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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Short History of Wales, by Owen M. Edwards
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions 
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at 
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+
+
+
+Title: A Short History of Wales
+
+
+Author: Owen M. Edwards
+
+
+
+Release Date: September 24, 2014  [eBook #3260]
+[This file was first posted on 2 March 2001]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SHORT HISTORY OF WALES***
+
+
+Transcribed from the 1922 T. Fisher Unwin Ltd. edition by David Price,
+email ccx074@pglaf.org
+
+
+
+
+
+                                    A
+                              SHORT HISTORY
+                                    OF
+                                  WALES
+
+
+                                    BY
+                               OWEN EDWARDS
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+                         T.  FISHER  UNWIN  LTD.
+                         LONDON:  ADELPHI TERRACE
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+_First Published_          1906
+_Second Impression_        1909
+_Third Impression_         1913
+_Fourth Impression_        1920
+_Fifth Impression_         1922
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+                         [_All rights reserved_]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+CHAP.                                                             PAGE
+        I.  WALES: WHAT IT IS MADE OF, AND WHAT IT IS LIKE           1
+       II.  THE WANDERING NATIONS.  THE IBERIANS AND CELTS           5
+      III.  ROME.  ROMAN CONQUEST, SETTLEMENT, AND                  10
+            INFLUENCE
+       IV.  THE NAME OF CHRIST.  THE OLD RELIGION AND THE           15
+            NEW
+        V.  THE WELSH KINGS.  WEARERS OF THE “CROWN OF              20
+            ARTHUR”
+       VI.  THE LAWS OF HOWEL                                       25
+      VII.  THE NORMANS IN WALES                                    30
+     VIII.  GRIFFITH AP CONAN AND GRIFFITH AP REES                  35
+       IX.  OWEN GWYNEDD AND THE LORD REES                          40
+        X.  LLYWELYN THE GREAT                                      45
+       XI.  THE LAST LLYWELYN                                       50
+      XII.  CONQUERED WALES.  HOW IT WAS GOVERNED                   55
+     XIII.  THE CASTLE AND THE LONG-BOW                             60
+      XIV.  THE RISE OF THE PEASANT                                 65
+       XV.  OWEN GLENDOWER AND HIS IDEALS                           70
+      XVI.  THE WARS OF THE ROSES IN WALES                          75
+     XVII.  THE RULE OF THE TUDORS                                  80
+    XVIII.  THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION                              85
+      XIX.  THE CIVIL WAR IN WALES                                  90
+       XX.  THE GREAT REVOLUTION                                    96
+      XXI.  HOWEL HARRIS AND THE AWAKENING                         102
+     XXII.  THE REFORM ACTS                                        107
+    XXIII.  THE FORMATION OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM                  112
+     XXIV.  THE GROWTH OF SELF-GOVERNMENT                          117
+      XXV.  THE WALES OF TO-DAY                                    123
+                               SUMMARY
+        I.  THE ISOLATION OF WALES                                 129
+       II.  THE WALES OF THE PRINCES                               130
+      III.  THE WALES OF THE PEOPLE                                133
+                                TABLES
+        I.  THE HOUSE OF CUNEDDA                                   135
+       II.  THE HOUSE OF GWYNEDD                                   136
+      III.  THE HOUSE OF DYNEVOR                                   136
+       IV.  THE HOUSE OF POWYS                                     137
+        V.  THE HOUSE OF MORTIMER                                  138
+       VI.  THE HOUSE OF TUTOR                                     139
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+THIS little book is meant for those who have never read any Welsh history
+before.  It is not taken for granted that the reader knows either Latin
+or Welsh.
+
+A fuller outline may be read in _The Story of Wales_, in the “Story of
+the Nations” series; and a still fuller one in _The Welsh People_ of Rhys
+and Brynmor Jones.  Of fairly small and cheap books in various periods I
+may mention Rhys’ _Celtic Britain_, Owen Rhoscomyl’s _Flame Bearers of
+Welsh History_, Henry Owen’s _Gerald the Welshman_, Bradley’s _Owen
+Glendower_, Newell’s _Welsh Church_, and Rees _Protestant Non-conformity
+in Wales_.  More elaborate and expensive books are Seebohm’s _Village
+Community_ and _Tribal System in Wales_, Clark’s _Medieval Military
+Architecture_, Morris’ _Welsh Wars of Edward I._, Southall’s _Wales and
+Her Language_.  In writing local history, A. N. Palmer’s _History of
+Wrexham_ and companion volumes are models.
+
+If you turn to a library, you will find much information about Wales in
+_Social England_, the _Dictionary of National Biography_, the
+publications of the Cymmrodorion and other societies.  You will find
+articles of great value and interest over the names of F. H. Haverfield,
+J. W. Willis-Bund, Egerton Phillimore, the Honourable Mrs Bulkeley Owen
+(_Gwenrhian Gwynedd_), Henry Owen, the late David Lewis, T. F. Tout, J.
+E. Lloyd, D. Lleufer Thomas, W. Llywelyn Williams, J. Arthur Price, J. H.
+Davies, J. Ballinger, Edward Owen, Hubert Hall, Hugh Williams, R. A.
+Roberts, A. W. Wade-Evans, E. A. Lewis.  These are only a few out of the
+many who are now working in the rich and unexplored field of Welsh
+history.  I put down the names only of those I had to consult in writing
+a small book like this.
+
+The sources are mostly in Latin or Welsh.  Many volumes of chronicles,
+charters, and historical poems have been published by the Government, by
+the Corporation of Cardiff, by J. Gwenogvryn Evans, by H. de Grey Birch,
+and others.  But, so far, we have not had the interesting chronicles and
+poems translated into English as they ought to be, and published in well
+edited, not too expensive volumes.
+
+                                                              OWEN EDWARDS
+
+LINCOLN COLLEGE, OXFORD.
+
+
+
+
+I
+WALES
+
+
+WALES is a row of hills, rising between the Irish Sea on the west and the
+English plains on the east.  If you come from the west along the sea, or
+if you cross the Severn or the Dee from the east, you will see that Wales
+is a country all by itself.  It rises grandly and proudly.  If you are a
+stranger, you will think of it as “Wales”—a strange country; if you are
+Welsh, you will think of it as “Cymru”—a land of brothers.
+
+The geologist will tell you how Wales was made; the geographer will tell
+you what it is like now; the historian will tell you what its people have
+done and what they are.  All three will tell you that it is a very
+interesting country.
+
+The rocks of Wales are older and harder than the rocks of the plains; and
+as you travel from the south to the north, the older and harder they
+become.  The highest mountains of Wales, and some of its hills, have
+crests of the very oldest and hardest rock—granite, porphyry, and basalt;
+and these rocks are given their form by fire.  But the greater part of
+the country is made of rocks formed by water—still the oldest of their
+kind.  In the north-west, centre, and west—about two-thirds of the whole
+country,—the rocks are chiefly slate and shale; in the south-east they
+are chiefly old red sandstone; in the north-east, but chiefly in the
+south, they are limestone and coal.
+
+Its rocks give Wales its famous scenery—its rugged peaks, its romantic
+glens, its rushing rivers.  They are also its chief wealth—granite,
+slate, limestone, coal; and lodes of still more precious metals—iron,
+lead, silver, and gold—run through them.
+
+The highest mountain in Wales is Snowdon, which is 3,570 feet above the
+level of the sea.  For every 300 feet we go up, the temperature becomes
+one degree cooler.  At about 1,000 feet it becomes too cold for wheat; at
+about 1,500 it becomes too cold for corn; at about 2,000 it is too cold
+for cattle; mountain ponies graze still higher; the bleak upper slopes
+are left to the small and valuable Welsh sheep.
+
+There are three belts of soil around the hills—arable, pasture, and
+sheep-run—one above the other.  The arable land forms about a third of
+the country; it lies along the sea border, on the slopes above the Dee
+and the Severn, and in the deep valleys of the rivers which pierce far
+inland,—the Severn, Wye, Usk, Towy, Teivy, Dovey, Conway, and Clwyd.  The
+pasture land, the land of small mountain farms, forms the middle third;
+it is a land of tiny valleys and small plains, ever fostered by the warm,
+moist west wind.  Above it, the remaining third is stormy sheep-run, wide
+green slopes and wild moors, steep glens and rocky heights.
+
+From north-west to south-east the line of high hills runs.  In the
+north-west corner, Snowdon towers among a number of heights over 3,000
+feet.  At its feet, to the north-west, the isle of Anglesey lies.  The
+peninsula of Lleyn, with a central ridge of rock, and slopes of pasture
+lands, runs to the south-west.  To the east, beyond the Conway, lie the
+Hiraethog mountains, with lower heights and wider reaches; further east
+again, over the Clwyd, are the still lower hills of Flint.
+
+To the south, 30 miles as the crow flies, over the slate country, the
+Berwyns are seen clearly.  From a peak among these—Cader Vronwen (2,573
+feet), or the Aran (2,970 feet), or Cader Idris (2,929 feet)—we look east
+and south, over the hilly slopes of the upper Severn country.
+
+Another 30 miles to the south rises green Plinlimmon (2,469 feet); from
+it we see the high moorlands of central Wales, sloping to Cardigan Bay on
+the west and to the valley of the Severn, now a lordly English river, on
+the east.
+
+Forty miles south the Black Mountain (2,630 feet) rises beyond the Wye,
+and the Brecon Beacons (2,910 feet) beyond the Usk.  West of these the
+hills fade away into the broad peninsula of Dyved.  Southwards we look
+over hills of coal and iron to the pleasant sea-fringed plain of Gwent.
+
+On the north and the west the sea is shallow; in some places it is under
+10 fathoms for 10 miles from the shore, and under 20 fathoms for 20
+miles.  Tales of drowned lands are told—of the sands of Lavan, of the
+feast of drunken Seithenyn, and of the bells of Aberdovey.  But the sea
+is a kind neighbour.  Its soft, warm winds bathe the hills with life; and
+the great sweep of the big Atlantic waves into the river mouths help our
+commerce.  Holyhead, Milford Haven, Swansea, Newport, Barry, and
+Cardiff—now one of the chief ports of the world—can welcome the largest
+vessels afloat.  The herring is plentiful on the west coast, and trout
+and salmon in the rivers.
+
+
+
+
+II
+THE WANDERING NATIONS
+
+
+BY land and by sea, race after race has come to make the hills of Wales
+its home.  One race would be short, with dark eyes and black hair;
+another would be tall, with blue eyes and fair hair.  They came from
+different countries and along different paths, but each race brought some
+good with it.  One brought skill in taming animals, until it had at last
+tamed even the pig and the bee; another brought iron tools to take the
+place of stone ones.  Another brought the energy of the chase and war,
+and another a delight in sailing a ship or in building a fortress.
+
+One thing they had in common—they wandered, and they wandered to the
+west.  From the cold wastes and the dark forests of the north and east,
+they were ever pushing west to more sunny lands.  As far back as we can
+see, the great migration of nations to the west was going on.  The
+islands of Britain were the furthest point they could reach; for beyond
+it, at that time, no man had dared to sail into the unknown expanse of
+the ocean of the west.  In the islands of Britain, the mountains of Wales
+were among the most difficult to win, and it was only the bravest and the
+hardiest that could make their home among them.
+
+The first races that came were short and dark.  They came in tribes.
+They had tribal marks, the picture of an animal as a rule; and they had a
+strange fancy that this animal was their ancestor.  It may be that the
+local nicknames which are still remembered—such as “the pigs of
+Anglesey,” “the dogs of Denbigh,” “the cats of Ruthin,” “the crows of
+Harlech,” “the gadflies of Mawddwy”—were the proud tribe titles of these
+early people.  Their weapons and tools were polished stone; their hammers
+and hatchets and adzes, their lance heads and their arrow tips, were of
+the hardest igneous rock—chipped and ground with patient labour.
+
+The people who come first have the best chance of staying, if only they
+are willing to learn; hardy plants will soon take the place of tender
+plants if left alone.  The short dark people are still the main part, not
+only of the Welsh, but of the British people.  It is true that their
+language has disappeared, except a few place-names.  But languages are
+far more fleeting than races.  The loss of its language does not show
+that a race is dead; it only shows that it is very anxious to change and
+learn.  Some languages easily give place to others, and we say that the
+people who speak these languages are good linguists, like Danes and
+Slavs.  Other languages persist, those who speak them are unwilling to
+speak any new language, and this is the reason why Spanish and English
+are so widespread.
+
+After the short dark race came a tall fair-haired people.  They came in
+families as well as in tribes.  They had iron weapons and tools, and the
+short dark people could not keep them at bay with their bone-tipped
+spears and flint-headed arrows.  We know nothing about the struggle
+between them.  But it may be that the fairy stories we were told when
+children come from those far-off times.  If a fairy maiden came from lake
+or mound to live among men, she vanished at once if touched with iron.
+Is this, learned men have asked, a dim memory of the victory of iron over
+stone?
+
+The name given to the short dark man is usually Iberian; the name given
+to the tall fair man who followed him is Celt.  The two learnt to live
+together in the same country.  The conqueror probably looked upon himself
+at first as the master of the conquered, then as simply belonging to a
+superior race, but gradually the distinction vanished.  The language
+remained the language of the Celt; it is called an Aryan language, a
+language as noble among languages as the Aran is among its hills.  It is
+still spoken in Wales, in Brittany, in Ireland, in the Highlands of
+Scotland, and in the Isle of Man.  It was also spoken in Cornwall till
+the eighteenth century; and Yorkshire dalesmen still count their sheep in
+Welsh.  English is another Aryan tongue.
+
+The more mixed a nation is, the more rich its life and the greater its
+future.  Purity of blood is not a thing to boast of, and no great and
+progressive nation comes from one breed of men.  Some races have more
+imagination than others, or a finer feeling for beauty; others have more
+energy and practical wisdom.  The best nations have both; and they have
+both, probably, because many races have been blended in their making.
+There is hardly a parish in Wales in which there are not different types
+of faces and different kinds of character.
+
+The wandering of nations has never really stopped.  The Celt was followed
+by his cousins—the Angle and the Saxon.  These, again, were followed by
+races still more closely related to them—the Normans and the Danes and
+the Flemings.  They have all left their mark on Wales and on the Welsh
+character.
+
+The migration is still going on.  Trace the history of an upland Welsh
+parish, and you will find that, in a surprisingly short time, the old
+families, high and low, have given place to newcomers.  Look into the
+trains which carry emigrants from Hull or London to Liverpool on their
+way west—they have the blue eyes and yellow hair of those who came two
+thousand years ago.  But this country is no longer their goal, the great
+continent of America has been discovered beyond.  Fits of longing for
+wandering come over the Welsh periodically, as they came over the
+Danes—caused by scarcity of food and density of population, or by a sense
+of oppression and a yearning for freedom.  An empty stomach sometimes,
+and sometimes a fiery imagination, sent a crowd of adventurers to new
+lands.  And it is thus that every living nation is ever renewing its
+youth.
+
+
+
+
+III
+ROME
+
+
+IT is not a spirit of adventure and daring alone that makes a nation.
+Rome rose to say that it must have the spirit of order and law too.  It
+rose in the path of the nations; it built the walls of its empire,
+guarded by the camps of its legions, right across it.  For four hundred
+years the wandering of nations ceased; the nations stopped—and they began
+to till the ground, to live in cities, to form states.  The hush of this
+peace did not last, but the memory of it remained in the life of every
+nation that felt it.  Unity and law tempered freedom and change.
+
+The name of Rome was made known, and made terrible, through Wales by a
+great battle fought on the eastern slopes of the Berwyn.  The Romans had
+conquered the lands beyond the Severn, and had placed themselves firmly
+near the banks of that river at Glevum and Uriconium.  Glevum is our
+Gloucester, and its streets are still as the Roman architect planned
+them.  Uriconium is the burnt and buried city beyond Shrewsbury; the
+skulls found in it, and its implements of industry, and the toys of its
+children, you can see in the Shrewsbury Museum.
+
+The British leader in the great battle was Caratacus, the general who had
+fought the Romans step by step until he had come to the borders of Wales,
+to summon the warlike Silures to save their country.  We do not know the
+site of the great battle, though the Roman historian Tacitus gives a
+graphic description of it.  The Britons were on a hill side sloping down
+to a river, and the Romans could only attack them in front.  The enemy
+waded the river, however, and scaled the wall on its further bank; and in
+the fierce lance and sword fight the host of Caratacus lost the day.  He
+fled, but was afterwards handed over to the Romans, and taken to Rome, to
+grace the triumphal procession of the victors.
+
+The battle only roused the Silures to a more fierce resistance, and it
+cost the Romans many lives, and it took them many years, to break their
+power.  The strangest sight that met the invaders was in Anglesey, after
+they had crossed the Menai on horses or on rafts.  The druids tried to
+terrify them by the rites of their religion.  The dark groves, the women
+dressed in black and carrying flaming torches, the aged priests—the sight
+paralysed the Roman soldiers, but only for a moment.
+
+Vespasian—it was he who sent his son Titus to besiege Jerusalem—became
+emperor in 69.  The war was carried on with great energy, and by 78 Wales
+was entirely conquered.
+
+Then Agricola, a wise ruler, came.  The peace of Rome was left in the
+land; and the Welshman took the Roman, not willingly at first, as his
+teacher and ruler instead of as his enemy.  Towns were built; the two
+Chesters or Caerlleons (Castra Legionum), on the Dee and the Usk, being
+the most important from a military point of view.  Roads were made; two
+along the north and south coasts, to Carmarthen and Carnarvon; two others
+ran parallel along the length of Wales, to connect their ends.  On these
+roads towns rose; and some, like Caerwent, were self-governing
+communities of prosperous people.  Agriculture flourished; the Welsh
+words for “plough” and “cheese” are “aradr” and “caws”—the Latin
+_aratrum_ and _caseus_.  The mineral wealth of the country was
+discovered; and copper mines and lead mines, silver mines and gold mines,
+were worked.  The “aur” (gold) and “arian” (silver) and “plwm” (lead) of
+the Welshman are the Latin _aurum_, _argentum_, and _plumbum_.
+
+The Romans allowed the Welsh families and tribes to remain as before, and
+to be ruled by their own kings and chiefs.  But they kept the defence of
+the country—the manning of the great wall in the north of Roman Britain,
+the garrisoning of the legion towns, and the holding of the western
+sea—in their own hand.
+
+Gradually the power of Rome began to wane, and its hold on distant
+countries like Britain began to relax.  The wandering nations were
+gathering on its eastern and northern borders, and its walls and legions
+at last gave way.  It had not been a kind mother to the nations it had
+conquered—in war it had been cruel, and in peace it had been selfish and
+stern.  The lust of rule became stronger as its arm became weaker.  The
+degradation of slavery and the heavy hand of the tax-gatherer were
+extending even to Wales.  The barbarian invader found the effeminate,
+luxurious empire an easy prey.  In 410 Alaric and his host of Goths
+appeared before the city of Rome itself; and a horde of barbarians,
+thirsting for blood and spoil, surged into it.  The fall of the great
+city was a shock to the whole world; the end of the world must be near,
+for how could it stand without Rome?  Jerome could hardly sob the strange
+news: “Rome, which enslaved the whole world, has itself been taken.”
+
+Rome had taken the yoke of Christ; and many said that it fell because it
+had spurned the gods that had given it victory.  Three years after Alaric
+had sacked it, Augustine wrote a book to prove that it was not the city
+of God that had fallen; and that the heathen gods could neither have
+built Rome in their love nor destroyed it in their anger.  He then
+describes the rise of the real “City of God,” in the midst of which is
+the God of justice and mercy, and “she shall not be moved.”
+
+
+
+
+IV
+THE NAME OF CHRIST
+
+
+THE name of Christ had been heard in Britain during the period of Roman
+rule, but we do not know who first sounded it.  There are many beautiful
+legends—that the great apostle of the Gentiles himself came to Britain;
+that Joseph of Arimathea, having been placed by the Jews in an open boat,
+at the mercy of wind and wave, landed in Britain; that some of the
+captives taken to Rome with Caratacus brought back the tidings of great
+joy.
+
+We know that the name of Christ, between 200 and 300 years after His
+death, was well known in Britain, and that churches had been built for
+His worship.  Between 300 and 400 we have an organised church and a
+settled creed.  Between 400 and 500 there was searching of heart and
+creed, and heresies—a sure sign that the people were alive to religion.
+Between 500 and 600 there was a translation of the Bible from Hebrew and
+Greek into the better-known Latin.  The whole of Wales becomes Christian;
+and probably St David converted the last pagans, and built his church
+among them.
+
+Between 450 and 500 a stream of pagan Teutons flowed over the east of
+Britain, and the British Church was separated from the Roman Church.  By
+664 British and Roman missionaries had converted the English; and the two
+Churches of Rome and Britain, once united, were face to face again.  But
+they had grown in different ways, and refused to know each other.  Their
+Easter came on different days; they did not baptize in the same way; the
+tonsure was different—a crescent on the forehead of the British monk, and
+a crown on the pate of the Roman monk.  In the Roman Church there was
+rigid unity and system; in the British Church there was much room for
+self-government.  The newly converted English chose the Roman way,
+because they were told that St Peter, whose see Rome was, held the keys
+of heaven.  Between 700 and 800 the Welsh gradually gave up their
+religious independence, and joined the Roman Church.
+
+But there was another dispute.  Were the four old Welsh
+bishoprics—Bangor, St Asaph, St David’s, Llandaff—to be subject to the
+English archbishop of Canterbury, or to have an archbishopric of their
+own at St David’s?  By 1200 the Welsh bishoprics were subject to the
+English archbishop, and Giraldus Cambrensis came too late to save them.
+
+But through all these disputes the Church was gaining strength.  Churches
+were being built everywhere.  Up to 700 they were called after the name
+of their founder; between 700 and 1000 they were generally dedicated to
+the archangel Michael—there are several Llanvihangels {1} in Wales; after
+1000 new churches were dedicated to Mary, the Mother of Christ—we have
+many Llanvairs. {2}
+
+Times of civil strife, or of popular indifference, came over and over
+again; and the old paganism tried to reassert itself.  And time after
+time the name of Christ was sounded again by men who thought they had
+seen Him.  In the twelfth century the Cistercian monk came to say that
+the world was bad, that prayer saved the soul, and that labour was noble.
+{3}  He was followed by the Franciscan friar, who said that deeds of
+mercy and love should be added to prayer, that Christ had been a poor
+man, and that men should help each other, not only in saving souls, but
+in healing sickness and relieving pain.  In the fifteenth century the
+Lollard came to say that the Church was too rich, and that it had become
+blind to the truth, and Walter Brute said that men were to be justified
+by faith in Christ, not by the worship of images or by the merit of
+saints.  In the sixteenth century came the Protestant, and the sway of
+Rome over Wales came to an end; Bishop Morgan translated the Bible into
+Welsh, and John Penry yearned for the preaching of the Gospel in Wales.
+The Jesuit followed, calling himself by the name of Jesus, to try to win
+the country back again to Rome.  Robert Jones toiled and schemed, and
+some laid down their lives.  The Puritan came in the seventeenth century
+to demand simple worship, and Morgan Lloyd thought that the second advent
+of Christ was at hand.  The Revivalist came in the eighteenth century,
+and, in the name of Christ, aroused the people of Wales to a new life of
+thought.
+
+After all this, you will be surprised to learn that many of the old gods
+still remain in Wales, and much of the old pagan worship.  Who drops a
+pin into a sacred well, or leaves a tiny rag on a bush close by, and then
+wishes for something?  A young maiden in the twentieth century, who
+sacrifices to a well heathen god.  Until quite recently men thought that
+Ffynnon Gybi, and Ffynnon Elian, and Ffynnon Ddwynwen, had in them a
+power which could curse and bless, ruin and save.
+
+Lud of the Silver Hand was the god of flocks and ships.  His caves are in
+Dyved still, and his was the temple on Ludgate Hill in London.  Merlin
+was a god of knowledge; he could foretell events.  Ceridwen was the
+goddess of wisdom; she distilled wisdom-giving drops in a cauldron.
+Gwydion created a beautiful girl from flowers, “from red rose, and yellow
+broom, and white anemony.”  I am not quite sure what Coil did, but I have
+heard children singing the history of “old King Cole.”  Olwen also walked
+through Wales in heathen times, and it is said that three white flowers
+rose behind her wherever she had put her foot.
+
+
+
+
+V
+THE WELSH KINGS
+
+
+THE spirit of Rome remained, though Rome itself had fallen.  And Welsh
+kings rose to take the place of the Roman ruler, trying to force the
+tribes of Wales—of different races and tongues—to become one people.
+
+The chief Roman ruler, at any rate during the later wars against the
+invaders, was called Dux Britanniae, “the ruler of Britain.”  It became
+the aim of the ablest kings to restore the power of this officer, and to
+carry on his work, to rule and defend a united country.  And I will tell
+you briefly how the kings ruled and defended Wales for more than five
+hundred years—how Maelgwn tried to unite it, how Rhodri tried to prevent
+the attacks of Saxon and Dane, how Howel gave it laws, and how Griffith
+tried to defend it against England.
+
+Between 400 and 450 Rome left Wales to look after itself.  An able
+family, called the House of Cunedda, took the power of the Dux
+Britanniae, and they translated the title into Gwledig—“the ruler of a
+_gwlad_ (country).”  Of this family Maelgwn Gwynedd is the most famous.
+It was his work to try to unite all the smaller kings or chiefs of Wales
+under his own power as “the island dragon.”  It was a difficult thing to
+persuade them; they all wanted to be independent.  A legend shows that
+Maelgwn tried guile as well as force.  The kings met him at Aberdovey,
+and they all sat in their royal chairs on the sands.  And Maelgwn said:
+“Let him be king over all who can sit longest on his chair as the tide
+comes in.”  But he had made his own chair of birds’ wings, and it floated
+erect when all the other chairs had been thrown down.  Before Maelgwn
+died of the yellow plague in 547, his strong arm had made Wales one
+united country, and had made every corner of it Christian.
+
+The new wave of nations, coming on as surely as the tide, began to beat
+against Wales.  The Picts came from the northern parts of Britain, and
+Teutonic tribes swarmed across the eastern sea.  The Angles came to the
+Humber, and spread over the plains of the north and the midlands of Roman
+Britain; the Saxons came to the Thames, and won the plains and the downs
+of the south-east.  In 577 the Saxons, after the battle of Deorham,
+pierced to the western sea at the mouth of the Severn; they crept up
+along the valley of the Severn, burning the great Roman towns.  Before
+they reached Chester and the Dee, however, they were defeated at the
+battle of Fethanlea in 584.  But the Angles soon appeared, from the
+north; and after their victory at Chester in 613, they won the plains
+right to the Irish Sea.
+
+Wales was now surrounded on the land side by a people who spoke strange
+languages, and who worshipped different gods, for the Angles and the
+Saxons were heathens.  From the sea also it was open to attack.
+Sometimes the Irish came.  But the most feared of all were the Danes,
+whose sudden appearance and quick movements and desperate onslaughts were
+the terror of the age.  The “black Danes” came from the fords of Norway,
+the “white Danes” from the plains of Sweden and Denmark.  The Danes
+settled on the south coast: Tenby is a Danish name.  Offa, the king of
+the Mercian Angles, took the rich lands between the Severn and the Wye;
+but Offa’s Dyke (Clawdd Offa) is probably the work of some earlier people
+whose history has been lost.  It was only by incessant fighting that the
+enemy could be kept at bay.
+
+Of all the kings who tried to defend his country against the enemies
+which now stood round it, the greatest is Rhodri, called Rhodri Mawr—“the
+Great.”  From 844 to 877, by battles on sea and land, he broke the spell
+of Danish and Saxon victories; and his might and wisdom enabled him to
+lead his country in those dark days.  Like Alfred of Wessex, who lived at
+the same time and faced the same task, he stemmed the torrent of Danish
+invasion and beat the sea-rovers on their own element.  Like Alfred, he
+left warlike children and grandchildren.  One of the grandsons was Howel
+the Good, who put the laws of Wales down in a book.
+
+Wales and England were now, both of them in their own way, trying to
+become one country.  It was seen by many that strength and peace were
+better than division and war.  In England, the Earls of Mercia and Wessex
+tried to rise into supreme power.  In Wales Llywelyn ab Seisyll,
+victorious in many battles and wishing for peace, made the country rich
+and happy.  Still, when he died in 1022, the princes said they would not
+obey another over-king.
+
+But the long ships full of Danes came again; the Angles crossed the
+Severn: war and misery took the place of peace and plenty.  Griffith, the
+son of Llywelyn, came to renew his father’s work.  In the battle of Rhyd
+y Groes on the Severn, in 1039, he drove the Mercians back; in the battle
+of Pencader, in 1041, he crushed the opponents of Welsh unity; in 1044 he
+defeated the sea-rovers at Aber Towy.  At the same time Harold, Earl of
+Wessex, was making himself king of England.  A war broke out between
+Griffith and Harold; and, during it, in 1063, the great Welsh king—“the
+head and the shield of the Britons”—was slain by traitors.
+
+So far I have told you about a few, only the greatest, kings of the House
+of Cunedda.  I know that you are wondering where Arthur comes in.  I am
+not quite sure that Arthur ever really lived, except in the mind of many
+ages.  He is the spirit of Roman rule, the true Dux Britanniae, and he
+has all the greatness and ability of all the race of Cunedda.  I have
+been shown mountains under which he sleeps, with his knights around him,
+waiting for the time when his country is to be delivered.  Let us hope
+that what Arthur represents—courage and wisdom, love of country and love
+of right—lives in the hearts of his people.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+THE LAWS OF HOWEL
+
+
+THE two ideas which ruled Wales were—the love of order and the love of
+independence.  The danger of the first is oppression; the dangers of the
+other are anarchy and weakness.  Wales was sometimes united, under a
+Maelgwn or a Rhodri, and the princes obeyed them; oftener, perhaps, the
+princes of the various parts ruled in their own way.
+
+The internal life of Wales is best seen in the laws of Howel the Good.
+Howel was the grandson of Rhodri; and, about 950, he called four men from
+each district to Hendy Gwyn (Whitland) to state the laws of the country.
+Twelve of the wisest put the law together; and the most learned scribe in
+Wales wrote it.
+
+It was thought that there should be one king over the whole people, but
+it was very rarely that every part of Wales obeyed one king.  The country
+was divided into smaller kingdoms.  In many ways Gwynedd was the most
+powerful.  It was very easy to defend; for it was made up of the island
+of Môn (Anglesey), the promontory of Lleyn, and the mountain mass of
+Snowdon.  Its steep side was thus towards England, and its cornlands and
+pastures on the further side.  It was also the home of the family of
+Cunedda, from Maelgwn to the last Llywelyn.
+
+Powys was the Berwyn country.  Ceredigion was the western slope of the
+Plinlimmon range; the eastern slopes had many smaller, but very warlike,
+districts.  Deheubarth contained the pleasant glades and great forests of
+the Towy country.  Dyved was the peninsula to the west; the southern
+slopes of the Beacons were Morgannwg and Gwent.
+
+Howel the Good found that the laws of the various parts differed in
+details, and he gave different versions to the north, the south-west, and
+the south-east.  But the law and life of the whole people, if we only
+look at important features, are one.  Several commotes made a cantrev,
+many cantrevs made a kingdom, many kingdoms made Wales.
+
+In each commote there were two kinds of people—the free or high-born, and
+the low-born or serfs.  These may have been the conquering Celt and the
+conquered Iberian.  It was very difficult for those in the lower class to
+rise to the higher; but, after passing through the storms of a thousand
+years, the old dark line of separation was quite lost sight of.
+
+The free family lived in a great house—in the _hendre_ (“old homestead”)
+in winter, and in the mountain _havoty_ (“summer house”) in summer.  The
+sides of the house were made of giant forest trees, their boughs meeting
+at the top and supporting the roof tree.  The fire burnt in the middle of
+the hall.  Round the walls the family beds were arranged.  The family was
+governed by the head of the household (_penteulu_), whose word was law.
+
+The highest family in the land was that of the king.  In his hall all
+took their own places, his chief of the household, his priest, his
+steward, his falconer, his judge, his bard, his chief huntsman, his
+mediciner, and others.  The chief royal residences were Aberffraw in Môn,
+Mathraval in Powys, and Dynevor in Deheubarth.
+
+Old Welsh law was very unlike the law we obey now.  I cannot tell you
+much about it in a short book like this, but it is worth noticing that it
+was very humane.  We do not get in it the savage and vindictive
+punishments we get in some laws.  I give you some extracts from the old
+laws of the Welsh.
+
+The king was to be honoured.  According to the laws of Gwynedd, if any
+one did violence in his presence he had to pay a great fine—a hundred
+cows, and a white bull with red ears, for every cantrev the king ruled; a
+rod of gold as long as the king himself, and as thick as his little
+finger; and a plate of gold, as broad as the king’s face, and as thick as
+a ploughman’s nail.
+
+The judge, whether of the king’s court or of the courts of his subjects,
+was to be learned, just, and wise.  Thus, according to the laws of Dyved,
+was an inexperienced judge to be prepared for his great office; he was to
+remain in the court in the king’s company, to listen to the pleas of
+judges who came from the country, to learn the laws and customs that were
+in force, especially the three main divisions of law, and the value of
+all tame animals, and of all wild beasts and birds that were of use to
+men.  He was to listen especially to the difficult cases that were
+brought to the court, to be solved by the wisdom of the king.  When he
+had lived thus for a year, he was to be brought to the church by the
+chaplain; and there, over the relics and before the altar, he swore, in
+the presence of the great officers of the king’s court, that he would
+never knowingly do injustice, for money or love or hate.  He is then
+brought to the king, and the officers tell the king that he has taken the
+solemn oath.  Then the king accepts him as a judge, and gives him his
+place.  When he leaves, the king gives him a golden chessboard, and the
+queen gold rings, and these he is never to part with.
+
+I will tell you about one other officer—the falconer.  Falconry was the
+favourite pastime of the kings and nobles of the time; indeed, everybody
+found it very exciting to watch the long struggle in the air between the
+trained falcon and its prey, as each bird tried every skill of wing and
+talon that it knew.  The falconer was to drink very sparingly in the
+king’s hall, for fear the falcons might suffer; and his lodging was to be
+in the king’s barn, not in the king’s hall, lest the smoke from the great
+fire-place should dim the falcon’s sight.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+THE NORMANS
+
+
+ON the death of Griffith ap Llywelyn, many princes tried to become
+supreme.  Bleddyn of Powys, a good and merciful prince, became the most
+important.
+
+In January 1070, when the snow lay thick on the mountains, William, the
+Norman Conqueror, appeared at Chester with an army.  He had defeated and
+killed Harold, the conqueror of Griffith ap Llywelyn, in 1066; he had
+crushed the power of the Mercian allies of Bleddyn; he had struck terror
+into the wild north, and England lay at his feet.
+
+He turned back from Chester, but he placed on the borders a number of
+barons who were to conquer Wales, as he had conquered England.  They had
+a measure of his ability, of his energy, and of his ambition.
+
+The two great Norman traits were wisdom and courage; but the one was
+often mere cunning, and the other brutal ferocity.  But no one like the
+Norman had yet appeared in Wales—no one with a vision so clear, or with
+so hard a grip.  A hard, worldly, tenacious, calculating race they were;
+and they turned their faces resolutely towards Wales.
+
+From England, Wales can be entered and attacked along three valleys—along
+the Dee, the Severn, and the Wye.  At Chester, Hugh of Avranches, called
+“The Wolf,” placed himself.  From its walls he could look over and covet
+the Welsh hills, as he could have looked over the Breton hills from
+Avranches.  He loved war and the chase: he despised industry, he cared
+not for religion; he was a man of strong passions, but he was generous,
+and he respected worth of character.  One of his followers, Robert, had
+all his vices and few of his virtues.  It was he who extended the
+dominions of the Earl of Chester along the north coast to the Clwyd,
+where he built a castle at Rhuddlan; and thence on to the valley of the
+Conway, where he built a castle at Deganwy.  The cruelty of Robert
+shocked even the Normans of his time.  He even set foot in Anglesey,
+which looked temptingly near from Deganwy, and built a castle at
+Aberlleiniog.
+
+At Shrewsbury, where the Severn, after leaving the mountains of Wales,
+turns to the south, Roger of Montgomery was placed, with his wife Mabel,
+an energetic little woman, hated and feared by all.  Roger himself, while
+ever ready to fight, preferred to get what he wanted by persuasion; he
+was not less cruel than Hugh of Chester, but he was less fond of war.  He
+and his sons pushed their way up the Severn, and built a castle at
+Montgomery.
+
+To Hereford, on the Wye, William Fitz-Osbern came.  He was the ablest,
+perhaps, of all the followers of the Conqueror.  He entered Wales; he saw
+it from the Wye to the sea, and he thought it was not large enough, and
+that it was too far from the political life of the time.  So he went back
+to Normandy, but he left his sons William and Roger behind him.  William
+had his father’s wisdom.  Roger had his father’s recklessness in action;
+he rebelled against his own king, and found himself in prison.  The king
+sent him, on the day of Christ’s Passion, a robe of silk and rarest
+ermine.  The caged baron made a roaring fire, and cast the robe into it.
+“By the light of God,” said William the Conqueror, for that was his
+wicked oath, “he shall never leave his prison.”
+
+But another Norman, Bernard of Neufmarché, came to take his place.  He
+built his castle at Brecon, and defeated and killed Rees, the King of
+Deheubarth; and, with great energy, he took possession of the upper
+valleys of the Wye and the Usk.
+
+Further south William the Conqueror himself came to Cardiff, and possibly
+built a castle.  The Norman conquest of the south coast of Wales was
+exceedingly rapid, and castle after castle rose to mark the new
+victorious advances—Coety, Cenfig, Neath, Kidwelly, Pembroke, Newport,
+Cilgeran.
+
+So far, the Norman advance has been a most quick one.  In less than
+twenty-five years from the appearance of the Conqueror at Chester, the
+whole country had been overrun except the mountains of Gwynedd and the
+forests of the Deheubarth.  This success is easily explained.
+
+For one thing, the Normans had trained, professional soldiers, who were
+well horsed and well armed.  In a pitched battle the hastily collected
+Welsh levies, unused to regular battle and very lightly armed, had no
+chance.
+
+Again, the Norman never receded.  He was willing to stop occasionally, in
+order to bide his time; but he clung tenaciously to every mile he had
+won.  His skill as a castle builder was as striking as his prowess in
+battle or his cautious wisdom in council.  He took possession of an old
+fortified post, or hastily constructed one of turf and timber; but he
+soon turned it into a castle of stone.  At that time the Welsh had no
+knowledge of sieges; and their impetuous valour was of no use against the
+new castles.
+
+Again, the Welsh opposition was not only not organised, but weakened by
+internal strife.  While the Norman was winning valley after valley, the
+Welsh princes were trying to decide by the issue of battle who was to be
+chief.  Bleddyn was slain in 1075; and his nephews and cousins tried to
+rule the country.  Among these, Trahaiarn was a soldier of ability and
+energy, and a ruler of real genius.  But he was the rival of the exiled
+princes of the House of Cunedda, and he found it difficult to bend
+Snowdon and the Vale of Towy to his will.  Two of the exiles met him,
+probably near some of the cairns in the valley of the Teivy; and there,
+in the battle of Mynydd Carn, fiercely fought through the dusk into a
+moonlight night in 1079, Trahaiarn fell.  It looked as if no leader could
+rise in Wales to fight a Norman army or to take a Norman castle.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+GRIFFITH AP CONAN AND GRIFFITH AP REES
+
+
+IN the battle of Mynydd Carn, a young chief led the shining shields of
+the men of Gwynedd.  He was Griffith, the son of a prince of the line of
+Cunedda and of a sea-rover’s daughter.  He was mighty of limb, fair and
+straight to see, with the blue eyes and flaxen hair of the ruling Celt.
+In battle, he was full of fury and passion; in peace, he was just and
+wise.  His people saw at first that he could fight a battle; then they
+found he could rule a country.  And it was he that was to say to the
+Norman: “Thus far shalt thou come, and no further.”
+
+When Bleddyn died in 1075, Griffith came to Gwynedd, and found that his
+father’s lands were under new rulers.  Robert of Rhuddlan and Trahaiarn
+of Arwystli were mighty foes; but Griffith drove both of them back; and,
+by his prowess and success in battle, broke the spell of conquest which
+kept Gwynedd in bonds.  But his enemies attacked him again from all
+sides; and, while Hugh the Wolf and Robert of Rhuddlan were laying
+Gwynedd waste, Trahaiarn and Griffith met at the hard-fought battle of
+Bron yr Erw.  Griffith lost the day, and again became a sea-rover.  He
+sailed to Dyved, and there he met Rees, the King of Deheubarth, who also
+was of the line of Cunedda, and had been driven from his land by the
+Normans.  The two chiefs joined, and they crushed Trahaiarn at Mynydd
+Carn.  Then they turned against the Normans.
+
+Rees soon fell in battle, and left two children, Nest and Griffith.  The
+beauty of Nest and the genius of Rees ap Griffith fill an important page
+in the history of their country.  Nest became the mother of the
+conquerors of Ireland; Rees became the greatest of all the kings of South
+Wales.
+
+The Normans found that the Welsh had taken heart.  Of their opponents,
+they feared three: Griffith ap Conan, Owen of Powys, and Griffith ap
+Rees.  The kings of England, the two sons of the Conqueror—red, brutal
+William and cool, treacherous Henry—had to come to help their barons.
+
+Griffith ap Conan had a long life of strife and success.  In his struggle
+with Hugh the Wolf, he was once in The Wolf’s prison, and more than once
+he had to flee to the sea.  But, backed up by the liberty-loving sons of
+Snowdon and by his sea-roving kinsmen, he made Gwynedd strong and
+prosperous.  He drove the Normans from Anglesey; he attacked and killed
+Robert of Rhuddlan; he saw the red King of England himself forced by
+storm and rain to beat a retreat from Snowdon.  He was loved by his
+people during his youth of adventure and battle, and during his old age
+of safe counsel and love of peace.  His wife Angharad and his son Owen
+live with him in the memory of his country.  When he died, in 1137, it
+was said that he had saved his people, had ruled them justly, and had
+given them peace.
+
+In the Severn country the princes of Powys were fighting against the
+Normans also, especially against the family of Montgomery.  The sons of
+Bleddyn—Cadogan, Iorwerth, and Meredith—were driving the invaders from
+the valley of the Severn, and from Dyved, defeating their armies in
+battle, and storming their castles.  Sometimes they would make alliances
+with them, and defy the King of England.  But it is difficult to follow
+each of them.  The history of one of them, Owen ap Cadogan, is like a
+romance.  He was brave and handsome, in love with Nest, and a very
+firebrand in politics.  The army of Henry I. was too strong for him, and
+he had to submit.  He then became the friend of the King of England.  It
+was the aim of the princes of Powys to be free, not only from the Norman,
+but also from Griffith of Gwynedd and Griffith of Deheubarth.  They were
+an able and versatile family; noble and base deeds, revolting crimes and
+sweet poems, come in the stirring story of their lives.
+
+What Griffith did in the north, and the sons of Bleddyn in the east,
+Griffith ap Rees did in the south; he showed that the Norman army could
+be beaten in battle, and that a Norman castle could be taken by assault.
+After his father’s death he spent much of his youth in exile or in
+hiding: sometimes we find him in Ireland, sometimes in the court of
+Griffith ap Conan, sometimes with his sister Nest—now the wife of Gerald,
+the custodian of Pembroke Castle.  But he had one aim ever before him—to
+recover his father’s kingdom and to make his people free.  Castle after
+castle rose—at Swansea, Carmarthen, Llandovery, Cenarth, Aberystwyth—to
+warn him that the hold of the Norman on the land was tightening.  He came
+to the forests of the Towy; his people rallied round him, and his power
+extended from the Towy to the Teivy, and from the Teivy to the Dovey.
+His wife, the heroic Gwenllian—who died leading her husband’s army
+against the Normans—was Griffith ap Conan’s daughter.  The great final
+battle between Griffith and the Normans was fought at Cardigan in 1136,
+in which the great prince won a memorable victory over the strongest army
+the Normans could put in the field.  In 1137 he died, and they said of
+him that he had shown his people what they ought to do, and that he had
+given them strength to do it.
+
+The work of Griffith ap Conan and Griffith ap Rees was this: they set
+bounds to the Norman Conquest, and saved Deheubarth and Gwynedd from the
+stern rule of the alien.  But, though the Norman was not allowed to bring
+his stone castle and cruel law, what good he brought with him was
+welcomed.  The piety of the Norman, his intellectual curiosity, and his
+spirit of adventure, conquered in Welsh districts where his coat of mail
+and his castle were not seen.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+OWEN GWYNEDD AND THE LORD REES
+
+
+THE men who opposed the Normans left able successors—Owen Gwynedd
+followed his father, Griffith ap Conan; the Lord Rees followed his father
+Griffith ap Rees; and in Powys the sons of Bleddyn were followed by the
+castle builder Howel, and by the poet Owen Cyveiliog.
+
+Owen Gwynedd ruled from 1137 to 1169; the Lord Rees from 1137 to 1197.
+The age was, in many respects, a great one.
+
+It was, of course, an age of war.  Up to 1154, during the reign of
+Stephen, the English barons were fighting against each other, and the
+king had very little power over them.  The most important Norman barons
+in Wales were the Earls of Chester in the valley of the Dee, the
+Mortimers on the upper Wye, the Braoses on the upper Usk, and the Clares
+in the south.  Their castles were a continual menace to the country they
+had so far failed to conquer, and the Lord Rees was glad to get Kidwelly,
+and Owen Gwynedd to get Mold and Rhuddlan.
+
+It was, on the whole, an age of unity.  It was the chief aim of Owen
+Gwynedd to be the ally of the Lord Rees; and in this he succeeded, though
+his brother Cadwaladr, in his desire for Ceredigion, had killed Rees’
+brother, to Owen’s infinite sorrow.  The princes of Powys, Madoc and Owen
+Cyveiliog, were in the same alliance also, and they were helped in their
+struggle with the Normans.  Unity was never more necessary.  Henry II.
+brought great armies into Wales.  Once he came along the north coast to
+Rhuddlan.  At another time he tried to cross the Berwyn, but was beaten
+back by great storms.  Had he reached the upper Dee, he would have found
+the united forces of the Lord Rees, Owen Cyveiliog, and Owen Gwynedd at
+Corwen.  There are many stirring episodes in these wars: the fight at
+Consilt, when Henry II. nearly lost his life; the scattering of his tents
+on the Berwyn by a storm that seemed to be the fury of fiends; the
+reckless exposure of life in storming a wall or in the shock of battle.
+But the Norman brought new cruelty into war: Henry II. took out the eyes
+of young children because their fathers had revolted against him; and
+William de Braose invited a great number of Welsh chiefs to a feast in
+his castle at Abergavenny, and there murdered them all.
+
+It is a relief to turn to another feature of the age: it was an age of
+great men.  Owen Gwynedd was probably the greatest.  He disliked war, but
+he was an able general; he made Henry II. retire without great loss of
+life to his own army.  He was a thoughtful prince, of a loving nature and
+high ideals, and his court was the home of piety and culture.  He is more
+like our own ideal of a prince than any of the other princes of the
+Middle Ages.  The Lord Rees was not less wise, and his life is less
+sorrowful and more brilliant.  He also was as great as a statesman as he
+was as a general; and he made his peace with the English king in order to
+make his country quiet and rich.  Owen Cyveiliog was placed in a more
+difficult position than either of his allies; he was nearer to very
+ambitious Norman barons.  He was great as a warrior; often had his white
+steed been seen leading the rush of battle.  He was greater as a
+statesman: friend and foe said that Owen was wise; and he was greater
+still as a poet.
+
+The age was an age of poetry.  A generation of great Welsh poets found an
+equal welcome in the courts of Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth; and even
+the Norman barons of Morgannwg began to feel the charm of Welsh legend
+and song; Robert of Gloucester was a great patron of learning.  One of
+the chief events of the period was Lord Rees’ great Eisteddvod at
+Cardigan in 1176.
+
+It was an age of new ideals.  The Crusades were preached in Wales; the
+grave of Christ was held by a cruel unbeliever, and it was the duty of a
+soldier to rescue it.  It appealed to an inborn love of war, and many
+Welshmen were willing to go.  It did good by teaching them that, in
+fighting, they were not to fight for themselves.  It was in Powys that
+feuds were most bitter.  A young warrior told a preacher, who was trying
+to persuade him to take the cross: “I will not go until, with this lance,
+I shall have avenged my lord’s death.”  The lance immediately became
+shivered in his hand.  The lance once used for blind feuds was gradually
+consecrated to the service of ideals—of patriotism or of religion.
+
+The age of Owen Gwynedd and the Lord Rees and Owen Cyveiliog brought a
+higher ideal still.  If the Crusader made war sacred, the monk made
+labour noble.  The chief aim of the monk, it is true, was to save his
+soul.  He thought the world was very bad, as indeed it was; and he
+thought he could best save his own soul by retiring to some remote spot,
+to live a life of prayer.  But he also lived a life of labour; he became
+the best gardener, the best farmer, and the best shepherd of the Middle
+Ages.  Great monasteries were built for him, and great tracts of land
+were given him, by those who were anxious that he should pray for their
+souls.  The monk who came to Wales was the Cistercian.  The monasteries
+of Tintern, Margam, and Neath were built by Norman barons; and Strata
+Florida, Valle Crucis, and Basingwerk showed that the Welsh princes also
+welcomed the monks.
+
+Better, then, than the brilliant wars were the poets and the great
+Eisteddvod.  Better still, perhaps, were the orchards and the flocks of
+the peaceful monks.
+
+
+
+
+X
+LLYWELYN THE GREAT
+
+
+ON the death of the Lord Rees, one of the grandsons of Owen Gwynedd
+becomes the central figure in Welsh history.  Llywelyn the Great rose
+into power in 1194, and reigned until 1240—a long reign, and in many ways
+the most important of all the reigns of the Welsh princes.
+
+Llywelyn’s first task was to become sole ruler in Gwynedd.  The sons of
+Owen Gwynedd had divided the strong Gwynedd left them by their father,
+and their nobles and priests could not decide which of the sons was to be
+supreme.  Iorwerth, the poet Howel, David, Maelgwn, Rhodri, tried to get
+Gwynedd, or portions of it.  Eventually, David I. became king; but soon a
+strong opposition placed Llywelyn, the able son of Iorwerth, on the
+throne.  Uncles and cousins showed some jealousy; but the growing power
+of Llywelyn soon made them obey him with gradually diminishing envy.
+
+His next task was to attach the other princes of Wales to him, now that
+the Lord Rees and Owen Cyveiliog were dead.  To begin with, he had to
+deal with the astute Gwenwynwyn, the son of Owen Cyveiliog; and he had to
+be forced to submit.  He then turned to the many sons and grandsons of
+the Lord Rees—Maelgwn and Rees the Hoarse especially.  They called John,
+King of England, into Wales; but they soon found that Llywelyn was a
+better master than John and his barons.  Gradually Llywelyn established a
+council of chiefs—partly a board of conciliation, and partly an executive
+body.  It was nothing new; but it was a striking picture of the way in
+which Llywelyn meant to join the princes into one organised political
+body.
+
+His third task was to begin to unite Norman barons and Welsh chiefs under
+his own rule.  He had to begin in the old way, by using force; and
+Ranulph of Chester and the Clares trembled for the safety of their
+castles.  He then offered political alliance; and some of the Norman
+families of the greatest importance in the reign of John—the Earl of
+Chester, the family of Braose, and the Marshalls of Pembroke—became his
+allies.  His other step was to unite Welsh and Norman families by
+marriage.  He himself married a daughter of King John, and he gave his
+own daughters in marriage to a Braose and a Mortimer.  It is through the
+dark-haired Gladys, who married Ralph Mortimer, that the kings of England
+can trace their descent from the House of Cunedda.
+
+Llywelyn’s last great task was to make relations between England and
+Wales relations of peace and amity.  During his long reign, he saw three
+kings on the throne of England—the crusader Richard, the able John, and
+the worthless and mean Henry III.  It was with John that he had most to
+do, the king whose originality and vices have puzzled and shocked so many
+historians.  John helped him to crush Gwenwynwyn, then helped the jealous
+Welsh princes to check the growth of his power.  Llywelyn saw that it was
+his policy, as long as John was alive, to join the English barons.  They
+were then trying to force Magna Carta upon the King, that great document
+which prevented John from interfering with the privileges of his barons.
+In that document John promises, in three clauses, that he will observe
+the rights of Welshmen and the law of Wales.
+
+When John died in 1216, and his young son Henry succeeded him, the policy
+of England was guided by William Marshall Earl of Pembroke.  William
+Marshall was one of the ministers of Henry II., and by his marriage with
+the daughter of Strongbow, the conqueror of Ireland, he had become Earl
+of Pembroke.  It was with him that Llywelyn had now to deal.  He was too
+strong in Pembroke to be attacked, but his very presence made it easier
+for Llywelyn to retain the allegiance of the chiefs who would have been
+in danger from the Norman barons if Llywelyn’s protection were taken
+away.  In 1219 the great William Marshall died; and changes in English
+politics forced his sons into an alliance with Llywelyn.
+
+Llywelyn’s title of Great is given him by his Norman and English
+contemporaries.  He was great as a general; his detection of trouble
+before the storm broke, his instant determination and rapidity of
+movements, his ever-ready munitions for battle and siege, made his later
+campaigns always successful.  He felt that he was carrying on war in his
+own country; so his wars were not wars of devastation, but the crushing
+of armies and the razing of castles.
+
+He took an interest in the three great agents in the civilisation of the
+time—the bard, the monk, and the friar.  The bard was as welcome as ever
+at his court; the monk, welcomed by Owen Gwynedd before, was given
+another home at Aber Conway.  Llywelyn extended his welcome to the friar,
+and he was given a home at Llan Vaes in Anglesey, on the shores of the
+Menai.  The friar brought a higher ideal than that of the monk; his aim
+was salvation, not by prayer in the solitude of a mountain glen, but by
+service where men were thickest together—even in streets made foul by
+vice, and haunted by leprosy.  Of the Mendicant Orders, the Franciscans
+were the best known in Wales; and, of all Orders of that day, it was they
+who sympathised most deeply with the sorrows of men.  And it was this
+which, a little later on, brought them so much into politics.
+
+Great and successful in war and policy, in touch with the noblest
+influences in the life of the time, Llywelyn applied himself to one last
+task.  His companions and allies had nearly all died before him; but he
+wished that the peace and unity, which they had established, should live
+after them.  He had two sons—Griffith, who was the champion of
+independence; and David, who wished for peace with England.  Llywelyn
+laid more stress on strong government at home than on the repudiation of
+feudal allegiance to the King of England.  So he persuaded the council of
+princes at Strata Florida to accept David as his successor.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+THE LAST LLYWELYN
+
+
+DAVID II., a mild and well-meaning prince, was too weak to carry his
+father’s policy out.  He tried to maintain peace, and did homage to his
+uncle, the King of England.  But, as the head of the patriotic party, his
+more energetic brother, Griffith, opposed him.  By guile he caught
+Griffith, and shut him in a castle on the rock of Criccieth.  The other
+princes shook off the yoke of Gwynedd, and Henry III. tried to play the
+brothers against each other.  David sent Griffith to Henry, who put him
+in the Tower of London.  In trying to escape, his rope broke, and he fell
+to the ground dead.  Soon afterwards, in 1246, in the middle of a war
+with Henry, David died of a broken heart.
+
+The sons of Griffith—Owen, Llywelyn, and David—at once took their uncle’s
+place; and by 1255 Llywelyn ap Griffith was sole ruler.  By that year
+Henry III. had given his young son Edward the earldom of Chester, which
+had fallen to the crown, and the lands between the Dee and the Conway,
+which he claimed by a treaty with the dead Griffith.  Thus Edward and
+Llywelyn began their long struggle.
+
+Between 1255 and 1267 Llywelyn tries to recover his grandfather’s
+position in Wales.  In 1255 his power extended over Gwynedd only.  He
+found it easy to extend it over most of Wales, because the rule of the
+English officials made the Welsh chiefs long for the protection of
+Gwynedd.  The Barons’ War paralysed the power of the King, and Llywelyn
+made an alliance with Simon de Montfort and the barons.  Even after
+Montfort’s fall in 1265 the barons were so powerful that the King was
+still at their mercy.  In 1267 Llywelyn’s position as Prince of Wales was
+recognised in the Treaty of Montgomery.  His sway extended from Snowdon
+to the Dee on the east, and to the Teivy and the Beacons on the
+south—practically the whole of modern Wales, except the southern
+seaboard.  Within these wide bounds all the Welsh barons were to swear
+fealty to Llywelyn, the only exception being Meredith ap Rees of
+Deheubarth.
+
+The second struggle of Llywelyn’s reign took place between 1267 and 1277.
+He tried to weld his land into a closer union, and many of the chiefs of
+the south and east became willing to call in the English King.  Two of
+them, his own brother David and Griffith of Powys, fled to England, and
+were received by Edward, who had been king since 1272.  Llywelyn and
+Edward distrusted each other.  Edward wished to unite Britain in a feudal
+unity, and to crush all opponents.  Llywelyn thought of helping the
+barons; he might become their leader.  Eleanor, the daughter of Simon de
+Montfort, the old leader of the barons, was betrothed to him.  War broke
+out.  The barons—Clares and Mortimers, and all—joined the King.
+Llywelyn’s dominions were invaded at all points, his barons had to yield,
+one after the other; and finally, in 1277, Llywelyn had to accept the
+Treaty of Rhuddlan.  His dominions shrunk to the old limits of Snowdon,
+his sway over the rest of Wales was taken from him, and the title of
+Prince of Wales was to cease with his life.
+
+The third struggle was between 1277 and 1282.  The rule of the new
+officials drove the Welsh to revolt; and the chiefs who had opposed
+Llywelyn, especially his brother David, begged for Llywelyn’s protection.
+Eleanor, Llywelyn’s wife and Edward’s cousin, tried to keep the peace,
+but she died while they were arming for the last bitter war of 1282.
+
+It was comparatively easy for Edward to overrun Powys or Deheubarth, if
+he had an army strong enough.  But at that time Gwynedd was almost
+impregnable.  From Conway to Harlech lies the vast mass of Snowdon, a
+great natural rampart running from sea to sea.  Its steep side is towards
+the east, and the invader found before him heights which he could not
+climb, and round which he could not pass.  If you stand in the Vale of
+Conway, look at the hills on the Arvon side—the great natural wall of
+inmost Gwynedd, with its last tower, the Penmaen Mawr, rising right from
+the sea.  The gentle slopes are to the west, and there the corn and
+flocks were safe.
