + 1900-1905," in _Annual of British School at Athens_, vi. sqq.; _Journ. + R.I.B.A._ (1902), pt. iv. For the palace pottery see D. Mackenzie, + _Journ. of Hellenic Studies_, xxiii.). The palace site occupies nearly + six acres. To the N.E. of it came to light a "royal villa" with + staircase, and a basilica-like hall (Evans, _B.S. Annual_, ix. 130 + seq.). To the N.W. was a dependency containing an important hoard of + bronze vessels (ib. p. 112 sqq.). The building on the hill to the W. + approached by the Minoan paved way has the appearance of a smaller + palace (_B.S. Annual_, xii., 1906). Many remains of private houses + belonging to the prehistoric town have also come to light (Hogarth, + _B.S.A._ vi. [1900], p. 70 sqq.). A little N. of the town, at a spot + called Zafer Papoura, an extensive Late Minoan cemetery was excavated + in 1904 (Evans, _The Prehistoric Tombs of Knossus_, 1906), and on a + height about 2 m. N. of this, a royal tomb consisting of a square + chamber, which originally had a pointed vault of "Cyclopaean" + structure approached by a forehall or rock-cut passage. This + monumental work seems to date from the close of the Middle Minoan age, + but has been re-used for interments at successive periods (Evans, + _Archaeologia_, 1906, p. 136 sqq.). It is possibly the traditional + tomb of Idomeneus. (For later discoveries see further CNOSSUS.) + + _Phaestus._--The acropolis of this historic city looks on the Libyan + Sea and commands the extensive plain of Messara. On the eastern hill + of the acropolis, excavations initiated by F. Halbherr on behalf of + the Italian Archaeological Mission and subsequently carried out by L. + Pernier have brought to light another Minoan palace, much resembling + on a somewhat smaller scale that of Cnossus. The plan here too was + roughly quadrangular with a central court, but owing to the erosion of + the hillside a good deal of the eastern quarter has disappeared. The + Phaestian palace belongs to two distinct periods, and the earlier or + "Middle Minoan" part is better preserved than at Cnossus. The west + court and entrance belonging to the earlier building show many + analogies with those of Cnossus, and the court was commanded to the + north by tiers of stone benches like those of the "theatral area" at + Cnossus on a larger scale. Magazines with fine painted store jars came + to light beneath the floor of the later "propylaeum." The most + imposing block of the later building is formed by a group of + structures rising from the terrace formed by the old west wall. A fine + paved corridor running east from this gives access to a line of the + later magazines, and through a columnar hall to the central court + beyond, while to the left of this a broad and stately flight of steps + leads up to a kind of entrance hall on an upper terrace. North of the + central court is a domestic quarter presenting analogies with that of + Cnossus, but throughout the later building there was a great dearth of + the frescoes and other remains such as invest the Cnossian palace with + so much interest. There are also few remaining traces here of upper + storeys. It is evident that in this case also the palace was overtaken + by a great catastrophe, followed by a partial reoccupation towards the + close of the Late Minoan age (L. Pernier, _Scavi della missione + italiana a Phaestos; Monumenti antichi_, xii. and xiv.). + + About a kilometre distant from the palace of Phaestus near the village + of Kalyvia a Late Minoan cemetery was brought to light in 1901, + belonging to the same period as that of Cnossus (Savignoni, _Necropoli + di Phaestos_, 1905). + + _Hagia Triada._--On a low hill crowned by a small church of the above + name, about 3 m. nearer the Libyan Sea than Phaestus, a small palace + or royal villa was discovered by Halbherr and excavated by the Italian + Mission. In its structure and general arrangements it bears a general + resemblance to the palace of Phaestus and Cnossus on a smaller scale. + The buildings themselves, with the usual halls, bath-rooms and + magazines, together with a shrine of the Mother Goddess, occupy two + sides of a rectangle, enclosing a court at a higher level approached + by flights of stairs. Repositories also came to light containing + treasure in the shape of bronze ingots. In contrast to the palace of + Phaestus, the contents of the royal villa proved exceptionally rich, + and derive a special interest from the fact that the catastrophe which + overwhelmed the building belongs to a somewhat earlier part of the + Late Minoan age than that which overwhelmed Cnossus and Phaestus. Clay + tablets were here found belonging to the earlier type of the linear + script (Class A), together with a great number of clay sealings with + religious and other devices and incised countermarks. Both the signet + types and the other objects of art here discovered display the fresh + naturalism that characterizes in a special way the first Late Minoan + period. A remarkable wall-painting depicts a cat creeping over + ivy-covered rocks and about to spring on a pheasant. The steatite + vases with reliefs are of great importance. One of these shows a + ritual procession, apparently of reapers singing and dancing to the + sound of a sistrum. On another a Minoan warrior prince appears before + his retainers. A tall funnel-shaped vase of this class, of which a + considerable part has been preserved, is divided into zones showing + bull-hunting scenes, wrestlers and pugilists in gladiatorial costume, + the whole executed in a most masterly manner. The small palace was + reconstructed at a later period, and at a somewhat higher level. To a + period contemporary with the concluding age of the Cnossian palace + must be referred a remarkable sarcophagus belonging to a neighbouring + cemetery. The chest is of limestone coated with stucco, adorned with + life-like paintings of offertory scenes in connexion with the sacred + Double Axes of Minoan cult. There have also come to light remains of a + great domed mortuary chamber of primitive construction containing + relics of the Early Minoan period (Halbherr, _Monumenti Antichi_, + xiii. (1903), p. 6 sqq., and _Memorie del instituto lombardo_, 1905; + Paribeni, _Lavori eseguiti della missione italiana nel Palazzo e nella + necropoli di Haghia Triada; Rendiconti_, &c., xi. and xii.; Savignoni, + _Il Vaso di Haghia Triada_). + + _Palaikastro._--Near this village, lying on the easternmost coast of + Crete, the British School at Athens has excavated a section of a + considerable Minoan town. The buildings here show a stratification + analogous to that of the palace of Cnossus. The town was traversed by + a well-paved street with a stone sewer, and contained several + important private houses and a larger one which seems to have been a + small palace. Among the more interesting relics found were ivory + figures of Egyptian or strongly Egyptianizing fabric. On an adjacent + hill were the remains of what seems to have been in later times a + temple of the Dictaean Zeus, and from the occurrence of rich deposits + of Minoan vases and sacrificial remains at a lower level, the + religious tradition represented by the later temple seems to go back + to prehistoric times. On the neighbouring height of Petsofa, by a + rock-shelter, remains of another interesting shrine were brought to + light dating from the Middle Minoan period, and containing interesting + votive offerings of terra-cotta, many of them apparently relating to + cures or to the warding off of diseases (R. C. Bosanquet, _British + School Annual_, viii. 286 sqq., ix. 274 sqq.; R. M. Dawkins, ibid. ix. + 290 sqq., x.; J. L. Myres, ibid. ix. 356 sqq.). + + +PLATE I. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--PALACE OF CNOSSUS. GENERAL VIEW OF THE SITE FROM +THE EAST.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--VIEW OF PART OF GRAND STAIRCASE AND HALL OF +COLONNADES (WOODEN COLUMNS RESTORED) (CNOSSUS).] + +(_By permission of Dr A. J. Evans._) + + +PLATE II. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--LARGE OIL-JARS IN EAST MAGAZINES (CNOSSUS).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--GYPSUM THRONE (FRESCO PAINTING VISIBLE ON WALL) +(CNOSSUS).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--BASE OF WEST WALL NEAR ROYAL ENTRANCE (CNOSSUS).] + +(_By permission of Dr A. J. Evans._) + + _Gournia._--Near this hamlet on the coast of the Gulf of Mirabello in + east Crete, the American archaeologist Miss Harriet Boyd has excavated + a great part of another Minoan town. It covers the sides of a long + hill, its main avenue being a winding roadway leading to a small + palace. It contained a shrine of the Cretan snake goddess, and was + rich in minor relics, chiefly in the shape of bronze implements and + pottery for household use. The bulk of the remains belong here, as at + Hagia Triada, to the beginning of the Late Minoan period, but there + are signs of reoccupation in the decadent Minoan age. The remains + supply detailed information as to the everyday life of a Cretan + country town about the middle of the second millennium B.C. (H. Boyd, + _Excavations at Gournia_). + + _Zakro._--Near the lower hamlet of that name on the S.E. coast + important remains of a settlement contemporary with that of Gournia + were explored by D. G. Hogarth, consisting of houses and pits + containing painted pottery of exceptional beauty and a great variety + of seal impressions. The deep bay in which Zakro lies is a well-known + port of call for the fishing fleets on their way to the sponge grounds + of the Libyan coast, and doubtless stood in the same stead to the + Minoan shipping (D. G. Hogarth, _Annual of the British School_, vii. + 121 sqq., and _Journ. of Hellenic Studies_, xxii. 76 sqq. and 333 + sqq.). + + _Dictaean Cave._--Near the village of Psychro on the Lassithi range, + answering to the western Dicte, opens a large cave, identified with + the legendary birthplace of the Cretan Zeus. This cavern also shared + with that of Ida the claim to have been that in which Minos, + Moses-like, received the law from Zeus. The exploration begun by the + Italian Mission under Halbherr and continued by Evans, who found here + the inscribed libation table (see above), was completed by Hogarth in + 1900. Besides the great entrance hall of the cavern, which served as + the upper shrine, were descending vaults forming a lower sanctuary + going down deep into the bowels of the earth. Great quantities of + votive figures and objects of cult, such as the fetish double axes and + stone tables of offering, were found both above and below. In the + lower sanctuary the natural pillars of stalagmite had been used as + objects of worship, and bronze votive objects thrust into their + crevices (Halbherr, _Museo di antichita classica_, ii. pp. 906-910; + Evans, _Further Discoveries_, &c., p. 350 sqq., _Myc. Tree and Pillar + Cult_, p. 14 sqq.; Hogarth, "The Dictaean Cave," _Annual of British + School at Athens_, vi. 94 sqq.). + + _Pseira and Mochlos._--On these two islets on the northern coast of E. + Crete, R. Seager, an American explorer, has found striking remains of + flourishing Minoan settlements. The contents of a series of tombs at + Mochlos throw an entirely new light on the civilization of the Early + Minoan age. + + + Third Late Minoan period. + +The above summary gives, indeed, a very imperfect idea of the extent to +which the remains of the great Minoan civilization are spread throughout +the island. The "hundred cities" ascribed to Crete by Homer are in a +fair way of becoming an ascertained reality. The great days of Crete lie +thus beyond the historic period. The period of decline referred to above +(Late Minoan III.), which begins about the beginning of the 14th century +before our era, must, from the abundance of its remains, have been of +considerable duration. As to the character of the invading elements that +hastened its close, and the date of their incursions, contemporary +Egyptian monuments afford the best clue. The Keftiu who represented +Minoan culture in Egypt in the concluding period of the Cnossian palace +(Late Minoan II.) cease to appear on Egyptian monuments towards the end +of the XVIIIth Dynasty (c. 1350 B.C.), and their place is taken by the +"Peoples of the Sea." The Achaeans, under the name _Akaiusha_, already +appear among the piratical invaders of Egypt in the time of Rameses III. +(c. 1200 B.C.) of the XXth Dynasty (see H. R. Hall, "Keftiu and the +Peoples of the Sea," _Annual of British School at Athens_, viii. 157 +sqq.). + + + Greek settlementsin Crete. + +About the same time the evidences of imports of Late Minoan or +"Mycenaean" fabrics in Egypt definitely cease. In the _Odyssey_ we +already find the Achaeans together with Dorians settled in central +Crete. In the extreme east and west of the island the aboriginal +"Eteocretan" element, however, as represented respectively by the +Praesians or Cydonians, still held its own, and inscriptions written in +Greek characters show that the old language survived to the centuries +immediately preceding the Christian era. + + + The dark ages. + +The mainland invasions which produced these great ethnic changes in +Crete are marked archaeologically by signs of widespread destruction and +by a considerable break in the continuity of the insular civilization. +New burial customs, notably the rite of cremation in place of the older +corpse-burial, are introduced, and in many cases the earlier tombs were +pillaged and re-used by new comers. The use of iron for arms and +implements now finally triumphed over bronze. Northern forms of swords +and safety-pins are now found in general use. A new geometrical style of +decoration like that of contemporary Greece largely supplants the Minoan +models. The civic foundations which belong to this period, and which +include the greater part of the massive ruins of Goulas and Anavlachos +in the province of Mirabello and of Hyrtakina in the west, affect more +or less precipitous sites and show a greater tendency to fortification. +The old system of writing now dies out, and it is not till some three +centuries later that the new alphabetic forms are introduced from a +Semitic source. The whole course of the older Cretan civilization is +awhile interrupted, and is separated from the new by the true dark ages +of Greece. + +It is nevertheless certain that some of the old traditions were +preserved by the remnants of the old population now reduced to a subject +condition, and that these finally leavened the whole lump, so that once +more--this time under a Hellenic guise--Crete was enabled to anticipate +mainland Greece in nascent civilization. Already in 1883 A. Milchhofer +(_Anfange der Kunst_) had called attention to certain remarkable +examples of archaic Greek bronze-work, and the subsequent discovery of +the votive bronzes in the cave of Zeus on Mount Ida, and notably the +shields with their fine embossed designs, shows that by the 8th century +B.C. Cretan technique in metal not only held its own beside imported +Cypro-Phoenician work, but was distinctly ahead of that of the rest of +Greece (Halbherr, _Bronzi del antro di Zeus Ideo_). The recent +excavations by the British School on the site of the Dictaean temple at +Palaikastro bear out this conclusion, and an archaic marble head of +Apollo found at Eleutherna shows that classical tradition was not at +fault in recording the existence of a very early school of Greek +sculpture in the island, illustrated by the names of Dipoenos and +Scyllis. + +The Dorian dynasts in Crete seem in some sort to have claimed descent +from Minos, and the Dorian legislators sought their sanction in the laws +which Minos was said to have received from the hands of the Cretan Zeus. +The great monument of Gortyna discovered by Halbherr and Fabricius +(_Monumenti antichi_, iii.) is the most important monument of early law +hitherto brought to light in any part of the Greek world. + + + Greek remains. + +Among other Greek remains in the island may be mentioned, besides the +great inscription, the archaic temple of the Pythian Apollo at Gortyna, +a plain square building with a _pronaos_ added in later times, excavated +by Halbherr, 1885 and 1887 (_Mon. Ant._ iii. 2 seqq.), the Hellenic +bridge and the vast rock-cut reservoirs of Eleutherna, the city walls of +Itanos, Aptera and Polyrrhenia, and at Phalasarna, the rock-cut throne +of a divinity, the port, and the remains of a temple. The most +interesting record, however, that has been preserved of later Hellenic +civilization in the island is the coinage of the Cretan cities (J. N. +Svoronos, _Numismatique de la Crete ancienne_; W. Wroth, _B. M. Coin +Catalogue, Crete, &c._; P. Gardner, _The Types of Greek Coins_), which +during the good period display a peculiarly picturesque artistic style +distinct from that of the rest of the Greek world, and sometimes +indicative of a revival of Minoan types. But in every case these +artistic efforts were followed at short intervals by gross relapses into +barbarism which reflect the anarchy of the political conditions. + + + Roman remains. + +Under the _Pax Romana_, the Cretan cities again enjoyed a large measure +of prosperity, illustrated by numerous edifices still existing at the +time of the Venetian occupation. A good account of these is preserved +in a MS. description of the island drawn up under the Venetians about +1538, and existing in the library of St Mark (published by Falkener, +_Museum of Classical Antiquities_, ii. pp. 263-303). Very little of all +this, however, has escaped the Turkish conquest and the ravages caused +by the incessant insurrections of the last two centuries. The ruin-field +of Gortyna still evokes something of the importance that it possessed in +Imperial days, and at Lebena on the south coast are remains of a temple +of Aesculapius and its dependencies which stood in connexion with this +city. At Cnossus, save some blocks of the amphitheatre, the Roman +monuments visible in Venetian times have almost wholly disappeared. +Among the early Christian remains of the island far and away the most +important is the church of St Titus at Gortyna, which perhaps dates from +the Constantinian age. + + LITERATURE.--See the authorities already quoted, for further details. + Previous to the extensive excavations referred to above, Crete had + been carefully examined and explored by Tournefort, Pococke, Olivier + and other travellers, e.g. Pashley (_Travels in Crete_, 2 vols., + London, 1837) and Captain Spratt (_Travels and Researches in Crete_, 2 + vols., London, 1865). A survey sufficiently accurate as regards the + maritime parts was also executed, under the orders of the British + admiralty, by Captain Graves and Captain (afterwards Admiral) Spratt. + Most that can be gathered from ancient authors concerning the + mythology and early history of the island is brought together by + Meursius (_Creta_, &c., in the 3rd vol. of his works) and Hoeck + (_Kreta_, 3 vols., Gottingen, 1823-1829), but the latter work was + published before the researches which have thrown so much light on the + topography and antiquities of the island. Much new material, + especially as to the western provinces of Crete, has been recently + collected by members of the Italian Archaeological Mission (_Monumenti + Antichi_, vol. vi. 154 seqq., ix. 286, 1899; xi. 286 seqq.). (A. J. + E.) + + +_History._ + +_Ancient._--Lying midway between three continents, Crete was from the +earliest period a natural stepping-stone for the passage of early +culture from Egypt and the East to mainland Greece. On all this the +recent archaeological discoveries (see the section on ARCHAEOLOGY) have +thrown great light, but the earliest written history of Crete, like that +of most parts of continental Greece, is mixed up with mythology and +fable to so great an extent as to render it difficult to arrive at any +clear conclusions concerning it. The Cretans themselves claimed for +their island to be the birthplace of Zeus, as well as the parent of all +the other divinities usually worshipped in Greece as the Olympian +deities. But passing from this region of pure mythology to the +semi-mythic or heroic age, we find almost all the early legends and +traditions of the island grouped around the name of Minos. According to +the received tradition, Minos was a king of Cnossus in Crete; he was a +son of Zeus, and enjoyed through life the privilege of habitual +intercourse with his divine father. It was from this source that he +derived the wisdom which enabled him to give to the Cretans the +excellent system of laws and governments that earned for him the +reputation of being the greatest legislator of antiquity. At the same +time he was reported to have been the first monarch who established a +naval power, and acquired what was termed by the Greeks the +_Thalassocracy_, or dominion of the sea. + +This last tradition, which was received as an undoubted fact both by +Thucydides and Aristotle, has during the last few years received +striking confirmation. The remarkable remains recently brought to light +on Cretan soil tend to show that already some 2000 years before the +Dorian conquest the island was exercising a dominant influence in the +Aegean world. The great palaces now excavated at Cnossus and Phaestus, +as well as the royal villa of Hagia Triada, exhibit the successive +phases of a brilliant primitive civilization which had already attained +mature development by the date of the XIIth Egyptian dynasty. To this +civilization as a whole it is convenient to give the name "Minoan," and +the name of Minos itself may be reasonably thought to cover a dynastic +even more than a personal significance in much the same way as such +historic terms as "Pharaoh" or "Caesar." + +The archaeological evidence outside Crete points to the actual existence +of Minoan plantations as far afield on one side as Sicily and on the +other as the coast of Canaan. The historic tradition which identifies +with the Cretans the principal element of the Philistine confederation, +and places the tomb of Minos himself in western Sicily, thus receives +remarkable confirmation. Industrial relations with Egypt are also marked +by the occurrence of a series of finds of pottery and other objects of +Minoan fabric among the remains of the XVIIIth, XIIth and even earlier +dynasties, while the same seafaring enterprise brought Egyptian fabrics +to Crete from the times of the first Pharaohs. Even in the Homeric +poems, which belong to an age when the great Minoan civilization was +already decadent, the Cretans appear as the only Greek people who +attempted to compete with the Phoenicians as bold and adventurous +navigators. In the Homeric age the population of Crete was of a very +mixed character, and we are told in the _Odyssey_ (xix. 175) that +besides the Eteocretes, who, as their name imports, must have been the +original inhabitants, the island contained Achaeans, Pelasgians and +Dorians. Subsequently the Dorian element became greatly strengthened by +fresh immigrations from the Peloponnesus, and during the historical +period all the principal cities of the island were either Dorian +colonies, or had adopted the Dorian dialect and institutions. It is +certain that at a very early period the Cretan cities were celebrated +for their laws and system of government, and the most extensive monument +of early Greek law is the great Gortyna inscription, discovered in 1884. +The origin of the Cretan laws was of course attributed to Minos, but +they had much in common with those of the other Dorian states, as well +as with those of Lycurgus at Sparta, which were, indeed, according to +one tradition, copied in great measure from those already existing in +Crete.[2] + +It is certain that whatever merits the Cretan laws may have possessed +for the internal regulation of the different cities, they had the one +glaring defect, that they made no provision for any federal bond or +union among them, or for the government of the island as a whole. It was +owing to the want of this that the Cretans scarcely figure in Greek +history as a people, though the island, as observed by Aristotle, would +seem from its natural position calculated to exercise a preponderating +influence over Greek affairs. Thus they took no part either in the +Persian or in the Peloponnesian War, or in any of the subsequent civil +contests in which so many of the cities and islands of Greece were +engaged. At the same time they were so far from enjoying tranquillity on +this account that the few notices we find of them in history always +represent them as engaged in local wars among one another; and Polybius +tells us that the history of Crete was one continued series of civil +wars, which were carried on with a bitter animosity exceeding all that +was known in the rest of Greece. + +In these domestic contests the three cities that generally took the +lead, and claimed to exercise a kind of _hegemony_ or supremacy over the +whole island, were Cnossus, Gortyna and Cydonia. But besides these +three, there were many other independent cities, which, though they +generally followed the lead of one or other of these more powerful +rivals, enjoyed complete autonomy, and were able to shift at will from +one alliance to another. Among the most important of these were--Lyttus +or Lyctus, in the interior, south-east of Cnossus; Rhaucus, between +Cnossus and Gortyna; Phaestus, in the plain of Messara, between Gortyna +and the sea; Polyrrhenia, near the north-west angle of the island; +Aptera, a few miles inland from the Bay of Suda; Eleutherna and Axus, on +the northern slopes of Mount Ida; and Lappa, between the White Mountains +and the sea. Phalasarna on the west coast, and Chersonesus on the north, +seem to have been dependencies, and served as the ports of Polyrrhenia +and Lyttus. Elyrus stood at the foot of the White Mountains just above +the south coast. In the eastern portion of the island were Praesus in +the interior, and Itanus on the coast, facing the east, while Hierapytna +on the south coast was the only place of importance on the side facing +Africa, and on this account rose under the Romans to be one of the +principal cities of the island. (A. J. E.) + +_Medieval to 19th Century._--Though it was continually torn by civil +dissensions, the island maintained its independence of the various +Macedonian monarchs by whom it was surrounded; but having incurred the +enmity of Rome, first by an alliance with the great Mithradates, and +afterwards by taking active part with their neighbours, the pirates of +Cilicia, the Cretans were at length attacked by the Roman arms, and, +after a resistance protracted for more than three years, were finally +subdued by Q. Metellus, who earned by this success the surname of +Creticus (67 B.C.). The island was now reduced to a Roman province, and +subsequently united for administrative purposes with the district of +Cyrenaica or the Pentapolis, on the opposite coast of Africa. This +arrangement lasted till the time of Constantine, by whom Crete was +incorporated in the prefecture of Illyria. It continued to form part of +the Byzantine empire till the 9th century, when it fell into the hands +of the Saracens (823). It then became a formidable nest of pirates and a +great slave mart; it defied all the efforts of the Byzantine sovereigns +to recover it till the year 960, when it was reconquered by Nicephorus +Phocas. In the partition of the Greek empire after the capture of +Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, Crete fell to the lot of Boniface, +marquis of Montferrat, but was sold by him to the Venetians, and thus +passed under the dominion of that great republic, to which it continued +subject for more than four centuries. + +Under the Venetian government Candia, a fortress originally built by the +Saracens, and called by them "Khandax," became the seat of government, +and not only rose to be the capital and chief city of the island, but +actually gave name to it, so that it was called in the official language +of Venice "the island of Candia," a designation which from thence passed +into modern maps. The ancient name of Krete or Kriti was, however, +always retained in use among the Greeks, and is gradually resuming its +place in the usage of literary Europe. The government of Crete by the +Venetian aristocracy was, like that of their other dependencies, very +arbitrary and oppressive, and numerous insurrections were the +consequence. Daru, in his history of Venice, mentions fourteen between +the years 1207 and 1365, the most important being that of 1361-1364,--a +revolt not of the natives against the rule of their Venetian masters, +but of the Venetian colonists against the republic. But with all its +defects their administration did much to promote the material prosperity +of the country, and to encourage commerce and industry; and it is +probable that the island was more prosperous than at any subsequent +time. Their Venetian masters at least secured to the islanders external +tranquillity, and it is singular that the Turks were content to leave +them in undisturbed possession of this opulent and important island for +nearly two centuries after the fall of Constantinople. The Cretans +themselves, however, were eager for a change, and, disappointed in the +hope of a Genoese occupation, were ready, as is stated in the report of +a Venetian commissioner, to exchange the rule of the Venetians for that +of the Turks, whom they fondly expected to find more lenient, or at any +rate less energetic, masters. It was not till 1645 that the Turks made +any serious attempt to effect the conquest of the island; but in that +year they landed with an army of 50,000 men, and speedily reduced the +important city of Canea. Retimo fell the following year, and in 1648 +they laid siege to the capital city of Candia. This was the longest +siege on record, having been protracted for more than twenty years; but +in 1667 it was pressed with renewed vigour by the Turks under the grand +vizier Ahmed Kuprili, and the city was at length compelled to surrender +(September 1669). Its fall was followed by the submission of the whole +island. Venice was allowed to retain possession of Grabusa, Suda and +Spinalonga on the north, but in 1718 these three strongholds reverted to +the Turks, and the island was finally lost to Venice. + +From this time Crete continued subject to Ottoman rule without +interruption till the outbreak of the Greek revolution. After the +conquest a large part of the inhabitants embraced Mahommedanism, and +thus secured to themselves the chief share in the administration of the +island. But far from this having a favourable effect upon the condition +of the population, the result was just the contrary, and according to R. +Pashley (_Travels in Crete_, 1837) Crete was the worst governed province +of the Turkish empire. In 1770 an abortive attempt at revolt, the hero +of which was "Master" John, a Sphakiot chief, was repressed with great +cruelty. The regular authorities sent from Constantinople were wholly +unable to control the excesses of the janissaries, who exercised without +restraint every kind of violence and oppression. In 1813 the ruthless +severity of the governor-general, Haji Osman, who obtained the +co-operation of the Christians, broke the power of the janissaries; but +after Osman had fallen a victim to the suspicions of the sultan, Crete +again came under their control. When in 1821 the revolution broke out in +continental Greece, the Cretans, headed by the Sphakiots, after a +massacre at Canea at once raised the standard of insurrection. They +carried on hostilities with such success that they soon made themselves +masters of the whole of the open country, and drove the Turks and +Mussulman population to take refuge in the fortified cities. The sultan +then invoked the assistance of Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, who +despatched 7000 Albanians to the island. Hostilities continued with no +decisive result till 1824, when the arrival of further reinforcements +enabled the Turkish commander to reduce the island to submission. In +1827 the battle of Navarino took place, and in 1830 (3rd of February) +Greece was declared independent. The allied powers (France, England and +Russia) decided, however, that Crete should not be included amongst the +islands annexed to the newly-formed kingdom of Greece; but recognizing +that some change was necessary, they obtained from the sultan Mahmud II. +its cession to Egypt, which was confirmed by a firman of the 20th of +December 1832. This change of masters brought some relief to the +unfortunate Cretans, who at least exchanged the licence of local misrule +for the oppression of an organized despotism; and the government of +Mustafa Pasha, an Albanian like Mehemet Ali, the ruler of the island for +a considerable period (1832-1852), was more enlightened and intelligent +than that of most Turkish governors. He encouraged agriculture, improved +the roads, introduced an Albanian police, and put down brigandage. The +period of his administration has been called the "golden age" of Crete. + +In 1840 Crete was again taken from Mehemet Ali, and replaced under the +dominion of the Turks, but fortunately Mustafa still retained his +governorship until he left for Constantinople to become grand vizier in +1852. Four years later an insurrection broke out, owing to the violation +of the provisions of an imperial decree (February 1856), whereby liberty +of conscience and equal rights and privileges with Mussulmans had been +conferred upon Christians. The latter refused to lay down their arms +until a firman was issued (July 1858), confirming the promised +concessions. These promises being again repudiated, in 1864 the +inhabitants held an assembly and a petition was drawn up for +presentation at Constantinople by the governor. The sultan's reply was +couched in the vaguest terms, and the Cretans were ordered to render +unquestioning obedience to the authorities. After a period of great +distress and cruel oppression, in 1866, on the demand for reforms being +again refused, a general insurrection took place, which was only put +down by great exertions on the part of the Porte. It was followed by the +concession of additional privileges to the Christians of the island and +of a kind of constitutional government and other reforms embodied in +what is known as the "Organic Statute" of 1868. (J. H. F.) + + + Pact of Halepa. + + Insurrection of 1896-97. + +_Modern Constitutional._--Cretan constitutional history may be said to +date from 1868, when, after the suppression of an insurrection which had +extended over three years, the Turkish government consented to grant a +certain measure of autonomy to the island. The privileges now accorded +were embodied in what is known as the Organic Statute, an instrument +which eventually obtained a somewhat wider importance, being proposed by +Article XXIII. of the Berlin Treaty as a basis of reforms to be +introduced in other parts of the Ottoman empire. Various privileges +already acquired by the Christian population were confirmed; a general +council, or representative body, was brought into existence, composed of +deputies from every district in the island; mixed tribunals were +introduced, together with a highly elaborate administrative system, +under which all the more important functionaries, Christian and +Mussulman, were provided with an assessor of the opposite creed. The new +constitution, however, proved costly and unworkable, and failed to +satisfy either section of the population. The Christians were ready for +another outbreak, when, in 1878, the Greek government, finding Hellenic +aspirations ignored by the treaty of San Stefano, gave the signal for +agitation in the island. During the insurrection which followed, the +usual barbarities were committed on both sides; the Christians betook +themselves to the mountains, and the Mussulman peasants crowded into the +fortified towns. Eventually the Cretan chiefs invoked the mediation of +England, which Turkey, exhausted by her struggle with Russia, was ready +to accept, and the convention known as the Pact of Halepa was drawn up +in 1878 under the auspices of Mr Sandwith, the British consul, and +Adossides Pasha, both of whom enjoyed the confidence of the Cretan +population. The privileges conferred by the Organic Statute were +confirmed; the cumbersome and extravagant judicial and administrative +systems were maintained; the judges were declared independent of the +executive, and an Assembly composed of forty-nine Christian and +thirty-one Mussulman deputies took the place of the former general +council. A parliamentary regime was thus inaugurated, and party warfare +for a time took the place of the old religious antagonism, the Moslems +attaching themselves to one or other of the political factions which now +made their appearance among the Christians. The material interests of +the island were neglected in the scramble for place and power; the +finances fell into disorder, and the party which came off worst in the +struggle systematically intrigued against the governor-general of the +day and conspired with his enemies at Constantinople. A crisis came +about in 1889, when the "Conservative" leaders, finding themselves in a +minority in the chamber, took up arms and withdrew to the mountains. +Though the outbreak was unconnected with the religious feud, the latent +fanaticism of both creeds was soon aroused, and the island once more +became a scene of pillage and devastation. Unlike the two preceding +movements, the insurrection of 1889 resulted unfavourably for the +Christians. The Porte, having induced the Greek government to persuade +the insurgents not to oppose the occupation of several strategic posts, +despatched a military governor to the island, proclaimed martial law, +and issued a firman abrogating many important provisions of the Halepa +Pact. The mode of election to the assembly was altered, the number of +its members reduced, and the customs revenue, which had hitherto been +shared with the island, was appropriated by the Turkish treasury. The +firman was undoubtedly illegal, as it violated a convention possessing a +quasi-international sanction, but the Christians were unable to resist, +and the powers abstained from intervention. The elections held under the +new system proved a failure, the Christians refusing to go to the polls, +and for the next five years Crete was governed absolutely by a +succession of Mahommedan Valis. The situation went from bad to worse, +the deficit in the budget increased, the gendarmery, which received no +pay, became insubordinate, and crime multiplied. In 1894 the Porte, at +the instance of the powers, nominated a Christian, Karatheodory Pasha, +to the governorship, and the Christians, mollified by the concession, +agreed to take part in the assembly which soon afterwards was convoked; +no steps, however, were taken to remedy the financial situation, which +became the immediate cause of the disorders that followed. The refusal +of the Porte to refund considerable sums which had been illegally +diverted from the Cretan treasury or even to sanction a loan to meet +immediate requirements caused no little exasperation in the island, +which was increased by the recall of Karatheodory (March 1895). Before +that event an Epitrope, or "Committee of Reform," had appeared in the +mountains--the harbinger of the prolonged struggle which ended in the +emancipation of Crete. The Epitrope was at first nothing more than a +handful of discontented politicians who had failed to find places in the +administration, but some slight reverses which it succeeded in +inflicting on the Turkish troops brought thousands of armed Christians +to its side, and in April 1896 it found itself strong enough to invest +the important garrison town of Vamos. The Moslem peasantry now flocked +to the fortified towns and civil war began. Serious disturbances broke +out at Canea on the 24th of May, and were only quelled by the arrival of +foreign warships. The foreign consuls intervened in the hope of bringing +about a peaceful settlement, but the Sultan resolved on the employment +of force, and an expedition despatched to Vamos effected the relief of +that town with a loss of 200 men. The advance of a Turkish detachment +through the western districts, where other garrisons were besieged, was +marked by pillage and devastation, and 5000 Christian peasants took +refuge on the desolate promontory of Spada, where they suffered extreme +privations. These events, which produced much excitement in Greece, +quickened the energies of the powers. An international blockade of the +island was proposed by Austria but rejected by England. The ambassadors +at Constantinople urged peaceful counsels on the Porte, and the Sultan, +alarmed at this juncture by an Armenian outbreak, began to display a +conciliatory disposition. The Pact of Halepa was restored, the troops +were withdrawn from the interior, financial aid was promised to the +island, a Christian governor-general was appointed, the assembly was +summoned, and an imperial commissioner was despatched to negotiate an +arrangement. The Christian leaders prepared a moderate scheme of +reforms, based on the Halepa Pact, which, with a few exceptions, were +approved by the powers and eventually sanctioned by the sultan. + + + Greek Intervention. + + Decision of the powers. + +On the 4th of September 1896 the assembly formally accepted the new +constitution and declared its gratitude to the powers for their +intervention. The Moslem leaders acquiesced in the arrangement, which +the powers undertook to guarantee, and, notwithstanding some symptoms of +discontent at Candia, there was every reason to hope that the island was +now entering upon a period of tranquillity. It soon became evident, +however, that the Porte was endeavouring to obstruct the execution of +the new reforms. Several months passed without any step being taken +towards this realization; difficulties were raised with regard to the +composition of the international commissions charged with the +reorganization of the gendarmery and judicial system; intrigues were set +on foot against the Christian governor-general; and the presence of a +special imperial commissioner, who had no place under the constitution, +proved so injurious to the restoration of tranquillity that the powers +demanded his immediate recall. The indignation of the Christians +increased, a state of insecurity prevailed, and the Moslem peasants +refused to return to their homes. A new factor now became apparent in +Cretan politics. Since the outbreak in May 1896 the Greek government had +loyally co-operated with the powers in their efforts for the +pacification of the island, but towards the close of the year a secret +society known as the Ethnike Hetaeria began to arrogate to itself the +direction of Greek foreign policy. The aim of the society was a war with +Turkey with a view to the acquisition of Macedonia, and it found a ready +instrument for its designs in the growing discontent of the Cretan +Christians. Emissaries of the society now appeared in Crete, large +consignments of arms were landed, and at the beginning of 1897 the +island was practically in a state of insurrection. On the 21st of +January the Greek fleet was mobilized. Affairs were brought to a climax +by a series of conflicts which took place at Canea on the 4th of +February; the Turkish troops fired on the Christians, a conflagration +broke out in the town, and many thousands of Christians took refuge on +the foreign warships in the bay. The Greek government now despatched an +ironclad and a cruiser to Canea, which were followed a few days later by +a torpedo flotilla commanded by Prince George. The prince soon retired +to Melos, but on the night of the 14th of February a Greek expeditionary +force under Colonel Vassos landed at Kolymbari, near Canea, and its +commander issued a proclamation announcing the occupation of the island +in the name of King George. On the same day Georgi Pasha, the Christian +governor-general, took refuge on board a Russian ironclad, and, on the +next, naval detachments from the warships of the powers occupied Canea. +This step paralysed the movements of Colonel Vassos, who after a few +slight engagements with the Turks remained practically inactive in the +interior. The insurgents, however, continued to threaten the town, and +their position was bombarded by the international fleet (21st February). +The intervention of Greece caused immense excitement among the Christian +population, and terrible massacres of Moslem peasants took place in the +eastern and western districts. The forces of the powers shortly +afterwards occupied Candia and the other maritime towns, while the +international fleet blockaded the Cretan coast. These measures were +followed by the presentation of collective notes to the Greek and +Turkish governments (2nd March), announcing the decision of the powers +that (1) Crete could in no case in present circumstances be annexed to +Greece; (2) in view of the delays caused by Turkey in the application of +the reforms Crete should now be endowed with an effective autonomous +administration, intended to secure to it a separate government, under +the suzerainty of the sultan. Greece was at the same time summoned to +remove its army and fleet from the island, while the Turkish troops were +to be concentrated in the fortresses and eventually withdrawn. The +cabinet of Athens, however, declined to recall the expeditionary force, +which remained in the interior till the 9th of May, when, after the +Greek reverses in Thessaly and Epirus, an order was given for its +return. Meantime Cretan autonomy had been proclaimed (20th March). After +the departure of the Greek troops the Cretan leaders, who had hitherto +demanded annexation to Greece, readily acquiesced in the decision of the +powers, and the insurgent Assembly, under its president Dr Sphakianakis, +a man of good sense and moderation, co-operated with the international +commanders in the maintenance of order. The pacification of the island, +however, was delayed by the presence of the Turkish troops and the +inability of the powers to agree in the choice of a new +governor-general. The prospect of a final settlement was improved by the +withdrawal of Germany and Austria, which had favoured Turkish +pretensions, from the European concert (April 1898); the remaining +powers divided the island into four departments, which they severally +undertook to administer. An attack made by the Moslems of Candia on the +British garrison of that town, with the connivance of the Turkish +authorities, brought home to the powers the necessity of removing the +Ottoman troops, and the last Turkish soldiers quitted the island on the +14th of November 1898. + + + Prince George's administration. + +On the 26th of that month the nomination of Prince George of Greece as +high commissioner of the powers in Crete for a period of three years +(renewed in 1901) was formally announced, and on the 21st of December +the prince landed at Suda and made his public entry into Canea amid +enthusiastic demonstrations. For some time after his arrival complete +tranquillity prevailed in the island, but the Moslem population, reduced +to great distress by the prolonged insurrection, emigrated in large +numbers. On the 27th of April 1899 a new autonomous constitution was +voted by a constituent assembly, and in the following June the local +administration was handed over to Cretan officials by the international +authorities. The extensive powers conferred by the constitution upon +Prince George were increased by subsequent enactments. In 1901 M. +Venezelo, who had played a noteworthy part in the last insurrection, was +dismissed from the post of councillor by the prince, and soon afterwards +became leader of a strong opposition party, which denounced the +arbitrary methods of the government. During the next four years party +spirit ran high; in the spring of 1904 a deputation of chiefs and +politicians addressed a protest to the prince, and early in the +following year a band of armed malcontents under M. Venezelo raised the +standard of revolt at Theriso in the White Mountains. The insurgents, +who received moral support from Dr Sphakianakis, proclaimed the union of +the island with Greece (March 1905), and their example was speedily +followed by the assembly at Canea. The powers, however, reiterated their +decision to maintain the _status quo_, and increased their military and +naval forces; the Greek flag was hauled down at Canea and Candia, and +some desultory engagements with the insurgents took place, the +international troops co-operating with the native gendarmerie. In the +autumn M. Venezelo and his followers, having obtained an amnesty, laid +down their arms. A commission appointed by the powers to report on the +administrative and financial situation drew up a series of +recommendations in January 1906, and a constituent assembly for the +revision of the constitution met at Canea in the following June. On the +25th of July the powers announced a series of reforms, including the +reorganization of the gendarmerie and militia under Greek officers, as a +preliminary to the eventual withdrawal of the international troops, and +the extension to Crete of the system of financial control established in +Greece. On the 14th of September, under an agreement dated the 14th of +August, they invited King George of Greece, in the event of the high +commissionership becoming vacant, to propose a candidate for that post, +to be nominated by the powers for a period of five years, and on the +25th of September Prince George left the island. He had done much for +the welfare of Crete, but his participation in party struggles and his +attitude towards the representatives of the powers had rendered his +position untenable. His successor, M. Alexander Zaimis, a former prime +minister of Greece, arrived in Crete on the 1st of October. + (J. D. B.) + +On the 22nd of February 1907 M. Zaimis, as high commissioner, took the +oath to the new constitution elaborated after much debate by the Cretan +national assembly. His position was one of singular difficulty. Apart +from the rivalry of the factions within the Assembly, there was the +question of the Mussulman minority, dwindling it is true,[3] but still a +force to be reckoned with. The high commissioner, true to his reputation +as a prudent statesman and astute politician, showed great skill in +dealing with the situation. From the first he had taken up an attitude +of great reserve, appearing little in public and careful not to identify +himself with any faction. In such matters as appointments to the +judicial bench, indeed, his studied impartiality offended both parties; +but on the whole his administration was a marked success, and the +cessation of the chronic state of disturbance in the island justified +the powers in preparing for the withdrawal of their troops. In spite of +the admission of their co-religionists to high office in the government, +the Mussulmans, it is true, still complained of continuous ill-treatment +having for its object their expatriation; but these complaints were +declared by Sir Edward Grey, in answer to a question in parliament, to +be exaggerated. The protecting powers had fixed the conditions +preliminary to evacuation--(1) the organization of a native gendarmerie, +(2) the maintenance of the tranquillity of the island, (3) the complete +security of the Mussulman population. On the 20th of March 1908 M. +Zaimis called the attention of the powers to the fact that these +conditions had been fulfilled, and on the 11th of May the powers +announced to the high commissioner their intention of beginning the +evacuation at once and completing it within a year. The first withdrawal +of the troops (July 27), hailed with enthusiasm by the Cretan +Christians, led to rioting by the Mussulmans, who believed themselves +abandoned to their fate. + +Meanwhile M. Zaimis had made a further advance towards the annexation of +the island to Greece by a visit to Athens, where he arranged for a loan +with the Greek National Bank and engaged Greek officers for the new +gendarmerie. The issue was precipitated by the news of the revolution in +Turkey. On the 12th of October the Cretan Assembly once more voted the +union with Greece, and in the absence of M. Zaimis--who had gone for a +holiday to Santa Maura--elected a committee of six to govern the island +in the name of the king of Greece. + +Against this the Mussulman deputies protested, in a memorandum addressed +to the British secretary of state for foreign affairs. His reply, while +stating that his government would safeguard the interests of the +Mussulmans, left open the question of the attitude of the powers, +complicated now by sympathy with reformed Turkey. The efforts of +diplomacy were directed to allaying the resentment of the "Young Turks" +on the one hand and the ardour of the Greek unionists on the other; and +meanwhile the Cretan administration was carried on peaceably in the name +of King George. At last (July 13, 1909) the powers announced to the +Porte, in answer to a formal remonstrance, their decision to withdraw +their remaining troops from Crete by July 26 and to station four +war-ships off the island to protect the Moslems and to safeguard "the +supreme rights" of the Ottoman Empire. This arrangement, which was duly +carried out, was avowedly "provisional" and satisfied neither party, +leading in Greece especially to the military and constitutional crises +of 1909 and 1910. (W. A. P.) + + AUTHORITIES.--Pashley, _Travels in Crete_ (2 vols., Cambridge and + London, 1837); Spratt, _Travels and Researches in Crete_ (2 vols., + London, 1867); Raulin, _Description physique de l'ile de Crete_ (3 + vols, and Atlas, Paris, 1869); W. J. Stillman, _The Cretan + Insurrection of 1866-68_ (New York, 1874); Edwardes, _Letters from + Crete_ (London, 1887); Stavrakis, [Greek: Statistike tou plethysmou + tes Kretes] (Athens, 1890); J. H. Freese, _A Short Popular History of + Crete_ (London, 1897); Bickford-Smith, _Cretan Sketches_ (London, + 1897); Laroche, _La Crete ancienne et moderne_ (Paris, 1898); Victor + Berard, _Les Affaires de Crete_ (Paris, 1898); _Monumenti Veneti dell' + isola de Creta_ (published by the Venetian Institute), vol. i. (1906), + vol. ii. (1908). See also Mrs Walker, _Eastern Life and Scenery_ + (London, 1886), and _Old Tracks and New Landmarks_ (London, 1897); H. + F. Tozer, _The Islands of the Aegean_ (Oxford, 1890); J. D. Bourchier, + "The Stronghold of the Sphakiotes," _Fortnightly Review_ (August + 1890); E. J. Dillon, "Crete and the Cretans," _Fortnightly Review_ + (May 1897). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See L. Cayeux, "Les Lignes directrices des plissements de l'ile + de Crete," _C.R. IX. Cong. geol. internat. Vienna_, pp. 383-392 + (1904). + + [2] Among the features common to the two were the _syssitia_, or + public tables, at which all the citizens dined in common. Indeed, the + Cretan system, like that of Sparta, appears to have aimed at training + up the young, and controlling them, as well as the citizens of more + mature age, in all their habits and relations of life. The supreme + governing authority was vested in magistrates called Cosmi, answering + in some measure to the Spartan Ephori, but there was nothing + corresponding to the two kings at Sparta. These Cretan institutions + were much extolled by some writers of antiquity, but receive only + qualified praise from the judicious criticisms of Aristotle (_Polit._ + ii. 10). + + [3] The Mussulman population, 88,000 in 1895, had sunk to 40,000 in + 1907, and the emigration was still continuing. The loss to the + country in wealth exported and land going out of cultivation has been + very serious. + + + + +CRETINISM, the term given to a chronic disease, either sporadic or +endemic, arising in early childhood, and due to absence or deficiency of +the normal secretion of the thyroid gland. It is characterized by +imperfect development both of mind and body. The thyroid gland is either +congenitally absent, imperfectly developed, or there is definite goitre. +The origin of the word is doubtful. Its southern French form _Chrestiaa_ +suggested to Michel a derivation from _cresta_ (_crete_), the goose foot +of red cloth worn by the Cagots of the Pyrenees. The Cagots, however, +were not cretins. The word is usually explained as derived from +_chretien_ (Christian) in the sense of "innocent." But _Christianus_ +(which appears in the Lombard _cristanei_; compare the Savoyard +_innocents_ and _gens du bon dieu_) is probably a translation of the +older _cretin_, and the latter is probably connected with _creta_ +(_craie_)--a sallow or yellow-earthy complexion being a common mark of +cretinism. + +The endemic form of cretinism prevails in certain districts, as in the +valleys of central Switzerland, Tirol and the Pyrenees. In the United +Kingdom cretins have been found in England at Oldham, Sholver Moor, +Crompton, Duffield, Cromford (near Matlock), and other points in +Derbyshire; endemic goitre has been seen near Nottingham, Chesterfield, +Pontefract, Ripon, and the mountainous parts of Staffordshire and +Yorkshire, the east of Cumberland, certain parts of Worcester, Warwick, +Cheshire, Monmouth, and Leicester, near Horsham in Hampshire, near +Haslemere in Surrey, and near Beaconsfield in Buckingham. There are +cretins at Chiselborough in Somerset. In Scotland cretins and cases of +goitre have been seen in Perthshire, on the east coast of Fife, in +Roxburgh, the upper portions of Peebles and Selkirk, near Lanark and +Dumfries, in the east of Ayrshire, in the west of Berwick, the east of +Wigtown, and in Kirkcudbright. The disease is not confined to Europe, +but occurs in North and South America, Australia, Africa and Asia. +Wherever endemic goitre is present, endemic cretinism is present also, +and it has been constantly observed that when a new family moves into a +goitrous district, goitre appears in the first generation, cretinism in +the second. The causation of goitre has now been shown to be due to +drinking certain waters, though the particular impurity in the water +which gives rise to this condition has not been determined (see GOITRE). +The causation of the sporadic form of cretinism is, however, obscure. + +Cretinism usually remains unrecognized until the child reaches some +eighteen months or two years, when its lack of mental development and +uncouth bodily form begin to attract attention. Occasionally the child +appears to be normal in infancy, but the cretinoid condition develops +later, any time up to puberty. The essential point in the morbid anatomy +of these cases is the absence or abnormal condition of the thyroid gland +(see METABOLIC DISEASES). It may be congenitally absent, atrophied, or +the seat of a goitre, though this last condition is very rare in cases +of sporadic cretinism. The skeleton shows arrested growth, most marked +in the case of the long bones. The skull in the endemic form of +cretinism is usually brachycephalic, but in the sporadic cases it is +more commonly dolichocephalic. The pathology of cretinism and its allied +condition myxoedema (q.v.) has now been conclusively worked out, and its +essential cause has been shown to be loss of function of the thyroid +gland. + +The condition has existed and been described in far back ages, but +mingled with so many other entirely different deformities and +degenerations that it is now often almost impossible to classify them +satisfactorily. The following is a vivid picture by Beaupre +(_Dissertation sur les cretins_, translated in Blackie on _Cretinism_, +Edin., 1855):-- + + "I see a head of unusual form and size, a squat and bloated figure, a + stupid look, bleared hollow and heavy eyes, thick projecting eyelids, + and a flat nose. His face is of a leaden hue, his skin dirty, flabby, + covered with tetters, and his thick tongue hangs down over his moist + livid lips. His mouth, always open and full of saliva, shows teeth + going to decay. His chest is narrow, his back curved, his breath + asthmatic, his limbs short, misshapen, without power. The knees are + thick and inclined inward, the feet flat. The large head drops + listlessly on the breast; the abdomen is like a bag." + +When fully grown the height rarely exceeds 4 ft., and is often less than +3 ft. The skin feels doughy from thickening of the subcutaneous tissues, +and it hangs in folds over the abdomen and the bends of the joints. Very +frequently there is an umbilical hernia. The hair has a far greater +resemblance to horse-hair than to that of a human being, and is usually +absent on the body of an adult cretin. The temperature is subnormal, and +the exposed parts tend to become blue in cold weather. The blood is +usually deficient in haemoglobin, which is often only 40-50% of the +normal. The mental capacity varies within narrow limits; an intelligent +adult cretin may reach the intellectual development of a child 3-4 years +of age, though more often the standard attained is even below this. The +child cretin learns neither to walk nor talk at the usual time. Often it +is unable even to sit without support. Some years later a certain power +of movement is acquired, but the gait is waddling and clumsy. Speech is +long delayed, or in bad cases may be almost entirely lacking. The voice +is usually harsh and unpleasant. Of the senses smell and taste are but +slightly developed, more or less deafness is generally present, and only +the sight is fairly normal. In the adult the genital organs remain +undeveloped. If the cretin is untreated he rarely has a long life, +thirty years being an exceptional age. Death results from some +intercurrent disease. + +Cretinism has to be distinguished from the state of a Mongolian idiot, +in whom there is no thickening of the subcutaneous tissues, and much +greater alertness of mind; from achondroplasia, in which condition there +is usually no mental impairment; and from infantilism, which covers a +group of symptoms whose only common point is that the primary and +secondary sexual characteristics fail to appear at the proper time. + +Before 1891 there was no treatment for this disease. The patients lived +in hopeless imbecility until their death. But in that year Dr George +Murray published his discovery of the effect of hypodermic injections of +thyroid gland extract in cases of myxoedema. In the following year Drs +Hector Mackenzie, E. L. Fox of Plymouth, and Howitz of Copenhagen, each +working independently, showed the equally potent effect of the gland +administered by the mouth. The remedy was soon after applied to +cretinism and its effects were found to be even more wonderful. It has +to be used, however, with the greatest care and discrimination, since +personal idiosyncrasy seems to be a very variable factor. Even small +doses, if beyond the patient's power, may produce fever, excitement, +headache, insomnia and vomiting. The administration must be persisted in +throughout life, otherwise myxoedematous symptoms appear. The first most +apparent results are those of growth, and this may supervene even in +patients up to 25-30 years of age. Once started, 4 to 6 in. may be +gained in stature in the first year's treatment, though this is usually +in inverse ratio to the age of the patient, and also diminishes in later +stages of treatment. In young adolescents it may be so rapid that the +patient has to be kept lying down to prevent permanent bending of the +long bones of the leg, softened by their rapid growth. A very typical +case under Dr Hector Mackenzie, showing what can be expected from early +treatment, is that of a cretin aged 11 years in 1893, when thyroid +treatment was started. He grew very rapidly and became a normal child, +passed through school, and in 1908 was at one of the universities. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Sardinian Commission, "Relazione della commissione di + Sardegna per studiare il cretinismo" (Torino, 1848); C. Hilton Fagge, + "On Sporadic Cretinism occurring in England," _Med. Chir. Trans._ + (London, 1870); Vincenzo Allara, "Sulla causa del cretinesimo," studio + (Milano, 1892); Victor Horsley, "Remarks on the Function of the + Thyroid Gland," _Brit. Med. Journ._ (1892); "The Treatment of + Myxoedema and Cretinism, being a Review of the Treatment of those + Diseases by Thyroid Gland," _Journ. Ment. Sc._ (London, 1893); W. + Osler, "On Sporadic Cretinism in America," _Am. Journ. of Med. Sc._ + (1893); C. A. Ewald, _Die Erkrankungen der Schilddruse, Myxodeme und + Cretinismus_ (Wien, 1896); G. R. Murray, _Diseases of the Thyroid + Gland_, part i. (1900); R. Virchow, "Uber Cretinismus," _Wurzburger + Verhand._; Hector Mackenzie, "Organotherapy," _Textbook of + Pharmacology and Therapeutics_ (1901); Weygandt, _Der heutige Stand + der Lehre vom Kretinismus_ (Halle, 1903); Hector Mackenzie, + "Cretinism," Allbutt & Rolleston's _System of Medicine_, part iv. + (1908). + + + + +CRETONNE, originally a strong, white fabric with a hempen warp and linen +weft. The word is said to be derived from Creton, a village in Normandy +where the manufacture of linen was carried on. It is now applied to a +strong, printed cotton cloth, stouter than chintz but used for very much +the same purposes. It is usually unglazed and may be printed on both +sides and even with different patterns. Frequently the cretonne has a +woven fancy pattern of some kind which is modified by the printed +design. It is sometimes made with a weft of cotton waste. + + + + +CREUSE, a department of central France, comprising the greater portion +of the old province of Marche, together with portions of Berry, +Bourbonnais, Auvergne, Limousin and Poitou. Area, 2164 sq. m. Pop. +(1906) 274,094. It lies on the north-western border of the central +plateau and is bounded N. by the departments of Indre and Cher, E. by +Allier and Puy-de-Dome, S. by Correze and W. by Haute-Vienne. The +surface is hilly, with a general inclination north-westward in the +direction of the valley of the Creuse, sloping from the mountains of +Auvergne and Limousin, branches of which project into the south of the +department. The chief of these starts from the Plateau de Gentioux, and +under the name of the Mountains of Marche extends along the left bank of +the Creuse. The highest point is in the forest of Chateauvert (3050 ft.) +in the extreme south-east of the department. Rivers, streams and lakes +are numerous, but none are navigable; the principal is the Creuse, which +rises on the north side of the mass of Mount Odouze on the border of the +department of Correze, and passes through the department, dividing it +into two nearly equal portions, receiving the Petite Creuse from the +right, and afterwards flowing on to join the Vienne. The valleys of the +head-streams of the Cher and of its tributary the Tardes, which near +Evaux passes under a fine viaduct 300 ft. in height, occupy the eastern +side; those of the heads of the Vienne and its tributary the Thaurion, +and of the Gartempe joining the Creuse, are in the west of the +department. The climate is in general cold, moist and variable; the +rigorous winter covers the higher cantons with snow; rain is abundant in +spring, and storms are frequent in summer, but the autumn is fine. +Except in the valleys the soil is poor and infertile, and agriculture +is also handicapped by the dearness of labour, due to the annual +emigration of from 15,000 to 20,000 of the inhabitants to other parts of +France, where they serve as stonemasons, &c. The produce of cereals, +chiefly rye, wheat, oats and buckwheat, is not sufficient for home +consumption. The chestnut abounds in the north and west; hemp and +potatoes are also grown. Cattle-rearing and sheep-breeding are the chief +industries of the department, which supplies Poitou and Vendee with +draught oxen. Coal is mined to some extent, chiefly in the basin of +Ahun. There are thermal springs at Evaux in the east of the department, +where remains of Roman baths are preserved. The chief industrial +establishments are the manufactories of carpets and hangings and the +dyeworks of Aubusson and Felletin. Saw-mills and the manufacture of +wooden shoes and hats have some importance. Exports include carpets, +coal, live-stock and hats; imports comprise raw materials for the +manufactures and food-supplies. The department is served by the Orleans +railway company, whose line from Montlucon to Perigueux traverses it +from east to west. It is divided into the four arrondissements of +Gueret, the capital Aubusson, Bourganeuf, and Boussac, and further into +25 cantons and 266 communes. With Haute-Vienne, Creuse forms the diocese +of Limoges, where also is its court of appeal. It forms part of the +academie (educational division) of Clermont and of the region of the +XII. army corps. The principal towns are Gueret and Aubusson. La +Souterraine, Chambon-sur-Voueize and Benevent-l'Abbaye possess fine +churches of the 12th century. At Moutier-d'Ahun there is a church, which +has survived from a Benedictine abbey. The nave of the 15th century with +a fine portal, and the choir with its carved stalls of the 17th century, +are of considerable interest. The small industrial town of Bourganeuf +has remains of a priory, including a tower (15th century) in which +Zizim, brother of the sultan Bajazet II., is said to have been +imprisoned. + + + + +CREUTZ, GUSTAF FILIP, COUNT (1729-1785), Swedish poet, was born in +Finland in 1729. After concluding his studies in Abo he received a post +in the court of chancery at Stockholm in 1751. Here he met Count +Gyllenborg, with whom his name is indissolubly connected. They were +closely allied with Fru Nordenflycht, and their works were published in +common; to their own generation they seemed equal in fame, but posterity +has given the palm of genius to Creutz. His greatest work is contained +in the 1762 volume, the idyll of _Atis och Camilla_; the exquisite +little pastoral entitled "Daphne" was published at the same time, and +Gyllenborg was the first to proclaim the supremacy of his friend. In +1763 Creutz practically closed his poetical career; he went to Spain as +ambassador, and after three years to Paris in the same capacity. In 1783 +Gustavus III. recalled him and heaped honours upon him, but he died soon +after, on the 30th of October 1785. _Atis och Camilla_ was long the most +admired poem in the Swedish language; it is written in a spirit of +pastoral which is now to some degree faded, but in comparison with most +of the other productions of the time it is freshness itself. Creutz +introduced a melody and grace into the Swedish tongue which it lacked +before, and he has been styled "the last artificer of the language." + + See _Creutz och Gyllenborgs Vitterhetsarbeten_ (Stockholm, 1795). + + + + +CREUZER, GEORG FRIEDRICH (1771-1858), German philologist and +archaeologist, was born on the 10th of March 1771, at Marburg, the son +of a bookbinder. Having studied at Marburg and Jena, he for some time +lived at Leipzig as a private tutor; but in 1802 he was appointed +professor at Marburg, and two years later professor of philology and +ancient history at Heidelberg. The latter position he held for nearly +forty-five years, with the exception of a short time spent at the +university of Leiden, where his health was affected by the Dutch +climate. He was one of the principal founders of the Philological +Seminary established at Heidelberg in 1807. The Academy of Inscriptions +of Paris appointed him one of its members, and from the grand-duke of +Baden he received the dignity of privy councillor. He died on the 16th +of February 1858. Creuzer's first and most famous work was his _Symbolik +und Mythologie der alten Volker, besonders der Griechen_ (1810-1812), +in which he maintained that the mythology of Homer and Hesiod came from +an Eastern source through the Pelasgians, and was the remains of the +symbolism of an ancient revelation. This work was vigorously attacked by +Hermann in his _Briefen uber Homer und Hesiod_, and in his letter, +addressed to Creuzer, _Uber das Wesen und die Behandlung der +Mythologie_; by J. H. Voss in his _Antisymbolik_; and by Lobek in his +_Aglaophamos_. Of Creuzer's other works the principal are an edition of +Plotinus; a partial edition of Cicero, in preparing which he was +assisted by Moser; _Die historische Kunst der Griechen_ (1803); _Epochen +der griech. Literaturgeschichte_ (1802); _Abriss der romischen +Antiquitaten_ (1824); _Zur Geschichte altromischer Cultur am Oberrhein +und Neckar_ (1833); _Zur Gemmenkunde_ (1834); _Das Mithreum von +Neuenheim_ (1838); _Zur Galerie der alten Dramatiker_ (1839); _Zur +Geschichte der classischen Philologie_ (1854). + + See the autobiographical _Aus dem Leben eines alten Professors_ + (Leipzig and Darmstadt, 1848), to which was added in the year of his + death _Paralipomena der Lebenskizze eines alten Professors_ + (Frankfort, 1858); also Starck, _Friederich Kreuzer, sein Bildungsgang + und seine bleibende Bedeutung_ (Heidelberg, 1875). + + + + +CREVASSE, a French word used in two senses. (1) In French Switzerland, +and thence universally in high mountain regions, it designates a fissure +in a glacier caused by gigantic cracks in the ice-mass, sometimes of +great depth, into which climbers frequently fall through a light bridge +of snow which conceals the crevasse. (2) Adopted from the French of +Louisiana, it signifies locally a wide crack or breach in the bank of a +canal or river, and particularly of the "levee" of the Mississippi. + + + + +CREVIER, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS (1693-1765), French author, was born at +Paris, where his father was a printer. He studied under Rollin and held +the professorship of rhetoric in the college of Beauvais for twenty +years. He completed Rollin's _Histoire romaine_ by the addition of six +volumes (1750-1756); he also published two editions of Livy, with notes; +_L'Histoire des empereurs des Romains, jusqu'a Constantin_ (1749); +_Histoire de l'Universite de Paris_, and a _Rhetorique francoise_, which +enjoyed much popularity. + + + + +CREVILLENTE, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante, and +on the Murcia-Alicante railway. Pop. (1900) 10,726. Crevillente is a +picturesque old town built among the eastern foothills of the Sierra de +Crevillente. Its flat-roofed Moorish houses are enclosed by gardens of +cactus, dwarf palm, orange and other subtropical plants, interspersed +with masses of rock. The surrounding country, though naturally sterile, +is irrigated from two adjacent springs, which differ in temperature by +no less than 25 deg. F. The district is famous for its melons, and also +produces wine, olives, wheat and esparto grass. Local industries include +the manufacture of coarse cloth, esparto fabrics, oil and flour. + + + + +CREW, NATHANIEL CREW, 3RD BARON (1633-1721), bishop of Durham, was a son +of John Crew (1598-1679), who was created Baron Crew of Stene in 1661, +and a grandson of Sir Thomas Crew (1565-1634), speaker of the House of +Commons. Born on the 31st of January 1633, Nathaniel was educated at +Lincoln College, Oxford, and was appointed rector of the college in +1668. He became dean and precentor of Chichester in 1669, clerk of the +closet to Charles II. shortly afterwards, bishop of Oxford in 1671, and +bishop of Durham in 1674. He owed his rapid preferment to James, then +duke of York, whose favour he had gained by conniving at the duke's +leanings to the Roman Church. After the accession of James II. Crew +received the deanery of the Chapel Royal. He served in 1686 on the +revived ecclesiastical commission which suspended Compton, bishop of +London, and then shared the administration of the see of London with +Sprat, bishop of Rochester. In 1687 he was a member of another +ecclesiastical commission, which suspended the vice-chancellor of the +university of Cambridge for refusing the degree of M.A. to a monk who +would not take the customary oath. On the decline of James's power Crew +dissociated himself from the court, and made a bid for the favour of the +new government by voting for the motion that James had abdicated. He was +excepted from the general pardon of 1690, but afterwards was allowed to +retain his see. He left large estates to be devoted to charitable ends, +and his benefaction to Lincoln College and to Oxford University is +commemorated in the annual Crewian oration. In 1697 Crew succeeded his +brother Thomas as 3rd Baron Crew, He died on the 18th of September 1721, +when the barony became extinct. + + + + +CREW (sometimes explained as a sea term of Scandinavian origin, cf. O. +Icel. _kru_, a swarm or crowd, but now regarded as a shortened form of +_accrue_, _accrewe_, used in the 16th century in the sense of a +reinforcement, O. Fr. _acreue_, from _accroitre_, to grow, increase), a +band or body of men associated for a definite purpose, a gang who +jointly carry out a particular piece of work, and especially those who +man a ship, exclusive of the captain, and sometimes also of the +officers. + + + + +CREWE, ROBERT OFFLEY ASHBURTON CREWE-MILNES, 1st Earl of (1858- ), +English statesman and writer, was born on the 12th of January 1858, +being the son of Lord Houghton (q.v.), and was educated at Harrow and +Trinity, Cambridge. In 1880 he married Sibyl Marcia Graham, who died in +1887, leaving him with two daughters. He inherited his father's literary +tastes, and published _Stray Verses_ in 1890, besides other +miscellaneous literary work. A Liberal in politics, he became private +secretary to Lord Granville when secretary of state for foreign affairs +(1883-1884), and in 1886 was made a lord-in-waiting. In the Liberal +administration of 1892-1895 he was lord-lieutenant for Ireland, having +Mr John Morley as chief secretary. In 1895 he was created 1st earl of +Crewe, his maternal grandfather, the 2nd Baron Crewe, having left him +his heir. In 1899 he married Lady Margaret Primrose, daughter of the 5th +earl of Rosebery. In 1905 he became lord president of the council in the +Liberal government; and in 1908, in Mr Asquith's cabinet, he became +secretary of state for the colonies and Liberal leader in the House of +Lords. + + + + +CREWE, a municipal borough in the Crewe parliamentary division of +Cheshire, England, 158 m. N.W. of London, on the main line of the London +& North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 42,074. The town was built on an +estate called Oak Farm in the parish of Monk's Coppenhall, and takes its +name from the original stations having been placed in the township of +Crewe, in which the seat of Lord Crewe is situated. It is a railway +junction where lines converge from London, Manchester, North Wales and +Holyhead, North Stafford and Hereford. It is inhabited principally by +persons in the employment of the London & North-Western railway company, +and was practically created by that corporation, at a point where in +1841 only a farmhouse stood in open country. Crewe is not only one of +the busiest railway stations in the world, but is the locomotive +metropolis of the London & North-Western company, which has centred here +enormous workshops for the manufacture of the material and plant used in +railways. In 1901 the 4000th locomotive was turned out of the works. A +series of subterranean ways extending many miles have been constructed +to enable merchandise traffic to pass through without interfering with +passenger trains on the surface railways. The company possesses one of +the finest electric stations in the world, and electrical apparatus for +the working of train signals is in operation. The station is fitted with +an extensive suite of offices for the interchange of postal traffic, the +chief mails to and from Ireland and Scotland being stopped here and +arranged for various distributing centres. Its enormous railway +facilities and its geographical situation as the junction of the great +trunk lines running north and south, tapping also the Staffordshire +potteries on the one side and the great mineral districts of Wales on +the other, constitute Crewe station one of the most important links of +railway and postal communication in the kingdom. The railway company +built its principal schools, provided it with a mechanics' institute, +containing library, science and art classes, reading rooms, assembly +rooms, &c. Victoria Park, also the gift of the company, was opened in +1888. The municipal corporation built the technical school and school of +art. The borough incorporated in 1877, is under a mayor, 7 aldermen and +21 councillors. Area, 2185 acres. + + + + +CREWKERNE, a market town in the southern parliamentary division of +Somersetshire, England, 132 m. W.S.W. of London by the London & +South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4226. It is +pleasantly situated in a wooded hollow, in the upper valley of the river +Parret. The church of St Bartholomew, one of the finest in the county, +is in the Perpendicular style characteristic of the district. The +ornamentation throughout is beautiful, and the west front especially +notable. The grammar school dates from 1499, but occupies modern +buildings. Sail-cloth, horsehair, cloth and webbing are manufactured. + + + + +CRIB (a word common to some Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch _krib_ and +Ger. _Krippe_; it has a common origin with the O. Eng. "cratch," a +manger or crib, cf. Fr. _creche_), a manger or framework receptacle for +holding fodder for cattle and horses, and so, from early times in +English, particularly the manger in which Jesus was laid. It is thus +used of a "cradle," from which in form it should be distinguished as +being a small bed with high closed-in sides. The word has many +transferred meanings, as a rough, small hut or dwelling, from which +comes the slang use of "crib" as a berth or situation, or, as a +burglar's term for a house to be broken into; also, technically, in +engineering for a timber framework for masonry constructed with a +caisson in laying foundations below water, or in mining for a timber +lining to a shaft. "Crib-biting" is a vicious habit in horses, probably +due in the first instance to indigestion; the horse seizes the manger or +other object in its teeth, and draws in the breath, known as +"wind-sucking"; the habit may be checked by the use of a throat-strap. +The slang meaning of the verb "crib," to steal, especially used of petty +thefts, is probably derived from an obsolete use of the substantive for +a small wicker basket; this meaning occurs in the expression +"time-cribbing," used of an illicit increase of the hours of labour in a +factory or workshop, especially by the running of machinery each day +slightly beyond the time of ceasing work. "Crib" and "cribbing" in this +sense are also applied to any unacknowledged appropriation or plagiarism +from an author, and particularly to the secret copying by a schoolboy of +another's work or from a book, and also to the secret use of a +translation and to such translation itself. "Crib," in the game of +cribbage, of which it is a shortened form, is the term for the cards +thrown away by each player and scored by the dealer. + + + + +CRIBBAGE, a game of cards. A very similar game called "Noddy" was +formerly played, the game being fifteen or twenty-one up, marked with +counters, occasionally by means of a noddy board. Cribbage seems to be +an improved form of Noddy. According to John Aubrey (_Brief Lives_) it +was invented by Sir John Suckling (1609-1642). + +A complete pack of fifty-two cards is required, and a cribbage board for +scoring, drilled with sixty holes for each player and one hole (called +"the game hole") at each end, the players usually scoring from opposite +ends. Each player has two scoring pegs. The game is marked by inserting +the pegs in the holes, one after the other, as the player makes a fresh +score, commencing with the outer row at the game-hole end and going up +the board. When the thirtieth hole is reached the player comes down the +board, using the inner row of holes, until he places his foremost peg in +the game-hole. If the losing player fails to obtain half the holes, his +adversary wins a "lurch," or double game. + +The game may be played by two players, five or six cards being dealt to +each, and each putting out two for what is called "crib"; or by three +players (with a triangular scoring board), five cards being dealt to +each, each putting out one for crib, and a card from the top of the pack +being dealt to complete the crib; or by four players (two being partners +against the other two, sitting and playing as at whist, and one partner +scoring for both), five cards being dealt to each, and each putting out +one card for crib. + +Two-handed five-card cribbage was formerly considered the most +scientific game, but this verdict has now been reversed in favour of the +six-card game. In six-card cribbage both hands and crib contain four +cards, and 121 holes are scored. + +The players cut for deal, the lowest dealing. If more than one game is +played, the winner of the last game deals. The cards rank from king +(highest) to the ace (lowest). At the two-handed five-card game, the +non-dealer scores three holes (called "three for last") at any time +during the game, but usually while the dealer is dealing the first hand. +This is not part of the six-card game, which we take as our example. + +The dealer deals six cards to each, singly. The undealt cards are placed +face downwards on the table. The players then look at their hands and +"lay out," each putting two cards face downwards on the table, on the +side of the board nearest to the dealer, for the "crib." A player must +not take back into his hand a card he has laid out if the cards have +been covered, nor must the crib be touched during the play of his hand. + +After laying out, the non-dealer (when more than two play, the player to +the dealer's left) cuts the pack, and the dealer turns up the top card +of the lower packet, called the "start," or "turn-up." If this is a +knave, the dealer marks two "for his heels." This score is forfeited if +not marked before the dealer plays a card. + +The non-dealer plays first by laying face upwards on the table on his +side of the board any card from his hand; the dealer then does the same, +and so on alternately. When more than two play, the player to the +leader's left plays the second card, and so on. As soon as the first +card is laid down the player calls out the number of pips on it; if a +picture card, ten. When the second card is laid down, the player calls +out the sum of the pips on the two cards played, and so on until all the +cards are played, or until neither player can play without passing the +number thirty-one. If one player has a card or cards that will come in +and the other has not, he is at liberty to play them; at the six-card +game he must play as long as they can come in, and he can score runs or +make pairs, &c., with them. If one player's cards are exhausted, the +adversary plays out his own, and can score with them. When more than two +play, the player next in rotation is bound to play, and so on until no +one can come in. At the two-handed five-card game, when neither can come +in the play stops; at the other games the cards are played turned down, +and the remainder of the cards are played in rotation, and so on until +all are played out. + +The object of the play is to make _pairs_, _fifteens_, _sequences_, and +the "go," and to prevent the adversary from scoring. + + _Pairs._--If a card is put down of the same denomination as the one + last played, the player pairing scores two holes. If a third card of + the same denomination is next played, a "pair royal" (abbreviated to + "prial") is made, and the maker scores six holes. If a fourth card of + the same denomination is next played, twelve holes are scored for the + "double pair royal." Kings pair only with kings, queens with queens, + and so with knaves and tens, notwithstanding that they all count ten + in play. + + _Fifteens._--If either player during the play reaches fifteen exactly, + by reckoning the values of all the played cards, he marks two. + + _Sequences._--If during the play of the hand three or more cards are + consecutively played which make an ascending or descending sequence, + the maker of the sequence marks one hole for each card forming the + sequence or run. King, queen, knave and ten reckon in sequence in this + order, notwithstanding that they are all tenth cards in play; the + other cards according to the number of their pips. The ace is not in + sequence with king, queen. If one player obtains a run of three, his + adversary can put down a card in sequence and mark four, and so on. + And, if there is a break in the sequence, and the break is filled up + during the play, without the intervention of a card not in sequence, + the player of the card that fills the break scores a run. Thus the + cards are played in this order: A-4, B-3, A-2, B-ace, A gets a run of + three, B a run of four. Had B's last card been a five, he would + similarly have scored a run of four, as there is no break. Had B's + last card been a four, he would have scored a run of three. The cards + need not be played in order. Thus the cards being played in this + order, A-4, B-2, A-5, B-3, A-6, A-4, B-2, A-5, B-3, A-5, B-6, B takes + a run of four for the fourth card played, but there is no run for any + one else, as the second five intervenes. Again, if the cards at + six-card cribbage are thus played, A-4, B-2, A-3, B-ace, A-5, B-2, + A-4, B-ace, A takes a run of three, B a run of four, A a run of five. + B then playing the deuce has no run, as the deuce previously played + intervenes. + + The "go," end hole or last card is scored by the player who approaches + most nearly to thirty-one during the play, and entitles to a score of + one. If thirty-one is reached exactly, it is a go of two instead of + one. After a go no card already played can be counted for pairs or + sequences. + + _Compound Scores._--More than one of the above scores can be made at + the same time. Thus a player pairing with the last card that will come + in scores both pair and go. Similarly a pair and a fifteen, or a + sequence and a fifteen, can be reckoned together. + + When the play is over, the hands are shown and counted aloud. The + non-dealer has first show and scores and marks first; the dealer + afterwards counts, scores and marks what he has in hand, and then + takes what is in crib. In counting both hands and crib the "start" is + included, so that five cards are involved. + + The combinations in hand or crib which entitle to a score are fifteen, + pairs or pairs royal, sequences, flushes and "his nob." + + _Fifteens._--All the combinations of cards that, taken together, make + fifteen exactly, count two. For example, a ten (King, Queen, Knave or + Ten) card and a five reckon two, called as "fifteen two." Another five + in the hand or turned up would again combine with the ten card, and + entitle to another fifteen ("fifteen four"); if the other cards were a + two and a three, two other fifteens would be counted ("fifteen six," + "fifteen eight")--one for the combination of the three and two with + the ten card, and one for the combination of the two fives with the + three and two. Similarly two ten cards and two fives reckon eight; a + nine and three threes count six; and so on for other cards. + + _Pairs._--Pairs are reckoned as in play. + + _Sequences._--Three or more cards in sequence count one for each card. + If one sequence card can be substituted for another of the same + denomination, the sequence reckons again. For example, 3,4,5 and a 3 + turned up reckon two sequences of three; with another 3 there would be + three sequences of three, and so on. + + _Flushes._--If all the cards in hand are of the same suit, one is + reckoned for each card. If the start is also of the same suit, one is + reckoned for that also. In crib, no flush is reckoned unless the start + is of the same suit as the cards in crib. + + _His Nob._--If a player holds the knave of the suit turned up for the + start he counts one "for his nob." + + A dialogue will illustrate the technical conversation of the game, in + a game at six-card cribbage. The cards for crib having been discarded, + A holds knave of hearts, a four and a pair of twos: B holds a pair of + nines, a six and a four. Two of hearts is turned up by B. The hand + might be played thus. A lays down a two and says "Two": B plays a nine + and says "Eleven": A follows with a four, saying "Fifteen two"; + pegging two holes at once: B plays his four and says "Nineteen; two + for a pair," and pegs: A putting on his knave, "Twenty-nine"; B says + "Go." A lays down his two, his last card, and says "Thirty-one; good + for two." B plays his nine and six, saying "Fifteen two, and one for + my last--three." The points are marked as they are made. A then counts + his hand aloud. "Six for a pair-royal" or "Three twos--good for six," + and "One for his nob--seven," and throws down his hand for B's + inspection. B, "Fifteen two, fifteen four, fifteen six, fifteen eight, + and a pair are ten." B then looks at his crib and counts it. It + contains, say, king, eight, three, ace and the "start" is also + reckoned. B counts "Fifteen two and a run of three--five." + + After the points in hand and crib are reckoned, the cards are shuffled + and dealt again, and so on alternately until the game is won. + + The highest possible score in hand is 29--three fives and a knave, + with a five, of the same suit as the knave, turned up. + + + + +CRICCIETH, a watering-place and contributory parliamentary borough of +Carnarvonshire, Wales, on Cardigan Bay, served by the Cambrian railway. +Pop. of urban district (1901) 1406. It is interesting for its high +antiquity and the ruined castle, a fortress on an eminence where a neck +of land ends, projecting into the sea. Portions of two towers are on the +very verge of the rock. A double fosse and vallum, with the outer and +inner court lines, can be traced. Apparently British, the castle was +repaired later, probably in the time of Edward I. Across the bay is seen +Harlech castle, backed by the Merionethshire hills. An old county-family +mansion near Criccieth is Gwynfryn (happy hill), the seat of the +Nanneys, situated near the stream Dwyfawr and within some 7 m. of +Pwllheli. Not far is a tumulus, _Tomen fawr_. At a distance of 5 m. is +Tremadoc (which owes its name. Town of Madocks--as does Portmadoc--to Mr +W. Madocks, of Morfa Lodge, who made the embankment here). Criccieth has +become a favourite watering-place, as well as a centre of excursions. +The neighbourhood is agreeable, and the Cardigan Bay shore is shelving +and suitable for safe bathing. Cantref y Gwaelod (the hundred of the +bottom) is the Welsh literary name of this bay, on the shores of which +geological depression has certainly taken place. Mythical history +relates how Seithennin's drunkenness inundated the land now covered by +the bay, and how King Arthur's ship was wrecked upon Meisdiroedd Enlli +near Bardsey. The _Mabinogion_ tell how Harlech was a port. Similarly, +in Carnarvon Bay, about 2 m. seaward, at low water, are visible the +ruins of Caerarianrhod (fortified town of the silver wheel), a submerged +town--due to another geological depression. + + + + +CRICHTON, JAMES (1560-? 1582), commonly called the "Admirable Crichton," +was the son of Robert Crichton, lord advocate of Scotland in the reign +of Mary and James VI., and of Elizabeth, daughter of Sir James Stewart +of Beath, through whom he claimed royal descent. He was born probably at +Eliock in Dumfriesshire in 1560, and when ten years old was sent to St +Salvator's College, St Andrews, where he took his B.A. in 1574 and his +M.A. in 1575. In 1577 Crichton was undoubtedly in Paris, but his career +on the continent is difficult to follow. That he displayed considerable +classical knowledge, was a good linguist, a ready and versatile writer +of verse, and above all that he possessed an astounding memory, seems +certain, not only from the evidence of men of his own time, but from the +fact that even Joseph Scaliger (_Prima Scaligerana_, p. 58, 1669) speaks +of his attainments with the highest praise. But those works of his which +have come down to us show few traces of unusual ability; and the +laudation of him as a universal genius by Sir Thomas Urquhart and Aldus +Manutius requires to be discounted. Urquhart (in his _Discovery of a +most exquisite jewel_) states that while in Paris Crichton successfully +held a dispute in the college of Navarre, on any subject and in twelve +languages, and that the next day he won a tilting match at the Louvre. +There is, however, no contemporary evidence for this, the only certain +facts being that for two years Crichton served in the French army, and +that in 1579 he arrived in Genoa. The latter event is proved by a Latin +address (of no particular merit) to the Doge and Senate entitled _Oratio +J. Critonii Scoti pro Moderatorum Genuensis Reipubl. electione coram +Senatu habita...._ (Genoa, 1579). The next year Crichton was in Venice, +and won the friendship of Aldus Manutius by his Latin ode _In appulsu ad +urbem Venetam de Proprio statu J. Critonii Scoti Carmen ad Aldum +Manuccium...._ (Venice, 1580). The best contemporary evidence for +Crichton's stay in Venice is a handbill printed by the Guerra press in +1580 (and now in the British Museum), giving a short biography and an +extravagant eulogy of his powers; he speaks ten languages, has a command +of philosophy, theology, mathematics; he improvises Latin verses in all +metres and on all subjects, has all Aristotle and his commentators at +his fingers' ends; is of most beautiful appearance, a soldier from top +to toe, &c. This work is undoubtedly by Manutius, as it was reprinted +with his name in 1581 as _Relatione della qualita di ... Crettone_, and +again in 1582 (reprinted Venice, 1831). + +In Venice Crichton met and vanquished all disputants except Giacomo +Mazzoni, was followed from place to place by crowds of admirers, and won +the affection of the humanists Lorenzo Massa and Giovanni Donati. In +March 1581 he went to Padua, where he held two great disputations. In +the first he extemporized in succession a Latin poem, a daring onslaught +on Aristotelian ignorance, and an oration in praise of ignorance. In the +second, which took place in the Church of St John and St Paul, and +lasted three days, he undertook to refute innumerable errors in +Aristotelians, mathematicians and schoolmen, to conduct his dispute +either logically or by the secret doctrine of numbers, &c. According to +Aldus, who attended the debate and published an account of it in his +dedication to Crichton prefixed to Cicero's "Paradoxa" (1581), the young +Scotsman was completely successful. In June Crichton was once more in +Venice, and while there wrote two Latin odes to his friends Lorenzo +Massa and Giovanni Donati, but after this date the details of his life +are obscure. Urquhart states that he went to Mantua, became the tutor of +the young prince of Mantua, Vincenzo di Gonzaga, and was killed by the +latter in a street quarrel in 1582. Aldus in his edition of Cicero's _De +universitate_ (1583), dedicated to Crichton, laments the 3rd of July as +the fatal day; and this account is apparently confirmed by the Mantuan +state papers recently unearthed by Mr Douglas Crichton (_Proc. Soc. of +Antiquaries of Scotland_, 1909). Mr Sidney Lee (_Dict. Nat. Biog._) +argued against this date, on the ground that in 1584 and 1585 Crichton +was alive and in Milan, as certain works of his published in that year +testified, and regarded it as probable that he died in Mantua c. +1585/6. But these later works seem to have been by another man of the +same name. The epithet "admirable" (_admirabilis_) for Crichton first +occurs in John Johnston's _Heroes Scoti_ (1603). It is probably +impossible to recover the whole truth either as to Crichton's death or +as to the extent of his attainments, which were so quickly elevated into +legendary magnitude. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Sir Thomas Urquhart's _Discovery of a most excellent + jewel_ (1652; reprinted in the Maitland Club's edition of Urquhart's + Works in 1834) is written with the express purpose of glorifying + Scotland. The panegyrics of Aldus Manutius require to be received with + some caution, since he was given to exaggerating the merits of his + friend, and uses almost the same language about a young Pole named + Stanilaus Niegosevski; see John Black's _Life of Torquato Tasso_, ii. + 413-451 (1810), for a criticism. The _Life of Crichton_, by P. Fraser + Tytler (2nd ed., 1823), contains many extracts from earlier writers; + see also "Notices of Sir Robert Crichton of Cluny and of his son + James," by John Stuart, in _Proceedings Soc. of Antiquaries of + Scotland_, vol. ii. pp. 103-118 (1855); and the article by Andrew + Lang, "The death of the Admirable Crichton," in the _Morning Post_ + (London), Feb. 25, 1910. W. Harrison-Ainsworth in his novel _Crichton_ + (new ed., 1892) reprints and translates some documents relating to + Crichton, as well as some of his poems. + + + + +CRICKET (_Gryllidae_), a family of saltatory Orthopterous Insects, +closely related to the Locustidae. The wings when folded form long +slender filaments, which often reach beyond the extremity of the body, +and give the appearance of a bifid tail, while in the male they are +provided with a stridulating apparatus by which the well-known chirping +sound, to which the insect owes its name, is produced. The abdomen of +the female ends in a long slender ovipositor, which, however, is not +exserted in the mole cricket. The house cricket (_Gryllus domesticus_) +is of a greyish-yellow colour marked with brown. It frequents houses, +especially in rural districts, where its lively, if somewhat monotonous, +chirp may be heard nightly in the neighbourhood of the fireplace. It is +particularly fond of warmth, and is thus frequently found in bakeries, +where its burrows are often sunk to within a few inches of the oven. In +the hot summer it goes out of doors, and frequents the walls of gardens, +but returns again to its place by the hearth on the first approach of +cold, where, should the heat of the fire be withdrawn, it becomes +dormant. It is nocturnal, coming forth at the evening twilight in search +of food, which consists of bread crumbs and other refuse of the kitchen. +The field cricket (_Gryllus campestris_) is a larger insect than the +former, and of a darker colour. It burrows in the ground to a depth of +from 6 to 12 in., and in the evening the male may be observed sitting at +the mouth of its hole noisily stridulating until a female approaches, +"when," says Bates, "the louder notes are succeeded by a more subdued +tone, whilst the successful musician caresses with his antennae the mate +he has won." The musical apparatus in this species consists of upwards +of 130 transverse ridges on the under side of one of the nervures of the +wing cover, which are rapidly scraped over a smooth, projecting nervure +on the opposite wing. The female deposits her eggs--about 200 in +number--on the ground, and when hatched the larvae, which resemble the +perfect insect except in the absence of wings, form burrows for +themselves in which they pass the winter. The mole cricket (_Gryllotalpa +vulgaris_) owes its name to the striking analogy in its habits and +structure to those of the common mole. Its body is thick and cylindrical +in shape, and it burrows by means of its front legs, which are short and +greatly flattened out and thickened, with the outer edge partly notched +so as somewhat to resemble a hand. It prefers loose and sandy ground in +which to dig, its burrow consisting of a vertical shaft from which long +horizontal galleries are given off; and in making those excavations it +does immense injury to gardens and vineyards by destroying the tender +roots of plants, which form its principal food. It also feeds upon other +insects, and even upon the weak of its own species in the absence of +other food. It is exceedingly fierce and voracious, and is usually +caught by inserting a stem of grass into its hole, which being seized, +is retained till the insect is brought to the surface. The female +deposits her eggs in a neatly constructed subterranean chamber, about +the size of a hen's egg, and sufficiently near the surface to allow of +the eggs being hatched by the heat of the sun. + + + + +CRICKET. The game of cricket may be called the national summer pastime +of the English race. The etymology of the word itself is the subject of +much dispute. The _Century Dictionary_ connects with O. Fr. _criquet_, +"a stick used as a mark in the game of bowls," and denies the connexion +with A.S. _crice_ or _cryce_, a staff. A claim has also been made for +_cricket_, meaning a stool, from the stool at which the ball was bowled, +while in the wardrobe account of King Edward I. for the year 1300 (p. +126) is found an allusion to a game called _creag_. Skeat, in his +_Etymological Dictionary_, states that the word is probably derived from +A.S. _crice_ (repudiated by the first authority quoted), the meaning of +which is a staff, and suggests that the "et" is a diminutive suffix; the +word is of the same origin as "crutch." Finally the _New English +Dictionary_ traces the O. Fr. _criquet_, defined by Littre as "_jeu +d'addresse_," to M. Flem. _Krick, Kruke, baston a s'appuyer, quinette, +potence_. + +_History._--In a MS. of the middle of the 13th century, in the King's +library, 14 Bv, entitled _Chronique d'Angleterre, depuis Ethelberd +jusqu'a Hen. III._, there is found a grotesque delineation of two male +figures playing a game with a bat and ball. This is undoubtedly the +first known drawing of what was destined to develop into the scientific +cricket of modern times. The left-hand figure is that of the batsman, +who holds his weapon upright in the right hand with the handle +downwards. The right-hand figure shows the catcher, whose duty is at +once apparent by the extension of his hands. In another portion of the +same MS., however, there is a male figure pointing a bat towards a +female figure in the attitude of catching, but the ball is absent. In a +Bodleian Library MS., No. 264, dated the 18th of April 1344, and +entitled _Romance of the Good King Alexander_, fielders for the first +time appear in addition to the batsman and bowler. All the players are +monks (not female figures, as Strutt misinterprets their dress in his +_Sports and Pastimes_), and on the extreme left of the picture, the +bowler, with his cowl up, poises the ball in the right hand with the arm +nearly horizontal. The batsman comes next with his cowl down, a little +way only to the right, standing sideways to the bowler with a long +roughly-hewn and slightly-curved bat, held upright, handle downwards in +the left hand. On the extreme right come four figures--with cowls +alternately down and up, and all having their hands raised in an +attitude to catch the ball. It has been argued that the bat was always +held in the left hand at this date, since on the opposite page of the +same MS. a solitary monk is figured with his cowl down, and also holding +a somewhat elongated oval-shaped implement in his left hand; but it is +unsafe to assume that the accuracy of the artist can be trusted. + +The close roll of 39 Edw. III. (1365), Men. 23, disparages certain games +on account of their interfering with the practice of archery, where the +game of cricket is probably included among the pastimes denounced as +"ludos inhonestos, et minus utiles aut valentes." In this instance +cricket was clearly considered fit for the lower orders only, though it +is evident from the entry in King Edward's wardrobe account, already +mentioned, that in 1300 the game of _creag_ was patronized by the +nobility. Judging from the drawings, it can only be conjectured that the +game consisted of bowling, batting and fielding, though it is known that +there was an in-side and an out-side, for sometime during the 15th +century the game was called "Hondyn or Hondoute," or "Hand in and Hand +out." Under this title it was interdicted by 17 Edw. IV. c. 3 +(1477-1478), as one of those illegal games which still continued to be +so detrimental to the practice of archery. By this statute, any one +allowing the game to be played on his premises was liable to three +years' imprisonment and L20 fine, any player to two years' imprisonment +and L10 fine, and the implements to be burnt. The inference that hand in +and hand out was analogous to cricket is made from a passage in the Hon. +Daines Barrington's _Observations on the more Ancient Statutes from +Magna Charta to 21 James I. cap. 27_. Writing in 1766, he comments thus +on the above statute, viz.: "This is, perhaps, the most severe law ever +made against gaming, and some of these forbidden sports seem to have +been manly exercises, particularly the _handyn_ and _handoute_, which I +should suppose to be a kind of cricket, as the term hands is still +retained in that game." + +The word "cricket" occurs about the year 1550. In Russell's _History of +Guildford_ it appears there was a piece of waste land in the parish of +Holy Trinity in that city, which was enclosed by one John Parish, an +innholder, some five years before Queen Elizabeth came to the throne. In +35 Elizabeth (1593) evidence was taken before a jury and a verdict +returned, ordering the garden to be laid waste again and disinclosed. +Amongst other witnesses John Derrick, gent., and one of H.M.'s coroners +for Surrey, _aetat._ fifty-nine, deposed he had known the ground for +fifty years or more, and "when he was a scholler in the free school of +Guildford, he and several of his fellowes did runne and play there at +_crickett_ and other plaies." In the original edition of Stow's _Survey +of London_ (1598) the word does not occur, though he says, "The ball is +used by noblemen and gentlemen in tennis courts, and by people of the +meaner sort in the open fields and streets." + +Some noteworthy references to the game may be cited. In Giovanni +Florio's dictionary _A Worlde of Wordes most Copious and Exact_, +published in Italy in 1595 and in London three years later, _squillare_ +is defined as "to make a noise as a cricket, to play cricket-a-wicket +and be merry." Sir William Dugdale states that in his youth Oliver +Cromwell, who was born in 1599, threw "himself into a dissolute and +disorderly course," became "famous for football, cricket, cudgelling and +wrestling," and acquired "the name of royster." In Randle Cotgrave's +_Dictionary of French and English_, dated 1611, _Crosse_ is translated +"crosier or bishop's staffe wherewith boys play at cricket," and +_Crosser_ "to play at cricket." + +Among the earliest traces of cricket at public schools is an allusion to +be found in the _Life of Bishop Ken_ by William Lisle Bowles (1830). +Concerning the subject of this biography, who was admitted to Winchester +on the 13th of January 1650/1, it is said "on the fifth or sixth day, +our junior ... is found for the first time attempting to wield a cricket +bat." In 1688 a "ram and bat" is charged in an Etonian's school bill, +but it is possible this may only refer to a cudgel used for ram-baiting. +In _The Life of Thomas Wilson, Minister of Maidstone_, published +anonymously in 1672, Wilson having been born in 1601 and dying in or +about 1653, occurs the following passage (p. 40): "Maidstone was +formerly a very profane town, in as much as I have seen morrice-dancing, +cudgel-playing, stool-ball, crickets, and many other sports openly and +publicly indulged in on the Lord's Day." Cricket is found enumerated as +one of the games of Gargantua in _The Works of Rabelais_, translated in +1653 by Sir Thomas Urchard (Urquhart), vol. i. ch. xxii. p. 97. In a +poem entitled _The Mysteries of Love and Eloquence or the Arts of Wooing +and Complimenting_ (1658), by Edward Phillips, John Milton's nephew, the +mistress of a country bumpkin when she goes to a fair with him says +"Would my eyes had been beaten out of my head with a cricket ball." The +St Alban's Cricket Club was founded in 1661, one of its earliest +presidents being James Cecil, 4th earl of Salisbury (1666-1694). + +In 1662 John Davies of Kidwelly issued his translation of Adam Olearius' +work entitled _The Voyages and Travels of the Ambassadors from the Duke +of Holstein to the Grand Duke of Muscovy, and the King of Persia. Begun +in the year 1633 and finished in 1639_. On page 297 is a description of +the exercises indulged in by the Persian grandees in 1637, and the +statement is made that "They play there also at a certain game, which +the Persians call _Kuitskaukan_, which is a kind of _Mall_, or +_Cricket_." In the Clerkenwell parish book of 1668 the proprietor of the +Rum Inn, Smithfield, is found rated for a cricket field. + +The chaplain of H.M.S., "Assistance," Rev. Henry Teonge, states in his +diary that during a visit to Antioch on the 6th of May 1676, several of +the ship's company, accompanied by the consul, rode out of the city +early and amongst other pastimes indulged in "krickett." During the +first half of the 18th century the popularity of the game increased and +is frequently mentioned by writers of the time, such as Swift, who +alludes sneeringly to "footmen at cricket," D'Urfey, Pope, Soame +Jenyns, Strype in his edition of Stow's _Survey of London_, and +Arbuthnot in _John Bull_, iv. 4, "when he happened to meet with a +football or a match at cricket." + +In 1748 it was decided that cricket was not an illegal game under the +statute 9 Anne, cap. 19, the court of king's bench holding "that it was +a very manly game, not bad in itself, but only in the ill use made of it +by betting more than ten pounds on it; but that was bad and against the +law." Frederick Louis, prince of Wales, died in 1751 from internal +injuries caused by a blow from a cricket ball whilst playing at Cliefden +House. Games at this period were being played for large stakes, ground +proprietors and tavern-keepers farming and advertising matches, the +results of which were not always above suspicion. The old Artillery +Ground at Finsbury was one of the earliest sites of this type of +fixture. Here it was that the London Club--formed about 1700--played its +matches. The president was the prince of Wales, and many noblemen were +among its supporters. It flourished for more than half a century. One of +the very earliest full-scores kept in the modern fashion is that of the +match between Kent and All England, played on the Artillery Ground on +the 18th of June 1744. + +Cricket, however, underwent its most material development in the +southern counties, more especially in the hop-growing districts. It was +at the large hop-fairs, notably that of Weyhill, to which people from +all the neighbouring shires congregated, that county matches were +principally arranged. + +The famous Hambledon Club lasted approximately from 1750 to 1791. Its +matches were played on Broad Half-Penny and Windmill Downs, and in its +zenith the club frequently contended with success against All England. +The chief players were more or less retainers of the noblemen and other +wealthy patrons of cricket. The original society was broken up in 1791 +owing to Richard Nyren, their "general," abandoning the game, of which +in consequence "the head and right arm were gone." The dispersion of the +players over the neighbouring counties caused a diffusion of the best +spirit of the game, which gradually extended northward and westward +until, at the close of the 18th century, cricket became established as +the national game, and the custom became general to play the first game +of each year on Good Friday. + +The M.C.C. (or Marylebone Cricket Club), which ranks as the leading club +devoted to the game in any part of the globe, sprang from the old +Artillery Ground Club, which played at Finsbury until about 1780, when +the members migrating to White Conduit Fields became the White Conduit +Cricket Club. In 1787 they were remodelled under their present title, +and moved to Lord's ground, then on the site of what is now Dorset +Square; thence in 1811 to Lord's second ground nearer what is now the +Regent's Canal; and in 1814, when the canal was cut, to what is now +Lord's ground in St John's Wood. Thomas Lord, whose family were obliged +to leave their native Scotland on account of their participation in the +rebellion of 1745, was born in Thirsk, Yorkshire, in 1757, and is first +heard of as an attendant at the White Conduit Club, London, in 1780. +Soon afterwards he selected and superintended a cricket ground for the +earl of Winchilsea and other gentlemen, which was called after his name. +He died in 1832 on a farm at West Meon, Hampshire, of which he took the +management two years before. Lord took away the original turf of his +cricket-ground at each migration and relaid it. In 1825 the pavilion was +burnt down, invaluable early records of the game being destroyed; and in +the same year the ground would have been broken up into building plots +had not William Ward purchased Lord's interest. Dark bought him out in +1836, selling the remainder of his lease to the club in 1864. Meanwhile, +in 1860, the freehold had been purchased at public auction by a Mr +Marsden--_ne_ Moses--for L7000, and he sold it to the club six years +later for nearly L18,500, a similar sum being paid in 1887 for +additional ground. In 1897 the Great Central railway company conveyed a +further portion to the club, making the ground complete as it now is; +the total area is about 20 acres, including the site of various villas +adjoining the ground which are part of the property. The number of +members now considerably exceeds five thousand. + +_Laws._--The oldest laws of cricket extant are those drawn up by the +London Club in 1744. These were amended at the "Star and Garter" in Pall +Mall, London, in 1755, and again in 1774, and were also revised by the +M.C.C. in 1788. From this time the latter club has been regarded as the +supreme authority, even though some local modifications have in recent +years been effected in Australia. Alterations and additions have been +frequently made, and according to the present procedure they have to be +approved by a majority of two-thirds of the members present at the +annual general meeting of the whole club; the administration being in +the hands of a president, annually nominated by his outgoing +predecessor, a treasurer and a committee composed of sixteen members, +four annually retiring, in conjunction with a secretary and a large +subordinate staff. + +_Implements._--Concerning the implements of the game, in the 1744 rules +it was declared that the weight of the ball must be "between five and +six ounces," and it was not until 1774 that it was decided that it +"shall weigh not less than five ounces and a half nor more than five +ounces and three-quarters," as it is to the present day. Not until 1838 +however came the addition, "it shall measure not less than nine inches +nor more than nine inches and a quarter in circumference." The materials +out of which the old balls were made are not on record. At present a +cube of cork forms the foundation, round which layers of fine twine and +thin shavings of cork are accumulated till the proper size and shape are +attained, when a covering of red leather is sewn on with six parallel +seams. Various "compositions" have been tried as a substitute for cork +and leather, but without taking their place. + +For the bat, English willow has been proverbially found the best wood. +The oldest extant bats resemble a broad and curved hockey stick, and it +has been claimed to be an evolution of the club employed in the Irish +game of "hurley." The straight blade was adopted as soon as the bowler +began to pitch the ball up, an alteration which took place about 1750, +but pictures show slightly curved bats almost to the time of the battle +of Waterloo. The oldest were all made in one piece and were so used +until the middle of the 19th century, when handles of ash were spliced +into the blade, and the whole cane-handle was introduced about 1860. No +limit was set to the length of the bat until 1840, though the width was +restricted to 4-1/4 in. "in the widest part" by the laws of 1788, and a +gauge was made for the use of the Hambledon Club. The length of the bat +is now restricted to 38 in., 36 being more generally used, as a rule the +handle being 14 in. long and the blade 22 in. As to weight, though there +is no restriction, 2 lb. 3 oz. is considered light, 2 lb. 6 oz. fairly +heavy; but W. Ward (1787-1849) used a bat weighing 4 lb. + +At present the wicket consists of three stumps (round straight pieces of +wood) of equal thickness, standing 27 in. upright out of the ground. On +the top are two "bails," short pieces of wood which fit into grooves +made in the top of the stumps so as not to project more than half an +inch above them. But the evolution of the wicket has been very gradual, +and the history of it is very obscure, since different types of wickets +seem to have existed simultaneously. If early pictures are to be +trusted, no wicket was required in primitive times: the striker was +either caught out, or run out, the fieldsman having to put the ball into +a hole scooped in the ground, before the batsman could put his bat into +it. A single stump, it is supposed, was sometimes substituted for the +hole to save collision between the bat and the fieldsman's fingers. In +due course, but at an unknown date, a wicket--a "skeleton gate"--was +raised over the hole; it consisted of two stumps each 12 in. high, set +24 in. apart, with a third laid on the top of them. John Nyren, however, +writing in 1833, and discussing some memoranda given him by Mr W. Ward, +says apropos of these dimensions, "There must be a mistake in this +account of the width of the wicket." Undoubtedly such wickets were all +against the bowler, who must have bowled over or through the wicket +twenty times for every occasion when he succeeded in hitting either the +uprights or the cross stump. In pictures of cricket played about 1743 we +find only two stumps and a cross stump, or bail, the wicket varying +apparently both in height and width. In a picture, the property of H.M. +the King, entitled "A Village Match in 1768," three stumps and a bail +are distinctly shown. Two stumps are shown as used in 1779, afterwards +three always with one exception. Two prints, advertisements, +representing matches played between women on consecutive days in 1811, +show, one of them a wicket of three stumps, the other a wicket of two. +The addition of the third stump, as is universally agreed, was due to an +incident which occurred in a match of the Hambledon Club in 1775. "It +was observed at a critical point in the game, that the ball passed three +times between Mr Small's two stumps without knocking off the bail; and +then, first a third stump was added, and seeing that the new style of +balls which rise over the bat also rise over the wicket, then but 1 ft. +high, the wicket was altered to the dimensions of 22 in. by 8, and to +its present dimensions of 27 in. by 8 in 1817." So writes the Rev. J. +Pycroft (1813-1895), quoting fairly closely from Nyren, who wrote many +years after the event; but Pycroft is wrong in writing 22 by 8, which +should really be 22 by 6. It is hard to believe that the 12 by 24 wicket +lasted as long as 1775, for in the laws issued after the meeting held at +the "Star and Garter," Pall Mall, where many "noblemen and gentlemen" +attended "finally to settle" the laws of the game, we read that the +stumps are to be 22 in. and the bail 6. "N.B.--It is lately settled to +use three stumps instead of two to each wicket, the bail the same length +as before." Regarding all the circumstances one is tempted to believe +that Small defended a wicket of two stumps, 22 in. high and 6 in. apart, +strange as is the circumstance that the ball should thrice in a short +innings--for Small only made 14 runs--pass through them without +dislodging the bail, even though the diameter of the ball is a trifle +less than 3 in. Allusion is also found to a wicket 12 in. by 6, but it +is hard to believe in its existence, unless it was used as a form of +handicap. It should be recorded that in advertisements of matches about +this time (1787) the fact that three stumps will be used "to shorten the +game" is especially mentioned, and that the _Hampshire Chronicle_ of the +15th of July 1797 records that "The earl of Winchilsea has made an +improvement in the game of cricket, by having four stumps instead of +three, and the wickets 2 in. higher. The game is thus rendered shorter +by easier bowling out." In 1788, however, when the M.C.C. revised the +laws, reference is made to stumps (no number given, but probably three) +22 in. high and a bail of 6 in. Big scoring in 1796 caused the addition +next year of 2 in. to the height and of 1 to the breadth, making the +wicket 24 in. by 7. That three stumps were employed is shown by a print +of the medallion of the Oxfordshire County C.C. 1797, forming the +frontispiece to Taylor's _Annals of Lord's_ (1903). In 1817 the +dimensions now in use were finally settled, three stumps 27 in. high, +and a wicket 8 in. wide. Larger wickets have occasionally been used by +way of handicap or experiment. The distance between the wickets seems +always, or at least as far back as 1700, to have been 22 yds.