+
+Edward had to put a large army into the field, and it cost him much.  In
+the war with Llywelyn he had to change the English army entirely; and, in
+order to get money, he had to allow the Parliament to get life and power.
+To carry supplies, and to land men in Anglesey to turn the flank of the
+Welsh, he wanted a fleet.  But there was no royal navy then, and the
+fishermen of the east coast and the south coast—who had no quarrel with
+the Welsh, but were very anxious to fight each other—were not willing to
+lose their fish harvest in order to fight so far away.
+
+In 1282, Edward’s great army closed round Snowdon.  The chiefs still
+faithful to Llywelyn had to yield or flee.  But winter was coming on, and
+could Edward keep his army in the field?  An attempt had been made to
+enter Snowdon from Anglesey, but the English force was destroyed at Moel
+y Don.  It looked as if Edward would have to retire.  Llywelyn left
+Snowdon, and went to Ceredigion and the Vale of Towy to put new heart in
+his allies, and from there he passed on to the valley of the Wye.  He
+meant, without a doubt, to get the barons of the border, Welsh and
+English, to unite against Edward.  But in some chance skirmish a soldier
+slew him, not knowing who he was.  When they heard that their Prince was
+fallen, his men in Snowdon entirely lost heart.  They had no faith in
+David, and in a few months the whole of Wales was at Edward’s feet.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+CONQUERED WALES
+
+
+THE war between Edward and Llywelyn was not a war between England and
+Wales, as we think of these countries now.  Some of the best soldiers
+under Edward were Welsh, especially the bowmen who followed the Earl of
+Gloucester and Roger Mortimer from the Wye and Severn valleys.
+
+It is not right that we Welshmen should feel bitter against England,
+because, in this last war, Edward won and Llywelyn fell.  It is easy to
+say that Edward was cruel and faithless, and it is easy to say that
+Llywelyn was shifty and obstinate; but it is quite clear that each of
+them thought that he was right.  Edward thought that Britain ought to be
+united: Llywelyn thought Wales ought to be free.  Now, happily, we have
+the union and the freedom.
+
+On the other hand, I should not like you to think that Wales was more
+barbarous than England, or Llywelyn less civilised than Edward I.
+Giraldus Cambrensis saw a prince going barefoot, and the fussy little
+Archbishop Peckham saw that Welsh marriage customs were not what he
+liked; and many historians, who have never read a line of Welsh poetry,
+take for granted that the conquest of Wales was a new victory for
+civilisation.
+
+In many ways Wales was more civilised than England at that time.  Its law
+was more simple and less developed, it is true; but it was more just in
+many cases, and certainly more humane.  Was it not better that the land
+should belong to the people, and that the youngest son should have the
+same chance as the eldest?  And, in crime, was it not better that if no
+opportunity for atonement was given, the death of the criminal was to be
+a merciful one?  In the reign of John, a Welsh hostage, a little boy of
+seven, was hanged at Shrewsbury, because his father, a South Wales chief,
+had rebelled.  In the reign of Edward I., the miserable David was dragged
+at the tails of horses through the streets of the same town, and the
+tortures inflicted on the dying man were too horrible to describe to
+modern ears.  And what the Norman baron did, his Welsh tenant learnt to
+do.  In Wales you get fierce frays and frequent shedding of blood; on the
+borders you get callous cruelty to a prisoner, or the disfiguring of dead
+bodies—even that of Simon de Montfort, the greatest statesman of the
+Middle Ages in England—on the battlefield when all passion was spent.
+
+Take the rulers of Wales again.  Griffith ap Conan and Llywelyn the Great
+had the energy and the foresight, though their sphere was so much
+smaller, of Henry II.  And what English king, except Alfred, attracts one
+on account of lovableness of character as Owen Gwynedd and Owen Cyveiliog
+and the Lord Rees do?
+
+When Edward entered into Snowdon, Welsh was spoken to the Dee and the
+Severn, and far beyond.  There were many dialects, as there are still,
+though any two Welshmen could understand each other wherever they came
+from, with a little patience, as they can still.  But there was also a
+literary language, and this was understood, if not spoken, by the chiefs
+all through the country.  It was more like the Welsh spoken in
+mid-Wales—especially in the valley of the Dovey—than any other.  There
+are many signs of civilisation; one of them is the possession of a
+literary language—for romance and poem, for court and Eisteddvod.
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+Conquered Wales may be divided into two parts—the Wales conquered by the
+Norman barons and the Wales conquered by the English king.
+
+The Wales conquered by the English king was the country ruled by Llywelyn
+and his allies.  In 1284, by the statute of Rhuddlan, it was formed into
+six shires.  The Snowdon district—which held out last—was made into the
+three shires of Anglesey, Carnarvon, and Merioneth.  The part of the land
+between Conway and Dee that belonged to the king, not to barons, was made
+into the shire of Flint.  The lands of Llywelyn’s allies beyond the Dovey
+were made into the shires of Cardigan and Carmarthen.  Instead of the
+chiefs of the Welsh prince, the king’s sheriffs and justices ruled the
+country.  But much of the old law remained.
+
+The Wales conquered by the Norman barons lay to the east and south of the
+Wales turned into shires in 1284.  It included the greater part of the
+valleys of the Clwyd, Dee, Severn, and Wye; and the South Wales coast
+from Gloucester to Pembroke.  It remained in the possession of lords who
+were subject to the King of England, but who ruled almost like kings in
+their own lordships.  The laws and customs of the various lordships
+differed greatly; sometimes the lord used English law, and sometimes
+Welsh law.  The great ruling families changed much in wealth and power,
+from century to century.  In Llywelyn’s time the most important were the
+Clares (Gloucester and Glamorgan), the Mortimers (Wigmore and Chirk),
+Lacy (Denbigh), Warenne (Bromfield and Yale), Fitzalan (Oswestry), Bohun
+(Brecon), Braose (Gower), and Valence (Pembroke).
+
+Llywelyn was the last prince of independent Wales.  From that time on,
+the title is conferred by the King of England on his eldest son, who is
+then crowned.  The present Prince of Wales also comes, through a daughter
+of Llywelyn the Great, from the House of Cunedda, the princes of which
+ruled Wales from Roman times to 1284.  Of all the houses that have gone
+to make the royal house, this is the most ancient.
+
+
+
+
+XIII
+CASTLE AND LONG-BOW
+
+
+SO far I have told you very little about war, except that a battle was
+fought and lost, or a castle built or taken.
+
+War has two sides—attack and defence.  New ways of attacking and
+defending are continually devised.  When the art of defence is more
+perfect than the art of attack, the world changes very little, for the
+strong can keep what he has gained.  When the art of attack is the more
+perfect, new men have a better chance, and many changes are made.  The
+chief source of defence was the castle, the chief weapon of attack was
+the long-bow.  Wales contains the most perfect castles in this country;
+it is also the home of the long-bow.  From 1066 to 1284 England and Wales
+were conquered, and the conquest was permanent because castles were
+built.  From 1284 to 1461, England and Wales attacked other countries,
+and the weapon which gave them so many victories was the long-bow.
+
+I will tell you about the castles first, about the Norman castles and
+about the Edwardian castles.
+
+The Norman castle was a square keep, with walls of immense thickness,
+sometimes of 20 feet.  But if the Norman had to build on the top of a
+hill or on the ruins of an old castle, he did not try to make the new
+castle square, but allowed its walls to take the form of the hill or of
+the old castle; and this kind of castle was called a shell keep.  The
+outer and inner casing of the wall would be of dressed stone, the middle
+part was chiefly rubble.  At first, if they had plenty of supplies, a
+very few men could hold a castle against an army as long as they liked.
+These were the castles built by the Norman invaders to retain their hold
+over the Welsh districts they conquered.
+
+But many ways of storming a castle were discovered.  They could be scaled
+by means of tall ladders, especially in a stealthy night attack.  Stones
+could be thrown over the walls by mangonels to annoy the garrison.
+Sometimes a wall could be brought down by a battering-ram.  But the
+quickest and surest way was by mining.  The miners worked their way to
+the wall, and then began to take some of the stones of the outer casing
+out, propping the wall up with beams of wood.  When the hole was big
+enough, they filled it with firewood; they greased the beams well, they
+set fire to them and then retired to a safe distance to see what
+happened.  When the great wall crashed down, the soldiers swarmed over it
+to beat down the resistance of the garrison.  If ever you go to
+Abergavenny Castle, in the Vale of Usk, look at the cleft in the rock
+along which the daring besiegers once climbed.  And if you go to the Vale
+of Towy, and see Dryslwyn Castle, remember that the wall once came down
+before the miners expected, and that many men were crushed.
+
+In order to prevent mining, many changes were made.  Moats were dug round
+the castle, and filled with water.  Brattices were made along the top of
+the towers, galleries through the floor of which the defenders could pour
+boiling pitch on the besiegers.  The walls were built at such angles that
+a window, with archers posted behind it, could command each wall.
+Stronger towers were built—round towers with a coping at each storey,
+solid as a rock, which would crack and lean without falling; there is a
+leaning tower at Caerphilly Castle.  One other way I must mention—the
+child or the wife of the castellan would be brought before the walls, and
+hanged before his eyes unless he opened the gates.
+
+The newer or Edwardian castles, those of the reigns of Henry III. and
+Edward I., are concentric—that is, there are several castles in one; so
+that the besiegers, when they had taken one castle, found themselves face
+to face with another, still stronger, perhaps, inside it.  Of these
+castles, the most elaborate is the castle of Caerphilly, built by Gilbert
+de Clare, the Red Earl of Gloucester who helped Edward in the Welsh wars.
+And it was by means of these magnificent concentric castles—Conway,
+Beaumaris, Carnarvon, and Harlech—that Edward hoped to keep Wales.
+
+There are many kinds of bows.  In war two were used—the cross-bow and the
+long-bow.  The cross-bow was meant at first for the defence of towns,
+like Genoa or the towns of Castile.  So strength was more important than
+lightness, and the archer had time to take aim.  It was a bow on a cross
+piece of wood, along which the string was drawn back peg after peg by
+mechanism.  The bow was then held to the breast, and the arrow let off.
+It was clumsy, heavy, and expensive.
+
+The long-bow was only one piece of sinewy yew, and a string.  It was used
+at first for the chase, and the archer had to take instant aim.  It was
+drawn to the ear, and it was a most deadly weapon when a strong arm had
+been trained to draw it.  Its arrow could pick off a soldier at the top
+of the highest castle; it could pierce through an oak door three fingers
+thick; it could pin a mail-clad knight to his horse.  It was this peasant
+weapon that brought the mailed knight down in battle.
+
+The home of the long-bow is the country between the Severn and the Wye.
+It was famous before, but it was first used with effect in the last Welsh
+wars.  It was used to break the lines of the Snowdon lances and pikes, so
+that the mail-clad cavalry might dash in.  But later on, the same bows
+were used to bring the nobles of France down.
+
+From the Welsh war on, archers and infantry became important; battles
+ceased to be what they had been so long—the shock of mail-clad knights
+meeting each other at full charge.
+
+The long-bow made noble and peasant equal on the field of battle.  The
+revolution was made complete later on by gunpowder.
+
+
+
+
+XIV
+THE RISE OF THE PEASANT
+
+
+I HAVE told you much about princes and soldiers, but very little about
+the lowly life of peasants, and the trade of towns.
+
+The conquest of Wales, by Norman baron and English king, tended to raise
+the serf to the level of the freeman.  The chief causes of the rise of
+the serf were the following:
+
+1  The ignorance of the English officials.  The Norman baron very often
+paid close attention to the privileges of the classes he ruled, and the
+Welsh freeman retained his superiority.  But the English officials—and
+Edward II. found that they were far too numerous in Wales—often refused
+to distinguish between a Welshman who was an innate freeman and a
+Welshman who lived on a serf maenol.  Their aim was to make them all pay
+the same tax.
+
+2.  The fall in the value of money.  At the time of the Norman Conquest,
+silver coins were rare, and their value high.  But, in exchange for cloth
+and wool, of arrows and spears, of mountain ponies and cattle, coins came
+in great numbers, and it was easier for the serf to earn them.  That is
+the value of coins became less.
+
+This was a great boon to all who were bound to pay fixed sums—the freeman
+who paid to the king the dues he used to pay to his prince, the serf who
+paid to his lord a sum of money instead of service.  All ancient
+servitude, political and economic, was commuted for money; as the money
+became easier to get, the serf became the more free.
+
+3.  The rise of towns and the growth of commerce.  We must not, however,
+think of commerce as if it had been first brought by the Normans.  There
+had been roads and coins in Roman times.  The Danes had been traders,
+probably, before they became pirates and invaders.  Timber, millstones,
+cattle, coarse cloth, and arrow-heads crossed the Severn eastwards before
+the Normans saw it; and corn was carried westward.  There were close
+relations, political and commercial, between Wales and Ireland from very
+early times.
+
+But the Norman and English Conquests revived and quickened trade.  Towns
+rose, regular markets were established, and the barons who took tolls
+protected the merchants who paid them.  Every baron had a castle, every
+castle needed a walled town, and a town cannot live except by trade.  In
+the town the baron did not ask a Welshman whether he had been free or
+serf; the townsmen were strangers, and they welcomed the serf who came to
+work.
+
+4.  The monk and the friar.  The bard was a freeman born, a skilled
+weaver of courteous phrases, not a churlish _taeog_.  The monk or friar
+might be a serf.  They worked like serfs, and ennobled labour.  The
+Church condemned serfdom, and we find chapters giving their serfs
+freedom.
+
+5.  The Scotch and French wars of the English kings gave employment to
+hosts of bowmen and of men-at-arms, and to the numerous attendants
+required to look after the horses by means of which the army moved.  The
+greater use of infantry after the reign of Edward I. caused a greater
+demand for the peasant; and the use of the cheap long-bow gave him a
+value in war.  There were five thousand Welsh archers and spearmen on the
+field of Cressy.  In these and other ways the serf was becoming free.
+
+You would expect a gradual, almost unconscious struggle, between the serf
+and his lord for political power.  The struggle came, but it was
+conscious and very fierce.  It was brought about by a terrible
+pestilence, known as the Black Death.  This plague came slowly and
+steadily from the East; in 1348 it reached Bristol, and it probably swept
+away one half of the people of the towns of Wales.  It was not the towns
+alone that it visited; it came to the mountain glens as well.  It was a
+most deadly disease.  It killed, for one thing, because people believed
+that they would die.  They saw the dark spots on the skin before they
+became feverish; they recognised the black mark of the Death and they
+gave themselves up for lost.
+
+Labourers became very scarce.  They claimed higher wages.  The lords
+tried to drag them back into serfdom; they tried to force them by law to
+take the old wage.  On both sides of the Severn the labourers took arms,
+and waged war against their lords.  The peasant war in England is called
+the Peasant Revolt; the peasant war in Wales is sometimes called the
+revolt of Owen Glendower.
+
+A change came over the rebellions in Wales.  At first, the rebellions
+were those of Llywelyn’s country; the allies who had deserted him, and
+then turned against Edward, like Rees ap Meredith; or his own followers,
+like Madoc, who said he was his son; or men he had protected, like
+Maelgwn Vychan in Pembroke.  Later on, under Edward II. and Edward III.,
+the rebellions were against the march lords, and the king was looked upon
+as a protector—such as the rebellion of Llywelyn Bren against the Clares
+and Mortimers in Glamorgan in 1316.  But the wilder spirits went to the
+French wars, and fought for both sides.  With the assassination of Owen
+of Wales in 1378, the last of Llywelyn’s near relatives to dream of
+restoring the independence of Wales, the rebellions against the King of
+England came to an end.
+
+When they broke out again, it was not in Snowdon or Ceredigion; the old
+dominions of Llywelyn were almost unwilling to rise.  The new revolts
+were in the march lands, and especially in the towns.
+
+
+
+
+XV
+OWEN GLENDOWER
+
+
+THE English baron in Wales tried to add to his possessions by encroaching
+on the lands of the Welsh freemen.  His estate always remained the same,
+because it all went to the eldest son, according to what is called
+primogeniture; their lands, on the other hand, were divided between the
+sons according to what is called gavelkind.  He also, by laws they did
+not understand, took the waste land—forest and mountain.  As one man can
+more easily watch his interest than many, the baron succeeded; but the
+freemen felt that they were being robbed.
+
+The tenants of the barons were restless and rebellious; they said they
+were free, that they would not work as serfs, that they would not bring
+food rents, but that they would pay a fixed rent for every acre they
+held.
+
+At Ruthin, in the Vale of Clwyd, there was a baron called Lord Grey; and
+in the valley of the Dee there was a Welsh squire called Owen Glendower.
+Their lands met, and Grey took part of Owen’s sheep walk.  Owen had been
+a law student at Westminster, and he had served Henry of Lancaster.  In
+1399 Richard II. had been dethroned, and the barons had made Henry of
+Lancaster king as Henry IV.  Owen saw, however, that the king was too
+weak to curb his lawless barons, and in 1400 he attacked Lord Grey, and
+burnt Ruthin.
+
+The rebellion that had long been smouldering burst into a flame all over
+the country.  Owen was at once welcomed by the bard, the friar, and the
+peasant.  The bard hailed his star as that of the heir of the princes,
+who had come to deliver his country.  The friar welcomed him as the
+friend of the poor and of learning; and unruly students from Oxford, then
+the centre of a great intellectual awakening, flocked home to march under
+his banner.  The peasant welcomed him as his protector against the
+steward of his lord.  The main strength of the movement was the peasant
+revolt; and Welsh poets, like the English ones, sang the praises of the
+ploughman and of the plough.
+
+Owen’s success was most rapid, so rapid that it was put down to magic.
+In four years the whole of Wales recognised him as its prince.  Henry IV.
+and Prince Henry came to Wales, made rapid marches and retook castles,
+punished the friars of Llan Vaes and the monks of Strata Florida.  But
+their victories led to nothing, and the storms fought against them.
+Owen’s victories were used to the full—that of the Vyrnwy was followed by
+an agreement with Grey of Ruthin, that of Bryn Glas by an alliance with
+the Mortimers.  His marches were nearly all triumphant; he was welcomed
+along the whole line of the marches by the peasants to the furthest
+corners of Gwent.
+
+Owen was wise enough to see that no abiding power can be based on a
+popular rising.  He tried to establish a government that the King of
+England could not overthrow.  He had three institutions in mind—an
+independent Wales, governed by him as Prince in a Parliament of
+representatives of the commotes; an independent Welsh Church, with an
+Archbishop of St David’s at its head; and an independent system of
+learning and civilisation, guided by two Universities, one in North Wales
+and one in South Wales.
+
+The new Wales was to be safeguarded by four alliances—with the English
+barons, with the Pope, with Scotland, and with France.  He failed to save
+the Percies from their defeat at Shrewsbury in 1403; but he based all his
+plans on an alliance with the Mortimers, the enemies of Lancaster and the
+Percies.  The head of the Mortimer family had died in Ireland in 1398,
+and had left four young children.  They were the real heirs to the crown,
+and Owen meant to win their throne for them.  Their uncle, Edmund
+Mortimer, married Glendower’s daughter.  But the young Earl of March, the
+elder of the Mortimer boys, had no ambition, and a plot to bring him and
+his brother to Owen failed.
+
+The Papacy had always proved to be a broken reed for Welsh princes; but
+Owen’s alliance with Peter de Luna, the anti-Pope Benedict XIII., gave a
+certain amount of prestige to his title.  The alliance with Scotland,
+based on common kinship, could bring him no help at that time: because it
+was torn between two factions during the reign of the weak Robert III.;
+and the next king, the poet James I., was captured at sea and put into an
+English prison.
+
+The French alliance was much more promising; it would give what Owen
+wanted most—siege engines, a fleet, and an army of trained soldiers.
+Charles VI. of France, the father-in-law of the deposed Richard, refused
+to make peace with the usurper Henry; his fleet protected the Welsh
+coast, and in 1405 a French army of 2,800 men landed at Milford.
+
+Owen struggled on, with waning power, until his death in 1415.  He came
+too soon for success, while the power of the House of Lancaster was
+increasing.
+
+Of all figures in the history of Wales, that of Owen Glendower is the
+most striking and the most popular.  The place of his grave is unknown,
+his lineage and the date of his death a matter of conjecture; there is
+much mystery about even his most brilliant years.  But his majestic
+figure, his wisdom, and his ideals remained in the memory of his country.
+His ghost wandered, it was said, around Valle Crucis.  His spirit, more
+than that of any hero of the past, seems to follow his people on their
+onward march.  This is not on account of his political ideals, but
+because he was the champion of the peasant and of education.
+
+
+
+
+XVI
+THE WARS OF THE ROSES
+
+
+THE reign of Henry V. was a reign of brilliant victories in France, and
+the reign of Henry VI. one of disastrous defeats.  During both reigns the
+lords were becoming more powerful in Wales as well as in England.  The
+hold of the king over them became weaker every year; they packed the
+Parliament, they appointed the Council, they overawed the law courts.  If
+a man wanted security, he must wear the badge of some lord, and fight for
+him when called upon to do so.  In the marches of Wales there were more
+than a hundred lords holding castle and court; and it was easy for a
+robber or a murderer to escape from one lordship to the other, or even to
+find a welcome and protection.  In Wales and in the marches the lords
+preyed upon their weaker neighbours, and the country became full of
+private war.
+
+The selfish families, all fighting for more land and more power,
+gradually formed themselves into two parties—the parties of the Red Rose
+and of the White Rose.  The leading family in the Red Rose party was that
+of Lancaster, represented by the saintly King Henry VI.; the leading
+family in the White Rose party was that of York.  In the Wars of the
+Roses, York and Lancaster fought over the crown, and those who supported
+them over a castle or an estate.
+
+Wales was divided.  The west was for Lancaster, from Pembroke to Harlech,
+and from Harlech to Anglesey.  The east was for York, from Cardiff and
+Raglan to Wigmore, and from Wigmore to Chirk.  Lancaster held estates in
+Wales and on the border—the castles of Hereford, Skenfrith, Ogmore, and
+Kidwelly being centres of strength and wealth.  York’s chief country was
+the march of Wales, with Ludlow as its centre.  The Welsh barons took
+sides according to their interests.  Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke, held
+the west for his half-brother, the king.  Sir William Herbert, who was
+very powerful in the country south of the Mortimers, took the side of his
+powerful neighbour.  Others wavered, especially Grey of Ruthin and the
+Stanleys in North Wales.
+
+One battle was fought between the Welsh Yorkists and the Welsh
+Lancastrians.  This was the battle of Mortimer’s Cross, near Wigmore, in
+February 1461.  The victor was the young Duke of York, who was crowned
+king as Edward IV. later in the year.  An old man, Owen Tudor, the father
+of Jasper Tudor, and the grandfather of the boy who was “to rule after
+them all” as Henry VII., was taken prisoner.  They took him to Hereford,
+and there they cut his head off and set it on the market cross.  The
+battles of the Wars of the Roses were very cruel ones; the noble
+prisoners that had been taken, even children of tender age, were murdered
+in cold blood on the evening of the battle.  “By God’s blood,” said one,
+as he killed a child, “thy father slew mine, and so will I do thee.”
+
+The Welsh barons led their men to nearly all the important battles.
+North Wales archers, wearing the three feathers of the Prince of Wales,
+fought for Lancaster in the snow at the great defeat of Towton on the
+Palm Sunday of 1461; the archers of Gwent, led by Herbert, fought vainly
+for York at the battle of Edgecote, in the summer of 1469.  And the Welsh
+waverer and traitor was seen in battle also—Grey of Ruthin led the van
+for Lancaster at the battle of Northampton in 1460, and caused the battle
+to be lost by deserting to York at the be ginning of the fighting.  In
+Wales itself, also, the war was fought bitterly; and the stubborn defence
+of Harlech for the Lancastrians became famous through the whole country.
+The last battle fought between Lancaster and York was the battle of
+Tewkesbury, in May 1471, and Lancaster lost it; the Prince of Wales, the
+king’s only son, was killed; and his heroic mother, Margaret of Anjou,
+gave the struggle up.  A young Welsh noble—Henry Tudor, Earl of
+Richmond—became the Lancastrian heir.  The fortunes of his house were
+hopeless, however; and his uncle, Jasper, sent him in safety to Brittany.
+
+The Yorkist kings, Edward IV. and Richard III., in spite of cruelty and
+murder, ruled well.  They broke the power of the barons, and they made
+the people rich—by maintaining peace, by repressing piracy, by protecting
+the woollen industry of the towns.
+
+In Wales their rule was for peace and order.  They made a Court for Wales
+at Ludlow, the home of their race.  From Ludlow they began to force the
+barons to do justice and to obey the king.  It seemed as if the rule of
+the Yorkists was to be a long one, for they were very popular in London
+and the towns.
+
+But the nobles were not willing to see their power taken from them day by
+day.  Jasper Tudor appealed to the loyalty of the Welsh, and the men of
+West Wales wanted a king of their own blood; for the laws had been made
+unjust to them ever since the time of Owen Glendower.
+
+Many attempts were made, and they failed.  But at last, on August 7,
+1485, the fugitive Earl of Richmond came to Milford Haven.  He marched on
+to the valley of the Teivy, and he was joined by Sir Rees ap Thomas, and
+an army of South Wales men; he journeyed on through the valley of the
+Severn, and the North Wales men joined him; English nobles joined him as
+he marched by Shrewsbury, Stafford, Lichfield, and Tamworth.  Richard’s
+army was also on the march.  At Bosworth, August 22, 1485, the two armies
+met in the last battle of the Wars of the Roses.  Richard fought
+fiercely, wearing his crown; and when he was defeated and killed, the
+crown was placed on Henry’s head.
+
+The people of England did not care who ruled, Richard or Henry, as long
+as he kept order, for they were very tired of civil war.  But the people
+of Wales welcomed Henry as a Welshman who would rule them kindly and
+justly.
+
+
+
+
+XVII
+TUDOR ORDER
+
+
+THE Tudors—Henry VII., his son, Henry VIII., and his three grandchildren,
+Edward VI. and Mary and Elizabeth—ruled England and Wales from 1485 to
+1603.  Under them the people became united, law-abiding, patriotic, and
+prosperous.  The Tudor period is justly regarded as the most glorious in
+British history, with its great statesmen, its great adventurers, and its
+great poets.
+
+The Tudors were loyally supported by Wales, by the military strength of
+men like Sir Rees ap Thomas or the Earl of Pembroke, and by the
+diplomatic skill of the Cecils.  Under their rule—hard and unmerciful,
+but just and efficient—the law became strong enough to crush the
+mightiest and to shield the weakest.  Welshmen found that, even under
+their own sovereigns, their ancient language was regarded as a hindrance
+and their patriotism as a possible source of trouble; but they obtained
+the privileges of an equal race, and they were pleased to regard
+themselves as a dominant one.
+
+They obtained equal political privileges.  The laws which denied them
+residence in the garrison towns in Wales, or the holding of land in
+England, came to an end.  The whole of the country, shire ground and
+march ground, was divided into one system of shires and given
+representation in Parliament, by the Act of Union of 1535.  It is called
+an Act of Union because, by it, Wales and England were united on equal
+terms.
+
+Anglesey, Carnarvon, Merioneth, Flint, Cardigan, and Carmarthen had been
+shires since I 284; and small portions of Glamorgan and Pembroke had been
+governed like shires, so that some Tudor writers call them counties.  The
+chief difference between a shire and a lordship is that the king’s writ
+runs to the shire, but not to the lordship.  The king administers the law
+in the shire, through the sheriff; the lord administers the law in the
+lordship through his own officials.
+
+In 1535 the marches of Wales were turned into shire ground.  The bulk of
+them went to make seven new shires—Pembroke, Glamorgan, Monmouth, Brecon,
+Radnor, Montgomery, and Denbigh.  The others were added to the older
+English and Welsh counties.  Of these, those added to Shropshire and
+Herefordshire and Gloucestershire became part of England.  Monmouth also
+was declared to be an English shire, for judicial purposes; but it has
+remained sturdily Welsh, and now it is practically regarded by Parliament
+as part of Wales.  The whole country was now governed in the same way,
+and Wales was represented, like England, in Parliament.  No attempt had
+been made to do this before, except by the first English Prince of Wales,
+the weak and unfortunate Edward II.
+
+Of even greater value than political equality was the new reign of law.
+The Tudors used the Star Chamber, the Court of Wales, and the Great
+Sessions of Wales, to make all equal before the law.  To the Star Chamber
+they summoned a noble who was still too powerful for the court of law.
+
+But it was the Court of Wales that did most work.  It was held at Ludlow.
+It had very able presidents, men like Bishop Lee, the Earl of Pembroke,
+and Sir Henry Sidney.  Bishop Lee struck terror into the whole Welsh
+march, between 1534 and 1543.  Before his time a lord would keep
+murderers and robbers at his castle, protect them, and perhaps share
+their spoil.  But no man could keep a felon out of the reach of Bishop
+Rowland Lee.  If he could not get them alive he got their dead bodies;
+and you might have seen processions of men carrying sacks on ponies—they
+were dead men who were to swing on Ludlow gibbets.  But, severe as Lee
+was, the peasant was glad that he could go to the Court at Ludlow instead
+of going to the court of a march lord, as he had to do before 1535.  The
+shire had been much better governed than the lordship.  When the lordship
+of Mawddwy was added to the shire of Merioneth in 1535, the officers of
+the shire found that it was a nest of brigands and outlaws.
+
+In the more peaceful and humane days of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Henry Sidney
+became President of the Court of Wales.  He was one of the best men of
+the day; and he was proud of ruling Wales and the border counties, “a
+third part of this realm,” because his high office made him able “to do
+good every day.”
+
+Besides the Court of Wales for the whole country, a court of justice was
+held in each of four groups of shires; and these courts were called the
+Great Sessions of Wales.  So, though the law was the same for everybody,
+Wales had a separate system to itself, partly because there was so much
+to do, and partly because the central courts in London were so far away.
+Much was also done to get wise and learned justices of the peace, and
+fair juries.
+
+By the end of the reign of Elizabeth, the last of the Tudors, one may say
+that Wales rejoiced in the following:
+
+1.  There was no hatred between England and Wales; the Welsh gentry
+served the Queen on land and sea, and the people were more happy and
+contented than they had been since the time of Llywelyn.
+
+2.  There was no danger of private war between lords, to which the
+peasant might be summoned.  The brigands which infested parts of the
+country had been cleared away.
+
+3.  The law of land had been fixed.  It was determined that land was to
+go to the eldest son, according to the English fashion.  All the land
+became the property of some landlord, and it was decided who was a
+landowner, and who was not.  The Welsh freemen were held to own their
+land; the Welsh serfs, the descendants of an old conquered race,
+sometimes became owners and sometimes tenants.  They all thought that
+Henry VII., the Welsh victor of Bosworth, had set them free.
+
+4.  The Tudors trusted their people, and called upon them to govern and
+to administer justice themselves.  The squires were to be justices, the
+freemen were to be jurors; the shire was to look after the militia, and
+the parish after the poor.
+
+
+
+
+XVIII
+THE REFORMATION
+
+
+THE Reformation in England was, to begin with, a purely political
+movement.  Henry VIII. wished to rule his people in his own way, in
+religion as well as in politics; and, eventually, he became Supreme Head
+of the Church as well as the king of the country.  His new power brought
+changes.  It was necessary to reform the Church, and the wealth of the
+monasteries tempted him to do it.  There was a new spirit of enquiry, and
+the King was led on by that spirit, with dilatory and hesitating steps,
+to examine old creeds.  The religious fervour of the Reformation had
+caught the people; and the King stood still, if he did not turn back.
+
+But his ministers had no misgivings.  Thomas Cromwell tried to hurry the
+Reformation on—the monasteries were dissolved, the Bible was translated,
+and the sway of Rome was disowned.  The king appointed the bishops,
+decided church cases, and even determined what the creed of his country
+was to be.  Somerset, in the reign of Edward VI., made the movement a
+doctrinal one, and forced it on with equal vigour.
+
+Wales looked on, with indifference and apathy at first, and then with
+murmurs.  The movement had no attraction: it had many causes of offence.
+In England the political movement became a patriotic, an intellectual,
+and a religious movement; and it succeeded.  In Ireland, also, it was
+political, but it could not appeal to patriotism, because it was an
+English movement; and it failed.  In Wales, it was neither welcomed nor
+opposed; it was simply tolerated, and with a bad grace.
+
+For one thing, it brought English instead of Latin into public worship.
+Latin, the old language of prayer and even of sermon, was venerated,
+though not understood.  But English was not only not understood, it was
+also regarded as inferior to Welsh.  The Tudors’ dislike of various
+tongues was as strong as their dislike of various jurisdictions.  Henry
+VIII., in giving Welshmen the Act of 1535, says that the tongue of Owen
+Tudor is “nothing like ne consonant to the natural mother-tongue used
+within this realm,” and enacts that all officials in Wales shall speak
+English.  And, in the same spirit, the Welshman was told that the Kingdom
+of Heaven was now open to him, but that he must seek it in English, or
+not at all.
+
+Again, the reformers—men of the type of Bishop Barlow—despised and
+shocked a people they never understood.  The sanctity of St David’s, the
+theme of the best poets of the Middle Ages and the goal of generations of
+pilgrims, was described by its Protestant bishop—who unroofed the palace
+in order to get the lead—as a desolate angle frequented only by vagabond
+pilgrims.  A Welshman is not appealed to by what is an insult to his
+country and a shock to his religion at the same time.  The relics were
+ruthlessly swept away; they were taken possession of by the agents of
+Cromwell and destroyed, or sent to London.  The images carried in the
+village processions were lost—the images that could keep the
+superstitious Welshman from hell, or even bring him back from it, or heal
+his diseases, or keep his cattle from the murrain, and his crops from
+blight.  I only know of one of those relics that can still be seen.  It
+is the healing cup of Nant Eos, a mere fragment of wood.  The people’s
+faith in the relics can be estimated from the fact that the cup has been
+used within the last century.
+
+Again, the monasteries were dissolved.  The wealth of the monasteries,
+their meadows and barns and sheep-runs and fish ponds, were coveted by
+the rich; the poor thought of them as sources of alms.  The monks were
+good landlords; and they gave freely, not only the comforts of religion,
+but of their medicinal herbs and stores of food.  The Welsh monasteries
+were not so rich as those of England, and they were all dissolved among
+the lesser monasteries—those with an income under £200 a year.  But
+though none of them were very rich, they nearly all had almost £200 a
+year.  Their loss affected the whole country, as each part of Wales had
+one or two of them—Tintern, Margam, Neath, and Whitland in the south;
+Strata Florida, Cwm Hir, Ystrad Marchell, and the Vanner in central
+Wales; and Basingwerk and Maenan in the north.
+
+The Reformation brought the poorer classes in Wales, not only insults to
+their national and religious feelings, but material loss.  It appealed
+only to the English bishops who had adopted the new Protestant tenets,
+and to the Welsh and English landowners who had lost their reverence for
+relics, and had learnt to hunger for land.
+
+The movement was a severe strain on the loyalty of the Welshman to the
+Tudors, but he had learnt to look to the king for guidances and he
+suffered in silence.  Mary was welcomed, and no Welsh blood was shed for
+the Protestant faith.  The passive resistance to the Reformation might
+have broken out into a rebellion if a leader had come.
+
+In Elizabeth’s reign two attempts were made to disturb the religious
+settlement.  One was made by the Jesuits—the wonderful society
+established to check the Reformation movement and to lead a reaction
+against it.  In 1583 John Bennett came to North Wales; in 1595 Robert
+Jones came to Raglan; and several Welsh Jesuits suffered martyrdom.  The
+other attempt was that of John Penry, who wished to appeal to the
+intellect of the people by means of the pulpit and the printing press.
+The apostle of the new creed was crushed, like those who wished to revive
+the old; he was put to death as a traitor in 1593, after a short life of
+importunate pleading that he might preach the Gospel in Wales.
+
+Before the end of the reign of Elizabeth, however, the Welsh language was
+recognised.  The last school founded, that of Ruthin in 1595, was to have
+a master who could teach and preach in Welsh.  And in 1588 there had
+appeared, by the help of Archbishop Whitgift, the Welsh Bible of William
+Morgan.  It was the appearance of this Bible that aroused the first real
+welcome to the Reformation.  But the Reformation that gave England a
+Spenser and a Shakespeare aroused no new life in Wales, not a single hymn
+or a single prayer.
+
+
+
+
+XIX
+THE CIVIL WAR
+
+
+AFTER the Tudors came the Stuarts.  The Tudors did what their people
+wanted; the king and the people, between them, crushed the nobles.  The
+Stuarts did what they thought right, and they did not try to please the
+people.  Under the Tudors, there was harmony between Crown and
+Parliament; and Elizabeth left a prosperous people with strong views
+about their rights and their religion.  But James I., and especially his
+son Charles I., tried to change law and religion.  From the Tudor period
+of unity, then, we come to the Stuart period of strife.
+
+From 1603 to 1642 the struggle went on in Parliament.  The Welsh Members
+nearly all supported the king, and the Welsh people followed the Welsh
+gentry in strong loyalty.  The most famous Welshman of the period was
+John Williams, who became Archbishop of York and Lord Keeper.  He was a
+wise man; he saw that both sides were a little in the wrong; and if any
+one could have kept the peace between them, he could have done it.  But
+the king did not quite trust him, and the Parliament almost despised him;
+and this happens often to wise men who get between two angry parties.
+
+From 1642 to 1646, the First Civil War was waged.  This was a war between
+the king and the Parliament over taxation, militia, and religion.  The
+south-east, and London especially, were for Parliament; the wilder parts,
+especially Wales, were for the king.  The only important part of Wales
+that declared for Parliament was the southern part of Pembrokeshire,
+which had been English ever since the reign of Henry II.
+
+Wales was important to the king for two reasons.  For one thing, it could
+give him an army, and he came, time after time, to get a new one.  When
+he unfurled his flag and began the war at Nottingham in 1642, he came to
+Shrewsbury, and there five thousand Welshmen joined him.  With these and
+others he marched against London, fighting the battle of Edgehill on the
+way.  While the king made many attempts to get London until 1644, and
+while the New Model army attacked him between 1645 and 1647, the Welsh
+fought in nearly all his battles, their infantry suffering heavily in the
+two greatest battles, Marston Moor and Naseby.  The war went on in Wales
+itself also—Rupert and Gerard being the chief Royalist leaders, and
+Middleton and Michael Jones being the chief Parliamentary ones.  No great
+battles were fought, but there were several skirmishes, and much taking
+and retaking of castles and towns.
+
+Wales was important to the king, also, because it commanded the two ways
+to Ireland.  The King thought, almost to the last, that an Irish army
+would save him.  Welsh garrisons held the two ports for Ireland, Chester
+and Bristol.  Bristol was stormed by a great midnight assault, and
+Chester was forced to yield.  In March 1647 Harlech yielded, and the war
+came to an end.  By that time the king was a prisoner in the hands of the
+army.
+
+The Second Civil War, in 1648 and 1649, was a struggle between the two
+sections of the victorious army.  The Parliament wished to establish one
+religion, the army said that every man must be allowed to worship God as
+he liked.  One was called the Presbyterian ideal, the other the
+Independent.  The army was led by Cromwell, and Parliament was overawed.
+Then the Presbyterian parts rose in revolt—Kent, Pembrokeshire, and the
+lowlands of Scotland.  The New Model army marched against the Welsh, in
+order to break the connection between the northern and southern
+Presbyterians.  The Welsh generals were Laugharne, Poyer, and Powell, who
+had all fought for Parliament in the first war.  They were defeated at St
+Fagans, near Cardiff, and then driven into Pembroke.  They determined to
+hold out to the last within its walls.  Cromwell besieged them, and the
+great feature of the war was the siege of Pembroke.  Walls and castles
+like those of Pembroke had become useless because of gunpowder.  But
+Cromwell could not at once bring his guns so far.  His difficulties were
+increasing daily: the Parliament was trying to come to terms with the
+king, all Wales around him was disaffected, the Scotch had crossed the
+border and were marching on London.  After many weeks of assaults and
+desperate defence, the guns came and the old walls were battered down.
+Pembroke Castle, whose great round tower still stands, had protected
+William Marshall against Llywelyn and had enabled an important district
+to remain a “little England beyond Wales,” was the last mediæval castle
+to take an important part in war.  The Scotch were soon defeated at the
+battle of Preston, and the king was brought to trial and put to death,
+the death-warrant being signed by two Welshmen—John Jones of Merioneth
+and Thomas Wogan of Cardigan.  The date of Charles’ execution is January
+20, 1649.
+
+The Commonwealth was established immediately, and Wales was looked upon
+with much distrust—the Presbyterian parts and the Royalist parts—by the
+new Government.  It was represented in the English Parliaments, it is
+true, but its representatives were often English, and practically
+appointed by the Government.  When the country was put under the military
+dictatorship of the major-generals, Harrison was sent to rule Wales.
+
+Honest attempts were made to give it an efficient clergy; but the zeal of
+Vavasour Powel aroused much opposition.  Wales either clung tenaciously
+to its old religion; or, if it changed it, the changes were extreme.
+Though the country generally returned to its old life and thought at the
+Restoration in 1660, much of the new life of the Commonwealth remained:
+congregations of Independents still met; Quaker ideals survived all
+persecution; and even the mysticism of Morgan Lloyd permeated the slowly
+awakening thought of the peasants whom, in his dreams, he saw welcoming
+the second advent of Christ.
+
+
+
+
+XX
+THE GREAT REVOLUTION
+
+
+EXCEPT to the reader who is of a legal or antiquarian turn of mind, the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are the least interesting in the
+history of Wales—the very centuries that are the most glorious and the
+most stirring in the history of England.  The older historians stop when
+they come to the year 1284, and sometimes give a hasty outline of a few
+rebellions up to 1535.  They then give the Welsh a glowing testimonial as
+a law-abiding and loyal people, and find them too uninteresting to write
+any more about them.
+
+The history of Wales does, indeed, appear to be nothing more than the
+gradual disappearance of Welsh institutions.  The Court of Wales was
+restored with the king in 1660; but its work had been done, and it came
+to an end in 1689.  The Great Sessions came to an end in 1830; and,
+though we now see that their disappearance was a mistake, the bill
+abolishing them passed through Parliament without a division.  The last
+difference between England and Wales was deleted; and if Wales has no
+separate existence left, why should we write or read its history?
+
+Because the two centuries of apparent settlement and sleep were the
+period of a silent revolution, more important, if our aim is to explain
+the living present rather than the dead past, than all the exciting plots
+and battles of the House of Cunedda from the rise of Maelgwn to the fall
+of the last Llywelyn.  During these centuries, the history of Wales
+ceases to be the history of princes and nobles, it becomes the history of
+the people.  Owen Glendower’s few years of power were a kind of prophecy;
+but Owen once appeared to the abbot of Valle Crucis, so tradition says,
+to declare that he had come before his time.  We pass then, very
+gradually, from the history of a privileged class, speaking literary
+Welsh, with a literature famous for the wealth of its imagination and the
+artistic beauty of its form—we pass on to the history of a peasantry,
+rude and ignorant at first, retaining the servile traits of centuries of
+subjection, but gradually becoming self-reliant, prosperous, and
+thoughtful.
+
+The real history of a nation is shown by its literature.  Its records and
+its chronicles are but the notes and comments of various ages.  In the
+period of the princes and nobles, you can trace the rise and decline of a
+great literature; watch how it gathers strength and beauty from Cynddelw
+to Dafydd ap Gwilym, and how the strength begins to fail and the beauty
+to wane, from Dafydd ap Gwilym to Tudur Aled.  In the period of the
+people, from Tudor times on, the peasants tried at first to imitate the
+poetry of the past; then they began to write and think in their own way.
+It is not my aim to explain the periods of Welsh literature now; I am
+going to do that in another book.  But, as I have mentioned three typical
+poets in the period of the princes, I will also mention three poets in
+the period of the people.
+
+In 1579 Rees Prichard was born; in 1717, Williams Pant y Celyn; in 1832,
+Islwyn.  We have, in these three, writers typical of the seventeenth,
+eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries respectively.  Rees Prichard, still
+affectionately remembered in every Welsh home as the “Old Vicar,” wrote
+stanzas in the dialect of the Vale of Towy—rough, full of peasant phrases
+and mangled English words; and he wrote them, not in books, but on the
+memory of the people.  In the same valley, a century later, Williams Pant
+y Celyn wrote hymns, melodious and inspiring, of great poetic beauty,
+though with a trace of dialect; they were written and published, but they
+also haunted every ear that heard them.  Beyond the Black Mountains, in
+the hills of West Monmouth, after another century, Islwyn wrote odes
+without a trace of dialect; they were written and remained for some time
+in manuscript; when published, they met with a welcome which shows
+clearly that Islwyn is the typical poet of modern Welsh thought.  If you
+wish to see and realise the rise of the Welsh peasant, pass from the
+homely stanzas of the good Old Vicar’s _Welshmen’s Candle_ to the poetic
+theology of Pant y Celyn, and from that to the poetic philosophy of
+Islwyn, where concentrated intensity of thought is expressed in a style
+that is, at any rate at its best, superior to the best work of the poets
+of the princes.
+
+If I were to tell you the reasons for this change, I would be writing, in
+a slightly different form, what I have already written in this book about
+early Welsh history.  The fall of Llywelyn, the Black Death, Owen
+Glendower’s ideals and the Tudor legislation, all prepared the way.
+
+The long-bow and gunpowder, we have seen, made the peasant as important
+as the noble in war.  The long-bow made the coat of mail useless,
+gunpowder made the castle useless—the defence of the privileges of the
+Middle Ages departed.
+
+Ideas of equality were advanced.  They were looked upon at first as
+truths applicable only to a perfect and impossible condition, and their
+discoverers were ignored, if not hanged or burnt.  But they always became
+a reality, and were victorious in the end.  Take the truths discovered or
+championed by Welshmen.  Walter Brute rediscovered the theory of
+justification by faith—that all men are equal in the sight of God, and
+that no lord could be responsible for them.  Bishop Pecock advocated the
+doctrine of toleration—that reason, not persecution, should rule.  John
+Penry claimed that the people had a right to discuss publicly the
+questions that vitally affected them.  The history of the past shows that
+the apostles were condemned, the life of the present shows that their
+ideas lived.
+
+Industry and commerce became more free.  In Tudor times piracy was
+repressed, the march lordships were abolished, the privileges of the
+towns ceased to fetter manufacture, trade with England became free.  In
+Stuart times roads were made, the industries depending on wool revived,
+and the industries of Britain began to move westwards towards the iron
+and the coal.  In the Hanoverian period waste lands were enclosed, the
+slate mines of the north and the coal pits of the south were opened.
+
+The Tudors succeeded in getting the upper classes to speak English, and
+to turn their backs on Welsh life.  The peasant was left supreme: he knew
+not what to do at first, but light soon came.
+
+Pass through Wales, and you will see the life of both periods—the ruined
+castles and the ruined monasteries of the old; the quarries and pits, the
+towns and ports, the churches and chapels, the schools and colleges of
+the present.
+
+
+
+
+XXI
+HOWEL HARRIS
+
+
+IT is difficult to write about religion without giving offence.  Religion
+will come into politics, and must come into history.  It has given much,
+perhaps most, of its strength to modern Wales; it has given it many, if
+not most, of its political difficulties.
+
+There are periods of religious calm and periods of religious fervour in
+the life of every nation.  I do not know whether it is necessary, but it
+is certainly the fact—the two periods condemn each other with great
+energy.  With regard to creed—the life of religion—you will find that the
+periods of energy tend to be Calvinistic—an intense belief that man is a
+mere instrument in the hands of God, working out plans he does not
+understand; while in periods of rest it tends to be Arminian—a
+comfortable belief that man sees his future clearly, and that he can
+guide it as he likes.  With regard to the Church—the body of religion—it
+is fortunate, in times of calm, if it is established, to keep the spirit
+of religion alive; it is fortunate, in times of fervour, if it is free,
+in order that the new life may give it a more perfect shape.
+
+Now we must remember that there can be no calm without a little
+indifference, and that there can be no enthusiasm without a little
+intolerance.  So men call each other fanatics and bigots and hypocrites,
+because they have not taken the trouble to realise that there is much
+variety in human character and in the workings of the human mind.
+Perhaps it is also worth remembering that an institution is not placed at
+the mercy of a reformer, but gradually changed.
+
+The eighteenth century was a century of indifference in religion in
+Wales, the nineteenth century was a century of enthusiasm.  The Church at
+the beginning of the eighteenth century, at any rate as far as the higher
+clergy were concerned, was apathetic to religion, and alive only to
+selfish interests.  The Whig bishops were appointed for political
+reasons; they hated the Tory principles of the Welsh squires, and they
+neglected and despised the Welsh people they had never tried to
+understand.  In England, the Defoes and the Swifts of literature were
+encouraged and utilised by the political parties; in Wales, where
+clergymen were the only writers, the Whig bishops distrusted them, and
+silenced them where they could, because they wrote Welsh.  The Church did
+not show more misapplication of revenue than the State, perhaps; but,
+while the people could not leave the State as a protest against
+corruption, they could leave the Church.  And, during the middle of the
+eighteenth century, a great national awakening began.
+
+The trumpet blast of the awakening was Howel Harris.  He was a
+Breconshire peasant, of strong passion which became sanctified by a
+life-long struggle, of devouring ambition which he nearly succeeded in
+taming to a life of intense service to God.  Many bitter things have been
+said about him, but nothing more bitter than he has said about himself in
+the volumes of prayers and recriminations he wrote to torture his own
+soul, and to goad himself into harder work.  The fame of his eloquence
+filled the land, and districts expected his appearance anxiously, as in
+old times they expected Owen Glendower.  Howel Harris was, however, no
+political agitator.  He had an imperious will, and he wished to rule his
+brethren; he was aggressive and military in spirit; God to him was the
+Lord of Hosts; he preached the gospel of peace in the uniform of an
+officer of the militia, and he sent many of his converts to fight abroad
+in the battles of the century.  He had a love of organisation; he
+established at Trevecca what was partly a religious community, and partly
+a co-operative manufacturing company.  But, wherever he stood to proclaim
+the wrath of God, no shower of stones or condemnation of minister or
+justice could make those who heard him forget him, or believe that what
+he said was wrong.
+
+If I were writing for antiquarians, and not for those who read history in
+order to see why things are now as they are, I would write
+details—important and instructive—about the Church of the eighteenth
+century, and about the congregations of Dissenters which the seventeenth
+century handed over to the eighteenth to persecute and despise.  The
+Independents and Baptists sturdily maintained their principles of
+religious liberty, but they found the century a stiff-necked one, and
+their congregations were content with merely existing.  The Quakers
+maintained that war was wrong while Britain passed through war fever
+after war fever—the Seven Years’ War and the wars against Napoleon.
+Howel Harris’ voice might have been a voice crying in the wilderness, if
+it had not been for the spiritual life of the existing congregations,
+conformist and dissenting.  Modern ideas in Wales have been profoundly
+affected by the Quakers, and especially in districts from which, as a
+sect, they have long passed away.
+
+The voice of Howel Harris called all these to a new life; and it is about
+that new life, in the variety given it by all the different actors in it,
+that I want you to think now.  It made preaching necessary, for one
+thing; and it was followed by a century of great pulpit oratory.  It
+profoundly affected literature.  It gave Wales, to begin with, a hymn
+literature that no country in the world has surpassed.  The contrast
+between the Reformation and the Revival is very striking—one gave the
+people a Church government established by law and a literature of
+translations, the other gave it institutions of its own making and
+original living thought.  The Revival gave literature in every branch a
+new strength and greater wealth.
+
+It created a demand for education.  Griffith Jones of Llanddowror
+established a system of circulating schools, the teachers moving from
+place to place as a room was offered them—sometimes a church and
+sometimes a barn.  Charles of Bala established a system of Sunday
+Schools, and the whole nation gradually joined it.  The Press became
+active, newspapers appeared.  It became quite clear that a new life
+throbbed in the land.
+
+
+
+
+XXII
+THE REFORM ACTS
+
+
+THE new life brought an inevitable demand for a share in the government
+of the country, and this brought the old order and the new face to face.
+The political power was entirely in the hands of the squires, alienated
+from the peasants in many cases by a difference of language, and in most
+cases by a difference of religion.
+
+The Act of 1535 had, as we have seen, given Wales a representation in
+Parliament.  Each shire had one member only; except Monmouth, which had
+two.  Each shire town had one member, except that of Merioneth; and
+Haverfordwest was given a member.  The county franchise was the forty
+shilling freehold; it therefore excluded not only those who had no
+connection with the land, but the copyholder—who was really a landowner,
+but whose tenure was regarded as base, on account of his villein origin.
+This copyholder was undoubtedly the descendant of the Welsh serf of
+mediæval times.
+
+The first Reform Act, that of 1832, was won for the great manufacturing
+towns of England, but Wales benefited by it.  It extended the franchise
+to the copyholder, and to the farmer paying £50 rent, in the counties; it
+gave the towns a uniform £10 household franchise.  It also brought many
+of the towns into the system of representation.  It raised the number of
+members from twenty-seven to thirty-two; the agricultural districts
+getting two, and the mining districts two.
+
+The slight change in representation is a recognition of the growing
+industries of the country, especially in the coal and iron districts.
+The coal of the great coalfield of South Wales had been worked as far
+back as Norman times; but it was in the nineteenth century that the coal
+and iron industries of South Wales, and the coal and slate industries of
+North Wales became important.  Cardiff, Swansea, and Newport became
+important ports; and places that few had ever heard of before—like
+Ystradyfodwg or Blaenau Ffestiniog—became the centres of important
+industries.  But, in 1832, Wales was still mainly pastoral and
+agricultural; and the Act, though it did much for the towns, left the
+representation of the counties in the hands of the same class.  Still, it
+was the towns that showed disappointment, as was seen in the Chartism of
+the wool district of Llanidloes and of the coal district of Newport.
+
+The second Reform Act, of 1867, gave Merthyr Tydvil two representatives
+instead of one, otherwise it left the distribution of seats as it had
+been before.  But the new extension of the franchise—to the borough
+householder, the borough £10 lodger, and especially the £12 tenant
+farmer—gave new classes political power.  It was followed by a fierce
+struggle between the old landed gentry and their tenants, a struggle
+which was moderated to a certain extent by the Ballot Act of 1870, and by
+the great migration of the country population to the slate and coal
+districts.
+
+The rapid rise of the importance of the industrial districts is seen in
+the third Reform Act of 1885.  The country districts represented by the
+small boroughs of the agricultural counties of Brecon, Cardigan,
+Pembroke, and Anglesey, were wholly or partly disfranchised.  But the
+slate county of Carnarvonshire had an additional member; and in the coal
+and iron country, Swansea and Carmarthenshire and Monmouthshire had one
+additional member each, and Glamorgan three.
+
+The third Reform Act enfranchised the agricultural labourer and the
+country artisan.  In England many doubts were expressed about the
+intelligence or the colour of the politics of the new voter; but, in
+Wales, most would admit that he was as intelligent as any voter
+enfranchised before him; all knew there could be no doubt about his
+politics.
+
+The character of the representation of Wales has entirely changed.  The
+squire gave place to the capitalist, and the capitalist to popular
+leaders.  Wales, whose people blindly followed the gentry in the Great
+Civil War, is now the most democratic part of Britain.
+
+
+
+
+XXIII
+EDUCATION
+
+
+The chief feature of the history of Wales during the eighteenth and
+nineteenth centuries is the growth of a system of education.
+
+The most democratic, the most perfect, and the most efficient method is
+still that of the Sunday School.  It was well established before the
+death of Charles of Bala, whose name is most closely connected with it,
+in 1814.  It soon became, and it still remains, a school for the whole
+people, from children to patriarchs.  Its language is that of its
+district.  Its teachers are selected for efficiency—they are easily
+shifted to the classes which they can teach best; and, if not successful,
+they go back willingly to the “teachers’ class,” where all are equal.
+The reputation of a good Sunday School teacher is still the highest
+degree that can be won in Wales.  Plentiful text books of high merit, and
+an elaborate system of oral and written examinations, mark the last stage
+in its development.
+
+The Literary Meeting is a kind of secular Sunday School.  The rules of
+alliterative poetry and the study of Welsh literature and history, and
+sometimes of more general knowledge, take the place of the study of
+Jewish history, and psalm, and gospel.  The Literary Meetings feed the
+Eisteddvod.
+
+The Eisteddvod passed through the same phases as the nation.  It was an
+aspect of the court of the prince during the Middle Ages.  In Tudor times
+it was used partly to please the people, but chiefly to regulate the
+bards by forcing them to qualify for a degree—a sure method of moderating
+their patriotism and of diminishing their number.  In modern times the
+Eisteddvod is a great democratic meeting, and it is the most
+characteristic of all Welsh institutions.  Its chairing of the bards is
+an ancient ceremony; its _gorsedd_ of bards is probably modern.  But the
+people themselves still remain the judges of poetry; they care very
+little whether a poet has won a chair or not, while a _gorsedd_ degree
+probably does him more harm than good.
+
+Elementary education, in its modern sense, began with the circulating
+schools of Griffith Jones of Llanddowror in 1730.  They were exceedingly
+successful because the instruction was given in Welsh, and they stopped
+after teaching 150,000 to read not because there was no demand for them,
+but on account of a dispute about their endowments in 1779, eighteen
+years after Griffith Jones’ death.  They were followed by voluntary
+schools, very often kept by illiterate teachers.
+
+Between 1846 and 1848 two organisations—the Welsh Education Committee and
+the Cambrian Society—were formed; and they developed, respectively, the
+national schools and the British schools.  After the Education Act of
+1870, the schools became voluntary or Board; education gradually became
+compulsory and free; and in 1902 an attempt was made to give the whole
+system a unity and to connect it with the ordinary system of local
+government.
+
+The training of teachers became a matter of the highest importance.  In
+1846 a college for this purpose was established at Brecon, and then
+removed to Swansea.  From 1848 to 1862, colleges were established at
+Carmarthen, Carnarvon, and Bangor.
+
+The history of secondary education is longer.  It was served, after the
+dissolution of the monasteries, by endowed schools—like that of the
+Friars at Bangor—and by proprietary schools.  By the Education Act of
+1889, a complete system of secondary schools, under popular control, was
+established.  Two of the endowed schools still remain—Brecon, founded by
+the religionists of the Reformation, and Llandovery, the Welsh school
+founded by a patriot of modern times.
+
+It was principally for the ministry of religion that secondary schools
+and colleges were first established.  Schools were founded in many
+districts, and important colleges at Lampeter (degree-granting),
+Carmarthen, Brecon, Bala, Trevecca, Pontypool, Llangollen, Haverfordwest.
+Many of these have a long history.
+
+Higher education had been the dream of many centuries.  Owen Glendower
+had thought of establishing two new universities at the beginning of the
+period of the Revival of Letters; among his supporters were many of the
+Welsh students who led in the great faction fights of mediæval Oxford.
+Oliver Cromwell and Richard Baxter had thought of Welsh higher education.
+But nothing was done.  In the eighteenth century, and in the nineteenth
+until 1870, the Test Act shut the doors of the old Universities to most
+Welshmen; the new University of London did not teach, it only examined;
+the Scotch Universities, to which Welsh students crowded, were very far.
+In 1872, chiefly through the exertions of Sir Hugh Owen, the University
+College of Wales was opened at Aberystwyth, and maintained for ten years
+by support from the people.  The Government helped, and two new colleges
+were added—the University College of South Wales at Cardiff in 1883, and
+the University College of North Wales at Bangor in 1884.  In 1893 Queen
+Victoria gave a charter which formed the three colleges into the
+University of Wales.  Lord Aberdare, its first Chancellor, lived to see
+it in thorough working order.  On Lord Aberdare’s death, the Prince of
+Wales was elected Chancellor in 1896; and when he ascended the throne in
+1901, the present Prince of Wales became Chancellor.
+
+The tendency of the whole system of Welsh education is towards greater
+unity.  There is a dual government of the secondary schools and of the
+colleges, the one by the Central Board and the other by the University
+Court—a historical accident which is now a blemish on the system.  The
+Training Colleges are still outside the University, but they are
+gravitating rapidly towards it.  The theological colleges are necessarily
+independent, but the University offers their students a course in arts,
+so that they can specialise on theology and its kindred subjects.  The
+ideal system is: an efficient and patriotic University regulating the
+whole work of the secondary and elementary schools, guided by the
+willingness of the County Councils, or of an education authority
+appointed by them, to provide means.
+
+The rise of the educational system is the most striking and the most
+interesting chapter in Welsh history.  But the facts are so numerous and
+the development is so sudden that, in spite of one, it becomes a mere
+list of acts and dates.
+
+
+
+
+XXIV
+LOCAL GOVERNMENT
+
+
+THE French Revolution was condemned by Britain, and the voices raised in
+its favour in Wales were few.  The excesses of the Revolution, and the
+widespread fear of a Napoleonic invasion, caused a strong reaction
+against progress.  The years immediately after were years of great
+suffering, but the very suffering prepared the way for the progress of
+the future, because it made men willing to leave their own districts and
+to move into the coal and slate districts, where wages were high enough
+to enable them to live.
+
+The first demand was for political enfranchisement.  In 1832, in 1867,
+and in 1884 the franchise was extended, and every interest found a voice
+in Parliament.  But, with the exception of the sharp struggle between the
+tenant and landlord after the Reform Act of 1867, the effects of
+enfranchisement on Wales have been very few.  Two Acts alone have been
+passed as purely Welsh Acts—the Sunday Closing Act, and the Intermediate
+Education Act.  In Parliament, the voice of Wales is weak even though
+unanimous; it can be outvoted by the capital or by four English
+provincial towns.  Until quite recently its semi-independence—due to
+geography and past history—was looked upon as a source of weakness to the
+Empire rather than of strength.  Its love for the past appeals to the one
+political party, its desire for progress to the other, but its
+distinctive ideals and its separate language are looked upon, at the very
+least, as political misfortunes.  Education and justice have suffered
+from official want of toleration; the appointment of a County Court judge
+who could not speak Welsh, within living memory, has been justified by
+Government on the ground that Englishmen resident in Wales object to
+being tried by a Welsh judge.
+
+Far more important to Wales than the Reform Acts are the Local Government
+Acts which followed them.  When the Reform Act of 1884 added the
+agricultural labourer to the electors of representatives in Parliament,
+every interest had a voice.  A further extension of the franchise would
+not affect the balance of parties, it was thought; and a British
+Parliament has no time or desire to think of sentiment or theoretical
+perfection.  The Parliament found it had too much to do, the multiplicity
+of interests made it impossible to pay effective attention to them.  The
+result has been that half a century of extension of the franchise has
+been followed by half a century of extension of local government.  The
+County Council Act came in 1888, and the Local Government Act in 1894.
+
+Of all parts of Britain, Wales had least local government, and needed
+most.  Its justices of the peace were alien in religion, race, and
+sympathy; they were either country squires who had lost touch with the
+people, or English and Scotch capitalists who, with rare exceptions, took
+no trouble to understand the people they governed, or to learn their
+language.  The vestry meeting had been active enough during the early
+part of the eighteenth century; but religious difficulties made it
+impossible for a semi-ecclesiastical institution to represent a parish.
+The Tudor policy had separated the people from the greater land-owners;
+the iron masters and coal-owners had not yet become part of the people;
+there was not a single institution except the Eisteddvod where all
+classes met.
+
+In no part of the country was local government so warmly welcomed, and no
+part of the country was more ready for it.  One thing the peasants had
+been allowed to do—they could build schools and colleges, churches and
+chapels.  They had filled the country with these—their architecture,
+finance, government, are those of the peasant.  The religious revivals
+had left organisers and institutions.  Four or five religious bodies had
+a system of institutions—parish, district, county, central.  All these
+were thoroughly democratic in character.  When the Local Government Acts
+were passed, there was hardly a Welshman of full age and average ability
+who had not been a delegate or in authority; and those of striking
+ability, if they could afford the time, continually sat in some little
+council or other and watched over the interests of some institution.
+
+It was from among these trained men that the councillors for the new
+county, district, and parish senates were elected.  The work of the
+councils, especially that of the County Council, has been very difficult;
+and when the time comes to write their history, the historian will have
+to set himself to explain why the first councils were served by men who
+had extraordinary tact for government and great skill in financial
+matters.  In the lower councils the village Hampden’s eloquence is
+modified by the chilling responsibility for the rates, but the Parish
+Councils have already, in many places, made up for the negligence of
+generations of sleepy magistrates and officials.
+
+With a great difference, it is true, Wales under local government is
+Wales back again in the times of the princes.  The parish is roughly the
+maenol, the district is the commote or the cantrev, the shire is the
+little kingdom—like Ceredigion or Morgannwg—which fought so sturdily
+against any attempt to subject it.
+
+The local councils were fortunate in the time of their appearance.  They
+came at a period characterised by an intense desire for a better system
+of education, and at a time of rapidly growing prosperity.  A heavy rate
+was possible, and the people were willing to bear it.  The County
+Councils were able to build over seventy intermediate schools within a
+few years; and that at a time when both elementary and higher education
+made heavy demands on what was still a comparatively poor county.  The
+District Councils were able to lower the amount of outdoor relief
+considerably, and without causing any real hardship, for they had
+knowledge of their districts as well as the philanthropy that comes
+naturally to man when he grants other people’s money.  The Parish
+Councils have become the guardians of public paths; they have begun to
+provide parish libraries, and the little parish senate educates its
+constituency and brings its wisdom to bear upon a number of practical
+questions, such as cottage gardens and fairs.
+
+
+
+
+XXV
+THE WALES OF TO-DAY
+
+
+THE most striking characteristic of the Wales of to-day is its
+unity—self-conscious and self-reliant.  The presence of this unity is
+felt by all, though it may be explained in different ways.  It cannot be
+explained by race; for the population of the west midlands and the north
+of England, possibly of the whole of it, have been made up of the same
+elements.  It cannot be explained by language—nearly one half of the
+Welsh people speak no Welsh.  Some attribute it to the inexorable laws of
+geography and climate, others to the fatalism of history.  Others
+frivolously put it down to modern football.  But no one who knows Wales
+is ignorant of it.
+
+The modern unity of the Welsh people—seen occasionally in a function of
+the University, or at a national Eisteddvod, or in a conference of the
+County Councils—has become a fact in spite of many difficulties.
+
+One difficulty has been the absence of a capital.  The office of the
+University and the National Museum are at Cardiff, in the extreme south;
+the National Library is at Aberystwyth, on the western sea.  The thriving
+industries, the densely populated districts, and the frequent and active
+railways, are in the extreme south or in the extreme north; and they are
+separated by five or six shires of pastures and sheep-runs, without large
+towns, and with comparatively few railways.  In the three southern
+counties—Glamorgan, Monmouth, and Carmarthen—the population is between
+two and six people to 10 acres, and the industrial population is from
+twelve to three times the number of the agricultural.  In the central
+counties—Brecon, Radnor, Cardigan, Merioneth, Montgomery—the population
+is below one for 10 acres; the industrial and agricultural population are
+about equal, except in Radnor, where the agricultural is more than two to
+one.  Though Merioneth has more sheep even than Brecon—and each of them
+has nearly 400,000—its industrial population, owing to the slate
+districts, is double the agricultural.  The population begins to thicken
+again as we get nearer the slate, limestone, and coal districts.  In
+Denbigh it is two to the 10 acres, in Carnarvon it is three, and in Flint
+it rises to four or five.  In these northern counties the industrial
+population is double or treble the agricultural.  The fertile western
+counties of Pembroke and Anglesey come between the industrial and grazing
+counties in density of population. {4}
+
+Unity has arisen in spite of differences caused by the intensity of a
+religious revival, an intensity that periodically renews its strength.
+The Welsh are divided into sects, and the bitterness of sectarian
+differences occasionally invades politics and education.  But there are
+two ever-present antidotes.  One is the Welsh sense of humour, the
+nearest relative or the best friend of toleration.  The other is the
+hymn—creed has been turned into song, and that is at least half way to
+turning it into life; the heresy hunter is disarmed by the poetry of the
+hymn, and its music has charms to soothe the sectarian breast.  The
+co-operation of all in the work of local government has also enlarged
+sympathy.
+
+Unity has arisen in spite of the bilingual difficulty.  Rather more than
+one half of the people now habitually speak English.  For three centuries
+an Act—a dead letter from the beginning—ordered all Government officials
+to speak English; for many generations, until recently, Welsh children
+were not taught Welsh in schools, and they could not be taught English.
+The bilingual difficulty is now at an end.  The two languages are taught
+in the schools, and as living languages.  It is clear, on the one hand,
+that every one should learn English, the language of the Empire and of
+commerce.  It is also clear that, on account of its own beauty as well as
+that of the great literature it enshrines, Welsh should be taught in
+every school throughout Wales.
+
+Next to its unity, a characteristic of modern Wales is its democratic
+feeling.  It is a country with a thoughtful and intelligent peasantry,
+and it is a country without a middle class.  There is a very small upper
+class—the old Welsh land-owning families who once, before they turned
+their backs on Welsh literature, led the country.  They have never been
+hated or despised, they are simply ignored.  Their tendency now is to
+come into touch with the people, and they are always welcomed.  But a
+middle class, in the English sense, does not exist.  The wealthier
+industrial class is bound by the closest ties of sympathy to the farmer
+and labourer.  The farmer’s holding is generally small—from 50 to 250
+acres—and he always treats his servants and labourers as equals.
+
+The three great levelling causes—religion, industry, {5} and
+education—have been at work in Wales in recent years.  Education helps
+and is helped by equality.  In town and country alike all Welsh children
+attend the same schools—elementary and secondary; and they proceed, those
+that do proceed, to the same University, and a university is essentially
+a levelling institution.  The dialects, as well as the literary language,
+are recognised; and no dialect has a stigma.  In this respect Wales is
+more like Scotland than England.
+
+There is one other characteristic of modern Wales—a certain pride, not so
+much in what has been done, but in what is going to be done.  Wales is
+small, though not much smaller than Palestine, or Holland, or
+Switzerland, and every part of it knows the other.  There is a healthy
+rivalry between its towns and between its colleges; each town can show
+that it has done something for Wales in the past—by means of its
+industries, or school, or press.  In the strong feeling of unity there is
+ambition to surpass, and each part lives in the light of the action of
+the other parts.
+
+The day is a day of incessant activity—industrial, educational, literary,
+and political.  What is true in the life of the individual is true in the
+life of a nation—a day of hard work is a happy day and a day of hope.
+
+
+
+
+AN OUTLINE OF WELSH POLITICAL HISTORY
+
+
+INFLUENCES UNDER WHICH THE HISTORY OF WALES WAS FORMED
+
+
+1.  The nature of its rocks—Igneous, Cambrian, Silurian, Old Red
+Sandstone, Limestone, Coal—all belonging to the Primary Period.  Its
+rocks
+
+  (_a_)  explain its scenery;
+
+  (_b_)  explain its wealth, the richest part of Britain in minerals.
+
+2.  The configuration of its surface.
+
+  (_a_)  It is isolated, its mountains being surrounded by the sea, or
+  rising sharply from the plains.  It is part of the range of mountains
+  which runs along the whole of the west coast of Britain; but the range
+  is broken at the mouth of the Severn and at the mouth of the Dee.
+
+  (_b_)  It is divided, its valleys and roads radiating in all
+  directions.  So we have in its history
+
+  A.  Wars of Independence.
+
+  B.  Civil War.
+
+
+
+THE PEOPLE WHO CAME INTO WALES
+
+
+1.  The Iberians—a general name for the short dark people who still form
+the greater part of the nations.  They had stone weapons, and lived in
+tribes; they became subject to later invaders, but gradually became free.
+Their language is lost.
+
+2.  The Celts—a tall fair-haired race, speaking an Aryan tongue.  It was
+their migration that was stopped by the rise of Rome.  Four groups of
+mountains, four nations (Celtic and Iberian), four mediæval kingdoms, and
+four modern dioceses can be remembered thus:
+
+      i.  Snowdonia         Decangi       Gwynedd       Bangor
+     ii.  Berwyn            Ordovices     Powys         St Asaph
+    iii.  Plinlimmon        Demetae       Dyved         St David’s
+     iv.  Black Mountains   Silures       Morgannwg     Llandaff
+
+3.  The Romans.  They made roads, built cities, worked mines.
+
+      50–78.  The Conquest.  The Silures were defeated in 50, the
+              Decangi in 58, the Ordovices in 78.
+     80–200.  The Settlement.  Wales part of a Roman province
+              including Chester and York.
+    200–450.  The struggle against the new wandering nations.  The
+              introduction of Christianity.
+        450–  The House of Cunedda represents Roman rule.
+
+4.  The English.
+
+577.      Battle of Deorham.  Wales separated from Cornwall.
+613.      Battle of Chester.  Wales separated from Cumbria.
+
+I.  THE WALES OF THE PRINCES
+
+
+Isolated after the battles of Deorham and Chester, mediæval Wales begins
+to make its own history.  The House of Cunedda represents unity, the
+other princes represent independence.  English, Danish, Norman attacks
+from without.
+
+1.            613–1063.  _The struggle between the Welsh princes and
+                         the English provincial kings_.  From the
+                         battle of Chester to the fall of Griffith ap
+                         Llywelyn.
+         (_a_)  Between Wales and Northumbria, 613–700; for the
+         sovereignty of the north.  Cadwallon, Cadwaladr v. Edwin,
+         Oswald, Oswiu.
+         (_b_)  Between Wales and Mercia, 700–815; for the valley of
+         the Severn.  Rhodri Molwynog and his sons v. Ethelbald and
+         Offa.
+         (_c_)  Between Wales and the Danes, 815–1000.  Rhodri the
+         Great and Howel the Good.
+         (_d_)  Between Wales and Wessex, 1000–1063; for political
+         influence.  Griffith ap Llywelyn v. Harold.
+2.           1063–1284.  _The struggle between the Welsh princes and
+                         the central English kings_.
+(_a_)        1066–1137.  _The Norman Conquest_.  Norman barons v.
+                         Griffith ap Conan and Griffith ap Rees.
+                  1063.  Bleddyn of Powys tries to unite Wales.
+                  1070.  William the Conqueror at Chester.  Advance
+                         of Norman barons from Chester, Shrewsbury,
+                         Hereford, Gloucester.
+                  1075.  Death of Bleddyn; succeeded by Trahaiarn.
+                  1077.  Battle of Mynydd Carn.  Restoration of House
+                         of Cunedda—Griffith ap Conan in the north;
+                         Rees, followed by his son Griffith, in the
+                         south.
+                  1094.  Norman castles dominate Powys, Gwent,
+                         Morgannwg, and Dyved.  Gwynedd and
+                         Deheubarth threatened.
+                  1137.  Death of Griffith ap Conan and Griffith ap
+                         Rees, after setting bounds to the Norman
+                         Conquest.
+(_b_)        1137–1197.  _The struggle against Henry II. and his
+                         sons_.
+                  1137.  The accession of Owen Gwynedd and of the
+                         Lord Rees of the Deheubarth.
+                  1157.  Henry II. interferes in the quarrel of Owen
+                         and Cadwaladr.
+                  1564.  The Cistercians at Strata Florida.
+                  1164.  Meeting of Owen Gwynedd, the Lord Rees, and
+                         Owen Cyveiliog at Corwen, to oppose Henry
+                         II.
+                  1170.  Death of Owen Gwynedd.
+                  1188.  Preaching of the Crusades in Wales.
+                  1189.  Death of Henry II.
+                  1197.  Death of the Lord Rees.
+(_c_)        1194–1240.  _The reign of Llywelyn the Great_.
+             1194–1201.  Securing the crown of Gwynedd.
+             1201–1208.  Alliance with King John.
+             1208–1212.  War with John.
+             1212–1218.  Alliance with barons of Magna Carta.
+             1218–1226.  Struggle with the Marshalls of Pembroke.
+             1226–1240.  Unity of Wales: alliance with Marshalls.
+(_d_)        1240–1284.  _The Wars of Independence_.
+                  1241.  David II. does homage to Henry III.
+                  1244.  Death of Griffith, in trying to escape from
+                         the Tower of London.
+                  1245.  Fierce fighting on the Conway.
+                  1254.  Edward (afterwards Edward I.) Earl of
+                         Chester.
+                  1255.  Llywelyn ap Griffith supreme in Gwynedd.
+                  1263.  Alliance with the English barons.
+                  1267.  Treaty of Montgomery; Llywelyn Prince of
+                         Wales.
+                  1274.  Llywelyn refuses to do homage to Edward I.
+                  1277.  Treaty of Rhuddlan; Llywelyn keeps Gwynedd
+                         only.
+                  1278.  Llywelyn marries Eleanor de Montfort.
+                  1282.  Last war.  Battle of Moel y Don.  Llywelyn’s
+                         death.
+                  1284.  Statute of Wales.
+3.           1284–1535.  _The rule of sheriff and march lord_.
+                  1287.  Revolt of Ceredigion.
+                  1294.  Revolts In Gwynedd, Dyved, Morgannwg.
+                  1315.  Revolt of Llywelyn Bren.
+                  1349.  The Black Death in Wales.
+                  1400.  Rise of Owen Glendower.
+                  1402.  Battles of the Vyrnwy and Bryn Glas.
+                  1404.  Anti-Welsh legislation.
+                  1455.  The Wars of the Roses.
+                  1461.  Battle of Mortimer’s Cross.
+                  1468.  Siege of Harlech.
+                  1469.  Battle of Edgecote.
+                  1478.  Court of Wales at Ludlow.
+                  1485.  Battle of Bosworth and accession of Henry
+                         VII.
+                  1535.  Act of Union.  All Wales governed by king
+                         through sheriffs.
+
+II.  THE WALES OF THE PEOPLE.
+
+
+In 1535 the march lordships were formed into shires, and a reign of law
+began.
+
+           1535–1603.  _Period of loyalty to Tudor sovereigns_—for
+                       equality before law and political rights.
+                1536.  The march lordships become shire ground.
+                       Wales given a representation in Parliament,
+                       and its own system of law courts—the Great
+                       Sessions of Wales.
+                1539.  Welsh passive resistance to the Reformation.
+                1567.  Sir Thomas Middleton opens silver mines of
+                       Cardiganshire.
+                1588.  Bishop Morgan’s Welsh Bible.
+                1593.  Execution of John Penry.
+                       Results:
+
+                       1.  Destruction of power of barons.
+
+                       2.  Anglicising of gentry.
+
+                       3.  A Welsh Bible.
+           1603–1689.  _Struggle between new and old ideas_.
+                1618.  Coal of South Wales attracts attention.
+                1640.  First Civil War.
+                1644.  Brereton and Myddleton win North Wales,
+                       Laugharne and Poyer win South Wales, for
+                       Parliament.
+                1648.  Second Civil War: siege of Pembroke.
+                1650.  Puritan “Act for the better Propagation of the
+                       Gospel in Wales.”
+                1670.  Vavasour Powell dies in prison.
+                1689.  Abolition of the Court of Wales.
+           1689–1894.  _Rise of the Welsh democracy_.
+                1719.  Copper works at Swansea.
+                1730.  Griffith Jones’ circulating schools.
+                1750.  Iron furnaces at Merthyr Tydvil.
+                1773.  Death of Howel Harris.
+                1814.  Death of Charles of Bala.
+                1830.  Abolition of Great Sessions of Wales.
+                1832.  First Reform Bill.
+                1839.  Chartism at Llanidloes and Newport.
+                1867.  Second Reform Bill.
+    1872, 1883, 1884.  University Colleges.
+                1884.  Third Reform Bill.
+                1888.  County Council Act.
+                1889.  Secondary Education Act.
+                1894.  Local Government Act.  University of Wales.
+
+TABLE I.—THE HOUSE OF CUNEDDA
+
+
+           [Picture: Table 1: Cunedda Wledig to Bleddyn] {135}
+
+
+
+
+TABLE II.—GWYNEDD
+
+
+      [Picture: Table 2: Griffith ap Conan to Owen of Wales] {136a}
+
+
+
+
+TABLE III.—DYNEVOR
+
+
+       [Picture: Table 3: Rees ap Tudor to Rees the Hoarse] {136b}
+
+
+
+
+TABLE IV.—POWYS
+
+
+      [Picture: Table 4: Bleddyn ap Cynvyn to Owen Glendower] {137}
+
+
+
+
+TABLE V.—MORTIMER
+
+
+       [Picture: Table 5: Llywelyn the Great to Henry VIII.] {138}
+
+
+
+
+TABLE VI.—TUTOR
+
+
+            [Picture: Table 5: Edward VI. to Elizabeth] {139}
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX A—PARLIAMENTARY REFORM IN WALES {109}
+
+                     By the Act of 1535.        By the Act of 1832.
+GLAMORGAN            1 County Member            2 County Members
+                     1 Member for Cardiff       1 Member for Cardiff,
+                                                Cowbridge, and
+                                                Llantrisant
+                                                1 Member for Swansea,
+                                                Loughor, Neath,
+                                                Aberavon, and Kenfig.
+                                                1 Member for Merthyr
+                                                Tydvil.
+MONMOUTH             2 County Members           2 County Members
+                     1 Member for Monmouth      1 Member for Monmouth
+CARMARTHEN           1 County Member            2 County Members
+                     1 Member for Carmarthen    1 Member for
+                                                Carmarthen and
+                                                Llanelly
+PEMBROKE             1 County Member            1 County Member
+                     1 Member for Pembroke      1 Member for
+                                                Pembroke, Tenby,
+                                                Wiston, Milford
+                     1 Member for               1 Member for
+                     Haverfordwest.             Haverfordwest,
+                                                Narberth, Fishguard
+CARDIGANSHIRE        1 County Member            1 County Member
+                     1 Member for Cardigan      1 Member for
+                                                Cardigan,
+                                                Aberystwyth, Adpar,
+                                                and Lampeter
+BRECONSHIRE          1 County Member            1 County Member
+                     1 Member for Brecon        1 Member for Brecon
+RADNORSHIRE          1 County Member            1 County Member
+                     1 Member for Radnor        1 Member for Radnor,
+                                                Knighton, Rhayadr,
+                                                Cefnllys, Knucklas,
+                                                Presteign
+MONTGOMERYSHIRE      1 County Member            1 County Member
+                     1 Member for Montgomery    1 Member for
+                                                Montgomery,
+                                                Llanidloes,
+                                                Machynlleth, Newtown,
+                                                Welshpool, Llanfyllin
+MERIONETHSHIRE       1 County Member            1 County Member
+DENBIGHSHIRE         1 County Member            2 County Members
+                     1 Member for Denbigh       1 Member for Denbigh,
+                                                Ruthin, Holt, Wrexham
+FLINTSHIRE           1 County Member            1 County Member
+                     1 Member for Flint         1 Member for Flint,
+                                                Rhuddlan, St Asaph,
+                                                Mold, Holywell,
+                                                Caerwys, Caergwrle,
+                                                Overton
+CARNARVONSHIRE       1 County Member            1 County Member
+                     1 Member for Carnarvon     1 Member for
+                                                Carnarvon, Conway,
+                                                Bangor, Nevin,
+                                                Pwllheli, Criccieth
+ANGLESEY             1 County Member            1 County Member
+                     1 Member for Beaumaris     1 Member for
+                                                Beaumaris, Llangefni,
+                                                Amlwch, and Holyhead
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+{1}  Mihangel=Michael.  Llan Fihangel = Si Michael’s.
+
+{2}  Mair=Mary.  Llan Fair=St Mary’s.
+
+{3}  About 1291 the abbeys of Aberconway and Strata Marcella had over a
+hundred cows each, Whitland over a thousand sheep, and Basingwerk over
+two thousand.
+
+{4}  According to the census of 1901 the population per square mile of
+Glamorgan is 758, Monmouth 427, Carmarthen 141, Brecon 73, Radnor 49,
+Cardigan 88, Montgomery 68, Merioneth 74, Denbigh 197, Carnarvon 217,
+Flint 319, Pembroke 143, Anglesey 183.
+
+The rate of increase per cent. between 1891 and 1901 are—Wales 13.3;
+England 12.1; Scotland 11.1; Ireland—5.2.
+
+{5}  In 1801 the population of Cardiff was 1870, and coal was brought
+down from Merthyr on donkeys.  In 1901 the three ports of Cardiff,
+Newport, and Swansea exported nearly as much coal as all the great
+English and Scotch ports put together.
+
+{109}  In the book this “appendix” is inserted at page 109, where it
+doesn’t fit and is in the middle of paragraph.  It’s been moved to an
+appendix in this eText.—DP.
+
+{135}  This table contains the following genealogy.  (For items with an
+asterisk: the links between the House of Cunedda and the three ruling
+families after the Norman Conquest rest on the authority of tradition
+rather than on that of records.)
+
+CUNEDDA WLEDIG (_Dux Britanniae_).  MAELGWN GWYNEDD.  CADWALADR.
+
+Then Idwal.
+
+Then Rhodri Molwynog.
+
+Then Conan Tindaethwy.
+
+Then Esyllt=Mervin.
+
+Then RHODRI THE GREAT who had issue: Anarawd, Cadell and Mervin.
+
+Anarawd had issue Idwal the Bald who had issue Iago then (?) Conan* (_See
+Table II._).
+
+Cadwell had issue HOWEL THE GOOD who had issue Owen.
+
+Owen had issue Einion who had issue Cadwell and Meredith.
+
+Cadwell had issue Tewdwr* (_See Table III._)
+
+Meredith had issue Angharad*.
+
+Angharad = LLYWELYN AB SEISYLLT and had issue GRIFFITH.
+
+Angharad = Cynvyn who had issue BLEDDYN and Rhiwallon (_See Table IV._)
+
+{136a}  This table contains the following genealogy:
+
+GRIFFITH AP CONAN had issue OWEN GWYNEDD, Cadwaladr and Gwenllian = G. ap
+Rees.
+
+OWEN GWYNEDD had issue Iorwerth and DAVID I.
+
+Iorwerth had issue LLYWELYN THE GREAT.
+
+LLYWELYN THE GREAT had issue Griffith and DAVID II.
+
+Griffith had issue LLYWELYN THE LAST, Owen the Red, David and Rhodri.
+
+LLYWELYN THE LAST = Eleanor de Montfort and had issue Gwenllian.
+
+Rhodri had issue Thomas who had issue Owen of Wales.
+
+{136b}  This table contains the following genealogy:
+
+REES AP TUDOR had issue Griffith and Nest.
+
+GRIFFITH had issue THE LORD REES.
+
+THE LORD REES had issue GRIFFITH and Rees the Hoarse.
+
+{137}  This table contains the following genealogy:
+
+BLEDDYN AP CYNVYN had issue MEREDITH, CADWGAN and IORWERTH.
+
+CADWGAN had issue Owen of Powys.
+
+MEREDITH had issue MADOC and OWEN CYVEILIOG.
+
+OWEN CYVEILIOG had issue GRIFFITH who had issue GWENWYNWYN.
+
+MADOC had issue Griffith Maelor who had issue Madoc who had issue
+Griffith of Bromfield.
+
+Griffith of Bromfield had issue Madoc and Griffith Vychan.
+
+Griffith Vychan had issue Madoc who had issue Griffith who had issue
+Griffith Vychan who had issue OWEN GLENDOWER.
+
+{138}  This table contains the following genealogy:
+
+LLYWELYN THE GREAT had issue Gladys the Dark=Ralph Mortimer of Wigmore.
+
+Gladys the Dark and Ralph Mortimer of Wigmore had issue Roger Mortimer =
+Matilda de Braose.
+
+Roger Mortimer and Matilda de Braose had issue Edmund and Roger of Chirk.
+
+Edmund had issue Roger, first Earl of March, who had issue Edmund who had
+issue Roger, second Earl of March, who had issue Edmund, third Earl of
+March=Philipa.
+
+Edmund, third Earl of March and Philipa had issue Roger and Edmund = d.
+of Glendower.
+
+Roger had issue Edmund and Anne=Richard, Earl of Cambridge (see later).
+
+On a different line: EDWARD III. had issue Lionel of Clarence, John of
+Gaunt and Edmund of York.
+
+Edmund of York had issue Richard, Earl of Cambridge=Anne.
+
+The lines then merge with Anne=Richard, Earl of Cambridge who had issue
+Richard, Duke of York (killed at Wakefield, 1460).
+
+Richard, Duke of York had issue EDWARD IV, and RICHARD III. (killed at
+Bosworth, 1485).
+
+Edward IV. had issue Elizabeth = Henry VII.
+
+Henry VII. and Elizabeth had issue HENRY VIII.
+
+{139}  This table contains the following genealogy:
+
+EDWARD III. had issue John of Gaunt who had issue HENRY IV. and John
+Beaufort I. Earl of Somerset.
+
+HENRY IV. = Catherine of France had issue HENRY VI.
+
+Catherine of France = Owen Tudor had issue Edmund Tudor, Earl of
+Richmond=Margaret Beaufort who had issue HENRY VII. who had issue HENRY
+VIII. who had issue EDWARD VI., MARY and ELIZABETH.
+
+John Beaufort I. Earl of Somerset had issue John Beaufort II., Duke of
+Somerset who had issue Margaret Beaufort (see above).
+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SHORT HISTORY OF WALES***
+
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+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=US-ASCII" />
+<title>A Short History of Wales, by Owen M. Edwards</title>
+    <style type="text/css">
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Short History of Wales, by Owen M. Edwards
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions 
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at 
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+
+
+
+Title: A Short History of Wales
+
+
+Author: Owen M. Edwards
+
+
+
+Release Date: September 24, 2014  [eBook #3260]
+[This file was first posted on 2 March 2001]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SHORT HISTORY OF WALES***
+</pre>
+<p>Transcribed from the 1922 T. Fisher Unwin Ltd. edition by
+David Price, email ccx074@pglaf.org</p>
+<h1><span class="GutSmall">A</span><br />
+<span class="GutSmall">SHORT HISTORY</span><br />
+<span class="GutSmall">OF</span><br />
+WALES</h1>
+<p style="text-align: center"><span class="GutSmall">BY</span><br
+/>
+OWEN EDWARDS</p>
+
+<div class="gapspace">&nbsp;</div>
+<p style="text-align: center">T.&nbsp; FISHER&nbsp; UNWIN&nbsp;
+LTD.<br />
+LONDON:&nbsp; ADELPHI TERRACE</p>
+
+<div class="gapspace">&nbsp;</div>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td><p><a name="pagevi"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+vi</span><i>First Published</i></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1906</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><i>Second Impression</i></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1909</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><i>Third Impression</i></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1913</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><i>Fourth Impression</i></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1920</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><i>Fifth Impression</i></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1922</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="gapspace">&nbsp;</div>
+<p style="text-align: center">[<i>All rights reserved</i>]</p>
+<h2><a name="pagevii"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+vii</span>CONTENTS</h2>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="GutSmall">CHAP.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">PAGE</span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">I.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Wales: What it is made of, and What it
+is like</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page1">1</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">II.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Wandering Nations.&nbsp; The
+Iberians and Celts</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page5">5</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">III.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Rome.&nbsp; Roman conquest,
+Settlement, and Influence</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page10">10</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">IV.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Name of Christ.&nbsp; The Old
+Religion and the New</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page15">15</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">V.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Welsh Kings.&nbsp; Wearers of the
+&ldquo;Crown of Arthur&rdquo;</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page20">20</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">VI.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Laws of Howel</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page25">25</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">VII.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Normans in Wales</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page30">30</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">VIII.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Griffith ap Conan and Griffith ap
+Rees</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page35">35</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">IX.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Owen Gwynedd and the Lord
+Rees</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page40">40</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">X.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Llywelyn the Great</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page45">45</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">XI.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Last Llywelyn</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page50">50</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><a name="pageviii"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. viii</span><span
+class="GutSmall">XII.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Conquered Wales.&nbsp; How it was
+Governed</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page55">55</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">XIII.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Castle and the Long-bow</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page60">60</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">XIV.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Rise of the Peasant</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page65">65</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">XV.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Owen Glendower and his
+Ideals</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page70">70</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">XVI.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Wars of the Roses in
+Wales</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page75">75</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">XVII.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Rule of the Tudors</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page80">80</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">XVIII.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Protestant Reformation</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page85">85</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">XIX.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Civil War in Wales</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page90">90</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">XX.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Great Revolution</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page96">96</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">XXI.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Howel Harris and the
+Awakening</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page102">102</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">XXII.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Reform Acts</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page107">107</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">XXIII.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Formation of the Education
+System</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page112">112</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">XXIV.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Growth of
+Self-Government</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page117">117</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">XXV.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The wales of To-day</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page123">123</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3"><p style="text-align: center">SUMMARY</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">I.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Isolation of Wales</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page129">129</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">II.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Wales of the Princes</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page130">130</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">III.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The Wales of the People</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page133">133</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3"><p style="text-align: center"><a
+name="pageix"></a><span class="pagenum">p. ix</span>TABLES</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">I.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The House of Cunedda</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page135">135</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">II.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The House of Gwynedd</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page136">136</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">III.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The House of Dynevor</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page136">136</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">IV.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The House of Powys</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page137">137</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">V.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The House of Mortimer</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page138">138</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">VI.</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">The House of Tutor</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page139">139</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<h2><a name="pagexi"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+xi</span>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">This</span> little book is meant for those
+who have never read any Welsh history before.&nbsp; It is not
+taken for granted that the reader knows either Latin or
+Welsh.</p>
+<p>A fuller outline may be read in <i>The Story of Wales</i>, in
+the &ldquo;Story of the Nations&rdquo; series; and a still fuller
+one in <i>The Welsh People</i> of Rhys and Brynmor Jones.&nbsp;
+Of fairly small and cheap books in various periods I may mention
+Rhys&rsquo; <i>Celtic Britain</i>, Owen Rhoscomyl&rsquo;s
+<i>Flame Bearers of Welsh History</i>, Henry Owen&rsquo;s
+<i>Gerald the Welshman</i>, Bradley&rsquo;s <i>Owen
+Glendower</i>, Newell&rsquo;s <i>Welsh Church</i>, and Rees
+<i>Protestant Non-conformity in Wales</i>.&nbsp; More elaborate
+and expensive books are Seebohm&rsquo;s <i>Village Community</i>
+and <i>Tribal System in Wales</i>, Clark&rsquo;s <i>Medieval
+Military Architecture</i>, Morris&rsquo; <i>Welsh Wars of Edward
+I.</i>, <a name="pagexii"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+xii</span>Southall&rsquo;s <i>Wales and Her Language</i>.&nbsp;
+In writing local history, A. N. Palmer&rsquo;s <i>History of
+Wrexham</i> and companion volumes are models.</p>
+<p>If you turn to a library, you will find much information about
+Wales in <i>Social England</i>, the <i>Dictionary of National
+Biography</i>, the publications of the Cymmrodorion and other
+societies.&nbsp; You will find articles of great value and
+interest over the names of F. H. Haverfield, J. W. Willis-Bund,
+Egerton Phillimore, the Honourable Mrs Bulkeley Owen
+(<i>Gwenrhian Gwynedd</i>), Henry Owen, the late David Lewis, T.
+F. Tout, J. E. Lloyd, D. Lleufer Thomas, W. Llywelyn Williams, J.
+Arthur Price, J. H. Davies, J. Ballinger, Edward Owen, Hubert
+Hall, Hugh Williams, R. A. Roberts, A. W. Wade-Evans, E. A.
+Lewis.&nbsp; These are only a few out of the many who are now
+working in the rich and unexplored field of Welsh history.&nbsp;
+I put down the names only of those I had to consult in writing a
+small book like this.</p>
+<p><a name="pagexiii"></a><span class="pagenum">p. xiii</span>The
+sources are mostly in Latin or Welsh.&nbsp; Many volumes of
+chronicles, charters, and historical poems have been published by
+the Government, by the Corporation of Cardiff, by J. Gwenogvryn
+Evans, by H. de Grey Birch, and others.&nbsp; But, so far, we
+have not had the interesting chronicles and poems translated into
+English as they ought to be, and published in well edited, not
+too expensive volumes.</p>
+<p style="text-align: right"><span class="smcap">Owen
+Edwards</span></p>
+<p><span class="GutSmall">LINCOLN COLLEGE, OXFORD.</span></p>
+<h2><a name="page1"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 1</span>I<br />
+WALES</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">Wales</span> is a row of hills, rising
+between the Irish Sea on the west and the English plains on the
+east.&nbsp; If you come from the west along the sea, or if you
+cross the Severn or the Dee from the east, you will see that
+Wales is a country all by itself.&nbsp; It rises grandly and
+proudly.&nbsp; If you are a stranger, you will think of it as
+&ldquo;Wales&rdquo;&mdash;a strange country; if you are Welsh,
+you will think of it as &ldquo;Cymru&rdquo;&mdash;a land of
+brothers.</p>
+<p>The geologist will tell you how Wales was made; the geographer
+will tell you what it is like now; the historian will tell you
+what its people have done and what they are.&nbsp; All <a
+name="page2"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 2</span>three will tell
+you that it is a very interesting country.</p>
+<p>The rocks of Wales are older and harder than the rocks of the
+plains; and as you travel from the south to the north, the older
+and harder they become.&nbsp; The highest mountains of Wales, and
+some of its hills, have crests of the very oldest and hardest
+rock&mdash;granite, porphyry, and basalt; and these rocks are
+given their form by fire.&nbsp; But the greater part of the
+country is made of rocks formed by water&mdash;still the oldest
+of their kind.&nbsp; In the north-west, centre, and
+west&mdash;about two-thirds of the whole country,&mdash;the rocks
+are chiefly slate and shale; in the south-east they are chiefly
+old red sandstone; in the north-east, but chiefly in the south,
+they are limestone and coal.</p>
+<p>Its rocks give Wales its famous scenery&mdash;its rugged
+peaks, its romantic glens, its rushing rivers.&nbsp; They are
+also its chief wealth&mdash;granite, slate, limestone, coal; and
+lodes of still more precious metals&mdash;iron, lead, silver, and
+gold&mdash;run through them.</p>
+<p>The highest mountain in Wales is Snowdon, which is 3,570 feet
+above the level of the sea.&nbsp; For every 300 feet we go up,
+the temperature becomes one degree cooler.&nbsp; At about 1,000
+feet it becomes too <a name="page3"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+3</span>cold for wheat; at about 1,500 it becomes too cold for
+corn; at about 2,000 it is too cold for cattle; mountain ponies
+graze still higher; the bleak upper slopes are left to the small
+and valuable Welsh sheep.</p>
+<p>There are three belts of soil around the hills&mdash;arable,
+pasture, and sheep-run&mdash;one above the other.&nbsp; The
+arable land forms about a third of the country; it lies along the
+sea border, on the slopes above the Dee and the Severn, and in
+the deep valleys of the rivers which pierce far inland,&mdash;the
+Severn, Wye, Usk, Towy, Teivy, Dovey, Conway, and Clwyd.&nbsp;
+The pasture land, the land of small mountain farms, forms the
+middle third; it is a land of tiny valleys and small plains, ever
+fostered by the warm, moist west wind.&nbsp; Above it, the
+remaining third is stormy sheep-run, wide green slopes and wild
+moors, steep glens and rocky heights.</p>
+<p>From north-west to south-east the line of high hills
+runs.&nbsp; In the north-west corner, Snowdon towers among a
+number of heights over 3,000 feet.&nbsp; At its feet, to the
+north-west, the isle of Anglesey lies.&nbsp; The peninsula of
+Lleyn, with a central ridge of rock, and slopes of pasture lands,
+runs to the south-west.&nbsp; To the east, beyond the Conway, <a
+name="page4"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 4</span>lie the
+Hiraethog mountains, with lower heights and wider reaches;
+further east again, over the Clwyd, are the still lower hills of
+Flint.</p>
+<p>To the south, 30 miles as the crow flies, over the slate
+country, the Berwyns are seen clearly.&nbsp; From a peak among
+these&mdash;Cader Vronwen (2,573 feet), or the Aran (2,970 feet),
+or Cader Idris (2,929 feet)&mdash;we look east and south, over
+the hilly slopes of the upper Severn country.</p>
+<p>Another 30 miles to the south rises green Plinlimmon (2,469
+feet); from it we see the high moorlands of central Wales,
+sloping to Cardigan Bay on the west and to the valley of the
+Severn, now a lordly English river, on the east.</p>
+<p>Forty miles south the Black Mountain (2,630 feet) rises beyond
+the Wye, and the Brecon Beacons (2,910 feet) beyond the
+Usk.&nbsp; West of these the hills fade away into the broad
+peninsula of Dyved.&nbsp; Southwards we look over hills of coal
+and iron to the pleasant sea-fringed plain of Gwent.</p>
+<p>On the north and the west the sea is shallow; in some places
+it is under 10 fathoms for 10 miles from the shore, and under 20
+fathoms for 20 miles.&nbsp; Tales of drowned lands are
+told&mdash;of the sands of <a name="page5"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 5</span>Lavan, of the feast of drunken
+Seithenyn, and of the bells of Aberdovey.&nbsp; But the sea is a
+kind neighbour.&nbsp; Its soft, warm winds bathe the hills with
+life; and the great sweep of the big Atlantic waves into the
+river mouths help our commerce.&nbsp; Holyhead, Milford Haven,
+Swansea, Newport, Barry, and Cardiff&mdash;now one of the chief
+ports of the world&mdash;can welcome the largest vessels
+afloat.&nbsp; The herring is plentiful on the west coast, and
+trout and salmon in the rivers.</p>
+<h2>II<br />
+THE WANDERING NATIONS</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">By</span> land and by sea, race after race
+has come to make the hills of Wales its home.&nbsp; One race
+would be short, with dark eyes and black hair; another would be
+tall, with blue eyes and fair hair.&nbsp; They came from
+different countries and along different paths, but each race
+brought some good with it.&nbsp; One brought skill in taming
+animals, until it had at last tamed even the pig and the bee;
+another brought iron tools to take the <a name="page6"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 6</span>place of stone ones.&nbsp; Another
+brought the energy of the chase and war, and another a delight in
+sailing a ship or in building a fortress.</p>
+<p>One thing they had in common&mdash;they wandered, and they
+wandered to the west.&nbsp; From the cold wastes and the dark
+forests of the north and east, they were ever pushing west to
+more sunny lands.&nbsp; As far back as we can see, the great
+migration of nations to the west was going on.&nbsp; The islands
+of Britain were the furthest point they could reach; for beyond
+it, at that time, no man had dared to sail into the unknown
+expanse of the ocean of the west.&nbsp; In the islands of
+Britain, the mountains of Wales were among the most difficult to
+win, and it was only the bravest and the hardiest that could make
+their home among them.</p>
+<p>The first races that came were short and dark.&nbsp; They came
+in tribes.&nbsp; They had tribal marks, the picture of an animal
+as a rule; and they had a strange fancy that this animal was
+their ancestor.&nbsp; It may be that the local nicknames which
+are still remembered&mdash;such as &ldquo;the pigs of
+Anglesey,&rdquo; &ldquo;the dogs of Denbigh,&rdquo; &ldquo;the
+cats of Ruthin,&rdquo; &ldquo;the crows of Harlech,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;the gadflies of Mawddwy&rdquo;&mdash;were the proud tribe
+<a name="page7"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 7</span>titles of
+these early people.&nbsp; Their weapons and tools were polished
+stone; their hammers and hatchets and adzes, their lance heads
+and their arrow tips, were of the hardest igneous
+rock&mdash;chipped and ground with patient labour.</p>
+<p>The people who come first have the best chance of staying, if
+only they are willing to learn; hardy plants will soon take the
+place of tender plants if left alone.&nbsp; The short dark people
+are still the main part, not only of the Welsh, but of the
+British people.&nbsp; It is true that their language has
+disappeared, except a few place-names.&nbsp; But languages are
+far more fleeting than races.&nbsp; The loss of its language does
+not show that a race is dead; it only shows that it is very
+anxious to change and learn.&nbsp; Some languages easily give
+place to others, and we say that the people who speak these
+languages are good linguists, like Danes and Slavs.&nbsp; Other
+languages persist, those who speak them are unwilling to speak
+any new language, and this is the reason why Spanish and English
+are so widespread.</p>
+<p>After the short dark race came a tall fair-haired
+people.&nbsp; They came in families as well as in tribes.&nbsp;
+They had iron weapons and tools, and the short dark people could
+<a name="page8"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 8</span>not keep
+them at bay with their bone-tipped spears and flint-headed
+arrows.&nbsp; We know nothing about the struggle between
+them.&nbsp; But it may be that the fairy stories we were told
+when children come from those far-off times.&nbsp; If a fairy
+maiden came from lake or mound to live among men, she vanished at
+once if touched with iron.&nbsp; Is this, learned men have asked,
+a dim memory of the victory of iron over stone?</p>
+<p>The name given to the short dark man is usually Iberian; the
+name given to the tall fair man who followed him is Celt.&nbsp;
+The two learnt to live together in the same country.&nbsp; The
+conqueror probably looked upon himself at first as the master of
+the conquered, then as simply belonging to a superior race, but
+gradually the distinction vanished.&nbsp; The language remained
+the language of the Celt; it is called an Aryan language, a
+language as noble among languages as the Aran is among its
+hills.&nbsp; It is still spoken in Wales, in Brittany, in
+Ireland, in the Highlands of Scotland, and in the Isle of
+Man.&nbsp; It was also spoken in Cornwall till the eighteenth
+century; and Yorkshire dalesmen still count their sheep in
+Welsh.&nbsp; English is another Aryan tongue.</p>
+<p><a name="page9"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 9</span>The more
+mixed a nation is, the more rich its life and the greater its
+future.&nbsp; Purity of blood is not a thing to boast of, and no
+great and progressive nation comes from one breed of men.&nbsp;
+Some races have more imagination than others, or a finer feeling
+for beauty; others have more energy and practical wisdom.&nbsp;
+The best nations have both; and they have both, probably, because
+many races have been blended in their making.&nbsp; There is
+hardly a parish in Wales in which there are not different types
+of faces and different kinds of character.</p>
+<p>The wandering of nations has never really stopped.&nbsp; The
+Celt was followed by his cousins&mdash;the Angle and the
+Saxon.&nbsp; These, again, were followed by races still more
+closely related to them&mdash;the Normans and the Danes and the
+Flemings.&nbsp; They have all left their mark on Wales and on the
+Welsh character.</p>
+<p>The migration is still going on.&nbsp; Trace the history of an
+upland Welsh parish, and you will find that, in a surprisingly
+short time, the old families, high and low, have given place to
+newcomers.&nbsp; Look into the trains which carry emigrants from
+Hull or London to Liverpool on their way west&mdash;they have the
+blue eyes and yellow hair of <a name="page10"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 10</span>those who came two thousand years
+ago.&nbsp; But this country is no longer their goal, the great
+continent of America has been discovered beyond.&nbsp; Fits of
+longing for wandering come over the Welsh periodically, as they
+came over the Danes&mdash;caused by scarcity of food and density
+of population, or by a sense of oppression and a yearning for
+freedom.&nbsp; An empty stomach sometimes, and sometimes a fiery
+imagination, sent a crowd of adventurers to new lands.&nbsp; And
+it is thus that every living nation is ever renewing its
+youth.</p>
+<h2>III<br />
+ROME</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is not a spirit of adventure and
+daring alone that makes a nation.&nbsp; Rome rose to say that it
+must have the spirit of order and law too.&nbsp; It rose in the
+path of the nations; it built the walls of its empire, guarded by
+the camps of its legions, right across it.&nbsp; For four hundred
+years the wandering of nations ceased; the nations
+stopped&mdash;and they began to till the ground, to live in
+cities, to form <a name="page11"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+11</span>states.&nbsp; The hush of this peace did not last, but
+the memory of it remained in the life of every nation that felt
+it.&nbsp; Unity and law tempered freedom and change.</p>
+<p>The name of Rome was made known, and made terrible, through
+Wales by a great battle fought on the eastern slopes of the
+Berwyn.&nbsp; The Romans had conquered the lands beyond the
+Severn, and had placed themselves firmly near the banks of that
+river at Glevum and Uriconium.&nbsp; Glevum is our Gloucester,
+and its streets are still as the Roman architect planned
+them.&nbsp; Uriconium is the burnt and buried city beyond
+Shrewsbury; the skulls found in it, and its implements of
+industry, and the toys of its children, you can see in the
+Shrewsbury Museum.</p>
+<p>The British leader in the great battle was Caratacus, the
+general who had fought the Romans step by step until he had come
+to the borders of Wales, to summon the warlike Silures to save
+their country.&nbsp; We do not know the site of the great battle,
+though the Roman historian Tacitus gives a graphic description of
+it.&nbsp; The Britons were on a hill side sloping down to a
+river, and the Romans could only attack them in front.&nbsp; The
+enemy waded the river, however, and scaled the wall on its
+further bank; and in the fierce lance <a name="page12"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 12</span>and sword fight the host of Caratacus
+lost the day.&nbsp; He fled, but was afterwards handed over to
+the Romans, and taken to Rome, to grace the triumphal procession
+of the victors.</p>
+<p>The battle only roused the Silures to a more fierce
+resistance, and it cost the Romans many lives, and it took them
+many years, to break their power.&nbsp; The strangest sight that
+met the invaders was in Anglesey, after they had crossed the
+Menai on horses or on rafts.&nbsp; The druids tried to terrify
+them by the rites of their religion.&nbsp; The dark groves, the
+women dressed in black and carrying flaming torches, the aged
+priests&mdash;the sight paralysed the Roman soldiers, but only
+for a moment.</p>
+<p>Vespasian&mdash;it was he who sent his son Titus to besiege
+Jerusalem&mdash;became emperor in 69.&nbsp; The war was carried
+on with great energy, and by 78 Wales was entirely conquered.</p>
+<p>Then Agricola, a wise ruler, came.&nbsp; The peace of Rome was
+left in the land; and the Welshman took the Roman, not willingly
+at first, as his teacher and ruler instead of as his enemy.&nbsp;
+Towns were built; the two Chesters or Caerlleons (Castra
+Legionum), on the Dee and the Usk, being the most important from
+a military point of view.&nbsp; <a name="page13"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 13</span>Roads were made; two along the north
+and south coasts, to Carmarthen and Carnarvon; two others ran
+parallel along the length of Wales, to connect their ends.&nbsp;
+On these roads towns rose; and some, like Caerwent, were
+self-governing communities of prosperous people.&nbsp;
+Agriculture flourished; the Welsh words for &ldquo;plough&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;cheese&rdquo; are &ldquo;aradr&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;caws&rdquo;&mdash;the Latin <i>aratrum</i> and
+<i>caseus</i>.&nbsp; The mineral wealth of the country was
+discovered; and copper mines and lead mines, silver mines and
+gold mines, were worked.&nbsp; The &ldquo;aur&rdquo; (gold) and
+&ldquo;arian&rdquo; (silver) and &ldquo;plwm&rdquo; (lead) of the
+Welshman are the Latin <i>aurum</i>, <i>argentum</i>, and
+<i>plumbum</i>.</p>
+<p>The Romans allowed the Welsh families and tribes to remain as
+before, and to be ruled by their own kings and chiefs.&nbsp; But
+they kept the defence of the country&mdash;the manning of the
+great wall in the north of Roman Britain, the garrisoning of the
+legion towns, and the holding of the western sea&mdash;in their
+own hand.</p>
+<p>Gradually the power of Rome began to wane, and its hold on
+distant countries like Britain began to relax.&nbsp; The
+wandering nations were gathering on its eastern and northern
+borders, and its walls and legions <a name="page14"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 14</span>at last gave way.&nbsp; It had not
+been a kind mother to the nations it had conquered&mdash;in war
+it had been cruel, and in peace it had been selfish and
+stern.&nbsp; The lust of rule became stronger as its arm became
+weaker.&nbsp; The degradation of slavery and the heavy hand of
+the tax-gatherer were extending even to Wales.&nbsp; The
+barbarian invader found the effeminate, luxurious empire an easy
+prey.&nbsp; In 410 Alaric and his host of Goths appeared before
+the city of Rome itself; and a horde of barbarians, thirsting for
+blood and spoil, surged into it.&nbsp; The fall of the great city
+was a shock to the whole world; the end of the world must be
+near, for how could it stand without Rome?&nbsp; Jerome could
+hardly sob the strange news: &ldquo;Rome, which enslaved the
+whole world, has itself been taken.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>Rome had taken the yoke of Christ; and many said that it fell
+because it had spurned the gods that had given it victory.&nbsp;
+Three years after Alaric had sacked it, Augustine wrote a book to
+prove that it was not the city of God that had fallen; and that