--one +chain. + +_The Game._--Cricket is defined in the _New English Dictionary_ as "an +open-air game played with bats, ball and wickets by two sides of eleven +players each; the batsman defends his wicket against the ball which is +bowled by a player of the opposing side, the other players of this side +being stationed about the field in order to catch or stop the ball." The +laws define that the score shall be reckoned by runs. The side which +scores the greatest number of runs wins the match. Each side has two +innings taken alternately, except that the side which leads by 150 runs +in a three days' match or by 100 runs in a two days' match or by 75 runs +in a one day match shall have the option of requiring the other side to +"follow their innings." In England cricket is invariably played on turf +wickets, but in the Colonies matting wickets are often employed, and +sometimes matches have taken place on sand, earth and other substances. +The oldest form of the game is probably single wicket, which consists of +one batsman defending one wicket, but this has become obsolete, though +it was very popular in the time when matches were played for money with +only one or two, or perhaps four or five, players on a side. Matches +between an unequal number of players are still sometimes arranged, but +mainly in the case of local sides against touring teams, or "colts" +playing against eleven experienced cricketers. In any case two umpires +are always appointed, and for English first-class county cricket these +are now annually chosen beforehand by the county captains. Two scorers +are officially recognized. All the arrangements as to scoreboards, and +accommodation for players, members of the club and general spectators, +vary considerably according to local requirements. Between six and seven +acres forms the most suitable area for a match, but the size of a +cricket ground has never been defined by law. + +The wickets are pitched opposite and parallel to one another at a +distance of 22 yds.; the "bowling crease" being marked with whitewash on +the turf on a line with the stumps 8 ft. 8 in. in length, with short +"return creases" at right angles to it at each end; but the "popping +crease," marked parallel to the wicket and 4 ft. in front of it, is +deemed of unlimited length. The captains of the opposing sides toss for +choice of innings, and the winner of the toss, though occasionally, +owing to the condition of the ground or the weather prospects, electing +to put his adversaries in first, as a general rule elects for his own +side to bat first. The captain of the batting side sends his eleven (or +whatever the number of his team may be) in to bat in any order he thinks +best, and much judgment is used in deciding what this order shall be. +Two batsmen with strong defensive powers and good nerve are usually +selected to open the innings, the most brilliant run-getters immediately +following them, and the weakest batsmen going in last. As there must +always, except in the obsolete single-wicket cricket, be two batsmen in +together, it follows that when ten of the side (in a side of eleven) +have been put out, one of the final pair must be "not out"; that is to +say, his innings is terminated without his getting out because there is +none of his side left to become his partner. The batsman who is thus +"not out" is said to "carry his bat," a phrase that recalls a period +when two bats sufficed for the whole side, each retiring batsman leaving +the implement on the ground for the use of his successor, till at the +close of the innings the "not out" man carried it back to the tent or +pavilion. As the phrase is not also applied to the last batsman to get +out, who would of course have carried the second bat off the ground, it +was possibly at one time restricted to a player who going in first +survived through the whole innings. It should be observed that the term +"wicket" is used by cricketers in a number of different senses. Besides +being the name given to the set of three stumps with their two bails +when pitched for a match, it is in an extended sense applied to that +portion of the ground, also called the "pitch," on which the stumps are +pitched, as when it is described as being "a fast wicket," a "sticky +wicket" and so forth. It also in several idiomatic expressions signifies +the getting out of a batsman and even the batsman himself, as in the +phrases: "Grace lost his wicket without scoring," "Grace went in first +wicket down," "when Grace got out England lost their best wicket," +"England beat Australia by two wickets." + +The umpires are required to decide questions arising in the course of +play and to call the "overs," the "over" being a series of successive +deliveries of the ball (usually six) by the bowler from one end of the +pitch, the rest of the "out" side, or fielders, being stationed in +various positions in the field according to well-defined principles. +When an "over" has been bowled from one end a different bowler then +bowls an "over" from the opposite end, the alternation being continued +without interruption throughout the innings, and the bowlers being +selected and changed from time to time by the captain of their side at +his discretion. At the end of every over the fielders "change over" or +otherwise rearrange their places to meet the batting from the other end. +An over from which no runs are made off the bat is called a "maiden." A +"run" is made when the two batsmen change places, each running from his +own to the opposite wicket without being "run out." The aim of the +batting side is to make as many runs as possible, while the object of +the fielding side is to get their opponents out, and to prevent their +making runs while in. + +There are nine ways in which the batsman, or "striker," can be put out. +Of these the following five are the most important. (1) The striker is +"bowled" out if the bowler hits the wicket with the ball, when bowling, +and dislodges the bail; (2) he is "caught" out if the ball after +touching his bat or hand be held by any member of the fielding side +before it touches the ground; (3) he is "stumped" out if the +wicket-keeper dislodges the bail with the ball, or with his hand holding +the ball, at a moment when the striker in playing at the ball has no +part of his person or bat in contact with the ground behind the popping +crease, i.e. when the batsman is "out of his ground"; (4) he is out +"l.b.w." (leg before wicket) if he stops with any part of his person +other than his hand, or arm below the elbow, a ball which in the +umpire's judgment pitched straight between the wickets, and would have +bowled the striker's wicket; (5) if when the batsmen are attempting to +make a run a wicket is put down (i.e. the bail dislodged) by the ball, +or by the hand of any fieldsman holding the ball, at a moment when +neither batsman has any part of his person or bat on the ground behind +the popping crease, the nearer of the two batsmen to the wicket so put +down is "run out." The remaining four ways in which a batsman may be +dismissed are (6) hit wicket, (7) handling the ball, (8) hitting the +ball more than once "with intent to score," and (9) obstructing the +field. + +The positions of the fieldsmen are those which experience proves to be +best adapted for the purpose of saving runs and getting the batsmen +caught out. During the middle of the 19th century these positions became +almost stereotyped according to the pace of the bowler's delivery and +whether the batsmen were right or left handed. A certain number of +fielders stood on the "on" side, i.e. the side of the wicket on which +the batsman stands, and a certain number on the opposite or "off" side, +towards which the batsman faces. "Point" almost invariably was placed +square with the striker's wicket some ten or a dozen yards distant on +the "off" side; "cover point" to the right of "point" (as he is looking +towards the batsman) and several yards deeper; "mid on" a few yards to +the right of the bowler, and "mid off" in a corresponding position on +his left, and so forth. Good captains at all times exercised judgment in +modifying to some extent the arrangement of the field according to +circumstances, but in this respect much was learnt from the Australians, +who on their first visit to England in 1878 varied the positions of the +field according to the idiosyncrasies of the batsmen and other +exigencies to a degree not previously practised in England. The +perfection of wicket-keeping displayed by the Australian, McCarthy +Blackham (b. 1855), taught English cricketers that on modern grounds the +"long stop" could be altogether dispensed with; and this position, which +in former days was considered a necessary and important one, has since +been practically abolished. In many matches at the present day, owing to +the character of modern bowling, no more than a single fieldsman is +placed on the "on" side, while the number and positions of those "in the +slips," i.e. behind the wicket on the "off" side, are subject to no sort +of rule, but vary according to the nature of the bowling, the state of +the ground, or any other circumstances that may influence the judgment +of the captain of the fielding side. Charts such as were once common, +showing the positions of the fielders for fast, slow and medium bowling +respectively, would therefore to-day give no true idea of the actual +practice; and much of the skill of modern captaincy is shown in placing +the field. + +The score is compiled by runs made by the batsman and by the addition of +"extras," the latter consisting of "byes," "leg-byes," "wides" and +"no-balls." All these are included in the designation "runs," of which +the total score is composed, though neither "wides" nor "no-balls" +involve any actual run on the part of the batsmen. They are called by +the umpire on his own initiative, in the one case if the bowler's +delivery passes the batsman beyond the reach of his bat ("wide"), and in +the other if he delivers the ball without having either foot touching +the ground behind the "bowling crease" and within the "return crease," +or if the ball be jerked or thrown instead of being _bona fide_ +"bowled." "Wides" and "no-balls" count as one "run" each, and all +"extras" are added to the score of the side without being credited to +any individual batsman. The batsman may, however, hit a "no-ball" and +make runs off it, the runs so made being scored to the striker's credit +instead of the "no-ball" being entered among the "extras." The batsman +may be "run out" in attempting a run off a "no-ball," but cannot be put +out off it in any other way. "Byes" are runs made off a ball which +touches neither the bat nor the person of the batsman, "leg-byes" off a +ball which, without touching the bat or hand, touches any other part of +his person. With the exception of these "extras" the score consists +entirely of runs made off the bat. + + + Batting. + +Batting is the most scientific feature of the game. Proficiency in it, +as in golf and tennis, depends in the first instance to a great extent +on the player assuming a correct attitude for making his stroke, the +position of leg, shoulder and elbow being a matter of importance; and +although a quick and accurate eye may occasionally be sufficient by +itself to make a tolerably successful run-getter, good style can never +be acquired, and a consistently high level of achievement can seldom be +gained, by a batsman who has neglected these rudiments. Good batting +consists in a defence that is proof against all the bowler's craft, +combined with the skill to seize every opportunity for making runs that +the latter may inadvertently offer. If the batsman's whole task +consisted in keeping the ball out of his wicket, the accomplishment of +his art would be comparatively simple; it is the necessity for doing +this while at the same time he must prevent the ball from rising off his +bat into the air in the direction of any one of eleven skilfully-placed +fielders, each eager to catch him out, that offers scope for the science +of a Grace, a MacLaren or a Trumper. In early days when the wickets were +low and the ball was trundled along the ground, the curved bats of the +old pictures were probably well adapted for hitting, defence being +neglected; but when the height of the wickets was raised, and bowlers +began to pitch the ball closer to the batsman so that it would reach the +wicket on the first bound, defence of the wicket became more necessary +and more difficult. Hence the modern straight-bladed bat was produced, +and a more scientific method of batting became possible. Batting and +bowling have in fact developed together, a new form of attack requiring +a new form of defence. One of the first principles a young batsman has +to learn is to play with a "a straight bat" when defending his wicket +against straight balls. This means that the whole blade of the bat +should be equally opposite to the line on which the ball is travelling +towards him, in order that the ball, to whatever height it may bound +from the ground, may meet the bat unless it rises altogether over the +batsman's hands; the tendency of the untutored cricketer being on the +contrary to hold the bat sloping outwards from the handle to the point, +as the golf-player holds his "driver," so that the rise of the ball is +apt to carry it clear of the blade. Standing then in a correct position +and playing with a straight bat, the batsman's chief concern is to +calculate accurately the "length" of the ball as soon as he sees it +leave the bowler's hand. The "length" of the ball means the distance +from the batsman at which it pitches, and "good length" is the first +essential of the bowler's art. The distance that constitutes "good +length" is not, however, to be defined by precise measurement; it +depends on the condition of the ground, and on the reach of the batsman. +A "good-length ball" is one that pitches too far from the batsman for +him to reach out to meet it with the bat at the moment it touches the +ground or immediately it begins to rise, in the manner known as "playing +forward"; and at the same time not far enough from him to enable him to +wait till after it has reached the highest point in its bound before +playing it with the bat, i.e. "playing back." When, owing to the good +length of the ball, the batsman is unable to play it in either of these +two ways, but is compelled to play at it in the middle of its rise from +the ground, he is almost certain, if he does not miss it altogether, to +send it up in the air with the danger of being caught out. If through +miscalculation the batsman plays forward to a short-pitched ball, he +will probably give a catch to the bowler or "mid off," if he plays back +to a well-pitched-up ball, he will probably miss it and be bowled out. +The bowler is therefore continually trying to pitch balls just too short +for safe forward play, while the batsman defends his wicket by playing +forward or back as his judgment directs so long as the bowling is +straight and of approximately good length, and is ready the instant he +receives a bad-length ball, or one safely wide of the wicket, to hit it +along the ground clear of the fieldsmen so as to make as many runs as he +and his partner can accomplish before the ball is returned to the +wicket-keeper or the bowler. But even those balls off which runs are +scored are not to be hit recklessly or without scientific method. A +different stroke is brought into requisition according to the length of +the ball and its distance wide of the wicket to the "off" or "on" as the +case may be; and the greatest batsmen are those who with an almost +impregnable defence combine the greatest variety of strokes, which as +occasion demands they can make with confidence and certainty. There are, +however, comparatively few cricketers who do not excel in some +particular strokes more than in others. One will make most of his runs +by "cuts" past "point," or by wrist strokes behind the wicket, while +others, like the famous Middlesex Etonian C. I. Thornton, and the +Australian C. J. Bonnor, depend mainly on powerful "drives" into the +deep field behind the bowler's wicket. Some again, though proficient in +all-round play, develop exceptional skill in some one stroke which other +first-class players seldom attempt. A good illustration is the "glance +stroke" off the legs which K. S. Ranjitsinhji made with such ease and +grace. All great cricketers in fact, while observing certain general +principles, display some individuality of style, and a bowler who is +familiar with a batsman's play is often aware of some idiosyncrasy of +which he can take advantage in his attack. + + + Bowling. + +Bowling is, indeed, scarcely less scientific than batting. It is not, +however, so systematically taught to young amateurs, and it may be +partly in consequence of this neglect that amateur bowling is +exceedingly weak in England as compared with that of professionals. The +evolution of the art of bowling, for it has been an evolution, is an +interesting chapter in the history of cricket which can only be briefly +outlined here. The fundamental law as to the proper mode of the bowler's +delivering the ball is that the ball must be bowled, not thrown or +jerked. When bowling underhand along the ground was superseded by +"length bowling," it was found that the ball might be caused, by +jerking, to travel at a pace which on the rough grounds was considered +dangerous; hence the law against jerking, which was administered +practically by chalking the inside of the bowler's elbow; if a chalk +mark was found on his side, the ball was not allowed as fair. The +necessity of keeping the elbow away from the side led gradually to the +extension of the arm horizontally and to round-arm bowling, the +invention of which is usually attributed to John Wills (or Willes; b. +1777) of Kent and Sussex. Nyren, however, says "Tom Walker (about 1790) +began the system of throwing instead of bowling now so much the +fashion"; and, "The first I recollect seeing revive this fashion was +Wills, a Sussex man," the date of the revival being 1807. Walker was +no-balled. Beldham (1766-1862) says, "The law against jerking was owing +to the frightful pace Tom Walker put on, and I believe that he +afterwards tried something more like the modern throwing-bowling. Willes +was not the inventor of that kind, or round-arm bowling. He only revived +what was forgotten or new to the young folk." Curiously enough, Beldham +also writes of the same Tom Walker that he was "the first lobbing slow +bowler" he ever saw, and that he "did feel so ashamed of such baby +bowling, but after all he did more than even David Harris himself." +Round-arm bowling was long and vigorously opposed, especially in 1826 +when three matches were arranged between England and Sussex, the Sussex +bowlers being round-arm bowlers. When England had lost the first two +matches, nine of the professionals refused to take part in the third, +"unless the Sussex bowlers bowl fair, that is, abstain from throwing." +Five of them did play and Sussex lost, but the new style of bowling had +indicated its existence. In 1844 the M.C.C.'s revised law reads, "The +ball must be bowled, not thrown or jerked, and the hand must not be +above the shoulder in delivery." Round-arm bowling was thenceforth +legal. In 1862 Willsher (1828-1885), the Kent bowler, was no-balled by +the umpire (Lillywhite) for raising his hand too high, amid a scene of +excitement that almost equalled a tumult. Overhand bowling was legalized +on the 10th of June 1864 after strenuous opposition. In early days much +importance was attached to great pace, but the success of the slow +lobbing bowling (pitched up underhand) led to its cultivation; in both +styles some of the best performers delivered the ball with a curious +high action, thrusting the ball, as it were, from close under the +arm-pit. When the advantages of bias (or twist, or break) were first +known is not closely recorded, but we read of one Lamborn who (about +1800) could make the ball break from leg so that "the Kent and Surrey +men could not tell what to make of that cursed twist of his." Whatever +the pace of bowling, accuracy is the essential point, or, more +correctly, the power of accurately varying pace, pitch and direction, so +that the batsman is never at peace. If the bowler is a mere machine, the +batsman soon becomes his master; but the question as to which of the two +is supreme depends very largely on the condition of the turf, whether it +be hard and true, soft and wet, hard and rough or soft and drying: the +first pair of conditions favour the batsmen, the second pair the bowler. + +The immense amount of labour and expense devoted to the preparation and +care of cricket grounds has produced during the past quarter of a +century a perfection of smoothness in the turf which has materially +altered the character of the game. On the rough and fiery pitches of +earlier days, on which a "long stop" was indispensable, the behaviour of +the ball could not be reckoned upon by the batsman with any degree of +confidence. The first ball of an "over" might be a "shooter," never +rising as much as an inch off the ground, the next might bound over his +head, and the third pursue some equally eccentric course. But on the +best grounds of to-day, subject to the well-understood changes due to +weather, the bound of the ball is so regular as to be calculable with +reasonable certainty by the batsman. The result has been that in fine +weather, when wickets are true and fast, bowlers have become +increasingly powerless to defeat the batsmen. In other words the defence +has been strengthened out of proportion to the attack. Bowlers have +consequently to a great extent abandoned all attempt to bowl the wicket +down, aiming instead at effecting their purpose by bowling close to but +clear of the wicket, with the design of getting the batsman to give +catches. Many batsmen of the stubbornly defensive type, known in cricket +slang as "stonewallers," retaliated by leaving such balls alone +together, or stopping them deliberately with the legs instead of the +bat. + +These tactics caused the game to become very slow; over after over was +bowled without an attempt being made to score a run and without apparent +prospect of getting a wicket. This not only injured the popularity of +the game from the spectator's point of view, but, in conjunction with +the enormous scores that became common in dry seasons, made it so +difficult to finish a match within the three days to which first-class +matches in England are invariably limited, that nearly 70% of the total +number of fixtures in some seasons were drawn. Cricketers of an older +generation have complained that the cause of this is partly to be found +in the amount of time wasted by contemporary cricketers. These critics +see no reason why half of a summer's day should be allowed to elapse +before cricket begins, and they comment with some scorn on the interval +for tea, and the fastidiousness with which play is frequently +interrupted on account of imperfect light or for other unimperative +reasons. Various suggestions have been made, including proposals for +enlarging the wicket, for enabling the attack to hold its own against +the increasing strength of the defence. But the M.C.C., the only +recognized source of cricket legislation, has displayed a cautious but +wise conservatism, due to the fact that its authority rests on no +sanction more formal than that of prestige tacitly admitted by the +cricketing world; and consequently no drastic changes have been made in +the laws of the game, the only important amendments of recent years +being that which now permits a side to close its innings voluntarily +under certain conditions, and that which, in substitution for the former +hard and fast rule for the "follow on," has given an option in the +matter to the side possessing the requisite lead on the first innings. + +_Early Players._--If the era of the present form of cricket can very +properly be dated from the visit of the first Australian team to England +in 1878, some enumeration must be made of a few of the cricketers who +took part in first-class matches in the earlier portion of the 19th +century. Among amateurs should be noted the two fast bowlers, Sir F. H. +Bathurst (1807-1881; Eton, Hampshire), and Harvey Fellowes (b. 1826; +Eton); the batsman N. Felix (1804-1876; Surrey and Kent), who was a +master of "cutting" and one of the earliest to adopt batting gloves; the +cricketing champion of his time Alfred Mynn (1807-1861; Kent); and the +keen player F. P. Miller (1828-1875; Surrey). The three Marshams, Rev. +C. D. Marsham (b. 1835), R. H. B. Marsham (b. 1833) and G. Marsham (b. +1849), all of Eton and Oxford, were as famous as the Studds in the +'eighties; and R. Hankey (1832-1886; Harrow and Oxford) was a great +scorer. In the next generation one of the greatest bats of his own or +any time was R. A. H. Mitchell (1843-1905; Eton, Oxford, Hants). A very +attractive run-getter was C. F. Buller (b. 1846; Harrow, Middlesex); an +all too brief career was that of C. J. Ottaway (1850-1878; Eton, Oxford, +Kent and Middlesex); whilst A. Lubbock (b. 1845; Eton, Kent) was a sound +bat, and D. Buchanan (1830-1900; Rugby and Cambridge) a destructive +bowler, as was also A. Appleby (1843-1902; Lancashire). + +Of the professionals, Fuller Pilch (1803-1870) and E. G. Wenman +(1803-1897) were great bats; T. Box (1808-1876) the most skilled +wicket-keeper of his time; W. Lillywhite (1792-1854), one of the first +round-arm bowlers, renowned for the accuracy of his pitch, and W. Clark +(1798-1856) possessed wonderful variety of pace and pitch. It was the +last-named who organized the All England Eleven, and he was not chosen +to represent the players until he had reached the age of forty-seven. +George Parr (1826-1891), the greatest leg-hitter in England, had no +professional rival until the advent of Richard Daft (1835-1900). J. Dean +(1816-1891) was the finest long-stop, Julius Caesar (1830-1878) a hard +clean hitter, as was G. Anderson (1826-1902), and T. Lockyer (1826-1869) +seems to have been the first prominent wicket-keeper who took balls wide +on the leg-side. Of bowlers, E. Willsher (1828-1885) would seem to have +been the most difficult, W. Martingell (1818-1897) being a very good +medium-paced bowler, and J. Wisden (1826-1884) a very fast bowler but +short in his length. Four famous bowlers of a later date are George +Freeman (1844-1895), J. Jackson (1833-1901), G. Tarrant (1838-1870) and +G. Wootton (b. 1834). With them must be mentioned the great batsmen, T. +Hayward (1835-1876) and R. Carpenter (1830-1901), as well as two other +keen cricketers, H. H. Stephenson (1833-1896) and T. Hearne (1826-1900). + +Since the first half of the 19th century the sort of cricket to engage +public attention has very greatly changed, and the change has become +emphasized since the exchange of visits between Australian and English +teams has become an established feature of first-class cricket. +First-class cricket has become more formal, more serious and more +spectacular. The contest for the county championship has introduced an +annual competition, closely followed by the public, between standing +rivals familiar with each other's play and record; an increased +importance has become attached to "averages" and "records," and it is +felt by some that the purely sporting side of the game has been damaged +by the change. Professionalism has increased, and it is an open secret +that not a few players who appear before the public as amateurs derive +an income under some pretext or other from the game. Cricket on the +village green has in many parts of the country almost ceased to exist, +while immense crowds congregate to watch county matches in the great +towns; but this must no doubt be in part attributed to the movement of +population from the country districts; and some compensation is to be +found in league cricket (see below), and in the numerous clubs for the +employees of business firms and large shops, and for the members of +social institutes of all kinds, which play matches in the suburbs of +London and other cities. At an earlier period two great professional +organizations, "The All England," formed in 1846, and "The United All +England," toured the country, mainly for profit, playing local sides in +which "given men," generally good professional players, figured. They +did much good work in popularizing the game, and an annual match between +the two at Lord's on Whit-Monday was once a great feature of the season; +but the increase of county cricket led eventually to their disbandment. + +At this period, and much later, the first-class matches of "M.C.C. and +ground" (i.e. ground-staff, or professionals attached to the club) +occupied a far greater amount of importance than is at present the case. +In recent years over 150 minor matches of the utmost value in +propagating the best interests of cricket are annually played by the +leading club. League cricket has of late become exceedingly popular, +especially in the North of England, a number of clubs--about twelve to +sixteen--combining to form a "League" and playing home-and-home matches, +each one with each of the others in turn; points are scored according as +each club wins, loses, or draws matches, the championship of the +"League" being thus decided. + +_English County Cricket._--The first English inter-county match which is +recorded was played on Richmond Green in 1730 between Surrey and +Middlesex; but for very many years, though counties played counties, +there was no systematic organization, matches often being played at odds +or with "given" players, who had no county connexion with the side they +represented. This was the natural outcome of the custom of playing for +stakes. It was not till 1872 that any real effort was made to organize +county cricket. In that year the M.C.C. took the initiative by offering +a cup for competition between the counties, six of which were to be +selected by the M.C.C., the matches to be played at Lord's, but the +scheme fell through owing to the coolness of the counties themselves. It +was only in 1890 that the counties were formally and officially +classified, Notts (the county club dating from 1859), Lancashire (1864), +Surrey (1845), Kent (1842), Middlesex (1864), Gloucestershire (1869), +Yorkshire (1862), and Sussex (1839), being regarded as "first-class," as +indeed had been the case from the time of their existence; and by +degrees other counties were promoted to this class; Somerset in 1893; +Derbyshire, Essex, Leicestershire, Warwickshire in 1894; Hampshire in +1895; Worcestershire in 1899; Northamptonshire in 1905. + +In 1887 the County Cricket Council had been formed, working with and not +against the Marylebone Club, for the management of county cricket, but +the council dissolved itself in 1890, and it was then arranged that the +county secretaries and delegates should meet and discuss such matters, +and request the M.C.C. to consider the result of their deliberations, +and practically to act as patron and arbitrator. In 1905 an Advisory +Cricket Committee was formed "with the co-operation of the counties, +with a view to improve the procedure in dealing with important matters +arising out of the development of cricket, the effect of which will be" +(the quotation is from the annual report of M.C.C. in 1905) "to bring +the counties into closer touch with the M.C.C." Various methods have +been tried as to the assignment of points or marks, the following being +the list of champion counties up to 1909:-- + + 1864 Surrey | 1873 Surrey + 1865 Notts | 1874 Gloucestershire + 1866 Middlesex | 1875 Notts + 1867 Yorkshire | 1876 Gloucestershire + 1868 Yorkshire | 1877 Gloucestershire + 1869 Notts | 1878 Notts + 1870 Yorkshire | 1879 Lancashire \ equal + 1871 Notts | Notts / + 1872 Surrey \ equal | 1880 Notts + Gloucestershire / | 1881 Lancashire + 1882 Lancashire \ equal | 1895 Surrey + Notts / | 1896 Yorkshire + 1883 Yorkshire | 1897 Lancashire + 1884 Notts | 1898 Yorkshire + 1885 Notts | 1899 Surrey + 1886 Notts | 1900 Yorkshire + 1887 Surrey | 1901 Yorkshire + 1888 Surrey \ equal | 1902 Yorkshire + Notts / | 1903 Middlesex + 1889 Lancashire \ equal | 1904 Lancashire + Surrey / | 1905 Yorkshire + 1890 Surrey | 1906 Kent + 1891 Surrey | 1907 Notts + 1892 Surrey | 1908 Yorkshire + 1893 Yorkshire | 1909 Kent + 1894 Surrey | + + + The Graces and Gloucestershire. + + English county cricket is now the most firmly established cricketing + institution in the world, but in its earlier stages it owed much in + different counties to enthusiastic individuals and famous cricketing + families whose energies were devoted to its encouragement and support. + To Gloucestershire belongs the honour of the greatest name in the + history of the game. Dr W. G. Grace (q.v.) was not only the most + brilliant all-round cricketer in the world, but he remained supreme + after reaching an age when most cricketers have long abandoned the + game. He and his two famous brothers, E. M. Grace (b. 1841) and G. F. + Grace (1850-1880), rendered invaluable service to their county for + many years; and not to their county alone, for the great part they + played for a generation in first-class cricket did much to increase + the growing popularity of the county fixtures. A separate article is + devoted to Dr W. G. Grace, whose name as the champion of the game will + always be associated with its history. And of Dr E. M. Grace it may be + mentioned that, besides being the most daring field at "point" ever + seen, he altogether took 11,092 wickets and scored 75,625 runs. In + more recent years some excellent cricketers have been associated with + Gloucestershire, such as F. Townsend, and the professional Board; but + foremost stands G. L. Jessop, a somewhat "unorthodox" batsman famous + for his powers of hitting. + + + Kent. + + What W. G. Grace did for Gloucestershire, Lord Harris (b. 1851) did + for Kent, and his services are not to be estimated by his performances + in the field alone, great as they were. His influence was always + exerted to impart a spirit of sportsmanship and honourable distinction + to the national game. Kent had been a home of cricket since the first + half of the 18th century, but it was Lord Harris more than any other + individual who made it a first-class county, celebrated for the number + of distinguished amateurs who have taken part in its matches. The Hon. + Ivo Bligh, afterwards Lord Darnley (b. 1859), and F. Marchant (b. + 1864), both Etonians like Lord Harris himself; the two Harrovians, W. + H. Patterson (b. 1859) and M. C. Kemp (b. 1862), and the Wykehamist J. + R. Mason (b. 1874) are names that show the place taken by public + school men in the annals of Kent cricket, while the family of Hearnes + supplied the county with some famous professionals. Amateur batsmen + like W. Rashleigh, C. J. Burnup, E. W. Dillon and A. P. Day have been + prominent in the Kent eleven; and in Fielder and Blythe they have had + two first-class professional bowlers. The "Kent nursery" at Tonbridge + has proved a valuable institution for training young professional + players, and contributed not a little to the rising reputation of + Kent, which justified itself when the county won the championship in + 1906, largely owing to the admirable batting of the amateur K. L. + Hutchings. + + + Middlesex and Lancashire. + + Middlesex and Lancashire, not less than Kent, have been indebted to + the great public schools, and especially to Harrow, which provided + both counties with famous captains who directed their fortunes for an + uninterrupted period of over twenty years. I. D. Walker, the most + celebrated of seven cricketing brothers, all Harrovians, who founded + the Middlesex County Club, handed on the captaincy, after a personal + record of astonishing brilliancy, to a younger Harrow and Oxford + cricketer, A. J. Webbe, who was one of the finest leg-hitters and one + of the safest out-fielders of his day, and a captain of consummate + judgment and knowledge of the game. A. N. Hornby, a contemporary at + Harrow of I. D. Walker, was for many years the soul of Lancashire + cricket, and was succeeded in the captaincy of the county by the still + more famous Harrovian, A. C. MacLaren, one of the greatest batsmen in + the history of cricket, whose record for England in test matches + against Australia was almost unrivalled. In 1895, when he headed the + batting averages, MacLaren made the highest individual score in a + first-class match, viz. 424 against Somersetshire. Middlesex has also + the distinction of having produced the two greatest amateur + wicket-keepers in the history of English cricket, namely, the Hon. + Alfred Lyttelton (b. 1857) and Gregor MacGregor, both of whom, after + playing for Cambridge University, gave their services to the + Metropolitan county; while Lancashire can boast of the greatest + professional wicket-keeper in Richard Pilling (1855-1891), whose + reputation has not been eclipsed by that of the most proficient of + more recent years. Another famous Cambridge University cricketer, a + contemporary of Lyttelton, who was invaluable to Lancashire for some + years when he was one of the very finest all-round cricketers in the + country, was A. G. Steel (b. 1858), equally brilliant as a batsman and + as a slow bowler; and other names memorable in Lancashire cricket were + R. G. Barlow (b. 1859), whose stubborn batting was a striking contrast + to the rapid run-getting of Hornby and the perfect style of Steel; + John Briggs (1862-1902), whose slow left-hand bowling placed him at + the head of the bowling averages in 1890; John Crossland (1853-1903) + and A. Mold (b. 1865), both of whom were destructive fast bowlers; J. + T. Tyldesley and R. H. Spooner, both among the most brilliant batsmen + of a later generation; and W. Brearley, the amateur fast bowler. + + Middlesex, like Kent, has been better served by amateurs than + professionals. Indeed, with the notable exceptions of J. T. Hearne, + who headed the bowling averages in 1891, 1896 and 1898, and of the + imported Australian A. E. Trott, few professionals of high merit are + conspicuously associated with the history of the county cricket. + Trott, in 1899 and again in 1900, performed the previously + unprecedented feat of taking over two hundred wickets and scoring over + one thousand runs in the same season. And in his "benefit match" in + May 1907 at Lord's he achieved the "hat trick" twice in one innings, + taking first four and then three wickets with successive balls. But if + there has been a dearth of professionals in Middlesex cricket, the + county has produced an abundance of celebrated amateurs. In addition + to the Walkers and A. J. Webbe, the metropolitan county was the home + of the celebrated hitter, C. I. Thornton, and of the Studd family, who + learnt their cricket at Eton and Cambridge University. C. T. Studd, + one of the most polished batsmen who ever played cricket, was at the + same time an excellent medium-paced bowler, and his brother G. B. + Studd is remembered especially for his fielding, though like his elder + brother, J. E. K. Studd, he was an all-round cricketer of the greatest + value to a county team. Sir T. C. O'Brien, who made his reputation by + a fine innings for Oxford University against the Australian team of + 1882, sustained it in the following years by many brilliant + performances for Middlesex. A. E. Stoddart for several years was the + best run-getter in the Middlesex eleven; and W. J. Ford and his + younger brother, F. G. J. Ford, were conspicuous among many prominent + Middlesex batsmen. In more recent times the Oxonian P. F. Warner (b. + 1873), both as captain and as batsman, did splendid work; and B. J. T. + Bosanquet, besides assisting powerfully with the bat, became famous + for inaugurating a new style of curly bowling ("googlies") of a very + effective type. + + + Surrey. + + A glance at the table given above shows the high place occupied by + Surrey in the past. Surrey county cricket can be traced as far back as + 1730. Pycroft observes that "the name of Surrey as one united county + club is quite lost in the annals of cricket from 1817 to 1845." But + before that date two of the most celebrated cricketers, William + Lillywhite and Fuller Pilch, had occasionally played for the county, + and so also had James Broadbridge (1796-1843) and W. Lambert + (1779-1851). Kennington Oval became the Surrey county ground in 1845, + the property being leased from the duchy of Cornwall; and in the years + immediately following the county team included H. H. Stephenson + (1833-1896), Caffyn (b. 1828), N. Felix, and Lockyer (1826-1869); + among a later generation appeared such well-remembered names as Jupp, + Southerton, Pooley and R. Humphrey. After being champion county in + 1873, Surrey did not again attain the same position for fourteen + years, but for the next ten years maintained an almost uninterrupted + supremacy. The greatest credit was due to the energetic direction of + J. Shuter (b. 1855), who kept together a remarkable combination of + cricketers, such as W. W. Read (1855-1906), Maurice Read (b. 1859), + George Lohmann (1865-1901), and Robert Abel (b. 1859), all of whom + were among the greatest players of their period. Lohmann in 1885-1890 + would alone have made any side famous; and in the same years when he + was heading the bowling averages and proving himself the most deadly + bowler in the country, W. W. Read was performing prodigies of batting. + No sooner did the latter begin to decline in power than Abel took his + place at the head of the batting averages, scoring with astonishing + consistency in 1897-1900. In 1899 he made 357 not out in an innings + against Somersetshire, and in 1901 his aggregate of 3309 was the + largest then compiled. The Oxonian K. J. Key was another famous + batsman whose services as captain were also exceedingly valuable to + the county. An almost inexhaustible supply of professionals of the + very highest class has been at Surrey's service. W. Lockwood (b. 1868) + became almost as deadly a bowler as Lohmann, and Tom Richardson (b. + 1870) was the terror of all Surrey's opponents for several seasons + after 1893. Richardson took in all no less than 1340 wickets at the + cost of 20,000 runs. Tom Hayward (b. 1867), nephew of the renowned + Cambridge professional of the same name, succeeded Abel as the leading + Surrey batsman, his play in the test matches of 1899, when he averaged + 65, being superb. During the following years his reputation was fully + maintained, and in 1906 he had a particularly successful season. Key + was followed in the captaincy by D. L. A. Jephson, but the county did + not in the opening years of the 20th century maintain the high place + it occupied during the last quarter of the 19th. It possessed some + excellent professionals, however, in Hayes, Hobbs and Lees, and the + season of 1906, under the captaincy of Lord Dalmeny, showed a revival, + a new fast bowler being found in N. A. Knox, and a fine batsman and + bowler in J. N. Crawford. + + + Sussex. + + Several of the celebrated cricketers of early times already mentioned + as having played for the Surrey club were more closely associated with + the adjoining county of Sussex, whose records go back as far as 1734, + in which year a match was played against Kent, the chief promoters of + which were the duke of Richmond and Sir William Gage. One of the + earliest famous cricketers, Richard Newland (d. 1791), was a Sussex + man; and James Broadbridge, W. Lambert, Tom Box, and the great + Lillywhite family were all members of the Sussex county team. Lambert, + in a match against Epsom, played at Lord's in 1817, made a "century" + (one hundred runs) in each innings, a feat not repeated in first-class + cricket for fifty years; and the occasion was the first when the + aggregate of a thousand runs was scored in a match. Broadbridge played + for Sussex in five reigns, while Box (1808-1876) kept wicket for the + county for twenty-four years without missing a match. Notwithstanding + this distinguished history, Sussex never attained the highest place in + the county rivalry, and for a number of years towards the end of the + 19th century the left-handed batting of F. M. Lucas (1860-1887) alone + saved the county from complete insignificance. A revival came when W. + L. Murdoch (b. 1855), of Australian celebrity, qualified for Sussex; + and at a still later date the fortunes of the county were raised by + the inclusion in its eleven of Kumar Shri Ranjitsinhji, afterwards + H.H. the Jam of Nawanagar (b. 1872), the Indian prince, who had played + for Cambridge University. Ranjitsinhji's dexterity, grace and style + were unrivalled. He scored 2780 runs in 1896, averaging 57, while in + county matches in 1899 his aggregate was 2555, with an average of 75. + Even this performance was beaten in 1900 when he scored a total of + 2563 runs, giving an average for the season of 83. In all matches his + aggregates were 3159 in 1899, and 3065 in 1900. Not less remarkable + was the cricket of C. B. Fry (b. 1872), who came from Oxford + University to become a mainstay of Sussex cricket, and who in 1901 + performed the unparalleled feat of scoring in successive innings 106, + 209, 149, 105, 140 and 105, his aggregate for the season being 3147 + with an average of 78. In 1905 his average for Sussex was 86, but in + the following year an accident kept him out of the cricket field + throughout the season; and in 1909 he transferred his services to + Hampshire. + + + Notts. + + If Kent and Middlesex may be described as the counties of amateurs, + Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire should be called the counties of famous + professionals. Between 1864 and 1889 Nottinghamshire was champion + county twelve times and the county eleven was as a rule composed + almost entirely of professional players, among whom have been many of + the greatest names in the history of the game. Richard Daft + (1835-1900), after playing as an amateur, became a professional in + preference to abandoning the game, scorning to resort to any of the + pretexts by which cricketers have been known to accept payment for + their services while continuing to cling to the status of the amateur. + William Oscroft (1843-1905) was one of Nottinghamshire's early batting + heroes, and in Alfred Shaw (b. 1842) and F. Morley (1850-1884) the + county possessed an invaluable pair of bowlers. William Gunn (b. + 1858), besides being a magnificent fielder "in the country," was an + exceptionally able batsman; but his performances did not equal those + of his greater contemporary, Arthur Shrewsbury, who in six years + between 1885 and 1892 headed the English batting averages. + Shrewsbury's perfect style combined with inexhaustible patience placed + him in the front rank of the "classical" batsmen of English cricket. + Of the batsmen nicknamed "stonewallers," who at one time endangered + the popularity of first-class cricket, was W. Scotton (1856-1893); and + among the other numerous professionals whose cricket contributed to + the renown of Nottinghamshire were Barnes (1852-1899), at times a most + formidable bat; Flowers (b. 1856), always useful both with the bat and + the ball; W. Attewell (b. 1861), a remarkably steady bowler who bowled + an abnormal number of maiden overs; Mordecai Sherwin (b. 1851), an + excellent successor to T. Plumb (b. 1833) and F. Wild (1847-1893) as + wicket-keeper for the county; and among more recent players, J. + Iremonger (b. 1877) and John Gunn, both of whom proved themselves + cricketers worthy of the Notts traditions. J. A. Dixon (b. 1861), one + of the few amateurs of the Nottinghamshire records, was for some time + captain of the county team; and he was succeeded by A. O. Jones (b. + 1873), a dashing batsman, who in 1899 was partner with Shrewsbury when + the pair scored 391 for the first wicket in a match against + Gloucestershire. + + + Yorkshire. + + The history of Yorkshire cricket is modern in comparison with that of + Surrey, Sussex or Kent. The county club only dates from 1861, and for + some years the team was composed entirely of professionals. But though + Yorkshire attained the championship three times during the first ten + years of the county club's existence, thirteen years elapsed after + 1870 before it again occupied the place of honour. In the ten years + 1896-1906 Yorkshire was no less than six times at the head of the + list, this position of supremacy being in no small measure due to the + captaincy of Lord Hawke (b. 1860), who played continuously for the + county from his university days for more than twenty years, and whose + influence on Yorkshire cricket was unique. But before his time + Yorkshire had already produced some notable cricketers, such as George + Ulyett (1857-1898), who headed the batting averages in 1878, and who + was also a fine fast bowler; Louis Hall (b. 1852), a patient bat; and + another excellent scorer, Ephraim Lockwood (b. 1845). William Bates + (1855-1900), too, was effective both as batsman and bowler; and Tom + Emmett (1841-1904), long proverbial for bowling "a wide and a wicket," + was deservedly popular. To the earlier period belonged two fast + bowlers, George Freeman (1844-1895) and Allan Hill (b. 1845), and the + eminent wicket-keeper Pincher (1841-1903), who was succeeded by J. + Hunter (1857-1891), and later by his brother Daniel Hunter (b. 1862). + The full effect of Lord Hawke's energetic captaincy was seen in 1900, + when Yorkshire played through a programme of twenty-eight fixtures + without sustaining a defeat; and the county's record was but little + inferior in both the following years and again in 1905, in each of + which years it retained the championship. It was during this period + that as notable a group of cricketers wore the Yorkshire colours as + ever appeared in county matches. Edmund Peate (1856-1900), one of the + finest bowlers in his day, did not survive to take part in the later + triumphs of his county; but the period beginning in 1890 saw J. T. + Brown, J. Tunnicliffe, R. Peel, W. Rhodes, George Hirst and the Hon. + F. S. Jackson in the field. The two first named became famous for + their first wicket partnerships. In 1896 in a match against Middlesex + at Lord's these two batsmen scored 139 before being separated in the + first innings, and in the second knocked off the 147 required to win + the match. In the following year they made 378 for the first wicket + against Surrey, and during their careers they scored over a hundred + for the first wicket on no less than fifteen occasions, the greatest + feat of all being in 1898, when they beat the world's record by + staying together till 554 runs had been compiled. Peel was for many + years an untiring bowler, and Yorkshire was fortunate in discovering a + successor of even superior skill in Wilfrid Rhodes, who in 1900 took + over 200 wickets at a cost of 12 runs each in county matches alone, + and was also an excellent bat. Hirst and Jackson were the two finest + all-round cricketers in England about 1905. The Hon. F. S. Jackson (b. + 1870), like his fellow-Harrovian A. C. MacLaren, had a wonderful + record in test matches against Australia; he captained the England + eleven in 1905, and his wonderful nerve enabled him to extricate his + side when in a difficulty, and to render his best service at an + emergency. Hirst (b. 1871) in 1904 and in 1905 scored over 2000 runs + and took more than 100 wickets; and in 1906 he surpassed all previous + records by scoring over 2000 runs and taking over 200 wickets during + the season. A concourse of 78,000 people watched his "benefit" match + (Yorkshire against Lancashire) in August 1904. Besides cricketers like + these, such fine players were included in the team as Wainwright (b. + 1865), Haigh (b. 1871), Denton (b. 1874), and E. Smith (b. 1869); with + such material the Yorkshire eleven had no "tail," and was able to win + the championship six times in a decade. + + + Somersetshire. + + Somersetshire hardly fulfilled the promise held out by the success + achieved in the closing decade of the 19th century; this had been + largely owing to the captaincy and brilliant batting of H. T. Hewett + (b. 1864), who in partnership with L. C. H. Palairet (b. 1870), famous + for his polished style, scored 346 for the first wicket in a match + against Yorkshire in 1892. Hewett was succeeded in the command of the + county eleven by the Cambridge fast bowler, S. M. J. Woods (b. 1868); + and among other members of the eleven the most valuable was L. C. + Braund (b. 1876), a professional who excelled as an all-round + cricketer. + + + Minor counties. + + The counties above referred to are those which have figured most + prominently in the history of county cricket. Individual players of + the highest excellence are, however, to be found from time to time in + all parts of the country. Warwickshire, for example, can boast of + having had in A. A. Lilley (b. 1867) the best wicket-keeper of his + day, who represented England against Australia in the test matches; + while Worcestershire produced one of the best all-round professionals + in the country for a number of years in Arnold (b. 1877), and a + batsman of extreme brilliancy in R. E. Foster, a member of a + cricketing family to whom belongs the credit of raising Worcestershire + into a cricketing county of the first class. Derbyshire, similarly, + can claim some well-known cricket names, the bowler W. Mycroft + (1841-1894), W. Chatterton (b. 1863), and W. Storer (b. 1868), a + first-class wicket-keeper. Essex possesses at Leyton one of the best + county grounds in the country, and the club was helped over financial + difficulties by the munificent support of an old Uppingham and + Cambridge cricketer, C. E. Green. It has produced a fair number of + excellent players, notably the batsmen P. Perrin, C. MacGahey, and the + fast bowler C. J. Kortright; and A. P. Lucas, afterwards a member of + the county club, was a famous cricketer who played for England in 1880 + in the first Australian test match. Hampshire had a fine batsman in + Captain E. G. Wynyard, and its annals are conspicuous for the + phenomenal scores made during the single season of 1899 by Major R. M. + Poore; these two put together 411 against Somersetshire in that year + before being separated. Among the later Hants professionals, Llewellyn + was most prominent. + + The distribution of cricketing ability in England might be the subject + of some interesting speculation. In the first forty years of the + annual competition for the championship six counties alone gained the + coveted distinction, and three of these, Surrey, Notts and Yorkshire, + won it thirty-four times between them. Why, it may be asked, is it + that one county excels in the game while another has no place whatever + in the history of cricket? How comes it that great names recur + continually in the annals of Surrey and Yorkshire, for example, while + those of Berkshire and Lincolnshire are entirely barren? No doubt + proximity to great centres of population favours the cultivation of + the game, but in this respect Kent and Sussex are no better situated + than Hertfordshire, nor does it account for Nottinghamshire having so + illustrious a record while Staffordshire has none at all, nor for + Somersetshire having outclassed Devon. It is strange, moreover, that + while the universities are the chief training-grounds for amateur + cricketers, neither Oxfordshire nor Cambridgeshire has made any mark + among the counties. The influence of individuals and families, such as + the Graces in Gloucestershire, the Walkers in Middlesex, and in recent + times the Fosters in Worcestershire, has of course been of inestimable + benefit to cricket in those counties; but Buckinghamshire and Norfolk + and Cheshire send their sons to the public schools and universities no + less than Lancashire or Kent. It is difficult, therefore, to + understand why county cricket should so persistently confine itself to + a small number of counties; but such is the fact. + + Cricket has never flourished vigorously in Scotland, Ireland or Wales, + a fact that may partly be accounted for by the comparative difficulty + of obtaining good grounds in those parts of the kingdom, and by the + inferiority, for the purpose of cricket, of their climate. In the + south of Scotland, and especially in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, + there are clubs which keep the game alive; and Scotland, though it has + produced no great cricketers, either amateur or professional, has sent + a few players to the English university elevens who have found places + in English county teams. In Ireland cricket is fairly popular, + especially in those parts of the island where local sides can obtain + assistance from soldiers quartered in the neighbourhood. One or two + counties play annual matches, that between Kildare and Cork in + particular exciting keen rivalry. Trinity College, Dublin, has turned + out some excellent players; and the Phoenix and Leinster clubs in + Dublin, and the North of Ireland club in Belfast, play a full + programme of matches every season. D. N. Trotter, who played for + county Meath for many years towards the close of the 19th century, was + a batsman who would have found a place in any English county eleven; + so also would William Hone, one of several brothers all of whom were + keen and skilful cricketers. About the same period Lieutenant Dunn + scored so many centuries in Irish cricket that he was played, though + without any great success, for his native county of Surrey. More + recently L. H. Gwynn (1873-1902) batted in a style and with a success + that proved him capable of great things. Sir T. C. O'Brien, though an + Irishman, belongs as a cricketer to Middlesex; but T. C. Ross, who was + chosen to play for Gentlemen v. Players at Lord's in 1902, was a + bowler who played regularly for county Kildare. + + _Gentlemen v. Players._--The most important match of the year as far + as purely English cricket is concerned is the match between the + gentlemen and players (amateurs and professionals) played at Lord's. + For many years a match played between sides similarly composed at the + Oval excited equal interest, but latterly county cricket has rather + starved this particular game, though it still continues as a popular + fixture. Other matches with the same title have been played in London + on Prince's Ground (now built over), and at Brighton, Hastings and + Scarborough and elsewhere, but those games in no way rank with the + London matches. + + The Lord's fixture was first established in 1806, in which year two + matches were played; it became annual in 1819, but in those days the + amateurs, being no match for their opponents, generally received odds, + while in 1832 they defended wickets 22 in. by 6, and in 1837 the + professionals stood in front of wickets of four stumps, measuring in + all 36 in. by 12 in. This match was known as "The Barndoor Match" or + "Ward's Folly," and the professionals won by an innings and 10 runs. + Odds were not given after 1838, the gentlemen having then won eight + matches and lost thirteen. From 1839 to 1866 the gentlemen only won 7 + matches as compared with 21 losses. In 1867 the tide turned, for the + brothers Grace, especially Dr W. G. Grace, became a power in the + cricket-field, and from 1867 to 1884 the gentlemen, winning fifteen + matches, only lost one. From 1885 the balance swung round, and by 1903 + the professionals had won eleven matches and lost but four. The + gentlemen won on nine successive occasions between 1874 and 1884, a + draw intervening; while beginning with 1854 the professionals won + eleven matches "off the reel." The professionals won in 1860 by an + innings and no less than 181 runs; in 1900 they only won by two + wickets, but to do so had to make, and did make, 501 runs in the last + innings of the match. In 1903 the gentlemen, heavily in arrears after + each side had played an innings, actually scored 500 in their second + innings with only two men out. In 1904 the gentlemen won by two + wickets after being 156 runs behind on the first innings, thanks to + fine play by K. S. Ranjitsinhji and A. O. Jones. J. H. King had scored + a century in each innings, a feat previously only performed by R. E. + Foster in 1900. C. B. Fry's 232 not out in 1903 was the largest + innings scored in the match. Dr W. G. Grace, who is credited with + eight centuries, is the only cricketer who exceeded the hundred more + than twice at Lord's in the fixture, 164 by J. T. Brown being the + highest innings by a professional. There were seven instances before + 1864 of two bowlers being unchanged in the match, and the Hon. F. S. + Jackson and S. M. J. Woods repeated this in 1894. The Oval match was + first played in 1857. The amateurs effected their first win in 1866, + and though several games were drawn the professionals did not win + again till 1880. As at Lord's, it was the era of Grace, but from this + point the amateurs could only win two matches, and by the narrowest of + margins, till 1903, this making their sum of victories up to then + thirteen, as opposed to twenty-three. In 1879 the gentlemen won in one + innings by 126 runs, the heaviest beating that one side had inflicted + on the other. The highest individual score was Robert Abel's 247, and + the next Dr W. G. Grace's 215. Hayward scored 203 in 1904; A. G. Steel + and A. H. Evans bowled unchanged in 1879. + + _School and Club Cricket._--Cricket is the standing summer game at + every English private and public school, where it is taught as + carefully and systematically as either classics or mathematics. There + are also numbers of amateur clubs which possess no grounds of their + own and are connected with no particular locality, but which are in + fact mere associations of cricketers who play matches against the + universities, schools or local teams, or against each other. Of these + the best known, perhaps, is I Zingari (The Wanderers), popularly known + as I.Z., whose well-known colours, red, yellow and black stripes, are + prized rather as a social than as a cricketing distinction. This club + was founded in 1845 by Lorraine Baldwin and Sir Spencer Ponsonby-Fane. + The first rule of the club humorously declares that "the entrance fee + shall be nothing, and the annual subscription shall not exceed the + entrance fee." It is a rule of the club that no member shall play on + the opposing side. I.Z. has long been connected with the social + festivities forming a feature of the "Canterbury Week," a cricket + festival held at Canterbury during the first week in August, of the + Scarborough week, and of the Dublin horse-show. Dr W. G. Grace, who + almost invariably appeared in the cricket field wearing the red and + yellow stripes of the M.C.C., and some other notable amateurs, never + belonged to I.Z. or any similar club; but Dr Grace was instrumental in + the formation of the London county club, whose ground was at the + Crystal Palace at Sydenham. Other amateur clubs, similar to I Zingari, + are the Free Foresters, Incogniti, Etceteras, and in Ireland Na + Shuler; while the Eton Ramblers, Harrow Wanderers, Old Wykehamists, + and others are clubs whose membership is restricted to "old boys." + + The Oxford and Cambridge universities match was first played in 1827, + but was not an annual fixture till 1838. Five matches, those of 1829, + 1843, 1846, 1848 and 1850, were played at Oxford, the rest at Lord's. + The "'Varsity match," and that between the two great public schools, + Eton and Harrow, are great "society" events at Lord's every summer. Up + to 1909 Eton won thirty times, and Harrow on thirty-five occasions. D. + C. Boles by scoring 183 in 1904 set up a new record for this match, + beating the 152 obtained in 1841 by Emilius Bayley (afterwards the + Rev. Sir John Robert Laurie); and in 1907 the Harrow captain, M. C. + Bird, established a further record by scoring over a hundred runs in + each innings. Of the contests between Oxford and Cambridge, the latter + (up to 1909) had lost thirty-one and won thirty-five. Oxford's 503 in + 1900 and Cambridge's 392 in the same match furnished the highest + aggregates. The largest individual innings was 172 not out by J. F. + Marsh in 1904; but as a feat of batting it was intrinsically inferior + to the 171 by R. E. Foster in 1900. Of the thirty centuries scored up + to 1909, Oxford was credited with sixteen. Eustace Crawley (b. 1868) + made a hundred both in the Eton v. Harrow and Oxford v. Cambridge + matches. In the match of 1870 F. C. Cobden (b. 1849) took the last + three Oxford wickets with consecutive balls, winning the match for + Cambridge by 2 runs. + + _Australian Cricket._--Naturally popular in a British colony, cricket + made but little progress in Australia before the arrival of an English + professional eleven in 1861-1862, which carried all before it. + Subsequent visits, and the coaching of imported professionals, so + promoted the game that in 1878 a representative eleven of Australians + visited England. The visits were repeated biennially till 1890, and + then triennially. The visits of the Australian teams to England + aroused unparalleled interest and acted as an immense incentive to the + game. A great sensation was caused when the first team, captained by + D. W. Gregory, on the 27th of May 1878, defeated a powerful M.C.C. + eleven in a single day, disposing of them for 33 and 19, the fast + bowler F. R. Spofforth (b. 1853) taking 6 wickets for 4 runs, and H. + F. Boyle (b. 1847) 5 for 3. Their prowess was well maintained when in + September 1880 Australia for the first time met the whole strength of + England, such matches between representatives of Australia and England + being known as "test matches," a term that was applied later to + matches between England and South Africans also. Although in 1880 the + old country won by 5 wickets, the honours were fairly divided, + especially as Spofforth could not play. Dr W. G. Grace with a score of + 152 headed the total of 420, but even finer was the Australian captain + W. L. Murdoch's imperturbable display, when he carried his bat for + 153. From 1882 onwards the Colonials, with two exceptions, at + Blackpool and Skegness, only played eleven-a-side matches. Such + bowlers as Spofforth, Boyle, G. E. Palmer (b. 1861), T. W. Garrett (b. + 1858), and G. Giffen (1859) became household names. Nor was the + batting less admirable, for Murdoch was supported by H. H. Massie (b. + 1854), P. S. McDonnell (1860-1896), A. C. Bannerman (b. 1859), T. + Horan (b. 1855), C. J. Bonnor (b. 1855), and S. P. Jones (b. 1861), + whilst the wicket-keeper was McCarthy Blackham (b. 1855). This + visiting side in 1882 was the greatest team of all; 23 matches were + won, only 4 lost, and England was defeated at the Oval by 7 runs. In + 1884 English cricket had improved, and the visiting record was hardly + so good. The match against England at the Oval will not soon be + forgotten. The Colonials scored 551 (Murdoch 211, McDonnell 103, Scott + 102), and England responded with 346, Scotton and W. W. Read adding + 151 for the ninth wicket. + + The team of H. J. H. Scott (b. 1858) in 1886 proved less successful, + for all three test matches were lost, and eight defeats had to be set + against nine victories, but Giffen covered himself with distinction. + This was the first tour under the auspices of the Melbourne Club. + McDonnell's team in 1888 marked the appearance of the bowlers C. T. B. + Turner (b. 1862) and J. J. Ferris (1867-1900). The former took 314 + wickets for 11 runs each, and the latter 220 for 14 apiece. To all + appearance they redeemed a poor tour, 19 matches being won and 14 + lost. The 1890 tour, though Murdoch reappeared as captain, proved + disappointing, both the test matches being lost and defeats for the + first time exceeding victories, though the two bowlers again performed + marvellously well. After an interval of three years, M. Blackham + captained the seventh team, which was moderately fortunate. H. Graham + (b. 1870) and S. E. Gregory (b. 1870) batted admirably, and the 149 of + J. J. Lyons (b. 1863) in the match against M.C.C. was an extraordinary + display of punishing cricket. In 1896, though they did not win the + rubber of test matches, the colonials were most successful, 19 matches + being victories and only 6 lost. S. E. Gregory, J. Darling (b. 1870), + F. A. Iredale (b. 1867), G. Giffen, C. Hill (b. 1877), and G. H. S. + Trott (1866-1905) were the best bats, and the last-named made an + admirable captain. H. Trumble (1867) kept an excellent length, and E. + Jones (1869) was deadly with his fast bowling. + + The Australian representatives in 1899 demonstrated that they were the + best since 1882, 16 successes and only 3 defeats (v. Essex, Surrey and + Kent) being emphasized by a victory over England at Lord's by 10 + wickets, the only one of the five test matches brought to a + conclusion. M. A. Noble (b. 1873) and Victor Trumper (b. 1877), both + newcomers, batted superbly. The latter, v. Sussex, made 300, the + largest individual score hitherto made by an Australian in England, + the previous best having been 286 by Murdoch in the corresponding + match in 1882. H. Trumble scored 1183 runs and took 142 wickets for 18 + runs apiece, and Darling not only made a judicious captain, but scored + the biggest aggregate, 1941, up to then obtained by any batsman + touring with a colonial eleven in England. On the home side, Hayward + did sound service with the bat, and his stand with F. S. Jackson in + the fifth test match yielded 185 runs for the first wicket. + + In 1902 another fine Australian eleven, captained by Darling, won 23 + and lost only 2 matches. They won the rubber of test matches at + Manchester by 3 runs, but lost the final at the Oval by one wicket + after an even more remarkable struggle, G. L. Jessop having scored 104 + in an hour and a quarter. The other defeat was by Yorkshire by 5 + wickets, when they were dismissed for 23 by Hirst and Jackson. The + rest of the tour was characterized by brilliant batting. The + performance of Trumper in making 2570 runs (with an average of 48) + surpassed anything previously seen; R. A. Duff (b. 1878) also proved a + brilliant run-getter. W. W. Armstrong (b. 1879) was useful in all + departments, and J. V. Saunders (b. 1876) proved a successful + left-handed bowler. + + In 1905 there was a marked falling-off, as England won two and drew + the other three test matches; but only one other defeat, by Essex by + 19 runs, had to be set against 16 Australian victories. The persistent + bowling off the wicket by Armstrong, and the inability to finish games + within three days, were the chief drawbacks. Armstrong eclipsed all + previous colonial records in England by heading both tables of + averages, scoring 2002 (average 48) and taking 130 wickets at a cost + of 17 runs each. He also compiled the largest individual score (303 + not out v. Somerset) ever made on an Australian tour. M. A. Noble also + exceeded 2000 runs. For a long time the fast bowler, A. Cotter (b. + 1882, N.S.W.), failed, but eventually "came off," just as F. Laver (b. + 1869), who had taken many wickets in the earlier part of the tour, was + becoming less formidable. Duff saved the colonials by a great innings + in the fifth test match; Trumper was less certain than formerly, and + Clement Hill more reckless; whilst J. J. Kelly (b. 1867) on his fifth + tour was better than ever before with the gloves. + + The Australians who visited England under the leadership of M. A. + Noble in 1909 were generally held to be a weaker team than most of + their predecessors, but they greatly improved as the season advanced, + proving that the side included several cricketers of the highest + merit, and as a captain Noble has seldom been surpassed in consummate + generalship. Their record of thirteen wins to four defeats offered + little evidence of inferiority, while the large number of twenty-one + drawn matches was accounted for by the cold wet weather that largely + prevailed throughout the summer. Two out of the five test matches were + unfinished, and Australia won the rubber by two matches to one. In all + the test matches England was under the command of A. C. MacLaren, but + the great Harrovian was no longer the batsman he had been some years + earlier; Jackson had abandoned first-class cricket; Hirst and Hayward + were becoming veterans; and, speaking generally, the English batting + was decidedly inferior, and it collapsed feebly in three of the test + matches. England's failure, for which poor fielding and missed catches + were also responsible, was the more disappointing since they began + well by winning the first test match at Birmingham by ten wickets. C. + B. Fry and Hobbs knocking off the 105 runs required to win in the + second innings without the loss of a wicket. In the third test match, + at Leeds, England was deprived of the services of Hayward and Blythe + through illness, and an accident to Jessop during the match compelled + the side to play a man short. It was in bowling that the Australians + were thought to be least strong; but Laver's analysis in the + Manchester test match, when he took 8 wickets for 31 runs in England's + first innings, was the most notable feature of the match; and although + his record at the head of the bowling averages for the tour, 70 + wickets at an average cost of 14.9 runs, had frequently been beaten in + earlier Australian tours in England, it proved him a worthy successor + of Spofforth, Boyle and Turner. Armstrong, although he did not equal + his record of 1905, again scored over 1000 runs and took over 100 + wickets, his exact figures being 1439 runs and 120 wickets. The most + remarkable Australian batting was that of two young left-handed + players who on this occasion visited England for the first time, W. + Bardsley (b. 1884) and Vernon Ransford (b. 1885), the latter of whom + headed the averages both for test matches (58.8) and for the whole + tour (45.5), his principal achievement being an innings of 143 not out + in the test match at Lord's. Bardsley, who was second in the test + matches averages (39.6), fell into the third place slightly below + Armstrong in the averages for the tour; but he alone scored over 200 + in an innings, which he accomplished twice, and over 2000 in aggregate + for the tour, and he established a test match "record" by scoring 136 + and 130 in the match at the Oval. Of the twenty-two "centuries" scored + by Australians during the season Bardsley and Ransford each made six. + Trumper and Noble each scored over a thousand runs, and Macartney was + an invaluable member of the side both in batting and bowling. As a + wicket-keeper Carter worthily filled the place of Kelly, and the + fielding of the Colonials fully maintained the brilliant Australian + standard of former years. + + The following "records" of Australian cricket in England up to 1909 + are of interest:--Highest total by an Australian team: 843 v. Past and + Present of Oxford and Cambridge Universities in 1893. Highest total + against an Australian team: 576 by England at the Oval in 1899. Lowest + total by an Australian team: 18 v. M.C.C. in 1896. Lowest total + against an Australian team: 17 by Gloucestershire in 1896. Highest + individual Australian score in one innings: 303 not out by W. W. + Armstrong v. Somersetshire in 1905. Highest individual Australian + aggregate in a tour: 2570 by V. T. Trumper in 1902. Two centuries in a + match: V. T. Trumper 109 and 119 v. Essex in 1902; W. Bardsley 136 and + 130 v. England in 1909 (test match record). + + The following table shows the Australians who headed the batting and + bowling averages respectively in tours in England up to 1909. + + + _Batting._ + + +------+------------------------+----+----+------+------+-------+ + | | | |Not | | | | + | Year.| |Inn.|out.| Runs.| Most.| Aver. | + +------+------------------------+----+----+------+------+-------+ + | 1878 | C. Bannerman, N.S.W. | 31 | 1 | 723 | 133 | 24.10 | + | 1880 | W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W. | 19 | 1 | 465 | *153 | 25.80 | + | 1882 | W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W. | 61 | 5 | 1711 | *286 | 30.50 | + | 1884 | W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W. | 50 | 5 | 1378 | 211 | 30.60 | + | 1886 | G. Giffen, S.A. | 63 | 9 | 1453 | 119 | 26.90 | + | 1888 | P. M'Donnell, V. | 62 | 1 | 1393 | 105 | 22.50 | + | 1890 | W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W. | 64 | 2 | 1459 | *158 | 23.33 | + | 1893 | H. Graham, V. | 55 | 3 | 1492 | 219 | 28.36 | + | 1896 | S. E. Gregory, N.S.W. | 48 | 2 | 1464 | 154 | 31.38 | + | 1899 | J. Darling, S.A. | 56 | 9 | 1941 | 167 | 41.29 | + | 1902 | V. T. Trumper, N.S.W. | 53 | 0 | 2570 | 128 | 48.49 | + | 1905 | W. W. Armstrong, V. | 48 | 7 | 2002 | *303 | 48.82 | + | 1909 | V. S. Ransford | 43 | 4 | 1778 | 190 | 45.58 | + +------+------------------------+----+----+------+------+-------+ + * Not out. + + + _Bowling._ + + +------+------------------------+--------+------+------+-----+-------+ + | Year.| | O. | M. | R. | W. | Aver. | + +------+------------------------+--------+------+------+-----+-------+ + | 1878 | T. W. Garrett, N.S.W. | 296.2 | 144 | 394 | 38 | 10.30 | + | 1880 | F. R. Spofforth, N.S.W.| 240.8 | 82 | 396 | 46 | 8.60 | + | 1882 | H. F. Boyle, V. | 1200.14| 525 | 1680 | 144 | 11.60 | + | 1884 | F. R. Spofforth, N.S.W.| 1544.32| 649 | 2642 | 216 | 12.20 | + | 1886 | G. Giffen, S.A. | 1693.26| 722 | 2711 | 159 | 17.05 | + | 1888 | C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.| 2589.3 | 1222 | 3492 | 314 | 11.38 | + | 1890 | C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.| 1651.1 | 724 | 2725 | 215 | 12.45 | + | 1893 | C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.| 1148 | 450 | 2202 | 160 | 13.12 | + | 1896 | T. R. M'Kibbin, N.S.W. | 647.1 | 198 | 1441 | 101 | 14.27 | + | 1899 | H. Trumble, V. | 1249.1 | 431 | 2618 | 142 | 18.43 | + | 1902 | H. Trumble, V. | 948 | 305 | 1998 | 140 | 14.27 | + | 1905 | W. W. Armstrong, V. | 1027 | 308 | 2288 | 130 | 17.60 | + | 1909 | F. Laver | 495.5 | 161 | 1048 | 70 | 14.97 | + +------+------------------------+--------+------+------+-----+-------+ + + The first English team to visit Australia was organized in 1862, and + was captained by H. H. Stephenson. George Parr (1826-1891) took out + the next in 1864, Dr E. M. Grace being the only amateur. In 1873 the + Melbourne Club invited Dr W. G. Grace to take out an eleven, and + three years later James Lillywhite conducted a team of professionals. + On this tour for the first time colonials contended on equal terms, + one match v. Australia being won by 4 wickets and the other lost by 45 + runs. Lord Harris in the autumn of 1878 took a team of amateurs + assisted by Ulyett and Emmett, winning 2 and losing 3 eleven-a-side + encounters, Emmett's 137 wickets averaging 8 runs each. Shaw, + Shrewsbury and Lillywhite jointly organized the expedition of 1881, + when Australia won the second test match by 5 wickets. The Hon. Ivo + Bligh (afterwards Lord Darnley) in 1882 took a fine team, which was + crippled owing to an injury sustained by the bowler F. Morley. Four + victories could be set against three defeats; Australia winning the + only test match, owing to the batting of Blackham. Shaw's second tour + in 1884 showed Barnes heading both batting and bowling averages, while + six victories counterbalanced two defeats. In the third tour + Shrewsbury became captain, but the English for the first time + encountered the bowling of C. T. B. Turner, who took 27 wickets for + 113 runs in two matches. Australia was twice defeated, the English + captain batting in fine form. On this tour was played the Smokers v. + Non-Smokers, when the latter scored 803 for 9 wickets (Shrewsbury 236, + W. Bruce 131, Gunn 150), against the bowling of Briggs, Boyle, + Lohmann, Palmer and Flowers. The winter of 1887 saw two English teams + in Australia, one under Lord Hawke and G. F. Vernon, the other under + Shrewsbury and Lillywhite. Both teams played well, the batting being + headed by W. W. Read with an average of 65, and Shrewsbury with 58. + The ill-success of Lord Sheffield's team in two out of three test + matches did not disprove the great merits of his eleven. Dr W. G. + Grace headed the averages with 44, and received the best support from + Abel and A. E. Stoddart, whilst Attewell, Briggs and Lohmann all + possessed fine bowling figures. A. E. Stoddart's first team (in 1894) + achieved immense success and was the best of all. In the first test + match they went in against 586 runs and ultimately won by 10 runs, + Ward making 75 and 117. Stoddart himself averaged 51, scoring 173 in + the second test match, and A. C. MacLaren (who made 228 v. Victoria), + Brown and Ward all averaged over 40. The last tour conducted by + Stoddart proved less satisfactory, four of the five test matches being + lost, and some friction being caused by various incidents. K. S. + Ranjitsinhji, who averaged 60 and made 175 in a test match and 189 v. + South Australia, and A. C. MacLaren, who scored five hundreds and + averaged 54, were prominent, Hayward also doing good work; but the + bowling broke down. Weakness in bowling was the cause of the ill + success of A. C. MacLaren's side in 1901. After a brilliant victory by + an innings and 124 runs at Sydney, the other four test matches were + all lost. MacLaren himself batted magnificently, and so did Hayward + and Tyldesley. Braund stood alone as an all-round man. The M.C.C. in + 1903 officially despatched a powerful side led by P. F. Warner, and in + every sense except the financial the success was complete. Three test + matches were won and two lost, while two new records were set up, one + by Rhodes obtaining 15 wickets at Melbourne, the other by R. E. + Foster, who in seven hours of brilliant batting compiled 287. + Tyldesley and Hayward both did good work as batsmen; Rhodes and Braund + both bowled consistently. The catch-phrase about "bringing back the + ashes" became almost proverbial; its origin is to be found in the + _Sporting Times_ in 1882 after Australia had defeated England at the + Oval. + + _New Zealand._--Although cricket has not attained a degree of + perfection in New Zealand commensurate with that in Australia, it is + keenly played. Lord Hawke sent out from England a team in 1902-1903 + which won all the eighteen matches arranged. + + _Cricket in India._--Not only the English who live in India, but the + natives also--Parsees, Hindus and Mahommedans alike--play cricket. A + Parsee eleven visited England in 1884 and 1888. + + _South Africa._--South African cricketers visiting England are + handicapped by playing on turf instead of on the matting wickets used + in South Africa. The side which came over during the Boer War in 1901 + won 13, lost 9, and drew 2 matches, playing a tie with Worcestershire, + and showing marked improvement on the team which had visited England + in 1894. E. A. Halliwell (b. 1864) proved a fine wicket-keeper, J. H. + Sinclair (b. 1876) a good all-round cricketer, J. J. Kotze (b. 1879) a + very fast bowler, and G. A. Rowe (b. 1872) clever with the ball. In + 1904 more decided success was achieved, for on a more ambitious + programme ten victories could be set against two defeats by + Worcestershire and Kent, with a tie with Middlesex. The most important + success was a victory by 189 runs over a powerful England eleven at + Lord's, when R. O. Schwarz (b. 1875) scored 102 and 26, and took 8 + wickets for 106, dismissing Ranjitsinhji twice. Kotze and Sinclair + again bore the brunt of the attack. Of the English teams visiting + South Africa, that taken by Lord Hawke in 1894 did not meet with such + important opposition as the one he led in 1900, yet the side came back + undefeated, having won all three test matches. P. F. Warner and F. + Mitchell, with Tyldesley, were the chief run-getters, Haigh, Trott and + Cuttell bowling finely. In the winter of 1905 the M.C.C. sent out a + side under P. F. Warner, but it lost four out of the five test + matches, F. L. Fane and J. N. Crawford being the most successful of + the Englishmen, and G. C. White (1882) and A. D. Nourse proving + themselves great colonial batsmen. In 1907 a representative South + African team came to England, and their improved status in the + cricketing world was shown by the arrangement of test matches. In the + winter of 1909-1910 an English team under Mr Leveson Gower went to + South Africa, and played test matches. + + _West Indies._--West Indian cricketers toured in England in 1900, + winning 5 matches and losing 8. The best batsman was C. A. Olivierre + (b. 1876), who subsequently qualified for Derbyshire. The brunt of the + bowling devolved on S. Woods and T. Burton (b. 1878). In 1897 teams + under Lord Hawke and A. Priestly (b. 1865) both visited West Indies, + Trinidad defeating both powerful combinations. R. S. Lucas (b. 1867) + had in 1895 taken out a successful side. A much weaker combination in + 1902 suffered five defeats but won 13 matches. B. J. T. Bosanquet, E. + R. Wilson (b. 1879) and E. M. Dowson (b. 1880) were the chief + performers. In 1906 another West Indian side visited England, but were + not particularly successful. + + _America._--In the United States cricket has always had to contend + with the popularity of baseball, and in Canada with the rival + attractions of lacrosse. Nevertheless it has grown in popularity, + Philadelphia being the headquarters of the game in the New World. + + The Germantown, Belmont, Merion and Philadelphia Clubs play annually + for the Halifax Cup, and the game is controlled by the Associated + Cricket clubs of Philadelphia. In the neighbourhood of New York + matches are arranged by the Metropolitan District Cricket League and + the New York Cricket Association; similar organizations are the + Northwestern, the California and the Massachusetts associations, while + the Intercollegiate Cricket League consists of college teams + representing Harvard, Pennsylvania and Haverford. R. S. Newhall (b. + 1852) and D. S. Newhall (b. 1849) may almost claim to be the fathers + of cricket in the United States; while D. W. Saunders (b. 1862) did + much for the game in Canada. Other eminent names in American cricket + are A. M. Wood; H. Livingston, of the Pittsburg Club, who scored three + centuries in one week in 1907; H. V. Hordern, University of + Pennsylvania, a very successful bowler; J. B. King, who in 1906 made + 344 not out for Belmont v. Merion, and who as a fast bowler proved + most effective during two tours in England. At San Francisco in 1894 + W. Robertson and A. G. Sheath compiled a total of 340 without the loss + of a wicket, the former scoring 206 not out, and the latter 118 not + out. A large number of English cricket teams have visited the United + States and Canada. The first county to do so was Kent in 1904, in + which year the Philadelphians also made a tour in England, in the + course of which J. B. King (b. 1873) took 93 wickets at an average + cost of 14 runs, and proved himself the best all-round man on the + side. P. H. Clark (b. 1873), a clever fast bowler, and J. A. Lester + (b. 1872), the captain of the team, also showed themselves to be + cricketers of merit, while N. Z. Graves (b. 1880) and F. H. Bohlen (b. + 1868) were quite up to English county form. The team did not, however, + include G. S. Patterson (b. 1868), one of the best batsmen in America. + The Philadelphians again visited Great Britain in 1908, when they won + 7 out of 14 matches, one being drawn. On this tour King surpassed his + former English record by taking 115 wickets, and Wood, who played one + fine innings of 132, was the most successful of the American batsmen. + + _Other Countries._--The English residents of Portugal support the + game, but were no match for a moderate English team that visited them + in 1898. In Holland, chiefly at the Hague and Haarlem, cricket is + played to a limited extent on matting wickets. Dutch elevens have + visited England, and English elevens have crossed to Holland, the most + important visit being that of the gentlemen of the M.C.C. in 1902, the + Englishmen winning all the matches. + + _Professionalism._--The remuneration of the first-class English + professionals is L6 per match, out of which expenses have to be paid; + a man engaged on a ground to bowl receives from L2, 10s. to L3, 10s. a + week when not away playing matches. A professional player generally + receives extra reward for good batting or bowling, the amount being + sometimes a fixed sum of L1 for every fifty runs, more frequently a + sum awarded by the committee on the recommendation of the captain. + Some counties give their men winter pay, others try to provide them + with suitable work when cricket is over. A few get cricket in other + countries during the English winter. For international matches + professional players and "reserves" receive L20 each, though before + 1896 the fee was only L10; players (and reserves) in Gentlemen v. + Players at Lord's are paid L10. A good county professional generally + receives a "benefit" after about ten years' service; but the amount of + the proceeds varies capriciously with the weather, the duration of the + match, and the attendance. In the populous northern counties of + England benefits are far more lucrative than in the south, but L800 to + L1000 may be regarded as a good average result. County clubs generally + exercise some control over the sums received. Umpires are paid L6 a + match; in minor games they receive about L1 a day. + + _Records._--Records other than those already cited may be added for + reference. A schoolboy named A. E. J. Collins, at Clifton College in + 1899, excited some interest by scoring 628 not out in a boy's match, + being about seven hours at the wicket. C. J. Eady (b. 1870) scored 566 + for Break o' Day v. Wellington in eight hours in 1902, the total being + 911. A. E. Stoddart made 485 for Hampstead v. Stoics in 1886. In + first-class cricket the highest individual score for a batsman is A. + C. MacLaren's 424 for Lancashire v. Somerset at Taunton in 1895. + Melbourne University scored 1094 against Essendon in March 1898, this + being the highest authenticated total on record. M.C.C. and Ground + made 735 v. Wiltshire in 1888, the highest total at Lord's. In the + match between A. E. Stoddart's team and New South Wales at Sydney in + 1898, 1739 runs were scored, an aggregate unparalleled in first-class + cricket. The highest total for an innings in a first-class match is + 918 for N.S.W. v. South Australia in January 1901. Yorkshire scored + 887 v. Warwickshire at Birmingham in May 1896. The lowest total in a + first-class match is 12 by Northamptonshire v. Gloucestershire in June + 1907. The record for first wicket is 472 by S. Colman and P. Coles at + Eastbourne in 1892. The longest partnership on record is 623 by + Captain Oates and Fitzgerald at the Curragh in 1895. The best stand + that has been made for the last wicket in a first-class match is 230 + runs, which was run up by R. W. Nicholls and Roche playing for + Middlesex v. Kent at Lord's in 1899. + + The "averages" of individual players for batting and bowling annually + excite a good deal of interest, and there is a danger that some + players may think too much of their averages and too little of the + sporting side of the game. Any comparison of the highest averages + during a series of years would be misleading, owing to improvements in + grounds, difference of weather, and the variations in the number of + innings. + + The following table of aggregates, compiled from the figures to the + end of 1905, affords a summary of the records of a select list of + historic cricketers; it will serve to supplement some details already + given above about them and others. + + + _Batting._ + + +--------------------+---------+--------+-------+-----+-------+ + | | Innings.|Not Out.| Runs.|Most.| Aver. | + +--------------------+---------+--------+-------+-----+-------+ + | K. S. Ranjitsinhji | 448 | 57 | 22,277| 285 | 56.3 | + | C. B. Fry | 481 | 29 | 22,865| 244 | 50.4 | + | T. Hayward | 667 | 61 | 25,225| 315 | 41.3 | + | J. T. Tyldesley | 491 | 38 | 18,683| 250 | 41.1 | + | Dr W. G. Grace | 1463 | 103 | 54,073| 344 | 39.1 | + | A. Shrewsbury | 784 | 88 | 25,819| 267 | 37.6 | + | R. Abel | 964 | 69 | 32,810| 357 | 36.5 | + | A. C. MacLaren | 526 | 37 | 17,364| 424 | 35.2 | + | G. H. Hirst | 626 | 92 | 18,615| 341 | 34.4 | + | Hon. F. S. Jackson | 490 | 35 | 15,498| 160 | 34.2 | + | W. Gunn | 821 | 66 | 25,286| 273 | 33.3 | + | W. W. Read | 739 | 53 | 22,919| 328 | 33.2 | + | A. E. Stoddart | 513 | 16 | 16,081| 221 | 32.2 | + +--------------------+---------+--------+-------+-----+-------+ + + + _Bowling._ + + +----------------------+-------+--------+-------+-----+------+ + | | Overs.| Maid. | Runs.|Wkts.| Aver.| + +----------------------+-------+--------+-------+-----+------+ + | A. Shaw | 22,830| 12,803 | 21,887| 1916| 11.8 | + | F. R. Spofforth | 5,342| 2,168 | 8,773| 682| 12.5 | + | C. T. B. Turner | 5,388| 2,396 | 8,419| 649| 12.6 | + | T. Emmett | 14,672| 6,870 | 20,811| 1523| 13.1 | + | G. Lohmann | 15,196| 6,508 | 23,958| 1734| 13.1 | + | F. Morley | 12,610| 6,239 | 15,938| 1213| 13.1 | + | E. Peate | 11,669| 5,593 | 14,299| 1061| 13.5 | + | W. Rhodes | 11,014| 3,476 | 23,336| 1564| 14.1 | + | W. Attewell | 22,461| 11,408 | 28,671| 1874| 15.5 | + | J. Briggs | 20,300| 8,275 | 34,411| 2161| 15.2 | + | R. Peel | 18,255| 7,856 | 27,795| 1733| 16.6 | + | S. Haigh | 7,749| 2,279 | 18,516| 1102| 16.8 | + | J. T. Hearne | 19,895| 7,395 | 40,532| 2350| 17.5 | + | W. H. Lockwood | 8,733| 2,241 | 22,981| 1273| 18.6 | + | T. Richardson (1904) | 14,474| 3,835 | 38,126| 2081| 18.6 | + | Dr W. G. Grace (1904)| 28,502| 10,892 | 50,441| 2730| 18.1 | + | G. H. Hirst | 11,586| 3,525 | 27,028| 1377| 19.8 | + +----------------------+-------+--------+-------+-----+------+ + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief works on cricket are, apart from well-known + annuals:--H. Bentley's _Scores from 1786 to 1822_ (published in 1823); + John Nyren's _Young Cricketer's Tutor_ (1833); N. Wanostrocht's _Felix + on the Bat_ (various editions, 1845-1855); F. Lillywhite's _Cricket + Scores and Biographies, 1746 to 1840_ (1862); Rev. J. Pycroft's + _Cricket Field_ (various editions, 1862-1873); C. Box's _Theory and + Practice of Cricket_ (1868); F. Gale's _Echoes from Old Cricket + Fields_ (1871, new ed. 1896); _Marylebone Cricket Club Scores and + Biographies_ (1876), a continuation of Lillywhite's _Scores and + Biographies_; C. Box's _English Game of Cricket_ (1877); _History of a + Hundred Centuries_, by W. G. Grace (1895); _History of the Middlesex + County Cricket Club_, by W. J. Ford (1900); _History of the Cambridge + University Cricket Club_, by W. J. Ford (1902); _History of Yorkshire + County Cricket_, by R. S. Holmes (1904); _History of Kent County + Cricket_, ed. by Lord Harris, (1907); _Annals of Lord's_, by A. D. + Taylor (1903); _Curiosities of Cricket_, by F. S. Ashley Cooper + (1901); "Cricket," by Lord Hawke, in _English Sport_, by A. E. T. + Watson (1903); _Cricket_, edited by H. G. Hutchinson (1903); _Cricket + Form at a Glance_, by Home Gordon (1903); _Cricket_ (Badminton + Library), by A. G. Steel and Hon. R. H. Lyttleton (1904); _Old English + Cricketers_, by Old Ebor (1900); _Cricket in Many Climes_, by P. F. + Warner (1903); _How We Recovered the Ashes_, by P. F. Warner (1904); + _England v. Australia_, by J. N. Pentelow (records from 1877 to 1904) + (1904); _The Jubilee Book of Cricket_, by K. S. Ranjitsinhji (1897). + + + + +CRICKHOWELL, a market town of Brecknockshire, Wales, 14 m. E. of Brecon, +beautifully situated on the left bank of the Usk, which divides it from +Llangattock. Pop. (1901) 1150. The nearest railway stations are Govilon +(5 m.) and Gilwern (4 m.) on the London & North-Western railway, but a +mail and passenger motor service running between Abergavenny and Brecon +passes through the town. It is also served by the Brecon & Newport +Canal, which passes through Llangattock about a mile distant. +Agriculture is almost the sole industry of the district. The town +derives its name from a British fortress, Crug Hywel, commonly called +Table Mountain, about 2 m. N.N.E. of the town. Crickhowell Castle, of +which only a tower remains, probably dated from the Norman conquest of +the country. The manor of Crickhowell used to be regarded as a borough +by prescription, but there is no record of its ever having possessed any +municipal institutions. The church is in transitional Decorated style. + + + + +CRICKLADE, a market town in the Cricklade parliamentary division of +Wiltshire, England, 9 m. N.W. of Swindon, on the Midland & South-Western +Junction railway. Pop. (1901) 1517. It is pleasantly situated in the +plain which borders the south bank of the Thames, not far from the +Thames & Severn Canal. The cruciform church of St Sampson is mainly +Perpendicular, with a fine ornate tower, and an old rood-stone in its +churchyard. The small church of St Mary has an Early English tower, +Perpendicular aisles and a Norman chancel-arch. There is some +agricultural trade. + +Legend makes Cricklade the abode of a school of Greek philosophers +before the Roman conquest, and the name is given as "Greeklade" in +Drayton's _Polyolbion_. It owed its importance in Saxon times to its +position at the passage of the Thames. During the revolt of AEthelwald +the AEtheling in 905 he and his army "harried all the Mercian's land +until they came to Cricklade and there they went over the Thames" +(Anglo-Sax. Chron. _sub anno_), and in 1016 Canute came with his army +over the Thames into Mercia at Cricklade (ibid.). There was a mint at +Cricklade in the time of Edward the Confessor and William I., and +William of Dover fortified a castle here in the reign of Stephen. In the +reign of Henry III. a hospital dedicated to St John the Baptist was +founded at Cricklade, and placed under the government of a warden or +prior. Cricklade was a borough by prescription at least as early as the +Domesday Survey, and returned two members to parliament from 1295 until +disfranchised by the Redistribution Act of 1885. The borough was never +incorporated, but certain liberties, including exemption from toll and +passage, were granted to the townsmen by Henry III. and confirmed by +successive sovereigns. In 1257 Baldwin de Insula obtained a grant of a +Thursday market, and an annual three days' fair at the feast of St Peter +ad Vincula. The market was subsequently changed to Saturday, and was +much frequented by dealers in corn and cattle, but is now +inconsiderable. During the 14th century Cricklade formed part of the +dowry of the queens of England. In the reign of Henry VI. the lordship +was acquired by the Hungerford family, and in 1427 Sir Walter Hungerford +granted the reversion of the manor to the dean and chapter of Salisbury +cathedral to aid towards the repair of their belfry. + + + + +CRIEFF, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, capital of Strathearn, +17-3/4 m. W. of Perth by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 5208. +Occupying the southern slopes of a hill on the left bank of the Earn, +here crossed by a bridge, it practically consists of a main street, with +narrower streets branching off at right angles. Its climate is the +healthiest in mid-Scotland, the air being pure and dry. Its charter is +said to date from 1218, and it was the seat of the courts of the earls +of Strathearn till 1747, when heritable jurisdictions were abolished. A +Runic sculptured stone, believed to be of the 8th century, and the old +town cross stand in High Street, but the great cattle fair, for which +Crieff was once famous, was removed to Falkirk in 1770. It was probably +in connexion with this market that the "kind gallows of Crieff" acquired +their notoriety, for they were mostly used for the execution of Highland +cattle-stealers. The principal buildings are the town hall, tolbooth, +public library, assembly rooms, mechanics' institute, Morison's academy +(founded in 1859), and Strathearn House, a hydropathic establishment +built on an eminence at the back of the town, and itself sheltered by +the Knock of Crieff (911 ft. high). The industries consist of +manufactures of cotton, linen, woollens and worsteds, and leather. +Drummond Castle, about 3 m. S., is celebrated for its gardens. They +cover an area of 10 acres, are laid out in terraces, and illustrate +Italian, Dutch and French styles. They were planned by the 2nd earl of +Perth (d. 1662), and take rank with the most magnificent in the United +Kingdom. The keep of the castle dates from 1490, and much of the +original building was demolished in 1689, a few years after its siege by +Cromwell. The present structure was erected subsequent to the extinction +of the Jacobite rebellion. + + + + +CRIME (Lat. _crimen_, accusation), the general term for offences against +the Criminal Law (q.v.). Crime has been defined as "a failure or refusal +to live up to the standard of conduct deemed binding by the rest of the +community." Sir James Stephen describes it as "some act or omission in +respect of which legal punishment may be inflicted on the person who is +in default whether by acting or omitting to act." Such action or neglect +of action may be injurious or hurtful to society. It is a wrong or tort, +to be prevented and corrected by the strong arm of the law. + +Crimes vary in character with times and countries. Under different +circumstances of place and custom, that which at one time is denounced +as a crime, at another passes as a meritorious act. It was once an +imperative duty for the family to avenge the death of a kinsman, and the +blood feud had a sanction that made killing no murder. Again, among +primitive tribes to make away with parents at an advanced age or +suffering from an incurable disease was a filial duty. Polyandry was +sometimes encouraged, and cannibalism practised with general approval; +religious sentiment elevated into heinous crimes, blasphemy, heresy, +sacrilege, sorcery and even science when it ran counter to accepted +dogmas of the church. Offences multiplied when people gathered into +communities and the rights of property and of personal security were +understood and established. The law of the strongest might still +interfere with individual ownership; the weakest went to the wall; +authority, whether exercised by one master or by the combined government +of the many, was resisted, and this resistance constituted crime. As +civilization spread and the bulk of the population settled into +orderliness, society, for its own comfort, convenience and protection, +would not tolerate the infraction of its rules, and rising against all +law-breakers decreed reprisals against them as the common enemy. Then +began that constant warfare between criminals and the forces of law and +order which has been continuously waged through the centuries with +varying degrees of bitterness. + +The combat with crime was long waged with great cruelty. Extreme +penalties were thought to constitute the best deterrent, and the +principle of vengeance chiefly inspired the penal law. The harshness of +ancient codes makes a more humane age shudder. It was the custom to hang +or decapitate, or otherwise take life in some more or less barbarous +fashion, on the smallest excuse. The final act was preceded by hideous +torture. It was performed with the utmost barbarity. Victims were put to +death by breaking on the wheel, burning at the stake, by dismemberment +and flaying or boiling alive. These were the aggravations of the +original idea of riddance, of checking crime by the absolute removal of +the offender. Only slowly and gradually milder methods came into force. +Revenge and retaliation were no longer the chief aims, the law had a +larger mission than to coerce the criminal and force him by severity to +mend his ways. To withdraw him for a lengthened period from the sphere +of his baneful activity was something; to subject him to more or less +irksome processes, to solitary confinement upon short diet, deprived of +all the solaces of life, with severe labour, were sharp lessons limited +in effect to those actually subjected to them, but too remote to deter +the outside crowd of potential wrongdoers. The higher duty of the +administrator is to utilize the period of detention by labouring to +reform the criminal subjects and send them out from gaol reformed +characters. If no very remarkable success has been achieved in this +direction, it is obviously the right aim, and it is being more and more +steadfastly pursued. But it is generally accepted in principle that to +eradicate criminal proclivities and cut off recruits from the permanent +army of crime the work must be undertaken when the subject is of an age +susceptible of reform; hence the extreme value attaching to the more +enlightened treatment of crime in embryo, a principle becoming more and +more largely accepted in practice among civilized nations. + +It may safely be asserted that the germ of crime is universally present +in mankind, ever ready to show under conditions favourable to its +growth. Children show criminal tendencies in their earliest years. They +exhibit evil traits, anger, resentment, mendacity; they are often +intensely selfish, are strongly acquisitive, greedy of gain, ready to +steal and secrete things at the first opportunity. Happily the fatal +consequences that would otherwise be inevitable are checked by the +gradual growth of inhibitory processes, such as prudence, reflection, a +sense of moral duty, and in many cases the absence of temptation. From +this Dr Nicholson deduces that "in proportion as this development is +prevented or stifled, either owing to an original brain defect or by +lack of proper education or training, so there is the risk of the +individual lapsing into criminal-mindedness or into actual crime." In +the lowest strata of society this risk is largely increased from the +conditions of life. The growth of criminals is greatly stimulated where +people are badly fed, morally and physically unhealthy, infected with +any forms of disease and vice. In such circumstances, moreover, there is +too often the evil influence of heredity and example. The offspring of +criminals are constantly impelled to follow in their parents' footsteps +by the secret springs of nature and pressure of childish imitativeness. +The seed is thrown, so to speak, into a hot-bed where it finds congenial +soil in which to take root and flourish. + +Wherever crime shows itself it follows certain well-defined lines and +has its genesis in three dominant mental processes, the result of marked +propensities. These are malice, acquisitiveness and lust. Malicious +crimes may be amplified into offences against the person originating in +hatred, resentment, violent temper, and rising from mere assaults into +manslaughter and murder. Crimes of greed and acquisitiveness cover the +whole range of thefts, frauds and misappropriation; of larcenies of all +sorts; obtaining by false pretences; receiving stolen goods; robberies; +house-breaking, burglary, forgery and coining. Crimes of lust embrace +the whole range of illicit sexual relations, the result of ungovernable +passion and criminal depravity. The proportions in which these three +categories are manifested have been worked out in England and Wales to +give the following figures. The percentage in any 100,000 of the +population is:-- + + Crimes of malice 15% + Crimes of greed 75% + Crimes of lust 10% + +The members of these categories do not form distinct classes; their +crimes are interdependent and constantly overlap. Crime in many is +progressive and passes through all the stages from minor offences to the +worst crimes. Murder--the culminating point of malice--is constantly +preceded by petty larceny; theft by forcible entry; and robbery is +associated with violence and armed resistance to capture. Criminality +rising into its highest development shows itself under many forms. It is +instinctive, passionate, accidental, deliberate and habitual, the +outcome of abnormal appetite, of weak and disordered moral sense. The +causation of crime varies, but a predominating motive is idleness, +leading to the predatory instincts of gain easily acquired without the +labour of continuous effort. To deprive the more industrious or more +happily placed of their hard-won earnings or possessions, inspires the +bulk of modern serious crime. It no doubt has produced one peculiar +feature in modern crime: the extensive scale on which it is carried out. +The greatest frauds are now commonly perpetrated; great robberies are +planned in one capital and executed in another. The whole is worked by +wide associations of cosmopolitan criminals. + +Other features of modern crime are especially interesting. It is +extraordinarily precocious. Children of quite tender years commit +murders, and boys and girls are frequently to be met with as +professional thieves. Again, the comparative proportions of crime in the +two sexes may be considered. Everywhere women are less criminal than +men. Naturally they have fewer facilities for committing crimes of +violence, although they have offences peculiar to their sex, such as +infanticide, and are more frequently guilty of poisoning than men by 70% +against 30%. Statistics presented to the Prison Congress at Stockholm +fix the percentage of female criminals at 3% in Japan, the East +generally, South America and some parts of North America. In some states +of the American Union it is 10%; in China, 20%; in Europe generally it +varies between 10% and 21%. In France the proportion of accused women is +fifteen to eighty-five men. In Great Britain it is now one in four, but +has been less. The total sentenced in 1905-1906 to penal servitude and +imprisonment was 139,389 men and 44,294 women, the balance being made up +by summary convictions. The curious fact in female crime is that +one-seventh of the women committed to prison had already been convicted +from eleven to twenty times. It has been well said from the above +proportions that women are less criminal according to the figures, +because when a woman wants a crime committed she can generally find a +man to do it for her. + +It has often been debated whether or not prison methods react upon the +criminality of the country; whether, in other words, severity of +treatment _deters_, while milder methods encourage the wrongdoers to +despise the penalties imposed by the law. Evidence for and against the +verdict may be drawn from the whole civilized world. In England, as +judged by the increase or decrease of the prison population, it might be +supposed that the prison system was at one time effective in diminishing +crime. Between 1878 and 1891 there was a steady decrease in numbers +because of it. More recently there has been an appreciable increase in +the number of crimes and proportionately of those imprisoned. The +figures for 1906 showed a distinct increase in criminality for that year +as compared with the years immediately preceding. The proportion of +indictable offences had increased in 1906 from 59,079 as against 50,494 +in 1899, or in the proportion of 171.01 per 100,000 of the population as +against 158.97, a very marked increase over earlier years. Nevertheless +the figures for 1906, although high, are by no means the highest, as on +eight occasions during the fifty odd years for which statistics were +available in 1909 the total crimes exceeded 60,000, and in the +quinquennial period 1860-1864 the annual average was 280 per 100,000 as +compared with 171.01 for 1906 and 175 for the quinquennial period +1902-1906. The quality of the crime varied, and while offences against +property have increased, those against the person have constantly +fallen. Quite half the whole number of crimes were committed by old +offenders (see RECIDIVISM). + +Statistics have not been kept with the same care in all other countries, +but some authentic figures may be quoted for France, where the number of +thefts increased while offences against the person diminished. In +Belgium there has been a satisfactory decrease in recent years. In +Prussia the prison population has on the whole increased, but there has +been a slight diminution in more serious crime. Some very noticeable +figures are forthcoming from the United States, and comparison is +possible of the relative amount of crime in the two countries, America +and England. Here the want of statistics covering a large period is much +to be regretted. On the general question serious crime in the ten years +between 1880 and 1890 slightly increased, while petty crime was very +considerably less during the period. Charges for homicide have been much +more numerous. There were in 1880, 4608, or a ratio of 9.1 to 100,000 of +the population; but in 1890 these offences rose to 7351, or a ratio of +11.7. Comparing America with England, it has been calculated in round +numbers that the proportion of prisoners to the general population was +in the United States as 1 to every 759, and in England 1 to every 1764 +persons. As regards the more serious crimes the number in English +convict prisons was as 1 to 10,000, and in the American state prisons +(the corresponding institutions) the ratio was 1 to every 1358. In the +lesser prisons, i.e. the English local prisons and the American city or +county gaols, the numbers more nearly approximate, being in England 1 to +2143 and in America 1 to 1721. It has been argued that much of the crime +in America is attributable to the preponderance of foreign immigrants, +but the ratio of native born prisoners is that of 1237 to the million, +of foreign born prisoners 1777 to the million. + + AUTHORITIES.--A. MacDonald, _Criminology_ (New York, 1893); A. Drahms, + _The Criminal_ (New York, 1900); E. Ferri, _La Sociologie criminelle_, + trans. Ferrier (Paris, 1905); all these contain extensive + bibliographies. See also under CRIMINOLOGY. (A. G.) + + + + +CRIMEA (ancient _Tauris_ or Tauric Chersonese, called by the Russians by +the Tatar name _Krym_ or _Crim_), a peninsula on the north side of the +Black Sea, forming part of the Russian government of Taurida, with the +mainland of which it is connected by the Isthmus of Perekop (3-4 m. +across). It is rudely rhomboid in shape, the angles being directed +towards the cardinal points, and measures 200 m. between 44 deg. 23' and +46 deg. 10' N., and 110 m. between 32 deg. 30' and 36 deg. 40' E. Its +area is 9700 sq. m. + +Its coasts are washed by the Black Sea, except on the north-east, where +is the Sivash or Putrid Sea, a shallow lagoon separated from the Sea of +Azov by the Arabat spit of sand. The shores are broken by several bays +and harbours--on the west side of the Isthmus of Perekop by the Bay of +Karkinit; on the south-west by the open Bay of Kalamita, on the shores +of which the allies landed in 1854, with the ports of Eupatoria, +Sevastopol and Balaklava; by the Bay of Arabat on the north side of the +Isthmus of Yenikale or Kerch; and by the Bay of Kaffa or Feodosiya +(Theodosia), with the port of that name, on the south side of the same. +The south-east coast is flanked at a distance of 5 to 8 m. from the sea +by a parallel range of mountains, the Yaila-dagh, or Alpine Meadow +mountains, and these are backed, inland, by secondary parallel ranges; +but 75% of the remaining area consists of high arid prairie lands, a +southward continuation of the Pontic steppes, which slope gently +north-westwards from the foot of the Yaila-dagh. The main range of these +mountains shoots up with extraordinary abruptness from the deep floor of +the Black Sea to an altitude of 2000 to 2500 ft., beginning at the +south-west extremity of the peninsula, Cape Fiolente (anc. +_Parthenium_), supposed to have been crowned by the temple of Artemis in +which Iphigeneia officiated as priestess. On the higher parts of this +range are numerous flat mountain pastures (Turk, _yailas_), which, +except for their scantier vegetation, are analogous to the _almen_ of +the Swiss Alps, and are crossed by various passes (_bogaz_), of which +only six are available as carriage roads. The most conspicuous summits +in this range are the Demir-kapu or Kemal-egherek (5040 ft.), Roman-kosh +(5060 ft.), Chatyr-dagh (5000 ft.), and Karabi-yaila (3975 ft.). The +second parallel range, which reaches altitudes of 1500 to 1900 ft., +likewise presents steep crags to the south-east and a gentle slope +towards the north-west. In the former slope are thousands of small +caverns, probably inhabited in prehistoric times; and several rivers +pierce the range in picturesque gorges. A valley, 10 to 12 m. wide, +separates this range from the main range, while another valley 2 to 3 m. +across separates it from the third parallel range, which reaches +altitudes of only 500 to 850 ft. Evidences of a fourth and still lower +ridge can be traced towards the south-west. + +A number of short streams, none of them anywhere navigable, leap down +the flanks of the mountains by cascades in spring, e.g. the Chernaya, +Belbek, Kacha and Alma, to the Black Sea, and the Salghir, with its +affluent, the Kara-su, to the Sivash lagoon. + +In point of climate and vegetation there exist marked differences +between the open steppes and the south-eastern littoral, with the slopes +of the Yaila-dagh behind it. The former, although grasses and Liliaceae +grow on them in great variety and luxuriance in the early spring, become +completely parched up by July and August, while the air is then filled +with clouds of dust. There also high winds prevail, and snowstorms, +hailstorms and frost are of common occurrence. Nevertheless this region +produces wheat and barley, rye and oats, and supports numbers of cattle, +sheep and horses. Parts of the steppes are, however, impregnated with +salt, or studded with saline lakes; there nothing grows except the usual +species of _Artemisia_ and _Salsola_. As a rule water can only be +obtained from wells sunk 200 to 300 ft. deep, and artesian wells are now +being bored in considerable numbers. All over the steppes are scattered +numerous _kurgans_ or burial-mounds of the ancient Scythians. The +picture which lies behind the sheltering screen of the Yaila-dagh is of +an altogether different character. Here the narrow strip of coast and +the slopes of the mountains are smothered with greenery. This Russian +Riviera stretches all along the south-east coast from Cape Sarych +(extreme S.) to Feodosiya (Theodosia), and is studded with summer +sea-bathing resorts--Alupka, Yalta, Gursuv, Alushta, Sudak, Theodosia. +Numerous Tatar villages, mosques, monasteries, palaces of the Russian +imperial family and Russian nobles, and picturesque ruins of ancient +Greek and medieval fortresses and other buildings cling to the +acclivities and nestle amongst the underwoods of hazel and other nuts, +the groves of bays, cypresses, mulberries, figs, olives and +pomegranates, amongst the vineyards, the tobacco plantations, and +gardens gay with all sorts of flowers; while the higher slopes of the +mountains are thickly clothed with forests of oak, beech, elm, pines, +firs and other Coniferae. Here have become acclimatized, and grow in the +open air, such plants as magnolias, oleanders, tulip trees, bignonias, +myrtles, camellias, mimosas and many tender fruit-trees. Vineyards cover +over 19,000 acres, and the wine they yield (3-1/2 million gallons +annually) enjoys a high reputation. Fruits of all kinds are produced in +abundance. In some winters the tops of the mountains are covered with +snow, but snow seldom falls to the south of them, and ice, too, is +rarely seen in the same districts. The heat of summer is moderated by +breezes off the sea, and the nights are cool and serene; the winters are +mild and healthy. Fever and ague prevail in the lower-lying districts +for a few weeks in autumn. Dense fogs occur sometimes in March, April +and May, but seldom penetrate inland. The difference of climate between +the different parts of the Crimea is illustrated by the following data: +annual mean, at Melitopol, on the steppe N. of Perekop, 48 deg. Fahr.; +at Simferopol, just within the mountains, 50 deg.; at Yalta, on the +south-east coast, 56.5 deg.; the respective January means being 20 deg., +31 deg. and 39.5 deg., and the July means 74 deg., 70 deg. and 75.5 +deg.. The rainfall is small all over the peninsula, the annual average +on the steppes being 13.8 in., at Simferopol 17.5, and at Yalta 18 in. +It varies greatly, however, from year to year; thus at Simferopol it +ranges between the extremes of 7.5 and 26.4 in. + +Other products of the Crimea, besides those already mentioned, are salt, +porphyry and limestone, and ironstone has recently been brought to light +at Kerch. Fish abound all round the coast, such as red and grey mullet, +herring, mackerel, turbot, soles, plaice, whiting, bream, haddock, +pilchard, a species of pike, whitebait, eels, salmon and sturgeon. +Manufacturing industries are represented by shipbuilding, flour-mills, +ironworks, jam and pickle factories, soap-works and tanneries. The +Tatars excel in a great variety of domestic industries, especially in +the working of leather, wool and metal. A railway, coming from Kharkov, +crosses the peninsula from north to south, terminating at Sevastopol and +sending off branch lines to Theodosia and Kerch. + +The bulk of the population consist of Tatars, who, however, are racially +modified by intermarriage with Greeks and other ethnic elements. The +remainder of the population is made up of Russians, Germans, Karaite +Jews, Greeks and a few Albanians. The total in 1897 was 853,900, of whom +only 150,000 lived in the towns. Simferopol is the chief town; others of +note, in addition to those already named, are Eupatoria and +Bakhchisarai, the old Tatar capital. + +_History._--The earliest inhabitants of whom we have any authentic +traces were the Celtic Cimmerians, who were expelled by the Scythians +during the 7th century B.C. A remnant, who took refuge in the mountains, +became known subsequently as the Tauri. In that same century Greek +colonists began to settle on the coasts, e.g. Dorians from Heraclea at +Chersonesus, and Ionians from Miletus at Theodosia and Panticapaeum +(also called Bosporus). Two centuries later (438 B.C.) the archon or +ruler of the last-named assumed the title of king of Bosporus, a state +which maintained close relations with Athens, supplying that city with +wheat and other commodities. The last of these kings, Paerisades V., +being hard pressed by the Scythians, put himself under the protection of +Mithradates VI., king of Pontus, in 114 B.C. After the death of this +latter sovereign his son Pharnaces, as a reward for assistance rendered +to the Romans in their war against his father, was (63 B.C.) invested by +Pompey with the kingdom of Bosporus. In 15 B.C. it was once more +restored to the king of Pontus, but henceforward ranked as a tributary +state of Rome. During the succeeding centuries the Crimea was overrun or +occupied successively by the Goths (A.D. 250), the Huns (376), the +Khazars (8th century), the Byzantine Greeks (1016), the Kipchaks (1050), +and the Mongols (1237). In the 13th century the Genoese destroyed or +seized the settlements which their rivals the Venetians had made on the +Crimean coasts, and established themselves at Eupatoria, Cembalo +(Balaklava), Soldaia (Sudak), and Kaffa (Theodosia), flourishing trading +towns, which existed down to the conquest of the peninsula by the +Ottoman Turks in 1475. Meanwhile the Tatars had got a firm footing in +the northern and central parts of the peninsula as early as the 13th +century, and after the destruction of the Golden Horde by Tamerlane they +founded an independent khanate under a descendant of Jenghiz Khan, who +is known as Hadji Ghirai. He and his successors reigned first at Solkhat +(Eski-krym), and from the beginning of the 15th century at +Bakhchi-sarai. But from 1478 they ruled as tributary princes of the +Ottoman empire down to 1777, when having been defeated by Suvarov they +became dependent upon Russia, and finally in 1783 the whole of the +Crimea was annexed to the Russian empire. Since that date the only +important phase of its history has been the Crimean War of 1854-56, +which is treated of under a separate article. At various times, e.g. +after the acquisition by Russia, after the Crimean War of 1854-56, and +in the first years of the 20th century, the Tatars emigrated in large +numbers to the Ottoman empire. + + See _Antiquites du Bosphore cimmerien_ (3 vols., St Petersburg, 1854); + C. Bossoll, _The Beautiful Scenery of the Crimea_ (52 large drawings, + London, 1855-1856); P. Brunn, _Notices hist. et topogr. concernant les + colonies italiennes en Gazarie_ (St Petersburg, 1866); J. B. Telfer, + _The Crimea and Transcaucasia_ (2 vols., London, 2nd ed., 1877); F. + Remy, _Die Krim in ethnographischer, landschaftlicher und hygienischer + Beziehung_ (Leipzig, 1872); Joseph, Baron von Hammer-Purgstall, + _Geschichte der Chane der Krim unter osmanischer Herrschaft_ (Vienna, + 1856); M. G. Canale, _Della Crimea e dei suoi dominatori dalle sue + origini fino al trattato di Parigi_ (3 vols., Genoa, 1855-1856); and + Sir Evelyn Wood, _The Crimea in 1854 and 1894_ (London, 1895). (See + also BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS.) (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) + + + + +CRIMEAN WAR. The war of 1853-56, usually known by this name, arose from +causes the discussion of which will be found under the heading TURKEY: +History. When Turkey, after a period of irregular fighting, declared war +on Russia in October 1853, Great Britain and France (subsequently +assisted by Sardinia) intervened in the quarrel. At first this +intervention was represented merely by the presence of an allied +squadron in the Bosporus, but the storm of indignation aroused in Great +Britain and France by the destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope +(30th November) soon impelled these powers to more active measures. On +the 27th of January 1854 they declared war on the tsar, and prepared to +carry their armaments to the Danube. In this, the main, theatre of war, +the Turks had hitherto proved quite capable of holding their own. The +Russian commander, Prince Michael Gorchakov, had crossed the Pruth with +two corps early in July 1853, and had overrun Moldavia and Wallachia +without difficulty. Omar Pasha, however, disposing of superior forces, +was able to check any further advance. During October, November and +December the Turks won a succession of actions, of which that at +Oltenitza (Nov. 4th) may be particularly mentioned, and a little later +Gorchakov found himself compelled to fight at Cetatea (Tchetati) before +reinforcements could come up. The defeat he sustained was for the time +being decisive (6th Jan. 1854). Three months later, the Russians, now +under command of the veteran Prince Paskievich, took the offensive in +great force. Crossing the Danube near its mouth at Galatz and Braila, +they advanced through the Dobrudja and closed upon the fortress of +Silistria, which offered a strong and steady resistance, with an effect +all the greater as the Turks from the side of Shumla, now supported by +the leading British and French brigades at Varna, prevented a close +investment. The Turks, however, avoided a decisive encounter, and the +stormers stood ready in the trenches before Silistria, when the siege +was suddenly raised. The decision had passed into other hands. The tsar +had learned that the Austrian army of observation in Transylvania, +50,000 strong under Feldzeugmeister Hess, was about to enforce the +wishes of the "Four Powers." The Russian offensive was at an end, the +army hastily fell back, and on the 2nd of August 1854 the last man +recrossed the Pruth. The principalities were at once occupied by Hess. + +[Illustration: Seat of Crimean War] + +_The Invasion of the Crimea._--The primary object of the war had thus +easily been obtained. But Great Britain and France were by no means +content with a triumph that left untouched the vast resources of an +enemy who was certain to employ them at the next opportunity. The two +nations felt that Sevastopol, the home of the Black Sea fleet, the port +whence Admiral Nachimov had sailed for Sinope, must be crippled for some +years at least, and as early as June 29th Lord Raglan and Marshal Saint +Arnaud, the allied commanders of England and France, had received +instructions to "concert measures for the siege of Sevastopol." Dynastic +considerations reinforced the arguments of policy and popular opinion in +the case of France; in Great Britain soldier and civilian alike saw the +menace of a Russian Mediterranean fleet in the unfinished forts and busy +dockyards. The popular strategy for once coincided with the views of the +responsible leaders. Yet there is no sign that either the commanders on +the spot or their governments realized the magnitude of the undertaking. +Few but the most urgently necessary preparations were made, and cholera, +breaking out virulently amongst the French at this time, reduced the +army at Varna, and even the fleet at sea, to impotence. The troops were +so weakened that, even in September, the five-mile march from camp to +transport exhausted most of the men. Heavy weather still further delayed +the start, and it was not until the 7th of September that the expedition +began to cross the Black Sea. One hundred and fifty war-vessels and +transports conveyed the army, which, guarded on all sides by the +fighting fleet, crossed without incident and drew up on the Crimean +coast on September 13th. Tactical considerations prevailed in the choice +of place. The landlocked harbours south of Sevastopol were for the time +being neglected, and a spot known as Old Fort preferred, because the +long beach, the heavy metal of the ships' broadsides, and a line of +lagoons covering the front offered singularly favourable conditions for +the delicate operation of disembarkation. Still, on this side of +Sevastopol there was no good harbour, and it is quite open to question +whether in this case the strategic necessities of the situation were not +neglected in favour of purely tactical and temporary advantages. As a +matter of fact no opposition was offered to the landing, but the weather +prevented the disembarkation being completed until the 18th. St Arnaud +and Raglan had at this time under their orders 51,000 British, French +and Turkish infantry, 1000 British cavalry, and 128 guns, and on the +19th this force (less some detachments) began the southward march in +order of battle, the British (who alone had their cavalry present) on +the exposed left flank, the French next the sea, the fleet moving in the +same direction parallel to the troops. + +_The Alma._--Old Fort was beyond the reach of Menshikov, the Russian +commander, but, as the fortress communicated with the interior of Russia +via Kerch and Simferopol, it was to be expected that he would either +accept battle on the Sevastopol road, or cover Simferopol by a flank +attack on Lord Raglan. Both these contingencies were provided for by the +order of march, and in due course it was ascertained that the Russians +adopted the former alternative, and barred the Sevastopol road on the +heights of the river Alma. Menaced by the guns of the fleet, Menshikov +had wheeled back his left, and at the same time he strengthened his +right in order to cover the Simferopol road. From this it followed +naturally that the brunt of the attack fell upon the British divisions, +whilst the French, nearer the sea, struck to some extent _dans le vide_. +The two commanders, after a reconnaissance, decided upon their plan. The +French divisions in echelon from the right were to cross the river and +force Menshikov inwards, whilst the British were to move straight to +their front against the strongest part of the Russian line. +Substantially this plan was carried out on the 20th of September. Owing +to want of men (he had but 36,400 against over 50,000) Menshikov was +unable to hold his left wing very strongly, and the French were scarcely +checked save by physical obstacles; but opposite the British force the +ground sloped glacis-wise up to the Russian line, and nothing but their +iron discipline, the best heritage of the Peninsular War, brought them +victorious to the crest of Kurghane hill. The Russians had no option but +to retreat, which they did without molestation. The allies lost about +3000 men, mostly British (though Prince Napoleon's men also suffered +heavily); the Russians reported 5709 casualties. + +_The March on Sevastopol._--On the 23rd of September the advance was +resumed, and by the 25th Sevastopol was in full view of the allied +outposts. It was now that the necessary consequences of the choice of +Old Fort as the landing-place presented themselves as a problem for +instant solution. Whatever chance there had been of assaulting the north +side of Sevastopol was now gone. Menshikov had sacrificed some ships in +order to seal up the harbour mouth, and naval co-operation in attack was +now impossible, while the other Russian ships could in safety aid the +defenders with their heavy guns. A siege, based on the beach of Old Fort +or the open roads of Kacha, was out of the question, as was +re-embarkation for a fresh landing. There remained only a flank march by +Mackenzie's farm and the river Chernaya. Once established on the south +side, the allies could use the excellent harbours of Kamiesh and +Balaklava; this could almost certainly be effected without fighting, +while in besieging Sevastopol itself and not merely the north side, the +allies would be striking at the heart. But a flank march is almost +always in itself a hazardous undertaking, and in this case the invaders +were required further to abandon their line of retreat on Old Fort. In +point of fact, the army, covered by a division opposite the Russian +works, successfully accomplished the task. At the same moment Menshikov, +after providing for the defence of Sevastopol, had marched out with a +field army towards Bakhchiserai, and on the 25th of September each army, +without knowing it, actually crossed the other's front. On arrival at +Balaklava the allies regained contact with the fleet, and the detachment +left on the north side, its mission being at an end, followed the same +route and rejoined the main body. The French now took possession of +Kamiesh, the British of Balaklava. + +[Illustration: SEVASTOPOL 1854-1856] + +_Beginning of the Siege._--Thus secured, the allies closed upon the +south side of the fortress. A siege corps was formed, and the British +army and General Bosquet's French corps covered its operations against +interruption from the Russian field army. The harbour of Sevastopol, +formed by the estuary of the Chernaya, was protected against attack by +sea not only by the Russian war-vessels, afloat and sunken, but also by +heavy granite forts on the south side and by the works which had defied +the allies on the north. For the town itself and the Karabelnaya suburb +the trace of the works had been laid down for years. The Malakoff, a +great tower of stone, covered the suburb, flanked on either side by the +Redan and the Little Redan. The town was covered by a line of works +marked by the Flagstaff and central bastions, and separated from the +Redan by the inner harbour. Lieut.