+the heathen gods could neither have built Rome in their love nor
+destroyed it in their anger.&nbsp; He then describes the rise of
+the real &ldquo;City <a name="page15"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 15</span>of God,&rdquo; in the midst of which
+is the God of justice and mercy, and &ldquo;she shall not be
+moved.&rdquo;</p>
+<h2>IV<br />
+THE NAME OF CHRIST</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> name of Christ had been heard
+in Britain during the period of Roman rule, but we do not know
+who first sounded it.&nbsp; There are many beautiful
+legends&mdash;that the great apostle of the Gentiles himself came
+to Britain; that Joseph of Arimathea, having been placed by the
+Jews in an open boat, at the mercy of wind and wave, landed in
+Britain; that some of the captives taken to Rome with Caratacus
+brought back the tidings of great joy.</p>
+<p>We know that the name of Christ, between 200 and 300 years
+after His death, was well known in Britain, and that churches had
+been built for His worship.&nbsp; Between 300 and 400 we have an
+organised church and a settled creed.&nbsp; Between 400 and 500
+there was searching of heart and creed, and heresies&mdash;a sure
+sign that the people were alive to religion.&nbsp; Between <a
+name="page16"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 16</span>500 and 600
+there was a translation of the Bible from Hebrew and Greek into
+the better-known Latin.&nbsp; The whole of Wales becomes
+Christian; and probably St David converted the last pagans, and
+built his church among them.</p>
+<p>Between 450 and 500 a stream of pagan Teutons flowed over the
+east of Britain, and the British Church was separated from the
+Roman Church.&nbsp; By 664 British and Roman missionaries had
+converted the English; and the two Churches of Rome and Britain,
+once united, were face to face again.&nbsp; But they had grown in
+different ways, and refused to know each other.&nbsp; Their
+Easter came on different days; they did not baptize in the same
+way; the tonsure was different&mdash;a crescent on the forehead
+of the British monk, and a crown on the pate of the Roman
+monk.&nbsp; In the Roman Church there was rigid unity and system;
+in the British Church there was much room for
+self-government.&nbsp; The newly converted English chose the
+Roman way, because they were told that St Peter, whose see Rome
+was, held the keys of heaven.&nbsp; Between 700 and 800 the Welsh
+gradually gave up their religious independence, and joined the
+Roman Church.</p>
+<p><a name="page17"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 17</span>But
+there was another dispute.&nbsp; Were the four old Welsh
+bishoprics&mdash;Bangor, St Asaph, St David&rsquo;s,
+Llandaff&mdash;to be subject to the English archbishop of
+Canterbury, or to have an archbishopric of their own at St
+David&rsquo;s?&nbsp; By 1200 the Welsh bishoprics were subject to
+the English archbishop, and Giraldus Cambrensis came too late to
+save them.</p>
+<p>But through all these disputes the Church was gaining
+strength.&nbsp; Churches were being built everywhere.&nbsp; Up to
+700 they were called after the name of their founder; between 700
+and 1000 they were generally dedicated to the archangel
+Michael&mdash;there are several Llanvihangels <a
+name="citation1"></a><a href="#footnote1"
+class="citation">[1]</a> in Wales; after 1000 new churches were
+dedicated to Mary, the Mother of Christ&mdash;we have many
+Llanvairs. <a name="citation2"></a><a href="#footnote2"
+class="citation">[2]</a></p>
+<p>Times of civil strife, or of popular indifference, came over
+and over again; and the old paganism tried to reassert
+itself.&nbsp; And time after time the name of Christ was sounded
+again by men who thought they had seen Him.&nbsp; In the twelfth
+century the Cistercian monk came to say that the world was bad,
+that prayer saved the soul, <a name="page18"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 18</span>and that labour was noble. <a
+name="citation3"></a><a href="#footnote3"
+class="citation">[3]</a>&nbsp; He was followed by the Franciscan
+friar, who said that deeds of mercy and love should be added to
+prayer, that Christ had been a poor man, and that men should help
+each other, not only in saving souls, but in healing sickness and
+relieving pain.&nbsp; In the fifteenth century the Lollard came
+to say that the Church was too rich, and that it had become blind
+to the truth, and Walter Brute said that men were to be justified
+by faith in Christ, not by the worship of images or by the merit
+of saints.&nbsp; In the sixteenth century came the Protestant,
+and the sway of Rome over Wales came to an end; Bishop Morgan
+translated the Bible into Welsh, and John Penry yearned for the
+preaching of the Gospel in Wales.&nbsp; The Jesuit followed,
+calling himself by the name of Jesus, to try to win the country
+back again to Rome.&nbsp; Robert Jones toiled and schemed, and
+some laid down their lives.&nbsp; The Puritan came in the
+seventeenth century to demand simple worship, and Morgan Lloyd
+thought that the second advent of Christ was at hand.&nbsp; <a
+name="page19"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 19</span>The
+Revivalist came in the eighteenth century, and, in the name of
+Christ, aroused the people of Wales to a new life of thought.</p>
+<p>After all this, you will be surprised to learn that many of
+the old gods still remain in Wales, and much of the old pagan
+worship.&nbsp; Who drops a pin into a sacred well, or leaves a
+tiny rag on a bush close by, and then wishes for something?&nbsp;
+A young maiden in the twentieth century, who sacrifices to a well
+heathen god.&nbsp; Until quite recently men thought that Ffynnon
+Gybi, and Ffynnon Elian, and Ffynnon Ddwynwen, had in them a
+power which could curse and bless, ruin and save.</p>
+<p>Lud of the Silver Hand was the god of flocks and ships.&nbsp;
+His caves are in Dyved still, and his was the temple on Ludgate
+Hill in London.&nbsp; Merlin was a god of knowledge; he could
+foretell events.&nbsp; Ceridwen was the goddess of wisdom; she
+distilled wisdom-giving drops in a cauldron.&nbsp; Gwydion
+created a beautiful girl from flowers, &ldquo;from red rose, and
+yellow broom, and white anemony.&rdquo;&nbsp; I am not quite sure
+what Coil did, but I have heard children singing the history of
+&ldquo;old King Cole.&rdquo;&nbsp; Olwen also walked through
+Wales in heathen times, <a name="page20"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 20</span>and it is said that three white
+flowers rose behind her wherever she had put her foot.</p>
+<h2>V<br />
+THE WELSH KINGS</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> spirit of Rome remained, though
+Rome itself had fallen.&nbsp; And Welsh kings rose to take the
+place of the Roman ruler, trying to force the tribes of
+Wales&mdash;of different races and tongues&mdash;to become one
+people.</p>
+<p>The chief Roman ruler, at any rate during the later wars
+against the invaders, was called Dux Britanniae, &ldquo;the ruler
+of Britain.&rdquo;&nbsp; It became the aim of the ablest kings to
+restore the power of this officer, and to carry on his work, to
+rule and defend a united country.&nbsp; And I will tell you
+briefly how the kings ruled and defended Wales for more than five
+hundred years&mdash;how Maelgwn tried to unite it, how Rhodri
+tried to prevent the attacks of Saxon and Dane, how Howel gave it
+laws, and how Griffith tried to defend it against England.</p>
+<p>Between 400 and 450 Rome left Wales <a name="page21"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 21</span>to look after itself.&nbsp; An able
+family, called the House of Cunedda, took the power of the Dux
+Britanniae, and they translated the title into
+Gwledig&mdash;&ldquo;the ruler of a <i>gwlad</i>
+(country).&rdquo;&nbsp; Of this family Maelgwn Gwynedd is the
+most famous.&nbsp; It was his work to try to unite all the
+smaller kings or chiefs of Wales under his own power as
+&ldquo;the island dragon.&rdquo;&nbsp; It was a difficult thing
+to persuade them; they all wanted to be independent.&nbsp; A
+legend shows that Maelgwn tried guile as well as force.&nbsp; The
+kings met him at Aberdovey, and they all sat in their royal
+chairs on the sands.&nbsp; And Maelgwn said: &ldquo;Let him be
+king over all who can sit longest on his chair as the tide comes
+in.&rdquo;&nbsp; But he had made his own chair of birds&rsquo;
+wings, and it floated erect when all the other chairs had been
+thrown down.&nbsp; Before Maelgwn died of the yellow plague in
+547, his strong arm had made Wales one united country, and had
+made every corner of it Christian.</p>
+<p>The new wave of nations, coming on as surely as the tide,
+began to beat against Wales.&nbsp; The Picts came from the
+northern parts of Britain, and Teutonic tribes swarmed across the
+eastern sea.&nbsp; The Angles came to the Humber, and spread over
+the plains <a name="page22"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+22</span>of the north and the midlands of Roman Britain; the
+Saxons came to the Thames, and won the plains and the downs of
+the south-east.&nbsp; In 577 the Saxons, after the battle of
+Deorham, pierced to the western sea at the mouth of the Severn;
+they crept up along the valley of the Severn, burning the great
+Roman towns.&nbsp; Before they reached Chester and the Dee,
+however, they were defeated at the battle of Fethanlea in
+584.&nbsp; But the Angles soon appeared, from the north; and
+after their victory at Chester in 613, they won the plains right
+to the Irish Sea.</p>
+<p>Wales was now surrounded on the land side by a people who
+spoke strange languages, and who worshipped different gods, for
+the Angles and the Saxons were heathens.&nbsp; From the sea also
+it was open to attack.&nbsp; Sometimes the Irish came.&nbsp; But
+the most feared of all were the Danes, whose sudden appearance
+and quick movements and desperate onslaughts were the terror of
+the age.&nbsp; The &ldquo;black Danes&rdquo; came from the fords
+of Norway, the &ldquo;white Danes&rdquo; from the plains of
+Sweden and Denmark.&nbsp; The Danes settled on the south coast:
+Tenby is a Danish name.&nbsp; Offa, the king of the Mercian
+Angles, took the rich lands between the Severn and <a
+name="page23"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 23</span>the Wye; but
+Offa&rsquo;s Dyke (Clawdd Offa) is probably the work of some
+earlier people whose history has been lost.&nbsp; It was only by
+incessant fighting that the enemy could be kept at bay.</p>
+<p>Of all the kings who tried to defend his country against the
+enemies which now stood round it, the greatest is Rhodri, called
+Rhodri Mawr&mdash;&ldquo;the Great.&rdquo;&nbsp; From 844 to 877,
+by battles on sea and land, he broke the spell of Danish and
+Saxon victories; and his might and wisdom enabled him to lead his
+country in those dark days.&nbsp; Like Alfred of Wessex, who
+lived at the same time and faced the same task, he stemmed the
+torrent of Danish invasion and beat the sea-rovers on their own
+element.&nbsp; Like Alfred, he left warlike children and
+grandchildren.&nbsp; One of the grandsons was Howel the Good, who
+put the laws of Wales down in a book.</p>
+<p>Wales and England were now, both of them in their own way,
+trying to become one country.&nbsp; It was seen by many that
+strength and peace were better than division and war.&nbsp; In
+England, the Earls of Mercia and Wessex tried to rise into
+supreme power.&nbsp; In Wales Llywelyn ab Seisyll, victorious in
+many battles and wishing for peace, made the country rich and
+happy.&nbsp; Still, when <a name="page24"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 24</span>he died in 1022, the princes said
+they would not obey another over-king.</p>
+<p>But the long ships full of Danes came again; the Angles
+crossed the Severn: war and misery took the place of peace and
+plenty.&nbsp; Griffith, the son of Llywelyn, came to renew his
+father&rsquo;s work.&nbsp; In the battle of Rhyd y Groes on the
+Severn, in 1039, he drove the Mercians back; in the battle of
+Pencader, in 1041, he crushed the opponents of Welsh unity; in
+1044 he defeated the sea-rovers at Aber Towy.&nbsp; At the same
+time Harold, Earl of Wessex, was making himself king of
+England.&nbsp; A war broke out between Griffith and Harold; and,
+during it, in 1063, the great Welsh king&mdash;&ldquo;the head
+and the shield of the Britons&rdquo;&mdash;was slain by
+traitors.</p>
+<p>So far I have told you about a few, only the greatest, kings
+of the House of Cunedda.&nbsp; I know that you are wondering
+where Arthur comes in.&nbsp; I am not quite sure that Arthur ever
+really lived, except in the mind of many ages.&nbsp; He is the
+spirit of Roman rule, the true Dux Britanniae, and he has all the
+greatness and ability of all the race of Cunedda.&nbsp; I have
+been shown mountains under which he sleeps, with his knights
+around him, waiting for the time when his <a
+name="page25"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 25</span>country is to
+be delivered.&nbsp; Let us hope that what Arthur
+represents&mdash;courage and wisdom, love of country and love of
+right&mdash;lives in the hearts of his people.</p>
+<h2>VI<br />
+THE LAWS OF HOWEL</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> two ideas which ruled Wales
+were&mdash;the love of order and the love of independence.&nbsp;
+The danger of the first is oppression; the dangers of the other
+are anarchy and weakness.&nbsp; Wales was sometimes united, under
+a Maelgwn or a Rhodri, and the princes obeyed them; oftener,
+perhaps, the princes of the various parts ruled in their own
+way.</p>
+<p>The internal life of Wales is best seen in the laws of Howel
+the Good.&nbsp; Howel was the grandson of Rhodri; and, about 950,
+he called four men from each district to Hendy Gwyn (Whitland) to
+state the laws of the country.&nbsp; Twelve of the wisest put the
+law together; and the most learned scribe in Wales wrote it.</p>
+<p><a name="page26"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 26</span>It was
+thought that there should be one king over the whole people, but
+it was very rarely that every part of Wales obeyed one
+king.&nbsp; The country was divided into smaller kingdoms.&nbsp;
+In many ways Gwynedd was the most powerful.&nbsp; It was very
+easy to defend; for it was made up of the island of M&ocirc;n
+(Anglesey), the promontory of Lleyn, and the mountain mass of
+Snowdon.&nbsp; Its steep side was thus towards England, and its
+cornlands and pastures on the further side.&nbsp; It was also the
+home of the family of Cunedda, from Maelgwn to the last
+Llywelyn.</p>
+<p>Powys was the Berwyn country.&nbsp; Ceredigion was the western
+slope of the Plinlimmon range; the eastern slopes had many
+smaller, but very warlike, districts.&nbsp; Deheubarth contained
+the pleasant glades and great forests of the Towy country.&nbsp;
+Dyved was the peninsula to the west; the southern slopes of the
+Beacons were Morgannwg and Gwent.</p>
+<p>Howel the Good found that the laws of the various parts
+differed in details, and he gave different versions to the north,
+the south-west, and the south-east.&nbsp; But the law and life of
+the whole people, if we only look at important features, are
+one.&nbsp; <a name="page27"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+27</span>Several commotes made a cantrev, many cantrevs made a
+kingdom, many kingdoms made Wales.</p>
+<p>In each commote there were two kinds of people&mdash;the free
+or high-born, and the low-born or serfs.&nbsp; These may have
+been the conquering Celt and the conquered Iberian.&nbsp; It was
+very difficult for those in the lower class to rise to the
+higher; but, after passing through the storms of a thousand
+years, the old dark line of separation was quite lost sight
+of.</p>
+<p>The free family lived in a great house&mdash;in the
+<i>hendre</i> (&ldquo;old homestead&rdquo;) in winter, and in the
+mountain <i>havoty</i> (&ldquo;summer house&rdquo;) in
+summer.&nbsp; The sides of the house were made of giant forest
+trees, their boughs meeting at the top and supporting the roof
+tree.&nbsp; The fire burnt in the middle of the hall.&nbsp; Round
+the walls the family beds were arranged.&nbsp; The family was
+governed by the head of the household (<i>penteulu</i>), whose
+word was law.</p>
+<p>The highest family in the land was that of the king.&nbsp; In
+his hall all took their own places, his chief of the household,
+his priest, his steward, his falconer, his judge, his bard, his
+chief huntsman, his mediciner, and others.&nbsp; The chief royal
+residences were Aberffraw <a name="page28"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 28</span>in M&ocirc;n, Mathraval in Powys, and
+Dynevor in Deheubarth.</p>
+<p>Old Welsh law was very unlike the law we obey now.&nbsp; I
+cannot tell you much about it in a short book like this, but it
+is worth noticing that it was very humane.&nbsp; We do not get in
+it the savage and vindictive punishments we get in some
+laws.&nbsp; I give you some extracts from the old laws of the
+Welsh.</p>
+<p>The king was to be honoured.&nbsp; According to the laws of
+Gwynedd, if any one did violence in his presence he had to pay a
+great fine&mdash;a hundred cows, and a white bull with red ears,
+for every cantrev the king ruled; a rod of gold as long as the
+king himself, and as thick as his little finger; and a plate of
+gold, as broad as the king&rsquo;s face, and as thick as a
+ploughman&rsquo;s nail.</p>
+<p>The judge, whether of the king&rsquo;s court or of the courts
+of his subjects, was to be learned, just, and wise.&nbsp; Thus,
+according to the laws of Dyved, was an inexperienced judge to be
+prepared for his great office; he was to remain in the court in
+the king&rsquo;s company, to listen to the pleas of judges who
+came from the country, to learn the laws and customs that were in
+force, especially the three main divisions of law, and the value
+<a name="page29"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 29</span>of all
+tame animals, and of all wild beasts and birds that were of use
+to men.&nbsp; He was to listen especially to the difficult cases
+that were brought to the court, to be solved by the wisdom of the
+king.&nbsp; When he had lived thus for a year, he was to be
+brought to the church by the chaplain; and there, over the relics
+and before the altar, he swore, in the presence of the great
+officers of the king&rsquo;s court, that he would never knowingly
+do injustice, for money or love or hate.&nbsp; He is then brought
+to the king, and the officers tell the king that he has taken the
+solemn oath.&nbsp; Then the king accepts him as a judge, and
+gives him his place.&nbsp; When he leaves, the king gives him a
+golden chessboard, and the queen gold rings, and these he is
+never to part with.</p>
+<p>I will tell you about one other officer&mdash;the
+falconer.&nbsp; Falconry was the favourite pastime of the kings
+and nobles of the time; indeed, everybody found it very exciting
+to watch the long struggle in the air between the trained falcon
+and its prey, as each bird tried every skill of wing and talon
+that it knew.&nbsp; The falconer was to drink very sparingly <a
+name="page30"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 30</span>in the
+king&rsquo;s hall, for fear the falcons might suffer; and his
+lodging was to be in the king&rsquo;s barn, not in the
+king&rsquo;s hall, lest the smoke from the great fire-place
+should dim the falcon&rsquo;s sight.</p>
+<h2>VII<br />
+THE NORMANS</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the death of Griffith ap
+Llywelyn, many princes tried to become supreme.&nbsp; Bleddyn of
+Powys, a good and merciful prince, became the most important.</p>
+<p>In January 1070, when the snow lay thick on the mountains,
+William, the Norman Conqueror, appeared at Chester with an
+army.&nbsp; He had defeated and killed Harold, the conqueror of
+Griffith ap Llywelyn, in 1066; he had crushed the power of the
+Mercian allies of Bleddyn; he had struck terror into the wild
+north, and England lay at his feet.</p>
+<p>He turned back from Chester, but he placed on the borders a
+number of barons who were to conquer Wales, as he had conquered
+England.&nbsp; They had a measure of his ability, of his energy,
+and of his ambition.</p>
+<p>The two great Norman traits were wisdom <a
+name="page31"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 31</span>and courage;
+but the one was often mere cunning, and the other brutal
+ferocity.&nbsp; But no one like the Norman had yet appeared in
+Wales&mdash;no one with a vision so clear, or with so hard a
+grip.&nbsp; A hard, worldly, tenacious, calculating race they
+were; and they turned their faces resolutely towards Wales.</p>
+<p>From England, Wales can be entered and attacked along three
+valleys&mdash;along the Dee, the Severn, and the Wye.&nbsp; At
+Chester, Hugh of Avranches, called &ldquo;The Wolf,&rdquo; placed
+himself.&nbsp; From its walls he could look over and covet the
+Welsh hills, as he could have looked over the Breton hills from
+Avranches.&nbsp; He loved war and the chase: he despised
+industry, he cared not for religion; he was a man of strong
+passions, but he was generous, and he respected worth of
+character.&nbsp; One of his followers, Robert, had all his vices
+and few of his virtues.&nbsp; It was he who extended the
+dominions of the Earl of Chester along the north coast to the
+Clwyd, where he built a castle at Rhuddlan; and thence on to the
+valley of the Conway, where he built a castle at Deganwy.&nbsp;
+The cruelty of Robert shocked even the Normans of his time.&nbsp;
+He even set foot in Anglesey, which looked temptingly <a
+name="page32"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 32</span>near from
+Deganwy, and built a castle at Aberlleiniog.</p>
+<p>At Shrewsbury, where the Severn, after leaving the mountains
+of Wales, turns to the south, Roger of Montgomery was placed,
+with his wife Mabel, an energetic little woman, hated and feared
+by all.&nbsp; Roger himself, while ever ready to fight, preferred
+to get what he wanted by persuasion; he was not less cruel than
+Hugh of Chester, but he was less fond of war.&nbsp; He and his
+sons pushed their way up the Severn, and built a castle at
+Montgomery.</p>
+<p>To Hereford, on the Wye, William Fitz-Osbern came.&nbsp; He
+was the ablest, perhaps, of all the followers of the
+Conqueror.&nbsp; He entered Wales; he saw it from the Wye to the
+sea, and he thought it was not large enough, and that it was too
+far from the political life of the time.&nbsp; So he went back to
+Normandy, but he left his sons William and Roger behind
+him.&nbsp; William had his father&rsquo;s wisdom.&nbsp; Roger had
+his father&rsquo;s recklessness in action; he rebelled against
+his own king, and found himself in prison.&nbsp; The king sent
+him, on the day of Christ&rsquo;s Passion, a robe of silk and
+rarest ermine.&nbsp; The caged baron made <a
+name="page33"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 33</span>a roaring
+fire, and cast the robe into it.&nbsp; &ldquo;By the light of
+God,&rdquo; said William the Conqueror, for that was his wicked
+oath, &ldquo;he shall never leave his prison.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>But another Norman, Bernard of Neufmarch&eacute;, came to take
+his place.&nbsp; He built his castle at Brecon, and defeated and
+killed Rees, the King of Deheubarth; and, with great energy, he
+took possession of the upper valleys of the Wye and the Usk.</p>
+<p>Further south William the Conqueror himself came to Cardiff,
+and possibly built a castle.&nbsp; The Norman conquest of the
+south coast of Wales was exceedingly rapid, and castle after
+castle rose to mark the new victorious advances&mdash;Coety,
+Cenfig, Neath, Kidwelly, Pembroke, Newport, Cilgeran.</p>
+<p>So far, the Norman advance has been a most quick one.&nbsp; In
+less than twenty-five years from the appearance of the Conqueror
+at Chester, the whole country had been overrun except the
+mountains of Gwynedd and the forests of the Deheubarth.&nbsp;
+This success is easily explained.</p>
+<p>For one thing, the Normans had trained, professional soldiers,
+who were well horsed and well armed.&nbsp; In a pitched battle
+the <a name="page34"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+34</span>hastily collected Welsh levies, unused to regular battle
+and very lightly armed, had no chance.</p>
+<p>Again, the Norman never receded.&nbsp; He was willing to stop
+occasionally, in order to bide his time; but he clung tenaciously
+to every mile he had won.&nbsp; His skill as a castle builder was
+as striking as his prowess in battle or his cautious wisdom in
+council.&nbsp; He took possession of an old fortified post, or
+hastily constructed one of turf and timber; but he soon turned it
+into a castle of stone.&nbsp; At that time the Welsh had no
+knowledge of sieges; and their impetuous valour was of no use
+against the new castles.</p>
+<p>Again, the Welsh opposition was not only not organised, but
+weakened by internal strife.&nbsp; While the Norman was winning
+valley after valley, the Welsh princes were trying to decide by
+the issue of battle who was to be chief.&nbsp; Bleddyn was slain
+in 1075; and his nephews and cousins tried to rule the
+country.&nbsp; Among these, Trahaiarn was a soldier of ability
+and energy, and a ruler of real genius.&nbsp; But he was the
+rival of the exiled princes of the House of Cunedda, and he found
+it difficult to bend Snowdon and the Vale of Towy to his
+will.&nbsp; Two of the exiles met him, probably near some <a
+name="page35"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 35</span>of the cairns
+in the valley of the Teivy; and there, in the battle of Mynydd
+Carn, fiercely fought through the dusk into a moonlight night in
+1079, Trahaiarn fell.&nbsp; It looked as if no leader could rise
+in Wales to fight a Norman army or to take a Norman castle.</p>
+<h2>VIII<br />
+GRIFFITH AP CONAN AND GRIFFITH AP REES</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the battle of Mynydd Carn, a
+young chief led the shining shields of the men of Gwynedd.&nbsp;
+He was Griffith, the son of a prince of the line of Cunedda and
+of a sea-rover&rsquo;s daughter.&nbsp; He was mighty of limb,
+fair and straight to see, with the blue eyes and flaxen hair of
+the ruling Celt.&nbsp; In battle, he was full of fury and
+passion; in peace, he was just and wise.&nbsp; His people saw at
+first that he could fight a battle; then they found he could rule
+a country.&nbsp; And it was he that was to say to the Norman:
+&ldquo;Thus far shalt thou come, and no further.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>When Bleddyn died in 1075, Griffith came <a
+name="page36"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 36</span>to Gwynedd,
+and found that his father&rsquo;s lands were under new
+rulers.&nbsp; Robert of Rhuddlan and Trahaiarn of Arwystli were
+mighty foes; but Griffith drove both of them back; and, by his
+prowess and success in battle, broke the spell of conquest which
+kept Gwynedd in bonds.&nbsp; But his enemies attacked him again
+from all sides; and, while Hugh the Wolf and Robert of Rhuddlan
+were laying Gwynedd waste, Trahaiarn and Griffith met at the
+hard-fought battle of Bron yr Erw.&nbsp; Griffith lost the day,
+and again became a sea-rover.&nbsp; He sailed to Dyved, and there
+he met Rees, the King of Deheubarth, who also was of the line of
+Cunedda, and had been driven from his land by the Normans.&nbsp;
+The two chiefs joined, and they crushed Trahaiarn at Mynydd
+Carn.&nbsp; Then they turned against the Normans.</p>
+<p>Rees soon fell in battle, and left two children, Nest and
+Griffith.&nbsp; The beauty of Nest and the genius of Rees ap
+Griffith fill an important page in the history of their
+country.&nbsp; Nest became the mother of the conquerors of
+Ireland; Rees became the greatest of all the kings of South
+Wales.</p>
+<p>The Normans found that the Welsh had taken heart.&nbsp; Of
+their opponents, they feared three: Griffith ap Conan, Owen of
+Powys, <a name="page37"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 37</span>and
+Griffith ap Rees.&nbsp; The kings of England, the two sons of the
+Conqueror&mdash;red, brutal William and cool, treacherous
+Henry&mdash;had to come to help their barons.</p>
+<p>Griffith ap Conan had a long life of strife and success.&nbsp;
+In his struggle with Hugh the Wolf, he was once in The
+Wolf&rsquo;s prison, and more than once he had to flee to the
+sea.&nbsp; But, backed up by the liberty-loving sons of Snowdon
+and by his sea-roving kinsmen, he made Gwynedd strong and
+prosperous.&nbsp; He drove the Normans from Anglesey; he attacked
+and killed Robert of Rhuddlan; he saw the red King of England
+himself forced by storm and rain to beat a retreat from
+Snowdon.&nbsp; He was loved by his people during his youth of
+adventure and battle, and during his old age of safe counsel and
+love of peace.&nbsp; His wife Angharad and his son Owen live with
+him in the memory of his country.&nbsp; When he died, in 1137, it
+was said that he had saved his people, had ruled them justly, and
+had given them peace.</p>
+<p>In the Severn country the princes of Powys were fighting
+against the Normans also, especially against the family of
+Montgomery.&nbsp; The sons of Bleddyn&mdash;Cadogan, Iorwerth,
+and Meredith&mdash;were driving the invaders from the valley of
+the Severn, and <a name="page38"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+38</span>from Dyved, defeating their armies in battle, and
+storming their castles.&nbsp; Sometimes they would make alliances
+with them, and defy the King of England.&nbsp; But it is
+difficult to follow each of them.&nbsp; The history of one of
+them, Owen ap Cadogan, is like a romance.&nbsp; He was brave and
+handsome, in love with Nest, and a very firebrand in
+politics.&nbsp; The army of Henry I. was too strong for him, and
+he had to submit.&nbsp; He then became the friend of the King of
+England.&nbsp; It was the aim of the princes of Powys to be free,
+not only from the Norman, but also from Griffith of Gwynedd and
+Griffith of Deheubarth.&nbsp; They were an able and versatile
+family; noble and base deeds, revolting crimes and sweet poems,
+come in the stirring story of their lives.</p>
+<p>What Griffith did in the north, and the sons of Bleddyn in the
+east, Griffith ap Rees did in the south; he showed that the
+Norman army could be beaten in battle, and that a Norman castle
+could be taken by assault.&nbsp; After his father&rsquo;s death
+he spent much of his youth in exile or in hiding: sometimes we
+find him in Ireland, sometimes in the court of Griffith ap Conan,
+sometimes with his sister Nest&mdash;now the wife of Gerald, the
+custodian of Pembroke Castle.&nbsp; <a name="page39"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 39</span>But he had one aim ever before
+him&mdash;to recover his father&rsquo;s kingdom and to make his
+people free.&nbsp; Castle after castle rose&mdash;at Swansea,
+Carmarthen, Llandovery, Cenarth, Aberystwyth&mdash;to warn him
+that the hold of the Norman on the land was tightening.&nbsp; He
+came to the forests of the Towy; his people rallied round him,
+and his power extended from the Towy to the Teivy, and from the
+Teivy to the Dovey.&nbsp; His wife, the heroic
+Gwenllian&mdash;who died leading her husband&rsquo;s army against
+the Normans&mdash;was Griffith ap Conan&rsquo;s daughter.&nbsp;
+The great final battle between Griffith and the Normans was
+fought at Cardigan in 1136, in which the great prince won a
+memorable victory over the strongest army the Normans could put
+in the field.&nbsp; In 1137 he died, and they said of him that he
+had shown his people what they ought to do, and that he had given
+them strength to do it.</p>
+<p>The work of Griffith ap Conan and Griffith ap Rees was this:
+they set bounds to the Norman Conquest, and saved Deheubarth and
+Gwynedd from the stern rule of the alien.&nbsp; But, though the
+Norman was not allowed to bring his stone castle and cruel law,
+what good he brought with him was welcomed.&nbsp; The piety of
+the Norman, his <a name="page40"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+40</span>intellectual curiosity, and his spirit of adventure,
+conquered in Welsh districts where his coat of mail and his
+castle were not seen.</p>
+<h2>IX<br />
+OWEN GWYNEDD AND THE LORD REES</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> men who opposed the Normans
+left able successors&mdash;Owen Gwynedd followed his father,
+Griffith ap Conan; the Lord Rees followed his father Griffith ap
+Rees; and in Powys the sons of Bleddyn were followed by the
+castle builder Howel, and by the poet Owen Cyveiliog.</p>
+<p>Owen Gwynedd ruled from 1137 to 1169; the Lord Rees from 1137
+to 1197.&nbsp; The age was, in many respects, a great one.</p>
+<p>It was, of course, an age of war.&nbsp; Up to 1154, during the
+reign of Stephen, the English barons were fighting against each
+other, and the king had very little power over them.&nbsp; The
+most important Norman barons in Wales were the Earls of Chester
+in the valley of the Dee, the Mortimers on the <a
+name="page41"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 41</span>upper Wye,
+the Braoses on the upper Usk, and the Clares in the south.&nbsp;
+Their castles were a continual menace to the country they had so
+far failed to conquer, and the Lord Rees was glad to get
+Kidwelly, and Owen Gwynedd to get Mold and Rhuddlan.</p>
+<p>It was, on the whole, an age of unity.&nbsp; It was the chief
+aim of Owen Gwynedd to be the ally of the Lord Rees; and in this
+he succeeded, though his brother Cadwaladr, in his desire for
+Ceredigion, had killed Rees&rsquo; brother, to Owen&rsquo;s
+infinite sorrow.&nbsp; The princes of Powys, Madoc and Owen
+Cyveiliog, were in the same alliance also, and they were helped
+in their struggle with the Normans.&nbsp; Unity was never more
+necessary.&nbsp; Henry II. brought great armies into Wales.&nbsp;
+Once he came along the north coast to Rhuddlan.&nbsp; At another
+time he tried to cross the Berwyn, but was beaten back by great
+storms.&nbsp; Had he reached the upper Dee, he would have found
+the united forces of the Lord Rees, Owen Cyveiliog, and Owen
+Gwynedd at Corwen.&nbsp; There are many stirring episodes in
+these wars: the fight at Consilt, when Henry II. nearly lost his
+life; the scattering of his tents on the Berwyn by a storm that
+seemed to be the fury of fiends; the reckless exposure of life <a
+name="page42"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 42</span>in storming a
+wall or in the shock of battle.&nbsp; But the Norman brought new
+cruelty into war: Henry II. took out the eyes of young children
+because their fathers had revolted against him; and William de
+Braose invited a great number of Welsh chiefs to a feast in his
+castle at Abergavenny, and there murdered them all.</p>
+<p>It is a relief to turn to another feature of the age: it was
+an age of great men.&nbsp; Owen Gwynedd was probably the
+greatest.&nbsp; He disliked war, but he was an able general; he
+made Henry II. retire without great loss of life to his own
+army.&nbsp; He was a thoughtful prince, of a loving nature and
+high ideals, and his court was the home of piety and
+culture.&nbsp; He is more like our own ideal of a prince than any
+of the other princes of the Middle Ages.&nbsp; The Lord Rees was
+not less wise, and his life is less sorrowful and more
+brilliant.&nbsp; He also was as great as a statesman as he was as
+a general; and he made his peace with the English king in order
+to make his country quiet and rich.&nbsp; Owen Cyveiliog was
+placed in a more difficult position than either of his allies; he
+was nearer to very ambitious Norman barons.&nbsp; He was great as
+a warrior; often had his white steed been seen leading the <a
+name="page43"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 43</span>rush of
+battle.&nbsp; He was greater as a statesman: friend and foe said
+that Owen was wise; and he was greater still as a poet.</p>
+<p>The age was an age of poetry.&nbsp; A generation of great
+Welsh poets found an equal welcome in the courts of Gwynedd,
+Powys, and Deheubarth; and even the Norman barons of Morgannwg
+began to feel the charm of Welsh legend and song; Robert of
+Gloucester was a great patron of learning.&nbsp; One of the chief
+events of the period was Lord Rees&rsquo; great Eisteddvod at
+Cardigan in 1176.</p>
+<p>It was an age of new ideals.&nbsp; The Crusades were preached
+in Wales; the grave of Christ was held by a cruel unbeliever, and
+it was the duty of a soldier to rescue it.&nbsp; It appealed to
+an inborn love of war, and many Welshmen were willing to
+go.&nbsp; It did good by teaching them that, in fighting, they
+were not to fight for themselves.&nbsp; It was in Powys that
+feuds were most bitter.&nbsp; A young warrior told a preacher,
+who was trying to persuade him to take the cross: &ldquo;I will
+not go until, with this lance, I shall have avenged my
+lord&rsquo;s death.&rdquo;&nbsp; The lance immediately became
+shivered in his hand.&nbsp; The lance once used for blind feuds
+was gradually <a name="page44"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+44</span>consecrated to the service of ideals&mdash;of patriotism
+or of religion.</p>
+<p>The age of Owen Gwynedd and the Lord Rees and Owen Cyveiliog
+brought a higher ideal still.&nbsp; If the Crusader made war
+sacred, the monk made labour noble.&nbsp; The chief aim of the
+monk, it is true, was to save his soul.&nbsp; He thought the
+world was very bad, as indeed it was; and he thought he could
+best save his own soul by retiring to some remote spot, to live a
+life of prayer.&nbsp; But he also lived a life of labour; he
+became the best gardener, the best farmer, and the best shepherd
+of the Middle Ages.&nbsp; Great monasteries were built for him,
+and great tracts of land were given him, by those who were
+anxious that he should pray for their souls.&nbsp; The monk who
+came to Wales was the Cistercian.&nbsp; The monasteries of
+Tintern, Margam, and Neath were built by Norman barons; and
+Strata Florida, Valle Crucis, and Basingwerk showed that the
+Welsh princes also welcomed the monks.</p>
+<p>Better, then, than the brilliant wars were the poets and the
+great Eisteddvod.&nbsp; Better still, perhaps, were the orchards
+and the flocks of the peaceful monks.</p>
+<h2><a name="page45"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 45</span>X<br
+/>
+LLYWELYN THE GREAT</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the death of the Lord Rees, one
+of the grandsons of Owen Gwynedd becomes the central figure in
+Welsh history.&nbsp; Llywelyn the Great rose into power in 1194,
+and reigned until 1240&mdash;a long reign, and in many ways the
+most important of all the reigns of the Welsh princes.</p>
+<p>Llywelyn&rsquo;s first task was to become sole ruler in
+Gwynedd.&nbsp; The sons of Owen Gwynedd had divided the strong
+Gwynedd left them by their father, and their nobles and priests
+could not decide which of the sons was to be supreme.&nbsp;
+Iorwerth, the poet Howel, David, Maelgwn, Rhodri, tried to get
+Gwynedd, or portions of it.&nbsp; Eventually, David I. became
+king; but soon a strong opposition placed Llywelyn, the able son
+of Iorwerth, on the throne.&nbsp; Uncles and cousins showed some
+jealousy; but the growing power of Llywelyn soon made them obey
+him with gradually diminishing envy.</p>
+<p>His next task was to attach the other princes of Wales to him,
+now that the Lord <a name="page46"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+46</span>Rees and Owen Cyveiliog were dead.&nbsp; To begin with,
+he had to deal with the astute Gwenwynwyn, the son of Owen
+Cyveiliog; and he had to be forced to submit.&nbsp; He then
+turned to the many sons and grandsons of the Lord
+Rees&mdash;Maelgwn and Rees the Hoarse especially.&nbsp; They
+called John, King of England, into Wales; but they soon found
+that Llywelyn was a better master than John and his barons.&nbsp;
+Gradually Llywelyn established a council of chiefs&mdash;partly a
+board of conciliation, and partly an executive body.&nbsp; It was
+nothing new; but it was a striking picture of the way in which
+Llywelyn meant to join the princes into one organised political
+body.</p>
+<p>His third task was to begin to unite Norman barons and Welsh
+chiefs under his own rule.&nbsp; He had to begin in the old way,
+by using force; and Ranulph of Chester and the Clares trembled
+for the safety of their castles.&nbsp; He then offered political
+alliance; and some of the Norman families of the greatest
+importance in the reign of John&mdash;the Earl of Chester, the
+family of Braose, and the Marshalls of Pembroke&mdash;became his
+allies.&nbsp; His other step was to unite Welsh and Norman
+families by marriage.&nbsp; He himself married a daughter <a
+name="page47"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 47</span>of King John,
+and he gave his own daughters in marriage to a Braose and a
+Mortimer.&nbsp; It is through the dark-haired Gladys, who married
+Ralph Mortimer, that the kings of England can trace their descent
+from the House of Cunedda.</p>
+<p>Llywelyn&rsquo;s last great task was to make relations between
+England and Wales relations of peace and amity.&nbsp; During his
+long reign, he saw three kings on the throne of England&mdash;the
+crusader Richard, the able John, and the worthless and mean Henry
+III.&nbsp; It was with John that he had most to do, the king
+whose originality and vices have puzzled and shocked so many
+historians.&nbsp; John helped him to crush Gwenwynwyn, then
+helped the jealous Welsh princes to check the growth of his
+power.&nbsp; Llywelyn saw that it was his policy, as long as John
+was alive, to join the English barons.&nbsp; They were then
+trying to force Magna Carta upon the King, that great document
+which prevented John from interfering with the privileges of his
+barons.&nbsp; In that document John promises, in three clauses,
+that he will observe the rights of Welshmen and the law of
+Wales.</p>
+<p>When John died in 1216, and his young son Henry succeeded him,
+the policy of <a name="page48"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+48</span>England was guided by William Marshall Earl of
+Pembroke.&nbsp; William Marshall was one of the ministers of
+Henry II., and by his marriage with the daughter of Strongbow,
+the conqueror of Ireland, he had become Earl of Pembroke.&nbsp;
+It was with him that Llywelyn had now to deal.&nbsp; He was too
+strong in Pembroke to be attacked, but his very presence made it
+easier for Llywelyn to retain the allegiance of the chiefs who
+would have been in danger from the Norman barons if
+Llywelyn&rsquo;s protection were taken away.&nbsp; In 1219 the
+great William Marshall died; and changes in English politics
+forced his sons into an alliance with Llywelyn.</p>
+<p>Llywelyn&rsquo;s title of Great is given him by his Norman and
+English contemporaries.&nbsp; He was great as a general; his
+detection of trouble before the storm broke, his instant
+determination and rapidity of movements, his ever-ready munitions
+for battle and siege, made his later campaigns always
+successful.&nbsp; He felt that he was carrying on war in his own
+country; so his wars were not wars of devastation, but the
+crushing of armies and the razing of castles.</p>
+<p>He took an interest in the three great agents in the
+civilisation of the time&mdash;the <a name="page49"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 49</span>bard, the monk, and the friar.&nbsp;
+The bard was as welcome as ever at his court; the monk, welcomed
+by Owen Gwynedd before, was given another home at Aber
+Conway.&nbsp; Llywelyn extended his welcome to the friar, and he
+was given a home at Llan Vaes in Anglesey, on the shores of the
+Menai.&nbsp; The friar brought a higher ideal than that of the
+monk; his aim was salvation, not by prayer in the solitude of a
+mountain glen, but by service where men were thickest
+together&mdash;even in streets made foul by vice, and haunted by
+leprosy.&nbsp; Of the Mendicant Orders, the Franciscans were the
+best known in Wales; and, of all Orders of that day, it was they
+who sympathised most deeply with the sorrows of men.&nbsp; And it
+was this which, a little later on, brought them so much into
+politics.</p>
+<p>Great and successful in war and policy, in touch with the
+noblest influences in the life of the time, Llywelyn applied
+himself to one last task.&nbsp; His companions and allies had
+nearly all died before him; but he wished that the peace and
+unity, which they had established, should live after them.&nbsp;
+He had two sons&mdash;Griffith, who was the champion of
+independence; and David, who wished for peace with England.&nbsp;
+Llywelyn laid <a name="page50"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+50</span>more stress on strong government at home than on the
+repudiation of feudal allegiance to the King of England.&nbsp; So
+he persuaded the council of princes at Strata Florida to accept
+David as his successor.</p>
+<h2>XI<br />
+THE LAST LLYWELYN</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">David</span> II., a mild and well-meaning
+prince, was too weak to carry his father&rsquo;s policy
+out.&nbsp; He tried to maintain peace, and did homage to his
+uncle, the King of England.&nbsp; But, as the head of the
+patriotic party, his more energetic brother, Griffith, opposed
+him.&nbsp; By guile he caught Griffith, and shut him in a castle
+on the rock of Criccieth.&nbsp; The other princes shook off the
+yoke of Gwynedd, and Henry III. tried to play the brothers
+against each other.&nbsp; David sent Griffith to Henry, who put
+him in the Tower of London.&nbsp; In trying to escape, his rope
+broke, and he fell to the ground dead.&nbsp; Soon afterwards, in
+1246, in the middle of a war with Henry, David died of a broken
+heart.</p>
+<p><a name="page51"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 51</span>The
+sons of Griffith&mdash;Owen, Llywelyn, and David&mdash;at once
+took their uncle&rsquo;s place; and by 1255 Llywelyn ap Griffith
+was sole ruler.&nbsp; By that year Henry III. had given his young
+son Edward the earldom of Chester, which had fallen to the crown,
+and the lands between the Dee and the Conway, which he claimed by
+a treaty with the dead Griffith.&nbsp; Thus Edward and Llywelyn
+began their long struggle.</p>
+<p>Between 1255 and 1267 Llywelyn tries to recover his
+grandfather&rsquo;s position in Wales.&nbsp; In 1255 his power
+extended over Gwynedd only.&nbsp; He found it easy to extend it
+over most of Wales, because the rule of the English officials
+made the Welsh chiefs long for the protection of Gwynedd.&nbsp;
+The Barons&rsquo; War paralysed the power of the King, and
+Llywelyn made an alliance with Simon de Montfort and the
+barons.&nbsp; Even after Montfort&rsquo;s fall in 1265 the barons
+were so powerful that the King was still at their mercy.&nbsp; In
+1267 Llywelyn&rsquo;s position as Prince of Wales was recognised
+in the Treaty of Montgomery.&nbsp; His sway extended from Snowdon
+to the Dee on the east, and to the Teivy and the Beacons on the
+south&mdash;practically the whole of modern Wales, except the
+southern seaboard.&nbsp; Within these wide bounds all the <a
+name="page52"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 52</span>Welsh barons
+were to swear fealty to Llywelyn, the only exception being
+Meredith ap Rees of Deheubarth.</p>
+<p>The second struggle of Llywelyn&rsquo;s reign took place
+between 1267 and 1277.&nbsp; He tried to weld his land into a
+closer union, and many of the chiefs of the south and east became
+willing to call in the English King.&nbsp; Two of them, his own
+brother David and Griffith of Powys, fled to England, and were
+received by Edward, who had been king since 1272.&nbsp; Llywelyn
+and Edward distrusted each other.&nbsp; Edward wished to unite
+Britain in a feudal unity, and to crush all opponents.&nbsp;
+Llywelyn thought of helping the barons; he might become their
+leader.&nbsp; Eleanor, the daughter of Simon de Montfort, the old
+leader of the barons, was betrothed to him.&nbsp; War broke
+out.&nbsp; The barons&mdash;Clares and Mortimers, and
+all&mdash;joined the King.&nbsp; Llywelyn&rsquo;s dominions were
+invaded at all points, his barons had to yield, one after the
+other; and finally, in 1277, Llywelyn had to accept the Treaty of
+Rhuddlan.&nbsp; His dominions shrunk to the old limits of
+Snowdon, his sway over the rest of Wales was taken from him, and
+the title of Prince of Wales was to cease with his life.</p>
+<p><a name="page53"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 53</span>The
+third struggle was between 1277 and 1282.&nbsp; The rule of the
+new officials drove the Welsh to revolt; and the chiefs who had
+opposed Llywelyn, especially his brother David, begged for
+Llywelyn&rsquo;s protection.&nbsp; Eleanor, Llywelyn&rsquo;s wife
+and Edward&rsquo;s cousin, tried to keep the peace, but she died
+while they were arming for the last bitter war of 1282.</p>
+<p>It was comparatively easy for Edward to overrun Powys or
+Deheubarth, if he had an army strong enough.&nbsp; But at that
+time Gwynedd was almost impregnable.&nbsp; From Conway to Harlech
+lies the vast mass of Snowdon, a great natural rampart running
+from sea to sea.&nbsp; Its steep side is towards the east, and
+the invader found before him heights which he could not climb,
+and round which he could not pass.&nbsp; If you stand in the Vale
+of Conway, look at the hills on the Arvon side&mdash;the great
+natural wall of inmost Gwynedd, with its last tower, the Penmaen
+Mawr, rising right from the sea.&nbsp; The gentle slopes are to
+the west, and there the corn and flocks were safe.</p>
+<p>Edward had to put a large army into the field, and it cost him
+much.&nbsp; In the war with Llywelyn he had to change the English
+army entirely; and, in order to get <a name="page54"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 54</span>money, he had to allow the Parliament
+to get life and power.&nbsp; To carry supplies, and to land men
+in Anglesey to turn the flank of the Welsh, he wanted a
+fleet.&nbsp; But there was no royal navy then, and the fishermen
+of the east coast and the south coast&mdash;who had no quarrel
+with the Welsh, but were very anxious to fight each
+other&mdash;were not willing to lose their fish harvest in order
+to fight so far away.</p>
+<p>In 1282, Edward&rsquo;s great army closed round Snowdon.&nbsp;
+The chiefs still faithful to Llywelyn had to yield or flee.&nbsp;
+But winter was coming on, and could Edward keep his army in the
+field?&nbsp; An attempt had been made to enter Snowdon from
+Anglesey, but the English force was destroyed at Moel y
+Don.&nbsp; It looked as if Edward would have to retire.&nbsp;
+Llywelyn left Snowdon, and went to Ceredigion and the Vale of
+Towy to put new heart in his allies, and from there he passed on
+to the valley of the Wye.&nbsp; He meant, without a doubt, to get
+the barons of the border, Welsh and English, to unite against
+Edward.&nbsp; But in some chance skirmish a soldier slew him, not
+knowing who he was.&nbsp; When they heard that their Prince was
+fallen, his men in Snowdon entirely lost heart.&nbsp; They had <a
+name="page55"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 55</span>no faith in
+David, and in a few months the whole of Wales was at
+Edward&rsquo;s feet.</p>
+<h2>XII<br />
+CONQUERED WALES</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> war between Edward and Llywelyn
+was not a war between England and Wales, as we think of these
+countries now.&nbsp; Some of the best soldiers under Edward were
+Welsh, especially the bowmen who followed the Earl of Gloucester
+and Roger Mortimer from the Wye and Severn valleys.</p>
+<p>It is not right that we Welshmen should feel bitter against
+England, because, in this last war, Edward won and Llywelyn
+fell.&nbsp; It is easy to say that Edward was cruel and
+faithless, and it is easy to say that Llywelyn was shifty and
+obstinate; but it is quite clear that each of them thought that
+he was right.&nbsp; Edward thought that Britain ought to be
+united: Llywelyn thought Wales ought to be free.&nbsp; Now,
+happily, we have the union and the freedom.</p>
+<p>On the other hand, I should not like you to think that Wales
+was more barbarous <a name="page56"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+56</span>than England, or Llywelyn less civilised than Edward
+I.&nbsp; Giraldus Cambrensis saw a prince going barefoot, and the
+fussy little Archbishop Peckham saw that Welsh marriage customs
+were not what he liked; and many historians, who have never read
+a line of Welsh poetry, take for granted that the conquest of
+Wales was a new victory for civilisation.</p>
+<p>In many ways Wales was more civilised than England at that
+time.&nbsp; Its law was more simple and less developed, it is
+true; but it was more just in many cases, and certainly more
+humane.&nbsp; Was it not better that the land should belong to
+the people, and that the youngest son should have the same chance
+as the eldest?&nbsp; And, in crime, was it not better that if no
+opportunity for atonement was given, the death of the criminal
+was to be a merciful one?&nbsp; In the reign of John, a Welsh
+hostage, a little boy of seven, was hanged at Shrewsbury, because
+his father, a South Wales chief, had rebelled.&nbsp; In the reign
+of Edward I., the miserable David was dragged at the tails of
+horses through the streets of the same town, and the tortures
+inflicted on the dying man were too horrible to describe to
+modern ears.&nbsp; And what the Norman baron <a
+name="page57"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 57</span>did, his
+Welsh tenant learnt to do.&nbsp; In Wales you get fierce frays
+and frequent shedding of blood; on the borders you get callous
+cruelty to a prisoner, or the disfiguring of dead
+bodies&mdash;even that of Simon de Montfort, the greatest
+statesman of the Middle Ages in England&mdash;on the battlefield
+when all passion was spent.</p>
+<p>Take the rulers of Wales again.&nbsp; Griffith ap Conan and
+Llywelyn the Great had the energy and the foresight, though their
+sphere was so much smaller, of Henry II.&nbsp; And what English
+king, except Alfred, attracts one on account of lovableness of
+character as Owen Gwynedd and Owen Cyveiliog and the Lord Rees
+do?</p>
+<p>When Edward entered into Snowdon, Welsh was spoken to the Dee
+and the Severn, and far beyond.&nbsp; There were many dialects,
+as there are still, though any two Welshmen could understand each
+other wherever they came from, with a little patience, as they
+can still.&nbsp; But there was also a literary language, and this
+was understood, if not spoken, by the chiefs all through the
+country.&nbsp; It was more like the Welsh spoken in
+mid-Wales&mdash;especially in the valley of the Dovey&mdash;than
+any other.&nbsp; There are many signs of civilisation; one of
+them is <a name="page58"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+58</span>the possession of a literary language&mdash;for romance
+and poem, for court and Eisteddvod.</p>
+
+<div class="gapspace">&nbsp;</div>
+<p>Conquered Wales may be divided into two parts&mdash;the Wales
+conquered by the Norman barons and the Wales conquered by the
+English king.</p>
+<p>The Wales conquered by the English king was the country ruled
+by Llywelyn and his allies.&nbsp; In 1284, by the statute of
+Rhuddlan, it was formed into six shires.&nbsp; The Snowdon
+district&mdash;which held out last&mdash;was made into the three
+shires of Anglesey, Carnarvon, and Merioneth.&nbsp; The part of
+the land between Conway and Dee that belonged to the king, not to
+barons, was made into the shire of Flint.&nbsp; The lands of
+Llywelyn&rsquo;s allies beyond the Dovey were made into the
+shires of Cardigan and Carmarthen.&nbsp; Instead of the chiefs of
+the Welsh prince, the king&rsquo;s sheriffs and justices ruled
+the country.&nbsp; But much of the old law remained.</p>
+<p>The Wales conquered by the Norman barons lay to the east and
+south of the Wales turned into shires in 1284.&nbsp; It included
+the greater part of the valleys of the Clwyd, Dee, Severn, and
+Wye; and the South Wales coast from Gloucester to <a
+name="page59"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+59</span>Pembroke.&nbsp; It remained in the possession of lords
+who were subject to the King of England, but who ruled almost
+like kings in their own lordships.&nbsp; The laws and customs of
+the various lordships differed greatly; sometimes the lord used
+English law, and sometimes Welsh law.&nbsp; The great ruling
+families changed much in wealth and power, from century to
+century.&nbsp; In Llywelyn&rsquo;s time the most important were
+the Clares (Gloucester and Glamorgan), the Mortimers (Wigmore and
+Chirk), Lacy (Denbigh), Warenne (Bromfield and Yale), Fitzalan
+(Oswestry), Bohun (Brecon), Braose (Gower), and Valence
+(Pembroke).</p>
+<p>Llywelyn was the last prince of independent Wales.&nbsp; From
+that time on, the title is conferred by the King of England on
+his eldest son, who is then crowned.&nbsp; The present Prince of
+Wales also comes, through a daughter of Llywelyn the Great, from
+the House of Cunedda, the princes of which ruled Wales from Roman
+times to 1284.&nbsp; Of all the houses that have gone to make the
+royal house, this is the most ancient.</p>
+<h2><a name="page60"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+60</span>XIII<br />
+CASTLE AND LONG-BOW</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">So</span> far I have told you very little
+about war, except that a battle was fought and lost, or a castle
+built or taken.</p>
+<p>War has two sides&mdash;attack and defence.&nbsp; New ways of
+attacking and defending are continually devised.&nbsp; When the
+art of defence is more perfect than the art of attack, the world
+changes very little, for the strong can keep what he has
+gained.&nbsp; When the art of attack is the more perfect, new men
+have a better chance, and many changes are made.&nbsp; The chief
+source of defence was the castle, the chief weapon of attack was
+the long-bow.&nbsp; Wales contains the most perfect castles in
+this country; it is also the home of the long-bow.&nbsp; From
+1066 to 1284 England and Wales were conquered, and the conquest
+was permanent because castles were built.&nbsp; From 1284 to
+1461, England and Wales attacked other countries, and the weapon
+which gave them so many victories was the long-bow.</p>
+<p>I will tell you about the castles first, about <a
+name="page61"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 61</span>the Norman
+castles and about the Edwardian castles.</p>
+<p>The Norman castle was a square keep, with walls of immense
+thickness, sometimes of 20 feet.&nbsp; But if the Norman had to
+build on the top of a hill or on the ruins of an old castle, he
+did not try to make the new castle square, but allowed its walls
+to take the form of the hill or of the old castle; and this kind
+of castle was called a shell keep.&nbsp; The outer and inner
+casing of the wall would be of dressed stone, the middle part was
+chiefly rubble.&nbsp; At first, if they had plenty of supplies, a
+very few men could hold a castle against an army as long as they
+liked.&nbsp; These were the castles built by the Norman invaders
+to retain their hold over the Welsh districts they conquered.</p>
+<p>But many ways of storming a castle were discovered.&nbsp; They
+could be scaled by means of tall ladders, especially in a
+stealthy night attack.&nbsp; Stones could be thrown over the
+walls by mangonels to annoy the garrison.&nbsp; Sometimes a wall
+could be brought down by a battering-ram.&nbsp; But the quickest
+and surest way was by mining.&nbsp; The miners worked their way
+to the wall, and then began to take some of the stones of the
+outer casing out, propping the wall up with <a
+name="page62"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 62</span>beams of
+wood.&nbsp; When the hole was big enough, they filled it with
+firewood; they greased the beams well, they set fire to them and
+then retired to a safe distance to see what happened.&nbsp; When
+the great wall crashed down, the soldiers swarmed over it to beat
+down the resistance of the garrison.&nbsp; If ever you go to
+Abergavenny Castle, in the Vale of Usk, look at the cleft in the
+rock along which the daring besiegers once climbed.&nbsp; And if
+you go to the Vale of Towy, and see Dryslwyn Castle, remember
+that the wall once came down before the miners expected, and that
+many men were crushed.</p>
+<p>In order to prevent mining, many changes were made.&nbsp;
+Moats were dug round the castle, and filled with water.&nbsp;
+Brattices were made along the top of the towers, galleries
+through the floor of which the defenders could pour boiling pitch
+on the besiegers.&nbsp; The walls were built at such angles that
+a window, with archers posted behind it, could command each
+wall.&nbsp; Stronger towers were built&mdash;round towers with a
+coping at each storey, solid as a rock, which would crack and
+lean without falling; there is a leaning tower at Caerphilly
+Castle.&nbsp; One other way I must mention&mdash;the child or the
+wife of the <a name="page63"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+63</span>castellan would be brought before the walls, and hanged
+before his eyes unless he opened the gates.</p>
+<p>The newer or Edwardian castles, those of the reigns of Henry
+III. and Edward I., are concentric&mdash;that is, there are
+several castles in one; so that the besiegers, when they had
+taken one castle, found themselves face to face with another,
+still stronger, perhaps, inside it.&nbsp; Of these castles, the
+most elaborate is the castle of Caerphilly, built by Gilbert de
+Clare, the Red Earl of Gloucester who helped Edward in the Welsh
+wars.&nbsp; And it was by means of these magnificent concentric
+castles&mdash;Conway, Beaumaris, Carnarvon, and
+Harlech&mdash;that Edward hoped to keep Wales.</p>
+<p>There are many kinds of bows.&nbsp; In war two were
+used&mdash;the cross-bow and the long-bow.&nbsp; The cross-bow
+was meant at first for the defence of towns, like Genoa or the
+towns of Castile.&nbsp; So strength was more important than
+lightness, and the archer had time to take aim.&nbsp; It was a
+bow on a cross piece of wood, along which the string was drawn
+back peg after peg by mechanism.&nbsp; The bow was then held to
+the breast, and the arrow let off.&nbsp; It was clumsy, heavy,
+and expensive.</p>
+<p><a name="page64"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 64</span>The
+long-bow was only one piece of sinewy yew, and a string.&nbsp; It
+was used at first for the chase, and the archer had to take
+instant aim.&nbsp; It was drawn to the ear, and it was a most
+deadly weapon when a strong arm had been trained to draw
+it.&nbsp; Its arrow could pick off a soldier at the top of the
+highest castle; it could pierce through an oak door three fingers
+thick; it could pin a mail-clad knight to his horse.&nbsp; It was
+this peasant weapon that brought the mailed knight down in
+battle.</p>
+<p>The home of the long-bow is the country between the Severn and
+the Wye.&nbsp; It was famous before, but it was first used with
+effect in the last Welsh wars.&nbsp; It was used to break the
+lines of the Snowdon lances and pikes, so that the mail-clad
+cavalry might dash in.&nbsp; But later on, the same bows were
+used to bring the nobles of France down.</p>
+<p>From the Welsh war on, archers and infantry became important;
+battles ceased to be what they had been so long&mdash;the shock
+of mail-clad knights meeting each other at full charge.</p>
+<p>The long-bow made noble and peasant equal on the field of
+battle.&nbsp; The revolution was made complete later on by
+gunpowder.</p>
+<h2><a name="page65"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 65</span>XIV<br
+/>
+THE RISE OF THE PEASANT</h2>
+<p>I <span class="smcap">have</span> told you much about princes
+and soldiers, but very little about the lowly life of peasants,
+and the trade of towns.</p>
+<p>The conquest of Wales, by Norman baron and English king,
+tended to raise the serf to the level of the freeman.&nbsp; The
+chief causes of the rise of the serf were the following:</p>
+<p>1&nbsp; The ignorance of the English officials.&nbsp; The
+Norman baron very often paid close attention to the privileges of
+the classes he ruled, and the Welsh freeman retained his
+superiority.&nbsp; But the English officials&mdash;and Edward II.
+found that they were far too numerous in Wales&mdash;often
+refused to distinguish between a Welshman who was an innate
+freeman and a Welshman who lived on a serf maenol.&nbsp; Their
+aim was to make them all pay the same tax.</p>
+<p>2.&nbsp; The fall in the value of money.&nbsp; At the time of
+the Norman Conquest, silver coins were rare, and their value
+high.&nbsp; But, in exchange for cloth and wool, of arrows <a
+name="page66"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 66</span>and spears,
+of mountain ponies and cattle, coins came in great numbers, and
+it was easier for the serf to earn them.&nbsp; That is the value
+of coins became less.</p>
+<p>This was a great boon to all who were bound to pay fixed
+sums&mdash;the freeman who paid to the king the dues he used to
+pay to his prince, the serf who paid to his lord a sum of money
+instead of service.&nbsp; All ancient servitude, political and
+economic, was commuted for money; as the money became easier to
+get, the serf became the more free.</p>
+<p>3.&nbsp; The rise of towns and the growth of commerce.&nbsp;
+We must not, however, think of commerce as if it had been first
+brought by the Normans.&nbsp; There had been roads and coins in
+Roman times.&nbsp; The Danes had been traders, probably, before
+they became pirates and invaders.&nbsp; Timber, millstones,
+cattle, coarse cloth, and arrow-heads crossed the Severn
+eastwards before the Normans saw it; and corn was carried
+westward.&nbsp; There were close relations, political and
+commercial, between Wales and Ireland from very early times.</p>
+<p>But the Norman and English Conquests revived and quickened
+trade.&nbsp; Towns rose, regular markets were established, and
+the <a name="page67"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 67</span>barons
+who took tolls protected the merchants who paid them.&nbsp; Every
+baron had a castle, every castle needed a walled town, and a town
+cannot live except by trade.&nbsp; In the town the baron did not
+ask a Welshman whether he had been free or serf; the townsmen
+were strangers, and they welcomed the serf who came to work.</p>
+<p>4.&nbsp; The monk and the friar.&nbsp; The bard was a freeman
+born, a skilled weaver of courteous phrases, not a churlish
+<i>taeog</i>.&nbsp; The monk or friar might be a serf.&nbsp; They
+worked like serfs, and ennobled labour.&nbsp; The Church
+condemned serfdom, and we find chapters giving their serfs
+freedom.</p>
+<p>5.&nbsp; The Scotch and French wars of the English kings gave
+employment to hosts of bowmen and of men-at-arms, and to the
+numerous attendants required to look after the horses by means of
+which the army moved.&nbsp; The greater use of infantry after the
+reign of Edward I. caused a greater demand for the peasant; and
+the use of the cheap long-bow gave him a value in war.&nbsp;
+There were five thousand Welsh archers and spearmen on the field
+of Cressy.&nbsp; In these and other ways the serf was becoming
+free.</p>
+<p>You would expect a gradual, almost unconscious <a
+name="page68"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 68</span>struggle,
+between the serf and his lord for political power.&nbsp; The
+struggle came, but it was conscious and very fierce.&nbsp; It was
+brought about by a terrible pestilence, known as the Black
+Death.&nbsp; This plague came slowly and steadily from the East;
+in 1348 it reached Bristol, and it probably swept away one half
+of the people of the towns of Wales.&nbsp; It was not the towns
+alone that it visited; it came to the mountain glens as
+well.&nbsp; It was a most deadly disease.&nbsp; It killed, for
+one thing, because people believed that they would die.&nbsp;
+They saw the dark spots on the skin before they became feverish;
+they recognised the black mark of the Death and they gave
+themselves up for lost.</p>
+<p>Labourers became very scarce.&nbsp; They claimed higher
+wages.&nbsp; The lords tried to drag them back into serfdom; they
+tried to force them by law to take the old wage.&nbsp; On both
+sides of the Severn the labourers took arms, and waged war
+against their lords.&nbsp; The peasant war in England is called
+the Peasant Revolt; the peasant war in Wales is sometimes called
+the revolt of Owen Glendower.</p>
+<p>A change came over the rebellions in Wales.&nbsp; At first,
+the rebellions were those of Llywelyn&rsquo;s country; the allies
+who had <a name="page69"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+69</span>deserted him, and then turned against Edward, like Rees
+ap Meredith; or his own followers, like Madoc, who said he was
+his son; or men he had protected, like Maelgwn Vychan in
+Pembroke.&nbsp; Later on, under Edward II. and Edward III., the
+rebellions were against the march lords, and the king was looked
+upon as a protector&mdash;such as the rebellion of Llywelyn Bren
+against the Clares and Mortimers in Glamorgan in 1316.&nbsp; But
+the wilder spirits went to the French wars, and fought for both
+sides.&nbsp; With the assassination of Owen of Wales in 1378, the
+last of Llywelyn&rsquo;s near relatives to dream of restoring the
+independence of Wales, the rebellions against the King of England
+came to an end.</p>
+<p>When they broke out again, it was not in Snowdon or
+Ceredigion; the old dominions of Llywelyn were almost unwilling
+to rise.&nbsp; The new revolts were in the march lands, and
+especially in the towns.</p>
+<h2><a name="page70"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 70</span>XV<br
+/>
+OWEN GLENDOWER</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> English baron in Wales tried to
+add to his possessions by encroaching on the lands of the Welsh
+freemen.&nbsp; His estate always remained the same, because it
+all went to the eldest son, according to what is called
+primogeniture; their lands, on the other hand, were divided
+between the sons according to what is called gavelkind.&nbsp; He
+also, by laws they did not understand, took the waste
+land&mdash;forest and mountain.&nbsp; As one man can more easily
+watch his interest than many, the baron succeeded; but the
+freemen felt that they were being robbed.</p>
+<p>The tenants of the barons were restless and rebellious; they
+said they were free, that they would not work as serfs, that they
+would not bring food rents, but that they would pay a fixed rent
+for every acre they held.</p>
+<p>At Ruthin, in the Vale of Clwyd, there was a baron called Lord
+Grey; and in the valley of the Dee there was a Welsh squire <a
+name="page71"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 71</span>called Owen
+Glendower.&nbsp; Their lands met, and Grey took part of
+Owen&rsquo;s sheep walk.&nbsp; Owen had been a law student at
+Westminster, and he had served Henry of Lancaster.&nbsp; In 1399
+Richard II. had been dethroned, and the barons had made Henry of
+Lancaster king as Henry IV.&nbsp; Owen saw, however, that the
+king was too weak to curb his lawless barons, and in 1400 he
+attacked Lord Grey, and burnt Ruthin.</p>
+<p>The rebellion that had long been smouldering burst into a
+flame all over the country.&nbsp; Owen was at once welcomed by
+the bard, the friar, and the peasant.&nbsp; The bard hailed his
+star as that of the heir of the princes, who had come to deliver
+his country.&nbsp; The friar welcomed him as the friend of the
+poor and of learning; and unruly students from Oxford, then the
+centre of a great intellectual awakening, flocked home to march
+under his banner.&nbsp; The peasant welcomed him as his protector
+against the steward of his lord.&nbsp; The main strength of the
+movement was the peasant revolt; and Welsh poets, like the
+English ones, sang the praises of the ploughman and of the
+plough.</p>
+<p>Owen&rsquo;s success was most rapid, so rapid that it was put
+down to magic.&nbsp; In four years the whole of Wales recognised
+him as <a name="page72"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 72</span>its
+prince.&nbsp; Henry IV. and Prince Henry came to Wales, made
+rapid marches and retook castles, punished the friars of Llan
+Vaes and the monks of Strata Florida.&nbsp; But their victories
+led to nothing, and the storms fought against them.&nbsp;
+Owen&rsquo;s victories were used to the full&mdash;that of the
+Vyrnwy was followed by an agreement with Grey of Ruthin, that of
+Bryn Glas by an alliance with the Mortimers.&nbsp; His marches
+were nearly all triumphant; he was welcomed along the whole line
+of the marches by the peasants to the furthest corners of
+Gwent.</p>
+<p>Owen was wise enough to see that no abiding power can be based
+on a popular rising.&nbsp; He tried to establish a government
+that the King of England could not overthrow.&nbsp; He had three
+institutions in mind&mdash;an independent Wales, governed by him
+as Prince in a Parliament of representatives of the commotes; an
+independent Welsh Church, with an Archbishop of St David&rsquo;s
+at its head; and an independent system of learning and
+civilisation, guided by two Universities, one in North Wales and
+one in South Wales.</p>
+<p>The new Wales was to be safeguarded by four
+alliances&mdash;with the English barons, with the Pope, with
+Scotland, and with France.&nbsp; He failed to save the Percies <a
+name="page73"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 73</span>from their
+defeat at Shrewsbury in 1403; but he based all his plans on an
+alliance with the Mortimers, the enemies of Lancaster and the
+Percies.&nbsp; The head of the Mortimer family had died in
+Ireland in 1398, and had left four young children.&nbsp; They
+were the real heirs to the crown, and Owen meant to win their
+throne for them.&nbsp; Their uncle, Edmund Mortimer, married
+Glendower&rsquo;s daughter.&nbsp; But the young Earl of March,
+the elder of the Mortimer boys, had no ambition, and a plot to
+bring him and his brother to Owen failed.</p>
+<p>The Papacy had always proved to be a broken reed for Welsh
+princes; but Owen&rsquo;s alliance with Peter de Luna, the
+anti-Pope Benedict XIII., gave a certain amount of prestige to
+his title.&nbsp; The alliance with Scotland, based on common
+kinship, could bring him no help at that time: because it was
+torn between two factions during the reign of the weak Robert
+III.; and the next king, the poet James I., was captured at sea
+and put into an English prison.</p>
+<p>The French alliance was much more promising; it would give
+what Owen wanted most&mdash;siege engines, a fleet, and an army
+of trained soldiers.&nbsp; Charles VI. of France, the
+father-in-law of the deposed Richard, <a name="page74"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 74</span>refused to make peace with the
+usurper Henry; his fleet protected the Welsh coast, and in 1405 a
+French army of 2,800 men landed at Milford.</p>
+<p>Owen struggled on, with waning power, until his death in
+1415.&nbsp; He came too soon for success, while the power of the
+House of Lancaster was increasing.</p>
+<p>Of all figures in the history of Wales, that of Owen Glendower
+is the most striking and the most popular.&nbsp; The place of his
+grave is unknown, his lineage and the date of his death a matter
+of conjecture; there is much mystery about even his most
+brilliant years.&nbsp; But his majestic figure, his wisdom, and
+his ideals remained in the memory of his country.&nbsp; His ghost
+wandered, it was said, around Valle Crucis.&nbsp; His spirit,
+more than that of any hero of the past, seems to follow his
+people on their onward march.&nbsp; This is not on account of his
+political ideals, but because he was the champion of the peasant
+and of education.</p>
+<h2><a name="page75"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 75</span>XVI<br
+/>
+THE WARS OF THE ROSES</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> reign of Henry V. was a reign
+of brilliant victories in France, and the reign of Henry VI. one
+of disastrous defeats.&nbsp; During both reigns the lords were
+becoming more powerful in Wales as well as in England.&nbsp; The
+hold of the king over them became weaker every year; they packed
+the Parliament, they appointed the Council, they overawed the law
+courts.&nbsp; If a man wanted security, he must wear the badge of
+some lord, and fight for him when called upon to do so.&nbsp; In
+the marches of Wales there were more than a hundred lords holding
+castle and court; and it was easy for a robber or a murderer to
+escape from one lordship to the other, or even to find a welcome
+and protection.&nbsp; In Wales and in the marches the lords
+preyed upon their weaker neighbours, and the country became full
+of private war.</p>
+<p>The selfish families, all fighting for more land and more
+power, gradually formed themselves into two parties&mdash;the
+parties of the Red <a name="page76"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+76</span>Rose and of the White Rose.&nbsp; The leading family in
+the Red Rose party was that of Lancaster, represented by the
+saintly King Henry VI.; the leading family in the White Rose
+party was that of York.&nbsp; In the Wars of the Roses, York and
+Lancaster fought over the crown, and those who supported them
+over a castle or an estate.</p>
+<p>Wales was divided.&nbsp; The west was for Lancaster, from
+Pembroke to Harlech, and from Harlech to Anglesey.&nbsp; The east
+was for York, from Cardiff and Raglan to Wigmore, and from
+Wigmore to Chirk.&nbsp; Lancaster held estates in Wales and on
+the border&mdash;the castles of Hereford, Skenfrith, Ogmore, and
+Kidwelly being centres of strength and wealth.&nbsp; York&rsquo;s
+chief country was the march of Wales, with Ludlow as its
+centre.&nbsp; The Welsh barons took sides according to their
+interests.&nbsp; Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke, held the west
+for his half-brother, the king.&nbsp; Sir William Herbert, who
+was very powerful in the country south of the Mortimers, took the
+side of his powerful neighbour.&nbsp; Others wavered, especially
+Grey of Ruthin and the Stanleys in North Wales.</p>
+<p>One battle was fought between the Welsh Yorkists and the Welsh
+Lancastrians.&nbsp; This <a name="page77"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 77</span>was the battle of Mortimer&rsquo;s
+Cross, near Wigmore, in February 1461.&nbsp; The victor was the
+young Duke of York, who was crowned king as Edward IV. later in
+the year.&nbsp; An old man, Owen Tudor, the father of Jasper
+Tudor, and the grandfather of the boy who was &ldquo;to rule
+after them all&rdquo; as Henry VII., was taken prisoner.&nbsp;
+They took him to Hereford, and there they cut his head off and
+set it on the market cross.&nbsp; The battles of the Wars of the
+Roses were very cruel ones; the noble prisoners that had been
+taken, even children of tender age, were murdered in cold blood
+on the evening of the battle.&nbsp; &ldquo;By God&rsquo;s
+blood,&rdquo; said one, as he killed a child, &ldquo;thy father
+slew mine, and so will I do thee.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>The Welsh barons led their men to nearly all the important
+battles.&nbsp; North Wales archers, wearing the three feathers of
+the Prince of Wales, fought for Lancaster in the snow at the
+great defeat of Towton on the Palm Sunday of 1461; the archers of
+Gwent, led by Herbert, fought vainly for York at the battle of
+Edgecote, in the summer of 1469.&nbsp; And the Welsh waverer and
+traitor was seen in battle also&mdash;Grey of Ruthin led the van
+for Lancaster at the battle of Northampton in 1460, and caused <a
+name="page78"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 78</span>the battle to
+be lost by deserting to York at the be ginning of the
+fighting.&nbsp; In Wales itself, also, the war was fought
+bitterly; and the stubborn defence of Harlech for the
+Lancastrians became famous through the whole country.&nbsp; The
+last battle fought between Lancaster and York was the battle of
+Tewkesbury, in May 1471, and Lancaster lost it; the Prince of
+Wales, the king&rsquo;s only son, was killed; and his heroic
+mother, Margaret of Anjou, gave the struggle up.&nbsp; A young
+Welsh noble&mdash;Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond&mdash;became the
+Lancastrian heir.&nbsp; The fortunes of his house were hopeless,
+however; and his uncle, Jasper, sent him in safety to
+Brittany.</p>
+<p>The Yorkist kings, Edward IV. and Richard III., in spite of
+cruelty and murder, ruled well.&nbsp; They broke the power of the
+barons, and they made the people rich&mdash;by maintaining peace,
+by repressing piracy, by protecting the woollen industry of the
+towns.</p>
+<p>In Wales their rule was for peace and order.&nbsp; They made a
+Court for Wales at Ludlow, the home of their race.&nbsp; From
+Ludlow they began to force the barons to do justice and to obey
+the king.&nbsp; It seemed as if the rule of the Yorkists was to
+be a <a name="page79"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 79</span>long
+one, for they were very popular in London and the towns.</p>
+<p>But the nobles were not willing to see their power taken from
+them day by day.&nbsp; Jasper Tudor appealed to the loyalty of
+the Welsh, and the men of West Wales wanted a king of their own
+blood; for the laws had been made unjust to them ever since the
+time of Owen Glendower.</p>
+<p>Many attempts were made, and they failed.&nbsp; But at last,
+on August 7, 1485, the fugitive Earl of Richmond came to Milford
+Haven.&nbsp; He marched on to the valley of the Teivy, and he was
+joined by Sir Rees ap Thomas, and an army of South Wales men; he
+journeyed on through the valley of the Severn, and the North
+Wales men joined him; English nobles joined him as he marched by
+Shrewsbury, Stafford, Lichfield, and Tamworth.&nbsp;
+Richard&rsquo;s army was also on the march.&nbsp; At Bosworth,
+August 22, 1485, the two armies met in the last battle of the
+Wars of the Roses.&nbsp; Richard fought fiercely, wearing his
+crown; and when he was defeated and killed, the crown was placed
+on Henry&rsquo;s head.</p>
+<p>The people of England did not care who ruled, Richard or
+Henry, as long as he kept order, for they were very tired of
+civil war.&nbsp; <a name="page80"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+80</span>But the people of Wales welcomed Henry as a Welshman who
+would rule them kindly and justly.</p>
+<h2>XVII<br />
+TUDOR ORDER</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Tudors&mdash;Henry VII., his
+son, Henry VIII., and his three grandchildren, Edward VI. and
+Mary and Elizabeth&mdash;ruled England and Wales from 1485 to
+1603.&nbsp; Under them the people became united, law-abiding,
+patriotic, and prosperous.&nbsp; The Tudor period is justly
+regarded as the most glorious in British history, with its great
+statesmen, its great adventurers, and its great poets.</p>
+<p>The Tudors were loyally supported by Wales, by the military
+strength of men like Sir Rees ap Thomas or the Earl of Pembroke,
+and by the diplomatic skill of the Cecils.&nbsp; Under their
+rule&mdash;hard and unmerciful, but just and efficient&mdash;the
+law became strong enough to crush the mightiest and to shield the
+weakest.&nbsp; Welshmen found that, even under their own
+sovereigns, their ancient language was regarded as a hindrance <a
+name="page81"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 81</span>and their
+patriotism as a possible source of trouble; but they obtained the
+privileges of an equal race, and they were pleased to regard
+themselves as a dominant one.</p>
+<p>They obtained equal political privileges.&nbsp; The laws which
+denied them residence in the garrison towns in Wales, or the
+holding of land in England, came to an end.&nbsp; The whole of
+the country, shire ground and march ground, was divided into one
+system of shires and given representation in Parliament, by the
+Act of Union of 1535.&nbsp; It is called an Act of Union because,
+by it, Wales and England were united on equal terms.</p>
+<p>Anglesey, Carnarvon, Merioneth, Flint, Cardigan, and
+Carmarthen had been shires since I 284; and small portions of
+Glamorgan and Pembroke had been governed like shires, so that
+some Tudor writers call them counties.&nbsp; The chief difference
+between a shire and a lordship is that the king&rsquo;s writ runs
+to the shire, but not to the lordship.&nbsp; The king administers
+the law in the shire, through the sheriff; the lord administers
+the law in the lordship through his own officials.</p>
+<p>In 1535 the marches of Wales were turned into shire
+ground.&nbsp; The bulk of them went <a name="page82"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 82</span>to make seven new
+shires&mdash;Pembroke, Glamorgan, Monmouth, Brecon, Radnor,
+Montgomery, and Denbigh.&nbsp; The others were added to the older
+English and Welsh counties.&nbsp; Of these, those added to
+Shropshire and Herefordshire and Gloucestershire became part of
+England.&nbsp; Monmouth also was declared to be an English shire,
+for judicial purposes; but it has remained sturdily Welsh, and
+now it is practically regarded by Parliament as part of
+Wales.&nbsp; The whole country was now governed in the same way,
+and Wales was represented, like England, in Parliament.&nbsp; No
+attempt had been made to do this before, except by the first
+English Prince of Wales, the weak and unfortunate Edward II.</p>
+<p>Of even greater value than political equality was the new
+reign of law.&nbsp; The Tudors used the Star Chamber, the Court
+of Wales, and the Great Sessions of Wales, to make all equal
+before the law.&nbsp; To the Star Chamber they summoned a noble
+who was still too powerful for the court of law.</p>
+<p>But it was the Court of Wales that did most work.&nbsp; It was
+held at Ludlow.&nbsp; It had very able presidents, men like
+Bishop Lee, the Earl of Pembroke, and Sir Henry Sidney.&nbsp;
+Bishop Lee struck terror into the <a name="page83"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 83</span>whole Welsh march, between 1534 and
+1543.&nbsp; Before his time a lord would keep murderers and
+robbers at his castle, protect them, and perhaps share their
+spoil.&nbsp; But no man could keep a felon out of the reach of
+Bishop Rowland Lee.&nbsp; If he could not get them alive he got
+their dead bodies; and you might have seen processions of men
+carrying sacks on ponies&mdash;they were dead men who were to
+swing on Ludlow gibbets.&nbsp; But, severe as Lee was, the
+peasant was glad that he could go to the Court at Ludlow instead
+of going to the court of a march lord, as he had to do before
+1535.&nbsp; The shire had been much better governed than the
+lordship.&nbsp; When the lordship of Mawddwy was added to the
+shire of Merioneth in 1535, the officers of the shire found that
+it was a nest of brigands and outlaws.</p>
+<p>In the more peaceful and humane days of Queen Elizabeth, Sir
+Henry Sidney became President of the Court of Wales.&nbsp; He was
+one of the best men of the day; and he was proud of ruling Wales
+and the border counties, &ldquo;a third part of this
+realm,&rdquo; because his high office made him able &ldquo;to do
+good every day.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>Besides the Court of Wales for the whole country, a court of
+justice was held in each <a name="page84"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 84</span>of four groups of shires; and these
+courts were called the Great Sessions of Wales.&nbsp; So, though
+the law was the same for everybody, Wales had a separate system
+to itself, partly because there was so much to do, and partly
+because the central courts in London were so far away.&nbsp; Much
+was also done to get wise and learned justices of the peace, and
+fair juries.</p>
+<p>By the end of the reign of Elizabeth, the last of the Tudors,
+one may say that Wales rejoiced in the following:</p>
+<p>1.&nbsp; There was no hatred between England and Wales; the
+Welsh gentry served the Queen on land and sea, and the people
+were more happy and contented than they had been since the time
+of Llywelyn.</p>
+<p>2.&nbsp; There was no danger of private war between lords, to
+which the peasant might be summoned.&nbsp; The brigands which
+infested parts of the country had been cleared away.</p>
+<p>3.&nbsp; The law of land had been fixed.&nbsp; It was
+determined that land was to go to the eldest son, according to
+the English fashion.&nbsp; All the land became the property of
+some landlord, and it was decided who was a landowner, and who
+was not.&nbsp; The Welsh freemen were held to own their land; the
+Welsh serfs, the descendants of an old <a name="page85"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 85</span>conquered race, sometimes became
+owners and sometimes tenants.&nbsp; They all thought that Henry
+VII., the Welsh victor of Bosworth, had set them free.</p>
+<p>4.&nbsp; The Tudors trusted their people, and called upon them
+to govern and to administer justice themselves.&nbsp; The squires
+were to be justices, the freemen were to be jurors; the shire was
+to look after the militia, and the parish after the poor.</p>
+<h2>XVIII<br />
+THE REFORMATION</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Reformation in England was, to
+begin with, a purely political movement.&nbsp; Henry VIII. wished
+to rule his people in his own way, in religion as well as in
+politics; and, eventually, he became Supreme Head of the Church
+as well as the king of the country.&nbsp; His new power brought
+changes.&nbsp; It was necessary to reform the Church, and the
+wealth of the monasteries tempted him to do it.&nbsp; There was a
+new spirit of enquiry, and the King was led on by that spirit,
+with dilatory and hesitating steps, to examine <a
+name="page86"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 86</span>old
+creeds.&nbsp; The religious fervour of the Reformation had caught
+the people; and the King stood still, if he did not turn
+back.</p>
+<p>But his ministers had no misgivings.&nbsp; Thomas Cromwell
+tried to hurry the Reformation on&mdash;the monasteries were
+dissolved, the Bible was translated, and the sway of Rome was
+disowned.&nbsp; The king appointed the bishops, decided church
+cases, and even determined what the creed of his country was to
+be.&nbsp; Somerset, in the reign of Edward VI., made the movement
+a doctrinal one, and forced it on with equal vigour.</p>
+<p>Wales looked on, with indifference and apathy at first, and
+then with murmurs.&nbsp; The movement had no attraction: it had
+many causes of offence.&nbsp; In England the political movement
+became a patriotic, an intellectual, and a religious movement;
+and it succeeded.&nbsp; In Ireland, also, it was political, but
+it could not appeal to patriotism, because it was an English
+movement; and it failed.&nbsp; In Wales, it was neither welcomed
+nor opposed; it was simply tolerated, and with a bad grace.</p>
+<p>For one thing, it brought English instead of Latin into public
+worship.&nbsp; Latin, the old language of prayer and even of
+sermon, was venerated, though not understood.&nbsp; But <a
+name="page87"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 87</span>English was
+not only not understood, it was also regarded as inferior to
+Welsh.&nbsp; The Tudors&rsquo; dislike of various tongues was as
+strong as their dislike of various jurisdictions.&nbsp; Henry
+VIII., in giving Welshmen the Act of 1535, says that the tongue
+of Owen Tudor is &ldquo;nothing like ne consonant to the natural
+mother-tongue used within this realm,&rdquo; and enacts that all
+officials in Wales shall speak English.&nbsp; And, in the same
+spirit, the Welshman was told that the Kingdom of Heaven was now
+open to him, but that he must seek it in English, or not at
+all.</p>
+<p>Again, the reformers&mdash;men of the type of Bishop
+Barlow&mdash;despised and shocked a people they never
+understood.&nbsp; The sanctity of St David&rsquo;s, the theme of
+the best poets of the Middle Ages and the goal of generations of
+pilgrims, was described by its Protestant bishop&mdash;who
+unroofed the palace in order to get the lead&mdash;as a desolate
+angle frequented only by vagabond pilgrims.&nbsp; A Welshman is
+not appealed to by what is an insult to his country and a shock
+to his religion at the same time.&nbsp; The relics were
+ruthlessly swept away; they were taken possession of by the
+agents of Cromwell and destroyed, or sent to London.&nbsp; The
+images carried in the <a name="page88"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 88</span>village processions were
+lost&mdash;the images that could keep the superstitious Welshman
+from hell, or even bring him back from it, or heal his diseases,
+or keep his cattle from the murrain, and his crops from
+blight.&nbsp; I only know of one of those relics that can still
+be seen.&nbsp; It is the healing cup of Nant Eos, a mere fragment
+of wood.&nbsp; The people&rsquo;s faith in the relics can be
+estimated from the fact that the cup has been used within the
+last century.</p>
+<p>Again, the monasteries were dissolved.&nbsp; The wealth of the
+monasteries, their meadows and barns and sheep-runs and fish
+ponds, were coveted by the rich; the poor thought of them as
+sources of alms.&nbsp; The monks were good landlords; and they
+gave freely, not only the comforts of religion, but of their
+medicinal herbs and stores of food.&nbsp; The Welsh monasteries
+were not so rich as those of England, and they were all dissolved
+among the lesser monasteries&mdash;those with an income under
+&pound;200 a year.&nbsp; But though none of them were very rich,
+they nearly all had almost &pound;200 a year.&nbsp; Their loss
+affected the whole country, as each part of Wales had one or two
+of them&mdash;Tintern, Margam, Neath, and Whitland in the south;
+Strata Florida, Cwm Hir, Ystrad Marchell, and the <a
+name="page89"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 89</span>Vanner in
+central Wales; and Basingwerk and Maenan in the north.</p>
+<p>The Reformation brought the poorer classes in Wales, not only
+insults to their national and religious feelings, but material
+loss.&nbsp; It appealed only to the English bishops who had
+adopted the new Protestant tenets, and to the Welsh and English
+landowners who had lost their reverence for relics, and had
+learnt to hunger for land.</p>
+<p>The movement was a severe strain on the loyalty of the
+Welshman to the Tudors, but he had learnt to look to the king for
+guidances and he suffered in silence.&nbsp; Mary was welcomed,
+and no Welsh blood was shed for the Protestant faith.&nbsp; The
+passive resistance to the Reformation might have broken out into
+a rebellion if a leader had come.</p>
+<p>In Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign two attempts were made to disturb
+the religious settlement.&nbsp; One was made by the
+Jesuits&mdash;the wonderful society established to check the
+Reformation movement and to lead a reaction against it.&nbsp; In
+1583 John Bennett came to North Wales; in 1595 Robert Jones came
+to Raglan; and several Welsh Jesuits suffered martyrdom.&nbsp;
+The other attempt was that of John Penry, who wished to appeal to
+the intellect of the <a name="page90"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 90</span>people by means of the pulpit and the
+printing press.&nbsp; The apostle of the new creed was crushed,
+like those who wished to revive the old; he was put to death as a
+traitor in 1593, after a short life of importunate pleading that
+he might preach the Gospel in Wales.</p>
+<p>Before the end of the reign of Elizabeth, however, the Welsh
+language was recognised.&nbsp; The last school founded, that of
+Ruthin in 1595, was to have a master who could teach and preach
+in Welsh.&nbsp; And in 1588 there had appeared, by the help of
+Archbishop Whitgift, the Welsh Bible of William Morgan.&nbsp; It
+was the appearance of this Bible that aroused the first real
+welcome to the Reformation.&nbsp; But the Reformation that gave
+England a Spenser and a Shakespeare aroused no new life in Wales,
+not a single hymn or a single prayer.</p>
+<h2>XIX<br />
+THE CIVIL WAR</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">After</span> the Tudors came the
+Stuarts.&nbsp; The Tudors did what their people wanted; the <a
+name="page91"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 91</span>king and the
+people, between them, crushed the nobles.&nbsp; The Stuarts did
+what they thought right, and they did not try to please the
+people.&nbsp; Under the Tudors, there was harmony between Crown
+and Parliament; and Elizabeth left a prosperous people with
+strong views about their rights and their religion.&nbsp; But
+James I., and especially his son Charles I., tried to change law
+and religion.&nbsp; From the Tudor period of unity, then, we come
+to the Stuart period of strife.</p>
+<p>From 1603 to 1642 the struggle went on in Parliament.&nbsp;
+The Welsh Members nearly all supported the king, and the Welsh
+people followed the Welsh gentry in strong loyalty.&nbsp; The
+most famous Welshman of the period was John Williams, who became
+Archbishop of York and Lord Keeper.&nbsp; He was a wise man; he
+saw that both sides were a little in the wrong; and if any one
+could have kept the peace between them, he could have done
+it.&nbsp; But the king did not quite trust him, and the
+Parliament almost despised him; and this happens often to wise
+men who get between two angry parties.</p>
+<p>From 1642 to 1646, the First Civil War was waged.&nbsp; This
+was a war between the king and the Parliament over taxation, <a
+name="page92"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 92</span>militia, and
+religion.&nbsp; The south-east, and London especially, were for
+Parliament; the wilder parts, especially Wales, were for the
+king.&nbsp; The only important part of Wales that declared for
+Parliament was the southern part of Pembrokeshire, which had been
+English ever since the reign of Henry II.</p>
+<p>Wales was important to the king for two reasons.&nbsp; For one
+thing, it could give him an army, and he came, time after time,
+to get a new one.&nbsp; When he unfurled his flag and began the
+war at Nottingham in 1642, he came to Shrewsbury, and there five
+thousand Welshmen joined him.&nbsp; With these and others he
+marched against London, fighting the battle of Edgehill on the
+way.&nbsp; While the king made many attempts to get London until
+1644, and while the New Model army attacked him between 1645 and
+1647, the Welsh fought in nearly all his battles, their infantry
+suffering heavily in the two greatest battles, Marston Moor and
+Naseby.&nbsp; The war went on in Wales itself also&mdash;Rupert
+and Gerard being the chief Royalist leaders, and Middleton and
+Michael Jones being the chief Parliamentary ones.&nbsp; No great
+battles were fought, but there were several skirmishes, and much
+taking and retaking of castles and towns.</p>
+<p><a name="page93"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 93</span>Wales
+was important to the king, also, because it commanded the two
+ways to Ireland.&nbsp; The King thought, almost to the last, that
+an Irish army would save him.&nbsp; Welsh garrisons held the two
+ports for Ireland, Chester and Bristol.&nbsp; Bristol was stormed
+by a great midnight assault, and Chester was forced to
+yield.&nbsp; In March 1647 Harlech yielded, and the war came to
+an end.&nbsp; By that time the king was a prisoner in the hands
+of the army.</p>
+<p>The Second Civil War, in 1648 and 1649, was a struggle between
+the two sections of the victorious army.&nbsp; The Parliament
+wished to establish one religion, the army said that every man
+must be allowed to worship God as he liked.&nbsp; One was called
+the Presbyterian ideal, the other the Independent.&nbsp; The army
+was led by Cromwell, and Parliament was overawed.&nbsp; Then the
+Presbyterian parts rose in revolt&mdash;Kent, Pembrokeshire, and
+the lowlands of Scotland.&nbsp; The New Model army marched
+against the Welsh, in order to break the connection between the
+northern and southern Presbyterians.&nbsp; The Welsh generals
+were Laugharne, Poyer, and Powell, who had all fought for
+Parliament in the first war.&nbsp; They were defeated at St
+Fagans, near Cardiff, and then driven into Pembroke.&nbsp; <a
+name="page94"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 94</span>They
+determined to hold out to the last within its walls.&nbsp;
+Cromwell besieged them, and the great feature of the war was the
+siege of Pembroke.&nbsp; Walls and castles like those of Pembroke
+had become useless because of gunpowder.&nbsp; But Cromwell could
+not at once bring his guns so far.&nbsp; His difficulties were
+increasing daily: the Parliament was trying to come to terms with
+the king, all Wales around him was disaffected, the Scotch had
+crossed the border and were marching on London.&nbsp; After many
+weeks of assaults and desperate defence, the guns came and the
+old walls were battered down.&nbsp; Pembroke Castle, whose great
+round tower still stands, had protected William Marshall against
+Llywelyn and had enabled an important district to remain a
+&ldquo;little England beyond Wales,&rdquo; was the last
+medi&aelig;val castle to take an important part in war.&nbsp; The
+Scotch were soon defeated at the battle of Preston, and the king
+was brought to trial and put to death, the death-warrant being
+signed by two Welshmen&mdash;John Jones of Merioneth and Thomas
+Wogan of Cardigan.&nbsp; The date of Charles&rsquo; execution is
+January 20, 1649.</p>
+<p>The Commonwealth was established immediately, and Wales was
+looked upon with <a name="page95"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+95</span>much distrust&mdash;the Presbyterian parts and the
+Royalist parts&mdash;by the new Government.&nbsp; It was
+represented in the English Parliaments, it is true, but its
+representatives were often English, and practically appointed by
+the Government.&nbsp; When the country was put under the military
+dictatorship of the major-generals, Harrison was sent to rule
+Wales.</p>
+<p>Honest attempts were made to give it an efficient clergy; but
+the zeal of Vavasour Powel aroused much opposition.&nbsp; Wales
+either clung tenaciously to its old religion; or, if it changed
+it, the changes were extreme.&nbsp; Though the country generally
+returned to its old life and thought at the Restoration in 1660,
+much of the new life of the Commonwealth remained: congregations
+of Independents still met; Quaker ideals survived all
+persecution; and even the mysticism of Morgan Lloyd permeated the
+slowly awakening thought of the peasants whom, in his dreams, he
+saw welcoming the second advent of Christ.</p>
+<h2><a name="page96"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 96</span>XX<br
+/>
+THE GREAT REVOLUTION</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">Except</span> to the reader who is of a
+legal or antiquarian turn of mind, the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries are the least interesting in the history of
+Wales&mdash;the very centuries that are the most glorious and the
+most stirring in the history of England.&nbsp; The older
+historians stop when they come to the year 1284, and sometimes
+give a hasty outline of a few rebellions up to 1535.&nbsp; They
+then give the Welsh a glowing testimonial as a law-abiding and
+loyal people, and find them too uninteresting to write any more
+about them.</p>
+<p>The history of Wales does, indeed, appear to be nothing more
+than the gradual disappearance of Welsh institutions.&nbsp; The
+Court of Wales was restored with the king in 1660; but its work
+had been done, and it came to an end in 1689.&nbsp; The Great
+Sessions came to an end in 1830; and, though we now see that
+their disappearance was a mistake, the bill abolishing them
+passed <a name="page97"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+97</span>through Parliament without a division.&nbsp; The last
+difference between England and Wales was deleted; and if Wales
+has no separate existence left, why should we write or read its
+history?</p>
+<p>Because the two centuries of apparent settlement and sleep
+were the period of a silent revolution, more important, if our
+aim is to explain the living present rather than the dead past,
+than all the exciting plots and battles of the House of Cunedda
+from the rise of Maelgwn to the fall of the last Llywelyn.&nbsp;
+During these centuries, the history of Wales ceases to be the
+history of princes and nobles, it becomes the history of the
+people.&nbsp; Owen Glendower&rsquo;s few years of power were a
+kind of prophecy; but Owen once appeared to the abbot of Valle
+Crucis, so tradition says, to declare that he had come before his
+time.&nbsp; We pass then, very gradually, from the history of a
+privileged class, speaking literary Welsh, with a literature
+famous for the wealth of its imagination and the artistic beauty
+of its form&mdash;we pass on to the history of a peasantry, rude
+and ignorant at first, retaining the servile traits of centuries
+of subjection, but gradually becoming self-reliant, prosperous,
+and thoughtful.</p>
+<p><a name="page98"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 98</span>The
+real history of a nation is shown by its literature.&nbsp; Its
+records and its chronicles are but the notes and comments of
+various ages.&nbsp; In the period of the princes and nobles, you
+can trace the rise and decline of a great literature; watch how
+it gathers strength and beauty from Cynddelw to Dafydd ap Gwilym,
+and how the strength begins to fail and the beauty to wane, from
+Dafydd ap Gwilym to Tudur Aled.&nbsp; In the period of the
+people, from Tudor times on, the peasants tried at first to
+imitate the poetry of the past; then they began to write and
+think in their own way.&nbsp; It is not my aim to explain the
+periods of Welsh literature now; I am going to do that in another
+book.&nbsp; But, as I have mentioned three typical poets in the
+period of the princes, I will also mention three poets in the
+period of the people.</p>
+<p>In 1579 Rees Prichard was born; in 1717, Williams Pant y
+Celyn; in 1832, Islwyn.&nbsp; We have, in these three, writers
+typical of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries
+respectively.&nbsp; Rees Prichard, still affectionately
+remembered in every Welsh home as the &ldquo;Old Vicar,&rdquo;
+wrote stanzas in the dialect of the Vale of Towy&mdash;rough,
+full of peasant phrases and mangled English <a
+name="page99"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 99</span>words; and he
+wrote them, not in books, but on the memory of the people.&nbsp;
+In the same valley, a century later, Williams Pant y Celyn wrote
+hymns, melodious and inspiring, of great poetic beauty, though
+with a trace of dialect; they were written and published, but
+they also haunted every ear that heard them.&nbsp; Beyond the
+Black Mountains, in the hills of West Monmouth, after another
+century, Islwyn wrote odes without a trace of dialect; they were
+written and remained for some time in manuscript; when published,
+they met with a welcome which shows clearly that Islwyn is the
+typical poet of modern Welsh thought.&nbsp; If you wish to see
+and realise the rise of the Welsh peasant, pass from the homely
+stanzas of the good Old Vicar&rsquo;s <i>Welshmen&rsquo;s
+Candle</i> to the poetic theology of Pant y Celyn, and from that
+to the poetic philosophy of Islwyn, where concentrated intensity
+of thought is expressed in a style that is, at any rate at its
+best, superior to the best work of the poets of the princes.</p>
+<p>If I were to tell you the reasons for this change, I would be
+writing, in a slightly different form, what I have already
+written in this book about early Welsh history.&nbsp; The fall of
+Llywelyn, the Black Death, <a name="page100"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 100</span>Owen Glendower&rsquo;s ideals and
+the Tudor legislation, all prepared the way.</p>
+<p>The long-bow and gunpowder, we have seen, made the peasant as
+important as the noble in war.&nbsp; The long-bow made the coat
+of mail useless, gunpowder made the castle useless&mdash;the
+defence of the privileges of the Middle Ages departed.</p>
+<p>Ideas of equality were advanced.&nbsp; They were looked upon
+at first as truths applicable only to a perfect and impossible
+condition, and their discoverers were ignored, if not hanged or
+burnt.&nbsp; But they always became a reality, and were
+victorious in the end.&nbsp; Take the truths discovered or
+championed by Welshmen.&nbsp; Walter Brute rediscovered the
+theory of justification by faith&mdash;that all men are equal in
+the sight of God, and that no lord could be responsible for
+them.&nbsp; Bishop Pecock advocated the doctrine of
+toleration&mdash;that reason, not persecution, should rule.&nbsp;
+John Penry claimed that the people had a right to discuss
+publicly the questions that vitally affected them.&nbsp; The
+history of the past shows that the apostles were condemned, the
+life of the present shows that their ideas lived.</p>
+<p>Industry and commerce became more free.&nbsp; In Tudor times
+piracy was repressed, <a name="page101"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 101</span>the march lordships were abolished,
+the privileges of the towns ceased to fetter manufacture, trade
+with England became free.&nbsp; In Stuart times roads were made,
+the industries depending on wool revived, and the industries of
+Britain began to move westwards towards the iron and the
+coal.&nbsp; In the Hanoverian period waste lands were enclosed,
+the slate mines of the north and the coal pits of the south were
+opened.</p>
+<p>The Tudors succeeded in getting the upper classes to speak
+English, and to turn their backs on Welsh life.&nbsp; The peasant
+was left supreme: he knew not what to do at first, but light soon
+came.</p>
+<p>Pass through Wales, and you will see the life of both
+periods&mdash;the ruined castles and the ruined monasteries of
+the old; the quarries and pits, the towns and ports, the churches
+and chapels, the schools and colleges of the present.</p>
+<h2><a name="page102"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+102</span>XXI<br />
+HOWEL HARRIS</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is difficult to write about
+religion without giving offence.&nbsp; Religion will come into
+politics, and must come into history.&nbsp; It has given much,
+perhaps most, of its strength to modern Wales; it has given it
+many, if not most, of its political difficulties.</p>
+<p>There are periods of religious calm and periods of religious
+fervour in the life of every nation.&nbsp; I do not know whether
+it is necessary, but it is certainly the fact&mdash;the two
+periods condemn each other with great energy.&nbsp; With regard
+to creed&mdash;the life of religion&mdash;you will find that the
+periods of energy tend to be Calvinistic&mdash;an intense belief
+that man is a mere instrument in the hands of God, working out
+plans he does not understand; while in periods of rest it tends
+to be Arminian&mdash;a comfortable belief that man sees his
+future clearly, and that he can guide it as he likes.&nbsp; With
+regard to the Church&mdash;the body of religion&mdash;it is
+fortunate, in times of calm, if it is established, to keep the
+spirit of religion <a name="page103"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+103</span>alive; it is fortunate, in times of fervour, if it is
+free, in order that the new life may give it a more perfect
+shape.</p>
+<p>Now we must remember that there can be no calm without a
+little indifference, and that there can be no enthusiasm without
+a little intolerance.&nbsp; So men call each other fanatics and
+bigots and hypocrites, because they have not taken the trouble to
+realise that there is much variety in human character and in the
+workings of the human mind.&nbsp; Perhaps it is also worth
+remembering that an institution is not placed at the mercy of a
+reformer, but gradually changed.</p>
+<p>The eighteenth century was a century of indifference in
+religion in Wales, the nineteenth century was a century of
+enthusiasm.&nbsp; The Church at the beginning of the eighteenth
+century, at any rate as far as the higher clergy were concerned,
+was apathetic to religion, and alive only to selfish
+interests.&nbsp; The Whig bishops were appointed for political
+reasons; they hated the Tory principles of the Welsh squires, and
+they neglected and despised the Welsh people they had never tried
+to understand.&nbsp; In England, the Defoes and the Swifts of
+literature were encouraged and utilised by the political parties;
+in Wales, where clergymen <a name="page104"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 104</span>were the only writers, the Whig
+bishops distrusted them, and silenced them where they could,
+because they wrote Welsh.&nbsp; The Church did not show more
+misapplication of revenue than the State, perhaps; but, while the
+people could not leave the State as a protest against corruption,
+they could leave the Church.&nbsp; And, during the middle of the
+eighteenth century, a great national awakening began.</p>
+<p>The trumpet blast of the awakening was Howel Harris.&nbsp; He
+was a Breconshire peasant, of strong passion which became
+sanctified by a life-long struggle, of devouring ambition which
+he nearly succeeded in taming to a life of intense service to
+God.&nbsp; Many bitter things have been said about him, but
+nothing more bitter than he has said about himself in the volumes
+of prayers and recriminations he wrote to torture his own soul,
+and to goad himself into harder work.&nbsp; The fame of his
+eloquence filled the land, and districts expected his appearance
+anxiously, as in old times they expected Owen Glendower.&nbsp;
+Howel Harris was, however, no political agitator.&nbsp; He had an
+imperious will, and he wished to rule his brethren; he was
+aggressive and military in spirit; God to him was the Lord of
+Hosts; <a name="page105"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+105</span>he preached the gospel of peace in the uniform of an
+officer of the militia, and he sent many of his converts to fight
+abroad in the battles of the century.&nbsp; He had a love of
+organisation; he established at Trevecca what was partly a
+religious community, and partly a co-operative manufacturing
+company.&nbsp; But, wherever he stood to proclaim the wrath of
+God, no shower of stones or condemnation of minister or justice
+could make those who heard him forget him, or believe that what
+he said was wrong.</p>
+<p>If I were writing for antiquarians, and not for those who read
+history in order to see why things are now as they are, I would
+write details&mdash;important and instructive&mdash;about the
+Church of the eighteenth century, and about the congregations of
+Dissenters which the seventeenth century handed over to the
+eighteenth to persecute and despise.&nbsp; The Independents and
+Baptists sturdily maintained their principles of religious
+liberty, but they found the century a stiff-necked one, and their
+congregations were content with merely existing.&nbsp; The
+Quakers maintained that war was wrong while Britain passed
+through war fever after war fever&mdash;the Seven Years&rsquo;
+War and the wars against <a name="page106"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 106</span>Napoleon.&nbsp; Howel Harris&rsquo;
+voice might have been a voice crying in the wilderness, if it had
+not been for the spiritual life of the existing congregations,
+conformist and dissenting.&nbsp; Modern ideas in Wales have been
+profoundly affected by the Quakers, and especially in districts
+from which, as a sect, they have long passed away.</p>
+<p>The voice of Howel Harris called all these to a new life; and
+it is about that new life, in the variety given it by all the
+different actors in it, that I want you to think now.&nbsp; It
+made preaching necessary, for one thing; and it was followed by a
+century of great pulpit oratory.&nbsp; It profoundly affected
+literature.&nbsp; It gave Wales, to begin with, a hymn literature
+that no country in the world has surpassed.&nbsp; The contrast
+between the Reformation and the Revival is very
+striking&mdash;one gave the people a Church government
+established by law and a literature of translations, the other
+gave it institutions of its own making and original living
+thought.&nbsp; The Revival gave literature in every branch a new
+strength and greater wealth.</p>
+<p>It created a demand for education.&nbsp; Griffith Jones of
+Llanddowror established a system of circulating schools, the
+teachers moving <a name="page107"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+107</span>from place to place as a room was offered
+them&mdash;sometimes a church and sometimes a barn.&nbsp; Charles
+of Bala established a system of Sunday Schools, and the whole
+nation gradually joined it.&nbsp; The Press became active,
+newspapers appeared.&nbsp; It became quite clear that a new life
+throbbed in the land.</p>
+<h2>XXII<br />
+THE REFORM ACTS</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> new life brought an inevitable
+demand for a share in the government of the country, and this
+brought the old order and the new face to face.&nbsp; The
+political power was entirely in the hands of the squires,
+alienated from the peasants in many cases by a difference of
+language, and in most cases by a difference of religion.</p>
+<p>The Act of 1535 had, as we have seen, given Wales a
+representation in Parliament.&nbsp; Each shire had one member
+only; except Monmouth, which had two.&nbsp; Each shire town had
+one member, except that of Merioneth; and Haverfordwest was given
+<a name="page108"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 108</span>a
+member.&nbsp; The county franchise was the forty shilling
+freehold; it therefore excluded not only those who had no
+connection with the land, but the copyholder&mdash;who was really
+a landowner, but whose tenure was regarded as base, on account of
+his villein origin.&nbsp; This copyholder was undoubtedly the
+descendant of the Welsh serf of medi&aelig;val times.</p>
+<p>The first Reform Act, that of 1832, was won for the great
+manufacturing towns of England, but Wales benefited by it.&nbsp;
+It extended the franchise to the copyholder, and to the farmer
+paying &pound;50 rent, in the counties; it gave the towns a
+uniform &pound;10 household franchise.&nbsp; It also brought many
+of the towns into the system of representation.&nbsp; It raised
+the number of members from twenty-seven to thirty-two; the
+agricultural districts getting two, and the mining districts
+two.</p>
+<p>The slight change in representation is a recognition of the
+growing industries of the country, especially in the coal and
+iron districts.&nbsp; The coal of the great coalfield of South
+Wales had been worked as far back as Norman times; but it was in
+the nineteenth century that the coal and iron industries of South
+Wales, and the coal <a name="page110"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 110</span>and slate industries of North Wales
+became important.&nbsp; Cardiff, Swansea, and Newport became
+important ports; and places that few had ever heard of
+before&mdash;like Ystradyfodwg or Blaenau Ffestiniog&mdash;became
+the centres of important industries.&nbsp; But, in 1832, Wales
+was still mainly pastoral and agricultural; and the Act, though
+it did much for the towns, left the representation of the
+counties in the hands of the same class.&nbsp; Still, it was the
+towns that showed disappointment, as was seen in the Chartism of
+the wool district of Llanidloes and of the coal district of
+Newport.</p>
+<p>The second Reform Act, of 1867, gave Merthyr Tydvil two
+representatives instead of one, otherwise it left the
+distribution of seats as it had been before.&nbsp; But the new
+extension of the franchise&mdash;to the borough householder, the
+borough &pound;10 lodger, and especially the &pound;12 tenant
+farmer&mdash;gave new classes political power.&nbsp; It was
+followed by a fierce struggle between the old landed gentry and
+their tenants, a struggle which was moderated to a certain extent
+by the Ballot Act of 1870, and by the great migration of the
+country population to the slate and coal districts.</p>
+<p>The rapid rise of the importance of the <a
+name="page111"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 111</span>industrial
+districts is seen in the third Reform Act of 1885.&nbsp; The
+country districts represented by the small boroughs of the
+agricultural counties of Brecon, Cardigan, Pembroke, and
+Anglesey, were wholly or partly disfranchised.&nbsp; But the
+slate county of Carnarvonshire had an additional member; and in
+the coal and iron country, Swansea and Carmarthenshire and
+Monmouthshire had one additional member each, and Glamorgan
+three.</p>
+<p>The third Reform Act enfranchised the agricultural labourer
+and the country artisan.&nbsp; In England many doubts were
+expressed about the intelligence or the colour of the politics of
+the new voter; but, in Wales, most would admit that he was as
+intelligent as any voter enfranchised before him; all knew there
+could be no doubt about his politics.</p>
+<p>The character of the representation of Wales has entirely
+changed.&nbsp; The squire gave place to the capitalist, and the
+capitalist to popular leaders.&nbsp; Wales, whose people blindly
+followed the gentry in the Great Civil War, is now the most
+democratic part of Britain.</p>
+<h2><a name="page112"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+112</span>XXIII<br />
+EDUCATION</h2>
+<p>The chief feature of the history of Wales during the
+eighteenth and nineteenth centuries is the growth of a system of
+education.</p>
+<p>The most democratic, the most perfect, and the most efficient
+method is still that of the Sunday School.&nbsp; It was well
+established before the death of Charles of Bala, whose name is
+most closely connected with it, in 1814.&nbsp; It soon became,
+and it still remains, a school for the whole people, from
+children to patriarchs.&nbsp; Its language is that of its
+district.&nbsp; Its teachers are selected for
+efficiency&mdash;they are easily shifted to the classes which
+they can teach best; and, if not successful, they go back
+willingly to the &ldquo;teachers&rsquo; class,&rdquo; where all
+are equal.&nbsp; The reputation of a good Sunday School teacher
+is still the highest degree that can be won in Wales.&nbsp;
+Plentiful text books of high merit, and an elaborate system of
+oral and written examinations, mark the last stage in its
+development.</p>
+<p>The Literary Meeting is a kind of secular Sunday School.&nbsp;
+The rules of alliterative <a name="page113"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 113</span>poetry and the study of Welsh
+literature and history, and sometimes of more general knowledge,
+take the place of the study of Jewish history, and psalm, and
+gospel.&nbsp; The Literary Meetings feed the Eisteddvod.</p>
+<p>The Eisteddvod passed through the same phases as the
+nation.&nbsp; It was an aspect of the court of the prince during
+the Middle Ages.&nbsp; In Tudor times it was used partly to
+please the people, but chiefly to regulate the bards by forcing
+them to qualify for a degree&mdash;a sure method of moderating
+their patriotism and of diminishing their number.&nbsp; In modern
+times the Eisteddvod is a great democratic meeting, and it is the
+most characteristic of all Welsh institutions.&nbsp; Its chairing
+of the bards is an ancient ceremony; its <i>gorsedd</i> of bards
+is probably modern.&nbsp; But the people themselves still remain
+the judges of poetry; they care very little whether a poet has
+won a chair or not, while a <i>gorsedd</i> degree probably does
+him more harm than good.</p>
+<p>Elementary education, in its modern sense, began with the
+circulating schools of Griffith Jones of Llanddowror in
+1730.&nbsp; They were exceedingly successful because the
+instruction was given in Welsh, and they stopped after teaching
+150,000 to read not because there <a name="page114"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 114</span>was no demand for them, but on
+account of a dispute about their endowments in 1779, eighteen
+years after Griffith Jones&rsquo; death.&nbsp; They were followed
+by voluntary schools, very often kept by illiterate teachers.</p>
+<p>Between 1846 and 1848 two organisations&mdash;the Welsh
+Education Committee and the Cambrian Society&mdash;were formed;
+and they developed, respectively, the national schools and the
+British schools.&nbsp; After the Education Act of 1870, the
+schools became voluntary or Board; education gradually became
+compulsory and free; and in 1902 an attempt was made to give the
+whole system a unity and to connect it with the ordinary system
+of local government.</p>
+<p>The training of teachers became a matter of the highest
+importance.&nbsp; In 1846 a college for this purpose was
+established at Brecon, and then removed to Swansea.&nbsp; From
+1848 to 1862, colleges were established at Carmarthen, Carnarvon,
+and Bangor.</p>
+<p>The history of secondary education is longer.&nbsp; It was
+served, after the dissolution of the monasteries, by endowed
+schools&mdash;like that of the Friars at Bangor&mdash;and by
+proprietary schools.&nbsp; By the Education Act of 1889, a
+complete system of secondary schools, under popular control, was
+established.&nbsp; Two <a name="page115"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 115</span>of the endowed schools still
+remain&mdash;Brecon, founded by the religionists of the
+Reformation, and Llandovery, the Welsh school founded by a
+patriot of modern times.</p>
+<p>It was principally for the ministry of religion that secondary
+schools and colleges were first established.&nbsp; Schools were
+founded in many districts, and important colleges at Lampeter
+(degree-granting), Carmarthen, Brecon, Bala, Trevecca, Pontypool,
+Llangollen, Haverfordwest.&nbsp; Many of these have a long
+history.</p>
+<p>Higher education had been the dream of many centuries.&nbsp;
+Owen Glendower had thought of establishing two new universities
+at the beginning of the period of the Revival of Letters; among
+his supporters were many of the Welsh students who led in the
+great faction fights of medi&aelig;val Oxford.&nbsp; Oliver
+Cromwell and Richard Baxter had thought of Welsh higher
+education.&nbsp; But nothing was done.&nbsp; In the eighteenth
+century, and in the nineteenth until 1870, the Test Act shut the
+doors of the old Universities to most Welshmen; the new
+University of London did not teach, it only examined; the Scotch
+Universities, to which Welsh students crowded, were very
+far.&nbsp; In 1872, chiefly through the exertions of Sir Hugh <a
+name="page116"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 116</span>Owen, the
+University College of Wales was opened at Aberystwyth, and
+maintained for ten years by support from the people.&nbsp; The
+Government helped, and two new colleges were added&mdash;the
+University College of South Wales at Cardiff in 1883, and the
+University College of North Wales at Bangor in 1884.&nbsp; In
+1893 Queen Victoria gave a charter which formed the three
+colleges into the University of Wales.&nbsp; Lord Aberdare, its
+first Chancellor, lived to see it in thorough working
+order.&nbsp; On Lord Aberdare&rsquo;s death, the Prince of Wales
+was elected Chancellor in 1896; and when he ascended the throne
+in 1901, the present Prince of Wales became Chancellor.</p>
+<p>The tendency of the whole system of Welsh education is towards
+greater unity.&nbsp; There is a dual government of the secondary
+schools and of the colleges, the one by the Central Board and the
+other by the University Court&mdash;a historical accident which
+is now a blemish on the system.&nbsp; The Training Colleges are
+still outside the University, but they are gravitating rapidly
+towards it.&nbsp; The theological colleges are necessarily
+independent, but the University offers their students a course in
+arts, so that they can specialise on theology and its <a
+name="page117"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 117</span>kindred
+subjects.&nbsp; The ideal system is: an efficient and patriotic
+University regulating the whole work of the secondary and
+elementary schools, guided by the willingness of the County
+Councils, or of an education authority appointed by them, to
+provide means.</p>
+<p>The rise of the educational system is the most striking and
+the most interesting chapter in Welsh history.&nbsp; But the
+facts are so numerous and the development is so sudden that, in
+spite of one, it becomes a mere list of acts and dates.</p>
+<h2>XXIV<br />
+LOCAL GOVERNMENT</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> French Revolution was condemned
+by Britain, and the voices raised in its favour in Wales were
+few.&nbsp; The excesses of the Revolution, and the widespread
+fear of a Napoleonic invasion, caused a strong reaction against
+progress.&nbsp; The years immediately after were years of great
+suffering, but the very suffering prepared the way for the
+progress of the future, because it made men <a
+name="page118"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 118</span>willing to
+leave their own districts and to move into the coal and slate
+districts, where wages were high enough to enable them to
+live.</p>
+<p>The first demand was for political enfranchisement.&nbsp; In
+1832, in 1867, and in 1884 the franchise was extended, and every
+interest found a voice in Parliament.&nbsp; But, with the
+exception of the sharp struggle between the tenant and landlord
+after the Reform Act of 1867, the effects of enfranchisement on
+Wales have been very few.&nbsp; Two Acts alone have been passed
+as purely Welsh Acts&mdash;the Sunday Closing Act, and the
+Intermediate Education Act.&nbsp; In Parliament, the voice of
+Wales is weak even though unanimous; it can be outvoted by the
+capital or by four English provincial towns.&nbsp; Until quite
+recently its semi-independence&mdash;due to geography and past
+history&mdash;was looked upon as a source of weakness to the
+Empire rather than of strength.&nbsp; Its love for the past
+appeals to the one political party, its desire for progress to
+the other, but its distinctive ideals and its separate language
+are looked upon, at the very least, as political
+misfortunes.&nbsp; Education and justice have suffered from
+official want of toleration; the appointment of a County Court
+judge who <a name="page119"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+119</span>could not speak Welsh, within living memory, has been
+justified by Government on the ground that Englishmen resident in
+Wales object to being tried by a Welsh judge.</p>
+<p>Far more important to Wales than the Reform Acts are the Local
+Government Acts which followed them.&nbsp; When the Reform Act of
+1884 added the agricultural labourer to the electors of
+representatives in Parliament, every interest had a voice.&nbsp;
+A further extension of the franchise would not affect the balance
+of parties, it was thought; and a British Parliament has no time
+or desire to think of sentiment or theoretical perfection.&nbsp;
+The Parliament found it had too much to do, the multiplicity of
+interests made it impossible to pay effective attention to
+them.&nbsp; The result has been that half a century of extension
+of the franchise has been followed by half a century of extension
+of local government.&nbsp; The County Council Act came in 1888,
+and the Local Government Act in 1894.</p>
+<p>Of all parts of Britain, Wales had least local government, and
+needed most.&nbsp; Its justices of the peace were alien in
+religion, race, and sympathy; they were either country squires
+who had lost touch with the people, or English and Scotch
+capitalists who, with <a name="page120"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 120</span>rare exceptions, took no trouble to
+understand the people they governed, or to learn their
+language.&nbsp; The vestry meeting had been active enough during
+the early part of the eighteenth century; but religious
+difficulties made it impossible for a semi-ecclesiastical
+institution to represent a parish.&nbsp; The Tudor policy had
+separated the people from the greater land-owners; the iron
+masters and coal-owners had not yet become part of the people;
+there was not a single institution except the Eisteddvod where
+all classes met.</p>
+<p>In no part of the country was local government so warmly
+welcomed, and no part of the country was more ready for it.&nbsp;
+One thing the peasants had been allowed to do&mdash;they could
+build schools and colleges, churches and chapels.&nbsp; They had
+filled the country with these&mdash;their architecture, finance,
+government, are those of the peasant.&nbsp; The religious
+revivals had left organisers and institutions.&nbsp; Four or five
+religious bodies had a system of institutions&mdash;parish,
+district, county, central.&nbsp; All these were thoroughly
+democratic in character.&nbsp; When the Local Government Acts
+were passed, there was hardly a Welshman of full age and average
+ability who had not been a <a name="page121"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 121</span>delegate or in authority; and those
+of striking ability, if they could afford the time, continually
+sat in some little council or other and watched over the
+interests of some institution.</p>
+<p>It was from among these trained men that the councillors for
+the new county, district, and parish senates were elected.&nbsp;
+The work of the councils, especially that of the County Council,
+has been very difficult; and when the time comes to write their
+history, the historian will have to set himself to explain why
+the first councils were served by men who had extraordinary tact
+for government and great skill in financial matters.&nbsp; In the
+lower councils the village Hampden&rsquo;s eloquence is modified
+by the chilling responsibility for the rates, but the Parish
+Councils have already, in many places, made up for the negligence
+of generations of sleepy magistrates and officials.</p>
+<p>With a great difference, it is true, Wales under local
+government is Wales back again in the times of the princes.&nbsp;
+The parish is roughly the maenol, the district is the commote or
+the cantrev, the shire is the little kingdom&mdash;like
+Ceredigion or Morgannwg&mdash;which fought so sturdily against
+any attempt to subject it.</p>
+<p><a name="page122"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 122</span>The
+local councils were fortunate in the time of their
+appearance.&nbsp; They came at a period characterised by an
+intense desire for a better system of education, and at a time of
+rapidly growing prosperity.&nbsp; A heavy rate was possible, and
+the people were willing to bear it.&nbsp; The County Councils
+were able to build over seventy intermediate schools within a few
+years; and that at a time when both elementary and higher
+education made heavy demands on what was still a comparatively
+poor county.&nbsp; The District Councils were able to lower the
+amount of outdoor relief considerably, and without causing any
+real hardship, for they had knowledge of their districts as well
+as the philanthropy that comes naturally to man when he grants
+other people&rsquo;s money.&nbsp; The Parish Councils have become
+the guardians of public paths; they have begun to provide parish
+libraries, and the little parish senate educates its constituency
+and brings its wisdom to bear upon a number of practical
+questions, such as cottage gardens and fairs.</p>
+<h2><a name="page123"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+123</span>XXV<br />
+THE WALES OF TO-DAY</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> most striking characteristic of
+the Wales of to-day is its unity&mdash;self-conscious and
+self-reliant.&nbsp; The presence of this unity is felt by all,
+though it may be explained in different ways.&nbsp; It cannot be
+explained by race; for the population of the west midlands and
+the north of England, possibly of the whole of it, have been made
+up of the same elements.&nbsp; It cannot be explained by
+language&mdash;nearly one half of the Welsh people speak no
+Welsh.&nbsp; Some attribute it to the inexorable laws of
+geography and climate, others to the fatalism of history.&nbsp;
+Others frivolously put it down to modern football.&nbsp; But no
+one who knows Wales is ignorant of it.</p>
+<p>The modern unity of the Welsh people&mdash;seen occasionally
+in a function of the University, or at a national Eisteddvod, or
+in a conference of the County Councils&mdash;has become a fact in
+spite of many difficulties.</p>
+<p>One difficulty has been the absence of a capital.&nbsp; The
+office of the University and the National Museum are at Cardiff,
+in <a name="page124"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 124</span>the
+extreme south; the National Library is at Aberystwyth, on the
+western sea.&nbsp; The thriving industries, the densely populated
+districts, and the frequent and active railways, are in the
+extreme south or in the extreme north; and they are separated by
+five or six shires of pastures and sheep-runs, without large
+towns, and with comparatively few railways.&nbsp; In the three
+southern counties&mdash;Glamorgan, Monmouth, and
+Carmarthen&mdash;the population is between two and six people to
+10 acres, and the industrial population is from twelve to three
+times the number of the agricultural.&nbsp; In the central
+counties&mdash;Brecon, Radnor, Cardigan, Merioneth,
+Montgomery&mdash;the population is below one for 10 acres; the
+industrial and agricultural population are about equal, except in
+Radnor, where the agricultural is more than two to one.&nbsp;
+Though Merioneth has more sheep even than Brecon&mdash;and each
+of them has nearly 400,000&mdash;its industrial population, owing
+to the slate districts, is double the agricultural.&nbsp; The
+population begins to thicken again as we get nearer the slate,
+limestone, and coal districts.&nbsp; In Denbigh it is two to the
+10 acres, in Carnarvon it is three, and in Flint it rises to four
+or five.&nbsp; In these northern <a name="page125"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 125</span>counties the industrial population
+is double or treble the agricultural.&nbsp; The fertile western
+counties of Pembroke and Anglesey come between the industrial and
+grazing counties in density of population. <a
+name="citation4"></a><a href="#footnote4"
+class="citation">[4]</a></p>
+<p>Unity has arisen in spite of differences caused by the
+intensity of a religious revival, an intensity that periodically
+renews its strength.&nbsp; The Welsh are divided into sects, and
+the bitterness of sectarian differences occasionally invades
+politics and education.&nbsp; But there are two ever-present
+antidotes.&nbsp; One is the Welsh sense of humour, the nearest
+relative or the best friend of toleration.&nbsp; The other is the
+hymn&mdash;creed has been turned into song, and that is at least
+half way to turning it into life; the heresy hunter is disarmed
+by the poetry of the hymn, and its music has charms to soothe the
+sectarian breast.&nbsp; The co-operation of all in the work of
+local government has also enlarged sympathy.</p>
+<p>Unity has arisen in spite of the bilingual <a
+name="page126"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+126</span>difficulty.&nbsp; Rather more than one half of the
+people now habitually speak English.&nbsp; For three centuries an
+Act&mdash;a dead letter from the beginning&mdash;ordered all
+Government officials to speak English; for many generations,
+until recently, Welsh children were not taught Welsh in schools,
+and they could not be taught English.&nbsp; The bilingual
+difficulty is now at an end.&nbsp; The two languages are taught
+in the schools, and as living languages.&nbsp; It is clear, on
+the one hand, that every one should learn English, the language
+of the Empire and of commerce.&nbsp; It is also clear that, on
+account of its own beauty as well as that of the great literature
+it enshrines, Welsh should be taught in every school throughout
+Wales.</p>
+<p>Next to its unity, a characteristic of modern Wales is its
+democratic feeling.&nbsp; It is a country with a thoughtful and
+intelligent peasantry, and it is a country without a middle
+class.&nbsp; There is a very small upper class&mdash;the old
+Welsh land-owning families who once, before they turned their
+backs on Welsh literature, led the country.&nbsp; They have never
+been hated or despised, they are simply ignored.&nbsp; Their
+tendency now is to come into touch with the people, and they are
+always welcomed.&nbsp; But a middle class, <a
+name="page127"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 127</span>in the
+English sense, does not exist.&nbsp; The wealthier industrial
+class is bound by the closest ties of sympathy to the farmer and
+labourer.&nbsp; The farmer&rsquo;s holding is generally
+small&mdash;from 50 to 250 acres&mdash;and he always treats his
+servants and labourers as equals.</p>
+<p>The three great levelling causes&mdash;religion, industry, <a
+name="citation5"></a><a href="#footnote5"
+class="citation">[5]</a> and education&mdash;have been at work in
+Wales in recent years.&nbsp; Education helps and is helped by
+equality.&nbsp; In town and country alike all Welsh children
+attend the same schools&mdash;elementary and secondary; and they
+proceed, those that do proceed, to the same University, and a
+university is essentially a levelling institution.&nbsp; The
+dialects, as well as the literary language, are recognised; and
+no dialect has a stigma.&nbsp; In this respect Wales is more like
+Scotland than England.</p>
+<p>There is one other characteristic of modern Wales&mdash;a
+certain pride, not so much in what has been done, but in what is
+going to be done.&nbsp; Wales is small, though not much smaller
+than Palestine, or Holland, or Switzerland, and every part of it
+knows the other.&nbsp; <a name="page128"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 128</span>There is a healthy rivalry between
+its towns and between its colleges; each town can show that it
+has done something for Wales in the past&mdash;by means of its
+industries, or school, or press.&nbsp; In the strong feeling of
+unity there is ambition to surpass, and each part lives in the
+light of the action of the other parts.</p>
+<p>The day is a day of incessant activity&mdash;industrial,
+educational, literary, and political.&nbsp; What is true in the
+life of the individual is true in the life of a nation&mdash;a
+day of hard work is a happy day and a day of hope.</p>
+<h2><a name="page129"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 129</span>AN
+OUTLINE OF WELSH POLITICAL HISTORY</h2>
+<h3>INFLUENCES UNDER WHICH THE HISTORY OF WALES WAS FORMED</h3>
+<p>1.&nbsp; The nature of its rocks&mdash;Igneous, Cambrian,
+Silurian, Old Red Sandstone, Limestone, Coal&mdash;all belonging
+to the Primary Period.&nbsp; Its rocks</p>
+<p class="gutindent">(<i>a</i>)&nbsp; explain its scenery;</p>
+<p class="gutindent">(<i>b</i>)&nbsp; explain its wealth, the
+richest part of Britain in minerals.</p>
+<p>2.&nbsp; The configuration of its surface.</p>
+<p class="gutindent">(<i>a</i>)&nbsp; It is isolated, its
+mountains being surrounded by the sea, or rising sharply from the
+plains.&nbsp; It is part of the range of mountains which runs
+along the whole of the west coast of Britain; but the range is
+broken at the mouth of the Severn and at the mouth of the
+Dee.</p>
+<p class="gutindent">(<i>b</i>)&nbsp; It is divided, its valleys
+and roads radiating in all directions.&nbsp; So we have in its
+history</p>
+<p class="gutindent">A.&nbsp; Wars of Independence.</p>
+<p class="gutindent">B.&nbsp; Civil War.</p>
+<h3>THE PEOPLE WHO CAME INTO WALES</h3>
+<p>1.&nbsp; The Iberians&mdash;a general name for the short dark
+people who still form the greater part of the nations.&nbsp; They
+had stone weapons, and lived in tribes; they became subject to
+later invaders, but gradually became free.&nbsp; Their language
+is lost.</p>
+<p>2.&nbsp; The Celts&mdash;a tall fair-haired race, speaking an
+Aryan tongue.&nbsp; It was their migration that was stopped by
+the rise of Rome.&nbsp; Four <a name="page130"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 130</span>groups of mountains, four nations
+(Celtic and Iberian), four medi&aelig;val kingdoms, and four
+modern dioceses can be remembered thus:</p>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">i.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Snowdonia</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Decangi</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Gwynedd</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Bangor</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">ii.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Berwyn</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Ordovices</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Powys</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>St Asaph</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">iii.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Plinlimmon</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Demetae</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Dyved</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>St David&rsquo;s</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">iv.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Black Mountains</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Silures</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Morgannwg</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Llandaff</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>3.&nbsp; The Romans.&nbsp; They made roads, built cities,
+worked mines.</p>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">50&ndash;78.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>The Conquest.&nbsp; The Silures were defeated in 50, the
+Decangi in 58, the Ordovices in 78.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">80&ndash;200.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>The Settlement.&nbsp; Wales part of a Roman province
+including Chester and York.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">200&ndash;450.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>The struggle against the new wandering nations.&nbsp; The
+introduction of Christianity.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">450&ndash;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>The House of Cunedda represents Roman rule.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>4.&nbsp; The English.</p>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td><p>577.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Battle of Deorham.&nbsp; Wales separated from
+Cornwall.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>613.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Battle of Chester.&nbsp; Wales separated from Cumbria.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<h3>I.&nbsp; THE WALES OF THE PRINCES</h3>
+<p>Isolated after the battles of Deorham and Chester,
+medi&aelig;val Wales begins to make its own history.&nbsp; The
+House of Cunedda represents unity, the other princes represent
+independence.&nbsp; English, Danish, Norman attacks from
+without.</p>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td><p>1.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">613&ndash;1063.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p><i>The struggle between the Welsh princes and the English
+provincial kings</i>.&nbsp; From the battle of Chester to the
+fall of Griffith ap Llywelyn.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan="2"><p>(<i>a</i>)&nbsp; Between Wales and
+Northumbria, 613&ndash;700; for the sovereignty of the
+north.&nbsp; Cadwallon, Cadwaladr v. Edwin, Oswald, Oswiu.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan="2"><p>(<i>b</i>)&nbsp; Between Wales and Mercia,
+700&ndash;815; for the valley of the Severn.&nbsp; Rhodri
+Molwynog and his sons v. Ethelbald and Offa.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan="2"><p>(<i>c</i>)&nbsp; Between Wales and the Danes,
+815&ndash;1000.&nbsp; Rhodri the Great and Howel the Good.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan="2"><p><a name="page131"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+131</span>(<i>d</i>)&nbsp; Between Wales and Wessex,
+1000&ndash;1063; for political influence.&nbsp; Griffith ap
+Llywelyn v. Harold.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>2.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1063&ndash;1284.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p><i>The struggle between the Welsh princes and the central
+English kings</i>.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>(<i>a</i>)</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1066&ndash;1137.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p><i>The Norman Conquest</i>.&nbsp; Norman barons v.