-Col. Todleben, the Russian chief +engineer, had very early begun work on these sites, and daily +re-creating, rearming and improving the fortifications, finally +connected them by a continuous enceinte. Yet Sevastopol was not, early +in October 1854, the towering fortress it afterwards became, and +Todleben himself maintained that, had the allies immediately assaulted, +they would have succeeded in taking the place. There were, however, many +reasons against so decided a course, and it was not until the 17th of +October that the first attack took place. All that day a tremendous +artillery duel raged. The French siege corps lost heavily and its guns +were overpowered. The fleet engaged the harbour batteries close inshore, +and suffered a loss of 500 men, besides severe damage to the ships. On +the other hand the British siege batteries silenced the Malakoff and its +annexes, and, if failure had not occurred at the other points of attack, +an assault might have succeeded. As it was, Todleben, by daybreak, had +repaired and improved the damaged works. Meanwhile General Canrobert had +succeeded St Arnaud (who died on the 29th of September) in the joint +leadership of the allies. It was not long before Menshikov and the now +augmented field army from Bakhchiserai appeared on the Chernaya and +moved towards the Balaklava lines and the British base. + +_Balaklava._--A long line of works on the upland secured the siege corps +from interference, and the Balaklava lines themselves were strong, but +the low Vorontsov ridge between the two was weakly held, and here the +Russian commander hoped to sever the line of communications. On the 25th +of October Liprandi's corps carried its slight redoubts at the first +rush. But the British cavalry stationed at the foot of the upland was +situated on their flank, and as the Russian cavalry moved towards +Kadikoi, the "Heavy Brigade" under General Scarlett charged home with +such effect that Menshikov's troopers only rallied behind their field +batteries near Traktir bridge. At the same time some of the Russian +squadrons, coming upon the British 93rd regiment outside the Balaklava +lines, were completely broken by the steady volleys of the "thin red +line." The "Light Brigade" of British cavalry, farther north, had +hitherto remained inactive, even when the Russians, broken by the +"Heavies," fled across their front. The cavalry commander, Lord Lucan, +now received orders to prevent the withdrawal of the guns taken by +Liprandi. The aide-de-camp who carried the order was killed by the first +shell, and the whole question of responsibility for what followed is +wrapped in obscurity. Lord Cardigan led the Light Brigade straight at +the Russian field batteries, behind which the enemy's squadrons had +re-formed. From the guns in front, on the Fedukhin heights, and on the +captured ridge to their right, the advancing squadrons at once met a +deadly converging fire, but the gallant troopers nevertheless reached +the guns and cut down the artillerymen. Small parties even charged the +cavalry behind, and at least two unbroken squadrons struck out right and +left with success, but the combat could only end in one way. The 4th +Chasseurs d'Afrique relieved the British left by a dashing charge. The +"Heavies" made as if to advance, but came under such a storm of fire +that they were withdrawn. By twos and threes the gallant survivors of +the "Light Brigade" made their way back. Two-thirds of its numbers were +left on the field, and the day closed with the Russians still in +possession of the Vorontsov ridge. + +_Inkerman._--If the heights lost in this action were not absolutely +essential to the safety of the allies, the point selected for the next +attempt at relief was of vital importance. The junction of the covering +army and the siege corps near Inkerman was the scene of a slight action +on the day following Balaklava, and the battle of Inkerman followed on +the 5th of November. By that time the French had made good the losses of +the 17th of October, their approaches were closing upon Flagstaff +bastion, and the British batteries daily maintained their superiority +over the Malakoff. On the 5th there was to have been a meeting of +generals to fix the details of an assault, but at dawn the Russian army, +now heavily reinforced from Odessa, was attacking with the utmost fury +the British divisions guarding the angle between Bosquet and the siege +corps. The battle of Inkerman defies description; every regiment, every +group of men bore its own separate part in the confused and doubtful +struggle, save when leaders on either side obtained a momentary control +over its course by means of reserves which, carrying all before them +with their original impetus, soon served but to swell the melee. It was +a "soldiers' battle" pure and simple. After many hours of the most +desperate fighting the arrival of Bosquet (hitherto contained by a force +on the Balaklava ground) confirmed a success won by supreme tenacity +against overwhelming odds, and Menshikov sullenly drew off his men, +leaving over 12,000 on the field. The allies had lost about 3300 men, of +whom more than two-thirds belonged to the small British force on which +the strain of the battle fell heaviest. Their losses included several +generals who could ill be spared, but they had held their ground, which +was all that was required of them, with almost unrivalled tenacity. Lord +Raglan was promoted to be field marshal after the battle. + +_The Winter of 1854-1855._--It was now obvious that the army must +winter in the Crimea, and preparations in view of this were begun +betimes. But on the night of November 14th a violent storm arose which +wrecked nearly thirty vessels with their precious cargoes of treasure, +medical comforts, forage, clothing and other necessaries. After so grave +a calamity it was to be expected that the troops would be called upon to +undergo great hardships. But the direct cause of sufferings that have +become a byword for the utmost depths of misery was the loss of twenty +days' forage in the great storm. Of food and clothing enough was in +store to tide over temporary difficulties, but the only paved road from +Balaklava to the British camps was now in Russian hands, and the few +starving transport animals were utterly inadequate for the work of +drawing wagons over the miry plain; things went from bad to worse with +Raglan's troops, until from the outposts before the Redan to the +hospitals at Scutari a state of the utmost misery prevailed, relieved +only by the example of devotion and self-sacrifice set by officers and +men. The British hospital returns showed eight thousand sick at the end +of November. Even the French, whose base of Kamiesh had escaped the +storm, were not unhurt by the severity of the winter, but Napoleon III. +sent freely all the men his general asked, while the Russians in +Sevastopol, who had made long painful marches from the interior, were +the survivors of the fittest. Canrobert took over the lines before the +Malakoff to relieve the British. He had at the end of January 1855 +78,000 men for duty; Raglan could barely muster 12,000. But, with the +advent of spring, paved roads and a railway were promptly taken in hand, +and during the remainder of the war the British troops were so well +cared for that their death-rate was lower than at home, while the +hospitals in rear, thanks to the energy and devotion of Florence +Nightingale and her nurses, became models of good management. + +_Course of the Siege._--Meanwhile the siege works were making but slow +progress, and the fortress grew day by day under the skilful direction +of Todleben. Rifle-pits pushed out in front of the defenders' lines were +connected so as to form a veritable envelope. Beyond the left wing a new +line, the "White Works," sprang up in a single night, and the hill of +the Mamelon was suddenly crowned with a lunette to cover the still +defiant Malakoff. But the absence of bomb-proof cover exposed the huge +working parties necessary for these defences to an almost incessant _feu +d'enfer_, by which the Russians every week suffered the losses of a +pitched battle. Meanwhile the field army was idle, Menshikov had been +replaced by Prince Michael Gorchakov, Liprandi's corps had withdrawn +from the Vorontsov ridge, and Omar Pasha, with a detachment of the +troops he had led at Oltenitza and Cetatea, repulsed a Russian attack on +Eupatoria (Feb. 17th). The besiegers steadily approached the White +Works, Mamelon, Redan and Flagstaff bastion, and as spring arrived the +logistic and material advantages of the allies returned. On Easter +Sunday (April 8th, 1855) another terrific bombardment began, which +lasted almost uninterruptedly for ten days. The White Works and the +Mamelon were practically destroyed, and the Russians, drawn up in +momentary expectation of assault, lost between six and seven thousand +men. + +But the bombardment ceased, and assault did not follow. For, at the +allied headquarters and at Paris, grave differences of opinion on the +conduct of the war had developed. Napoleon III. wished active operations +to be undertaken against the Simferopol field army, whereas the leaders +on the spot, while admitting the theoretical soundness of the French +emperor's views, considered that they were wholly beyond the means of +the two armies. The discussions culminated in Canrobert's resignation of +the chief command, though he would not leave the army, and took a +subordinate post, which he filled with great distinction to the end of +the war. His successor, General Pelissier, was a soldier trained in the +hard school of Algerian warfare, and endowed, as was soon evident, with +the most inflexible resolution of character. He did not hesitate to take +up and maintain a position of decided opposition to his sovereign's +views; and the capture of Kerch (24th May 1855), carried out by a joint +expedition, was the first earnest of new vigour in the operations. This +success served all the purposes of a complete investment of Sevastopol, +the want of which had greatly troubled the allied generals. The line of +communication and supply between Sevastopol and the interior was cut, +vast stores intended for the fortress were destroyed, and the sea of +Azov was cleared of shipping. On the 25th Canrobert established himself +on the Fedukhin heights, his right continued along the Chernaya by +General la Marmora's newly arrived Sardinians, 15,000 strong, while +masses of Turks occupied the Vorontsov ridge and the old Balaklava +battlefield. + +As June approached, Raglan and Pelissier, who, unlike most allied +commanders, were in complete accord and sympathy, initiated very +vigorous methods of attack. They decided that the works west of +Flagstaff could be comparatively neglected, and the full weight of the +bombardment once more fell upon the Mamelon and the Malakoff. Once more +these works were reduced to ruins, but the rest of the defences still +held out. + +_The Assault of the Redan._--On the 7th of June 1855 the French stormed +the Mamelon and the White Works, the British captured and maintained +some quarries close to the Redan, and next morning the whole of +Todleben's envelope had become a siege-parallel. The losses were, as +usual, heavy, 8500 to the Russians, 6883 to the allies. This was merely +a preliminary to the great assault fixed for the 18th, the fortieth +anniversary of Waterloo. But meanwhile Pelissier's temper and Raglan's +health had been strained to breaking-point by continued dissensions with +Paris and London. The telegraph, a new strategic factor, daily tormented +the unfortunate commanders with the latest ideas of the Paris +strategists, and on the fateful day the two armies rushed on to failure. +The French attack on the Malakoff dwindled away into a meaningless +fire-fight: the British, attacking the Redan in face of a cross-fire of +one hundred heavy guns, at first succeeded in entering the work, but in +the end sustained a bloody and disastrous repulse. Of the six generals +who led the two attacks, four were killed and one wounded, and on the +17th and 18th the losses to the Russians were 5400, to the allies 4000. +But the defenders' resources were almost at an end, and the bombardment +reopened at once with increased fury. On the 20th Todleben was wounded, +and soon afterwards Nakhimov, the victor of Sinope, found a grave by the +side of three other admirals who had fallen in the defence. Pelissier +resolutely clung to his plans, in spite of the failure of the 18th, +against ever-increasing opposition at home. Raglan, worn out by his +troubles and heartbroken at the Redan failure, died on the 28th, mourned +by none more deeply than by his stern colleague. + +_The Storming of the Malakoff._--During July the Russians lost on an +average 250 men a day, and at last it was decided that Gorchakov and the +field army must make another attack at the Chernaya--the first since +Inkerman. On the 16th of August the corps of Generals Liprandi and Read +furiously attacked the 37,000 French and Sardinian troops on the heights +above Traktir Bridge. The assailants came on with the greatest +determination, but the result was never for one moment doubtful. At the +end of the day the Russians drew off baffled, leaving 260 officers and +8000 men on the field. The allies only lost 1700. With this defeat +vanished the last chance of saving Sevastopol. On the same day (Aug. +16th) the bombardment once more reduced the Malakoff and its +dependencies to impotence, and it was with absolute confidence in the +result that Pelissier planned the final assault. On the 8th of September +1855 at noon, the whole of Bosquet's corps suddenly swarmed up to the +Malakoff. The fighting was of the most desperate kind. Every casemate, +every traverse, was taken and retaken time after time, but the French +maintained the prize, and though the British attack on the Redan once +more failed, the Russians crowded in that work became at once the +helpless target of the siege guns. Even on the far left, opposite +Flagstaff and Central bastions, there was severe hand-to-hand fighting, +and throughout the day the bombardment mowed down the Russian masses +along the whole line. The fall of the Malakoff was the end of the siege. +All night the Russians were filing over the bridges to the north side, +and on the 9th the victors took possession of the empty and burning +prize. The losses in the last assault had been very heavy, to the allies +over 10,000 men, to the Russians 13,000. No less than nineteen generals +had fallen on that day. But the crisis was surmounted. With the capture +of Sevastopol the war loses its absorbing interest. No serious +operations were undertaken against Gorchakov, who with the field army +and the remnant of the garrison held the heights at Mackenzie's Farm. +But Kinburn was attacked by sea, and from the naval point of view the +attack is interesting as being the first instance of the employment of +ironclads. An armistice was agreed upon on the 26th of February and the +definitive peace of Paris was signed on the 30th of March 1856. + +_Decisive Importance of the Victory._--The importance of the siege of +Sevastopol, from the strategical point of view, lies beneath the +surface. It may well be asked, why did the fall of a place, at first +almost unfortified, bring the master of the Russian empire to his knees? +At first sight Russia would seem to be almost invulnerable to a sea +power, and no first success, however crushing, could have humbled +Nicholas I. Indeed the capture of Sevastopol in October 1854 would have +been far from decisive of the war, but once the tsar had decided to +defend to the last this arsenal, the necessity for which he was in the +best position to appreciate, the factor of unlimited resources operated +in the allies' favour. The sea brought to the invaders whatever they +needed, whilst the desert tracks of southern Russia were marked at every +step with the corpses of men and horses who had fallen on the way to +Sevastopol. The hasty nature, too, of the fortifications, which, daily +crushed by the fire of a thousand guns, had to be re-created every +night, made huge and therefore unprotected working parties necessary, +and the losses were correspondingly heavy. The double cause of loss +completely exhausted even Russia's resources, and, when large bodies of +militia appeared in line of battle at Traktir Bridge, it was obvious +that the end was at hand. The novels of Tolstoy give a graphic picture +of the war from the Russian point of view; the miseries of the desert +march, the still greater miseries of life in the casemates, and the +almost daily ordeal of manning the lines under shell-fire to meet an +assault that might or might not come; and no student of the siege can +leave it without feeling the profoundest respect for the courage, +discipline and stubborn loyalty of the defenders. + +_Minor Operations._--A few words may be added on the minor operations of +the war. The Asiatic frontier was the scene of severe fighting between +the Turks and the Russians. Hindered at first by Shamyl and his +Caucasian mountaineers, the Russians stood on the defensive during 1853, +but next year they took the offensive, and, while their coast column won +an action on the 16th of June at the river Churuk, another force from +Erivan gained an important success on the Araxes and took Bayazid, and +General Bebutov completely defeated a Turkish column from Kars at Kuruk +Dere (July 31st, 1854). Next year Count Muraviev completely isolated the +garrison of Kars, which made a magnificent defence, inspired by Fenwick +Williams Pasha and other British officers. In one assault alone 7000 +Russians were killed and wounded, and it was not until the 26th of +November 1855 that the fortress was forced to surrender. The naval +operations in the Baltic furnish many interesting examples for the study +of naval war. The allied fleet in 1854, after a first repulse, succeeded +in landing a French force under Baraguay d'Hilliers before Bomarsund, +and the place fell after an eight days' siege. In 1855 seventy allied +warships appeared before Kronstadt, which defied them. Reinforced they +attacked Sveaborg, but after two days' fighting had to draw off baffled. + +The numbers engaged in the Crimean War and the cost in men and money is +stated in round numbers below. In May 1855 the Crimean theatre of war +occupied 174,500 allies (of whom 32,000 were British) and 170,000 +Russians. The losses in battle were: allies 70,000 men, Russians +128,700; and the total losses, from all causes and in all theatres of +the war: allies 252,600 (including 45,000 English), Russians 256,000 men +(Berndt, _Die Zahl im Kriege_, p. 35). In the siege of Sevastopol the +Russians are stated by Berndt to have lost 102,670 men dead, wounded and +missing. Mulhall (_Dict. of Statistics_, 1903 ed., pp. 586-587) gives +much greater losses to each of the four powers principally engaged. The +cost of the war in money is stated by Mulhall to have been L69,000,000 +to Great Britain, L93,000,000 to France, L142,000,000 to Russia. + + AUTHORITIES.--Of the many works on the Crimean War those of the + greatest value are the following. English: the official work on the + _Siege of Sebastopol_; A. W. Kinglake, _The Invasion of the Crimea_ + (London, 1863; "Student's edition" by Sir G. S. Clarke); Sir E. B. + Hamley, _The War in the Crimea_ (London, 1891); (Sir) W. H. Russell, + _The War in the Crimea_ (London, 1855-1856); Sir Evelyn Wood, _The + Crimea in 1854 and in 1894_ (London, 1895); Sir D. Lysons, _The + Crimean War from First to Last_ (London, 1895); Col. A. Lake, _The + Defence of Kars_ (London, 1857). French: Official, _Guerre de + l'Orient, Hist. de l'artillerie_ (Paris, 1859); (Marshal Niel), _Siege + de Sebastopol_ (official account of engineer operations, Paris, 1858), + and _Atlas historique et topographique de la guerre de Crimee_ (see + also the map of Russia by the French staff, sheets 56 and 57); Baron + C. de Bazancourt, _L'Expedition de Crimee_ (Paris, 1856); C. Rousset, + _Histoire de la guerre de Crimee_ (Paris, 1877). Russian: the work of + Todleben, _Die Vertheidigung von Sevastopol_ (St. Petersburg, 1864); + _Defense de Sebastopol_ (St Petersburg, 1863); Anitschkoff, _Feldzug + in der Krim_ (German trans., Berlin, 1857); Bogdanovitch, _Der + Orientkrieg_ (St Petersburg, 1876); Petroff, _Der Donaufeldzug + Russlands gegen Turkei_ (German trans., Berlin, 1891). Of German works + the most useful are: Kunz, _Die Schlachten und Treffen des + Krimkrieges_ (Berlin, 1889); _Der Feldzug in der Krim; Sammlung der + Berichte beider Parteien_ (Leipzig, 1855-1856). (C. F. A.) + + + + +CRIMINAL LAW. By criminal, or penal, law is now understood the law as to +the definition, trial and punishment of crimes, i.e. of acts or +omissions forbidden by law which affect injuriously public rights, or +constitute a breach of duties due to the whole community. The sovereign +is taken to be the person injured by the crime, as he represents the +whole community, and prosecutions are in his name. Criminal law includes +the rules as to the prevention, the investigation, prosecution and +punishment of crime (q.v.). It lays down what constitutes a criminal +offence, what proof is necessary to establish the fact of a criminal +offence and the culpability of the offender, what excuse or +justification for the act or omission can be legally admitted, what +procedure should be followed in a criminal court, what degrees and kinds +of punishment should be imposed for the various offences which come up +for trial. Finally, it regulates the constitution of the tribunals +established for the trial of offences according to the gravity of the +infraction of law, and deals with the organization of the police and the +proper management of prisons, and the maintenance of prison discipline. +(See EVIDENCE; PRISON; POLICE.) + +Many acts or omissions, which are technically criminal and classified as +offences and punished by fine or imprisonment, cannot be said to have a +strictly criminal character, since they do not fall within the popular +conception of crime. To this class belong such matters as stopping up a +highway under claim of right, or failing to repair it, or allowing a +chimney to emit black smoke in excessive quantities, or to catch fire +from being unswept, or breach of building by-laws, or driving a motor +car on a highway at a speed in excess of the legal limit. Such breaches +of law are under the French law described as _contraventions_. In +England most of them are described as petty misdemeanours or offences +punishable on summary conviction, or less happily as "summary offences," +and some writers speak of them as _mala prohibita_ as distinguished from +_mala in se_, i.e. as not involving any breach of ordinary morality +other than a breach of positive regulations. Continental jurists at +times speak of crimes _de droit commun_ (i.e. offences common to all +systems of law as distinguished from offences which are crimes only by a +particular municipal law). To this class of crimes _de droit commun_ +belong most of the offences included in extradition treaties. + +Criminal and civil law overlap, and many acts or omissions are not only +"wrongs" for which the person injured is entitled to recover +compensation for his own personal injury or damage, but also "offences" +for which the offender may be prosecuted and punished in the interest of +the state. In non-English European systems care is taken to prevent +civil remedies from being extinguished by punishment: it is quite usual +for the civil and criminal remedies to be pursued concurrently, the +individual appearing as _partie civile_ and receiving an award of +compensation by the judgment which determines the punishment to be +inflicted for the offence against the state. Under English law it is now +exceptional to allow civil and criminal remedies to be pursued +concurrently or in the same proceeding, or to award compensation to the +injured party in criminal proceedings, and he is usually left to seek +his remedy by action. Among the exceptions are the restitution of stolen +goods on conviction of the thief if the prosecution has been at the +instance or with the aid of the owner of the goods (Larceny Act 1861, S +100), and the award of compensation to persons who have suffered injury +to property by felony (Forfeiture Act 1870). + + + Development of modern criminal law. + +As Sir Henry Maine says (_Ancient Law_, ed. 1906, p. 381), "All +civilized systems of law agree in drawing a distinction between offences +against the state or community (crimes or _crimina_) and offences +against the individual (wrongs, _torts_ or _delicta_)." But the process +of historical development by which this distinction has been ultimately +established has given great occasion for study of early laws and +institutions by eminent men, whose researches have disclosed the +extremely gradual evolution of the modern notion of criminal law +enforced by the state from the primitive conceptions and customs of +barbarous or semi-civilized communities. Of the oldest codes or digests +of customs which are available to the student it has been said the more +archaic a code the fuller and minuter is its penal legislation: but this +penal legislation is not true criminal law; it is the law, not of +crimes, but of wrongs. The intervention of the community or tribe is in +the first instance to persuade or compel the wronged person or his +family or tribe to abandon private vengeance or a blood feud and to +accept compensation for the wrong collectively or individually +sustained; and in the tariffs of compensation preserved in early laws +the importance of the injured person was the measure of the compensation +or vengeance which he was recognized to be entitled to exact, and the +scales of punishment or compensation are fixed from this point of view. + + + Babylon. + +The laws of Khammurabi (2285-2242), the oldest extant code, contain +definite schemes and scales of offences and punishments, and indicate +the existence of tribunals to try the offences and to award the +appropriate remedy. The punishments are very severe. It is not +distinctly indicated whether the proceedings were at the instance of the +state or the person wronged, but compensation and penalty could be +awarded in the same proceeding, and the provisions as to the _lex +talionis_ and scale of compensation for injuries tend to show that the +procedure was on private complaint and not on behalf of the state (see +further BABYLONIAN LAW). + + + Greece. + +Of the early criminal laws of Greece only fragments survive, e.g. those +of Solon and Draco. In Athens in early times crime was dealt with in the +Areopagus from the point of view of religion and by the archons from the +point of view of compensation: and it was only when the state interests +were directly affected that proceedings by way of [Greek: eisangelia] or +impeachment were taken. In classical times crimes fell to be tried by +panels of jurors or judges drawn from the assembly and described as +[Greek: dikasteria]. + + + Rome. + +The earliest materials for ascertaining the criminal law of Rome are to +be found in the Twelve Tables, Table VIII. The criminal law of imperial +Rome is collected in books 47 and 48 of the Digest. The classification +of crimes therein is capricious and anomalous. "In the early Roman law +the idea of legislative power was so fully grasped and that of judicial +power so little understood that the criminal jurisdiction arose in the +form of a legislative enactment applicable to particular cases." Crimes +were classified according to the mode of prosecution into: + +1. _Publica judicia_, dealing with crimes specifically forbidden by +definite laws, which took the place of the standing commissions +(_quaestiones perpetuae_) of the time of the republic. In the earlier +stages of Roman law the state only interfered to punish offences which +gravely affected it, and did so by _privilegia_, which correspond to +impeachment or Bill of Pains and Penalties. + + +2. _Extraordinaria crimina_, crimes for which no special procedure or +punishment was provided: the punishment being, within limits, left to +the discretion of the judge and the prosecution to the injured party. + +3. _Privata delicta_, offences for which a special form of action was +open to the injured party, e.g. _actio furti_. + +The multiplicity of tribunals under the republic was replaced under the +empire by a complete organization of the judiciary throughout the +districts (dioceses) under the supervision of the emperor in his privy +council (see Maine, _Ancient Law_, ed. 1906, p. 393). Public prosecution +under the empire began by arrest of the accused, who was taken before an +_eirenarcha_, who examined him (by torture in the case of a slave or +parricide) and sent him on for trial before the _praeses_ of the diocese +([Greek: dioikesis]). Private prosecution followed, a procedure closely +resembling that of civil actions, beginning with _citatio_ (summons), +followed by _libellus_ or accusation, and appointment of a day for +hearing. The right of either party to call witnesses was very +imperfectly established. + + + Celtic law. + +The early laws of the Celtic races are preserved as to Wales in the laws +of Hywel Dda, and as to Ireland in the Book of Aicill and other Brehon +law tracts, which are professional collections of precedents and +formulae made by the hereditary law caste (Brehons), whose business it +was "to pass sentence from precedents and commentaries." (See BREHON +LAWS.) The development of Celtic law was arrested by the Saxon and +Anglo-Norman conquest: but the materials preserved indicate an origin +common with that of Germanic law. + +The special characteristics of Irish criminal law, if it can be so +called, were:-- + +1. The law was customary and theoretically unchangeable, and no +legislative or judicial authority existed to alter or enforce it. + +2. All crimes were treated as wrongs, for which compensation was made by +assessment of damages by a consensual tribunal whose power to make +awards depended on submission of the parties and the ultimate sanction +of public opinion or custom. A customary tariff for compensation existed +for all offences from wilful murder downwards. No crime was unamendable. +The Irish law recognized a body price or compensation (S. _bot_) and an +honour price or _eric_ (S. _wer_), for which the family or tribe of the +offender was collectively liable; but there is no clearly ascertained +equivalent to the Saxon _wite_, or fine to the chief. + + + Germanic law. + +The laws of the Germanic tribes, so far as preserved in the _Germania_ +of Tacitus, and in the compilations of customs known as the Salic and +Ripuarian laws, the Leges Barbarorum, the Dooms of AEthelberht and the +collections of Anglo-Saxon law and custom (to be found in Thorpe's +_Ancient Laws and Institutes of England_), do not indicate any adequate +or definite division between crimes and causes of civil action, but, +like the laws of Babylon, recognize the system and contain the tariffs +of compensation for wrongs. The idea of the compensation was originally +to put an end (_finis_) to blood feuds and private war or vengeance. + +These laws formed the foundation of the criminal law of Germany, +including the Netherlands, of England and of Scandinavia. But in each +country the development of criminal law has been affected by influences +other than Germanic, mainly consisting in an infusion more or less great +of ideas derived from Roman law. In England under Alfred some part of +the Levitical law (Exod. xxi. 12-15) was incorporated, just as in 1567 +the criminal law as to incest in Scotland was taken bodily from +Leviticus xviii. + + + Anglo-Saxon law. + +The stage which the development of criminal law had reached in England +by the reign of Edward the Confessor is thus described by Pollock and +Maitland (_Hist. Eng. Law_, ii. 447): "On the eve of the Norman Conquest +what we may call the criminal law of England (but it was also the law of +torts or civil wrongs) contained four elements which deserve attention: +Its past history had in the main consisted of the varying relations +between them. We have to speak of outlawry, of the blood feud +(_faidus_), of the tariffs of _wer_ and _wite_ (_fredus_ or _friede_), +and _bot_, of punishment in life and limb. As regards the malefactor the +community may assume one of four attitudes: it may make war on him; it +may have him exposed to the vengeance of those whom he has wronged; it +may suffer him to make atonement; it may inflict on him a determinate +punishment, death, mutilation or the like." The _wite_ or sum paid to +the king or lord is now thought to have been originally not a penalty +but a fee for time and trouble taken in hearing and determining a +controversy. But at an early stage fines for breach of peace were +imposed. An evil result from the public point of view followed from the +system of atoning for crime by pecuniary mulct. "Criminal jurisdiction +became a source of revenue." So early as Canute's time certain crimes +were pleas of the crown; but grants of criminal jurisdiction, with the +attendant forfeitures, were freely made to prelates, towns and lords of +manors, and some traces of this jurisdiction still survive (e.g. the +criminal jurisdiction of the justices of the _soke_ (_soc_) of +Peterborough, and the rights of some boroughs, e.g. Nottingham, to +forfeitures). Outlawry soon ceased to be a mode of punishment, and +became, as it still is, a process to compel submission to justice (Crown +Office Rules, 1906, rules 88-110). Certain crimes, such as murder, rape, +arson and burglary, became unamendable or bootless, i.e. placed the +offender's life, limb, lands and goods at the king's mercy. These crimes +came to be generally described by the name felony (q.v.). Other crimes +became punishable by fines which took the place of _wites_. These were +styled trespasses and correspond to what is now called misdemeanour +(q.v.). + + + Anglo-Norman period. + +Minor acts of violence, dishonesty or nuisance, were dealt with in +seigniorial and borough courts by presentment of the jurors of courts +baron and courts leet, and punished by fine or in some cases by pillory, +tumbril or stocks. Grave acts were dealt with by the sheriff as breaches +of the peace. He sat with the freeholders in the county court, which sat +twice a year, or in the hundred court, which sat every four weeks. So +far as this involved dealing with pleas of the crown the sheriff's +jurisdiction was abolished and was ultimately replaced by that of the +justices or conservators of the peace. The sheriff then ceased to be a +judge in criminal cases, but remained and still is in law responsible +for the peace of his county, and is the officer for the execution of the +law. The royal control over crime was effectually established by the +itinerant justices sent regularly throughout the realm, who not only +dealt with the ordinary proprietary and fiscal rights of the crown but +also with the graver crimes (treason and felony), and ultimately were +commissioned to deal with the less grave offences now classed as +indictable misdemeanours. The change resulted from the strengthening of +royal authority throughout England, which enabled the crown gradually to +enlarge the pleas of the crown and to weaken and finally to supersede +the criminal jurisdiction, notably of the sheriff, but also of prelates +and lords in ecclesiastical and other manors and franchises. "In the +early English laws and constitution there existed a national sovereignty +and original criminal jurisdiction, but the ideas of legislative power +and crime were very slowly developed." During the 12th century the +criminal law was affected by the influence of the church, which +introduced into it elements from the Canon and Mosaic laws, and also by +the memory of the Roman empire and the renewed study of the Roman law, +which enabled lawyers to draw a clearer distinction than had before been +recognized between the criminal (_dolus_) and civil (_culpa_) aspect of +wrongful acts. The Statute of Treasons (1351) is to a large extent an +admixture of Roman with feudal law; and to the same source is probably +due the more careful analysis of the mental elements necessary to create +criminal responsibility, summed up in the somewhat misleading expression +_nemo reus est nisi mens sit rea_. + +In the 14th century justices of the peace and quarter sessions were +established to deal with offences not sufficiently important for the +king's judges, and from that time the course of criminal justice in +England has run substantially on the same lines, with the single and +temporary interruption caused by the court of star chamber. + + + Classification of crimes. + +The penal laws of modern states classify crimes somewhat differently, +but in the main on the same general principles, dividing them into:-- + +1. Offences against the external and internal order and security of the +state. + +2. Offences against the administration of police and against public +authority. + +3. Acts injurious to the public in general. + +4. Offences against the person (life, health, liberty and reputation), +and conjugal and parental rights and duties. + +5. Offences relating to property and contracts (including theft, fraud, +forgery and malicious damage). + +The terminology by which crimes are described by reference to their +comparative gravity varies considerably. In many continental codes +distinctions are drawn between crimes (Ger. _Verbrechen_; Norse +_vorbrydelser_; Span. _crimenes_; Ital. _reato_), delicts (Ger. +_Vergehen_; Ital. _delitti_; Span, _delitos_), and contraventions (Ital. +_contravenzioni_; Span, _faltas_). + +The classification adopted by English law is peculiar to itself, +"treason," "felony" and "misdemeanour," with a tentative fourth class +described as "summary offences." The particular distinctions between +these three classes are dealt with under the titles TREASON; FELONY; +MISDEMEANOUR, &c. Here it is enough to say that the distinction is a +result of history and is marked for abolition and reclassification. +Treason and most felonies and some misdemeanours would under foreign +codes fall under the head of crime. Misdemeanour, roughly but not +exactly, corresponds to the French _delit_, and summary offence to +_contravention_. + + + Elements of criminal responsibility. + +In all systems of criminal law it is found necessary to determine the +criterion of criminal responsibility, the mental elements of crime, the +degrees of criminality and the point at which the line is to be drawn +between intention and commission. + +The full definition of every crime contains expressly or by implication +a proposition as to a state of mind, and in all systems of criminal law, +competent age, sanity and some degree of freedom from coercion, are +assumed to be essential to criminality; and it is also generally +recognized that an act does not fall within the sanction of the criminal +law if done by pure accident or in an honest and reasonable belief in +circumstances which if true would make it innocent; e.g. when a married +person marries again in the honest and reasonable but mistaken belief +that the former spouse is dead. Honest and reasonable mistake of fact +stands on the same footing as absence of the reasoning faculty, as in +infants, or perversion of that faculty, as in lunatics. + +Besides the elements essential to constitute crime generally, particular +mental elements, which may differ widely, are involved in the definition +of particular crimes; and in the case of statutory offences adequately +and carefully defined, the mental elements necessary to constitute the +crime may be limited by the definition so as to make the prohibition of +the law against a particular act absolute for all persons who are not +infants or lunatics. As a general rule of English law, it is enough to +prove that the acts alleged to constitute a crime were done by the +accused, and to leave him to rebut the presumption that he intended the +natural consequences of the acts by showing facts justifying or excusing +him or otherwise making him not liable. Children are conclusively +presumed to be incapable of crime up to seven years of age; and from +seven to fourteen the presumption is against the capacity, but is not +absolute. + +Under the common law, insanity was an absolute answer to an accusation +of crime. Since 1883, where insanity is proved to have existed at the +date of the commission of the incriminated acts, the accused is found +guilty of the acts but insane when he did them, and is relegated to a +criminal lunatic asylum. There was also at common law a presumption that +a married woman committing certain crimes in the presence of her husband +did so under his coercion. But under modern decisions and practice the +presumption has become feeble almost to inanition (_R_. v. _Mary +Baines_, 1900, 69 L.J. Q.B. 681). Distinctions are also drawn between +degrees of guilt or complicity. + +English criminal law punishes attempts to commit crime if the attempt +passes from the stage of resolution or intention to the stage of action, +when the completion of the full offence is frustrated by something other +than the will of the accused. Except in the case of attempt to commit +murder, which is a felony, attempts to commit a crime are punished as +misdemeanours. It also punishes the solicitation or incitement of others +to commit crime, as a separate offence if the incitement fails, as the +offence of being accessory before the fact or abettor if the offence is +committed as a result of the incitement; and it punishes persons who, +after a more serious crime--felony--has been committed, do any act to +shield the offender from justice. In the case of the crimes described as +felonies the law distinguishes between principals in the first or second +degree and accessories before or after the fact. In the case of +misdemeanours the same punishment is incurred by the principal +offenders, and by persons who are present aiding and abetting the +commission of the offence, or who, though not present, counselled or +procured the commission of the offence (see ACCESSORY). Besides these +degrees of crime there is one almost peculiar to English law known as +conspiracy, i.e. an agreement to commit crime or to do illegal acts +(including interference with the due course of justice), which is +punishable even if the conspiracy does not get beyond the stage of +agreement. The exact nature of this form of crime and the propriety of +abolishing it or limiting its scope have been the subject of much +controversy, especially with reference to combinations by trade unions. + +The English law does not, but most European laws do, allow the jury to +reduce the penalty of an offence by finding in their verdict that the +commission of the offence was attended by extenuating circumstances; but +when the jury recommend to mercy a person whom they find guilty the +judge may give effect to the recommendation or report it to the Home +Office. + +In systems of criminal law derived from England the forms of crime or +degrees of complicity above stated reappear with or without +modification, but as to conspiracy with a good deal of alteration. In +the Indian penal code, for instance, conspiracy is limited to cases of +treason (S 121 A), and when it goes beyond agreement in the case of +other offences it is merely a form of abetment or participation (S 107). + + + Definitions of particular crimes. + +The criminal law of England[1] is not codified, but is composed of a +large number of enactments resting on a basis of common law. A very +large part is reduced to writing in statutes. The unwritten portion of +the law includes (1) principles relating to the excuse or justification +of acts or omissions which are prima facie criminal, (2) the definitions +of many offences, e.g. murder, assault, theft, forgery, perjury, libel, +riot, (3) parts of the law relating to procedure. The law is very rich +in principles and rules embodied in judicial decisions and is extremely +detailed and explicit, leaving to the judges very little latitude of +interpretation or expression. So far as the legislature is concerned +there is an absence of systematic arrangement. The definitions of +particular crimes are still to be sought in the common law and the +decisions of the judges. The Consolidation Acts of 1861 for the most +part leave definitions as they stood, e.g. the Larceny Act 1861 does not +define the crime of larceny. The consequence is that exact definitions +are very difficult to frame, and the technical view of a crime sometimes +includes more, sometimes less, than it ought. Thus the crime of murder, +as settled by the existing law, would include offences of such very +different moral gravity as killing a man deliberately for the sake of +robbing him, and killing a man accidentally in an attempt to rob him. On +the other hand, offences which ought to have been criminal were +constantly declared by the judges not to fall within the definition of +the particular crimes alleged, and the legislature has constantly had to +fill up the _lacunae_ in the law as interpreted by the judges. + + + Jurisdiction. + +The jurisdiction to deal with crime is primarily territorial, and can be +exercised only as to acts done within the territory or territorial +waters, or on the ships of the law-giver. _Extra territorium jus dicenti +impune non paretur._ No state will enforce the penal laws of another nor +permit the officer of another state to execute its laws outside its own +territory. But international law recognizes the competence of a state to +make its criminal law binding on its own subjects wherever they are, and +perhaps even to punish foreigners who outside its territory do acts +which menace its internal or external security, e.g. by dynamite plots +or falsification of coin. Apart from extradition arrangements the +national law cannot reach such persons, be they citizens or aliens, +until they come within the territory of the state whose law has been +broken. + +The codes of France, Germany and Italy make the penal law national or +personal and not territorial. In some British colonies whose +legislatures have a derived and limited legislative authority, indirect +methods have been taken to deal within the colony with persons who +commit offences outside its territory. + +Throughout the development of the English criminal law it showed and +retains one particular characteristic that crime was treated as local, +which means not merely that the common law of England was limited to +English soil, but that an offence on English soil could be "inquired of, +dealt with, tried, determined and punished" only in the particular +territorial division of England in which it was committed, which was and +is known as the venue (q.v.). Each township was responsible for crimes +within its boundaries, a responsibility made effective by the "view of +frankpledge," now obsolete, and the guilt or innocence of every man had +to be determined by his neighbours. This rule excluded from trial by the +courts of common law, treasons, &c. committed by Englishmen abroad and +piracy; and it was not till Henry VIII.'s reign (1536, 1544) that the +common-law mode of trial was extended to these offences. The legislature +has altered the common law as to numerous offences, but on no settled +plan, and except for a bill introduced about 1888, at the instance of +the 3rd marquess of Salisbury, no attempt has been made to make the +English criminal law apply generally to subjects when outside the realm; +and in view of the complicated nature of the British empire and the +absence of a common criminal code it has been found desirable to remain +content with extradition in the case of crimes abroad, and with the +provisions of the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 in the case of criminals +who flee from one part to another of the empire. + +The localization in England of crime, and the procedure for punishing +it, differ largely from the view taken in France and most European +countries. The French theory is that a Frenchman owes allegiance to the +French state, and commits a breach of that allegiance whenever he +commits a crime against French law, even although he is not at the time +within French territory. In modern days this theory has been extended so +as to allow French and German courts to punish their subjects for crimes +committed in foreign countries, and by reason of this power certain +countries refuse to extradite their subjects who have committed crimes +in other states. + + + Offences on the high seas. + +The principle of the French law, though not expressly recognized in +England, must be invoked to justify two departures from the English +principle--(1) as regards offences on the high seas, and (2) as regards +certain offences committed outside the United Kingdom. In early days +offences committed by Englishmen on the high seas were punished by the +lord high admiral, and he encroached so much on the ordinary courts as +to render it necessary to pass an act in Richard II.'s reign (15 Rich. +II. st. 2, c. 3) to restrain him. + + + Offences committed on land outside England. + + Misdemeanours committed by public officers in colonies. + +In the time of Henry VIII. (1536, 28 Hen. VIII. c. 15) an act was passed +stating that, as the admiral tried persons according to the course of +civil law, they could not be convicted unless either they confessed or +they or the witnesses were submitted to torture, and that therefore it +was expedient to try the offences according to the course of the common +law. Under that act a special commission of oyer and terminer was issued +to try these offences at the Old Bailey, and English law was satisfied +by permitting the indictment to state that the offence was committed on +board a ship on the high seas, to wit in the county of Middlesex. Since +1861 these special commissions have been rendered unnecessary by the +provision (contained in each of the Criminal Law Consolidation Acts of +that year) that all offences committed on the high seas may be tried as +if they had been committed in England. As regards offences on land, it +was found necessary as early as the reign of Henry VIII. (1544) to +provide for the trial in England of treasons and murders committed on +land outside England. This was largely due to the constant presence in +France of the king and many of his nobles and knights, but the aid of +this statute had to be invoked in 1903 in the case of Lynch, tried for +treason in South Africa. The latest legislation on the subject was in +1861 (Offences against the Person Act, S 9), and any murder or +manslaughter committed on land out of the United Kingdom, whether within +the king's dominions or without, and whether the person killed were a +subject of His Majesty or not, may be dealt with in all respects as if +it were committed in England. The jurisdiction has been extended to a +few other cases such as slave trade, bigamy, perjury, committed with +reference to proceedings in an English court, and offences connected +with explosives. But these offences must be committed on land and not on +board a foreign ship, because if a man takes service on board a foreign +ship he is treated for the time as being a member of the foreign state +to which that ship belongs. The principle has been also extended to +misdemeanours (but not to felonies) committed by public officers out of +Great Britain, whether within or without the British dominions. Thus a +governor or an inferior officer of a colony, if appointed by the British +government, may be prosecuted for any misdemeanour committed by him by +virtue of his office in the colony; and cases have occurred where +governors have been so prosecuted, such as that of General Picton at the +beginning of the 19th century, and of Governor Eyre of Jamaica in 1865, +and the attempt to prosecute Governor MacCallum of Natal in 1906. As a +corollary to the system of "capitulations" applied to certain +non-Christian states in Asia and Africa, it has been necessary to take +powers for punishing under English law offences by British subjects in +those states, which would otherwise go unpunished either by the law of +the land where the offence was committed or by the law of the state to +which the offender belonged (Jenkyns, _Foreign Jurisdiction of the +Crown_). + + + Punishment. + +An essential part of the criminal law is the punishment or sanction by +which the state seeks to prevent or avenge offences. See also under +CRIMINOLOGY. Here it is enough to say that during the 19th century great +changes have been made throughout the world in the modes of punishing +crime. + +In England until early in the 19th century, punishments for crime were +ferocious. The severity of the law was tempered by the rule as to +benefit of clergy and by the rigid adherence of the judges (_in favorem +vitae_) to the rules of correct pleading and proof, whereby the +slightest error on the part of the prosecution led to an acquittal. +Bentham pointed out that certainty of punishment was more effective than +severity, that severe punishments induced juries to acquit criminals, +and that thus the certainty of punishment was diminished. But his +arguments and the eloquence of Sir Samuel Romilly produced no effect +until after the reform of parliament in 1832, shortly after which +statutes were passed abolishing the death sentence for all felonies +where benefit of clergy existed. The severity of capital sentences had +already been modified by the pardoning power of the crown, which +pardoned convicts under sentence of death on their consenting to be +transported to convict settlements in the colonies. (See DEPORTATION.) +For some years this was only done by the consent of the convict, who +agreed to be transported if his death sentence was remitted, but in +1824, when a convict refused to give this consent, parliament authorized +the crown to substitute transportation for a death sentence, and the +same course was adopted in Ireland in 1851 when some treason-felony +prisoners refused commutation of their sentence to transportation. + +The punishments now in use under the English law for indictable offences +are:-- + +1. Death, inflicted by hanging, with a provision that other modes of +execution may be authorized by royal warrant in cases of high treason. + +2. Penal servitude, which in 1853 was substituted for transportation to +penal settlements outside the United Kingdom. The minimum term of penal +servitude is three years (Penal Servitude Act 1891), and the sentence is +carried out in a convict prison, in the United Kingdom, but there is +still power to send the convicts out of the United Kingdom. + +3. Imprisonment in a local prison, which must be without hard labour +unless a statute specially authorizes a sentence of hard labour. At +common law there is no limit to a term of imprisonment for misdemeanour; +but for many offences (both felonies and misdemeanours) the term is +limited by statute to two years, and in practice this limit is not +exceeded for any offence. The treatment of prisoners is regulated by the +prison acts and rules. + +4. Police supervision, on conviction or indictment of felony and certain +misdemeanours after a previous conviction of such offences. Prevention +of Crimes Act, c. 112, SS 8, 20. + +5. Pecuniary fine, a punishment appropriate only to misdemeanours and +never imposed for a felony except under statutory authority, e.g. +manslaughter (Offences against the Person Act, S 5). The amount of the +fine is in the discretion of the judge, subject to the directions of +Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights and of any statute limiting the +maximum for a particular offence. + +6. Whipping was a common law punishment for misdemeanants of either sex. +Under the present law the whipping of females is prohibited, and the +punishment is not inflicted on males except under statutory authority, +which is given in the case of certain assaults on the sovereign, of +certain forms of robbery with violence or assaults with intent to commit +felony (Garrotters Act 1863), of incorrigible rogues, larceny and +malicious damage, and certain other offences by youthful offenders. + +7. Recognizances (caution) to keep peace and be of good behaviour, i.e. +a bond with or without sureties creating a debt to the crown not +enforceable unless the conditions as to conduct therein made are broken. +This bond may be taken from any misdemeanant, and, under statutory +authority, from persons convicted of any felony (except murder) falling +within the Criminal Law Consolidation Acts of 1861. + +8. In the case of any offence which is not capital the court, if it is a +first offence or if any other grounds for mercy appear, may simply bind +the offender over to come up for judgment when required, intimating to +him that if his conduct is good no further steps will be taken to punish +him. + +Except in the case of the death penalty, the court of trial has a +discretion as to the _quantum_ of a particular punishment, no minimum +being fixed. In the case of offences punishable on summary conviction +the maximum punishment is always fixed by statute. It consists of +imprisonment with or without hard labour, or a fine of a limited amount, +or both. The imprisonment in very few cases may exceed six months. If +the maximum exceeds three months the accused must be informed that he +has a right, if he so elects, to be tried by a jury. + +Where power is given to deal summarily with offences which under +ordinary circumstances would be tried on indictment, the punishments are +as follows (Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879):-- + +(a) In the case of adults pleading guilty, imprisonment not exceeding +six months without the option of a fine. + +(b) In the case of adults (consenting to be summarily tried), where the +offence affects property not worth over forty shillings, imprisonment +not over three months, or fine not exceeding L20. + +(c) In the case of young persons, between twelve and sixteen years, +imprisonment not over three months, or fine not exceeding L10. + +(d) In the case of children under twelve, imprisonment not over one +month, or fine not exceeding forty shillings. + +If the offence is trifling, the accused may be discharged without +punishment, and under the First Offenders Act (1887) the justices have a +discretionary power to forgo punishment. The justices have also the +power, under the Prevention of Crime Act 1908, in lieu of passing a +sentence of penal servitude or imprisonment, to commit persons between +the ages of sixteen and twenty-one to a Borstal institution, for a +period of detention ranging from one to three years (see JUVENILE +OFFENDERS). + +In the criminal law of Europe the scale of punishments is on similar +lines in most states, and is more elaborate than that of England, and +less is left to the discretion of the court of trial. The following +examples will indicate the kind of punishments awarded under the French +penal code. Punishments are classified as (1) _afflictives et +infamantes_, including death, _travaux forces a perpetuite ou a temps_, +_deportation_, _detention_, _reclusion_; (2) _infamantes_, viz. +banishment and civil degradation; (3) _peines en matiere +correctionnelle_, viz. imprisonment in a house of correction (six days +to five years), interdiction from certain civic rights, and fine. The +punishments in no case have any effect to extinguish the civil claims of +individuals who have suffered by the offence (arts. 6 and 55). Special +provisions are made for _recidivistes_, police supervision and first +offenders (_Loi Berenger_). + +In the German code of 1872 the legal punishments are: (1) death; (2) +penal servitude for life or for a term not exceeding fifteen years nor +less than one year; (3) imprisonment with labour for a term not +exceeding five years nor less than one day; (4) confinement in a +fortress (terms same as for penal servitude but involving only +withdrawal of freedom and supervision); (5) arrest for not more than six +weeks nor less than one day; (6) fine (not less than three marks in the +case of crimes or delicts nor one mark in case of petty offences). +Sentence of imprisonment is in certain cases followed by liability to be +placed under police supervision for a term after release. In the case of +a sentence of death or of penal servitude, the court may order +forfeiture of civil privileges, and a condemnation to penal servitude +permanently disqualifies for service in the army and public office (Code +pt. 1, chap. 1, arts. 13-40). + +Under the Italian code of 1889 (arts. 11-30) the punishments are (1) +_ergastolo_ (for life); (2) _reclusione_ (from three days to twenty-four +years), which involves hard labour and cellular confinement; (3) +_detenzione_ (like term), which involves labour and at night separate +confinement; (4) _confino_ (one month to three years), a form of +banishment from the commune of origin or residence of the offender; (5a) +fine (_multa_), from ten to ten thousand lire; (5b) _amende_, from one +to two thousand lire; (6) arrest (one day to two years); (7) +interdiction from public office; (8) suspension from professional +calling. Punishments (5b), (6) and (8) are applied only to +contraventions, the others to crimes (_delitti_). + +The Spanish law (_Codigo Penal_, title 3, chaps. 