+Griffith ap Conan and Griffith ap Rees.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1063.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Bleddyn of Powys tries to unite Wales.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1070.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>William the Conqueror at Chester.&nbsp; Advance of Norman
+barons from Chester, Shrewsbury, Hereford, Gloucester.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1075.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Death of Bleddyn; succeeded by Trahaiarn.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1077.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Battle of Mynydd Carn.&nbsp; Restoration of House of
+Cunedda&mdash;Griffith ap Conan in the north; Rees, followed by
+his son Griffith, in the south.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1094.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Norman castles dominate Powys, Gwent, Morgannwg, and
+Dyved.&nbsp; Gwynedd and Deheubarth threatened.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1137.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Death of Griffith ap Conan and Griffith ap Rees, after
+setting bounds to the Norman Conquest.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>(<i>b</i>)</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1137&ndash;1197.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p><i>The struggle against Henry II. and his sons</i>.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1137.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>The accession of Owen Gwynedd and of the Lord Rees of the
+Deheubarth.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1157.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Henry II. interferes in the quarrel of Owen and
+Cadwaladr.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1564.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>The Cistercians at Strata Florida.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1164.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Meeting of Owen Gwynedd, the Lord Rees, and Owen Cyveiliog
+at Corwen, to oppose Henry II.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1170.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Death of Owen Gwynedd.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1188.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Preaching of the Crusades in Wales.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1189.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Death of Henry II.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1197.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Death of the Lord Rees.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>(<i>c</i>)</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1194&ndash;1240.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p><i>The reign of Llywelyn the Great</i>.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1194&ndash;1201.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Securing the crown of Gwynedd.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1201&ndash;1208.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Alliance with King John.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1208&ndash;1212.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>War with John.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1212&ndash;1218.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Alliance with barons of Magna Carta.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1218&ndash;1226.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Struggle with the Marshalls of Pembroke.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1226&ndash;1240.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Unity of Wales: alliance with Marshalls.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><a name="page132"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+132</span>(<i>d</i>)</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1240&ndash;1284.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p><i>The Wars of Independence</i>.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1241.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>David II. does homage to Henry III.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1244.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Death of Griffith, in trying to escape from the Tower of
+London.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1245.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Fierce fighting on the Conway.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1254.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Edward (afterwards Edward I.) Earl of Chester.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1255.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Llywelyn ap Griffith supreme in Gwynedd.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1263.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Alliance with the English barons.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1267.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Treaty of Montgomery; Llywelyn Prince of Wales.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1274.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Llywelyn refuses to do homage to Edward I.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1277.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Treaty of Rhuddlan; Llywelyn keeps Gwynedd only.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1278.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Llywelyn marries Eleanor de Montfort.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1282.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Last war.&nbsp; Battle of Moel y Don.&nbsp;
+Llywelyn&rsquo;s death.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1284.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Statute of Wales.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>3.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1284&ndash;1535.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p><i>The rule of sheriff and march lord</i>.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1287.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Revolt of Ceredigion.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1294.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Revolts In Gwynedd, Dyved, Morgannwg.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1315.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Revolt of Llywelyn Bren.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1349.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>The Black Death in Wales.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1400.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Rise of Owen Glendower.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1402.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Battles of the Vyrnwy and Bryn Glas.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1404.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Anti-Welsh legislation.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1455.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>The Wars of the Roses.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1461.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Battle of Mortimer&rsquo;s Cross.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1468.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Siege of Harlech.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1469.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Battle of Edgecote.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1478.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Court of Wales at Ludlow.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1485.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Battle of Bosworth and accession of Henry VII.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1535.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Act of Union.&nbsp; All Wales governed by king through
+sheriffs.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<h3><a name="page133"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+133</span>II.&nbsp; THE WALES OF THE PEOPLE.</h3>
+<p>In 1535 the march lordships were formed into shires, and a
+reign of law began.</p>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1535&ndash;1603.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p><i>Period of loyalty to Tudor sovereigns</i>&mdash;for
+equality before law and political rights.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1536.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>The march lordships become shire ground.&nbsp; Wales given
+a representation in Parliament, and its own system of law
+courts&mdash;the Great Sessions of Wales.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1539.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Welsh passive resistance to the Reformation.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1567.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Sir Thomas Middleton opens silver mines of
+Cardiganshire.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1588.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Bishop Morgan&rsquo;s Welsh Bible.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1593.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Execution of John Penry.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Results:</p>
+<p>1.&nbsp; Destruction of power of barons.</p>
+<p>2.&nbsp; Anglicising of gentry.</p>
+<p>3.&nbsp; A Welsh Bible.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1603&ndash;1689.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p><i>Struggle between new and old ideas</i>.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1618.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Coal of South Wales attracts attention.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1640.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>First Civil War.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1644.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Brereton and Myddleton win North Wales, Laugharne and
+Poyer win South Wales, for Parliament.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1648.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Second Civil War: siege of Pembroke.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1650.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Puritan &ldquo;Act for the better Propagation of the
+Gospel in Wales.&rdquo;</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1670.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Vavasour Powell dies in prison.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1689.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Abolition of the Court of Wales.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1689&ndash;1894.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p><i>Rise of the Welsh democracy</i>.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1719.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Copper works at Swansea.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1730.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Griffith Jones&rsquo; circulating schools.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1750.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Iron furnaces at Merthyr Tydvil.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1773.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Death of Howel Harris.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1814.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Death of Charles of Bala.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1830.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Abolition of Great Sessions of Wales.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1832.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>First Reform Bill.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1839.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Chartism at Llanidloes and Newport.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1867.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Second Reform Bill.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><a name="page134"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 134</span>1872, 1883, 1884.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>University Colleges.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1884.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Third Reform Bill.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1888.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>County Council Act.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1889.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Secondary Education Act.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">1894.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Local Government Act.&nbsp; University of Wales.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<h2><a name="page135"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+135</span>TABLE I.&mdash;THE HOUSE OF CUNEDDA</h2>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/p135b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Table 1: Cunedda Wledig to Bleddyn"
+title=
+"Table 1: Cunedda Wledig to Bleddyn"
+ src="images/p135s.jpg" />
+</a> <a name="citation135"></a><a href="#footnote135"
+class="citation">[135]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="page136"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+136</span>TABLE II.&mdash;GWYNEDD</h2>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/p136ab.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Table 2: Griffith ap Conan to Owen of Wales"
+title=
+"Table 2: Griffith ap Conan to Owen of Wales"
+ src="images/p136as.jpg" />
+</a> <a name="citation136a"></a><a href="#footnote136a"
+class="citation">[136a]</a></p>
+<h2>TABLE III.&mdash;DYNEVOR</h2>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/p136bb.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Table 3: Rees ap Tudor to Rees the Hoarse"
+title=
+"Table 3: Rees ap Tudor to Rees the Hoarse"
+ src="images/p136bs.jpg" />
+</a> <a name="citation136b"></a><a href="#footnote136b"
+class="citation">[136b]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="page137"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+137</span>TABLE IV.&mdash;POWYS</h2>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/p137b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Table 4: Bleddyn ap Cynvyn to Owen Glendower"
+title=
+"Table 4: Bleddyn ap Cynvyn to Owen Glendower"
+ src="images/p137s.jpg" />
+</a> <a name="citation137"></a><a href="#footnote137"
+class="citation">[137]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="page138"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+138</span>TABLE V.&mdash;MORTIMER</h2>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/p138b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Table 5: Llywelyn the Great to Henry VIII."
+title=
+"Table 5: Llywelyn the Great to Henry VIII."
+ src="images/p138s.jpg" />
+</a> <a name="citation138"></a><a href="#footnote138"
+class="citation">[138]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="page139"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+139</span>TABLE VI.&mdash;TUTOR</h2>
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a href="images/p139b.jpg">
+<img alt=
+"Table 5: Edward VI. to Elizabeth"
+title=
+"Table 5: Edward VI. to Elizabeth"
+ src="images/p139s.jpg" />
+</a> <a name="citation139"></a><a href="#footnote139"
+class="citation">[139]</a></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX A&mdash;PARLIAMENTARY REFORM IN WALES <a
+name="citation109"></a><a href="#footnote109"
+class="citation">[109]</a></h2>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>By the Act of 1535.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>By the Act of 1832.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Glamorgan</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>2 County Members</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Cardiff</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Cardiff, Cowbridge, and Llantrisant</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Swansea, Loughor, Neath, Aberavon, and
+Kenfig.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Merthyr Tydvil.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Monmouth</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p>2 County Members</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>2 County Members</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Monmouth</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Monmouth</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Carmarthen</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>2 County Members</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Carmarthen</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Carmarthen and Llanelly</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Pembroke</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Pembroke</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Pembroke, Tenby, Wiston, Milford</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Haverfordwest.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Haverfordwest, Narberth, Fishguard</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Cardiganshire</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Cardigan</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Cardigan, Aberystwyth, Adpar, and
+Lampeter</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Breconshire</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Brecon</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Brecon</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Radnorshire</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Radnor</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Radnor, Knighton, Rhayadr, Cefnllys,
+Knucklas, Presteign</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Montgomeryshire</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Montgomery</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Montgomery, Llanidloes, Machynlleth, Newtown,
+Welshpool, Llanfyllin</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Merionethshire</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Denbighshire</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>2 County Members</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Denbigh</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Denbigh, Ruthin, Holt, Wrexham</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Flintshire</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Flint</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Flint, Rhuddlan, St Asaph, Mold, Holywell,
+Caerwys, Caergwrle, Overton</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Carnarvonshire</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Carnarvon</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Carnarvon, Conway, Bangor, Nevin, Pwllheli,
+Criccieth</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p><span class="smcap">Anglesey</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 County Member</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Beaumaris</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>1 Member for Beaumaris, Llangefni, Amlwch, and
+Holyhead</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<h2>FOOTNOTES</h2>
+<p><a name="footnote1"></a><a href="#citation1"
+class="footnote">[1]</a>&nbsp; Mihangel=Michael.&nbsp; Llan
+Fihangel = Si Michael&rsquo;s.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote2"></a><a href="#citation2"
+class="footnote">[2]</a>&nbsp; Mair=Mary.&nbsp; Llan Fair=St
+Mary&rsquo;s.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote3"></a><a href="#citation3"
+class="footnote">[3]</a>&nbsp; About 1291 the abbeys of
+Aberconway and Strata Marcella had over a hundred cows each,
+Whitland over a thousand sheep, and Basingwerk over two
+thousand.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote4"></a><a href="#citation4"
+class="footnote">[4]</a>&nbsp; According to the census of 1901
+the population per square mile of Glamorgan is 758, Monmouth 427,
+Carmarthen 141, Brecon 73, Radnor 49, Cardigan 88, Montgomery 68,
+Merioneth 74, Denbigh 197, Carnarvon 217, Flint 319, Pembroke
+143, Anglesey 183.</p>
+<p>The rate of increase per cent. between 1891 and 1901
+are&mdash;Wales 13.3; England 12.1; Scotland 11.1;
+Ireland&mdash;5.2.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote5"></a><a href="#citation5"
+class="footnote">[5]</a>&nbsp; In 1801 the population of Cardiff
+was 1870, and coal was brought down from Merthyr on
+donkeys.&nbsp; In 1901 the three ports of Cardiff, Newport, and
+Swansea exported nearly as much coal as all the great English and
+Scotch ports put together.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote109"></a><a href="#citation109"
+class="footnote">[109]</a>&nbsp; In the book this
+&ldquo;appendix&rdquo; is inserted at page 109, where it
+doesn&rsquo;t fit and is in the middle of paragraph.&nbsp;
+It&rsquo;s been moved to an appendix in this eText.&mdash;DP.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote135"></a><a href="#citation135"
+class="footnote">[135]</a>&nbsp; This table contains the
+following genealogy.&nbsp; (For items with an asterisk: the links
+between the House of Cunedda and the three ruling families after
+the Norman Conquest rest on the authority of tradition rather
+than on that of records.)</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Cunedda Wledig</span> (<i>Dux
+Britanniae</i>).&nbsp; <span class="smcap">Maelgwn
+Gwynedd</span>.&nbsp; <span class="smcap">Cadwaladr</span>.</p>
+<p>Then Idwal.</p>
+<p>Then Rhodri Molwynog.</p>
+<p>Then Conan Tindaethwy.</p>
+<p>Then Esyllt=Mervin.</p>
+<p>Then <span class="smcap">Rhodri the Great</span> who had
+issue: Anarawd, Cadell and Mervin.</p>
+<p>Anarawd had issue Idwal the Bald who had issue Iago then (?)
+Conan* (<i>See Table II.</i>).</p>
+<p>Cadwell had issue <span class="smcap">Howel the Good</span>
+who had issue Owen.</p>
+<p>Owen had issue Einion who had issue Cadwell and Meredith.</p>
+<p>Cadwell had issue Tewdwr* (<i>See Table III.</i>)</p>
+<p>Meredith had issue Angharad*.</p>
+<p>Angharad = <span class="smcap">Llywelyn ab Seisyllt</span> and
+had issue <span class="smcap">Griffith</span>.</p>
+<p>Angharad = Cynvyn who had issue <span
+class="smcap">Bleddyn</span> and Rhiwallon (<i>See Table
+IV.</i>)</p>
+<p><a name="footnote136a"></a><a href="#citation136a"
+class="footnote">[136a]</a>&nbsp; This table contains the
+following genealogy:</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Griffith ap Conan</span> had issue <span
+class="smcap">Owen Gwynedd</span>, Cadwaladr and Gwenllian = G.
+ap Rees.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Owen Gwynedd</span> had issue Iorwerth and
+<span class="smcap">David</span> I.</p>
+<p>Iorwerth had issue <span class="smcap">Llywelyn the
+Great</span>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Llywelyn the Great</span> had issue
+Griffith and <span class="smcap">David</span> II.</p>
+<p>Griffith had issue <span class="smcap">Llywelyn the
+Last</span>, Owen the Red, David and Rhodri.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Llywelyn the Last</span> = Eleanor de
+Montfort and had issue Gwenllian.</p>
+<p>Rhodri had issue Thomas who had issue Owen of Wales.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote136b"></a><a href="#citation136b"
+class="footnote">[136b]</a>&nbsp; This table contains the
+following genealogy:</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Rees ap Tudor</span> had issue Griffith
+and Nest.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Griffith</span> had issue <span
+class="smcap">The Lord Rees</span>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">The Lord Rees</span> had issue <span
+class="smcap">Griffith</span> and Rees the Hoarse.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote137"></a><a href="#citation137"
+class="footnote">[137]</a>&nbsp; This table contains the
+following genealogy:</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Bleddyn ap Cynvyn</span> had issue <span
+class="smcap">Meredith</span>, <span class="smcap">Cadwgan</span>
+and <span class="smcap">Iorwerth</span>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Cadwgan</span> had issue Owen of
+Powys.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Meredith</span> had issue <span
+class="smcap">Madoc</span> and <span class="smcap">Owen
+Cyveiliog</span>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Owen Cyveiliog</span> had issue <span
+class="smcap">Griffith</span> who had issue <span
+class="smcap">Gwenwynwyn</span>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Madoc</span> had issue Griffith Maelor who
+had issue Madoc who had issue Griffith of Bromfield.</p>
+<p>Griffith of Bromfield had issue Madoc and Griffith Vychan.</p>
+<p>Griffith Vychan had issue Madoc who had issue Griffith who had
+issue Griffith Vychan who had issue <span class="smcap">Owen
+Glendower</span>.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote138"></a><a href="#citation138"
+class="footnote">[138]</a>&nbsp; This table contains the
+following genealogy:</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Llywelyn the Great</span> had issue Gladys
+the Dark=Ralph Mortimer of Wigmore.</p>
+<p>Gladys the Dark and Ralph Mortimer of Wigmore had issue Roger
+Mortimer = Matilda de Braose.</p>
+<p>Roger Mortimer and Matilda de Braose had issue Edmund and
+Roger of Chirk.</p>
+<p>Edmund had issue Roger, first Earl of March, who had issue
+Edmund who had issue Roger, second Earl of March, who had issue
+Edmund, third Earl of March=Philipa.</p>
+<p>Edmund, third Earl of March and Philipa had issue Roger and
+Edmund = d. of Glendower.</p>
+<p>Roger had issue Edmund and Anne=Richard, Earl of Cambridge
+(see later).</p>
+<p>On a different line: <span class="smcap">Edward</span> III.
+had issue Lionel of Clarence, John of Gaunt and Edmund of
+York.</p>
+<p>Edmund of York had issue Richard, Earl of Cambridge=Anne.</p>
+<p>The lines then merge with Anne=Richard, Earl of Cambridge who
+had issue Richard, Duke of York (killed at Wakefield, 1460).</p>
+<p>Richard, Duke of York had issue <span
+class="smcap">Edward</span> IV, and <span
+class="smcap">Richard</span> III. (killed at Bosworth, 1485).</p>
+<p>Edward IV. had issue Elizabeth = Henry VII.</p>
+<p>Henry VII. and Elizabeth had issue <span
+class="smcap">Henry</span> VIII.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote139"></a><a href="#citation139"
+class="footnote">[139]</a>&nbsp; This table contains the
+following genealogy:</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Edward</span> III. had issue John of Gaunt
+who had issue <span class="smcap">Henry</span> IV. and John
+Beaufort I. Earl of Somerset.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Henry</span> IV. = Catherine of France had
+issue <span class="smcap">Henry</span> VI.</p>
+<p>Catherine of France = Owen Tudor had issue Edmund Tudor, Earl
+of Richmond=Margaret Beaufort who had issue <span
+class="smcap">Henry</span> VII. who had issue <span
+class="smcap">Henry</span> VIII. who had issue <span
+class="smcap">Edward</span> VI., <span class="smcap">Mary</span>
+and <span class="smcap">Elizabeth</span>.</p>
+<p>John Beaufort I. Earl of Somerset had issue John Beaufort II.,
+Duke of Somerset who had issue Margaret Beaufort (see above).</p>
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SHORT HISTORY OF WALES***</p>
+<pre>
+
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+Title: A Short History of Wales
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+This etext was produced from the 1922 T. Fisher Unwin Ltd. edition by
+David Price, email ccx074@coventry.ac.uk
+
+
+
+
+
+A SHORT HISTORY OF WALES
+
+by Owen M. Edwards
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+
+This little book is meant for those who have never read any Welsh
+history before.  It is not taken for granted that the reader knows
+either Latin or Welsh.
+
+A fuller outline may be read in The Story of Wales, in the "Story of
+the Nations" series; and a still fuller one in The Welsh People of
+Rhys and Brynmor Jones.  Of fairly small and cheap books in various
+periods I may mention Rhys' Celtic Britain, Owen Rhoscomyl's Flame
+Bearers of Welsh History, Henry Owen's Gerald the Welshman, Bradley's
+Owen Glendower, Newell's Welsh Church, and Rees Protestant Non-
+conformity in Wales.  More elaborate and expensive books are
+Seebohm's Village Community and Tribal System in Wales, Clark's
+Medieval Military Architecture, Morris' Welsh Wars of Edward I.,
+Southall's Wales and Her Language.  In writing local history, A. N.
+Palmer's History of Wrexham and companion volumes are models.
+
+If you turn to a library, you will find much information about Wales
+in Social England, the Dictionary of National Biography, the
+publications of the Cymmrodorion and other societies.  You will find
+articles of great value and interest over the names of F. H.
+Haverfield, J. W. Willis-Bund, Egerton Phillimore, the Honourable Mrs
+Bulkeley Owen (Gwenrhian Gwynedd), Henry Owen, the late David Lewis,
+T. F. Tout, J. E. Lloyd, D. Lleufer Thomas, W. Llywelyn Williams, J.
+Arthur Price, J. H. Davies, J. Ballinger, Edward Owen, Hubert Hall,
+Hugh Williams, R. A. Roberts, A. W. Wade-Evans, E. A. Lewis.  These
+are only a few out of the many who are now working in the rich and
+unexplored field of Welsh history.  I put down the names only of
+those I had to consult in writing a small book like this.
+
+The sources are mostly in Latin or Welsh.  Many volumes of
+chronicles, charters, and historical poems have been published by the
+Government, by the Corporation of Cardiff, by J. Gwenogvryn Evans, by
+H. de Grey Birch, and others.  But, so far, we have not had the
+interesting chronicles and poems translated into English as they
+ought to be, and published in well edited, not too expensive volumes.
+
+OWEN EDWARDS
+LINCOLN COLLEGE, OXFORD.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I--WALES
+
+
+
+Wales is a row of hills, rising between the Irish Sea on the west and
+the English plains on the east.  If you come from the west along the
+sea, or if you cross the Severn or the Dee from the east, you will
+see that Wales is a country all by itself.  It rises grandly and
+proudly.  If you are a stranger, you will think of it as "Wales"--a
+strange country; if you are Welsh, you will think of it as "Cymru"--a
+land of brothers.
+
+The geologist will tell you how Wales was made; the geographer will
+tell you what it is like now; the historian will tell you what its
+people have done and what they are.  All three will tell you that it
+is a very interesting country.
+
+The rocks of Wales are older and harder than the rocks of the plains;
+and as you travel from the south to the north, the older and harder
+they become.  The highest mountains of Wales, and some of its hills,
+have crests of the very oldest and hardest rock--granite, porphyry,
+and basalt; and these rocks are given their form by fire.  But the
+greater part of the country is made of rocks formed by water--still
+the oldest of their kind.  In the north-west, centre, and west--about
+two-thirds of the whole country,--the rocks are chiefly slate and
+shale; in the south-east they are chiefly old red sandstone; in the
+north-east, but chiefly in the south, they are limestone and coal.
+
+Its rocks give Wales its famous scenery--its rugged peaks, its
+romantic glens, its rushing rivers.  They are also its chief wealth--
+granite, slate, limestone, coal; and lodes of still more precious
+metals--iron, lead, silver, and gold--run through them.
+
+The highest mountain in Wales is Snowdon, which is 3,570 feet above
+the level of the sea.  For every 300 feet we go up, the temperature
+becomes one degree cooler.  At about 1,000 feet it becomes too cold
+for wheat; at about 1,500 it becomes too cold for corn; at about
+2,000 it is too cold for cattle; mountain ponies graze still higher;
+the bleak upper slopes are left to the small and valuable Welsh
+sheep.
+
+There are three belts of soil around the hills--arable, pasture, and
+sheep-run--one above the other.  The arable land forms about a third
+of the country; it lies along the sea border, on the slopes above the
+Dee and the Severn, and in the deep valleys of the rivers which
+pierce far inland,--the Severn, Wye, Usk, Towy, Teivy, Dovey, Conway,
+and Clwyd.  The pasture land, the land of small mountain farms, forms
+the middle third; it is a land of tiny valleys and small plains, ever
+fostered by the warm, moist west wind.  Above it, the remaining third
+is stormy sheep-run, wide green slopes and wild moors, steep glens
+and rocky heights.
+
+From north-west to south-east the line of high hills runs.  In the
+north-west corner, Snowdon towers among a number of heights over
+3,000 feet.  At its feet, to the north-west, the isle of Anglesey
+lies.  The peninsula of Lleyn, with a central ridge of rock, and
+slopes of pasture lands, runs to the south-west.  To the east, beyond
+the Conway, lie the Hiraethog mountains, with lower heights and wider
+reaches; further east again, over the Clwyd, are the still lower
+hills of Flint.
+
+To the south, 30 miles as the crow flies, over the slate country, the
+Berwyns are seen clearly.  From a peak among these--Cader Vronwen
+(2,573 feet), or the Aran (2,970 feet), or Cader Idris (2,929 feet)--
+we look east and south, over the hilly slopes of the upper Severn
+country.
+
+Another 30 miles to the south rises green Plinlimmon (2,469 feet);
+from it we see the high moorlands of central Wales, sloping to
+Cardigan Bay on the west and to the valley of the Severn, now a
+lordly English river, on the east.
+
+Forty miles south the Black Mountain (2,630 feet) rises beyond the
+Wye, and the Brecon Beacons (2,910 feet) beyond the Usk.  West of
+these the hills fade away into the broad peninsula of Dyved.
+Southwards we look over hills of coal and iron to the pleasant sea-
+fringed plain of Gwent.
+
+On the north and the west the sea is shallow; in some places it is
+under 10 fathoms for 10 miles from the shore, and under 20 fathoms
+for 20 miles.  Tales of drowned lands are told--of the sands of
+Lavan, of the feast of drunken Seithenyn, and of the bells of
+Aberdovey.  But the sea is a kind neighbour.  Its soft, warm winds
+bathe the hills with life; and the great sweep of the big Atlantic
+waves into the river mouths help our commerce.  Holyhead, Milford
+Haven, Swansea, Newport, Barry, and Cardiff--now one of the chief
+ports of the world--can welcome the largest vessels afloat.  The
+herring is plentiful on the west coast, and trout and salmon in the
+rivers.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II--THE WANDERING NATIONS
+
+
+
+By land and by sea, race after race has come to make the hills of
+Wales its home.  One race would be short, with dark eyes and black
+hair; another would be tall, with blue eyes and fair hair.  They came
+from different countries and along different paths, but each race
+brought some good with it.  One brought skill in taming animals,
+until it had at last tamed even the pig and the bee; another brought
+iron tools to take the place of stone ones.  Another brought the
+energy of the chase and war, and another a delight in sailing a ship
+or in building a fortress.
+
+One thing they had in common--they wandered, and they wandered to the
+west.  From the cold wastes and the dark forests of the north and
+east, they were ever pushing west to more sunny lands.  As far back
+as we can see, the great migration of nations to the west was going
+on.  The islands of Britain were the furthest point they could reach;
+for beyond it, at that time, no man had dared to sail into the
+unknown expanse of the ocean of the west.  In the islands of Britain,
+the mountains of Wales were among the most difficult to win, and it
+was only the bravest and the hardiest that could make their home
+among them.
+
+The first races that came were short and dark.  They came in tribes.
+They had tribal marks, the picture of an animal as a rule; and they
+had a strange fancy that this animal was their ancestor.  It may be
+that the local nicknames which are still remembered--such as "the
+pigs of Anglesey," "the dogs of Denbigh," "the cats of Ruthin," "the
+crows of Harlech," "the gadflies of Mawddwy"--were the proud tribe
+titles of these early people.  Their weapons and tools were polished
+stone; their hammers and hatchets and adzes, their lance heads and
+their arrow tips, were of the hardest igneous rock--chipped and
+ground with patient labour.
+
+The people who come first have the best chance of staying, if only
+they are willing to learn; hardy plants will soon take the place of
+tender plants if left alone.  The short dark people are still the
+main part, not only of the Welsh, but of the British people.  It is
+true that their language has disappeared, except a few place-names.
+But languages are far more fleeting than races.  The loss of its
+language does not show that a race is dead; it only shows that it is
+very anxious to change and learn.  Some languages easily give place
+to others, and we say that the people who speak these languages are
+good linguists, like Danes and Slavs.  Other languages persist, those
+who speak them are unwilling to speak any new language, and this is
+the reason why Spanish and English are so widespread.
+
+After the short dark race came a tall fair-haired people.  They came
+in families as well as in tribes.  They had iron weapons and tools,
+and the short dark people could not keep them at bay with their bone-
+tipped spears and flint-headed arrows.  We know nothing about the
+struggle between them.  But it may be that the fairy stories we were
+told when children come from those far-off times.  If a fairy maiden
+came from lake or mound to live among men, she vanished at once if
+touched with iron.  Is this, learned men have asked, a dim memory of
+the victory of iron over stone?
+
+The name given to the short dark man is usually Iberian; the name
+given to the tall fair man who followed him is Celt.  The two learnt
+to live together in the same country.  The conqueror probably looked
+upon himself at first as the master of the conquered, then as simply
+belonging to a superior race, but gradually the distinction vanished.
+The language remained the language of the Celt; it is called an Aryan
+language, a language as noble among languages as the Aran is among
+its hills.  It is still spoken in Wales, in Brittany, in Ireland, in
+the Highlands of Scotland, and in the Isle of Man.  It was also
+spoken in Cornwall till the eighteenth century; and Yorkshire
+dalesmen still count their sheep in Welsh.  English is another Aryan
+tongue.
+
+The more mixed a nation is, the more rich its life and the greater
+its future.  Purity of blood is not a thing to boast of, and no great
+and progressive nation comes from one breed of men.  Some races have
+more imagination than others, or a finer feeling for beauty; others
+have more energy and practical wisdom.  The best nations have both;
+and they have both, probably, because many races have been blended in
+their making.  There is hardly a parish in Wales in which there are
+not different types of faces and different kinds of character.
+
+The wandering of nations has never really stopped.  The Celt was
+followed by his cousins--the Angle and the Saxon.  These, again, were
+followed by races still more closely related to them--the Normans and
+the Danes and the Flemings.  They have all left their mark on Wales
+and on the Welsh character.
+
+The migration is still going on.  Trace the history of an upland
+Welsh parish, and you will find that, in a surprisingly short time,
+the old families, high and low, have given place to newcomers.  Look
+into the trains which carry emigrants from Hull or London to
+Liverpool on their way west--they have the blue eyes and yellow hair
+of those who came two thousand years ago.  But this country is no
+longer their goal, the great continent of America has been discovered
+beyond.  Fits of longing for wandering come over the Welsh
+periodically, as they came over the Danes--caused by scarcity of food
+and density of population, or by a sense of oppression and a yearning
+for freedom.  An empty stomach sometimes, and sometimes a fiery
+imagination, sent a crowd of adventurers to new lands.  And it is
+thus that every living nation is ever renewing its youth.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III--ROME
+
+
+
+It is not a spirit of adventure and daring alone that makes a nation.
+Rome rose to say that it must have the spirit of order and law too.
+It rose in the path of the nations; it built the walls of its empire,
+guarded by the camps of its legions, right across it.  For four
+hundred years the wandering of nations ceased; the nations stopped--
+and they began to till the ground, to live in cities, to form states.
+The hush of this peace did not last, but the memory of it remained in
+the life of every nation that felt it.  Unity and law tempered
+freedom and change.
+
+The name of Rome was made known, and made terrible, through Wales by
+a great battle fought on the eastern slopes of the Berwyn.  The
+Romans had conquered the lands beyond the Severn, and had placed
+themselves firmly near the banks of that river at Glevum and
+Uriconium.  Glevum is our Gloucester, and its streets are still as
+the Roman architect planned them.  Uriconium is the burnt and buried
+city beyond Shrewsbury; the skulls found in it, and its implements of
+industry, and the toys of its children, you can see in the Shrewsbury
+Museum.
+
+The British leader in the great battle was Caratacus, the general who
+had fought the Romans step by step until he had come to the borders
+of Wales, to summon the warlike Silures to save their country.  We do
+not know the site of the great battle, though the Roman historian
+Tacitus gives a graphic description of it.  The Britons were on a
+hill side sloping down to a river, and the Romans could only attack
+them in front.  The enemy waded the river, however, and scaled the
+wall on its further bank; and in the fierce lance and sword fight the
+host of Caratacus lost the day.  He fled, but was afterwards handed
+over to the Romans, and taken to Rome, to grace the triumphal
+procession of the victors.
+
+The battle only roused the Silures to a more fierce resistance, and
+it cost the Romans many lives, and it took them many years, to break
+their power.  The strangest sight that met the invaders was in
+Anglesey, after they had crossed the Menai on horses or on rafts.
+The druids tried to terrify them by the rites of their religion.  The
+dark groves, the women dressed in black and carrying flaming torches,
+the aged priests--the sight paralysed the Roman soldiers, but only
+for a moment.
+
+Vespasian--it was he who sent his son Titus to besiege Jerusalem--
+became emperor in 69.  The war was carried on with great energy, and
+by 78 Wales was entirely conquered.
+
+Then Agricola, a wise ruler, came.  The peace of Rome was left in the
+land; and the Welshman took the Roman, not willingly at first, as his
+teacher and ruler instead of as his enemy.  Towns were built; the two
+Chesters or Caerlleons (Castra Legionum), on the Dee and the Usk,
+being the most important from a military point of view.  Roads were
+made; two along the north and south coasts, to Carmarthen and
+Carnarvon; two others ran parallel along the length of Wales, to
+connect their ends.  On these roads towns rose; and some, like
+Caerwent, were self-governing communities of prosperous people.
+Agriculture flourished; the Welsh words for "plough" and "cheese" are
+"aradr" and "caws"--the Latin aratrum and caseus.  The mineral wealth
+of the country was discovered; and copper mines and lead mines,
+silver mines and gold mines, were worked.  The "aur" (gold) and
+"arian" (silver) and "plwm" (lead) of the Welshman are the Latin
+aurum, argentum, and plumbum.
+
+The Romans allowed the Welsh families and tribes to remain as before,
+and to be ruled by their own kings and chiefs.  But they kept the
+defence of the country--the manning of the great wall in the north of
+Roman Britain, the garrisoning of the legion towns, and the holding
+of the western sea--in their own hand.
+
+Gradually the power of Rome began to wane, and its hold on distant
+countries like Britain began to relax.  The wandering nations were
+gathering on its eastern and northern borders, and its walls and
+legions at last gave way.  It had not been a kind mother to the
+nations it had conquered--in war it had been cruel, and in peace it
+had been selfish and stern.  The lust of rule became stronger as its
+arm became weaker.  The degradation of slavery and the heavy hand of
+the tax-gatherer were extending even to Wales.  The barbarian invader
+found the effeminate, luxurious empire an easy prey.  In 410 Alaric
+and his host of Goths appeared before the city of Rome itself; and a
+horde of barbarians, thirsting for blood and spoil, surged into it.
+The fall of the great city was a shock to the whole world; the end of
+the world must be near, for how could it stand without Rome?  Jerome
+could hardly sob the strange news:  "Rome, which enslaved the whole
+world, has itself been taken."
+
+Rome had taken the yoke of Christ; and many said that it fell because
+it had spurned the gods that had given it victory.  Three years after
+Alaric had sacked it, Augustine wrote a book to prove that it was not
+the city of God that had fallen; and that the heathen gods could
+neither have built Rome in their love nor destroyed it in their
+anger.  He then describes the rise of the real "City of God," in the
+midst of which is the God of justice and mercy, and "she shall not be
+moved."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV--THE NAME OF CHRIST
+
+
+
+The name of Christ had been heard in Britain during the period of
+Roman rule, but we do not know who first sounded it.  There are many
+beautiful legends--that the great apostle of the Gentiles himself
+came to Britain; that Joseph of Arimathea, having been placed by the
+Jews in an open boat, at the mercy of wind and wave, landed in
+Britain; that some of the captives taken to Rome with Caratacus
+brought back the tidings of great joy.
+
+We know that the name of Christ, between 200 and 300 years after His
+death, was well known in Britain, and that churches had been built
+for His worship.  Between 300 and 400 we have an organised church and
+a settled creed.  Between 400 and 500 there was searching of heart
+and creed, and heresies--a sure sign that the people were alive to
+religion.  Between 500 and 600 there was a translation of the Bible
+from Hebrew and Greek into the better-known Latin.  The whole of
+Wales becomes Christian; and probably St David converted the last
+pagans, and built his church among them.
+
+Between 450 and 500 a stream of pagan Teutons flowed over the east of
+Britain, and the British Church was separated from the Roman Church.
+By 664 British and Roman missionaries had converted the English; and
+the two Churches of Rome and Britain, once united, were face to face
+again.  But they had grown in different ways, and refused to know
+each other.  Their Easter came on different days; they did not
+baptize in the same way; the tonsure was different--a crescent on the
+forehead of the British monk, and a crown on the pate of the Roman
+monk.  In the Roman Church there was rigid unity and system; in the
+British Church there was much room for self-government.  The newly
+converted English chose the Roman way, because they were told that St
+Peter, whose see Rome was, held the keys of heaven.  Between 700 and
+800 the Welsh gradually gave up their religious independence, and
+joined the Roman Church.
+
+But there was another dispute.  Were the four old Welsh bishoprics--
+Bangor, St Asaph, St David's, Llandaff--to be subject to the English
+archbishop of Canterbury, or to have an archbishopric of their own at
+St David's?  By 1200 the Welsh bishoprics were subject to the English
+archbishop, and Giraldus Cambrensis came too late to save them.
+
+But through all these disputes the Church was gaining strength.
+Churches were being built everywhere.  Up to 700 they were called
+after the name of their founder; between 700 and 1000 they were
+generally dedicated to the archangel Michael--there are several
+Llanvihangels {1} in Wales; after 1000 new churches were dedicated to
+Mary, the Mother of Christ--we have many Llanvairs. {2}
+
+Times of civil strife, or of popular indifference, came over and over
+again; and the old paganism tried to reassert itself.  And time after
+time the name of Christ was sounded again by men who thought they had
+seen Him.  In the twelfth century the Cistercian monk came to say
+that the world was bad, that prayer saved the soul, and that labour
+was noble. {3}  He was followed by the Franciscan friar, who said
+that deeds of mercy and love should be added to prayer, that Christ
+had been a poor man, and that men should help each other, not only in
+saving souls, but in healing sickness and relieving pain.  In the
+fifteenth century the Lollard came to say that the Church was too
+rich, and that it had become blind to the truth, and Walter Brute
+said that men were to be justified by faith in Christ, not by the
+worship of images or by the merit of saints.  In the sixteenth
+century came the Protestant, and the sway of Rome over Wales came to
+an end; Bishop Morgan translated the Bible into Welsh, and John Penry
+yearned for the preaching of the Gospel in Wales.  The Jesuit
+followed, calling himself by the name of Jesus, to try to win the
+country back again to Rome.  Robert Jones toiled and schemed, and
+some laid down their lives.  The Puritan came in the seventeenth
+century to demand simple worship, and Morgan Lloyd thought that the
+second advent of Christ was at hand.  The Revivalist came in the
+eighteenth century, and, in the name of Christ, aroused the people of
+Wales to a new life of thought.
+
+After all this, you will be surprised to learn that many of the old
+gods still remain in Wales, and much of the old pagan worship.  Who
+drops a pin into a sacred well, or leaves a tiny rag on a bush close
+by, and then wishes for something?  A young maiden in the twentieth
+century, who sacrifices to a well heathen god.  Until quite recently
+men thought that Ffynnon Gybi, and Ffynnon Elian, and Ffynnon
+Ddwynwen, had in them a power which could curse and bless, ruin and
+save.
+
+Lud of the Silver Hand was the god of flocks and ships.  His caves
+are in Dyved still, and his was the temple on Ludgate Hill in London.
+Merlin was a god of knowledge; he could foretell events.  Ceridwen
+was the goddess of wisdom; she distilled wisdom-giving drops in a
+cauldron.  Gwydion created a beautiful girl from flowers, "from red
+rose, and yellow broom, and white anemony."  I am not quite sure what
+Coil did, but I have heard children singing the history of "old King
+Cole."  Olwen also walked through Wales in heathen times, and it is
+said that three white flowers rose behind her wherever she had put
+her foot.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V--THE WELSH KINGS
+
+
+
+The spirit of Rome remained, though Rome itself had fallen.  And
+Welsh kings rose to take the place of the Roman ruler, trying to
+force the tribes of Wales--of different races and tongues--to become
+one people.
+
+The chief Roman ruler, at any rate during the later wars against the
+invaders, was called Dux Britanniae, "the ruler of Britain."  It
+became the aim of the ablest kings to restore the power of this
+officer, and to carry on his work, to rule and defend a united
+country.  And I will tell you briefly how the kings ruled and
+defended Wales for more than five hundred years--how Maelgwn tried to
+unite it, how Rhodri tried to prevent the attacks of Saxon and Dane,
+how Howel gave it laws, and how Griffith tried to defend it against
+England.
+
+Between 400 and 450 Rome left Wales to look after itself.  An able
+family, called the House of Cunedda, took the power of the Dux
+Britanniae, and they translated the title into Gwledig--"the ruler of
+a gwlad (country)."  Of this family Maelgwn Gwynedd is the most
+famous.  It was his work to try to unite all the smaller kings or
+chiefs of Wales under his own power as "the island dragon."  It was a
+difficult thing to persuade them; they all wanted to be independent.
+A legend shows that Maelgwn tried guile as well as force.  The kings
+met him at Aberdovey, and they all sat in their royal chairs on the
+sands.  And Maelgwn said:  "Let him be king over all who can sit
+longest on his chair as the tide comes in."  But he had made his own
+chair of birds' wings, and it floated erect when all the other chairs
+had been thrown down.  Before Maelgwn died of the yellow plague in
+547, his strong arm had made Wales one united country, and had made
+every corner of it Christian.
+
+The new wave of nations, coming on as surely as the tide, began to
+beat against Wales.  The Picts came from the northern parts of
+Britain, and Teutonic tribes swarmed across the eastern sea.  The
+Angles came to the Humber, and spread over the plains of the north
+and the midlands of Roman Britain; the Saxons came to the Thames, and
+won the plains and the downs of the south-east.  In 577 the Saxons,
+after the battle of Deorham, pierced to the western sea at the mouth
+of the Severn; they crept up along the valley of the Severn, burning
+the great Roman towns.  Before they reached Chester and the Dee,
+however, they were defeated at the battle of Fethanlea in 584.  But
+the Angles soon appeared, from the north; and after their victory at
+Chester in 613, they won the plains right to the Irish Sea.
+
+Wales was now surrounded on the land side by a people who spoke
+strange languages, and who worshipped different gods, for the Angles
+and the Saxons were heathens.  From the sea also it was open to
+attack.  Sometimes the Irish came.  But the most feared of all were
+the Danes, whose sudden appearance and quick movements and desperate
+onslaughts were the terror of the age.  The "black Danes" came from
+the fords of Norway, the "white Danes" from the plains of Sweden and
+Denmark.  The Danes settled on the south coast:  Tenby is a Danish
+name.  Offa, the king of the Mercian Angles, took the rich lands
+between the Severn and the Wye; but Offa's Dyke (Clawdd Offa) is
+probably the work of some earlier people whose history has been lost.
+It was only by incessant fighting that the enemy could be kept at
+bay.
+
+Of all the kings who tried to defend his country against the enemies
+which now stood round it, the greatest is Rhodri, called Rhodri Mawr-
+-"the Great."  From 844 to 877, by battles on sea and land, he broke
+the spell of Danish and Saxon victories; and his might and wisdom
+enabled him to lead his country in those dark days.  Like Alfred of
+Wessex, who lived at the same time and faced the same task, he
+stemmed the torrent of Danish invasion and beat the sea-rovers on
+their own element.  Like Alfred, he left warlike children and
+grandchildren.  One of the grandsons was Howel the Good, who put the
+laws of Wales down in a book.
+
+Wales and England were now, both of them in their own way, trying to
+become one country.  It was seen by many that strength and peace were
+better than division and war.  In England, the Earls of Mercia and
+Wessex tried to rise into supreme power.  In Wales Llywelyn ab
+Seisyll, victorious in many battles and wishing for peace, made the
+country rich and happy.  Still, when he died in 1022, the princes
+said they would not obey another over-king.
+
+But the long ships full of Danes came again; the Angles crossed the
+Severn:  war and misery took the place of peace and plenty.
+Griffith, the son of Llywelyn, came to renew his father's work.  In
+the battle of Rhyd y Groes on the Severn, in 1039, he drove the
+Mercians back; in the battle of Pencader, in 1041, he crushed the
+opponents of Welsh unity; in 1044 he defeated the sea-rovers at Aber
+Towy.  At the same time Harold, Earl of Wessex, was making himself
+king of England.  A war broke out between Griffith and Harold; and,
+during it, in 1063, the great Welsh king--"the head and the shield of
+the Britons"--was slain by traitors.
+
+So far I have told you about a few, only the greatest, kings of the
+House of Cunedda.  I know that you are wondering where Arthur comes
+in.  I am not quite sure that Arthur ever really lived, except in the
+mind of many ages.  He is the spirit of Roman rule, the true Dux
+Britanniae, and he has all the greatness and ability of all the race
+of Cunedda.  I have been shown mountains under which he sleeps, with
+his knights around him, waiting for the time when his country is to
+be delivered.  Let us hope that what Arthur represents--courage and
+wisdom, love of country and love of right--lives in the hearts of his
+people.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI--THE LAWS OF HOWEL
+
+
+
+The two ideas which ruled Wales were--the love of order and the love
+of independence.  The danger of the first is oppression; the dangers
+of the other are anarchy and weakness.  Wales was sometimes united,
+under a Maelgwn or a Rhodri, and the princes obeyed them; oftener,
+perhaps, the princes of the various parts ruled in their own way.
+
+The internal life of Wales is best seen in the laws of Howel the
+Good.  Howel was the grandson of Rhodri; and, about 950, he called
+four men from each district to Hendy Gwyn (Whitland) to state the
+laws of the country.  Twelve of the wisest put the law together; and
+the most learned scribe in Wales wrote it.
+
+It was thought that there should be one king over the whole people,
+but it was very rarely that every part of Wales obeyed one king.  The
+country was divided into smaller kingdoms.  In many ways Gwynedd was
+the most powerful.  It was very easy to defend; for it was made up of
+the island of Mon (Anglesey), the promontory of Lleyn, and the
+mountain mass of Snowdon.  Its steep side was thus towards England,
+and its cornlands and pastures on the further side.  It was also the
+home of the family of Cunedda, from Maelgwn to the last Llywelyn.
+
+Powys was the Berwyn country.  Ceredigion was the western slope of
+the Plinlimmon range; the eastern slopes had many smaller, but very
+warlike, districts.  Deheubarth contained the pleasant glades and
+great forests of the Towy country.  Dyved was the peninsula to the
+west; the southern slopes of the Beacons were Morgannwg and Gwent.
+
+Howel the Good found that the laws of the various parts differed in
+details, and he gave different versions to the north, the south-west,
+and the south-east.  But the law and life of the whole people, if we
+only look at important features, are one.  Several commotes made a
+cantrev, many cantrevs made a kingdom, many kingdoms made Wales.
+
+In each commote there were two kinds of people--the free or high-
+born, and the low-born or serfs.  These may have been the conquering
+Celt and the conquered Iberian.  It was very difficult for those in
+the lower class to rise to the higher; but, after passing through the
+storms of a thousand years, the old dark line of separation was quite
+lost sight of.
+
+The free family lived in a great house--in the hendre ("old
+homestead") in winter, and in the mountain havoty ("summer house") in
+summer.  The sides of the house were made of giant forest trees,
+their boughs meeting at the top and supporting the roof tree.  The
+fire burnt in the middle of the hall.  Round the walls the family
+beds were arranged.  The family was governed by the head of the
+household (penteulu), whose word was law.
+
+The highest family in the land was that of the king.  In his hall all
+took their own places, his chief of the household, his priest, his
+steward, his falconer, his judge, his bard, his chief huntsman, his
+mediciner, and others.  The chief royal residences were Aberffraw in
+Mon, Mathraval in Powys, and Dynevor in Deheubarth.
+
+Old Welsh law was very unlike the law we obey now.  I cannot tell you
+much about it in a short book like this, but it is worth noticing
+that it was very humane.  We do not get in it the savage and
+vindictive punishments we get in some laws.  I give you some extracts
+from the old laws of the Welsh.
+
+The king was to be honoured.  According to the laws of Gwynedd, if
+any one did violence in his presence he had to pay a great fine--a
+hundred cows, and a white bull with red ears, for every cantrev the
+king ruled; a rod of gold as long as the king himself, and as thick
+as his little finger; and a plate of gold, as broad as the king's
+face, and as thick as a ploughman's nail.
+
+The judge, whether of the king's court or of the courts of his
+subjects, was to be learned, just, and wise.  Thus, according to the
+laws of Dyved, was an inexperienced judge to be prepared for his
+great office; he was to remain in the court in the king's company, to
+listen to the pleas of judges who came from the country, to learn the
+laws and customs that were in force, especially the three main
+divisions of law, and the value of all tame animals, and of all wild
+beasts and birds that were of use to men.  He was to listen
+especially to the difficult cases that were brought to the court, to
+be solved by the wisdom of the king.  When he had lived thus for a
+year, he was to be brought to the church by the chaplain; and there,
+over the relics and before the altar, he swore, in the presence of
+the great officers of the king's court, that he would never knowingly
+do injustice, for money or love or hate.  He is then brought to the
+king, and the officers tell the king that he has taken the solemn
+oath.  Then the king accepts him as a judge, and gives him his place.
+When he leaves, the king gives him a golden chessboard, and the queen
+gold rings, and these he is never to part with.
+
+I will tell you about one other officer--the falconer.  Falconry was
+the favourite pastime of the kings and nobles of the time; indeed,
+everybody found it very exciting to watch the long struggle in the
+air between the trained falcon and its prey, as each bird tried every
+skill of wing and talon that it knew.  The falconer was to drink very
+sparingly in the king's hall, for fear the falcons might suffer; and
+his lodging was to be in the king's barn, not in the king's hall,
+lest the smoke from the great fire-place should dim the falcon's
+sight.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII--THE NORMANS
+
+
+
+On the death of Griffith ap Llywelyn, many princes tried to become
+supreme.  Bleddyn of Powys, a good and merciful prince, became the
+most important.
+
+In January 1070, when the snow lay thick on the mountains, William,
+the Norman Conqueror, appeared at Chester with an army.  He had
+defeated and killed Harold, the conqueror of Griffith ap Llywelyn, in
+1066; he had crushed the power of the Mercian allies of Bleddyn; he
+had struck terror into the wild north, and England lay at his feet.
+
+He turned back from Chester, but he placed on the borders a number of
+barons who were to conquer Wales, as he had conquered England.  They
+had a measure of his ability, of his energy, and of his ambition.
+
+The two great Norman traits were wisdom and courage; but the one was
+often mere cunning, and the other brutal ferocity.  But no one like
+the Norman had yet appeared in Wales--no one with a vision so clear,
+or with so hard a grip.  A hard, worldly, tenacious, calculating race
+they were; and they turned their faces resolutely towards Wales.
+
+From England, Wales can be entered and attacked along three valleys--
+along the Dee, the Severn, and the Wye.  At Chester, Hugh of
+Avranches, called "The Wolf," placed himself.  From its walls he
+could look over and covet the Welsh hills, as he could have looked
+over the Breton hills from Avranches.  He loved war and the chase:
+he despised industry, he cared not for religion; he was a man of
+strong passions, but he was generous, and he respected worth of
+character.  One of his followers, Robert, had all his vices and few
+of his virtues.  It was he who extended the dominions of the Earl of
+Chester along the north coast to the Clwyd, where he built a castle
+at Rhuddlan; and thence on to the valley of the Conway, where he
+built a castle at Deganwy.  The cruelty of Robert shocked even the
+Normans of his time.  He even set foot in Anglesey, which looked
+temptingly near from Deganwy, and built a castle at Aberlleiniog.
+
+At Shrewsbury, where the Severn, after leaving the mountains of
+Wales, turns to the south, Roger of Montgomery was placed, with his
+wife Mabel, an energetic little woman, hated and feared by all.
+Roger himself, while ever ready to fight, preferred to get what he
+wanted by persuasion; he was not less cruel than Hugh of Chester, but
+he was less fond of war.  He and his sons pushed their way up the
+Severn, and built a castle at Montgomery.
+
+To Hereford, on the Wye, William Fitz-Osbern came.  He was the
+ablest, perhaps, of all the followers of the Conqueror.  He entered
+Wales; he saw it from the Wye to the sea, and he thought it was not
+large enough, and that it was too far from the political life of the
+time.  So he went back to Normandy, but he left his sons William and
+Roger behind him.  William had his father's wisdom.  Roger had his
+father's recklessness in action; he rebelled against his own king,
+and found himself in prison.  The king sent him, on the day of
+Christ's Passion, a robe of silk and rarest ermine.  The caged baron
+made a roaring fire, and cast the robe into it.  "By the light of
+God," said William the Conqueror, for that was his wicked oath, "he
+shall never leave his prison."
+
+But another Norman, Bernard of Neufmarche, came to take his place.
+He built his castle at Brecon, and defeated and killed Rees, the King
+of Deheubarth; and, with great energy, he took possession of the
+upper valleys of the Wye and the Usk.
+
+Further south William the Conqueror himself came to Cardiff, and
+possibly built a castle.  The Norman conquest of the south coast of
+Wales was exceedingly rapid, and castle after castle rose to mark the
+new victorious advances--Coety, Cenfig, Neath, Kidwelly, Pembroke,
+Newport, Cilgeran.
+
+So far, the Norman advance has been a most quick one.  In less than
+twenty-five years from the appearance of the Conqueror at Chester,
+the whole country had been overrun except the mountains of Gwynedd
+and the forests of the Deheubarth.  This success is easily explained.
+
+For one thing, the Normans had trained, professional soldiers, who
+were well horsed and well armed.  In a pitched battle the hastily
+collected Welsh levies, unused to regular battle and very lightly
+armed, had no chance.
+
+Again, the Norman never receded.  He was willing to stop
+occasionally, in order to bide his time; but he clung tenaciously to
+every mile he had won.  His skill as a castle builder was as striking
+as his prowess in battle or his cautious wisdom in council.  He took
+possession of an old fortified post, or hastily constructed one of
+turf and timber; but he soon turned it into a castle of stone.  At
+that time the Welsh had no knowledge of sieges; and their impetuous
+valour was of no use against the new castles.
+
+Again, the Welsh opposition was not only not organised, but weakened
+by internal strife.  While the Norman was winning valley after
+valley, the Welsh princes were trying to decide by the issue of
+battle who was to be chief.  Bleddyn was slain in 1075; and his
+nephews and cousins tried to rule the country.  Among these,
+Trahaiarn was a soldier of ability and energy, and a ruler of real
+genius.  But he was the rival of the exiled princes of the House of
+Cunedda, and he found it difficult to bend Snowdon and the Vale of
+Towy to his will.  Two of the exiles met him, probably near some of
+the cairns in the valley of the Teivy; and there, in the battle of
+Mynydd Carn, fiercely fought through the dusk into a moonlight night
+in 1079, Trahaiarn fell.  It looked as if no leader could rise in
+Wales to fight a Norman army or to take a Norman castle.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII--GRIFFITH AP CONAN AND GRIFFITH AP REES
+
+
+
+In the battle of Mynydd Carn, a young chief led the shining shields
+of the men of Gwynedd.  He was Griffith, the son of a prince of the
+line of Cunedda and of a sea-rover's daughter.  He was mighty of
+limb, fair and straight to see, with the blue eyes and flaxen hair of
+the ruling Celt.  In battle, he was full of fury and passion; in
+peace, he was just and wise.  His people saw at first that he could
+fight a battle; then they found he could rule a country.  And it was
+he that was to say to the Norman:  "Thus far shalt thou come, and no
+further."
+
+When Bleddyn died in 1075, Griffith came to Gwynedd, and found that
+his father's lands were under new rulers.  Robert of Rhuddlan and
+Trahaiarn of Arwystli were mighty foes; but Griffith drove both of
+them back; and, by his prowess and success in battle, broke the spell
+of conquest which kept Gwynedd in bonds.  But his enemies attacked
+him again from all sides; and, while Hugh the Wolf and Robert of
+Rhuddlan were laying Gwynedd waste, Trahaiarn and Griffith met at the
+hard-fought battle of Bron yr Erw.  Griffith lost the day, and again
+became a sea-rover.  He sailed to Dyved, and there he met Rees, the
+King of Deheubarth, who also was of the line of Cunedda, and had been
+driven from his land by the Normans.  The two chiefs joined, and they
+crushed Trahaiarn at Mynydd Carn.  Then they turned against the
+Normans.
+
+Rees soon fell in battle, and left two children, Nest and Griffith.
+The beauty of Nest and the genius of Rees ap Griffith fill an
+important page in the history of their country.  Nest became the
+mother of the conquerors of Ireland; Rees became the greatest of all
+the kings of South Wales.
+
+The Normans found that the Welsh had taken heart.  Of their
+opponents, they feared three:  Griffith ap Conan, Owen of Powys, and
+Griffith ap Rees.  The kings of England, the two sons of the
+Conqueror--red, brutal William and cool, treacherous Henry--had to
+come to help their barons.
+
+Griffith ap Conan had a long life of strife and success.  In his
+struggle with Hugh the Wolf, he was once in The Wolf's prison, and
+more than once he had to flee to the sea.  But, backed up by the
+liberty-loving sons of Snowdon and by his sea-roving kinsmen, he made
+Gwynedd strong and prosperous.  He drove the Normans from Anglesey;
+he attacked and killed Robert of Rhuddlan; he saw the red King of
+England himself forced by storm and rain to beat a retreat from
+Snowdon.  He was loved by his people during his youth of adventure
+and battle, and during his old age of safe counsel and love of peace.
+His wife Angharad and his son Owen live with him in the memory of his
+country.  When he died, in 1137, it was said that he had saved his
+people, had ruled them justly, and had given them peace.
+
+In the Severn country the princes of Powys were fighting against the
+Normans also, especially against the family of Montgomery.  The sons
+of Bleddyn--Cadogan, Iorwerth, and Meredith--were driving the
+invaders from the valley of the Severn, and from Dyved, defeating
+their armies in battle, and storming their castles.  Sometimes they
+would make alliances with them, and defy the King of England.  But it
+is difficult to follow each of them.  The history of one of them,
+Owen ap Cadogan, is like a romance.  He was brave and handsome, in
+love with Nest, and a very firebrand in politics.  The army of Henry
+I. was too strong for him, and he had to submit.  He then became the
+friend of the King of England.  It was the aim of the princes of
+Powys to be free, not only from the Norman, but also from Griffith of
+Gwynedd and Griffith of Deheubarth.  They were an able and versatile
+family; noble and base deeds, revolting crimes and sweet poems, come
+in the stirring story of their lives.
+
+What Griffith did in the north, and the sons of Bleddyn in the east,
+Griffith ap Rees did in the south; he showed that the Norman army
+could be beaten in battle, and that a Norman castle could be taken by
+assault.  After his father's death he spent much of his youth in
+exile or in hiding:  sometimes we find him in Ireland, sometimes in
+the court of Griffith ap Conan, sometimes with his sister Nest--now
+the wife of Gerald, the custodian of Pembroke Castle.  But he had one
+aim ever before him--to recover his father's kingdom and to make his
+people free.  Castle after castle rose--at Swansea, Carmarthen,
+Llandovery, Cenarth, Aberystwyth--to warn him that the hold of the
+Norman on the land was tightening.  He came to the forests of the
+Towy; his people rallied round him, and his power extended from the
+Towy to the Teivy, and from the Teivy to the Dovey.  His wife, the
+heroic Gwenllian--who died leading her husband's army against the
+Normans--was Griffith ap Conan's daughter.  The great final battle
+between Griffith and the Normans was fought at Cardigan in 1136, in
+which the great prince won a memorable victory over the strongest
+army the Normans could put in the field.  In 1137 he died, and they
+said of him that he had shown his people what they ought to do, and
+that he had given them strength to do it.
+
+The work of Griffith ap Conan and Griffith ap Rees was this:  they
+set bounds to the Norman Conquest, and saved Deheubarth and Gwynedd
+from the stern rule of the alien.  But, though the Norman was not
+allowed to bring his stone castle and cruel law, what good he brought
+with him was welcomed.  The piety of the Norman, his intellectual
+curiosity, and his spirit of adventure, conquered in Welsh districts
+where his coat of mail and his castle were not seen.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX--OWEN GWYNEDD AND THE LORD REES
+
+
+
+The men who opposed the Normans left able successors--Owen Gwynedd
+followed his father, Griffith ap Conan; the Lord Rees followed his
+father Griffith ap Rees; and in Powys the sons of Bleddyn were
+followed by the castle builder Howel, and by the poet Owen Cyveiliog.
+
+Owen Gwynedd ruled from 1137 to 1169; the Lord Rees from 1137 to
+1197.  The age was, in many respects, a great one.
+
+It was, of course, an age of war.  Up to 1154, during the reign of
+Stephen, the English barons were fighting against each other, and the
+king had very little power over them.  The most important Norman
+barons in Wales were the Earls of Chester in the valley of the Dee,
+the Mortimers on the upper Wye, the Braoses on the upper Usk, and the
+Clares in the south.  Their castles were a continual menace to the
+country they had so far failed to conquer, and the Lord Rees was glad
+to get Kidwelly, and Owen Gwynedd to get Mold and Rhuddlan.
+
+It was, on the whole, an age of unity.  It was the chief aim of Owen
+Gwynedd to be the ally of the Lord Rees; and in this he succeeded,
+though his brother Cadwaladr, in his desire for Ceredigion, had
+killed Rees' brother, to Owen's infinite sorrow.  The princes of
+Powys, Madoc and Owen Cyveiliog, were in the same alliance also, and
+they were helped in their struggle with the Normans.  Unity was never
+more necessary.  Henry II. brought great armies into Wales.  Once he
+came along the north coast to Rhuddlan.  At another time he tried to
+cross the Berwyn, but was beaten back by great storms.  Had he
+reached the upper Dee, he would have found the united forces of the
+Lord Rees, Owen Cyveiliog, and Owen Gwynedd at Corwen.  There are
+many stirring episodes in these wars:  the fight at Consilt, when
+Henry II. nearly lost his life; the scattering of his tents on the
+Berwyn by a storm that seemed to be the fury of fiends; the reckless
+exposure of life in storming a wall or in the shock of battle.  But
+the Norman brought new cruelty into war:  Henry II. took out the eyes
+of young children because their fathers had revolted against him; and
+William de Braose invited a great number of Welsh chiefs to a feast
+in his castle at Abergavenny, and there murdered them all.
+
+It is a relief to turn to another feature of the age:  it was an age
+of great men.  Owen Gwynedd was probably the greatest.  He disliked
+war, but he was an able general; he made Henry II. retire without
+great loss of life to his own army.  He was a thoughtful prince, of a
+loving nature and high ideals, and his court was the home of piety
+and culture.  He is more like our own ideal of a prince than any of
+the other princes of the Middle Ages.  The Lord Rees was not less
+wise, and his life is less sorrowful and more brilliant.  He also was
+as great as a statesman as he was as a general; and he made his peace
+with the English king in order to make his country quiet and rich.
+Owen Cyveiliog was placed in a more difficult position than either of
+his allies; he was nearer to very ambitious Norman barons.  He was
+great as a warrior; often had his white steed been seen leading the
+rush of battle.  He was greater as a statesman:  friend and foe said
+that Owen was wise; and he was greater still as a poet.
+
+The age was an age of poetry.  A generation of great Welsh poets
+found an equal welcome in the courts of Gwynedd, Powys, and
+Deheubarth; and even the Norman barons of Morgannwg began to feel the
+charm of Welsh legend and song; Robert of Gloucester was a great
+patron of learning.  One of the chief events of the period was Lord
+Rees' great Eisteddvod at Cardigan in 1176.
+
+It was an age of new ideals.  The Crusades were preached in Wales;
+the grave of Christ was held by a cruel unbeliever, and it was the
+duty of a soldier to rescue it.  It appealed to an inborn love of
+war, and many Welshmen were willing to go.  It did good by teaching
+them that, in fighting, they were not to fight for themselves.  It
+was in Powys that feuds were most bitter.  A young warrior told a
+preacher, who was trying to persuade him to take the cross:  "I will
+not go until, with this lance, I shall have avenged my lord's death."
+The lance immediately became shivered in his hand.  The lance once
+used for blind feuds was gradually consecrated to the service of
+ideals--of patriotism or of religion.
+
+The age of Owen Gwynedd and the Lord Rees and Owen Cyveiliog brought
+a higher ideal still.  If the Crusader made war sacred, the monk made
+labour noble.  The chief aim of the monk, it is true, was to save his
+soul.  He thought the world was very bad, as indeed it was; and he
+thought he could best save his own soul by retiring to some remote
+spot, to live a life of prayer.  But he also lived a life of labour;
+he became the best gardener, the best farmer, and the best shepherd
+of the Middle Ages.  Great monasteries were built for him, and great
+tracts of land were given him, by those who were anxious that he
+should pray for their souls.  The monk who came to Wales was the
+Cistercian.  The monasteries of Tintern, Margam, and Neath were built
+by Norman barons; and Strata Florida, Valle Crucis, and Basingwerk
+showed that the Welsh princes also welcomed the monks.
+
+Better, then, than the brilliant wars were the poets and the great
+Eisteddvod.  Better still, perhaps, were the orchards and the flocks
+of the peaceful monks.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X--LLYWELYN THE GREAT
+
+
+
+On the death of the Lord Rees, one of the grandsons of Owen Gwynedd
+becomes the central figure in Welsh history.  Llywelyn the Great rose
+into power in 1194, and reigned until 1240--a long reign, and in many
+ways the most important of all the reigns of the Welsh princes.
+
+Llywelyn's first task was to become sole ruler in Gwynedd.  The sons
+of Owen Gwynedd had divided the strong Gwynedd left them by their
+father, and their nobles and priests could not decide which of the
+sons was to be supreme.  Iorwerth, the poet Howel, David, Maelgwn,
+Rhodri, tried to get Gwynedd, or portions of it.  Eventually, David
+I. became king; but soon a strong opposition placed Llywelyn, the
+able son of Iorwerth, on the throne.  Uncles and cousins showed some
+jealousy; but the growing power of Llywelyn soon made them obey him
+with gradually diminishing envy.
+
+His next task was to attach the other princes of Wales to him, now
+that the Lord Rees and Owen Cyveiliog were dead.  To begin with, he
+had to deal with the astute Gwenwynwyn, the son of Owen Cyveiliog;
+and he had to be forced to submit.  He then turned to the many sons
+and grandsons of the Lord Rees--Maelgwn and Rees the Hoarse
+especially.  They called John, King of England, into Wales; but they
+soon found that Llywelyn was a better master than John and his
+barons.  Gradually Llywelyn established a council of chiefs--partly a
+board of conciliation, and partly an executive body.  It was nothing
+new; but it was a striking picture of the way in which Llywelyn meant
+to join the princes into one organised political body.
+
+His third task was to begin to unite Norman barons and Welsh chiefs
+under his own rule.  He had to begin in the old way, by using force;
+and Ranulph of Chester and the Clares trembled for the safety of
+their castles.  He then offered political alliance; and some of the
+Norman families of the greatest importance in the reign of John--the
+Earl of Chester, the family of Braose, and the Marshalls of Pembroke-
+-became his allies.  His other step was to unite Welsh and Norman
+families by marriage.  He himself married a daughter of King John,
+and he gave his own daughters in marriage to a Braose and a Mortimer.
+It is through the dark-haired Gladys, who married Ralph Mortimer,
+that the kings of England can trace their descent from the House of
+Cunedda.
+
+Llywelyn's last great task was to make relations between England and
+Wales relations of peace and amity.  During his long reign, he saw
+three kings on the throne of England--the crusader Richard, the able
+John, and the worthless and mean Henry III.  It was with John that he
+had most to do, the king whose originality and vices have puzzled and
+shocked so many historians.  John helped him to crush Gwenwynwyn,
+then helped the jealous Welsh princes to check the growth of his
+power.  Llywelyn saw that it was his policy, as long as John was
+alive, to join the English barons.  They were then trying to force
+Magna Carta upon the King, that great document which prevented John
+from interfering with the privileges of his barons.  In that document
+John promises, in three clauses, that he will observe the rights of
+Welshmen and the law of Wales.
+
+When John died in 1216, and his young son Henry succeeded him, the
+policy of England was guided by William Marshall Earl of Pembroke.
+William Marshall was one of the ministers of Henry II., and by his
+marriage with the daughter of Strongbow, the conqueror of Ireland, he
+had become Earl of Pembroke.  It was with him that Llywelyn had now
+to deal.  He was too strong in Pembroke to be attacked, but his very
+presence made it easier for Llywelyn to retain the allegiance of the
+chiefs who would have been in danger from the Norman barons if
+Llywelyn's protection were taken away.  In 1219 the great William
+Marshall died; and changes in English politics forced his sons into
+an alliance with Llywelyn.
+
+Llywelyn's title of Great is given him by his Norman and English
+contemporaries.  He was great as a general; his detection of trouble
+before the storm broke, his instant determination and rapidity of
+movements, his ever-ready munitions for battle and siege, made his
+later campaigns always successful.  He felt that he was carrying on
+war in his own country; so his wars were not wars of devastation, but
+the crushing of armies and the razing of castles.
+
+He took an interest in the three great agents in the civilisation of
+the time--the bard, the monk, and the friar.  The bard was as welcome
+as ever at his court; the monk, welcomed by Owen Gwynedd before, was
+given another home at Aber Conway.  Llywelyn extended his welcome to
+the friar, and he was given a home at Llan Vaes in Anglesey, on the
+shores of the Menai.  The friar brought a higher ideal than that of
+the monk; his aim was salvation, not by prayer in the solitude of a
+mountain glen, but by service where men were thickest together--even
+in streets made foul by vice, and haunted by leprosy.  Of the
+Mendicant Orders, the Franciscans were the best known in Wales; and,
+of all Orders of that day, it was they who sympathised most deeply
+with the sorrows of men.  And it was this which, a little later on,
+brought them so much into politics.
+
+Great and successful in war and policy, in touch with the noblest
+influences in the life of the time, Llywelyn applied himself to one
+last task.  His companions and allies had nearly all died before him;
+but he wished that the peace and unity, which they had established,
+should live after them.  He had two sons--Griffith, who was the
+champion of independence; and David, who wished for peace with
+England.  Llywelyn laid more stress on strong government at home than
+on the repudiation of feudal allegiance to the King of England.  So
+he persuaded the council of princes at Strata Florida to accept David
+as his successor.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI--THE LAST LLYWELYN
+
+
+
+David II., a mild and well-meaning prince, was too weak to carry his
+father's policy out.  He tried to maintain peace, and did homage to
+his uncle, the King of England.  But, as the head of the patriotic
+party, his more energetic brother, Griffith, opposed him.  By guile
+he caught Griffith, and shut him in a castle on the rock of
+Criccieth.  The other princes shook off the yoke of Gwynedd, and
+Henry III. tried to play the brothers against each other.  David sent
+Griffith to Henry, who put him in the Tower of London.  In trying to
+escape, his rope broke, and he fell to the ground dead.  Soon
+afterwards, in 1246, in the middle of a war with Henry, David died of
+a broken heart.
+
+The sons of Griffith--Owen, Llywelyn, and David--at once took their
+uncle's place; and by 1255 Llywelyn ap Griffith was sole ruler.  By
+that year Henry III. had given his young son Edward the earldom of
+Chester, which had fallen to the crown, and the lands between the Dee
+and the Conway, which he claimed by a treaty with the dead Griffith.
+Thus Edward and Llywelyn began their long struggle.
+
+Between 1255 and 1267 Llywelyn tries to recover his grandfather's
+position in Wales.  In 1255 his power extended over Gwynedd only.  He
+found it easy to extend it over most of Wales, because the rule of
+the English officials made the Welsh chiefs long for the protection
+of Gwynedd.  The Barons' War paralysed the power of the King, and
+Llywelyn made an alliance with Simon de Montfort and the barons.
+Even after Montfort's fall in 1265 the barons were so powerful that
+the King was still at their mercy.  In 1267 Llywelyn's position as
+Prince of Wales was recognised in the Treaty of Montgomery.  His sway
+extended from Snowdon to the Dee on the east, and to the Teivy and
+the Beacons on the south--practically the whole of modern Wales,
+except the southern seaboard.  Within these wide bounds all the Welsh
+barons were to swear fealty to Llywelyn, the only exception being
+Meredith ap Rees of Deheubarth.
+
+The second struggle of Llywelyn's reign took place between 1267 and
+1277.  He tried to weld his land into a closer union, and many of the
+chiefs of the south and east became willing to call in the English
+King.  Two of them, his own brother David and Griffith of Powys, fled
+to England, and were received by Edward, who had been king since
+1272.  Llywelyn and Edward distrusted each other.  Edward wished to
+unite Britain in a feudal unity, and to crush all opponents.
+Llywelyn thought of helping the barons; he might become their leader.
+Eleanor, the daughter of Simon de Montfort, the old leader of the
+barons, was betrothed to him.  War broke out.  The barons--Clares and
+Mortimers, and all--joined the King.  Llywelyn's dominions were
+invaded at all points, his barons had to yield, one after the other;
+and finally, in 1277, Llywelyn had to accept the Treaty of Rhuddlan.
+His dominions shrunk to the old limits of Snowdon, his sway over the
+rest of Wales was taken from him, and the title of Prince of Wales
+was to cease with his life.
+
+The third struggle was between 1277 and 1282.  The rule of the new
+officials drove the Welsh to revolt; and the chiefs who had opposed
+Llywelyn, especially his brother David, begged for Llywelyn's
+protection.  Eleanor, Llywelyn's wife and Edward's cousin, tried to
+keep the peace, but she died while they were arming for the last
+bitter war of 1282.
+
+It was comparatively easy for Edward to overrun Powys or Deheubarth,
+if he had an army strong enough.  But at that time Gwynedd was almost
+impregnable.  From Conway to Harlech lies the vast mass of Snowdon, a
+great natural rampart running from sea to sea.  Its steep side is
+towards the east, and the invader found before him heights which he
+could not climb, and round which he could not pass.  If you stand in
+the Vale of Conway, look at the hills on the Arvon side--the great
+natural wall of inmost Gwynedd, with its last tower, the Penmaen
+Mawr, rising right from the sea.  The gentle slopes are to the west,
+and there the corn and flocks were safe.
+
+Edward had to put a large army into the field, and it cost him much.
+In the war with Llywelyn he had to change the English army entirely;
+and, in order to get money, he had to allow the Parliament to get
+life and power.  To carry supplies, and to land men in Anglesey to
+turn the flank of the Welsh, he wanted a fleet.  But there was no
+royal navy then, and the fishermen of the east coast and the south
+coast--who had no quarrel with the Welsh, but were very anxious to
+fight each other--were not willing to lose their fish harvest in
+order to fight so far away.
+
+In 1282, Edward's great army closed round Snowdon.  The chiefs still
+faithful to Llywelyn had to yield or flee.  But winter was coming on,
+and could Edward keep his army in the field?  An attempt had been
+made to enter Snowdon from Anglesey, but the English force was
+destroyed at Moel y Don.  It looked as if Edward would have to
+retire.  Llywelyn left Snowdon, and went to Ceredigion and the Vale
+of Towy to put new heart in his allies, and from there he passed on
+to the valley of the Wye.  He meant, without a doubt, to get the
+barons of the border, Welsh and English, to unite against Edward.
+But in some chance skirmish a soldier slew him, not knowing who he
+was.  When they heard that their Prince was fallen, his men in
+Snowdon entirely lost heart.  They had no faith in David, and in a
+few months the whole of Wales was at Edward's feet.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII--CONQUERED WALES
+
+
+
+The war between Edward and Llywelyn was not a war between England and
+Wales, as we think of these countries now.  Some of the best soldiers
+under Edward were Welsh, especially the bowmen who followed the Earl
+of Gloucester and Roger Mortimer from the Wye and Severn valleys.
+
+It is not right that we Welshmen should feel bitter against England,
+because, in this last war, Edward won and Llywelyn fell.  It is easy
+to say that Edward was cruel and faithless, and it is easy to say
+that Llywelyn was shifty and obstinate; but it is quite clear that
+each of them thought that he was right.  Edward thought that Britain
+ought to be united:  Llywelyn thought Wales ought to be free.  Now,
+happily, we have the union and the freedom.
+
+On the other hand, I should not like you to think that Wales was more
+barbarous than England, or Llywelyn less civilised than Edward I.
+Giraldus Cambrensis saw a prince going barefoot, and the fussy little
+Archbishop Peckham saw that Welsh marriage customs were not what he
+liked; and many historians, who have never read a line of Welsh
+poetry, take for granted that the conquest of Wales was a new victory
+for civilisation.
+
+In many ways Wales was more civilised than England at that time.  Its
+law was more simple and less developed, it is true; but it was more
+just in many cases, and certainly more humane.  Was it not better
+that the land should belong to the people, and that the youngest son
+should have the same chance as the eldest?  And, in crime, was it not
+better that if no opportunity for atonement was given, the death of
+the criminal was to be a merciful one?  In the reign of John, a Welsh
+hostage, a little boy of seven, was hanged at Shrewsbury, because his
+father, a South Wales chief, had rebelled.  In the reign of Edward
+I., the miserable David was dragged at the tails of horses through
+the streets of the same town, and the tortures inflicted on the dying
+man were too horrible to describe to modern ears.  And what the
+Norman baron did, his Welsh tenant learnt to do.  In Wales you get
+fierce frays and frequent shedding of blood; on the borders you get
+callous cruelty to a prisoner, or the disfiguring of dead bodies--
+even that of Simon de Montfort, the greatest statesman of the Middle
+Ages in England--on the battlefield when all passion was spent.
+
+Take the rulers of Wales again.  Griffith ap Conan and Llywelyn the
+Great had the energy and the foresight, though their sphere was so
+much smaller, of Henry II.  And what English king, except Alfred,
+attracts one on account of lovableness of character as Owen Gwynedd
+and Owen Cyveiliog and the Lord Rees do?
+
+When Edward entered into Snowdon, Welsh was spoken to the Dee and the
+Severn, and far beyond.  There were many dialects, as there are
+still, though any two Welshmen could understand each other wherever
+they came from, with a little patience, as they can still.  But there
+was also a literary language, and this was understood, if not spoken,
+by the chiefs all through the country.  It was more like the Welsh
+spoken in mid-Wales--especially in the valley of the Dovey--than any
+other.  There are many signs of civilisation; one of them is the
+possession of a literary language--for romance and poem, for court
+and Eisteddvod.
+
+
+Conquered Wales may be divided into two parts--the Wales conquered by
+the Norman barons and the Wales conquered by the English king.
+
+The Wales conquered by the English king was the country ruled by
+Llywelyn and his allies.  In 1284, by the statute of Rhuddlan, it was
+formed into six shires.  The Snowdon district--which held out last--
+was made into the three shires of Anglesey, Carnarvon, and Merioneth.
+The part of the land between Conway and Dee that belonged to the
+king, not to barons, was made into the shire of Flint.  The lands of
+Llywelyn's allies beyond the Dovey were made into the shires of
+Cardigan and Carmarthen.  Instead of the chiefs of the Welsh prince,
+the king's sheriffs and justices ruled the country.  But much of the
+old law remained.
+
+The Wales conquered by the Norman barons lay to the east and south of
+the Wales turned into shires in 1284.  It included the greater part
+of the valleys of the Clwyd, Dee, Severn, and Wye; and the South
+Wales coast from Gloucester to Pembroke.  It remained in the
+possession of lords who were subject to the King of England, but who
+ruled almost like kings in their own lordships.  The laws and customs
+of the various lordships differed greatly; sometimes the lord used
+English law, and sometimes Welsh law.  The great ruling families
+changed much in wealth and power, from century to century.  In
+Llywelyn's time the most important were the Clares (Gloucester and
+Glamorgan), the Mortimers (Wigmore and Chirk), Lacy (Denbigh),
+Warenne (Bromfield and Yale), Fitzalan (Oswestry), Bohun (Brecon),
+Braose (Gower), and Valence (Pembroke).
+
+Llywelyn was the last prince of independent Wales.  From that time
+on, the title is conferred by the King of England on his eldest son,
+who is then crowned.  The present Prince of Wales also comes, through
+a daughter of Llywelyn the Great, from the House of Cunedda, the
+princes of which ruled Wales from Roman times to 1284.  Of all the
+houses that have gone to make the royal house, this is the most
+ancient.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII--CASTLE AND LONG-BOW
+
+
+
+So far I have told you very little about war, except that a battle
+was fought and lost, or a castle built or taken.
+
+War has two sides--attack and defence.  New ways of attacking and
+defending are continually devised.  When the art of defence is more
+perfect than the art of attack, the world changes very little, for
+the strong can keep what he has gained.  When the art of attack is
+the more perfect, new men have a better chance, and many changes are
+made.  The chief source of defence was the castle, the chief weapon
+of attack was the long-bow.  Wales contains the most perfect castles
+in this country; it is also the home of the long-bow.  From 1066 to
+1284 England and Wales were conquered, and the conquest was permanent
+because castles were built.  From 1284 to 1461, England and Wales
+attacked other countries, and the weapon which gave them so many
+victories was the long-bow.
+
+I will tell you about the castles first, about the Norman castles and
+about the Edwardian castles.
+
+The Norman castle was a square keep, with walls of immense thickness,
+sometimes of 20 feet.  But if the Norman had to build on the top of a
+hill or on the ruins of an old castle, he did not try to make the new
+castle square, but allowed its walls to take the form of the hill or
+of the old castle; and this kind of castle was called a shell keep.
+The outer and inner casing of the wall would be of dressed stone, the
+middle part was chiefly rubble.  At first, if they had plenty of
+supplies, a very few men could hold a castle against an army as long
+as they liked.  These were the castles built by the Norman invaders
+to retain their hold over the Welsh districts they conquered.
+
+But many ways of storming a castle were discovered.  They could be
+scaled by means of tall ladders, especially in a stealthy night
+attack.  Stones could be thrown over the walls by mangonels to annoy
+the garrison.  Sometimes a wall could be brought down by a battering-
+ram.  But the quickest and surest way was by mining.  The miners
+worked their way to the wall, and then began to take some of the
+stones of the outer casing out, propping the wall up with beams of
+wood.  When the hole was big enough, they filled it with firewood;
+they greased the beams well, they set fire to them and then retired
+to a safe distance to see what happened.  When the great wall crashed
+down, the soldiers swarmed over it to beat down the resistance of the
+garrison.  If ever you go to Abergavenny Castle, in the Vale of Usk,
+look at the cleft in the rock along which the daring besiegers once
+climbed.  And if you go to the Vale of Towy, and see Dryslwyn Castle,
+remember that the wall once came down before the miners expected, and
+that many men were crushed.
+
+In order to prevent mining, many changes were made.  Moats were dug
+round the castle, and filled with water.  Brattices were made along
+the top of the towers, galleries through the floor of which the
+defenders could pour boiling pitch on the besiegers.  The walls were
+built at such angles that a window, with archers posted behind it,
+could command each wall.  Stronger towers were built--round towers
+with a coping at each storey, solid as a rock, which would crack and
+lean without falling; there is a leaning tower at Caerphilly Castle.
+One other way I must mention--the child or the wife of the castellan
+would be brought before the walls, and hanged before his eyes unless
+he opened the gates.
+
+The newer or Edwardian castles, those of the reigns of Henry III. and
+Edward I., are concentric--that is, there are several castles in one;
+so that the besiegers, when they had taken one castle, found
+themselves face to face with another, still stronger, perhaps, inside
+it.  Of these castles, the most elaborate is the castle of
+Caerphilly, built by Gilbert de Clare, the Red Earl of Gloucester who
+helped Edward in the Welsh wars.  And it was by means of these
+magnificent concentric castles--Conway, Beaumaris, Carnarvon, and
+Harlech--that Edward hoped to keep Wales.
+
+There are many kinds of bows.  In war two were used--the cross-bow
+and the long-bow.  The cross-bow was meant at first for the defence
+of towns, like Genoa or the towns of Castile.  So strength was more
+important than lightness, and the archer had time to take aim.  It
+was a bow on a cross piece of wood, along which the string was drawn
+back peg after peg by mechanism.  The bow was then held to the
+breast, and the arrow let off.  It was clumsy, heavy, and expensive.
+
+The long-bow was only one piece of sinewy yew, and a string.  It was
+used at first for the chase, and the archer had to take instant aim.
+It was drawn to the ear, and it was a most deadly weapon when a
+strong arm had been trained to draw it.  Its arrow could pick off a
+soldier at the top of the highest castle; it could pierce through an
+oak door three fingers thick; it could pin a mail-clad knight to his
+horse.  It was this peasant weapon that brought the mailed knight
+down in battle.
+
+The home of the long-bow is the country between the Severn and the
+Wye.  It was famous before, but it was first used with effect in the
+last Welsh wars.  It was used to break the lines of the Snowdon
+lances and pikes, so that the mail-clad cavalry might dash in.  But
+later on, the same bows were used to bring the nobles of France down.
+
+From the Welsh war on, archers and infantry became important; battles
+ceased to be what they had been so long--the shock of mail-clad
+knights meeting each other at full charge.
+
+The long-bow made noble and peasant equal on the field of battle.
+The revolution was made complete later on by gunpowder.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV--THE RISE OF THE PEASANT
+
+
+
+I have told you much about princes and soldiers, but very little
+about the lowly life of peasants, and the trade of towns.
+
+The conquest of Wales, by Norman baron and English king, tended to
+raise the serf to the level of the freeman.  The chief causes of the
+rise of the serf were the following:
+
+1  The ignorance of the English officials.  The Norman baron very
+often paid close attention to the privileges of the classes he ruled,
+and the Welsh freeman retained his superiority.  But the English
+officials--and Edward II. found that they were far too numerous in
+Wales--often refused to distinguish between a Welshman who was an
+innate freeman and a Welshman who lived on a serf maenol.  Their aim
+was to make them all pay the same tax.
+
+2.  The fall in the value of money.  At the time of the Norman
+Conquest, silver coins were rare, and their value high.  But, in
+exchange for cloth and wool, of arrows and spears, of mountain ponies
+and cattle, coins came in great numbers, and it was easier for the
+serf to earn them.  That is the value of coins became less.
+
+This was a great boon to all who were bound to pay fixed sums--the
+freeman who paid to the king the dues he used to pay to his prince,
+the serf who paid to his lord a sum of money instead of service.  All
+ancient servitude, political and economic, was commuted for money; as
+the money became easier to get, the serf became the more free.
+
+3.  The rise of towns and the growth of commerce.  We must not,
+however, think of commerce as if it had been first brought by the
+Normans.  There had been roads and coins in Roman times.  The Danes
+had been traders, probably, before they became pirates and invaders.
+Timber, millstones, cattle, coarse cloth, and arrow-heads crossed the
+Severn eastwards before the Normans saw it; and corn was carried
+westward.  There were close relations, political and commercial,
+between Wales and Ireland from very early times.
+
+But the Norman and English Conquests revived and quickened trade.
+Towns rose, regular markets were established, and the barons who took
+tolls protected the merchants who paid them.  Every baron had a
+castle, every castle needed a walled town, and a town cannot live
+except by trade.  In the town the baron did not ask a Welshman
+whether he had been free or serf; the townsmen were strangers, and
+they welcomed the serf who came to work.
+
+4.  The monk and the friar.  The bard was a freeman born, a skilled
+weaver of courteous phrases, not a churlish taeog.  The monk or friar
+might be a serf.  They worked like serfs, and ennobled labour.  The
+Church condemned serfdom, and we find chapters giving their serfs
+freedom.
+
+5.  The Scotch and French wars of the English kings gave employment
+to hosts of bowmen and of men-at-arms, and to the numerous attendants
+required to look after the horses by means of which the army moved.
+The greater use of infantry after the reign of Edward I. caused a
+greater demand for the peasant; and the use of the cheap long-bow
+gave him a value in war.  There were five thousand Welsh archers and
+spearmen on the field of Cressy.  In these and other ways the serf
+was becoming free.
+
+You would expect a gradual, almost unconscious struggle, between the
+serf and his lord for political power.  The struggle came, but it was
+conscious and very fierce.  It was brought about by a terrible
+pestilence, known as the Black Death.  This plague came slowly and
+steadily from the East; in 1348 it reached Bristol, and it probably
+swept away one half of the people of the towns of Wales.  It was not
+the towns alone that it visited; it came to the mountain glens as
+well.  It was a most deadly disease.  It killed, for one thing,
+because people believed that they would die.  They saw the dark spots
+on the skin before they became feverish; they recognised the black
+mark of the Death and they gave themselves up for lost.
+
+Labourers became very scarce.  They claimed higher wages.  The lords
+tried to drag them back into serfdom; they tried to force them by law
+to take the old wage.  On both sides of the Severn the labourers took
+arms, and waged war against their lords.  The peasant war in England
+is called the Peasant Revolt; the peasant war in Wales is sometimes
+called the revolt of Owen Glendower.
+
+A change came over the rebellions in Wales.  At first, the rebellions
+were those of Llywelyn's country; the allies who had deserted him,
+and then turned against Edward, like Rees ap Meredith; or his own
+followers, like Madoc, who said he was his son; or men he had
+protected, like Maelgwn Vychan in Pembroke.  Later on, under Edward
+II. and Edward III., the rebellions were against the march lords, and
+the king was looked upon as a protector--such as the rebellion of
+Llywelyn Bren against the Clares and Mortimers in Glamorgan in 1316.
+But the wilder spirits went to the French wars, and fought for both
+sides.  With the assassination of Owen of Wales in 1378, the last of
+Llywelyn's near relatives to dream of restoring the independence of
+Wales, the rebellions against the King of England came to an end.
+
+When they broke out again, it was not in Snowdon or Ceredigion; the
+old dominions of Llywelyn were almost unwilling to rise.  The new
+revolts were in the march lands, and especially in the towns.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV--OWEN GLENDOWER
+
+
+
+The English baron in Wales tried to add to his possessions by
+encroaching on the lands of the Welsh freemen.  His estate always
+remained the same, because it all went to the eldest son, according
+to what is called primogeniture; their lands, on the other hand, were
+divided between the sons according to what is called gavelkind.  He
+also, by laws they did not understand, took the waste land--forest
+and mountain.  As one man can more easily watch his interest than
+many, the baron succeeded; but the freemen felt that they were being
+robbed.
+
+The tenants of the barons were restless and rebellious; they said
+they were free, that they would not work as serfs, that they would
+not bring food rents, but that they would pay a fixed rent for every
+acre they held.
+
+At Ruthin, in the Vale of Clwyd, there was a baron called Lord Grey;
+and in the valley of the Dee there was a Welsh squire called Owen
+Glendower.  Their lands met, and Grey took part of Owen's sheep walk.
+Owen had been a law student at Westminster, and he had served Henry
+of Lancaster.  In 1399 Richard II. had been dethroned, and the barons
+had made Henry of Lancaster king as Henry IV.  Owen saw, however,
+that the king was too weak to curb his lawless barons, and in 1400 he
+attacked Lord Grey, and burnt Ruthin.
+
+The rebellion that had long been smouldering burst into a flame all
+over the country.  Owen was at once welcomed by the bard, the friar,
+and the peasant.  The bard hailed his star as that of the heir of the
+princes, who had come to deliver his country.  The friar welcomed him
+as the friend of the poor and of learning; and unruly students from
+Oxford, then the centre of a great intellectual awakening, flocked
+home to march under his banner.  The peasant welcomed him as his
+protector against the steward of his lord.  The main strength of the
+movement was the peasant revolt; and Welsh poets, like the English
+ones, sang the praises of the ploughman and of the plough.
+
+Owen's success was most rapid, so rapid that it was put down to
+magic.  In four years the whole of Wales recognised him as its
+prince.  Henry IV. and Prince Henry came to Wales, made rapid marches
+and retook castles, punished the friars of Llan Vaes and the monks of
+Strata Florida.  But their victories led to nothing, and the storms
+fought against them.  Owen's victories were used to the full--that of
+the Vyrnwy was followed by an agreement with Grey of Ruthin, that of
+Bryn Glas by an alliance with the Mortimers.  His marches were nearly
+all triumphant; he was welcomed along the whole line of the marches
+by the peasants to the furthest corners of Gwent.
+
+Owen was wise enough to see that no abiding power can be based on a
+popular rising.  He tried to establish a government that the King of
+England could not overthrow.  He had three institutions in mind--an
+independent Wales, governed by him as Prince in a Parliament of
+representatives of the commotes; an independent Welsh Church, with an
+Archbishop of St David's at its head; and an independent system of
+learning and civilisation, guided by two Universities, one in North
+Wales and one in South Wales.
+
+The new Wales was to he safeguarded by four alliances--with the
+English barons, with the Pope, with Scotland, and with France.  He
+failed to save the Percies from their defeat at Shrewsbury in 1403;
+but he based all his plans on an alliance with the Mortimers, the
+enemies of Lancaster and the Percies.  The head of the Mortimer
+family had died in Ireland in 1398, and had left four young children.
+They were the real heirs to the crown, and Owen meant to win their
+throne for them.  Their uncle, Edmund Mortimer, married Glendower's
+daughter.  But the young Earl of March, the elder of the Mortimer
+boys, had no ambition, and a plot to bring him and his brother to
+Owen failed.
+
+The Papacy had always proved to be a broken reed for Welsh princes;
+but Owen's alliance with Peter de Luna, the anti-Pope Benedict XIII.,
+gave a certain amount of prestige to his title.  The alliance with
+Scotland, based on common kinship, could bring him no help at that
+time:  because it was torn between two factions during the reign of
+the weak Robert III.; and the next king, the poet James I., was
+captured at sea and put into an English prison.
+
+The French alliance was much more promising; it would give what Owen
+wanted most--siege engines, a fleet, and an army of trained soldiers.
+Charles VI. of France, the father-in-law of the deposed Richard,
+refused to make peace with the usurper Henry; his fleet protected the
+Welsh coast, and in 1405 a French army of 2,800 men landed at
+Milford.
+
+Owen struggled on, with waning power, until his death in 1415.  He
+came too soon for success, while the power of the House of Lancaster
+was increasing.
+
+Of all figures in the history of Wales, that of Owen Glendower is the
+most striking and the most popular.  The place of his grave is
+unknown, his lineage and the date of his death a matter of
+conjecture; there is much mystery about even his most brilliant
+years.  But his majestic figure, his wisdom, and his ideals remained
+in the memory of his country.  His ghost wandered, it was said,
+around Valle Crucis.  His spirit, more than that of any hero of the
+past, seems to follow his people on their onward march.  This is not
+on account of his political ideals, but because he was the champion
+of the peasant and of education.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI--THE WARS OF THE ROSES
+
+
+
+The reign of Henry V. was a reign of brilliant victories in France,
+and the reign of Henry VI. one of disastrous defeats.  During both
+reigns the lords were becoming more powerful in Wales as well as in
+England.  The hold of the king over them became weaker every year;
+they packed the Parliament, they appointed the Council, they overawed
+the law courts.  If a man wanted security, he must wear the badge of
+some lord, and fight for him when called upon to do so.  In the
+marches of Wales there were more than a hundred lords holding castle
+and court; and it was easy for a robber or a murderer to escape from
+one lordship to the other, or even to find a welcome and protection.
+In Wales and in the marches the lords preyed upon their weaker
+neighbours, and the country became full of private war.
+
+The selfish families, all fighting for more land and more power,
+gradually formed themselves into two parties--the parties of the Red
+Rose and of the White Rose.  The leading family in the Red Rose party
+was that of Lancaster, represented by the saintly King Henry VI.; the
+leading family in the White Rose party was that of York.  In the Wars
+of the Roses, York and Lancaster fought over the crown, and those who
+supported them over a castle or an estate.
+
+Wales was divided.  The west was for Lancaster, from Pembroke to
+Harlech, and from Harlech to Anglesey.  The east was for York, from
+Cardiff and Raglan to Wigmore, and from Wigmore to Chirk.  Lancaster
+held estates in Wales and on the border--the castles of Hereford,
+Skenfrith, Ogmore, and Kidwelly being centres of strength and wealth.
+York's chief country was the march of Wales, with Ludlow as its
+centre.  The Welsh barons took sides according to their interests.
+Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke, held the west for his half-brother,
+the king.  Sir William Herbert, who was very powerful in the country
+south of the Mortimers, took the side of his powerful neighbour.
+Others wavered, especially Grey of Ruthin and the Stanleys in North
+Wales.
+
+One battle was fought between the Welsh Yorkists and the Welsh
+Lancastrians.  This was the battle of Mortimer's Cross, near Wigmore,
+in February 1461.  The victor was the young Duke of York, who was
+crowned king as Edward IV. later in the year.  An old man, Owen
+Tudor, the father of Jasper Tudor, and the grandfather of the boy who
+was "to rule after them all" as Henry VII., was taken prisoner.  They
+took him to Hereford, and there they cut his head off and set it on
+the market cross.  The battles of the Wars of the Roses were very
+cruel ones; the noble prisoners that had been taken, even children of
+tender age, were murdered in cold blood on the evening of the battle.
+"By God's blood," said one, as he killed a child, "thy father slew
+mine, and so will I do thee."
+
+The Welsh barons led their men to nearly all the important battles.
+North Wales archers, wearing the three feathers of the Prince of
+Wales, fought for Lancaster in the snow at the great defeat of Towton
+on the Palm Sunday of 1461; the archers of Gwent, led by Herbert,
+fought vainly for York at the battle of Edgecote, in the summer of
+1469.  And the Welsh waverer and traitor was seen in battle also--
+Grey of Ruthin led the van for Lancaster at the battle of Northampton
+in 1460, and caused the battle to be lost by deserting to York at the
+be ginning of the fighting.  In Wales itself, also, the war was
+fought bitterly; and the stubborn defence of Harlech for the
+Lancastrians became famous through the whole country.  The last
+battle fought between Lancaster and York was the battle of
+Tewkesbury, in May 1471, and Lancaster lost it; the Prince of Wales,
+the king's only son, was killed; and his heroic mother, Margaret of
+Anjou, gave the struggle up.  A young Welsh noble--Henry Tudor, Earl
+of Richmond--became the Lancastrian heir.  The fortunes of his house
+were hopeless, however; and his uncle, Jasper, sent him in safety to
+Brittany.
+
+The Yorkist kings, Edward IV. and Richard III., in spite of cruelty
+and murder, ruled well.  They broke the power of the barons, and they
+made the people rich--by maintaining peace, by repressing piracy, by
+protecting the woollen industry of the towns.
+
+In Wales their rule was for peace and order.  They made a Court for
+Wales at Ludlow, the home of their race.  From Ludlow they began to
+force the barons to do justice and to obey the king.  It seemed as if
+the rule of the Yorkists was to be a long one, for they were very
+popular in London and the towns.
+
+But the nobles were not willing to see their power taken from them
+day by day.  Jasper Tudor appealed to the loyalty of the Welsh, and
+the men of West Wales wanted a king of their own blood; for the laws
+had been made unjust to them ever since the time of Owen Glendower.
+
+Many attempts were made, and they failed.  But at last, on August 7,
+1485, the fugitive Earl of Richmond came to Milford Haven.  He
+marched on to the valley of the Teivy, and he was joined by Sir Rees
+ap Thomas, and an army of South Wales men; he journeyed on through
+the valley of the Severn, and the North Wales men joined him; English
+nobles joined him as he marched by Shrewsbury, Stafford, Lichfield,
+and Tamworth.  Richard's army was also on the march.  At Bosworth,
+August 22, 1485, the two armies met in the last battle of the Wars of
+the Roses.  Richard fought fiercely, wearing his crown; and when he
+was defeated and killed, the crown was placed on Henry's head.
+
+The people of England did not care who ruled, Richard or Henry, as
+long as he kept order, for they were very tired of civil war.
+
+But the people of Wales welcomed Henry as a Welshman who would rule
+them kindly and justly.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII--TUDOR ORDER
+
+
+
+The Tudors--Henry VII., his son, Henry VIII., and his three
+grandchildren, Edward VI. and Mary and Elizabeth--ruled England and
+Wales from 1485 to 1603.  Under them the people became united, law-
+abiding, patriotic, and prosperous.  The Tudor period is justly
+regarded as the most glorious in British history, with its great
+statesmen, its great adventurers, and its great poets.
+
+The Tudors were loyally supported by Wales, by the military strength
+of men like Sir Rees ap Thomas or the Earl of Pembroke, and by the
+diplomatic skill of the Cecils.  Under their rule--hard and
+unmerciful, but just and efficient--the law became strong enough to
+crush the mightiest and to shield the weakest.  Welshmen found that,
+even under their own sovereigns, their ancient language was regarded
+as a hindrance and their patriotism as a possible source of trouble;
+but they obtained the privileges of an equal race, and they were
+pleased to regard themselves as a dominant one.
+
+They obtained equal political privileges.  The laws which denied them
+residence in the garrison towns in Wales, or the holding of land in
+England, came to an end.  The whole of the country, shire ground and
+march ground, was divided into one system of shires and given
+representation in Parliament, by the Act of Union of 1535.  It is
+called an Act of Union because, by it, Wales and England were united
+on equal terms.
+
+Anglesey, Carnarvon, Merioneth, Flint, Cardigan, and Carmarthen had
+been shires since I 284; and small portions of Glamorgan and Pembroke
+had been governed like shires, so that some Tudor writers call them
+counties.  The chief difference between a shire and a lordship is
+that the king's writ runs to the shire, but not to the lordship.  The
+king administers the law in the shire, through the sheriff; the lord
+administers the law in the lordship through his own officials.
+
+In 1535 the marches of Wales were turned into shire ground.  The bulk
+of them went to make seven new shires--Pembroke, Glamorgan, Monmouth,
+Brecon, Radnor, Montgomery, and Denbigh.  The others were added to
+the older English and Welsh counties.  Of these, those added to
+Shropshire and Herefordshire and Gloucestershire became part of
+England.  Monmouth also was declared to be an English shire, for
+judicial purposes; but it has remained sturdily Welsh, and now it is
+practically regarded by Parliament as part of Wales.  The whole
+country was now governed in the same way, and Wales was represented,
+like England, in Parliament.  No attempt had been made to do this
+before, except by the first English Prince of Wales, the weak and
+unfortunate Edward II.
+
+Of even greater value than political equality was the new reign of
+law.  The Tudors used the Star Chamber, the Court of Wales, and the
+Great Sessions of Wales, to make all equal before the law.  To the
+Star Chamber they summoned a noble who was still too powerful for the
+court of law.
+
+But it was the Court of Wales that did most work.  It was held at
+Ludlow.  It had very able presidents, men like Bishop Lee, the Earl
+of Pembroke, and Sir Henry Sidney.  Bishop Lee struck terror into the
+whole Welsh march, between 1534 and 1543.  Before his time a lord
+would keep murderers and robbers at his castle, protect them, and
+perhaps share their spoil.  But no man could keep a felon out of the
+reach of Bishop Rowland Lee.  If he could not get them alive he got
+their dead bodies; and you might have seen processions of men
+carrying sacks on ponies--they were dead men who were to swing on
+Ludlow gibbets.  But, severe as Lee was, the peasant was glad that he
+could go to the Court at Ludlow instead of going to the court of a
+march lord, as he had to do before 1535.  The shire had been much
+better governed than the lordship.  When the lordship of Mawddwy was
+added to the shire of Merioneth in 1535, the officers of the shire
+found that it was a nest of brigands and outlaws.