2 and 3) contains a +general scale of punishments classified as afflictive, correctional, light +and accessory. The first class begins with death and runs down through +many forms of imprisonment to disqualification (_inhabilitacion_). The +second includes forms of imprisonment, (_presidio_ and _prision_), and +arrest, public censure and suspension from the exercise of certain offices +or callings. The slight punishments are minor arrest and private censure. +Offenders in any of the three classes may also be fined or put under +recognizance (_caucion_). The accessory punishments include payment of +costs, degradation, civil interdiction. + +In England indictable offences (i.e. offences which must be tried by a +judge and jury) are thus dealt with:-- + + + Tribunals. + +1. Courts of assize (sitting under old commissions known as commissions +of assize, oyer and terminer, and general gaol delivery) are held twice +or oftener in every year in each county and also in some large cities +and boroughs. They are the lineal successors of the justices _in +eyre_[2] of the middle ages; but they are now integral parts of the High +Court of Justice. These courts can try any indictable offence presented +by a grand jury for the district in which they sit. + +2. For the counties of London and Middlesex and certain adjoining +districts, a special court of assize known as the central criminal court +sits monthly. + +3. In all counties and many boroughs the justices of the peace sit +quarterly or oftener under the commission of the peace to try the minor +indictable offences. (See QUARTER SESSIONS, COURT OF.) + +4. The High Court of Justice in the king's bench division tries a few +special offences in its original jurisdiction, and where justice +requires may transfer indictments from other courts for trial before +itself. + +5. The court of criminal appeal has been instituted by the Criminal +Appeal Act 1907; to it all persons convicted on indictment have a right +of appeal. (See APPEAL.) + +The substantive law as to crime applies in England to all persons except +the reigning sovereign, and criminal procedure is the same for all +subjects alike, except in the case of peers or peeresses charged with +felony, who have the right of trial by their peers in the House of Lords +if it be sitting, or in the court of the lord high steward. + + + Special tribunals. + +There are in England no courts of a special character, such as exist in +some foreign countries, for the determination of disputes between the +governing classes themselves or with the governed classes, whether of a +civil or criminal character. There are a few exceptional courts with +criminal jurisdiction. The court of chivalry, which used to punish +offences committed within military lines outside the kingdom, is +obsolete. Special tribunals exist for trying naval or military offences +committed by members of the navy and army, but those members are not +exempt from being tried by the ordinary tribunals for offences against +the ordinary law, as though they were civilians. The naval courts can be +held only on board a ship, and can as a general rule try only persons +entered on the books of a king's ship. The military courts can only try +persons who are actually members of the army at the time, and their +authority is annually renewed by parliament, in consequence of the +jealousy still felt against the trial of any man except by the ordinary +courts of law. Military and naval courts can try in any part of the +world, and whenever the forces are in active service can try followers +of the camp as if they were actual members of the forces. (See MILITARY +LAW; MARTIAL LAW.) + + + Ecclesiastical courts. + +The ecclesiastical courts, which were formerly very powerful in England, +and punished persons for various offences, such as perjury, swearing, +and sexual offences, have now almost fallen into disuse. Their authority +over Protestant dissenters from the established church was taken away by +statute; their authority over lay members of the Church of England has +disappeared by disuse. Occasionally suits are instituted in them against +the clergy for offences either against morality or against doctrine or +ritual. In these cases their sentences are enforced by penalties, such +as suspension, or deprivation of benefice, or by imprisonment; which has +replaced the old punishment of excommunication. + + + Procedure. + +A system of procedure, with the judicial machinery required to work it, +may be created either by the direct legislative action of the supreme +power or by custom and the action of the courts. Both at Rome and in +England it was through usage and by the courts themselves that the +earlier system was slowly moulded: both at Rome and in England it was +direct legislation that established the later system. (See Bryce, +_Studies in History and Jurisprudence_, 1901, ii. 334.) + +The characteristics of English criminal procedure which most +distinguish it from the procedure of other countries are as follows:-- + +1. It is litigious or accusatory and not inquisitorial (Stephen, _Prel. +View Cr. Law_). It is for the prosecutor to prove by evidence the +commission of the alleged offence. No power exists to interrogate the +accused unless he consents to be sworn as a witness in his own defence, +which since 1898 he may do. The right to cross-examine him even when he +is so sworn is limited by law, with the object of excluding inquiry into +his past character or into past offences not relevant to the particular +charge on which he is being tried. + +2. The forms of criminal pleading still in use are in substance framed +on the lines of the old system of pleading at common law in civil cases, +which was swept away by the judicature acts. Criminal pleadings have, +however, one peculiarity. Indictments, being in form the presentment of +a grand jury, could not be amended until provision for that purpose was +made in 1851. (See INDICTMENT.) + +3. Criminal prosecutions are ordinarily undertaken by the individuals +who have suffered by a crime. There is not in England, as in Scotland +and all European countries, a public department concerned to deal with +all prosecutions for crime. The result is that the prosecution of most +ordinary crime is left to individual enterprise or the action of the +local police force or the justices' clerk. + +The attorney-general has always represented the crown in criminal +matters, and in state prosecutions appears in person on behalf of the +crown, and when he so appears has certain privileges as respects the +reply to the prisoner's defence and the mode of trial. In the +Prosecution of Offences Acts of 1879, 1884 and 1908 there is to be found +the nucleus of a system of public prosecution such as obtains in other +countries in case of crime. Under these acts the director of public +prosecutions (up to 1908 an office conjoint with that of solicitor to +the Treasury) acts under the attorney-general, but unless specially +directed he only undertakes a limited number of prosecutions, e.g. for +murder, coining and serious crimes affecting the government. + +4. Where an indictable offence is supposed to have been committed the +accused is arrested, with or without the warrant of a justice, according +to the nature of the offence, or is summoned by a justice before him. On +his appearance a preliminary inquiry is held for the purpose of +ascertaining whether there is a prima facie case against him. The +procedure is regulated by the Indictable Offences Act 1848, and is +entirely different from the procedure for summary offences. It may be, +though usually it is not, held in private; it is an inquiry and not a +trial; the justices have to consider not whether the man is guilty, but +whether there is such a prima facie case against him that he ought to be +tried. If they think that there is, they commit him to prison to wait +his trial, or require him to give security, with or without sureties, to +the amount named by them, for appearing to take his trial. If they think +the charge unsubstantial they discharge the accused at once. The +prosecutor in cases of felony may if he likes go before the grand jury +whether the case has or has not been the subject of a preliminary +inquiry, but in the case of many misdemeanours it is obligatory first to +have a preliminary inquiry, as a protection against vexatious +indictments. + + + The grand jury. + +Whether there has or has not been a preliminary inquiry before a +magistrate, no person can be tried for any of the graver crimes, treason +or felony, except upon indictment found by a grand jury of the county or +place where the offence is said to have been committed or is by statute +made cognizable. In olden days, and even now in theory, the grand jury +inquire of their own knowledge, by the oath of good and lawful men of +the neighbourhood, into the crime of the county, but in practice the +charges against the accused persons are always first submitted to the +proper officer of the court. The grand jurors are instructed as to their +inquisition by a charge from the judge, as regards the indictments +concerning which they are called upon to enquire whether there is a +prima facie case to send them for trial to the petty jury. The grand +jury must consist of not less than twelve, nor more than twenty-three, +good and lawful men of the county. But any person who prefers an +indictment is entitled to have it presented to the grand jury. Officers +of the court lay the indictments before the grand jury. The charges are +then called bills, and if the grand jury considers that there is no +prima facie case the foreman endorses the bill with the words "no true +bill," and it is then presented to the judge. The jury are then said to +have ignored the bill, and if the person charged is in custody he is +released, but is liable to be indicted again on better evidence. + +As a means of constitutional protection in times of monarchical +aggression this practice had no doubt a great value, but in the present +day, when few offenders are tried without a preliminary inquiry by +justices, the functions of a grand jury are of secondary importance, and +the jurors' time is perhaps needlessly occupied. The institution of the +grand jury prevented the crown in the days of its great power from +removing a person whom it wished to get rid of from among his +neighbours, and placing him on trial in a strange place where the +influence of the crown was greater. This is still true to a certain +extent, as great injustice may be caused to a man by removing him from +his neighbours and trying him at a distance from his friends, and from +the witnesses whom he might call for his defence. In Ireland, for +instance, the greatest injustice might be done by removing an Orangeman +from Belfast and trying him in a Roman Catholic county or vice versa. +But it has its evils where the area from which the jurors are drawn is +small, such as a town of a few thousand inhabitants. In that case a man +charged, say, with fraud, may be protected by his friends from being +properly punished for that fraud. But where justice requires, an order +may be made for the trial of the offence in another county or at the +central criminal court. + +In many colonies the Scottish system has been adopted, by which the +ordinary form of accusation is by indictment framed by the public +prosecutor, and a grand jury is only impannelled in cases where an +individual claims to prosecute an offence as to which the public +officials decline to proceed. In England criminal informations by the +attorney-general, or by leave of the court without the intervention of a +grand jury, are permitted in cases of misdemeanour, but are now rarely +preferred. + + + Coroner's courts. + +If a coroner's jury, on inquiring into any sudden death, finds that +murder or manslaughter has been committed, that finding has the same +effect as an indictment by a grand jury, and the man charged may be +tried by the petty jury accordingly. The law and procedure of the +coroner's courts are now regulated by the Coroners Act 1887. When there +is a dead body of a person lying within the area of his jurisdiction, +and there is reasonable cause to suspect that such person died a violent +or unnatural death, or a sudden death of which the cause is unknown, or +has died in prison, the coroner is entitled to hold an inquest, and if +the verdict or inquisition finds murder or manslaughter, it is followed +by trial in the same way as if the person accused had been indicted. + + + Trial by jury. + +When an indictment is found by the grand jury (twelve at least must +concur) the person charged is brought before the court, the indictment +is read to him, he is asked whether he is guilty or not guilty. If he +pleads guilty he is then sentenced by the court; if he pleads not +guilty, a petty jury of twelve is formed from the panel or list of +jurors who have been summoned by the sheriff to attend the court. He is +tried by these jurors in open court. The common law method of trial of +crimes by a jury of twelve, native to English law, has been in modern +times transplanted to European countries. It was not the original form +of trial, for it was preceded by wager of battle (which was not finally +abolished till 1819); and by ordeal, which was suppressed as to criminal +trials in 1219 in consequence of the decree of the Lateran Council +(1216). The first was allowed only on an appeal by an individual +accuser; the second was resorted to on an accusation by public fame, +which the accused was allowed to meet by submitting to the ordeal. It +was after 1219 that trial by the jury of twelve (known as trial in +pais) began to develop. At the outset the accused used to be asked how +he would be tried, and could not be directly compelled to plead to the +charge or to accept trial by a jury; which led to the indirect pressure +known as the _peine forte et dure_, which fell into disuse after the +Revolution and was formally abolished in 1772. But it was not until 1827 +that refusal to plead was treated as a plea of not guilty, entailing a +trial by a jury, and some old-fashioned officials still ask the old +question "How will you be tried?" to which the old answer was "By God +and my country." + +The original trial jury or inquest certainly acted on its own knowledge +or inquiries without necessarily having evidence laid before it in +court. The impartiality of the jurors was to some extent secured by the +power of challenge. The exact time when the jury came into its present +position is difficult accurately to define. On the trial before the +petty jury the procedure and the rules of evidence differ in very few +points from an ordinary civil case. The proceedings as already stated +are accusatory. The prosecutor must begin to prove his case. Confessions +(which are the object sought by French procedure) are regarded with some +suspicion, and admissions alleged to have been made by the accused are +not admitted unless it is clear that they were not extracted by +inducements of a temporal nature held out by persons in authority over +him. During the spring assizes of 1877 a prisoner was charged with +having committed a murder twenty years before, and the counsel for the +prosecution, with the consent of the judge, withdrew from the case +because the only evidence, besides the prisoner's own confession, was +that of persons who either had never known him personally or could not +identify him. The accused may not be interrogated by the judge or the +prosecuting counsel unless he consents to be sworn as a witness. In this +respect the contrast between a criminal trial in England and a criminal +trial in France is very striking. The interrogation and browbeating of +the prisoner by the judge, consistent as it may be with the +inquisitorial theory of their procedure, is strange to English lawyers, +accustomed to see in every criminal trial a fair fight between the +prisoner and the prosecution, and not a contest between the judge and +the prisoner. The accused may, if he choose, be defended by counsel, and +if poor may get legal aid at the public expense if the court certify for +it. He is entitled to cross-examine the witnesses for the prosecution +and to call witnesses in his defence. At the conclusion of the evidence +and speeches the judge sums up to the jury both as to the facts and the +law, and the jury by their verdict acquit or convict. Immediate +discharge follows on acquittal; sentence by the judge on conviction. + + + Summary trials. + +Justices of the peace may under many statutes convict in a summary +manner (without the intervention of a jury) for offences of minor +importance. The procedure for punishing summary offences is before two +justices, or a stipendiary magistrate. This proceeding must not be +confused with the preliminary inquiry already mentioned before justices +for an indictable offence, nor with the procedure before justices in +relation to civil matters, such as the recovery of small sums of money. +The proceeding begins either by the issue of a warrant for the arrest of +the person charged, in which case a sworn information must be filed, or +by a summons directing the person charged to appear on a certain day to +answer the complaint made by the prosecutor. The justices hear the case +in open court; the person charged can make his defence either in person +or by his solicitor or counsel, he can cross-examine the witnesses for +the prosecution, call his own witnesses, and address the justices in his +defence. The justices, after hearing the case, either acquit or convict +him, and in case of conviction award the sentence. If the sentence is a +fine, and the fine is not paid, the person convicted is liable to be +imprisoned for the term fixed by the justices, not exceeding a scale +fixed by an act of 1879, the maximum of which is one month. The +imprisonment may be with or without hard labour. + + + Procedure for summary offences. + +Of late years this summary jurisdiction of the justices has received +very large extensions, and many offences which were formerly prosecuted +as serious offences by an indictment before the court of assize or +quarter sessions have, where the offence was a trivial one, been made +punishable, on summary proceedings before justices, by a small fine or a +short term of imprisonment. + +The extension of the jurisdiction of the justices is open to the +observation that it deprives a person charged of the protection of a +jury, and also that it throws upon him, if convicted, and upon the +prosecution if there is no conviction, the cost of the proceedings. The +former objection is much mitigated by the enactment made in 1879, that a +person if liable on conviction to be sentenced to imprisonment for more +than three months, or to a fine exceeding L100, can claim to be tried by +a jury. But the objection as to the costs remains, and the payment of +costs is often a very serious addition to the trivial fine; and it is +anomalous that a person convicted of a trifling offence should bear the +cost of the prosecution, while if he is convicted before a superior +tribunal of the most serious offence he does not pay the costs. + + + Appeal. + +In English law until 1907, where a criminal case had been tried by a +jury the verdict of the jury of guilt or innocence was final and there +was no appeal on the facts. Any considerable defect or informality in +the procedure might be the subject of a writ of error. And if any +question of law arose at the trial, the judge might, if he chose, +reserve it for the opinion of the court for the consideration of crown +cases reserved, by whom the conviction might be either quashed or +confirmed. + +By the Criminal Appeal Act 1907, a new court was established, to which +any person convicted on indictment might appeal. (See APPEAL.) + + + Costs. + +The expenses of prosecution for crime in England are dealt with in the +following manner. Prosecutions for high treason and the cognate offence +known as treason-felony are at the expense of the state, which alone +undertakes such prosecutions. In the case of all other felonies and of +many misdemeanours the expense of the prosecution falls on the local +rate. In the case of other misdemeanours the expense falls on the +prosecutor. Where an offence is summarily prosecuted the costs are in +the discretion of the court, which may order the accused to pay them, if +convicted, or the prosecutor to pay on acquittal, or may leave the +parties to pay their own expenses. On charges of felony and a few +misdemeanours the court may order the accused person to pay the expenses +of his prosecution in relief of the local rate. In a few cases, chiefly +where the prosecution is vexatious, the court may order the prosecution +to pay the expenses of the defence. The expenses of witnesses for the +defence in any indictable offence may be paid out of the local rate when +they have been called at the preliminary inquiry; and where the court in +the case of a poor prisoner has certified that he should have legal aid, +the expenses of the defence may be charged to the local rate. The local +rate upon which the expenses fall is usually that of the county or +borough in which the offence was committed; but sometimes is that of the +place where the offence is tried. + +Between 1852 and 1888 parliament reimbursed to the local authorities the +expense imposed on the local rate. In 1888 the proceeds of certain taxes +were set aside and handed over to the local authorities as a set-off to +the expense incurred in prosecutions. In one class of case, offences +committed in the admiralty jurisdiction, i.e. outside England, the +treasury directly reimburses to the local authorities the expense +incurred. + +Under most, if not all, European codes, the state pays for the +prosecution, subject to reimbursement by the accused, if the court so +orders. + + + Non-British criminal procedure. + +The English system of criminal procedure is the basis of that of most of +the states which form the United States of America, and, with few +exceptions, of the procedure throughout the British empire. + +The French penal code and code of criminal procedure are substantially +the model of all systems of continental criminal law. They were +promulgated in 1811 by Napoleon I., and although he called in the aid of +the greatest French jurists, he guided, and occasionally even revised, +their labours. The French codes have been improved upon by later +European codes, and more especially by the Italian penal code. All +European codes have an opening chapter where the general principles of +criminal law in its practical application are enunciated, such as, for +instance, the rules that--(1) no person is liable to punishment for any +act not expressly declared to be an offence; (2) no person can be +punished for an act which by virtue of a subsequent law is declared not +to be an offence; (3) whoever commits an offence within the kingdom is +tried and punished according to the criminal law of the kingdom, and by +the tribunals created for the administration of justice, to the +exclusion of special tribunals created for temporary purposes. This rule +really lays down that no citizen can be deprived of his own judges when +he is accused of a criminal offence. (4) A citizen, although he may have +been tried in a foreign country for an offence committed within the +kingdom, can be retried according to the law of the kingdom. (5) +Extradition only applies to foreigners, not to citizens. The preliminary +chapter is followed by the classification of offences according to the +importance of the punishments the law assigns to them. The lowest degree +of offence is denominated "contravention." It applies mainly to the +pettiest offences, or to infractions of police regulations, and can be +punished by fine or by imprisonment under a week, or by both fine and +imprisonment, limited to a week. Next comes the "_delit_," which +includes all offences punished by imprisonment over a week and under +five years. Then, finally, we arrive at the "_crime_," the highest form +of offence in French criminal law. It includes all offences subject to a +more severe sentence than the punishment assigned to a _delit_. All +cases are held to be crimes where death, life-imprisonment with or +without hard labour, deportation out of the kingdom, detention or +seclusion in a fortress or other expressly assigned place, are the +punishments mentioned by the law. A certain number of explanatory +definitions follow, of which the most important concern _attempts_ to +commit offences, and in "crimes" they are punishable if the execution of +the attempt was only prevented by circumstances beyond the will of the +offender, whilst in "_delits_" an attempt is not punishable as an +offence unless the law specially provides that it should be punished. As +regards "contraventions," attempts not carried out are not held to be +offences at all. Accomplices are generally subject to the same +punishment as the principal. Old offenders (_recidivistes_) are subject +to severer punishments. The usual exceptions as regards responsibility +for crime, such as madness and extreme youth and _force majeure_, are to +be found in all codes. The excuse of youth extends to all offenders +under the age of sixteen, when the tribunal decides whether the offender +has acted without "discernment," and acquits where the discernment is +not found, whilst one-half of the usual punishment is inflicted where +discernment is found. Foreign codes differ from the English law in +allowing the injured party to claim damages in the criminal suit, +appearing as _partie civile_. On another question there is a wide +divergence on the continent of Europe from English law. According to the +law of England there is no prescription in criminal law (with a few +exceptions created by statute). An offender is always liable to +punishment whatever time may have elapsed since the committal of the +offence. On the continent of Europe the limitation of a judgment and +sentence for a crime is twenty years; five years for a _delit_, and for +a contravention two years. No proceedings can be taken as regards a +crime after a lapse of ten years, whilst as regards a _delit_ the limit +is three years, and two years for a contravention. + +There are three main differences between English criminal procedure and +European criminal procedure. + +1. A criminal prosecution directed on European criminal procedure at +once passes into the hands of the state as an infringement of law which +must be repressed, on the ground that the whole community bases its +security on obedience to law. In England the repression of all minor +crime is left to the injured party. + +2. In England every criminal trial from beginning to end is, and has +always been, public. Preliminary inquiries into an indictable offence +may be, but rarely if ever are, conducted in private. On the continent +of Europe, with rare exceptions, all preliminary proceedings in a +criminal charge are secret. Outside English-speaking countries this +secret investigation continues more or less. But of the two systems, +accusatory or inquisitorial--the first meaning the right of the accused +to defend himself, the second meaning the right of the state to examine +any legal offence in private in order to ensure the safety of +society,--the accusatory is gaining ground in every country. In +English-speaking countries it is an established law that an accused +person should have the right of publicity of the proceedings and the +right to defend himself by counsel and by witnesses. In Europe the +inquisitorial system is gradually being abandoned. Perhaps the best code +of criminal procedure in Europe is that promulgated in Austria in 1873. +It followed a fundamental law of the Empire which laid down _inter alia_ +that all legal proceedings, civil or criminal, should be oral and +public, and that the accusatory system in criminal cases should be +adopted. Germany followed this example. Italy, Holland. Switzerland and +Spain have followed Austria and Germany as regards the preliminary +investigation; Italy and Belgium have surrounded the accused with +guarantees against arbitrary confinement before trial; Holland has +conferred upon the accused the right of seeing the adverse testimony and +of being confronted with the witnesses, and, further, has formally +insisted that no insidious questions, such as questions assuming a fact +as true which is not known to be true, should be allowed. Other +countries still remain on the old lines. But everywhere, whether reform +has actually been accomplished or not, there is a demand for even-handed +justice, and a growing conviction that the accused should have all his +rights, now that society is no longer in danger from undiscovered +criminals and unpunished crime. Even in France, the champion of the +inquisitorial system, a change is being made. Up to 1897 secrecy was +imposed invariably in the preliminary investigation of crime, and was +held necessary for the discovery and punishment of the offender. The +_Loi de l'instruction contradictoire_, December 8, 1897, however, was a +long step towards complete justice in the treatment of the accused in +the preliminary inquiry. The main reform is that the accused, after he +has once appeared before the judge and a formal charge has been made +against him, is entitled to the assistance of counsel, either chosen by +himself or assigned to him if he is poor. If he is in prison he is +allowed to communicate freely with his counsel, who is entitled to see +all the proceedings, and in every appearance before the judge his +counsel accompanies him. There are, however, certain limitations. The +counsel cannot address the judge without leave, which may be refused, +nor can he insist on any proceeding he thinks necessary in his client's +interest. He can only solicit. He has no right to be present at the +examination of witnesses, who continue to be interrogated by the judge +alone and not in the presence of the accused; but he must receive +twenty-four hours' notice of every appearance of the accused, and he is +entitled to be present whenever his client, after the first formal +appearance, comes before the judge. In England, as already pointed out, +although the prosecution is in the name of the crown, and although a +public prosecutor has been appointed, still as a rule it is conducted by +the person injured as the person injured, or by the police. + +3. In England the single-judge system is universal, save in appeal; on +the continent of Europe plurality of judges is insisted upon, save in +the most trivial cases, where the punishment is insignificant. In most +countries of the continent of Europe the whole machinery for the +prevention, investigation and punishment of crime, is conducted by what +is called the _parquet_, which represents society as a collective unit +and not the individual injured. The head of the whole parquet in France +is the _procureur-general_, who holds equal rank with the members of the +supreme court. Under him there are procureurs-generaux attached to each +of the courts of appeal, of which in France there are twenty-six, and +under each of these subordinate procureurs there are procureurs +(prosecutors) of a lesser degree. The next stage to the parquet is the +_juge d'instruction_, who corresponds to the English magistrate, and is +the most formidable personage in the whole system of French criminal +law. He can detain and accuse a person in prison, can send for him at +any time and ask him such questions as he pleases. + +After the first examination the prisoner is entitled, in most European +countries, to the assistance of counsel, but the powers of counsel are +so limited that the juge d'instruction has a complete discretionary +power regarding the investigation of the case. The natural consequence +of this procedure is that the preliminary investigation really decides +the ultimate result, and the final trial becomes more or less a solemn +form. + + + Ireland. + +The criminal law of Ireland is to a great extent the same as that of +England, resting on the same common law and on statutes which extend to +both countries or are in almost the same terms, and is administered by +courts of assize and quarter sessions, and by justices, as in England. +In a few instances statutes passed for England or Great Britain before +the Union have not been extended to Ireland, or statutes passed by the +Irish parliament before the Union or by the British parliament since the +Union create offences not known to English law. In Ireland the system of +prosecution is nominally the same as in England, but in practice almost +all prosecutions are instituted and conducted under the direction of the +attorney-general for Ireland, who is a member of the government of the +day, and so responsible to parliament, as in the case of the lord +advocate. In Ireland, owing to the police being a centralized force, +under the management of commissioners residing in Dublin, any +prosecution which in England might be conducted by the local police, +would in Ireland be conducted under the direction of the chief of the +police in Dublin, who is necessarily in close communication with and +under the control of the attorney-general. + + + Scotland. + +In Scotland hardly any crimes are constituted by statute law, the common +law being to the effect that if a judge will direct any act to be a +crime, and a jury will convict, that act is a crime. This great +elasticity of the common law to include every sort of new crime which +might arise was in times past very dangerous to political liberty, as it +greatly enlarged the power of the crown to oppress political opponents, +but in modern days it has its convenience in facilitating the punishment +of persons committing crimes for the punishment of which in England a +new act of parliament may be necessary. Criminal procedure in Scotland +is regulated by an act of 1887 which greatly simplified indictments and +proceedings. The prosecution of crime is in the hands of public +officers, procurators fiscal, under the control of the lord advocate. +Private prosecutions are possible, but rare. Except in the case of the +law of treason, imported from England at the Union, no grand jury is +required, and the indictments are filed by the public officer. + + + Other British possessions. + +The criminal law of England forms the basis of the criminal law of all +British possessions abroad, with a few exceptions, e.g. the Channel +Islands (still subject to the custom of Normandy) and the anomalous case +of Cyprus, where Mahommedan law is to some extent in force. As to India, +see INFRA. + +In many British colonies the criminal law has been codified or at the +least consolidated. Criminal codes have been passed in Canada, New +Zealand (1893), Queensland (1899) and W. Australia (1901). Many crown +colonies have codes framed on the model prepared by the late Sir R. S. +Wright for Jamaica and revised in 1901, and in British Guiana +opportunity was taken (in 1893) to abolish the remnants of Roman-Dutch +criminal law. + +The criminal law of South Africa, which is based on the Roman-Dutch law, +including the _Constitutio Criminalis Carolina_ (1532), is not codified. +In the Transvaal and Orange River colonies codes of criminal procedure +are in force, drawn mainly from the common and statute law of the Cape +Colony with the addition of provisions borrowed from English and +colonial legislation. + +In Mauritius the criminal law is comprised in a penal code of 1838 and a +procedure code of 1853, which, with the incorporated amendments, are to +be found in the _Revised Laws of Mauritius_ (1903-1904), ii. 466 et +seq. The penal code is based on the Code Napoleon. + + + Codification. + +"Criminal law has everywhere grown out of custom, and has in all +civilized states been largely dealt with by direct legislation. In most +civilized states (including Japan) it has been codified by statute, to +the general satisfaction of the people; and the conspicuous success of +the Indian penal code shows that English criminal law is susceptible of +being so treated" (Bryce, _Studies_, ii. 34). + +The expediency, if not the necessity, of codifying the criminal law of +England has long been apparent. The writings of Bentham drew attention +to many of its substantial defects, and the efforts of Romilly and +Mackintosh led to certain improvements embodied in what are known as +Peel's Acts (1826 to 1832). In 1833, at the instance of Lord Chancellor +Brougham, a royal commission was appointed to deal with the criminal +law. The nature of the instructions indicate the crudity of the ideas +then ruling as to codification. The commissioners were directed to +digest into one statute all enactments touching crimes and the +punishment thereof, and into another statute the provisions of the +common unwritten law touching the same. The commission was renewed in +1836 and 1837, and in 1843 a second commission was appointed. Numerous +and voluminous reports were published, including (1848) a bill for +consolidating and amending the law as to crimes and punishments, and +(1849) a like bill for criminal procedure, indicating that the +commissioners had in the meantime learned the distinction between +substantive and adjective law. Lord Brougham in 1848 unsuccessfully +introduced the first bill, and in the end the only fruit of the reports +has been certain amendments of procedure in 1851 and the passing of the +seven Criminal Law Consolidation Acts of 1861, which deal with the +statute law as to theft, forgery, malicious injuries to property, +coinage offences and offences against the person. The reports, however, +proved of value in the revision of Macaulay's draft of the Indian penal +code, and led to the formation of the Statute Law Committee, which has +relieved the statute book of much dead matter. On his return from India, +impressed by the success of the Indian penal code, Sir J. Stephen made a +strong effort to obtain codification. In 1878, at the instance of Lord +Cairns, he prepared a draft code (based on his well-known _Digest of the +Criminal Law_), which was laid before parliament and then submitted to +judicial criticism and revision. As a result of this revision a code +bill was introduced in 1880; but a dissolution intervened and no serious +effort was then made. The obstacle in the way is not lack of reports or +digests on which to frame a code, but the incapacity of parliament to do +the work itself, and its unwillingness to trust the work to other hands. + + + India. + +The Indian penal code and criminal procedure code, by their history, +their form, and the extent and diversity of the races and peoples to +which they apply, are perhaps the most important codes in the whole +world. While the East India Company was merely a trading company holding +certain forts and trading ports in India and elsewhere, such criminal +justice as was administered under its auspices was in the main based on +the English criminal law, said to have been introduced to some extent by +the company's charter of 1661, but reintroduced into the presidency laws +by later charters of 1726, 1753 and 1774. (See _Nuncomar and Impey_, by +Sir J. Stephen.) From 1771 until 1860 the criminal law administered was +the Mahommedan law. When in 1771 the East Indian Company determined to +stand forth as diwan, Warren Hastings required the courts of the +mofussil (provinces), as distinct from those of the presidency town of +Fort William, to be guided in the administration of criminal justice by +Mahommedan law, which under the Moguls had been used in criminal cases +to the exclusion of Hindu law. Difficulties arose in administration, +from the definition of crime, the nature of punishments, and in matters +of procedure, which were removed by regulations and by enactments on +English lines, especially in Bombay (1827); and great delays and +considerable injustice were caused by the want of unity in judicial +organization. + +Between 1834 and 1837 Macaulay with three other commissioners, Macleod, +Anderson and Millet, prepared a draft penal code for India, for which +they drew not only upon English and Indian laws and regulations but also +upon Livingstone's Louisiana code and the Code Napoleon. Little or +nothing was taken from the Mahommedan law. A revised draft of the penal +code by Sir B. Peacock, Sir J. W. Colville and others was completed in +1856. In framing it the reports of the English criminal law +commissioners (published after Macaulay's draft code) were considered. +The draft was presented to the legislative council in 1856, but owing to +the mutiny and to objections from missionaries, &c., its passing was +delayed till the 6th of October 1860. A draft scheme of criminal +procedure was prepared in India in 1847-1848, which, after submission to +a commission in England in 1853 (Government of India Act 1853), was +moulded into a draft code which passed the India legislative council in +1861 (Act No. XXV.) and came into force in 1862. It has been re-enacted +with amendments in 1872 (Act X.), 1882 (Act X.) and 1898 (Act V.). + +The result is that in India the criminal law is the law of the +conqueror, though for many civil purposes the law of race, religion and +caste governs. Under the codes, one set of courts has been established +throughout the country, composed of well-paid, well-educated judges, +most of the higher judicial appointments being held by Englishmen; all +those who hold subordinate judicial posts at the same time are subjected +to a combined system of appeal and revision. The arrangement of the +Indian penal code is natural as well as logical; its basis is the law of +England stripped of technicality and local peculiarities, whilst certain +modifications are introduced to meet the exigencies of a country such as +British India. It opens with a chapter of general explanations, and +interpretations of the terms used throughout the code. It then describes +the various punishments to which offenders are liable; follows with a +list of the exceptions regarding criminal responsibility under which a +person who otherwise would be liable to punishment is exempted from the +penal consequences of his act, such as offences committed by children, +by accident or misfortune without any criminal intention, offences +committed by lunatics, offences committed in the exercise of the right +of private defence. It may be worth while to add, as an innovation on +English law, that an act which results in harm so slight that no person +of ordinary sense and temper would complain of such harm is not +considered an offence under the code. Then follows a chapter on +abetment, in other words, the instigation of a person to do a wrongful +act. The next chapters deal with offences against the public, including +the state, the army and navy, public tranquillity, public servants, +contempts of the lawful authority of public servants, perjury; offences +relating to coin and government stamps, to weights and measures; +offences affecting the public health, safety, convenience, decency and +morals; offences relating to religion; and offences relating to the +human body, from murder down to the infliction of any hurt. The code +then passes on to offences against property; offences relating to +forgery, including trade marks, criminal breach of contracts for +service; offences relating to marriage, defamation, criminal +intimidation, insult and annoyance. Under this last head is included an +attempt to cause a person to do anything which that person is not +legally bound to do, by inducing him to believe that he would otherwise +become subject to Divine displeasure. The last chapter deals with +attempts to commit offences punishable by the code with transportation +or imprisonment, and the punishment is limited to one-half of the +longest term provided for the offence had it been carried out. + + One peculiarity of the Penal Code which has proved eminently + successful lies in the system of illustration of the offence declared + in every section by a brief statement of some concrete case. For + instance, as illustration of the offence of an attempt to commit an + offence the following examples are given:-- + + I. "A. makes an attempt to steal some jewels by breaking open a box, + and finds on opening the box there is no jewel in it. He has done an + act towards the commission of theft, and therefore is guilty under + this section. + + II. "A. makes an attempt to pick the pocket of Z. by thrusting his + hand into Z.'s pocket. A. fails in the attempt in consequence of Z. + having nothing in his pocket. A. is guilty under this section." + + + Indian code of criminal procedure. + +Passing on to the system of criminal procedure which is set forth in +detail in the Code of Criminal Procedure as amended in 1898, it is no +doubt modelled on the English system, but with considerable +modifications. The principal steps are--(1) arrest by the police and +inquiries by the police; (2) the issue of summons or warrant by the +magistrate; (3) the mode of procedure before the magistrate, who may +either try the accused himself or commit him to the sessions or the High +Court, according to the importance of the case; (4) procedure before the +court of session; (5) appeals, reference and revision by the High Court. + +Elaborate provision is made for the prevention of offences, as regards +security for keeping the peace and for good behaviour, the dispersion of +unlawful assemblies, the suppression of nuisances, disputes as to +immovable property, which in all Oriental countries constitute one of +the most frequent causes of a breach of the peace. + +Ample provision is thus made for the prevention of offences, and the +code next deals with the mode of prosecution of offences actually +committed. + +As a general rule, every offence is inquired into and tried by the court +within the local limits of whose jurisdiction it was committed. +Differing from the practice of continental countries, all offences, even +attempts, may be prosecuted after any lapse of time. As in England, +there is no statutory limitation to a criminal offence. + +A simple procedure is provided for what are called summons cases, as +distinguished from warrant cases--the first being offences for which a +police officer may arrest without warrant, the second being offences +where he must have a warrant, or, in other words, minor offences and +important offences. In summons cases no formal charge need be framed. +The magistrate tells the accused the particulars of the offence charged; +if he admits his guilt, he is convicted; if he does not, evidence is +taken, and a finding is given in accordance with the facts as proved. +When the complaint is frivolous or vexatious, the magistrate has the +power to fine the complainant. The code gives power of criminal appeal +which goes much further than the system in England. + +In cases tried by a jury, no appeal lies as to matters of fact, but it +is allowed as to matters of law; in other cases, criminal appeal is +admitted on matters of law and fact. + +In addition to the system of appeal, the superior courts are entrusted +with a power of revision, which is maintained automatically by the +periodical transmission to the High Courts of calendars and statements +of all cases tried by the inferior courts; and at the same time, +whenever the High Court thinks fit, it can call for the record of any +trial and pass such orders as it deems right. All sentences of death +must be confirmed by the High Court. No appeal lies against an acquittal +in any criminal case. This system of appeal, superintendence and +revision would be totally inapplicable to England, but it has proved +eminently successful as applied to the present social condition of the +inhabitants of India. The appeals keep the judges up to their work, +revision corrects all grave mistakes, superintendence is necessary as a +kind of discipline over the conduct of judges, who are not subjected, as +in England, to the criticism of enlightened public opinion. + +These Indian codes form the basis of the penal, &c., codes in force in +Ceylon (superseding there the Roman-Dutch law), the Straits Settlements, +the Sudan and the East Africa protectorates. + + + Foreign codes. + +It has already been stated that most European states have codified their +criminal law. The earliest of continental codes is that of Charles V., +promulgated in 1532, and known as _Constitutio Criminalis Carolina_. +Austria made further codes in 1768 (_Constitutio Criminalis Theresiana_) +and 1787 (Emperor Joseph's code). A new code was framed in 1803, and +amended in 1852 by reference to the Code Napoleon; and in 1906 a +completely new code existed in draft. The Hungarian penal code dates +from 1880. The Bavarian code of 1768 of Maximilian, revised in 1861, +and the Prussian code of 1780, have been superseded by the German penal +code of 1872. + +The most important of the continental criminal codes are those of +France, the _Code Penal_ (1810) and the _Code d'Instruction Criminelle_ +(1808)--the work of Napoleon the Great and his advisers, which +professedly incorporate much of the Roman law. + +The Belgian codes (1867), and the Dutch penal code (1880), closely +follow the French model. In Spain the penal code dates from 1870, the +procedure code from 1886. The Spanish American republics for the most +part also have codes. Portugal has a penal code (1852). In Italy the +procedure code and the penal code, perhaps the completest yet framed, +are of 1890. The Swedish code dates from 1864. The Norwegian code was +passed in May 1902, and came into force in 1905. Japan has a code based +on a study of European and American models; and Switzerland is framing a +federal criminal code. + +In the United States no federal criminal code is possible; but most +states, following the lead of Louisiana, have digested their criminal +law and procedure more or less effectually into penal codes. + (W. F. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] "It is founded," said Sir J. Fitzjames Stephen, writing in 1863, + "on a set of loose definitions and descriptions of crimes, the most + important of which are as old as Bracton. Upon this foundation there + was built, principally in the course of the 18th century, an entire + and irregular superstructure of acts of parliament, the enactments of + which were for the most part intended to supply the deficiencies of + the original system. These acts have been re-enacted twice over in + the present generation--once between 1826 and 1832 and once in 1861; + besides which they were all amended in 1837. Finally, every part of + the whole system has been made the subject of judicial comments and + constructions occasioned by particular cases, the great mass of which + have arisen within the last fifty years." (_View of the Criminal Law + of England_, by J. Fitzjames Stephen.) + + [2] i.e. Itinerant justices. From the Latin _in itinere_, on a + journey. + + + + +CRIMINOLOGY, the name given to a new branch of social science, devoted +to the discussion of the genesis of crime (q.v.), which has received +much attention in recent years. The expression is one of modern coinage, +and originated with the speculative theories first advanced by the +school of sociologists which had the Italian savant, Professor Lombroso, +at its head. He discovered or was supposed to have discovered a criminal +type, the "instinctive" or "born" criminal, a creature who had come into +the world predestined to evil deeds, and who could be surely recognized +by certain stigmata, certain facial, physical, even moral birthmarks, +the possession of which, presumably ineradicable, foredoomed him to the +commission of crime. Dr Lombroso, in his ingenious work _L'Uomo +delinquente_, found many attentive and appreciative, not to say bigoted +followers. Large numbers of dissentients exist, however, and the +conclusions of the Italian school have been warmly contested and on very +plausible grounds. If the doctrines be fully accepted the whole theory +of free-will breaks down, and we are faced with the paradox that we have +no right to punish an irresponsible being who is impelled to crime by +congenital causes, entirely beyond his control. The "instinctive" +criminal, under this reasoning, must be classed with the lunatic whom we +cannot justly, and practically never do, punish. There are other points +on which proof of the existence of the criminal type fails absolutely. +The whole theory illustrates a modern phase of psychological doctrine, +and the subject has exercised such a potent effect on modern thought +that the claims and pretensions of the Lombroso school must be examined +and disposed of. + +The alleged discovery of the "born-criminal" as a separate and distinct +genus of the human species was first published by Dr Lombroso in 1876 as +the result of long continued investigation and examination of a number +of imprisoned criminals. The personality of this human monster was to be +recognized by certain inherent moral and physical traits, not all +displayed by the same individual but generally appearing in conjunction +and then constituting the type. These traits have been defined as +follows:--various brain and cerebral anomalies; receding foreheads; +massive jaws, prognathous chins; skulls without symmetry; ears long, +large and projecting (the ear _ad ansa_); noses rectilinear, wrinkles +strongly marked, even in the young and in both sexes, hair abundant on +the head, scanty on the cheeks and chin; eyes feline, fixed, cold, +glassy, ferocious; bad repellent faces. Much stress is laid upon the +physiognomy, and it is said that it is independent of nationality; two +natives of the same country do not so nearly resemble each other as two +criminals of different countries. Other peculiarities are:--great width +of the extended arms (_l'envergure_ of the French), extraordinary +ape-like agility; left-handedness as well as ambi-dexterism; obtuse +sense of smell, taste and sometimes of hearing, although the eyesight is +superior to that of normal people. "In general," to quote Lombroso, "the +born criminal has projecting ears, thick hair and thin beard, +projecting frontal eminences, enormous jaws, a square and protruding +chin, large cheek bones and frequent gesticulation." So much for the +anatomical and physiological peculiarities of the criminal. There remain +the psychological or mental characteristics, so far as they have been +observed. Moral insensibility is attributed to him, a dull conscience +that never pricks and a general freedom from remorse. He is said to be +generally lacking in intelligence, hence his stupidity, the want of +proper precautions, both before and after an offence, which leads so +often to his detection and capture. His vanity is strongly marked and +shown in the pride taken in infamous achievements rather than personal +appearance. + +No sooner was this new theory made public than the very existence of the +supposed type was questioned and more evidence demanded. A French savant +declared that Lombroso's portraits were very similar to the photographs +of his friends. Save for the dirt, the recklessness, the weariness and +the misery so often seen on it, the face of the criminal does not differ +from that of an honest man's. It was pointed out that if certain traits +denoted the criminal, the converse should be seen in the honest man. A +pertinent objection was that the deductions had been made from +insufficient premises. The criminologists had worked upon a +comparatively small number of criminals, and yet made their discoveries +applicable to the whole class. The facts were collected from too small +an area and no definite conclusions could be based upon them. Moreover, +the criminologists were by no means unanimous. They differed amongst +themselves and often contradicted one another as to the characteristics +exhibited. + +The controversy was long maintained. Many eminent persons have been +arrayed on either side. In Italy Lombroso was supported by Colajanni, +Ferri, Garofalo; in France by J. A. Lacassagne. In Germany Lombroso has +found few followers; Dr Naecke of Hubertusburg near Leipzig, one of the +most eminent of German alienists, declined to admit there was any +special animal type. Van Hamel of Amsterdam gives only a qualified +approval. In England it stands generally condemned, because it gives no +importance to circumstance and passing temptation, or to domestic or +social environment, as affecting the causation of crime. Dr Nicholson of +Broadmoor has said that "if the criminal is such by predestination, +heredity or accidental flaws or anomalies in brain or physical +structure, he is such for good and all; no cure is possible, all the +plans and processes for his betterment, education, moral training and +disciplinary treatment are nugatory and vain." No weight can then be +attached to evil example, or unfavourable social surroundings, in +moulding and forming character, particularly during the more plastic +periods of childhood and youth. + +The pertinent question remains, has the study and development of +criminology served any useful purpose? Little perhaps can come of it in +its restricted sense, but it has taken a wider meaning and embraces +larger researches. It has inquired into the sources and causes of crime, +it has collected criminal statistics and deduced valuable lessons from +them, it has sought and obtained guidance in the best methods of +prevention, repression, and forms of procedure. The champions of law and +order have been greatly aided by the criminologist in carrying on the +continual combat with crime, and in dealing with the most complicated of +social phenomena. The new science has, in fact, by accumulating a number +of curious details, in recording the psychology, the secret desires, the +springs of the criminal's nefarious actions, his corrigibility or the +reverse, "prepared the way to his sociological explanation" (Tarde). +Thanks to the labours of the criminologist we are moving steadily +forward to a future improved treatment of the criminal, and may thus +arrive at the increased morality and greater safety of society. Very +appreciable advance has been made in the increased attention paid to +juvenile and adult crime, the acceptance of the theory, now well +established, that there is an especially criminal age, a period when the +moral fibre is weaker and more yielding to temptation to crime, when +happily human nature is more malleable and susceptible to improvement +and reform. + +The study of criminology has, however, gone far to satisfy us that the +true genesis of crime is not to be sought in the anatomical anomalies of +individuals, or in the fact that there are people who under "any social +conditions whatever and of any nationality at no matter what epoch, +would have undoubtedly become murderers and thieves." On the contrary it +may be safely assumed that many such would have done no wrong if they +had, e.g., been born rich, had been free from the pressing needs that +drove them into crime, and had escaped the evil influences of their +surroundings. The criminologists have strengthened the hands of +administrators, have emphasized the paramount importance of child-rescue +and judicious direction of adults, have held the balance between penal +methods, advocating the moralizing effect of open-air labour as opposed +to prolonged isolation, and have insisted upon the desirability of +indefinite detention for all who have obstinately determined to wage +perpetual war against society by the persistent perpetration of crime. + + AUTHORITIES.