+
+In the more peaceful and humane days of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Henry
+Sidney became President of the Court of Wales.  He was one of the
+best men of the day; and he was proud of ruling Wales and the border
+counties, "a third part of this realm," because his high office made
+him able "to do good every day."
+
+Besides the Court of Wales for the whole country, a court of justice
+was held in each of four groups of shires; and these courts were
+called the Great Sessions of Wales.  So, though the law was the same
+for everybody, Wales had a separate system to itself, partly because
+there was so much to do, and partly because the central courts in
+London were so far away.  Much was also done to get wise and learned
+justices of the peace, and fair juries.
+
+By the end of the reign of Elizabeth, the last of the Tudors, one may
+say that Wales rejoiced in the following:
+
+1.  There was no hatred between England and Wales; the Welsh gentry
+served the Queen on land and sea, and the people were more happy and
+contented than they had been since the time of Llywelyn.
+
+2.  There was no danger of private war between lords, to which the
+peasant might be summoned.  The brigands which infested parts of the
+country had been cleared away.
+
+3.  The law of land had been fixed.  It was determined that land was
+to go to the eldest son, according to the English fashion.  All the
+land became the property of some landlord, and it was decided who was
+a landowner, and who was not.  The Welsh freemen were held to own
+their land; the Welsh serfs, the descendants of an old conquered
+race, sometimes became owners and sometimes tenants.  They all
+thought that Henry VII., the Welsh victor of Bosworth, had set them
+free.
+
+4.  The Tudors trusted their people, and called upon them to govern
+and to administer justice themselves.  The squires were to be
+justices, the freemen were to be jurors; the shire was to look after
+the militia, and the parish after the poor.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII--THE REFORMATION
+
+
+
+The Reformation in England was, to begin with, a purely political
+movement.  Henry VIII. wished to rule his people in his own way, in
+religion as well as in politics; and, eventually, he became Supreme
+Head of the Church as well as the king of the country.  His new power
+brought changes.  It was necessary to reform the Church, and the
+wealth of the monasteries tempted him to do it.  There was a new
+spirit of enquiry, and the King was led on by that spirit, with
+dilatory and hesitating steps, to examine old creeds.  The religious
+fervour of the Reformation had caught the people; and the King stood
+still, if he did not turn back.
+
+But his ministers had no misgivings.  Thomas Cromwell tried to hurry
+the Reformation on--the monasteries were dissolved, the Bible was
+translated, and the sway of Rome was disowned.  The king appointed
+the bishops, decided church cases, and even determined what the creed
+of his country was to be.  Somerset, in the reign of Edward VI., made
+the movement a doctrinal one, and forced it on with equal vigour.
+
+Wales looked on, with indifference and apathy at first, and then with
+murmurs.  The movement had no attraction:  it had many causes of
+offence.  In England the political movement became a patriotic, an
+intellectual, and a religious movement; and it succeeded.  In
+Ireland, also, it was political, but it could not appeal to
+patriotism, because it was an English movement; and it failed.  In
+Wales, it was neither welcomed nor opposed; it was simply tolerated,
+and with a bad grace.
+
+For one thing, it brought English instead of Latin into public
+worship.  Latin, the old language of prayer and even of sermon, was
+venerated, though not understood.  But English was not only not
+understood, it was also regarded as inferior to Welsh.  The Tudors'
+dislike of various tongues was as strong as their dislike of various
+jurisdictions.  Henry VIII., in giving Welshmen the Act of 1535, says
+that the tongue of Owen Tudor is "nothing like ne consonant to the
+natural mother-tongue used within this realm," and enacts that all
+officials in Wales shall speak English.  And, in the same spirit, the
+Welshman was told that the Kingdom of Heaven was now open to him, but
+that he must seek it in English, or not at all.
+
+Again, the reformers--men of the type of Bishop Barlow--despised and
+shocked a people they never understood.  The sanctity of St David's,
+the theme of the best poets of the Middle Ages and the goal of
+generations of pilgrims, was described by its Protestant bishop--who
+unroofed the palace in order to get the lead--as a desolate angle
+frequented only by vagabond pilgrims.  A Welshman is not appealed to
+by what is an insult to his country and a shock to his religion at
+the same time.  The relics were ruthlessly swept away; they were
+taken possession of by the agents of Cromwell and destroyed, or sent
+to London.  The images carried in the village processions were lost--
+the images that could keep the superstitious Welshman from hell, or
+even bring him back from it, or heal his diseases, or keep his cattle
+from the murrain, and his crops from blight.  I only know of one of
+those relics that can still be seen.  It is the healing cup of Nant
+Eos, a mere fragment of wood.  The people's faith in the relics can
+be estimated from the fact that the cup has been used within the last
+century.
+
+Again, the monasteries were dissolved.  The wealth of the
+monasteries, their meadows and barns and sheep-runs and fish ponds,
+were coveted by the rich; the poor thought of them as sources of
+alms.  The monks were good landlords; and they gave freely, not only
+the comforts of religion, but of their medicinal herbs and stores of
+food.  The Welsh monasteries were not so rich as those of England,
+and they were all dissolved among the lesser monasteries--those with
+an income under 200 pounds a year.  But though none of them were very
+rich, they nearly all had almost 200 pounds a year.  Their loss
+affected the whole country, as each part of Wales had one or two of
+them--Tintern, Margam, Neath, and Whitland in the south; Strata
+Florida, Cwm Hir, Ystrad Marchell, and the Vanner in central Wales;
+and Basingwerk and Maenan in the north.
+
+The Reformation brought the poorer classes in Wales, not only insults
+to their national and religious feelings, but material loss.  It
+appealed only to the English bishops who had adopted the new
+Protestant tenets, and to the Welsh and English landowners who had
+lost their reverence for relics, and had learnt to hunger for land.
+
+The movement was a severe strain on the loyalty of the Welshman to
+the Tudors, but he had learnt to look to the king for guidances and
+he suffered in silence.  Mary was welcomed, and no Welsh blood was
+shed for the Protestant faith.  The passive resistance to the
+Reformation might have broken out into a rebellion if a leader had
+come.
+
+In Elizabeth's reign two attempts were made to disturb the religious
+settlement.  One was made by the Jesuits--the wonderful society
+established to check the Reformation movement and to lead a reaction
+against it.  In 1583 John Bennett came to North Wales; in 1595 Robert
+Jones came to Raglan; and several Welsh Jesuits suffered martyrdom.
+The other attempt was that of John Penry, who wished to appeal to the
+intellect of the people by means of the pulpit and the printing
+press.  The apostle of the new creed was crushed, like those who
+wished to revive the old; he was put to death as a traitor in 1593,
+after a short life of importunate pleading that he might preach the
+Gospel in Wales.
+
+Before the end of the reign of Elizabeth, however, the Welsh language
+was recognised.  The last school founded, that of Ruthin in 1595, was
+to have a master who could teach and preach in Welsh.  And in 1588
+there had appeared, by the help of Archbishop Whitgift, the Welsh
+Bible of William Morgan.  It was the appearance of this Bible that
+aroused the first real welcome to the Reformation.  But the
+Reformation that gave England a Spenser and a Shakespeare aroused no
+new life in Wales, not a single hymn or a single prayer.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX--THE CIVIL WAR
+
+
+
+After the Tudors came the Stuarts.  The Tudors did what their people
+wanted; the king and the people, between them, crushed the nobles.
+The Stuarts did what they thought right, and they did not try to
+please the people.  Under the Tudors, there was harmony between Crown
+and Parliament; and Elizabeth left a prosperous people with strong
+views about their rights and their religion.  But James I., and
+especially his son Charles I., tried to change law and religion.
+From the Tudor period of unity, then, we come to the Stuart period of
+strife.
+
+From 1603 to 1642 the struggle went on in Parliament.  The Welsh
+Members nearly all supported the king, and the Welsh people followed
+the Welsh gentry in strong loyalty.  The most famous Welshman of the
+period was John Williams, who became Archbishop of York and Lord
+Keeper.  He was a wise man; he saw that both sides were a little in
+the wrong; and if any one could have kept the peace between them, he
+could have done it.  But the king did not quite trust him, and the
+Parliament almost despised him; and this happens often to wise men
+who get between two angry parties.
+
+From 1642 to 1646, the First Civil War was waged.  This was a war
+between the king and the Parliament over taxation, militia, and
+religion.  The south-east, and London especially, were for
+Parliament; the wilder parts, especially Wales, were for the king.
+The only important part of Wales that declared for Parliament was the
+southern part of Pembrokeshire, which had been English ever since the
+reign of Henry II.
+
+Wales was important to the king for two reasons.  For one thing, it
+could give him an army, and he came, time after time, to get a new
+one.  When he unfurled his flag and began the war at Nottingham in
+1642, he came to Shrewsbury, and there five thousand Welshmen joined
+him.  With these and others he marched against London, fighting the
+battle of Edgehill on the way.  While the king made many attempts to
+get London until 1644, and while the New Model army attacked him
+between 1645 and 1647, the Welsh fought in nearly all his battles,
+their infantry suffering heavily in the two greatest battles, Marston
+Moor and Naseby.  The war went on in Wales itself also--Rupert and
+Gerard being the chief Royalist leaders, and Middleton and Michael
+Jones being the chief Parliamentary ones.  No great battles were
+fought, but there were several skirmishes, and much taking and
+retaking of castles and towns.
+
+Wales was important to the king, also, because it commanded the two
+ways to Ireland.  The King thought, almost to the last, that an Irish
+army would save him.  Welsh garrisons held the two ports for Ireland,
+Chester and Bristol.  Bristol was stormed by a great midnight
+assault, and Chester was forced to yield.  In March 1647 Harlech
+yielded, and the war came to an end.  By that time the king was a
+prisoner in the hands of the army.
+
+The Second Civil War, in 1648 and 1649, was a struggle between the
+two sections of the victorious army.  The Parliament wished to
+establish one religion, the army said that every man must be allowed
+to worship God as he liked.  One was called the Presbyterian ideal,
+the other the Independent.  The army was led by Cromwell, and
+Parliament was overawed.  Then the Presbyterian parts rose in revolt-
+-Kent, Pembrokeshire, and the lowlands of Scotland.  The New Model
+army marched against the Welsh, in order to break the connection
+between the northern and southern Presbyterians.  The Welsh generals
+were Laugharne, Poyer, and Powell, who had all fought for Parliament
+in the first war.  They were defeated at St Fagans, near Cardiff, and
+then driven into Pembroke.  They determined to hold out to the last
+within its walls.  Cromwell besieged them, and the great feature of
+the war was the siege of Pembroke.  Walls and castles like those of
+Pembroke had become useless because of gunpowder.  But Cromwell could
+not at once bring his guns so far.  His difficulties were increasing
+daily:  the Parliament was trying to come to terms with the king, all
+Wales around him was disaffected, the Scotch had crossed the border
+and were marching on London.  After many weeks of assaults and
+desperate defence, the guns came and the old walls were battered
+down.  Pembroke Castle, whose great round tower still stands, had
+protected William Marshall against Llywelyn and had enabled an
+important district to remain a "little England beyond Wales," was the
+last mediaeval castle to take an important part in war.  The Scotch
+were soon defeated at the battle of Preston, and the king was brought
+to trial and put to death, the death-warrant being signed by two
+Welshmen--John Jones of Merioneth and Thomas Wogan of Cardigan.  The
+date of Charles' execution is January 20, 1649.
+
+The Commonwealth was established immediately, and Wales was looked
+upon with much distrust--the Presbyterian parts and the Royalist
+parts--by the new Government.  It was represented in the English
+Parliaments, it is true, but its representatives were often English,
+and practically appointed by the Government.  When the country was
+put under the military dictatorship of the major-generals, Harrison
+was sent to rule Wales.
+
+Honest attempts were made to give it an efficient clergy; but the
+zeal of Vavasour Powel aroused much opposition.  Wales either clung
+tenaciously to its old religion; or, if it changed it, the changes
+were extreme.  Though the country generally returned to its old life
+and thought at the Restoration in 1660, much of the new life of the
+Commonwealth remained:  congregations of Independents still met;
+Quaker ideals survived all persecution; and even the mysticism of
+Morgan Lloyd permeated the slowly awakening thought of the peasants
+whom, in his dreams, he saw welcoming the second advent of Christ.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX--THE GREAT REVOLUTION
+
+
+
+Except to the reader who is of a legal or antiquarian turn of mind,
+the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are the least interesting in
+the history of Wales--the very centuries that are the most glorious
+and the most stirring in the history of England.  The older
+historians stop when they come to the year 1284, and sometimes give a
+hasty outline of a few rebellions up to 1535.  They then give the
+Welsh a glowing testimonial as a law-abiding and loyal people, and
+find them too uninteresting to write any more about them.
+
+The history of Wales does, indeed, appear to be nothing more than the
+gradual disappearance of Welsh institutions.  The Court of Wales was
+restored with the king in 1660; but its work had been done, and it
+came to an end in 1689.  The Great Sessions came to an end in 1830;
+and, though we now see that their disappearance was a mistake, the
+bill abolishing them passed through Parliament without a division.
+The last difference between England and Wales was deleted; and if
+Wales has no separate existence left, why should we write or read its
+history?
+
+Because the two centuries of apparent settlement and sleep were the
+period of a silent revolution, more important, if our aim is to
+explain the living present rather than the dead past, than all the
+exciting plots and battles of the House of Cunedda from the rise of
+Maelgwn to the fall of the last Llywelyn.  During these centuries,
+the history of Wales ceases to be the history of princes and nobles,
+it becomes the history of the people.  Owen Glendower's few years of
+power were a kind of prophecy; but Owen once appeared to the abbot of
+Valle Crucis, so tradition says, to declare that he had come before
+his time.  We pass then, very gradually, from the history of a
+privileged class, speaking literary Welsh, with a literature famous
+for the wealth of its imagination and the artistic beauty of its
+form--we pass on to the history of a peasantry, rude and ignorant at
+first, retaining the servile traits of centuries of subjection, but
+gradually becoming self-reliant, prosperous, and thoughtful.
+
+The real history of a nation is shown by its literature.  Its records
+and its chronicles are but the notes and comments of various ages.
+In the period of the princes and nobles, you can trace the rise and
+decline of a great literature; watch how it gathers strength and
+beauty from Cynddelw to Dafydd ap Gwilym, and how the strength begins
+to fail and the beauty to wane, from Dafydd ap Gwilym to Tudur Aled.
+In the period of the people, from Tudor times on, the peasants tried
+at first to imitate the poetry of the past; then they began to write
+and think in their own way.  It is not my aim to explain the periods
+of Welsh literature now; I am going to do that in another book.  But,
+as I have mentioned three typical poets in the period of the princes,
+I will also mention three poets in the period of the people.
+
+In 1579 Rees Prichard was born; in 1717, Williams Pant y Celyn; in
+1832, Islwyn.  We have, in these three, writers typical of the
+seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries respectively.  Rees
+Prichard, still affectionately remembered in every Welsh home as the
+"Old Vicar," wrote stanzas in the dialect of the Vale of Towy--rough,
+full of peasant phrases and mangled English words; and he wrote them,
+not in books, but on the memory of the people.  In the same valley, a
+century later, Williams Pant y Celyn wrote hymns, melodious and
+inspiring, of great poetic beauty, though with a trace of dialect;
+they were written and published, but they also haunted every ear that
+heard them.  Beyond the Black Mountains, in the hills of West
+Monmouth, after another century, Islwyn wrote odes without a trace of
+dialect; they were written and remained for some time in manuscript;
+when published, they met with a welcome which shows clearly that
+Islwyn is the typical poet of modern Welsh thought.  If you wish to
+see and realise the rise of the Welsh peasant, pass from the homely
+stanzas of the good Old Vicar's Welshmen's Candle to the poetic
+theology of Pant y Celyn, and from that to the poetic philosophy of
+Islwyn, where concentrated intensity of thought is expressed in a
+style that is, at any rate at its best, superior to the best work of
+the poets of the princes.
+
+If I were to tell you the reasons for this change, I would be
+writing, in a slightly different form, what I have already written in
+this book about early Welsh history.  The fall of Llywelyn, the Black
+Death, Owen Glendower's ideals and the Tudor legislation, all
+prepared the way.
+
+The long-bow and gunpowder, we have seen, made the peasant as
+important as the noble in war.  The long-bow made the coat of mail
+useless, gunpowder made the castle useless--the defence of the
+privileges of the Middle Ages departed.
+
+Ideas of equality were advanced.  They were looked upon at first as
+truths applicable only to a perfect and impossible condition, and
+their discoverers were ignored, if not hanged or burnt.  But they
+always became a reality, and were victorious in the end.  Take the
+truths discovered or championed by Welshmen.  Walter Brute
+rediscovered the theory of justification by faith--that all men are
+equal in the sight of God, and that no lord could be responsible for
+them.  Bishop Pecock advocated the doctrine of toleration--that
+reason, not persecution, should rule.  John Penry claimed that the
+people had a right to discuss publicly the questions that vitally
+affected them.  The history of the past shows that the apostles were
+condemned, the life of the present shows that their ideas lived.
+
+Industry and commerce became more free.  In Tudor times piracy was
+repressed, the march lordships were abolished, the privileges of the
+towns ceased to fetter manufacture, trade with England became free.
+In Stuart times roads were made, the industries depending on wool
+revived, and the industries of Britain began to move westwards
+towards the iron and the coal.  In the Hanoverian period waste lands
+were enclosed, the slate mines of the north and the coal pits of the
+south were opened.
+
+The Tudors succeeded in getting the upper classes to speak English,
+and to turn their backs on Welsh life.  The peasant was left supreme:
+he knew not what to do at first, but light soon came.
+
+Pass through Wales, and you will see the life of both periods--the
+ruined castles and the ruined monasteries of the old; the quarries
+and pits, the towns and ports, the churches and chapels, the schools
+and colleges of the present.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI--HOWEL HARRIS
+
+
+
+It is difficult to write about religion without giving offence.
+Religion will come into politics, and must come into history.  It has
+given much, perhaps most, of its strength to modern Wales; it has
+given it many, if not most, of its political difficulties.
+
+There are periods of religious calm and periods of religious fervour
+in the life of every nation.  I do not know whether it is necessary,
+but it is certainly the fact--the two periods condemn each other with
+great energy.  With regard to creed--the life of religion--you will
+find that the periods of energy tend to be Calvinistic--an intense
+belief that man is a mere instrument in the hands of God, working out
+plans he does not understand; while in periods of rest it tends to be
+Arminian--a comfortable belief that man sees his future clearly, and
+that he can guide it as he likes.  With regard to the Church--the
+body of religion--it is fortunate, in times of calm, if it is
+established, to keep the spirit of religion alive; it is fortunate,
+in times of fervour, if it is free, in order that the new life may
+give it a more perfect shape.
+
+Now we must remember that there can be no calm without a little
+indifference, and that there can be no enthusiasm without a little
+intolerance.  So men call each other fanatics and bigots and
+hypocrites, because they have not taken the trouble to realise that
+there is much variety in human character and in the workings of the
+human mind.  Perhaps it is also worth remembering that an institution
+is not placed at the mercy of a reformer, but gradually changed.
+
+The eighteenth century was a century of indifference in religion in
+Wales, the nineteenth century was a century of enthusiasm.  The
+Church at the beginning of the eighteenth century, at any rate as far
+as the higher clergy were concerned, was apathetic to religion, and
+alive only to selfish interests.  The Whig bishops were appointed for
+political reasons; they hated the Tory principles of the Welsh
+squires, and they neglected and despised the Welsh people they had
+never tried to understand.  In England, the Defoes and the Swifts of
+literature were encouraged and utilised by the political parties; in
+Wales, where clergymen were the only writers, the Whig bishops
+distrusted them, and silenced them where they could, because they
+wrote Welsh.  The Church did not show more misapplication of revenue
+than the State, perhaps; but, while the people could not leave the
+State as a protest against corruption, they could leave the Church.
+And, during the middle of the eighteenth century, a great national
+awakening began.
+
+The trumpet blast of the awakening was Howel Harris.  He was a
+Breconshire peasant, of strong passion which became sanctified by a
+life-long struggle, of devouring ambition which he nearly succeeded
+in taming to a life of intense service to God.  Many bitter things
+have been said about him, but nothing more bitter than he has said
+about himself in the volumes of prayers and recriminations he wrote
+to torture his own soul, and to goad himself into harder work.  The
+fame of his eloquence filled the land, and districts expected his
+appearance anxiously, as in old times they expected Owen Glendower.
+Howel Harris was, however, no political agitator.  He had an
+imperious will, and he wished to rule his brethren; he was aggressive
+and military in spirit; God to him was the Lord of Hosts; he preached
+the gospel of peace in the uniform of an officer of the militia, and
+he sent many of his converts to fight abroad in the battles of the
+century.  He had a love of organisation; he established at Trevecca
+what was partly a religious community, and partly a co-operative
+manufacturing company.  But, wherever he stood to proclaim the wrath
+of God, no shower of stones or condemnation of minister or justice
+could make those who heard him forget him, or believe that what he
+said was wrong.
+
+If I were writing for antiquarians, and not for those who read
+history in order to see why things are now as they are, I would write
+details--important and instructive--about the Church of the
+eighteenth century, and about the congregations of Dissenters which
+the seventeenth century handed over to the eighteenth to persecute
+and despise.  The Independents and Baptists sturdily maintained their
+principles of religious liberty, but they found the century a stiff-
+necked one, and their congregations were content with merely
+existing.  The Quakers maintained that war was wrong while Britain
+passed through war fever after war fever--the Seven Years' War and
+the wars against Napoleon.  Howel Harris' voice might have been a
+voice crying in the wilderness, if it had not been for the spiritual
+life of the existing congregations, conformist and dissenting.
+Modern ideas in Wales have been profoundly affected by the Quakers,
+and especially in districts from which, as a sect, they have long
+passed away.
+
+The voice of Howel Harris called all these to a new life; and it is
+about that new life, in the variety given it by all the different
+actors in it, that I want you to think now.  It made preaching
+necessary, for one thing; and it was followed by a century of great
+pulpit oratory.  It profoundly affected literature.  It gave Wales,
+to begin with, a hymn literature that no country in the world has
+surpassed.  The contrast between the Reformation and the Revival is
+very striking--one gave the people a Church government established by
+law and a literature of translations, the other gave it institutions
+of its own making and original living thought.  The Revival gave
+literature in every branch a new strength and greater wealth.
+
+It created a demand for education.  Griffith Jones of Llanddowror
+established a system of circulating schools, the teachers moving from
+place to place as a room was offered them--sometimes a church and
+sometimes a barn.  Charles of Bala established a system of Sunday
+Schools, and the whole nation gradually joined it.  The Press became
+active, newspapers appeared.  It became quite clear that a new life
+throbbed in the land.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII--THE REFORM ACTS
+
+
+
+The new life brought an inevitable demand for a share in the
+government of the country, and this brought the old order and the new
+face to face.  The political power was entirely in the hands of the
+squires, alienated from the peasants in many cases by a difference of
+language, and in most cases by a difference of religion.
+
+The Act of 1535 had, as we have seen, given Wales a representation in
+Parliament.  Each shire had one member only; except Monmouth, which
+had two.  Each shire town had one member, except that of Merioneth;
+and Haverfordwest was given a member.  The county franchise was the
+forty shilling freehold; it therefore excluded not only those who had
+no connection with the land, but the copyholder--who was really a
+landowner, but whose tenure was regarded as base, on account of his
+villein origin.  This copyholder was undoubtedly the descendant of
+the Welsh serf of mediaeval times.
+
+The first Reform Act, that of 1832, was won for the great
+manufacturing towns of England, but Wales benefited by it.  It
+extended the franchise to the copyholder, and to the farmer paying 50
+pounds rent, in the counties; it gave the towns a uniform 10 pounds
+household franchise.  It also brought many of the towns into the
+system of representation.  It raised the number of members from
+twenty-seven to thirty-two; the agricultural districts getting two,
+and the mining districts two.
+
+The slight change in representation is a recognition of the growing
+industries of the country, especially in the coal and iron districts.
+The coal of the great coalfield of South Wales had been worked as far
+back as Norman times; but it was in the nineteenth century that the
+coal and iron industries of South Wales, and the coal and slate
+industries of North Wales became important.  Cardiff, Swansea, and
+Newport became important ports; and places that few had ever heard of
+before--like Ystradyfodwg or Blaenau Ffestiniog--became the centres
+of important industries.  But, in 1832, Wales was still mainly
+pastoral and agricultural; and the Act, though it did much for the
+towns, left the representation of the counties in the hands of the
+same class.  Still, it was the towns that showed disappointment, as
+was seen in the Chartism of the wool district of Llanidloes and of
+the coal district of Newport.
+
+The second Reform Act, of 1867, gave Merthyr Tydvil two
+representatives instead of one, otherwise it left the distribution of
+seats as it had been before.  But the new extension of the franchise-
+-to the borough householder, the borough 10 pounds lodger, and
+especially the 12 pounds tenant farmer--gave new classes political
+power.  It was followed by a fierce struggle between the old landed
+gentry and their tenants, a struggle which was moderated to a certain
+extent by the Ballot Act of 1870, and by the great migration of the
+country population to the slate and coal districts.
+
+The rapid rise of the importance of the industrial districts is seen
+in the third Reform Act of 1885.  The country districts represented
+by the small boroughs of the agricultural counties of Brecon,
+Cardigan, Pembroke, and Anglesey, were wholly or partly
+disfranchised.  But the slate county of Carnarvonshire had an
+additional member; and in the coal and iron country, Swansea and
+Carmarthenshire and Monmouthshire had one additional member each, and
+Glamorgan three.
+
+The third Reform Act enfranchised the agricultural labourer and the
+country artisan.  In England many doubts were expressed about the
+intelligence or the colour of the politics of the new voter; but, in
+Wales, most would admit that he was as intelligent as any voter
+enfranchised before him; all knew there could be no doubt about his
+politics.
+
+The character of the representation of Wales has entirely changed.
+The squire gave place to the capitalist, and the capitalist to
+popular leaders.  Wales, whose people blindly followed the gentry in
+the Great Civil War, is now the most democratic part of Britain.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII--EDUCATION
+
+
+
+The chief feature of the history of Wales during the eighteenth and
+nineteenth centuries is the growth of a system of education.
+
+The most democratic, the most perfect, and the most efficient method
+is still that of the Sunday School.  It was well established before
+the death of Charles of Bala, whose name is most closely connected
+with it, in 1814.  It soon became, and it still remains, a school for
+the whole people, from children to patriarchs.  Its language is that
+of its district.  Its teachers are selected for efficiency--they are
+easily shifted to the classes which they can teach best; and, if not
+successful, they go back willingly to the "teachers' class," where
+all are equal.  The reputation of a good Sunday School teacher is
+still the highest degree that can be won in Wales.  Plentiful text
+books of high merit, and an elaborate system of oral and written
+examinations, mark the last stage in its development.
+
+The Literary Meeting is a kind of secular Sunday School.  The rules
+of alliterative poetry and the study of Welsh literature and history,
+and sometimes of more general knowledge, take the place of the study
+of Jewish history, and psalm, and gospel.  The Literary Meetings feed
+the Eisteddvod.
+
+The Eisteddvod passed through the same phases as the nation.  It was
+an aspect of the court of the prince during the Middle Ages.  In
+Tudor times it was used partly to please the people, but chiefly to
+regulate the bards by forcing them to qualify for a degree--a sure
+method of moderating their patriotism and of diminishing their
+number.  In modern times the Eisteddvod is a great democratic
+meeting, and it is the most characteristic of all Welsh institutions.
+Its chairing of the bards is an ancient ceremony; its gorsedd of
+bards is probably modern.  But the people themselves still remain the
+judges of poetry; they care very little whether a poet has won a
+chair or not, while a gorsedd degree probably does him more harm than
+good.
+
+Elementary education, in its modern sense, began with the circulating
+schools of Griffith Jones of Llanddowror in 1730.  They were
+exceedingly successful because the instruction was given in Welsh,
+and they stopped after teaching 150,000 to read not because there was
+no demand for them, but on account of a dispute about their
+endowments in 1779, eighteen years after Griffith Jones' death.  They
+were followed by voluntary schools, very often kept by illiterate
+teachers.
+
+Between 1846 and 1848 two organisations--the Welsh Education
+Committee and the Cambrian Society--were formed; and they developed,
+respectively, the national schools and the British schools.  After
+the Education Act of 1870, the schools became voluntary or Board;
+education gradually became compulsory and free; and in 1902 an
+attempt was made to give the whole system a unity and to connect it
+with the ordinary system of local government.
+
+The training of teachers became a matter of the highest importance.
+In 1846 a college for this purpose was established at Brecon, and
+then removed to Swansea.  From 1848 to 1862, colleges were
+established at Carmarthen, Carnarvon, and Bangor.
+
+The history of secondary education is longer.  It was served, after
+the dissolution of the monasteries, by endowed schools--like that of
+the Friars at Bangor--and by proprietary schools.  By the Education
+Act of 1889, a complete system of secondary schools, under popular
+control, was established.  Two of the endowed schools still remain--
+Brecon, founded by the religionists of the Reformation, and
+Llandovery, the Welsh school founded by a patriot of modern times.
+
+It was principally for the ministry of religion that secondary
+schools and colleges were first established.  Schools were founded in
+many districts, and important colleges at Lampeter (degree-granting),
+Carmarthen, Brecon, Bala, Trevecca, Pontypool, Llangollen,
+Haverfordwest.  Many of these have a long history.
+
+Higher education had been the dream of many centuries.  Owen
+Glendower had thought of establishing two new universities at the
+beginning of the period of the Revival of Letters; among his
+supporters were many of the Welsh students who led in the great
+faction fights of mediaeval Oxford.  Oliver Cromwell and Richard
+Baxter had thought of Welsh higher education.  But nothing was done.
+In the eighteenth century, and in the nineteenth until 1870, the Test
+Act shut the doors of the old Universities to most Welshmen; the new
+University of London did not teach, it only examined; the Scotch
+Universities, to which Welsh students crowded, were very far.  In
+1872, chiefly through the exertions of Sir Hugh Owen, the University
+College of Wales was opened at Aberystwyth, and maintained for ten
+years by support from the people.  The Government helped, and two new
+colleges were added--the University College of South Wales at Cardiff
+in 1883, and the University College of North Wales at Bangor in 1884.
+In 1893 Queen Victoria gave a charter which formed the three colleges
+into the University of Wales.  Lord Aberdare, its first Chancellor,
+lived to see it in thorough working order.  On Lord Aberdare's death,
+the Prince of Wales was elected Chancellor in 1896; and when he
+ascended the throne in 1901, the present Prince of Wales became
+Chancellor.
+
+The tendency of the whole system of Welsh education is towards
+greater unity.  There is a dual government of the secondary schools
+and of the colleges, the one by the Central Board and the other by
+the University Court--a historical accident which is now a blemish on
+the system.  The Training Colleges are still outside the University,
+but they are gravitating rapidly towards it.  The theological
+colleges are necessarily independent, but the University offers their
+students a course in arts, so that they can specialise on theology
+and its kindred subjects.  The ideal system is:  an efficient and
+patriotic University regulating the whole work of the secondary and
+elementary schools, guided by the willingness of the County Councils,
+or of an education authority appointed by them, to provide means.
+
+The rise of the educational system is the most striking and the most
+interesting chapter in Welsh history.  But the facts are so numerous
+and the development is so sudden that, in spite of one, it becomes a
+mere list of acts and dates.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV--LOCAL GOVERNMENT
+
+
+
+The French Revolution was condemned by Britain, and the voices raised
+in its favour in Wales were few.  The excesses of the Revolution, and
+the widespread fear of a Napoleonic invasion, caused a strong
+reaction against progress.  The years immediately after were years of
+great suffering, but the very suffering prepared the way for the
+progress of the future, because it made men willing to leave their
+own districts and to move into the coal and slate districts, where
+wages were high enough to enable them to live.
+
+The first demand was for political enfranchisement.  In 1832, in
+1867, and in 1884 the franchise was extended, and every interest
+found a voice in Parliament.  But, with the exception of the sharp
+struggle between the tenant and landlord after the Reform Act of
+1867, the effects of enfranchisement on Wales have been very few.
+Two Acts alone have been passed as purely Welsh Acts--the Sunday
+Closing Act, and the Intermediate Education Act.  In Parliament, the
+voice of Wales is weak even though unanimous; it can be outvoted by
+the capital or by four English provincial towns.  Until quite
+recently its semi-independence--due to geography and past history--
+was looked upon as a source of weakness to the Empire rather than of
+strength.  Its love for the past appeals to the one political party,
+its desire for progress to the other, but its distinctive ideals and
+its separate language are looked upon, at the very least, as
+political misfortunes.  Education and justice have suffered from
+official want of toleration; the appointment of a County Court judge
+who could not speak Welsh, within living memory, has been justified
+by Government on the ground that Englishmen resident in Wales object
+to being tried by a Welsh judge.
+
+Far more important to Wales than the Reform Acts are the Local
+Government Acts which followed them.  When the Reform Act of 1884
+added the agricultural labourer to the electors of representatives in
+Parliament, every interest had a voice.  A further extension of the
+franchise would not affect the balance of parties, it was thought;
+and a British Parliament has no time or desire to think of sentiment
+or theoretical perfection.  The Parliament found it had too much to
+do, the multiplicity of interests made it impossible to pay effective
+attention to them.  The result has been that half a century of
+extension of the franchise has been followed by half a century of
+extension of local government.  The County Council Act came in 1888,
+and the Local Government Act in 1894.
+
+Of all parts of Britain, Wales had least local government, and needed
+most.  Its justices of the peace were alien in religion, race, and
+sympathy; they were either country squires who had lost touch with
+the people, or English and Scotch capitalists who, with rare
+exceptions, took no trouble to understand the people they governed,
+or to learn their language.  The vestry meeting had been active
+enough during the early part of the eighteenth century; but religious
+difficulties made it impossible for a semi-ecclesiastical institution
+to represent a parish.  The Tudor policy had separated the people
+from the greater land-owners; the iron masters and coal-owners had
+not yet become part of the people; there was not a single institution
+except the Eisteddvod where all classes met.
+
+In no part of the country was local government so warmly welcomed,
+and no part of the country was more ready for it.  One thing the
+peasants had been allowed to do--they could build schools and
+colleges, churches and chapels.  They had filled the country with
+these--their architecture, finance, government, are those of the
+peasant.  The religious revivals had left organisers and
+institutions.  Four or five religious bodies had a system of
+institutions--parish, district, county, central.  All these were
+thoroughly democratic in character.  When the Local Government Acts
+were passed, there was hardly a Welshman of full age and average
+ability who had not been a delegate or in authority; and those of
+striking ability, if they could afford the time, continually sat in
+some little council or other and watched over the interests of some
+institution.
+
+It was from among these trained men that the councillors for the new
+county, district, and parish senates were elected.  The work of the
+councils, especially that of the County Council, has been very
+difficult; and when the time comes to write their history, the
+historian will have to set himself to explain why the first councils
+were served by men who had extraordinary tact for government and
+great skill in financial matters.  In the lower councils the village
+Hampden's eloquence is modified by the chilling responsibility for
+the rates, but the Parish Councils have already, in many places, made
+up for the negligence of generations of sleepy magistrates and
+officials.
+
+With a great difference, it is true, Wales under local government is
+Wales back again in the times of the princes.  The parish is roughly
+the maenol, the district is the commote or the cantrev, the shire is
+the little kingdom--like Ceredigion or Morgannwg--which fought so
+sturdily against any attempt to subject it.
+
+The local councils were fortunate in the time of their appearance.
+They came at a period characterised by an intense desire for a better
+system of education, and at a time of rapidly growing prosperity.  A
+heavy rate was possible, and the people were willing to bear it.  The
+County Councils were able to build over seventy intermediate schools
+within a few years; and that at a time when both elementary and
+higher education made heavy demands on what was still a comparatively
+poor county.  The District Councils were able to lower the amount of
+outdoor relief considerably, and without causing any real hardship,
+for they had knowledge of their districts as well as the philanthropy
+that comes naturally to man when he grants other people's money.  The
+Parish Councils have become the guardians of public paths; they have
+begun to provide parish libraries, and the little parish senate
+educates its constituency and brings its wisdom to bear upon a number
+of practical questions, such as cottage gardens and fairs.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV--THE WALES OF TO-DAY
+
+
+
+The most striking characteristic of the Wales of to-day is its unity-
+-self-conscious and self-reliant.  The presence of this unity is felt
+by all, though it may be explained in different ways.  It cannot be
+explained by race; for the population of the west midlands and the
+north of England, possibly of the whole of it, have been made up of
+the same elements.  It cannot be explained by language--nearly one
+half of the Welsh people speak no Welsh.  Some attribute it to the
+inexorable laws of geography and climate, others to the fatalism of
+history.  Others frivolously put it down to modern football.  But no
+one who knows Wales is ignorant of it.
+
+The modern unity of the Welsh people--seen occasionally in a function
+of the University, or at a national Eisteddvod, or in a conference of
+the County Councils--has become a fact in spite of many difficulties.
+
+One difficulty has been the absence of a capital.  The office of the
+University and the National Museum are at Cardiff, in the extreme
+south; the National Library is at Aberystwyth, on the western sea.
+The thriving industries, the densely populated districts, and the
+frequent and active railways, are in the extreme south or in the
+extreme north; and they are separated by five or six shires of
+pastures and sheep-runs, without large towns, and with comparatively
+few railways.  In the three southern counties--Glamorgan, Monmouth,
+and Carmarthen--the population is between two and six people to 10
+acres, and the industrial population is from twelve to three times
+the number of the agricultural.  In the central counties--Brecon,
+Radnor, Cardigan, Merioneth, Montgomery--the population is below one
+for 10 acres; the industrial and agricultural population are about
+equal, except in Radnor, where the agricultural is more than two to
+one.  Though Merioneth has more sheep even than Brecon--and each of
+them has nearly 400,000--its industrial population, owing to the
+slate districts, is double the agricultural.  The population begins
+to thicken again as we get nearer the slate, limestone, and coal
+districts.  In Denbigh it is two to the 10 acres, in Carnarvon it is
+three, and in Flint it rises to four or five.  In these northern
+counties the industrial population is double or treble the
+agricultural.  The fertile western counties of Pembroke and Anglesey
+come between the industrial and grazing counties in density of
+population. {4}
+
+Unity has arisen in spite of differences caused by the intensity of a
+religious revival, an intensity that periodically renews its
+strength.  The Welsh are divided into sects, and the bitterness of
+sectarian differences occasionally invades politics and education.
+But there are two ever-present antidotes.  One is the Welsh sense of
+humour, the nearest relative or the best friend of toleration.  The
+other is the hymn--creed has been turned into song, and that is at
+least half way to turning it into life; the heresy hunter is disarmed
+by the poetry of the hymn, and its music has charms to soothe the
+sectarian breast.  The co-operation of all in the work of local
+government has also enlarged sympathy.
+
+Unity has arisen in spite of the bilingual difficulty.  Rather more
+than one half of the people now habitually speak English.  For three
+centuries an Act--a dead letter from the beginning--ordered all
+Government officials to speak English; for many generations, until
+recently, Welsh children were not taught Welsh in schools, and they
+could not be taught English.  The bilingual difficulty is now at an
+end.  The two languages are taught in the schools, and as living
+languages.  It is clear, on the one hand, that every one should learn
+English, the language of the Empire and of commerce.  It is also
+clear that, on account of its own beauty as well as that of the great
+literature it enshrines, Welsh should be taught in every school
+throughout Wales.
+
+Next to its unity, a characteristic of modern Wales is its democratic
+feeling.  It is a country with a thoughtful and intelligent
+peasantry, and it is a country without a middle class.  There is a
+very small upper class--the old Welsh land-owning families who once,
+before they turned their backs on Welsh literature, led the country.
+They have never been hated or despised, they are simply ignored.
+Their tendency now is to come into touch with the people, and they
+are always welcomed.  But a middle class, in the English sense, does
+not exist.  The wealthier industrial class is bound by the closest
+ties of sympathy to the farmer and labourer.  The farmer's holding is
+generally small--from 50 to 250 acres--and he always treats his
+servants and labourers as equals.
+
+The three great levelling causes--religion, industry, {5} and
+education--have been at work in Wales in recent years.  Education
+helps and is helped by equality.  In town and country alike all Welsh
+children attend the same schools--elementary and secondary; and they
+proceed, those that do proceed, to the same University, and a
+university is essentially a levelling institution.  The dialects, as
+well as the literary language, are recognised; and no dialect has a
+stigma.  In this respect Wales is more like Scotland than England.
+
+There is one other characteristic of modern Wales--a certain pride,
+not so much in what has been done, but in what is going to be done.
+Wales is small, though not much smaller than Palestine, or Holland,
+or Switzerland, and every part of it knows the other.  There is a
+healthy rivalry between its towns and between its colleges; each town
+can show that it has done something for Wales in the past--by means
+of its industries, or school, or press.  In the strong feeling of
+unity there is ambition to surpass, and each part lives in the light
+of the action of the other parts.
+
+The day is a day of incessant activity--industrial, educational,
+literary, and political.  What is true in the life of the individual
+is true in the life of a nation--a day of hard work is a happy day
+and a day of hope.
+
+
+
+
+AN OUTLINE OF WELSH POLITICAL HISTORY
+
+
+
+INFLUENCES UNDER WHICH THE HISTORY OF WALES WAS FORMED
+
+
+1.  The nature of its rocks--Igneous, Cambrian, Silurian, Old Red
+Sandstone, Limestone, Coal--all belonging to the Primary Period.  Its
+rocks
+
+(a)  explain its scenery;
+(b)  explain its wealth, the richest part of Britain in minerals.
+
+2.  The configuration of its surface.
+
+(a)  It is isolated, its mountains being surrounded by the sea, or
+rising sharply from the plains.  It is part of the range of mountains
+which runs along the whole of the west coast of Britain; but the
+range is broken at the mouth of the Severn and at the mouth of the
+Dee.
+
+(b)  It is divided, its valleys and roads radiating in all
+directions.  So we have in its history
+
+A.  Wars of Independence.
+B.  Civil War.
+
+
+THE PEOPLE WHO CAME INTO WALES
+
+
+1.  The Iberians--a general name for the short dark people who still
+form the greater part of the nations.  They had stone weapons, and
+lived in tribes; they became subject to later invaders, but gradually
+became free.  Their language is lost.
+
+2.  The Celts--a tall fair-haired race, speaking an Aryan tongue.  It
+was their migration that was stopped by the rise of Rome.  Four
+groups of mountains, four nations (Celtic and Iberian), four
+mediaeval kingdoms, and four modern dioceses can be remembered thus:
+
+i.    Snowdonia           Decangi         Gwynedd         Bangor
+ii.   Berwyn              Ordovices       Powys           St Asaph
+iii.  Plinlimmon          Demetae         Dyved           St David's
+iv.   Black Mountains     Silures         Morgannwg       Llandaff
+
+3.  The Romans.  They made roads, built cities, worked mines.
+
+50-78.   The Conquest.  The Silures were defeated in 50, the Decangi
+in 58, the Ordovices in 78.
+80-200.  The Settlement.  Wales part of a Roman province including
+Chester and York.
+200-450. The struggle against the new wandering nations.  The
+introduction of Christianity.
+450-     The House of Cunedda represents Roman rule.
+
+4.  The English.
+
+577.  Battle of Deorham.  Wales separated from Cornwall.
+613.  Battle of Chester.  Wales separated from Cumbria.
+
+
+I.  THE WALES OF THE PRINCES
+
+
+Isolated after the battles of Deorham and Chester, mediaeval Wales
+begins to make its own history.  The House of Cunedda represents
+unity, the other princes represent independence.  English, Danish,
+Norman attacks from without.
+
+1.  613-1063.  The struggle between the Welsh princes and the English
+provincial kings.  From the battle of Chester to the fall of Griffith
+ap Llywelyn.
+
+(a)  Between Wales and Northumbria, 613-700; for the sovereignty of
+the north.  Cadwallon, Cadwaladr v. Edwin, Oswald, Oswiu.
+
+(b)  Between Wales and Mercia, 700-815; for the valley of the Severn.
+Rhodri Molwynog and his sons v. Ethelbald and Offa.
+
+(c)  Between Wales and the Danes, 815-1000.  Rhodri the Great and
+Howel the Good.
+
+(d)  Between Wales and Wessex, 1000-1063; for political influence.
+Griffith ap Llywelyn v. Harold.
+
+2.  1063-1284.  The struggle between the Welsh princes and the
+central English kings.
+
+(a) 1066-1137.  The Norman Conquest.  Norman barons v. Griffith ap
+Conan and Griffith ap Rees.
+1063.  Bleddyn of Powys tries to unite Wales.
+1070.  William the Conqueror at Chester.  Advance of Norman barons
+from Chester, Shrewsbury, Hereford, Gloucester.
+1075.  Death of Bleddyn; succeeded by Trahaiarn.
+1077.  Battle of Mynydd Carn.  Restoration of House of Cunedda--
+Griffith ap Conan in the north; Rees, followed by his son Griffith,
+in the south.
+1094.  Norman castles dominate Powys, Gwent, Morgannwg, and Dyved.
+Gwynedd and Deheubarth threatened.
+1137.  Death of Griffith ap Conan and Griffith ap Rees, after setting
+bounds to the Norman Conquest.
+
+(b)  1137-1197.  The struggle against Henry II. and his sons.
+1137.  The accession of Owen Gwynedd and of the Lord Rees of the
+Deheubarth.
+1157.  Henry II. interferes in the quarrel of Owen and Cadwaladr.
+1564.  The Cistercians at Strata Florida.
+1164.  Meeting of Owen Gwynedd, the Lord Rees, and Owen Cyveiliog at
+Corwen, to oppose Henry II.
+1170.  Death of Owen Gwynedd.
+1188.  Preaching of the Crusades in Wales.
+1189.  Death of Henry II.
+1197.  Death of the Lord Rees.
+
+(c) 1194-1240.  The reign of Llywelyn the Great.
+1194-1201.  Securing the crown of Gwynedd.
+1201-1208.  Alliance with King John.
+1208-1212.  War with John.
+1212-1218.  Alliance with barons of Magna Carta.
+1218-1226.  Struggle with the Marshalls of Pembroke.
+1226-1240.  Unity of Wales:  alliance with Marshalls.
+
+(d)  1240-1284.  The Wars of Independence.
+1241.  David II. does homage to Henry III.
+1244.  Death of Griffith, in trying to escape from the Tower of
+London.
+1245.  Fierce fighting on the Conway.
+1254.  Edward (afterwards Edward I.) Earl of Chester.
+1255.  Llywelyn ap Griffith supreme in Gwynedd.
+1263.  Alliance with the English barons.
+1267.  Treaty of Montgomery; Llywelyn Prince of Wales.
+1274.  Llywelyn refuses to do homage to Edward I.
+1277.  Treaty of Rhuddlan; Llywelyn keeps Gwynedd only.
+1278.  Llywelyn marries Eleanor de Montfort.
+1282.  Last war.  Battle of Moel y Don.  Llywelyn's death.
+1284.  Statute of Wales.
+
+3.  1284-1535.  The rule of sheriff and march lord.
+1287.  Revolt of Ceredigion.
+1294.  Revolts In Gwynedd, Dyved, Morgannwg.
+1315.  Revolt of Llywelyn Bren.
+1349.  The Black Death in Wales.
+1400.  Rise of Owen Glendower.
+1402.  Battles of the Vyrnwy and Bryn Glas.
+1404.  Anti-Welsh legislation.
+1455.  The Wars of the Roses.
+1461.  Battle of Mortimer's Cross.
+1468.  Siege of Harlech.
+1469.  Battle of Edgecote.
+1478.  Court of Wales at Ludlow.
+1485.  Battle of Bosworth and accession of Henry VII.
+1535.  Act of Union.  All Wales governed by king through sheriffs.
+
+
+II.  THE WALES OF THE PEOPLE.
+
+
+In 1535 the march lordships were formed into shires, and a reign of
+law began.
+
+1535-1603.  Period of loyalty to Tudor sovereigns--for equality
+before law and political rights.
+1536.  The march lordships become shire ground.  Wales given a
+representation in Parliament, and its own system of law courts--the
+Great Sessions of Wales.
+1539.  Welsh passive resistance to the Reformation.
+1567.  Sir Thomas Middleton opens silver mines of Cardiganshire.
+1588.  Bishop Morgan's Welsh Bible.
+1593.  Execution of John Penry.
+Results 1.  Destruction of power of barons.
+        2.  Anglicising of gentry.
+        3.  A Welsh Bible.
+
+1603-1689.  Struggle between new and old ideas.
+1618.  Coal of South Wales attracts attention.
+1640.  First Civil War.
+1644.  Brereton and Myddleton win North Wales, Laugharne and Poyer
+win South Wales, for Parliament.
+1648.  Second Civil War:  siege of Pembroke.
+1650.  Puritan "Act for the better Propagation of the Gospel in
+Wales."
+1670.  Vavasour Powell dies in prison.
+1689.  Abolition of the Court of Wales.
+
+1689-1894.  Rise of the Welsh democracy.
+1719.  Copper works at Swansea.
+1730.  Griffith Jones' circulating schools.
+1750.  Iron furnaces at Merthyr Tydvil.
+1773.  Death of Howel Harris.
+1814.  Death of Charles of Bala.
+1830.  Abolition of Great Sessions of Wales.
+1832.  First Reform Bill.
+1839.  Chartism at Llanidloes and Newport.
+1867.  Second Reform Bill.
+1872, 1883, 1884.  University Colleges.
+1884.  Third Reform Bill.
+1888.  County Council Act.
+1889.  Secondary Education Act.
+1894.  Local Government Act.  University of Wales.
+
+
+
+THE HOUSE OF CUNEDDA
+
+
+
+TABLE I
+
+     CUNEDDA WLEDIG (Dux Britanniae).
+     MAELGWN GWYNEDD
+     CADWALADR
+           |
+         Idwal
+           |
+     Rhodri Molwynog
+           |
+     Conan Tindaethwy
+           |
+       Esyllt=Mervin
+           |
+      RHODRI THE GREAT
+           |
+     +-----+--------+---------------+
+     |              |               |
+   Anarawd        Cadell         Mervin
+     |            HOWEL THE
+   Idwal the      GOOD
+   Bald             |
+     |              |
+   Iago           Owen
+     | ?            +-----------------------------+
+   Conan {6}      Einion                          |
+   (See Table       |                         Meredith
+   II.)           Cadell                          |
+                    |     LLYWELYN AB SEISYLLT=Angharad*=Cynvyn
+                  Tewdwr {6}                  |         |
+                  (See Table      +-----------+   +-----+-----+
+                  III.)           |               |           |
+                              GRIFFITH        BLEDDYN      Rhiwallon
+                                                  (See Table IV.)
+
+TABLE II--GWYNEDD
+
+                    GRIFFITH AP CONAN
+                            |
+     +----------------------+----------------+
+     |                      |                |
+OWEN GWYNEDD          Cadwaladr           Gwenllian=G. ap Rees
+     |
+     +--------------------+
+     |                    |
+  Iorwerth              DAVID I.
+     |
+  LLYWELYN THE GREAT
+     |
+     +--------------------+
+     |                    |
+  Griffith             DAVID II.
+     |
+     +-----------+----------+------------+----------+
+                 |          |            |          |
+  Eleanor de=LLYWELYN     Owen        David       Rhodri
+  Montfort  | THE LAST    the Red                   |
+            |                                     Thomas
+        Gwenllian                                   |
+                                               Owen of Wales
+
+TABLE III--DYNEVOR
+
+                      REES AP TUDOR
+                            |
+          +-----------------+------------------+
+          |                                    |
+      GRIFFITH                                Nest
+          |
+    THE LORD REES
+          |
+          +--------------------+
+          |                    |
+       GRIFFITH          Rees the Hoarse
+
+TABLE IV--POWYS
+
+                       BLEDDYN AP CYNVYN
+                                |
+      +-------------------------+------------+--------------------+
+      |                                      |                    |
+  MEREDITH                                CADWGAN
+IORWERTH
+      |                                      |
+      +----------------------+          Owen of Powys
+      |                      |
+    MADOC                OWEN CYVEILIOG
+      |                      |
+Griffith Maelor           GRIFFITH
+      |                      |
+    Madoc                GWENWYNWYN
+      |
+ Griffith of Bromfield
+      |
+      +----------------------+
+      |                      |
+    Madoc             Griffith Vychan
+                             |
+                           Madoc
+                             |
+                          Griffith
+                             |
+                      Griffith Vychan
+                             |
+                      OWEN GLENDOWER.
+
+TABLE V--MORTIMER
+
+                   LLYWELYN THE GREAT
+                            |
+                    Gladys the Dark=Ralph Mortimer of Wigmore
+                                   |
+                            Roger Mortimer=Matilda de Braose
+                                          |
+     +------------------------------------+
+     |                                    |
+  Edmund                            Roger of Chirk
+     |
+  Roger, first Earl of March                EDWARD III.
+     |                                          |
+   Edmund                         +-------------+----------------+
+     |                            |             |                |
+Roger, second Earl            Lionel of     John of         Edmund of
+of March                      Clarence       Gaunt             York
+     |                                                           |
+Edmund, third Earl of March=Philipa                              |
+                           |                                     |
+       +-------------------+------------------------+            |
+       |                                            |            |
+     Roger                               Edmund=d. of Glendower  |
+       |                                                         |
+       +------------+      +-------------------------------------+
+       |            |      |
+     Edmund       Anne=Richard, Earl of Cambridge
+                      |
+             Richard, Duke of York
+           (killed at Wakefield, 1460)
+                      |
+     +----------------+--------------------------------+
+     |                                                 |
+EDWARD IV                                         RICHARD III
+     |                                    (killed at Bosworth, 1485)
+Henry VII.=Elizabeth
+     |
+HENRY VIII
+
+TABLE VI--TUDOR
+
+                                                 EDWARD III.
+                                                     |
+                                                John of Gaunt
+                                                     |
+                                  +------------------+
+                                  |                  |
+                               HENRY IV.       John Beaufort I.,
+                                  |            Earl of Somerset
+                                  |                  |
+Owen Tudor=Catherine of France=HENRY V.        John Beaufort II.,
+          |                       |            Duke of Somerset
+          |                    HENRY VI.
+          |
+Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond=Margaret Beaufort
+                              |
+                          HENRY VII.
+                              |
+                         HENRY VIII.
+                              |
+      +------------------------+--------------------------+
+     |                        |                          |
+ EDWARD VI.                 MARY                     ELIZABETH
+
+
+
+APPENDIX A--PARLIAMENTARY REFORM IN WALES
+
+
+
+                 By the Act of 1535.      By the Act of 1832.
+GLAMORGAN        1 County Member          2 County Members
+                 1 Member for Cardiff     1 Member for Cardiff,
+                                            Cowbridge, and
+Llantrisant
+                                          1 Member for Swansea,
+                                            Loughor, Neath, Aberavon,
+and Kenfig.
+                                          1 Member for Merthyr
+Tydvil.
+MONMOUTH         2 County Members         2 County Members
+                 1 Member for Monmouth    1 Member for Monmouth
+CARMARTHEN       1 County Member          2 County Members
+                 1 Member for Carmarthen  1 Member for Carmarthen
+                                            and Llanelly
+PEMBROKE         1 County Member          1 County Member
+                 1 Member for Pembroke    1 Member for Pembroke,
+                 1 Member for               Tenby, Wiston, Milford
+                   Haverfordwest.         1 Member for Haverfordwest,
+                                            Narberth, Fishguard
+CARDIGANSHIRE    1 County Member          1 County Member
+                 1 Member for Cardigan    1 Member for Cardigan,
+                                            Aberystwyth, Adpar,
+                                            and Lampeter
+BRECONSHIRE      1 County Member          1 County Member
+                 1 Member for Brecon      1 Member for Brecon
+RADNORSHIRE      1 County Member          1 County Member
+                 1 Member for Radnor      1 Member for Radnor,
+                                            Knighton, Rhayadr,
+                                            Cefnllys, Knucklas,
+                                            Presteign
+MONTGOMERYSHIRE  1 County Member          1 County Member
+                 1 Member for Montgomery  1 Member for Montgomery,
+                                            Llanidloes, Machynlleth,
+                                            Newtown, Welshpool,
+Llanfyllin
+MERIONETHSHIRE   1 County Member          1 County Member
+DENBIGHSHIRE     1 County Member          2 County Members
+                 1 Member for  Denbigh    1 Member for Denbigh,
+                                            Ruthin, Holt, Wrexham
+FLINTSHIRE       1 County Member          1 County Member
+                 1 Member for Flint       1 Member for Flint,
+                                            Rhuddlan, St Asaph,
+                                            Mold, Holywell,
+                                            Caerwys, Caergwrle,
+                                            Overton
+CARNARVONSHIRE   1 County Member          1 County Member
+                 1 Member for Carnarvon   1 Member for Carnarvon,
+                                            Conway, Bangor, Nevin,
+                                            Pwllheli, Criccieth
+ANGLESEY         1 County Member          1 County Member
+                 1 Member for Beaumaris   1 Member for Beaumaris,
+                                            Llangefni, Amlwch,
+                                            and Holyhead
+
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+{1}  Mihangel=Michael.  Llan Fihangel = Si Michael's.
+
+{2}  Mair=Mary.  Llan Fair=St Mary's.
+
+{3}  About 1291 the abbeys of Aberconway and Strata Marcella had over
+a hundred cows each, Whitland over a thousand sheep, and Basingwerk
+over two thousand.
+
+{4}  According to the census of 1901 the population per square mile
+of Glamorgan is 758, Monmouth 427, Carmarthen 141, Brecon 73, Radnor
+49, Cardigan 88, Montgomery 68, Merioneth 74, Denbigh 197, Carnarvon
+217, Flint 319, Pembroke 143, Anglesey 183.
+
+The rate of increase per cent. between 1891 and 1901 are--Wales 13.3;
+England 12.1; Scotland 11.1; Ireland--5.2.
+
+{5}  In 1801 the population of Cardiff was 1870, and coal was brought
+down from Merthyr on donkeys.  In 1901 the three ports of Cardiff,
+Newport, and Swansea exported nearly as much coal as all the great
+English and Scotch ports put together.
+
+{6}  The links between the House of Cunedda and the three ruling
+families after the Norman Conquest rest on the authority of tradition
+rather than on that of records.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Short History of Wales, by Owen M. Edwards
+
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