--See A. Weingart, _Kriminaltaktik, ein Handbuch fur das + Untersuchen von Verbrechen_ (Leipzig, 1904); F. H. Wines, _Punishment + and Reformation_ (New York, 1895); C. Perrier, _Les Criminels_ (Paris, + 1905); G. Mace, _Femmes criminelles_ (Paris, 1904); E. Carpenter, + _Prisons, Police and Punishment_ (1905); R. R. Rentoul, _Proposed + Sterilization of certain Mental and Physical Degenerates_ (1904); R. + Sommer, _Kriminalpsychologie und strafrechtliche Psychopathologie auf + naturwissenschaftlicher Grundlage_ (Leipzig, 1904); F. Kitzinger, _Die + internationale kriminalistische Vereinigung_ (1905); Reports of + Committee on the best mode of giving efficiency to Secondary + Punishments (1831-1832); Reports of the House of Commons Committee of + 1853, of the royal commission of 1884, of the departmental committee + of 1895, and the annual reports of H. M. inspectors for Great Britain + and Ireland. (A. G.) + + + + +CRIMMITZSCHAU, or KRIMMITSCHAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of +Saxony, on the Pleisse and the main Leipzig-Hof railway, 7 m. N.W. from +Zwickau. Pop. (1900) 22,845. The most important industries of the town +are the manufacture of buckskin, the spinning of carded yarn and +vicuna-wool, and the processes of dyeing, finishing and wool-spinning +connected with these. Among other manufactures are brushes, boilers and +the like, machinery, metal ware generally, the cases and other parts of +watches. The town has a modern school (Realschule), a commercial school, +and technical schools for weaving and finishing. + + + + +CRIMP (possibly connected with "crimp," to draw together, or fold in +parallel lines, in the sense of "confine"; the primary meaning, however, +seems to be that of "agent," and the word may be a distinct one, of +which the origin is lost), an agent for the supplying of soldiers and +sailors, by kidnapping, drugging, decoying or other illegal means. +Crimps were formerly regularly employed in the days of impressment +(q.v.). Now the term is used, first of any one who engages to supply +merchant seamen without a licence from the Board of Trade, and is not +either the owner, master or mate of the ship, or is not bona fide the +servant, and in the constant employment of the owner, or is not a +superintendent (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, S 111); and, with a wide +application, of the extortionate lodging or boarding-house keepers, who +are generally in league with the "crimp" proper. + +Sections 212 to 219 inclusive of the above act provide for the +protection of merchant seamen in the United Kingdom from imposition. +Local authorities at seaports have power to make by-laws for the +licensing and regulating of lodging-houses for sailors, and to inflict +penalties for the infringement thereof. If this power be not exercised, +the Board of Trade may do so. Penalties are also imposed by the act for +overcharging by lodging-house keepers, for detaining of seamen's +effects, and for soliciting. Unauthorized persons are prohibited from +boarding a ship in port without leave. The Board of Trade officer at a +port may provide money for sending a seaman to his home on discharge, +and may forward his wages after deducting the expenses. Facilities are +also given for having wages sent home from foreign ports at a small +charge. These provisions have practically killed "crimping" in the +United Kingdom. In the ports of the United States of America crimping +was long prevalent, especially on the Pacific coast, and its prevention +was very difficult, but state regulations as to the licensing of +boarding-houses, and the limitation of the amount of so-called +"blood-money" paid by masters of vessels to the suppliers of crews to +ships denuded by desertions, have reduced the abuse materially. + +The term "to shanghai" is used of a more serious offence. Literally +meaning "to ship to Shanghai," in China, it is applied to the drugging +or rendering unconscious by violence or other means of persons, whether +sailors or not, and shipping them to distant ports, in order +fraudulently to obtain money in advance of wages, or for the sake of the +premium paid for supplying crews. + + + + +CRIMSON, the name of a strong, bright red colour tinged to a greater or +less degree with purple. It is the colour of the dye produced from the +dried bodies of the cochineal insect (_Coccus cacti_). The word, in its +earlier forms _cremesin, crymysyn_, also _cramoysin_, cf. "cramoisy," +the name of a red cloth, is adapted from the Med. Lat. _cremesinus_ for +_kermesinus_ or _carmesinus_, the dye produced from the insect _Kermes_ +(_Coccus ilicis_), Arab. _quirmiz_, which Skeat (_Etym. Dict._, 1898) +connects with the Sanskrit _krimi_, cognate with Lat. _vermis_ and Eng. +"worm." From the Lat. _carminus_, a shortened form of carmesinus, comes +"carmine" (q.v.). + + + + +CRINAGORAS, of Mytilene, Greek epigrammatist, flourished during the +reign of Augustus (Strabo xiii. p. 617). A number of epigrams appear +under his name in the Greek Anthology. From inscriptions discovered at +Mytilene, he appears to have been one of the ambassadors sent from that +city to Rome in 45 and 26 B.C. + + The epigrams have been edited by M. Rubensohn (1888). + + + + +CRINOLINE (a Fr. word formed of the Lat. _crinis_, hair, and _linum_, +thread), a stiffening material made of horse-hair and cotton or linen +thread. Substitutes for this, such as the straw-like material used in +making hat shapes, are also known by the same name. From the use of the +material to expand ladies' skirts the term was applied, during the third +quarter of the 19th century, when the fashion of wearing greatly +expanded skirts was at its height, to the whalebone and steel hoops +employed to support the skirts thus worn (see COSTUME). The term is also +used of structures resembling these articles, especially of the +framework of booms, spars and netting forming a protection for a warship +against torpedo attack. + + + + +CRINUM, a genus (nat. ord. Amaryllidaceae) of bulbous plants with rather +broad leaves and a solid leafless stem, bearing a cluster of handsome +white or red funnel-shaped regular flowers. They are well known in +cultivation, and owing to the wide distribution of the genus different +methods are adopted with different species. Some require the hot, moist +temperature of a stove; such are _C. amabile_, a native of Sumatra, _C. +amoenum_ (India), _C. Balfourii_ (Socotra), _C. giganteum_ (West +tropical Africa), _C. Kirkii_ (Zanzibar), _C. latifolium_ (India), _C. +zeylanicum_ (tropical Asia and Africa), and others. Others thrive in a +greenhouse; such are _C. asiaticum_, a widely distributed plant on the +sea-coast of tropical Asia, _C. capense_ and _C. longiflorum_, from the +Cape, and _C. Macowani_ and _C. Moorei_ from Natal. _C. asiaticum_, _C. +capense_ and _C. Macowani_ will also thrive in sheltered positions in +the garden. + + + + +CRIOBOLIUM, the sacrifice of a ram in the cult of Attis and the Great +Mother. It seems to have been a special ceremony instituted after the +rise, and on the analogy of the taurobolium (q.v.), which was performed +in honour of the Great Mother, for the purpose of giving fuller +recognition to Attis in the duality which he formed with the Mother. +There is no evidence of its existence either in Asia or in Italy before +the taurobolium came into prominence (after A.D. 134). When the +criobolium was performed in conjunction with the taurobolium, the altar +was almost invariably inscribed to both the Mother and Attis, while the +inscription was to the Mother alone when the taurobolium only was +performed. The celebration of the criobolium was widespread, and its +importance such that it was sometimes performed in place of the +taurobolium (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ vi. 505, 506). The details and effect +of the ceremony were no doubt similar to those of the taurobolium. (G. +SN.) + + + + +CRIPPLE CREEK, a city and the county-seat of Teller county, almost at +the geographical centre of Colorado, U.S.A., one of the phenomenal +mining camps of the West. Pop. (1900) 10,147 (1408 foreign-born); +(1910) 6206. The city is served by three railways--the Colorado Springs +& Cripple Creek District (a branch of the Colorado & Southern), the +Midland Terminal (which connects at Divide, 30 m. distant by rail, with +the Colorado Midland), and the Florence & Cripple Creek. Cripple Creek +is situated on a mountain slope in a pocket amid the ranges, about 9600 +ft. above the sea at the head of the stream after which it is named. The +municipal water-supply is drawn from Pike's Peak, 10 m. distant. The +interest of the city is in its extraordinary mines and their history. +Cripple Creek's site was frequently prospected after 1860, and "colours" +and gold "float" were always found, but not until February 1891 was the +source discovered. Cripple Creek was at that time a cattle range. In +1891 the output of gold in the district was valued at $449, in 1892 at +$583,010, and in the next three years at $2,010,367, $2,908,702 and +$6,879,137 respectively. From 1891 to 1906 the total production of gold +was valued at $168,584,331; in 1905[1] the product of gold was valued at +$15,411,724, the total for the whole state being valued at $25,023,973; +in 1906 the output for the district was valued at $14,253,245, out of +$23,210,629 for the entire state. The development of the camp into a +yellow-pine town and then into something more like a substantial city +was marvellously rapid. The first railway was completed in 1894. In the +same year a great strike--one of the most famous in American industrial +history--threatening civil war, temporarily closed the mines; in 1896 +fire almost destroyed the city; in 1903-1904 a second strike, lasting +more than a year and greater than the first, occurred. The first strike, +which was for an eight-hour day and $3.00 wage, was won by the miners. +The second, for the recognition outright of the union organization of +the miners, secured only a reaffirmation of the former conditions. The +ores are almost exclusively gold, tellurides being the most +characteristic form, and occur in fissure veins. Outcroppings were very +rare, as the veins were covered with loose wash, and this accounted for +the late opening of the field. The field covers a district about 8 X 10 +m. Some peculiarities of the ores have required the use of new methods +in their treatment, and in general the development of mining methods and +machinery is of a wonderful character. The whole surrounding country is +seamed with miles of tunnels in granite, and the hillsides are dotted +everywhere with enormous dumps. The most famous mines have been the +"Independence" (1891) and the "Portland" (1892). The latter had in 1904 +more than 25 m. of workings above the 1100-ft. level. In 1903 the El +Paso drain was completed, to unwater the western half of the field to +the 880-ft. level, greatly increasing many mine values and outputs; in +1906 the work of drainage was again taken up, and work on a long bore +was begun in May 1907. There are smelters and cyanide extracters in the +district, but the bulk of the ore product is shipped to other places for +treatment. Among the towns around Cripple Creek in the same mining +district is Victor, pop. (1910) 3162, incorporated in 1894, chartered as +a city in 1898. + + See W. Lindgren and F. L. Ransome, _Geology and Gold Deposits of the + Cripple Creek District, Colorado_, with maps (Washington, 1906), being + Professional Paper No. 54 of the United States Geological Survey; and + Benjamin McKie Rastall, _The Labor History of the Cripple Creek + District; A Study in Industrial Evolution_ (Madison, Wis., 1908), a + full account of the strikes of 1894 and of 1903-1904. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The value of gold mined in 1899-1902 was greater, annually, than + the product of 1905 or 1906; up to 1905 the greatest annual value was + in 1900, $18,073,539. + + + + +CRISA, or CRISSA, in ancient geography, one of the oldest cities of +Greece, situated in Phocis, on one of the spurs of Parnassus. Its name +occurs both in the _Iliad_ and in the Homeric _Hymns_, where it is +described as a powerful place, with a rich and fertile territory, +reaching to the sea, and including within its limits the sanctuary of +Pytho. As the town of Delphi grew up around the shrine, and the seaport +of Cirrha arose on the Crisean Gulf, Crisa gradually lost much of its +importance. By the ancients themselves the name of Cirrha was so often +substituted for that of Crisa, that it soon became doubtful whether +these names indicated the same city or not. The question was +practically settled by the investigations of H. N. Ulrichs. From its +position Cirrha commanded the approach to Delphi, and its inhabitants +became obnoxious to the Greeks from the heavy tolls which they exacted +from the devotees who thronged to the shrine. The Amphictyonic Council +declared war (the first Sacred War) against the Criseans in 595 B.C., +and having taken the town, razed it to the ground, and consecrated its +territory to the temple at Delphi. The plunder of the town was sold to +defray the expenses of the Pythian games. In 339 the people of Amphissa +began to rebuild the town of Cirrha and to cultivate the plain. This act +brought on the second Sacred War, the conduct of which was entrusted by +the Amphictyons to Philip of Macedon, who took Amphissa (mod. Salona) in +the following year. The ruins of Crisa may be still seen where the +ravine of the Pleistus joins the plain; its name is probably preserved +by the modern Chryso. + + See J. G. Frazer's _Pausanias_, v. 459 (note on x. 37.5). (E. GR.) + + + + +CRISPI, FRANCESCO (1819-1901), Italian statesman, was born at Ribera in +Sicily on the 4th of October 1819. In 1846 he established himself as +advocate at Naples. On the outbreak of the Sicilian revolution at +Palermo (January 12, 1848) he hastened to the island and took an active +part in guiding the insurrection. Upon the restoration of the Bourbon +government (May 15, 1849) he was excluded from the amnesty and compelled +to flee to Piedmont. Here he unsuccessfully applied for a situation as +communal secretary of Verolengo, and eked out a penurious existence by +journalism. Implicated in the Mazzinian conspiracy at Milan (February 6, +1853), he was expelled from Piedmont, and obliged to take refuge at +Malta, whence he fled to Paris. Expelled from France, he joined Mazzini +in London, and continued to conspire for the redemption of Italy. On the +15th of June 1859 he returned to Italy after publishing a letter +repudiating the aggrandizement of Piedmont, and proclaiming himself a +republican and a partisan of national unity. Twice in that year he went +the round of the Sicilian cities in disguise, and prepared the +insurrectionary movement of 1860. + +Upon his return to Genoa he organized, with Bertani, Bixio, Medici and +Garibaldi, the expedition of the Thousand, and overcoming by a stratagem +the hesitation of Garibaldi, secured the departure of the expedition on +the 5th of May 1860. Disembarking at Marsala on the 11th, Crispi on the +13th, at Salemi, drew up the proclamation whereby Garibaldi assumed the +dictatorship of Sicily, with the programme: "Italy and Victor Emmanuel." +After the fall of Palermo, Crispi was appointed minister of the interior +and of finance in the Sicilian provisional government, but was shortly +afterwards obliged to resign on account of the struggle between +Garibaldi and the emissaries of Cavour with regard to the question of +immediate annexation. Appointed secretary to Garibaldi, Crispi secured +the resignation of Depretis, whom Garibaldi had appointed pro-dictator, +and would have continued his fierce opposition to Cavour at Naples, +where he had been placed by Garibaldi in the foreign office, had not the +advent of the Italian regular troops and the annexation of the Two +Sicilies to Italy brought about Garibaldi's withdrawal to Caprera and +Crispi's own resignation. Entering parliament in 1861 as deputy of the +extreme Left for Castelvetrano, Crispi acquired the reputation of being +the most aggressive and most impetuous member of the republican party. +In 1864, however, he made at the chamber a monarchical profession of +faith, in the famous phrase afterwards repeated in his letter to +Mazzini: "The monarchy unites us; the republic would divide us." In 1860 +he refused to enter the Ricasoli cabinet; in 1867 he worked to impede +the Garibaldian invasion of the papal states, foreseeing the French +occupation of Rome and the disaster of Mentana. By methods of the same +character as those subsequently employed against himself by Cavallotti, +he carried on the violent agitation known as the Lobbia affair, in which +sundry conservative deputies were, on insufficient grounds, accused of +corruption. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War he worked +energetically to impede the projected alliance with France, and to drive +the Lanza cabinet to Rome. The death of Ratazzi in 1873 induced Crispi's +friends to put forward his candidature to the leadership of the Left; +but Crispi, anxious to reassure the crown, secured the election of +Depretis. After the advent of the Left he was elected (November 1876) +president of the chamber. During the autumn of 1877 he went to London, +Paris and Berlin on a confidential mission, establishing cordial +personal relationships with Gladstone, Granville and other English +statesmen, and with Bismarck. + +In December 1877 he replaced Nicotera as minister of the interior in the +Depretis cabinet, his short term of office (70 days) being signalized by +a series of important events. On January 9, 1878, the death of Victor +Emmanuel and the accession of King Humbert enabled Crispi to secure the +formal establishment of a unitary monarchy, the new monarch taking the +title of Humbert I. of Italy instead of Humbert IV. of Savoy. The +remains of Victor Emmanuel were interred in the Pantheon instead of +being transported to the Savoy Mausoleum at Superga. On the 9th of +February, 1879, the death of Pius IX. necessitated a conclave, the first +to be held after the unification of Italy. Crispi, helped by Mancini and +Cardinal Pecci (afterwards Leo XIII.), persuaded the Sacred College to +hold the conclave in Rome, and prorogued the chamber lest any untoward +manifestation should mar the solemnity of the event. The statesmanlike +qualities displayed on this occasion were unavailing to avert the storm +of indignation conjured up by Crispi's opponents in connexion with a +charge of bigamy not susceptible of legal proof. Crispi was compelled to +resign office, although the judicial authorities upheld the invalidity +of his early marriage, contracted at Malta in 1853, and ratified his +subsequent union with Signora Barbagallo. For nine years Crispi remained +politically under a cloud, but in 1887 returned to office as minister of +the interior in the Depretis cabinet, succeeding to the premiership upon +the death of Depretis (July 29, 1887). + +One of his first acts as premier was a visit to Bismarck, whom he +desired to consult upon the working of the Triple Alliance. Basing his +foreign policy upon the alliance, as supplemented by the naval _entente_ +with Great Britain negotiated by his predecessor, Count Robilant, Crispi +assumed a resolute attitude towards France, breaking off the prolonged +and unfruitful negotiations for a new Franco-Italian commercial treaty, +and refusing the French invitation to organize an Italian section at the +Paris Exhibition of 1889. At home Crispi secured the adoption of the +Sanitary and Commercial Codes, and reformed the administration of +justice. Forsaken by his Radical friends, Crispi governed with the help +of the Right until, on the 31st of January 1891, an intemperate allusion +to the _sante memorie_ of the conservative party led to his overthrow. +In December 1893 the impotence of the Giolitti cabinet to restore public +order, then menaced by disturbances in Sicily and in Lunigiana, gave +rise to a general demand that Crispi should return to power. Upon +resuming office he vigorously suppressed the disorders, and steadily +supported the energetic remedies adopted by Sonnino, minister of +finance, to save Italian credit, which had been severely shaken by the +bank and financial crises of 1892-1893. Crispi's uncompromising +suppression of disorder, and his refusal to abandon either the Triple +Alliance or the Eritrean colony, or to forsake his colleague Sonnino, +caused a breach between him and the radical leader Cavallotti. +Cavallotti then began against him a pitiless campaign of defamation. An +unsuccessful attempt upon Crispi's life by the anarchist Lega brought a +momentary truce, but Cavallotti's attacks were soon renewed more +fiercely than ever. They produced so little effect that the general +election of 1895 gave Crispi a huge majority, but, a year later, the +defeat of the Italian army at Adowa in Abyssinia brought about his +resignation. The ensuing Rudini cabinet lent itself to Cavallotti's +campaign, and at the end of 1897 the judicial authorities applied to the +chamber for permission to prosecute Crispi for embezzlement. A +parliamentary commission, appointed to inquire into the charges against +him, discovered only that Crispi, on assuming office in 1893, had found +the secret service coffers empty, and had borrowed from a state bank +the sum of L12,000 for secret service, repaying it with the monthly +instalments granted in regular course by the treasury. The commission, +considering this proceeding irregular, proposed, and the chamber +adopted, a vote of censure, but refused to authorize a prosecution. +Crispi resigned his seat in parliament, but was re-elected by an +overwhelming majority in April 1898 by his Palermo constituents. For +some time he took little part in active politics, chiefly on account of +his growing blindness. A successful operation for cataract restored his +eyesight in June 1900, and notwithstanding his 81 years he resumed to +some extent his former political activity. Soon afterwards, however, his +health began to give way permanently, and he died at Naples on the 12th +of August 1901. + +The importance of Crispi in Italian public life depended less upon the +many reforms accomplished under his administrations than upon his +intense patriotism, remarkable fibre, and capacity for administering to +his fellow-countrymen the political tonic of which they stood in +constant need. In regard to foreign politics he greatly contributed to +raise Italian prestige and to dispel the reputation for +untrustworthiness and vacillation acquired by many of his predecessors. +If in regard to France his policy appeared to lack suavity and +circumspection, it must be remembered that the French republic was then +engaged in active anti-Italian schemes and was working, both at the +Vatican and in the sphere of colonial politics, to create a situation +that should compel Italy to bow to French exigencies and to abandon the +Triple Alliance. Crispi was prepared to cultivate good relations with +France, but refused to yield to pressure or to submit to dictation; and +in this attitude he was firmly supported by the bulk of his +fellow-countrymen. The criticism freely directed against him was based +rather upon the circumstances of his unfortunate private life and the +misdeeds of an unscrupulous _entourage_ which traded upon his name than +upon his personal or political shortcomings. + + See _Scritti e discorsi politici di F. Crispi, 1847-1890_ (Rome, + 1890); _Francesco Crispi_, by W. J. Stillman (London, 1899). + + + + +CRISPIN and CRISPINIAN, the patron saints of shoemakers, whose festival +is celebrated on the 25th of October. Their history is largely +legendary, and there exists no trace of it earlier than the 8th century. +It is said that they were brothers and members of a noble family in +Rome. They gave up their property and travelled to Soissons (Noviodunum, +Augusta Sucessionum), where they supported themselves by shoemaking and +made many converts to Christianity. The emperor Maximianus (Herculius) +condemned them to death. His prefect Rictiovarus endeavoured to carry +out the sentence, but they emerged unharmed from all the ordeals to +which he subjected them, and the weapons he used recoiled against the +executioners. Rictiovarus in disgust cast himself into the fire, or the +caldron of boiling tar, from which they had emerged refreshed. At last +Maximian had their heads cut off (c. 287-300). Their remains were buried +at Soissons, but were afterwards removed, partly by Charlemagne to +Osnabruck (where a festival is observed annually on the 20th of June) +and partly to the chapel of St Lawrence in Rome. The abbeys of St +Crepin-en-Chaye (the remains of which still form part of a farmhouse on +the river Aisne, N.N.W. of Soissons), of St Crepin-le-Petit, and St +Crepin-le-Grand (the site of which is occupied by a house belonging to +the Sisters of Mercy), in or near Soissons, commemorated the places +sanctified by their imprisonment and burial. There are also relics at +Fulda, and a Kentish tradition claims that the bodies of the martyrs +were cast into the sea and cast on shore on Romney Marsh (see _Acta SS. +Bolland_, xi. 495; A. Butler, _Lives of the Saints_. October 25th). + +Especially in France, but also in England and in other parts of Europe, +the festival of St Crispin was for centuries the occasion of solemn +processions and merry-making, in which gilds of shoemakers took the +chief part. At Troyes, where the gild of St Crispin was reconstituted as +late as 1820, an annual festival is celebrated in the church of St +Urban. In England and Scotland the day acquired additional importance as +the anniversary of the battle of Agincourt (cf. Shakespeare, _Henry V._ +iv. 3); the symbolical processions in honour of "King Crispin" at +Stirling and Edinburgh were particularly famous. + + For other examples see _Notes and Queries_, 1st series, v. 30, vi. + 243; W. S. Walsh, _Curiosities of Popular Customs_ (London, 1898). + + + + +CRITIAS, Athenian orator and poet, and one of the Thirty Tyrants. In his +youth he was a pupil of Gorgias and Socrates, but subsequently devoted +himself to political intrigues. In 415 B.C. he was implicated in the +mutilation of the Hermae and imprisoned. In 411 he helped to put down +the Four Hundred, and was instrumental in procuring the recall of +Alcibiades. He was banished (probably in the democratic reaction of 407) +and fled to Thessaly, where he stirred up the Penestae (the helots of +Thessaly) against their masters, and endeavoured to establish a +democracy. Returning to Athens he was made ephor by the oligarchical +party; and he was the most cruel and unscrupulous of the Thirty Tyrants +who in 404 were appointed by the Lacedaemonians. He was slain in battle +against Thrasybulus and the returning democrats. Critias was a man of +varied talents--poet, orator, historian and philosopher. Some fragments +of his elegies will be found in Bergk, _Poetae Lyrici Graeci_. He was +also the author of several tragedies and of biographies of distinguished +poets (possibly in verse). + + See Xenophon, _Hellenica_, ii. 3. 4. 19, _Memorabilia_, i. 2; + Cornelius Nepos, _Thrasybulus_, 2; R. Lallier, _De Critiae tyranni + vita ac scriptis_ (1875); Nestle, _Neue Jahrb. f. d. kl. Altert._ + (1903). + + + + +CRITICISM (from the Gr. [Greek: _krites_], a judge, [Greek: _krinein_], +to decide, to give an authoritative opinion), the art of judging the +qualities and values of an aesthetic object, whether in literature or +the fine arts.[1] It involves, in the first instance, the formation and +expression of a judgment on the qualities of anything, and Matthew +Arnold defined it in this general sense as "a disinterested endeavour to +learn and propagate the best that is known and thought in the world." It +has come, however, to possess a secondary and specialized meaning as a +published analysis of the qualities and characteristics of a work in +literature or fine art, itself taking the form of independent +literature. The sense in which criticism is taken as implying censure, +the "picking holes" in any statement or production, is frequent, but it +is entirely unjustifiable. There is nothing in the proper scope of +criticism which presupposes blame. On the contrary, a work of perfect +beauty and fitness, in which no fault could possibly be found with +justice, is as proper a subject for criticism to deal with as a work of +the greatest imperfection. It may be perfectly just to state that a book +or a picture is "beneath criticism," i.e. is so wanting in all qualities +of originality and technical excellence that time would merely be wasted +in analysing it. But it can never be properly said that a work is "above +criticism," although it may be "above censure," for the very complexity +of its merits and the fulness of its beauties tempt the skill of the +analyser and reward it. + +It is necessary at the threshold of an examination of the history of +criticism to expose this laxity of speech, since nothing is more +confusing to a clear conception of this art than to suppose that it +consists in an effort to detect what is blameworthy. Candid criticism +should be neither benevolent nor adverse; its function is to give a just +judgment, without partiality or bias. A critic ([Greek: _kritikos_]) is +one who exercises the art of criticism, who sets himself up, or is set +up, as a judge of literary and artistic merit. The irritability of +mankind, which easily forgets and neglects praise, but cannot forgive +the rankling poison of blame, has set upon the word _critic_ a seal +which is even more unamiable than that of _criticism_. It takes its most +savage form in Benjamin Disraeli's celebrated and deplorable _dictum_, +"the critics are the men who have failed in literature and art." It is +plain that such names as those of Aristotle, Dante, Dryden, Joshua +Reynolds, Sainte-Beuve and Matthew Arnold are not to be thus swept by a +reckless fulmination. There have been many critics who brought from +failure in imaginative composition a cavilling, jealous and ignoble +temper, who have mainly exercised their function in indulging the evil +passion of envy. But, so far as they have done this, they have proved +themselves bad critics, and neither minute care, nor a basis of +learning, nor wide experience of literature, salutary as all these must +be, can avail to make that criticism valuable which is founded on the +desire to exaggerate fault-finding and to emphasize censure unfairly. +The examination of what has been produced by other ages of human thought +is much less liable to this dangerous error than the attempt to estimate +contemporary works of art and literature. There are few indeed whom +personal passion can blind to the merits of a picture of the 15th or a +poem of the 17th century. In the higher branches of historical +criticism, prejudice of this ignoble sort is hardly possible, and +therefore, in considering criticism in its ideal forms, it is best to +leave out of consideration that invidious and fugitive species which +bears the general name of "reviewing." This pedestrian criticism, +indeed, is useful and even indispensable, but it is, by its very nature, +ephemeral, and it is liable to a multitude of drawbacks. Even when the +reviewer is, or desires to be, strictly just, it is almost impossible +for him to stand far enough back from the object under review to see it +in its proper perspective. He is dazzled, or scandalized, by its +novelty; he has formed a preconceived notion of the degree to which its +author should be encouraged or depressed; he is himself, in all cases, +an element in the mental condition which he attempts to judge, and if +not positively a defendant is at least a juryman in the court over which +he ought to preside with remote impartiality. + +It may be laid down as the definition of criticism in its pure sense, +that it should consist in the application, in the most competent form, +of the principles of literary composition. Those principles are the +general aesthetics upon which taste is founded; they take the character +of rules of writing. From the days of Aristotle the existence of such +rules has not been doubted, but different orders of mind in various ages +have given them diverse application, and upon this diversity the +fluctuations of taste are founded. It is now generally admitted that in +past ages critics have too often succumbed to the temptation to regulate +taste rigidly, and to lay down rules that shall match every case with a +formula. Over-legislation has been the bane of official criticism, and +originality, especially in works of creative imagination, has been +condemned because it did not conform to existing rules. Such instances +of want of contemporary appreciation as the reception given to William +Blake or Keats, or even Milton, are quoted to prove the futility of +criticism. As a matter of fact they do nothing of the kind. They merely +prove the immutable principles which underlie all judgment of artistic +products to have been misunderstood or imperfectly obeyed during the +life-times of those illustrious men. False critics have built domes of +glass, as Voltaire put it, between the heavens and themselves, domes +which genius has to shatter in pieces before it can make itself +comprehended. In critical application formulas are often useful, but +they should be held lightly; when the formula becomes the tyrant where +it should be the servant of thought, fatal error is imminent. What is +required above all else by a critic is knowledge, tempered with good +sense, and combined with an exquisite delicacy of taste. He who +possesses these qualities may go wrong in certain instances, but his +error cannot become radical, and he is always open to correction. It is +not his business crudely to pronounce a composition "good" or "bad"; he +must be able to show why it is "good" and wherein it is "bad"; he must +admire with independence and blame with careful candour. He must above +all be assiduous to escape from pompous generalizations, which conceal +lack of thought under a flow of words. The finest criticism should take +every circumstance of the case into consideration, and hold it +necessary, if possible, to know the author as well as the book. A large +part of the reason why the criticism of productions of the past is so +much more fruitful than mere contemporary reviewing, is that by +remoteness from the scene of action the critic is able to make himself +familiar with all the elements of age, place and medium which affected +the writer at the moment of his composition. In short, knowledge and +even taste are not sufficient for perfect criticism without the infusion +of a still rarer quality, breadth of sympathy. + +Criticism has been one of the latest branches of literature to reach +maturity, but from very early times the instinct which induces mankind +to review what it has produced led to the composition of imperfect but +often extremely valuable bodies of opinion. What makes these early +criticisms tantalizing is that the moral or political aspects of +literature had not disengaged themselves from the purely intellectual or +aesthetic. + +To pass to an historical examination of the subject, we find that in +antiquity Aristotle was regarded as the father and almost as the founder +of literary criticism. Yet before his day, three Greek writers of +eminence had examined, in more or less fulness, the principles of +composition; these were Plato, Isocrates and Aristophanes. The comedy of +_The Frogs_, by the latter, is the earliest specimen we possess of +hostile literary criticism, being devoted to ridicule of the plays of +Euripides. In the cases of Plato and Isocrates, criticism takes the form +mainly of an examination of the rules of rhetoric. We reach, however, +much firmer ground when we arrive at Aristotle, whose _Poetics_ and +_Rhetoric_ are among the most valuable treatises which antiquity has +handed down to us. Of what existed in the literature of his age, +extremely rich in some branches, entirely empty in others, Aristotle +speaks with extraordinary authority; but Mr G. Saintsbury has justly +remarked that as his criticism of poetry was injuriously affected by the +non-existence of the novelist, so his criticism of prose was injuriously +affected by the omnipresence of the orator. This continues true of all +ancient criticism. A work by Aristotle on the problems raised by a study +of Homer is lost, and there may have been others of a similar nature; in +the two famous treatises which remain we have nothing less important +than the foundation on which all subsequent European criticism has been +raised. It does not appear that any of the numerous disciples of +Aristotle understood his attitude to literature, nor do the later +philosophical schools offer much of interest. The Neoplatonists, +however, were occupied with analysis of the Beautiful, on which both +Proclus and Plotinus expatiated; still more purely literary were some of +the treatises of Porphyry. There seems to be no doubt that Alexandria +possessed, in the third century, a vivid school of critic-grammarians; +the names of Zenodotus, of Crates and of Aristarchus were eminent in +this connexion, but of their writings nothing substantial has survived. +They were followed by the scholiasts, and they by the mere rhetoricians +of the last Greek schools, such as Hermogenes and Aphthonius. In the 2nd +century of our era, Dio Chrysostom, Aristides of Smyrna, and Maximus of +Tyre were the main representatives of criticism, and they were succeeded +by Philostratus and Libanius. The most modern of post-Christian Greek +critics, however, is unquestionably Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who +leads up to Lucian and Cassius Longinus. The last-mentioned name calls +for special notice; in "the lovely and magnificent personality of +Longinus" we find the most intelligent judge of literature who wrote +between Aristotle and the moderns. His book _On the Sublime_ ([Greek: +_Peri hupsous_]), probably written about A.D. 260, and first printed in +1554, is of extreme importance, while his intuitions and the splendour +of his style combine to lift Longinus to the highest rank among the +critics of the world. + +In Roman literature criticism never took a very prominent position. In +early days the rhetorical works of Cicero and the famous _Art of Poetry_ +of Horace exhaust the category. During the later Augustan period the +only literary critic of importance was the elder Seneca. Passing over +the valuable allusions to the art of writing in the poets, especially in +Juvenal and Martial, we reach, in the Silver Age, Quintilian, the most +accomplished of all the Roman critics. His _Institutes of Oratory_ has +been described as the fullest and most intelligent application of +criticism to literature which the Latin world produced, and one which +places the name of Quintilian not far below those of Aristotle and +Longinus. He was followed by Aulus Gellius, by Macrobius (whose +reputation was great in the middle ages), by Servius (the great +commentator on Virgil), and, after a long interval, by Martianus +Capella. Latin criticism sank into mere pedantry about rhetoric and +grammar. This continued throughout the Dark Ages, until the 13th +century, when rhythmical treatises, of which the _Labyrinthus_ of +Eberhard (1212?) and the _Ars rhythmica_ of John of Garlandia (John +Garland) are the most famous, came into fashion. These writings +testified to a growing revival of a taste for poetry. + +It is, however, in the masterly technical treatise _De vulgari eloquio_, +generally attributed to Dante, the first printed (in Italian) in 1529, +that modern poetical criticism takes its first step. The example of this +admirable book was not adequately followed; throughout the 14th and 15th +centuries, criticism is mainly indirect and accidental. Boccaccio, +indeed, is the only figure worthy of mention, between Dante and Erasmus. +With the Renaissance came a blossoming of Humanist criticism in Italy, +producing such excellent specimens as the _Sylvae_ of Poliziano, the +_Poetics_ (1527) of Vida, and the _Poetica_ of Trissino, the best of a +whole crop of critical works produced, often by famous names, between +1525 and 1560. These were followed by sounder scholars and acuter +theorists: by Scaliger with his epoch-making _Poetices_ (1561); by L. +Castelvetro, whose _Poetica_ (1570) started the modern cultivation of +the Unities and asserted the value of the Epic; by Tasso with his +_Discorsi_ (1587); and by Francesco Patrizzi in his _Poetica_ (1586). + +In France, the earliest and for a long time the most important specimen +of literary criticism was the _Defense et illustration de la langue +francaise_, published in 1549 by Joachim du Bellay. Ronsard, also, wrote +frequently and ably on the art of poetry. The theories of the Pleiade +were summed up in the _Art poetique_ of Vauquelin de la Fresnaye, which +belongs to 1574 (though not printed until 1605). + +In England, the earliest literary critic of importance was Thomas +Wilson, whose _Art of Rhetoric_ was printed in 1553, and the earliest +student of poetry, George Gascoigne, whose _Instruction_ appeared in +1575. Gascoigne is the first writer who deals intelligently with the +subject of English prosody. He was followed by Thomas Drant, Harvey, +Gosson, Lodge and Sidney, whose controversial pamphlets belong to the +period between 1575 and 1580. Among Elizabethan "arts" or "defences" of +English poetry are to be mentioned those of William Webbe (1586), George +Puttenham (1589), Thomas Campion (1602), and Samuel Daniel (1603). With +the tractates of Ben Jonson, several of them lost, the criticism of the +Renaissance may be said to close. + +A new era began throughout Europe when Malherbe started, about 1600, a +taste for the neo-classic or anti-romantic school of poetry, taking up +the line which had been foreshadowed by Castelvetro. _Enfin Malherbe +vint_, and he was supported in his revolution by Regnier, Vaugelas, +Balzac, and finally by Corneille himself, in his famous prefatory +discourses. It was Boileau, however, who more than any other man stood +out at the close of the 17th century as the law-giver of Parnassus. The +rules of the neo-classics were drawn together and arranged in a system +by Rene Rapin, whose authoritative treatises mainly appeared between +1668 and 1674. It is in writings of this man, and of the Jesuits, Le +Bossu and Bouhours, that the preposterous rigidity of the formal classic +criticism is most plainly seen. The influence of these three critics +was, however, very great throughout Europe, and we trace it in the +writings of Dryden, Addison and Rymer. In the course of the 18th +century, when the neoclassic creed was universally accepted, Pope, +Blair, Kames, Harris, Goldsmith and Samuel Johnson were its most +distinguished exponents in England, while Voltaire, Buffon (to whom we +owe the phrase "the style is the man"), Marmontel, La Harpe and Suard +were the types of academic opinion in France. + +Modern, or more properly Romantic, criticism came in when the +neo-classic tradition became bankrupt throughout Europe at the very +close of the 18th century. It has been heralded in Germany by the +writings of Lessing, and in France by those of Diderot. Of the +reconstruction of critical opinion in the 19th century it is impossible +to speak here with any fulness, it is contained in the record of the +recent literature of each European language. It is noticeable, in +England, that the predominant place in it was occupied, in violent +contrast with Disraeli's dictum, by those who had obviously _not_ failed +in imaginative composition, by Wordsworth, by Shelley, by Keats, by +Landor, and pre-eminently by S. T. Coleridge, who was one of the most +penetrative, original and imaginative critics who have ever lived. In +France, the importance of Sainte-Beuve is not to be ignored or even +qualified; after manifold changes of taste, he remains as much a master +as he was a precursor. He was followed by Theophile Gautier, Saint-Marc, +Girardin, Paul de Saint Victor, and a crowd of others, down to Taine and +the latest school of individualistic critics, comparable with Matthew +Arnold, Pater, and their followers in England. + + See G. Saintsbury, _A History of Criticism_ (3 vols., 1902-1904); J. + E. Spingarn, _A History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance_ (2nd + ed. 1908); Thery, _Histoire des opinions litteraires_ (1849); J. A. + Symonds, _The Revival of Learning_ (1877); Matthew Arnold, _Essays in + Criticism_, i. (1865), ii. (1868); Bourgoin, _Les Maitres de la + critique au XVII^e siecle_ (1889); Paul Hamelius, _Die Kritik in der + englischen Literatur_ (1897); S. H. Butcher, _The Poetics of + Aristotle_ (1898); H. L. Havell and Andrew Lang, _Longinus on the + Sublime_ (1890). See also the writings of Sainte-Beuve, Matthew + Arnold, F. Brunetiere, Anatole France, Walter Pater, _passim_. + (E. G.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] It is in this general sense that the subject is considered in + this article. The term is, however, used in more restricted senses, + generally with some word of qualification, e.g. "textual criticism" + or "higher criticism"; see the article TEXTUAL CRITICISM and the + article BIBLE for an outstanding example of both "textual" and + "higher." + + + + +CRITIUS and NESIOTES, two Greek sculptors of uncertain school, of the +time of the Persian Wars. When Xerxes carried away to Persia the statues +of Harmodius and Aristogiton made by Antenor, Critius and Nesiotes were +commissioned to replace them. By the help of coins and reliefs, two +statues at Naples, wrongly restored as gladiators, have been identified +as copies of the tyrannicides of Critius; and to them well apply the +words in which Lucian (_Rhetor. praecepta_, 9) describes the works of +Critius and Nesiotes, "closely knit and sinewy, and hard and severe in +outline." Critius also made a statue of the armed runner Epicharinus. + + + + +CRITOLAUS, Greek philosopher, was born at Phaselis in the 2nd century +B.C. He lived to the age of eighty-two and died probably before 111 B.C. +He studied philosophy under Aristo of Ceos and became one of the leaders +of the Peripatetic school by his eminence as an orator, a scholar and a +moralist. There has been considerable discussion as to whether he was +the immediate successor of Aristo, but the evidence is confused and +unprofitable. In general he was a loyal adherent to the Peripatetic +succession (cf. Cicero, _De fin._ v. 5 "C. imitari antiquos voluit"), +though in some respects he went beyond his predecessors. For example, he +held that pleasure is an evil (Gellius, _Noctes Atticae_, ix. 5. 6), and +definitely maintained that the soul consists of aether. The end of +existence was to him the general perfection of the natural life, +including the goods of the soul and the body, and also external goods. +Cicero says in the _Tusculans_ that the goods of the soul entirely +outweighed for him the other goods ("tantum propendere illam bonorum +animi lancem"). Further, he defended against the Stoics the Peripatetic +doctrine of the eternity of the world and the indestructibility of the +human race. There is no observed change in the natural order of things; +mankind re-creates itself in the same manner according to the capacity +given by Nature, and the various ills to which it is heir, though fatal +to individuals, do not avail to modify the whole. Just as it is absurd +to suppose that man is merely earth-born, so the possibility of his +ultimate destruction is inconceivable. The world, as the manifestation +of eternal order, must itself be immortal. The life of Critolaus is not +recorded. One incident alone is preserved. From Cicero (_Acad._ ii. 45) +it appears that he was sent with Carneades and Diogenes to Rome in +156-155 B.C. to protest against the fine of 500 talents imposed on +Athens in punishment for the sack of Oropus. The three ambassadors +lectured on philosophy in Rome with so much success that Cato was +alarmed and had them dismissed the city. Gellius describes his arguments +as _scita et teretia_. + + Consult the article PERIPATETICS, and histories of ancient philosophy, + e.g. Zeller. + + + + +CRITTENDEN, JOHN JORDAN (1787-1863), American statesman, was born in +Versailles, Kentucky, on the 10th of September 1787. After graduating at +the College of William and Mary in 1807, he began the practice of law in +his native state. He served for three months, in 1810, as +attorney-general of Illinois Territory, but soon returned to Kentucky, +and during the War of 1812 he was for a time on the staff of General +Isaac Shelby. In 1811-1817 he served in the state House of +Representatives, being speaker in 1815-1816, and in 1817-1819 was a +United States senator. Settling in Frankfort, he soon took high rank as +a criminal lawyer, was in the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1825 +and 1829-1832, acting as speaker in the latter period, and from 1827 to +1829 was United States district-attorney. He was removed by President +Jackson, to whom he was radically opposed. In 1835, as a Whig, he was +again elected to the United States Senate, and was re-elected in 1841, +but resigned to enter the cabinet of President W. H. Harrison as +attorney-general, continuing after President Tyler's accession and +serving from March until September. He was again a member of the United +States Senate from 1842 to 1848, and in 1848-1850 was governor of +Kentucky. He was an ardent and outspoken supporter of Clay's compromise +measures, and in 1850 he entered President Fillmore's cabinet as +attorney-general, serving throughout the administration. From 1855 to +1861 he was once more a member of the United States Senate. During these +years he was perhaps the foremost champion of Union in the South, and +strenuously opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which he declared +prophetically would unite the various elements of opposition in the +North, and render the breach between the sections irreparable. +Nevertheless he laboured unceasingly in the cause of compromise, gave +his strong support to the Bell and Everett ticket in 1860, and in +1860-1861 proposed and vainly contended for the adoption by congress of +the compromise measures which bear his name. When war became inevitable +he threw himself zealously into the Union cause, and lent his great +influence to keep Kentucky in the Union. In 1861-1863 he was a member of +the national House of Representatives, where, while advocating the +prosecution of the war, he opposed such radical measures as the division +of Virginia, the enlistment of slaves and the Conscription Acts. He died +at Frankfort, Kentucky, on the 26th of July 1863. + + See the _Life of J. J. Crittenden_, by his daughter Mrs Chapman + Coleman (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1871). + +His son, GEORGE BIBB CRITTENDEN (1812-1880), soldier, was born in +Russellville, Kentucky, on the 20th of March 1812, and graduated at West +Point in 1832, but resigned his commission in 1833. He re-entered the +army as a captain of mounted rifles in the Mexican War, served with +distinction, and was breveted major for bravery at Contreras and +Churubusco. After the war he remained in the army, and in 1856 attained +the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In June 1861 he resigned, and entered +the service of the Confederacy. He was commissioned major-general and +given a command in south-east Kentucky and Tennessee, but after the +defeat of his forces by General George H. Thomas at Mill Springs +(January 9, 1862), he was censured and gave up his command. He served +subsequently as a volunteer aide on the staff of Gen. John S. Williams. +From 1867 to 1871 he was state librarian of Kentucky. He died at +Danville, Kentucky, on the 27th of November 1880. + +Another son, THOMAS LEONIDAS CRITTENDEN (1815-1893), soldier, was also +born at Russellville, Kentucky. He studied law, and practised with his +father, and in 1842 became commonwealth's attorney. He served in the +Mexican War as a lieutenant-colonel of Kentucky volunteers, and was an +aide on Gen. Zachary Taylor's staff at the battle of Buena Vista. From +1849 to 1853 he was United States consul at Liverpool, England. Like his +father, he was a strong Union man, and in September 1861 he was +commissioned by President Lincoln a brigadier-general of volunteers. He +commanded a division at Shiloh, for gallantry in which battle he was +promoted major-general in July 1862. He was in command of a corps in the +army of the Ohio under Gen. D. C. Buell, and took part in the battles of +Stone River and Chickamauga. Subsequently he served in the Virginia +campaign of 1864. He resigned his commission in December 1864, but in +July 1866 entered the regular army with the rank of colonel of infantry, +receiving the brevet of brigadier-general in 1867, served on the +frontier and in several Indian wars, and retired in 1881. He died on the +23rd of October 1893. + + + + +CRIVELLI, CARLO, Venetian painter, was born in the earlier part of the +15th century. The only dates that can with certainty be given are 1468 +and 1493; these are respectively the earliest and the latest years +signed on his pictures--the former on an altar-piece in the church of +San Silvestro at Massa near Fermo, and the latter on a picture in the +Oggioni collection in Milan. Though born in Venice, Crivelli seems to +have worked chiefly in the March of Ancona, and especially in and near +Ascoli; there are only two pictures of his proper to a Venetian +building, both of these being in the church of San Sebastiano. He is +said to have studied under Jacobello del Fiore, who was painting as late +at any rate as 1436; at that time Crivelli was probably only a boy. The +latter always signed as "Carolus Crivellus Venetus"; from 1490 he added +"Miles," having been then knighted ("Cavaliere") by Ferdinand II. of +Naples. He painted in tempera only, and is seen to most advantage in +subject pictures of moderate size. He introduced agreeable landscape +backgrounds; and was particularly partial to giving fruits and flowers +(the peach is one of his favourite fruits) as accessories, often in +pendent festoons. The National Gallery in London is well supplied with +examples of Crivelli; the "Annunciation," and the "Beato Ferretti" (of +the same family as Pope Pius IX.) in religious ecstasy, may be +specified. Another of his principal pictures is in San Francesco di +Matelica; in Berlin is a "Madonna and Saints" (1491); in the Vatican +Gallery a "Dead Christ," and in the Brera of Milan the painter's own +portrait, with other examples. Crivelli is a painter of marked +individuality,--hard in form, crudely definite in contour; stern, +forced, energetic, almost grotesque and repellent, in feature and +expression, and yet well capable of a prim sort of prettiness; simply +vigorous in his effect of detachment and relief, and sometimes admitting +into his pictures objects actually raised in surface; distinct and warm +in colour, with an effect at once harsh and harmonious. His pictures +gain by being seen in half-light, and at some little distance; under +favouring conditions they grip the spectator with uncommon power. Few +artists seem to have worked with more uniformity of purpose, or more +forthright command of his materials, so far as they go. It is surmised +that Carlo was of the same family as the painters Donato Crivelli (who +was working in 1459, and was also a scholar of Jacobello) and Vittorio +Crivelli. Pietro Alamanni was his pupil. + + See, along with Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Berenson, _Venetian Painters + of the Renaissance_ (1899); Morelli, _Italian Painters_ (1892-1893); + Rushforth, _Carlo Crivelli_ (1900). (W. M. R.) + + + + +CROATIA-SLAVONIA (Serbo-Croatian _Hrvatska i Slavonija_; Hung. +_Horvat-Szlavonorszag_; Ger. _Kroatien und Slawonien_), a kingdom of the +Hungarian monarchy; bounded on the N. by Carniola, Styria and Hungary +proper; E. by Hungary and Servia; S. by Servia, Bosnia and Dalmatia; and +W. by the Adriatic Sea, Istria and Carniola. Until 1881 Croatia, in the +N.W. of this region, was divided from Slavonia, in the N.E., by a +section of the Austrian Military Frontier. This section is now the +county of Bjelovar, and forms part of the united kingdom of +Croatia-Slavonia. The river Kulpa, which bisects the county of Agram, is +usually regarded as the north-eastern limit of the Balkan Peninsula; and +thus the greater part of Croatia, lying south of this river, falls +within the peninsular boundary, while the remainder, with all Slavonia, +belongs to the continental mainland. According to the official survey of +1900, the total area of the country is 16,423 sq. m. The Croatian +littoral extends for about 90 m. from Fiume to the Dalmatian frontier. A +narrow strait, the Canale della Morlacca (or della Montagna), separates +it from Veglia, Arbe, Pago and other Istrian or Dalmatian islands. The +city and territories of Fiume, the sole important harbour on this coast, +are included in Hungary proper, and controlled by the Budapest +government. Westward from Warasdin, and along the borders of Styria, +Carniola, Istria, Dalmatia and north-western Bosnia, the frontier is +generally mountainous and follows an irregular course. The central and +eastern region, situated between the Drave and Danube on the north, and +the Save on the south, forms one long wedge, with its point at Semlin. + +_Physical Features_.--Croatia-Slavonia is naturally divided into two +great sections, the highlands of the west and the lowlands of the east. + +The plateau of the Istrian Karst is prolonged in several of the bare and +desolate mountain chains between the Save and the Adriatic, notably the +Great and Little Kapella (or Kapela), which link together the Karst and +the Dinaric Alps, culminating in Biela Lazica (5029 ft.); the Pljecevica +or Plicevica Planina (5410 ft.), overlooking the valley of the river +Una; and the Velebit Planina, which follows the westward curve of the +coast, and rises above the sea in an abrupt wall, unbroken by any +considerable bay or inlet. As it skirts the Dalmatian border, this range +attains its greatest altitude in the adjacent peaks of Sveto Brdo (5751 +ft.), and Vakanski Vrh (5768 ft.). Large tracts of the Croatian +highlands are well-nigh waterless, and it is only in the more sheltered +hollows that sufficient soil collects for large trees to flourish. In +northern Croatia and Slavonia the mountains are far more fertile, being +often densely wooded with oaks, beeches and pines. They comprise the +Uskoken Gebirge, or Uskoks Mountains, named after the piratical Uskoks +(q.v.) of Zengg, who were deported hither after the fall of their +stronghold in 1617; the Warasdin Mountains, with the peak of Ivanscica +(3478 ft.); the Agram Mountains, culminating in Sljeme or Slema (3396 +ft.), and including the beautiful stretches of Alpine pasture known as +the Zagorje, or "land beyond the hills"; the Bilo Gebirge, or White +Mountains, a low range of chalk, and, farther to the south, several +groups of mountains, among which Psunj (3228 ft.), Papuk (3217 ft.) Crni +Vrh (2833 ft.), and the Ravna Gora (2808 ft.) are the chief summits. All +these ranges, except the Uskoken Gebirge, constitute the central +watershed of the kingdom, between the Drave and Save. In the east +Slavonian county of Syrmia[1] the Frucka Gora or Vrdnik Mountains rise +to a height of 1768 ft. along the southern bank of the Danube, their +picturesque vineyards and pine or oak woods contrasting strongly with +the plains that surround them. + +The lowlands, in the valleys of the Drave, Danube, Save and Kulpa, +belong partly to the great Hungarian Plains, or Alfold. Besides the +sterile and monotonous steppes, valuable only as pasture, and so +sparsely populated that it is possible to travel for many hours without +encountering any sign of human life except a primitive artesian well or +a shepherd's hut, there are wide expanses of fen-country, regularly +flooded in spring and autumn. The marshes which line the Save below +Sissek are often impassable except at Brod and Mitrovica, and the river +is constantly scooping out fresh channels in the soft soil, only to +abandon each in turn. The total area liable to yearly inundation exceeds +200 sq. m. But along the Drave and Danube the plains are sometimes +strikingly fertile, and yield an abundance of grain, fruit and wine. + +The main rivers of Croatia-Slavonia, the Danube, Drave and Save, are +fully described under separate headings. After reaching Croatian +territory 13 m. N.W. of Warasdin, the Drave flows along the northern +frontier for 155 m., receiving the Bednja and Karasnica on the right, +and falling, near Esseg, into the Danube, which serves as the +Hungaro-Slavonian boundary for an additional 116 m. The Save enters the +country 16 m. W. of Agram, and, after winding for 106 m. S.E. to +Jasenovac, constitutes the southern frontier for 253 m., and meets the +Danube at Belgrade. It is joined by the Sotla, Krapina, Lonja, Ilova, +Pakra and Oljana, which drain the central watershed; but its only large +tributaries are the Una, a Bosnian stream, which springs in the Dinaric +Alps, and skirts the Croatian border for 40 m. before entering the Save +at Jasenovac; and the Kulpa, which follows a tortuous course of 60 m. +from its headwaters north of Fiume, to its confluence with the Save at +Sissek. The Mreznica, Dobra, Glina and Korana are right-hand tributaries +of the Kulpa. In the Croatian Karst the seven streams of the Lika unite +and plunge into a rocky chasm near Gospic, and the few small brooks +of this region usually vanish underground in a similar manner. Near +Fiume, the Recina, Rjeka or Fiumara falls into the Adriatic after a +brief course. There is no large lake in Croatia-Slavonia, but the upland +pools and waterfalls of Plitvica, near Ogulin, are celebrated for their +beauty. After a thaw or heavy rain, the subterranean rivers flood the +mountain hollows of the Karst; and a lake thus formed by the river +Gajka, near Otocac, has occasionally filled its basin to a depth of 160 +ft. + + _Minerals_.--The mineral resources of the kingdom, though capable of + further development, are not rich. They are chiefly confined to the + mountains, where iron, coal, copper, lead, zinc, silver and sulphur + are mined in small quantities. Warm mineral springs rise at Krapina, + at Toplice near Warasdin, at Stubica near Agram, and elsewhere. + + _Climate_.--The climate of Croatia-Slavonia varies greatly in + different regions. In the Karst it is liable to sudden and violent + changes, and especially to the _bora_, a fierce N.N.E. wind, which + renders navigation perilous among the islands off the coast, and, in + winter, blocks the roads and railway-cuttings with deep snowdrifts. + The sheltered bays near Fiume enjoy an equable climate; but in all + other districts the temperature in mid-winter falls regularly below + zero, and the summer heats are excessive. Earthquakes are common among + the mountains, and the eastern lowlands are exposed to the great winds + and sandstorms which sweep down the Alfold. At Agram, during the years + 1896-1900, the mean annual temperature was 52 deg. F., with 34.6 in. + of rain and snow; at Fiume, the figures for the same period were 57 + deg. and 71 in. + + _Agriculture_.--The agricultural inquiry of 1895 showed that 94.5% of + the country consisted of arable land, gardens, vineyards, meadows, + pastures and forests; but much of this area must be set down as + mountainous and swampy pasture of poor quality. The richest land + occurs in the Zagorje and its neighbourhood, in the hills near + Warasdin and in the northern half of Syrmia. The Karst and the fens + are of least agricultural value. Indian corn heads the list of + cereals, but wheat, oats, rye and barley are also cultivated, besides + hemp, flax, tobacco and large quantities of potatoes. The extensive + vineyards were much injured by _phylloxera_ towards the close of the + 19th century. The Slavonian plum orchards furnish dried prunes, + besides a kind of brandy largely exported under the name of + _sliwowitz_ or _shlivovitsa_. Near Fiume the orange, lemon, + pomegranate, fig and olive bear well; mulberries are planted on many + estates for silkworms; and the heather-clad uplands of the central + region favour the keeping of bees. Large herds of swine fatten in the + oak and beech forests; and dairy-farming is a thriving industry in the + highlands between Agram and Warasdin, where, during the last years of + the 19th century, systematic attempts were made to replace the + mountain pastures by clover and sown grass. The proportion of sheep to + other live-stock is lower than in most of the South Slavonic lands, + and the scarcity of goats is also noteworthy. Horsebreeding is a + favourite pursuit in Slavonia; and between 1900 and 1902 many + thousands of remounts were shipped to the British army in South + Africa. The local administration endeavours to better the quality of + live-stock by importing purer breeds, distributing prizes, and other + measures; but the native farmers are slow to accept improvements. + + _Forests_.--Forests, principally of oak, pine and beech, covered + 3,734,000 acres in 1895, about one-fifth being state property. + Especially valuable are the Croatian oak-forests, near Agram and + Sissek. Timber is exported from Fiume and down the Danube. + + _Industries_.--Apart from the distilleries and breweries scattered + throughout the country, the rude flour-mills which lie moored in the + rivers, and a few glass-works, saw-mills, silk-mills and tobacco + factories, the chief industrial establishments of Croatia-Slavonia are + at Agram, Fiume, Semlin, Buccari and Porto Re. Only 8.3 of the + population was, in 1900, engaged in industries other than farming, + which occupied 85.2%. The exports mainly consist of foodstuffs, + especially grain, of live-stock, especially pigs and horses, and of + timber. The imports include textiles, iron, coal, wine and colonial + products; with machinery and other finished articles. Goods in transit + to and from Hungary figure largely in the official returns for + Fiume[2] and Semlin, which are the centres of the foreign trade. In + 1900 Croatia-Slavonia possessed 253 banking establishments. + + _Communications_.--The commerce of the country is furthered by upwards + of 2000 m. of carriage-roads, the most remarkable of these being the + Maria Louisa, which connects Karlstadt with Fiume, and the Josephina, + which passes inland from Zengg. Many excellent highways were built for + strategic purposes before the abolition of the Military Frontier in + 1881. The railways, which are all owned and managed by the Hungarian + state, intersect most parts of the country except the mountains south + of Ogulin, where there is, nevertheless, a considerable traffic over + the passes into Dalmatia and Bosnia. Agram is the principal railway + centre, from which lines radiate S. W. to Fiume, W. into Austria, + N.N.E. to Warasdin and into Hungary, and S.E. into Bosnia by way of + Kostajnica. The main line eastward from Agram passes through Brod, + where it meets the Bosnian system, and on to Belgrade; throwing out + two branch lines to Brcka and Samac in Bosnia, and several + branches on the north, which traverse the central watershed, and cross + the Hungarian frontier at Zakany, Barcs, Esseg, Erdar and + Peterwardein. Above Agram the Save is used chiefly for floating rafts + of timber; east of Sissek it is navigable by small steamboats, but, + despite its great volume, the multitude of its perpetually shifting + sandbanks interferes greatly with traffic. Steamers also ply on the + Una, the Drave below Barcs, and the Danube. The marshes of Syrmia are + partially drained by the so-called "Canal of Probus," the one large + artificial waterway in the country, said to have been cut by the + Romans in the 3rd century. + + _Chief Towns_,--The principal towns are Agram, the capital, with + 61,002 inhabitants in 1900; Esseg, the capital of Slavonia (24,930); + Semlin (15,079); Mitrovica (11,518); Warasdin (12,930); Karlstadt + (7396); Brod (7310); Sissek (7047); Djakovo (6824); Karlowitz (5643); + Peterwardein (5019); Zengg (3182); and Buccari (1870). These are + described in separate articles. The centre of the coasting trade is + Novi, and other small seaports are San Giorgio (_Sveto Juraj_), Porto + Re (_Kraljevica_) and Carlopago. Agram, Gospic (10,799), Ogulin + (8699), Warasdin and Bjelovar (6056) are respectively the capitals of + the five counties which belong to Croatia proper,--Agram (Hung. + _Zagrab_), Modruc-Fiume, Lika-Krbava, Warasdin (_Varasd_) and + Bjelovar (_Belovar-Koros_); while the capitals of the three Slavonian + counties, Virovitica (_Verocze_), Pozega (_Pozsega_) and Syrmia + (_Szerem_), are Esseg, Pozega (5000) and Semlin. + +_Population and National Characteristics_.--The population rose from +1,892,499 in 1881 to 2,416,304 in 1900, an increase of little less than +one-third, resulting from a uniformly low death rate, with a high +marriage and birth rate, and characterized by that preponderance of male +over female children which is common to all the South Slavonic lands. +More than 75% of the inhabitants are Croats, the bulk of the remainder +being Serbs, who predominate in eastern Slavonia. Outside +Croatia-Slavonia, the Croats occupy the greater part of Dalmatia and +northern Bosnia. There are large Croatian settlements in the south of +Hungary, and smaller colonies in Austria. The numbers of the whole +nation may be estimated at 3,500,000 or 4,000,000. The distinction +between Croats and Serbs is religious, and, to a less extent, +linguistic. Croats and Serbs together constitute a single branch of the +Slavonic race, frequently called the Serbo-Croatian branch. The literary +language of the two nations is identical, but the Croats use the Latin +alphabet,[3] while the Serbs prefer a modified form of the Cyrillic. The +two nations have also been politically separated since the 7th century, +if not for a longer period; but this division has produced little +difference of character or physical type. Even the costume of the +Croatian peasantry, to whom brilliant colours and intricate embroideries +are always dear, proclaims their racial identity with the Serbs; their +songs, dances and musical instruments, the chief part of their customs +and folk-lore, their whole manner of life, so little changed by its +closer contact with Western civilization, may be studied in Servia +(q.v.) itself. In both countries rural society was based on the +old-fashioned household community, or _zadruga_, which still survives in +the territories that formed the Military Frontier, though everywhere +tending to disappear and be replaced by individual ownership. The +Croatian peasantry are least prosperous in the riverside districts, +where marsh-fevers prevail, and especially beside the Save. Even in many +of the towns the houses are mere cabins of wood and thatch. As in +Servia, there is practically no middle class between the peasants and +the educated minority; and the commercial element consists to a great +extent of foreigners, especially Germans, Hungarians, Italians and Jews. +Numerically this alien population is insignificant. The Italians are +chiefly confined to the coast; the Germans congregate at Semlin and +Warasdin; the Slovenes are settled along the north-western frontier, +where they have introduced their language, and so greatly modified the +local dialect; the gipsies wander from city to city, as horse-dealers, +metal workers or musicians; there are numerous Moravian and Bohemian +settlements; and near Mitrovica there is a colony of Albanians. It is +impossible to give accurate statistics of the alien population; for, in +the compilation of the official figures, language is taken as a test of +nationality, an utterly untrustworthy method in a country where every +educated person speaks two or three languages. Croatian nationalists +also maintain that official figures are systematically altered in the +Hungarian interest. + +_Constitution and Government_.--By the fundamental law of the 21st of +December 1867 Austria-Hungary was divided, for purposes of internal +government, into Cisleithania, or the Austrian empire, and +Transleithania, or the kingdoms of Hungary and Croatia-Slavonia. In +theory the viceroy, or _ban_ of Croatia-Slavonia is nominated by the +crown, and enjoys almost unlimited authority over local affairs; in +practice the consent of the crown is purely formal, and the _ban_ is +appointed by the Hungarian premier, who can dismiss him at any moment. +The provincial government is subject to the _ban_, and comprises three +ministries--the interior, justice, and religion and education,--for +whose working the _ban_ is responsible to the Hungarian premier, and to +the national assembly of Croatia-Slavonia (_Narodna Skupctina_). This +body consists of a single chamber, composed partly of elected deputies, +partly of privileged members, whose numbers cannot exceed half those of +the deputies. There are 69 constituencies, besides the 21 royal free +cities which also return deputies. Electors must belong to certain +professions or pay a small tax. The privileged members are the heads of +the nobility, with the highest ecclesiastics and officials. As a rule, +they represent the "Magyarist" section of society, which sympathizes +with Hungarian policy. The chamber deals with religion, education, +justice and certain strictly provincial affairs, but even within this +limited sphere all its important enactments must be countersigned by the +minister for Croatia-Slavonia, a member, without portfolio, of the +Hungarian cabinet. At the polls, all votes are given orally, a system +which facilitates corruption; the officials who control the elections +depend for their livelihood on the _ban_, usually a Magyarist; and thus, +even apart from the privileged members, a majority favourable to Hungary +can usually be secured. The constitutional relations between Hungary and +Croatia-Slavonia are regulated by the agreement, or _nagoda_, of 1868. +This instrument determines the functions of the _ban_; the control of +common interests, such as railways, posts, telegraphs, telephones, +commerce, industry, agriculture or forests; and the choice of delegates +by the chamber, to sit in the Hungarian parliament. See also below, +under _History_. + + + Local administration. + + For administrative purposes Croatia-Slavonia is divided into 8 rural + counties, already enumerated; besides the 4 urban counties, or + municipalities of Agram, Semlin, Warasdin and Esseg. These are + subdivided into rural and urban communes, each with its representative + council. The affairs of each rural county are managed by an assembly + chosen for 6 years, which comprises not only elected members, but + delegates from all the cities except Agram and Esseg, with certain + high ecclesiastics and officials. + + + Justice. + + The highest judicial authority is the supreme court or Septemviral + Table, which sits at Agram, and ranks above the royal courts of + appeal, the county courts of first instance, and the district courts + or magistracies. + + + Religion. + + Fully four-fifths of the population belong to the Roman Catholic + Church, which has an archbishop at Agram and bishops at Zengg and + Djakovo. There are about 12,000 Greek Catholics, with a bishop at + Kreuz (_Krizevac_). The Serb congregations, who had previously been + classed as Orthodox Greek, were officially recognized as members of + the Orthodox Church of Servia after 1883. Their episcopal sees of + Karlowitz and Pakrac depend upon the metropolitanate of Belgrade; but + from 1830 to 1838 Karlowitz was itself the headquarters of the Servian + Church. + + + Education. + + During the 19th century strenuous efforts to better the state of + education were made by Bishop Strossmayer (1815-1905) and other + reformers; but, although some success was achieved, only one-third of + the population could read and write in 1900. Foremost among the + educational institutions is the South Slavonic Academy of Sciences and + Arts (_Jugoslavenska Akademija Znanosti i Umjetnosti_), founded by + Strossmayer and others in 1867, as an improvement on a learned society + which had existed since 1836. The academy is the headquarters of the + nationalist propaganda. Its numerous publications, though sometimes + biased by political passion, throw much light on Serbo-Croatian + history, law, philology and kindred topics. Agram University, founded + in 1874, possesses three faculties--theology, philosophy and law; but, + unlike other Hungarian universities, it lacks a faculty of medicine. + Its average number of students varies from 300 to 350. In 1900 there + were also 19 _real-gymnasia_, teaching science, art and modern + languages, as well as classics and mathematics; 1400 elementary + schools; and a few special institutions, such as the naval and + military academies of Fiume, ecclesiastical seminaries and commercial + colleges. In almost every case the language of instruction is + Serbo-Croatian. The development of higher education, without a + corresponding advance of technical education, has created an + intellectual class, comprising many men of letters, and several + painters, musicians and sculptors, though none of great eminence; it + also tends to produce many aspirants to official or professional + careers, who find employment difficult to obtain. The want of a strong + native middle class may partly be traced to this tendency. + + +_History._ + +Medieval historians did not use the terms Croatia and Slavonia in their +present sense. The Croatia of the middle ages comprised north-western +Bosnia, Turkish Croatia, and the region now known as Upper Croatia. The +whole country between the Drave and Save, thus including a large part of +modern Croatia, was called in Latin _Slavonia_, in German _Windisches +Land_, and in Hungarian _Totorszag_, to distinguish it from the +territories in which the Croats were racially supreme (_Horvatorszag_). +At the time of their conquest by the Romans (35 B.C.) both these +divisions were occupied by the Pannonians, who in Slavonia had displaced +an older population, the Scordisci; and both were included in the Roman +province of Pannonia Inferior, although Slavonia had the distinctive +name of Pannonia Savia (see PANNONIA). When the Roman dominions were +broken up in A.D. 395, Croatia-Slavonia remained part of the Western +empire. The Ostrogoths overran it in 489; in 535 it was annexed by +Justinian; in 568 it was conquered by the Avars. These were in turn +expelled from Croatia by the Croats, a Slavonic people from the western +Carpathians, who, according to some authorities, had occupied the +territories of the Marcomanni in Bohemia, and been driven thence in the +6th century by the Czechs. The main body of the Croats, whose tribal and +racial names respectively are perpetuated in the names of Croatia and +Slavonia, entered Croatia between 634 and 638, and were encouraged by +the emperor Heraclius to attack the Avars. Smaller bodies had led the +way southwards since 548. The Croats formed the western division of the +great migratory horde of Serbo-Croats which colonized the lands between +Bulgaria and the Adriatic. Contemporary chroniclers called them +_Chrobati_, _Belochrobati_ ("White Croats"), _Chrovati_, _Horvati_, or +by some similar Latin or Byzantine variant of the Slavonic _Khrvaty_. +The Croats occupied most of the region now known as Croatia-Slavonia, +Dalmatia, and north-western Bosnia, displacing or absorbing the earlier +inhabitants everywhere except along the Dalmatian littoral, where the +Italian city-states usually maintained their independence, and in +certain districts of Slavonia, where, out of a mixed population of +Slavonic immigrants, Avars and Pannonians, the Slavs, and especially the +Serbo-Croats, gradually became predominant. The Croats brought with them +their primitive tribal institutions, organized on a basis partly +military, partly patriarchal, and identical with the Zhupanates of the +Serbs (see SERVIA); agriculture, war and hunting were their chief +pursuits. Although they at first acknowledged no alien sovereign, they +passed gradually under Italian influence in the extreme west, and under +Byzantine influence in the south and south-east. In 806 the northern and +north-eastern districts were added to the empire of the Franks, and thus +won for the Western Church. Frankish predominance was long commemorated +by the name Francochorion, given by the Byzantines to Syrmia; it is +still commemorated by the name Frucka Gora, "Mountains of the +Franks," in that province. + +_The Croatian Kingdom: c. 910-1091._--In 877 the Croats were temporarily +subdued by the Byzantine emperor, but after successive insurrections +which tended to centralize their loosely knit tribal organization, and +to place all power in the hands of a military chief, they regained their +independence and founded a national kingdom about 910. It is probable +that Tomislav or Timislav, who had led their armies to victory, assumed +the title of king in that year. Some authorities, however, state that +Tomislav only bore the title of _veliki zupan_ or "paramount chief," +and was only one in a long line of princes which can be traced without +interruption back to 818. On this view, Drzislav (c. 978-1000) was +the first king properly so called. But Tomislav, whatever his official +style, was certainly the first of a series of independent national +rulers which lasted for nearly two centuries. The records of this +period, regarded by many Croats as the golden age of their country, are +often scanty, and its chronology is still unsettled. Little is known of +Trpimir, who preceded Drzislav, or of Stephen I. (1035-1058), but a +few of the kings gained a more lasting fame by their success in war and +diplomacy. Among these were Krecimir I. (c. 940--946), his successor +Miroslav, and especially Krecimir II., surnamed the Great (c. +1000-1035), who harried the Bulgarians, at that time a powerful nation, +and conquered a large part of Dalmatia, including some of the Italian +cities. Already, under his predecessors, the Croats had built a fleet, +which they used first for piracy and afterwards for trade. Their skill +in maritime affairs, exemplified first in the 9th century by the pagan +corsairs of the Narenta (see DALMATIA: _History_), and later by the +numerous Dalmatian and Croatian sailors who served in the navies of +Venice and Austria, is remarkable in a Slavonic people, and one which +had so recently migrated from central Europe. At the end of the 10th +century they even for a short period exacted tribute from Venice, but +their power was temporarily destroyed in 1000, when the Venetians +captured and sacked Biograd or Belgrade, the Italian Zaravecchia. This +Dalmatian port was not only the Croatian arsenal, but the seat of the +kings, who here sought to enhance their dignity by borrowing the +grandiose titles and elaborate procedure of the Byzantine court. +Krecimir II. and Krecimir Peter (c. 1058-1073), the hero of many +national legends and lays, restored the naval power of the Croats. After +the death of Krecimir Peter, Slavic or Slaviza reigned until 1076, +when he was succeeded by Zvonimir (Svinimir or Zvoinimir) Demetrius. +Zvonimir was crowned by the legate of Pope Gregory VII, and appears to +have been regarded as a vassal of the papacy. Both he and Stephen II., a +nephew of Krecimir II., died in 1089. + +_Hungarian Supremacy: 1091-c. 1526._--Amid the strife of rival claimants +to the throne, Helena, the widow of Stephen, appealed for aid to her +brother Ladislaus I., king of Hungary. Ladislaus took possession of the +country in 1091. He founded the bishopric of Agram and introduced +Hungarian law. His death in 1095 was the signal for a nationalist +insurrection, but after two years the rebels were crushed by his +successor Coloman. This monarch reorganized the administration on a +system which has been maintained, with modifications in detail, by +almost all subsequent rulers. He respected the existing institutions of +the conquered territory so far as to leave its autonomy in domestic +affairs intact; but delegated his own sovereignty, and especially the +control of foreign affairs and war, to a governor known as the ban +(q.v.). This office was sometimes held by princes of the royal house, +often by Croatian nobles. Coloman also extended his authority over +Dalmatia and the islands of the Quarnero, but the best modern +authorities reject the tradition that in 1102 he was crowned king of +Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia. In 1127 Syrmia, which had been annexed +to Bulgaria from about 700 to 1018, and to the Eastern empire from 1019, +was united to Slavonia. The Hungarian government left much liberty to +the Croatian nobles, a turbulent and fanatical class, ever ready for +civil war, rebellion or a campaign against the Bosnian heretics. Their +most powerful leaders were the counts of Zrin and Bribir (or Brebir), +whose surname was Subic. This family played an important part in +local politics from the 13th century to 1670, when Peter Subic was +its last member to hold the office of ban. Paul Subic (d. 1312) +and Mladen Subic (d. 1322) even for a short period united Croatia, +Slavonia, Bosnia and part of Dalmatia under their own rule. From 1322 to +1326 the Croatian nobles successfully withstood the armies of Hungary +and Bosnia; from 1337 to 1340, instigated by the Vatican, they carried +on a crusade against the Bosnian Bogomils; and in the Krajina (Turkish +Croatia) hostilities were resumed at intervals until the Turkish +conquest. + +_The Turkish Occupation: c. 1526-1718._--Here, as elsewhere, the Ottoman +invasion was facilitated by the feuds of the Christian sects. When King +Matthias Corvinus undertook to defend Slavonia in 1490 it was too late; +Matthias lost Syrmia and died in the same year. His successor Ladislaus +of Poland (1490-1516) added Slavonia to the kingdoms named in the royal +title, which now included the words "King of Dalmatia and Croatia and +Slavonia" (_Rex Dalmatiae et Croatiae et Slavoniae_). But he failed to +repel the Turks, who in 1526 destroyed the power of Hungary at the +battle of Mohacs. In 1527 the Croats were compelled to swear allegiance +to Ferdinand I. of Austria, who had been elected king of Hungary. +Ferdinand founded the generalcy of Karlstadt and thus laid the +foundation of the military frontier. The provinces of Agram, Warasdin +and Kreutz, previously included in Slavonia, were added to Croatia, to +counterbalance the loss of territory in the Krajina. Throughout the +century the Turks continued to extend their conquests until, in 1606, +the emperor retained only western Croatia, with the cities of Agram, +Karlstadt, Warasdin and Zengg. During the same period the doctrines of +the Reformation had spread among the Croats; but they were forcibly +suppressed in 1607-1610. The military occupation by the Turks left +little permanent impression; colonization was never attempted; and the +continuous wars by which the victors strove to secure or enlarge their +dominions north of the Save left no time for the introduction of Moslem +religion or civilization among the vanquished. Thus in the reconquest of +Croatia-Slavonia there was none of the local opposition which afterwards +hindered the Austrian occupation of Bosnia. The successes of Prince +Eugene in 1697 led two years later to the peace of Carlowitz, by which +the Turks ceded the greater part of Slavonia and Hungary to Austria; and +the remainder was surrendered in 1718 by the treaty of Passarowitz. Only +Turkish Croatia henceforth remained part of the Ottoman empire. + +_Austrian and French Supremacy: 1718-1814._--Austrian influence +predominated throughout Croatia-Slavonia during most of the 18th +century, although Slavonia was constitutionally regarded as belonging to +Hungary. Despite Magyar protests the misleading name "Croatia" was +popularly and even in official documents applied to the whole country, +including the purely Slavonian provinces of Virovitica, Pozega and +Syrmia. From 1767 to 1777 Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia were +collectively named Illyria, and governed from Vienna, but each of these +divisions was subsequently declared a separate kingdom, with a separate +administration, while the military frontier remained under military +rule. In 1776 the Croatian seaboard, which had previously been under the +same administration as the rest of the Austrian coast, was annexed to +Croatia, but three years later Fiume was declared an integral part of +Hungary. These administrative changes, and especially the brief +existence of united "Illyria," stimulated the dormant nationalism of the +Croats and their jealousy of the Magyars. In 1809 Austria was forced to +surrender to Napoleon a large part of Croatia, with Dalmatia, Istria, +Carinthia, Carniola, Gorz and Gradisca. These territories received the +name of the Illyrian Provinces, and remained under French rule until +1813. All the Croats capable of service were enrolled under the French +flag; their country was divided for administrative purposes into +_Croatie civile_ and _Croatie militaire_. In 1814 Dalmatia was +incorporated in Austria, while Istria, Carinthia, Carniola, Gorz and +Gradisca became the Illyrian kingdom of Austria, and retained their +united government until 1849. Croatia and Slavonia were declared +appanages of the Hungarian crown--_partes adnexae_, or subject +provinces, according to the Magyars; _regna socia_, or allied kingdoms, +according to their own view. Each phrase afterwards became the watchword +of a political party: neither is accurate. The Croats preserved their +local autonomy, the use of their language for official purposes, their +elected diet and other ancient institutions, but Hungarian control was +represented by the ban. + +_The National Revival._--The Croats acquiesced in their position of +inferiority until 1840, when the Magyars endeavoured to introduce +Hungarian as the official language. A nationalist or "Illyrist" party +was formed under Count Drackovic and Bishop J. Strossmayer (q.v.) +to combat Hungarian influence and promote the union of the "Illyrian" +Slavs, i.e. the Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. Ljudevit Gaj, the leading +Croatian publicist, strongly supported the movement. The elections of +1842 were marked by a series of sanguinary conflicts between Illyrists +and Magyarists, but not until 1848 were the Illyrists returned to +office. One of their leaders, Baron Josef Jellachich, was appointed ban +in 1848. He strongly advocated the union of Croatia with Carinthia, +Carniola and Styria, but found his policy thwarted as much by the apathy +of the Slovenes as by the hostility of the Magyars. A Croatian +deputation was received at Innsbruck by Ferdinand V., but before its +arrival the Hungarians had obtained a royal manifesto hostile to +Illyrism. But failure only increased the agitation among the southern +Slavs; all attempts at mediation proved unsuccessful, and on the 31st of +August the Croats claimed to have convinced the king that justice was on +their side. On the 11th of September the advance-guard of their army +crossed the Drave under the command of Jellachich. On the 29th they were +driven back from Pakozd by the Hungarians, and retired towards Vienna; +they subsequently aided the Austrian army against the Hungarian +revolutionaries (see JELLACHICH, JOSEF, and HUNGARY: _History_). The +constitution of 1849 proclaimed Croatia and Slavonia separated from +Hungary and united as a single Austrian crownland, to which was annexed +the Croatian littoral, including Fiume. Austrian supremacy lasted until +1867; no ban was appointed, and owing to the suspension of local +autonomy from 1850 to 1860 this period is known as "the ten years of +reaction." It was ended by the celebrated "October Diploma" of the 20th +of October 1860, which promised the restoration of constitutional +liberty. But the so-called "Constitution of February" (21st February +1861) placed all practical power in the hands of an executive controlled +by the government at Vienna. The newly elected diet was soon dissolved +for its advocacy of a great South Slavonic confederation under imperial +rule, and no other was elected until 1865. + +From 1865 to 1867 Strossmayer and the nationalists endeavoured to secure +the formation of a subordinate Austrian kingdom comprising Dalmatia, +Croatia-Slavonia and the islands of the Quarnero. The Magyars had, +however, resolved to subject Croatia-Slavonia to the crown of St +Stephen, and in 1867 had secured control of the finances and electoral +machinery. The office of ban was revived, and its holder, Baron Levin +Rauch, was an ardent Magyarist. At the elections of December 1867 a +majority of Hungarian partisans was easily obtained, and on the 29th of +January the diet passed a resolution in favour of reunion with Hungary. +The whole Opposition refused to take any part in the proceedings, as a +protest against the alleged illegality of the elections; but by the 25th +of June the Croatian commissioners and the Hungarian government had +framed a new constitution, which was ratified in September. Besides +substituting Hungarian for Austrian sovereignty, it provided that the +diet and the ban should control local affairs, subject to the Croatian +minister in the Hungarian cabinet, and that Croatia-Slavonia should pay +55% of its revenue to Hungary for mutual and imperial expenses, but +should be represented in the Hungarian parliament by thirty-six +delegates, and should continue to use Serbo-Croatian as the official +language. Hungary guaranteed that the 45% retained by the territorial +government should be not less than two and a half million gulden +(L250,000). In May 1870 Fiume was annexed to Hungary, but in 1873 the +Croats received as compensation an increase of their guaranteed revenue +to L350,000, an addition of seven to the number of their representatives +at Budapest, and a promise that the military frontier should be +incorporated in the existing civil provinces. In 1877 a convention with +Hungary regulated the control of public estates in the military +frontier, and on the 15th of July 1881 the frontier, including the +district of Sichelburg claimed by Carniola, was handed over to the local +administration. + +Meanwhile the events of 1875-1878 in the Balkans, culminating in the +Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, revived the agitation for +a "Great Croatia." A party separate from the regular Opposition, and +known as the "Party of the Right," was formed to oppose the Magyarists. +Its activity resulted in the riots of 1883, which were with difficulty +quelled; in 1885 its leader, N. Starcevic, was condemned to +imprisonment for the violence of his speeches against the ban, Count +Khuen-Hedervary. In 1888 the moderate Opposition also lost its leader, +Bishop Strossmayer, who was censured by the king on account of his +famous Panslavist telegram to the Russian Church (see STROSSMAYER). In +1889 the financial agreement with Hungary was revised and the +contribution of Croatia-Slavonia to the expenses shared with Hungary or +common to the whole of the Dual Monarchy was raised by 1%. This added +burden combined with bad harvests, a fall in the revenue and a deficit +in the budget to heighten popular discontent. Count Khuen-Hedervary was +responsible for several administrative improvements, but the prosperity +of the country declined from year to year. The government was accused of +illegal interference with the elections, with the use of the Hungarian +arms and language in official documents, and with undue harshness in the +censorship of the press. In May 1903 there were outbreaks of rioting in +Agram, Sissek and other towns, besides serious agrarian disturbances +directed against the Magyarist landowners; in a debate in the Reichsrath +(18th May) an Austrian deputy named Bianchini unsuccessfully attempted +to induce the imperial government to intervene. At the end of June Count +Khuen-Hedervary was made Hungarian prime minister; Count T. +Pejacevic succeeded him as ban, and restored quiet by promising +freedom of assembly and greater liberty of the press. Since 1898 the +financial agreement had only been renewed from year to year. But the +estimates for 1904 revealed another heavy deficit; and this was only +paid by Hungary on condition that the agreement should be renewed until +the 31st of December 1913, and the contribution of 56% maintained. + +The constitutional crisis of 1905 in Hungary stimulated the nationalist +agitation. A congress of Croatian and Dalmatian deputies met at Spalato +to advocate Serbo-Croatian unity, and in 1906 the municipality of Agram +endeavoured to petition the king in favour of union with Bosnia and +Herzegovina. This propaganda was severely discouraged. Baron Rauch, +appointed ban in 1908, refused to summon the diet, in which he could not +command a single vote, and much excitement was caused in 1909 by the +trial of 57 nationalist leaders for high treason. The policy of the +nationalists, who now aimed at the political union, under the +king-emperor, of all Serbo-Croats in Austria-Hungary--upwards of +4,500,000--was less visionary than the older Illyrism, and less +aggressively Panslavist. It no longer sought to include Carinthia, +Carniola and Styria in the proposed "Great Croatia." It was opposed by +Austria as tending to create a new and formidable Slavonic nation within +the Dual Monarchy, and by Hungary as a menace to Magyar predominance in +Transleithania. + + +_Language and Literature._ + +For the place of the Croatian dialects among Slavonic languages +generally, see SLAVS. The Croatian dialects, like the Servian, have +gradually developed from the Old Slavonic, which survives in medieval +liturgies and biblical or apocryphal writings. The course of this +development was similar in both cases, except that the Croats, owing to +their dependence on Austria-Hungary, were not so deeply influenced as +the Serbs by Byzantine culture in the middle ages, and by Russian +linguistic forms and Russian ideas in modern times. The Orthodox Serbs, +moreover, use a modified form of the Cyrillic alphabet, while the Roman +Catholic Croats use Latin characters, except in a few liturgical books +which are written in the ancient Glagolitic script. As the literary +language of both nations is now practically the same, and is, indeed, +commonly known as "Serbo-Croatian," the reader may be referred to the +article SERVIA: _Language and Literature_, for an account of its +history, of its chief literary monuments up to the 19th century and +inclusive of Dalmatian literature, and of the principal differences +between the dialects spoken in Servia and Croatia-Slavonia. + +The three most important Croatian dialects are known as the _Cakavci_, +_Cakavctina_ or, in Servian, _Chakavski_, spoken along the Adriatic +littoral; the _Stokavci_ (_Stokavctina_, _Shtokavski_), spoken in Servia +and elsewhere in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula; and the +_Kajkavci_ (_Kajkavctina_, _Kaykavski_), spoken by the partly Slovene +population of the districts of Agram, Warasdin and Kreuz. This +classification is based on the form, varying in different localities, of +the pronoun _ca_, _cto_, or _kaj_, meaning "what." + +The Cakavci literature includes most of the works of the Dalmatian +writers of the 15th and 16th centuries--the golden age of Serbo-Croatian +literature. Its history is indissolubly interwoven with that of the +Stokavci, which ultimately superseded it, and became the literary +language of all the Serbo-Croats, as it had long been the language of +the best national ballads and legends. + +Kajkavci had from about 1550 to 1830 a distinctive literature, +consisting of chronicles and histories, poems of a religious or +educational character, fables and moral tales. These writings possess +more philological interest than literary merit, and are hardly known +outside Croatia-Slavonia and the Slovene districts of Austria. + +Apart from the Kajkavci dialect, the whole body of Serbo-Croatian +literature up to the 19th century may justly be regarded as the common +heritage of Serbs and Croats. The linguistic and literary reforms which +Dossitey Obradovich and Vuk Stefanovich Karajich carried out in Servia +about the close of this period helped to stimulate among the Croats a +new interest in their national history, their traditions, folk-songs and +folk-tales. One result of this nationalist revival was the unsuccessful +attempt made between 1814 and 1830 to raise the Cakavci dialect to the +rank of a distinctive literary language for Croatia-Slavonia; but the +Illyrist movement of 1840 led to the adoption of the Stokavci, which was +already the vernacular of the majority of Serbo-Croats. Ljudevit Gaj +(1809-1872), though he failed to create an artificial literary language +by the fusion of the principal dialects spoken by Serbs, Croats and +Slovenes, was by his championship of Illyrism instrumental in securing +the triumph of the Stokavci. Gaj was a poet of considerable talent, and +one of the founders of Croatian journalism. Among other writers of the +first half of the 19th century may be mentioned Ivan Mazuranic +(1813-1890), whose first poems were published in the _Danica ilirska_ +("Illyrian Dawnstar"), a journal founded and for a time edited by Gaj. +In 1846 Mazuranic published his _Smrt Smail Aga Cengica_ ("Death of +Ismail Aga Cengic"), called by Serbo-Croats the "Epos of Hate." This +remarkable poem, written in the metre of the old Servian ballads, gives +a vivid description of life in Bosnia under Turkish rule, and of the +hereditary border feuds between Christians and Moslems. In later life +Mazuranic distinguished himself as a statesman, and became ban of +Croatia from 1873 to 1880. Other writers representative of Croatian +literature before 1867 were the lyric poet Stanko Vraz (1810-1851) and +Dragutin Rakovac (1813-1854), the author of many patriotic songs. + +With the foundation of the South Slavonic Academy at Agram, in 1867, the +study of science and history received a new impetus. Under the +presidency of Franko Racki (1825-1894) the academy, with its journal the +_Rad jugoskovenske Akademije_, became the headquarters of an active +group of savants, among whom may be mentioned Vastroslav Jagic (b. +1838), sometime editor of the _Archiv fur slavische Philologie_; the +historians Sime Ljubic (1822-1896) and Vjekoslav Klaic, author of +several standard works on Croatia and the Croats; the lexicographer +Bogoslav Sulek (1816-1895); the ethnographer and philologist Franko +Karelac (1811-1874). In Dalmatia, where the Ragusan journal _Slovinac_ +has served, like the Agram _Rad_, as a focus of literary activity, there +have been numerous poets and prose writers, associated, in many cases, +with the Illyrist or the nationalist propaganda. Among these may be +mentioned Count Medo Pucic (1821-1882), and the dramatist Matija Ban +(1818-1903), whose tragedy _Meyrimah_ is considered by many the finest +dramatic poem in the Serbo-Croatian language. + + AUTHORITIES.--For the topography, products, inhabitants and modern + condition of Croatia-Slavonia, see _Bau und Bild Osterreichs_, by C. + Diener, F. E. Suess, R. Hoernes and V. Uhlig (Leipzig, 1903); _Die + osterreich-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild_, vol. xxiv., edited + by J. von Weilen (Vienna, 1902); _Fuhrer durch Ungarn, Kroatien und + Slawonien_, by B. Alfoldi (Vienna, 1900); _Reisefuhrer durch Kroatien + und Slawonien_, by A. Lukcic (Agram, 1893); + _Vegetationsverhaltnisse von Kroatien_, by A. Neilreich (Vienna, + 1868); "Die Slowenen," by J. Suman, and "Die Kroaten," by F. Stare, + in vol. x. of _Die Volker Osterreich-Ungarns_ (Vienna, 1881-1882); + _Die Serbokroaten der adriatischen Kustenlander_, by A. Weisbach + (Berlin, 1884); and the map _Zemljovid Hrvatske i Slavonije_, by M. + Katzenschlager (Vienna, 1895). The only detailed history is one in + Serbo-Croatian, written by a succession of the highest native + authorities, and published by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, from + 1861). It is largely based on the following works: _Vetera monumenta + historica Hungariam sacram illustrantia_, containing documents from + the Vatican library edited by A. Theiner (Rome, 1860); _Vetera + monumenta historiam Slavorum meridionalium illustrantia_, published by + the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1863, &c.); _Jura regni Croatiae, + Dalmatiae, et Slavoniae cum privilegiis_, by J. Kukuljevic (Agram, + 1861-1862); _Monumenta historica Slavorum meridionalium_, by V. + Makushev, in Latin and Italian, with notes in Slavonic (Belgrade, + 1885); _De regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae_, by G. Lucio (Amsterdam, 1666; + see DALMATIA, under bibliography); _Regno degli Slavi_, by M. Orbini + (Pesaro, 1601); and, for ecclesiastical history, _Illyricum sacrum_, + by D. Farlatus and others (Venice, 1751-1819). See also _Hrvatska i + Hrvati_, by V. Klaic (Agram, 1890, &c.); and _Slawonien vom 10. bis + zum 13. Jahrhundert_, translated from the Serbo-Croatian of Klaic + by J. von Vojnicic (Agram, 1882). (K. G. J.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Also written _Sirmia_ and _Sirmium_; Serbo-Croatian _Sriem_; + Hungarian _Szerem_. + + [2] It is impossible to exclude Fiume from any survey of Croatian + trade, although Fiume belongs politically to Hungary proper, and is + the main outlet for Hungarian emigration and maritime commerce. + + [3] It is important to notice the value of the following letters and + signs, which recur frequently:--c = ts; c = ch (hard); c = _ch_ + (soft); j = y, or j in German; c = sh; z = zh, or j in French. + + + + +CROCIDOLITE, a mineral described in 1815 by M. H. Klaproth under the +name _Blaueisenstein_ (blue ironstone), and in 1831 by J. F. Hausmann, +who gave it its present name on account of its nap-like appearance (Gr. +[Greek: krokus], nap of cloth). It is a blue fibrous mineral belonging +to the amphibole group and closely related to riebeckite; chemically it +is an iron sodium silicate. Its resemblance to asbestos has gained for +it the name Cape Asbestos, the chief occurrence being in Cape Colony. +The mineral suffers alteration by removal of alkali and peroxidation of +the ferrous iron, and further by deposition of silica between the +fibres, or by their replacement by silica; a hard siliceous mineral is +thus formed which when polished shows, in consequence of its fibrous +structure, a beautiful chatoyance or silky lustre. This is the +ornamental stone which is known when blue as "hawk's-eye," and when of +rich golden brown colour as "tiger-eye." The latter, which represents +the final alteration of the crocidolite, has become very fashionable as +"South African cat's eye," and is often termed "crocidolite," though +practically only a mixture of quartz with brown oxide of iron. The +following are analyses by A. Renard and C. Klement of the unaltered +crocidolite and of the blue and brown products of alteration:-- + + +---------------+--------------+-------------+------------+ + | | Crocidolite. | Hawk's-eye. | Tiger-eye. | + | +--------------+-------------+------------+ + | Silica | 51.89 | 93.45 | 93.05 | + | Ferric oxide | 19.22 | 2.41 | 4.94 | + | Alumina | .. | 0.23 | 0.66 | + | Ferrous oxide | 17.53 | 1.43 | .. | + | Magnesia | 2.43 | 0.22 | 0.26 | + | Lime | 0.40 | 0.13 | 0.44 | + | Soda | 7.71 | .. | .. | + | Potash | 0.15 | .. | .. | + | Water | 2.36 | 0.82 | 0.76 | + | +--------------+-------------+------------+ + | Total | 101.69 | 98.69 | 100.11 | + +---------------+--------------+-------------+------------+ + + +Another alteration product of the crocidolite, consisting of silica and +ferric hydrate, has been called griqualandite. Crocidolite and the +minerals resulting from its alteration occur in seams, associated with +magnetite and other iron-ores, in the jasper-slates of the Asbestos +Mountains in Griqualand West, Cape Colony. It is known also from a few +other localities, but only in subordinate quantity. (See CAT'S-EYE.) + + + + +CROCKET (Ital. _uncinetti_, Fr. _crochet_, _crosse_, Ger. _Haklein_, +_Knollen_), in architecture, an ornament running up the sides of +gablets, hood-moulds, pinnacles, spires; generally a winding stem like a +creeping plant, with flowers or leaves projecting at intervals, and +terminating in a finial. + + + + +CROCKETT, DAVID (1786-1836), American frontiersman, was born in Greene +county, Tennessee, on the 17th of August 1786. His education was +obtained chiefly in the rough school of experience in the Tennessee +backwoods, where he acquired a wide reputation as a hunter, trapper and +marksman. In 1813-1814 he served in the Creek War under Andrew Jackson, +and subsequently became a colonel in the Tennessee militia. In 1821-1824 +he was a member of the state legislature, having won his election not by +political speeches but by telling stories. In 1827 he was elected to the +national House of Representatives as a Jackson Democrat, and was +re-elected in 1829. At Washington his shrewdness, eccentric manners and +peculiar wit made him a conspicuous figure, but he was too independent +to be a supporter of all Jackson's measures, and his opposition to the +president's Indian policy led to administration influences being turned +against him with the result that he was defeated for re-election in +1831. He was again elected in 1833, but in 1835 lost his seat a second +time, being then a vigorous opponent of many distinctively Jacksonian +measures. Discouraged and disgusted, he left his native state, and +emigrated to Texas, then engaged in its struggle for independence. There +he lost his life as one of the defenders of the Alamo at San Antonio on +the 6th of March 1836. + + A so-called "autobiography," which he very probably dictated or at + least authorized, was published in Philadelphia in 1834; a work + purporting to be a continuation of this autobiography and entitled + _Colonel Crockett's Exploits and Adventures in Texas_ (Philadelphia, + 1836) is undoubtedly spurious. These two works were subsequently + combined in a single volume, of which there have been several + editions. Numerous popular biographies have been written, the best by + E. S. Ellis (Philadelphia, 1884). + + + + +CROCKETT, SAMUEL RUTHERFORD (1860- ), Scottish novelist, was born at +Duchrae, Galloway, on the 24th of September 1860, the son of a Galloway +farmer. He was brought up on a Galloway farm, and graduated from +Edinburgh University in 1879. After some years of travel he became in +1886 minister of Penicuik, but eventually abandoned the Free Church +ministry for novel-writing. The success of Mr J. M. Barrie had created a +demand for stories in the Scottish dialect when Mr Crockett published +his successful story of _The Stickit Minister_ in 1893. It was followed +by a rapidly produced series of popular novels dealing often with the +past history of Scotland, or with his native Galloway. Such are _The +Raiders_, _The Lilac Sun-bonnet_ and _Mad Sir Uchtred_ in 1894; _The Men +of the Moss Hags_ in 1895; _Cleg Kelly_ and _The Grey Man_ in 1896; _The +Surprising Adventures of Sir Toady Lion_ (1897); _The Red Axe_ (1898); +_Kit Kennedy_ (1899); _Joan of the Sword Hand_ and _Little Anna Mark_ in +1900; _Flower o' the Corn_ (1902); _Red Cap Tales_ (1904), &c. + + + + +CROCKFORD, WILLIAM (1775-1844), proprietor of Crockford's Club, was born +in London in 1775, the son of a fishmonger, and for some time himself +carried on that business. After winning a large sum of money--according +to one story L100,000--either at cards or by running a gambling +establishment, he built, in 1827, a luxurious gambling house at 50 St +James's Street, which, to ensure exclusiveness, he organized as a club. +Crockford's quickly became the rage; every English social celebrity and +every distinguished foreigner visiting London hastened to become a +member. Even the duke of Wellington joined, though, it is averred, only +in order to be able to blackball his son, Lord Douro, should he seek +election. Hazard was the favourite game, and very large sums changed +hands. Crockford retired in 1840, when, in the expressive language of +Captain R. H. Gronow, he had "won the whole of the ready money of the +then existing generation." He took, indeed, about L1,200,000 out of the +club, but subsequently lost most of it in unlucky speculations. +Crockford died on the 24th of May 1844. + + See John Timbs, _Club Life of London_ (London, 1866); Gronow, + _Celebrities of London and Paris_, 3rd series (London, 1865). + + + + +CROCODILE, a name for certain reptiles, taken from ancient Gr. [Greek: +kordylos], signifying lizard and newt; with reduplication [Greek: +korkordylos], and by metathesis ultimately [Greek: krokodeilos]. +Herodotus makes mention of them, and tells us that the Egyptian name was +_champsa_. The Arabic term is _ledschun_. The same root _kar_ leads +through something like _kar-kar-ta_, _glakarta_ (_glazard_ in Breton), +to _lacerta_ and to "lizard." Lacerta in turn has become, in Spanish, +_lagarto_, which, with the article, _el lagarto_, is the origin of the +term "alligator." This word is, however, artificial, although now widely +used; Spanish and Portuguese-speaking people in America universally call +the crocodile and the alligator simply _lagarto_, which is never +intended for lizard. + +The Crocodilia form a separate order of reptiles with many +peculiarities. The premaxillae are short and always enclose the +nostrils. The posterior nares or choanae open far behind in the roof of +the mouth, in recent forms within the pterygoids. The under jaws are +hinged on to the quadrate bones, which extend obliquely backwards, and +are immovably wedged in between the squamosal and the lateral occipital +wings. The teeth form a complete series in the under jaw, and in the +upper jaw on the premaxillary and maxillary bones. They are conical and +deeply implanted in separate sockets. They are often shed throughout +life, the successors lying on the inner side, and with their caps partly +fitting into the wide open roots of the older teeth. Especially in +alligators the upper teeth overlap laterally those of the lower jaw, +whilst in most crocodiles the overlapping is less marked and the teeth +mostly interlock, a feature which increases with the slenderness of the +snout. In old specimens some of the longer, lower teeth work their tips +into deep pits, and ultimately even perforate the corresponding parts of +the upper jaw. The first and second vertebrae each have a pair of long, +movable ribs. There is a compound abdominal sternum. The so-called pubic +bones are large and movable. There are five fingers and four toes, +provided with claws, excepting the outer digits. + +The tongue is flat and thick, attached by its whole under surface; its +hinder margin is raised into a transverse fold, which, by meeting a +similar fold from the palate, can shut off the mouth completely from the +wide cavity of the throat. Dorsally the posterior nares open into this +cavity. Consequently the beast can lie submerged in the water, with only +the nostrils exposed, and with the mouth open, and breathe without water +entering the windpipe. Within the glottis is a pair of membranous folds +which serve as vocal cords; all the Crocodilia are possessed of a loud, +bellowing voice. + +The stomach is globular, rather muscular, with a pair of tendinous +centres like those of birds; its size is comparatively small, but the +digestion is so rapid and powerful that every bone of the creature's +prey is dissolved whilst still being stowed away in the wide and long +gullet. The anal opening forms a longitudinal slit; within it, arising +from its anterior corner, is the unpaired copulatory organ. The vascular +system has attained the highest state of development of all reptiles. +The heart is practically quadrilocular, the right and left halves being +completely partitioned, except for a small communication, the _foramen +Panizzae_, between the right and left aortae where these cross each +other on leaving their respective ventricles. The outer ear lies in a +recess which can be closed tightly by a dorsal flap of skin. The power +of hearing is acute, and so is the sight, the eyes being protected by +upper and lower lids and by a nictitating membrane. The skin of the +whole body is scaly, with a hard, horny, waterproof covering of the +epidermis, but between these mostly flat scales the skin is soft. The +scutes or dermal portions of the scales are more or less ossified, +especially on the back, and form the characteristic dermal armour. The +skins or "hides" of commerce consist entirely of the tanned cutis +minus, the epidermis and the horny coverings of the scutes. All the +Crocodilia possess two pairs of musk-glands in the skin; one is situated +on the inner side of the lower jaw. The opening of the glands is +slit-like and leads into a pocket, which is filled with a smeary, +strongly scented matter. The other pair lies just within the lips of the +cloacal opening. + +Propagation takes place by eggs, which are oval, quite white, with a +very hard and strong shell. Their size varies from 2 to 4 in. in length, +according to the size of the species and the age of the female. She lays +several dozen eggs in a carefully prepared nest. The Nile crocodile +makes a hole in white sand, which is then filled up and smoothed over; +the mother sleeps upon the nest, and keeps watch over her eggs, and when +these are near hatching--after about twelve weeks--she removes the 18 +in. or 2 ft. of sand. Other species, especially the alligators, make a +very large nest of leaves, twigs and humus, scraping together a mound +about a yard high and two or more yards in diameter. The eggs, in +several layers, are laid near the top. The adults frequently dig long +subterranean passages into the banks of streams, and, during dry +seasons, they have been found deep in the hardened mud, whence they +emerge with the beginning of the rains. They spend most of their time in +the water, but are also very fond of basking in the hot sun on the banks +of rivers or in marshes, usually with the head turned towards the water, +to which they take on the slightest alarm. They can walk perfectly well, +and they do so deliberately with the whole body raised a little above +the ground. When their pools dry up, or when in search of new +hunting-grounds, they sometimes undertake long wanderings over land. But +the water is their true element. They swim rapidly, propelled by the +powerful tail and by the mostly webbed limbs, or they submerge +themselves, with only the tip of the nose and the eyes showing, or +sometimes also the back. They then look like floating logs; and thus +they float or gently approach their prey, which consists of anything +they can overpower. Many a large mammal coming to drink at its +accustomed place is dragged into the water by the lurking monster. +Certainly there are occasional man-eaters amongst them, and in some +countries they are much feared. As a rule, however, they are so wary and +suspicious that they are very difficult to approach, and their haunts +are so well stocked with fish and other game that they make off and hide +rather than attack a man swimming in their waters. But if a dog is sent +in there will be a sudden yelp, the splash from a big tail, and a +widening eddy. + +Crocodile stories, not all fabulous, are plentiful, and begin with one +of the oldest writings in the world, the book of Job. "Canst thou draw +leviathan with a hook? or his tongue with a cord which thou lettest +down?... Lay thine hand upon him, remember the battle, do no more." This +is a very interesting passage, since it can apply only to a large-sized +crocodile. Now nothing is known of the occurrence of such in Arabia, but +a few specimens of rather small size seem still to exist in Syria, in +the Wadi Zerka, an eastern tributary of the Jordan. + +Crocodiles are caught in various ways,--for instance, with two pointed +sticks, which are fastened crosswise within the bait, an animal's +entrails, to which is attached a rope. When the creature has swallowed +the spiked bait it keeps its jaws so firmly closed that it can be +dragged out of the water. A kind of plover, _Pluvianus aegyptius_, often +sits upon basking crocodiles, and, since the latter often rest with +gaping mouth, it is possible that these agile birds do pick the +reptiles' teeth in search of parasites. Being a very watchful bird, its +cry of warning, when it flies off on the approach of danger, is probably +appreciated by the crocodile. But the story of the ichneumon or mongoose +is a fable. Although an inveterate destroyer of eggs, this little +creature prefers those of birds and the soft-shelled eggs of lizards to +the very hard and strong-shelled eggs which are deeply buried in the +crocodile's nest. + + Considering the interest which is taken in crocodiles and their + allies, on account of their size, their dangerous nature and the + sporting trophies which they yield, the following "key," based upon + easily ascertained characters of the skull, is given. + + I. Snout very long and slender. The mandibular symphysis extends + backwards at least to the fifteenth tooth. + + (a) Nasal bones very small, and widely separated from the + premaxilla (which encloses the nostrils) by the maxillaries which + join each other for a long distance along the dorsal mid-line.... + _Gavialis gangeticus_ of India, the "gharial" or fish-eater. + + (b) Nasal bones long, so as to be in contact with the premaxilla at + the hinder corner of the nostril groove.... _Tomistoma schlegeli_ of + Borneo, Malacca and Sumatra. + + II. Snout mostly triangular or rounded off. The mandibular symphysis + does not reach beyond the eighth tooth. + + (a), The fourth mandibular tooth fits into a notch in the upper jaw. + Crocodiles. + + 1. Without a bon nasal septum between the nostrils.... + Crocodiles. + + 2. The nasal bones project through the nasal groove, forming a + bony septum. _Osteolaemus frontatus s. tetraspis_ of West rica. + + (b) Fourth mandibular tooth fitting into a pit in the upper jaw. + Alligators. + + 1. Without a bony nasal septum.... _Caiman_, Central and South + America. + + 2. Nasal bones dividing the nasal groove.... _Alligator_, America + and China. + +The genus _Cracodilus_ contains seven species. _C. vulgaris_ or +_niloticus_ of most of Africa, is found from the Senegal to Egypt and to +Madagascar, reaching a length of 15 ft. It has eighteen or nineteen +upper and fifteen lower teeth on each side. _C. palustris_, the "mugger" +or "marsh crocodile" of India and Ceylon, extends westwards into +Baluchistan, eastwards into the Malay islands. It has nineteen upper and +lower teeth on either side. The scutes on the neck, six in number, are +packed closely together, the four biggest forming a square. The length +of 12 ft. is a fair size for a large specimen. _C. porosus_ or +_biporcatus_ is easily recognised by the prominent longitudinal ridge +which extends in front of each eye. Specimens of more than 20 ft. in +length are not uncommon, and a monster of 33 ft. is on record. It is +essentially an inhabitant of tidal waters and estuaries, and often goes +out to sea; hence its wide distribution, from the whole coast of Bengal +to southern China, to the northern coasts of Australia and even to the +Fiji islands. Australians are in the habit of calling their crocodiles +alligators. _C. cataphractus_ is the common crocodile of West Africa, +easily recognised by the slender snout which resembles that of the +gavial, but the mandibular symphysis does not reach beyond the eighth +tooth. _C. johnstoni_ of northern Australia and Queensland is allied to +the last species mentioned, with which it agrees by the slender snout. +Lastly there are two species of true crocodiles in America, _C. +intermedius_ of the Orinoco, allied to the former, and _C. americanus_ +or _acutus_ of the West Indies, Mexico, Central America to Venezuela and +Ecuador; its characteristic feature is a median ridge or swelling on the +snout, which is rather slender. + +The above list shows that the usual statement that crocodiles inhabit +the Old World and alligators the New World is not strictly true. In the +Tertiary epoch alligators, crocodiles and long-snouted gavials existed +in Europe. (H. F. G.) + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 7, Slice 6, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 32423.txt or 32423.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/2/4/2/32423/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Marius Masi, Juliet +Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team +at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |