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diff --git a/32624-h/32624-h.html b/32624-h/32624-h.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..795483d --- /dev/null +++ b/32624-h/32624-h.html @@ -0,0 +1,20239 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /><meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /><link rel="schema.DC" href="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" /><meta name="DC.Creator" content="Arthur Edward Romilly Boak" /><meta name="DC.Title" content="A History of Rome to 565 A. 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D. by Arthur Edward Romilly Boak</p></div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost + and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, + give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project + Gutenberg License <a href="#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this + eBook</a> or online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p></div><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">Title: A History of Rome to 565 A. D. + +Author: Arthur Edward Romilly Boak + +Release Date: May 31, 2010 [Ebook #32624] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ROME TO 565 A. D.*** +</pre></div> + </div> + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-pb"></div><a name="Pgii" id="Pgii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="illus-001" id="illus-001" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/illus-001.png" alt="The Roman Empire in the Second Century A. D." /></div> +</div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-titlePage" style="text-align: center"> +<div class="tei tei-pb" style="text-align: center"></div><a name="Pgiii" id="Pgiii" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + <span class="tei tei-docTitle" style="text-align: center"> + <span class="tei tei-titlePart" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 173%">A HISTORY OF ROME</span><br /><span style="font-size: 173%"> +TO 565 A. D.</span></span> + </span> + <br /><br /> + <div class="tei tei-byline" style="text-align: center"> + BY + <br /> + <span class="tei tei-docAuthor" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%">ARTHUR E. R. BOAK, Ph. D.,</span></span> + <br /> + Professor of Ancient History<br /> +in the University of Michigan + </div> + <br /><br /> + <span class="tei tei-docImprint" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%">New York</span><br /><span style="font-size: 120%"> + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + </span><br /> + <span class="tei tei-docDate" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%">1921</span></span></span> + <br /> +<span class="tei tei-titlePart" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">All rights reserved</span></span></span> + +</div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-pb" style="text-align: center"></div><a name="Pgiv" id="Pgiv" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + COPYRIGHT, 1921. + <br />By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. + </p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +Set up and electrotyped. Published December, 1921. +</span></p> +<br /> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA +</span></p> + +</div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagev">[pg v]</span><a name="Pgv" id="Pgv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a><a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">PREFACE</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This sketch of the History of Rome to 565 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> is primarily +intended to meet the needs of introductory college courses in Roman +History. However, it is hoped that it may also prove of service as +a handbook for students of Roman life and literature in general. It +is with the latter in mind that I have added the bibliographical note. +Naturally, within the brief limits of such a text, it was impossible +to defend the point of view adopted on disputed points or to take +notice of divergent opinions. Therefore, to show the great debt which +I owe to the work of others, and to provide those interested in +particular problems with some guide to more detailed study, I have +given a list of selected references, which express, I believe, the prevailing +views of modern scholarship upon the various phases of +Roman History. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I wish to acknowledge my general indebtedness to Professor W. S. +Ferguson of Harvard University for his guidance in my approach +to the study of Roman History, and also my particular obligations +to Professor W. L. Westermann of Cornell, and to my colleagues, +Professors A. L. Cross and J. G. Winter, for reading portions of +my manuscript and for much helpful criticism. +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-signed" style="text-align: right">A. E. R. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: right"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Boak</span></span>.</div> + <div class="tei tei-dateline" style="text-align: left">University of Michigan,<br /> + October, 1921</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagevi">[pg vi]</span><a name="Pgvi" id="Pgvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +</div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagevii">[pg vii]</span><a name="Pgvii" id="Pgvii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a><a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">TABLE OF CONTENTS</span></h1> + + <a name="Pgviii" id="Pgviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pgix" id="Pgix" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pgx" id="Pgx" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="3"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center">INTRODUCTION</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: right"><span style="font-size: 75%">PAGE</span></span></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Sources for the Study of Early Roman History</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pgxiii" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">xiii</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center">PART I<br /> +THE FORERUNNERS OF ROME IN ITALY</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER I</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Geography of Italy</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg3" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">3</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER II</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Prehistoric Civilization in Italy</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg7" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">7</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER III</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Peoples of Historic Italy</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg13" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">13</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">The Etruscans; the Greeks.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center">PART II<br /> + THE EARLY MONARCHY AND THE REPUBLIC, FROM PREHISTORIC TIMES TO 27 B. C.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER IV</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Early Rome to the Fall of the Monarchy</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg25" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">25</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">The Latins; the Origins of Rome; the Early Monarchy; Early Roman Society.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER V</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Expansion of Rome to the Unification of the Italian Peninsula: + </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic; font-variant: small-caps">c.</span></span><span style="font-variant: small-caps"> 509–265 b. c.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg33" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">33</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">To the Conquest of Veii, </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%; font-style: italic">c.</span></span><span style="font-size: 75%"> 392 </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 81%">B. C.</span></span><span style="font-size: 75%">; + the Gallic Invasion; the Disruption of the Latin League and the Alliance of the Romans with the Campanians; + Wars with the Samnites, Gauls and Etruscans; the Roman Conquest of South Italy; the Roman Confederacy.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER VI</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Constitutional Development of Rome to 287 b. c.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg47" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">47</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">The Early Republic; the Assembly of the Centuries and the Development of the Magistracy; + the Plebeian Struggle for Political Equality; the Roman Military System.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER VII</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Religion and Society in Early Rome</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg61" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">61</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER VIII</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Roman Domination in the Mediterranean: The First + Phase—the Struggle with Carthage, 265–201 b. c.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg67" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">67</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">The Mediterranean World in 265 </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 81%">B. C.</span></span><span style="font-size: 75%">; the First Punic War; + the Illyrian and Gallic Wars; the Second Punic War; the Effect of the Second Punic War upon Italy.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER IX</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Roman Domination in the Mediterranean: The Second Phase—Rome and the Greek East</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg89" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">89</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">The Second Macedonian War; the War with Antiochus the Great and the Ætolians; the Third Macedonian War; + Campaigns in Italy and Spain.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER X</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Territorial Expansion in Three Continents: 167–133 b. c.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg99" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">99</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">The Spanish Wars; the Destruction of Carthage; War with Macedonia and the Achæan Confederacy; + the Acquisition of Asia.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER XI</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Roman State and the Empire: 265–133 b. c.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">105</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">The Rule of the Senatorial Aristocracy; the Administration of the Provinces; + Social and Economic Development; Cultural Progress.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER XII</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Struggle of the Optimates and the Populares: 133–78 b. c.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">125</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">The Agrarian Laws of Tiberius Gracchus; the Tribunate of Caius Gracchus; + the War with Jugurtha and the Rise of Marius; the Cimbri and the Teutons; Saturninus and Glaucia; + the Tribunate of Marcus Livius Drusus; the Italian or Marsic War; the First Mithridatic War; + Sulla’s Dictatorship.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER XIII</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Rise of Pompey the Great: 78–59 b. c. </span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">151</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">Pompey’s Command against Sertorius in Spain; the Command of Lucullus against Mithridates; + the Revolt of the Gladiators; the Consulate of Pompey and Crassus; the Commands of Pompey against + the Pirates and in the East; the Conspiracy of Cataline; the Coalition of Pompey, Cæsar and Crassus.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER XIV</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Rivalry of Pompey and Caesar: Caesar’s Dictatorship: 59–44 b. c.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">166</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">Cæsar, Consul; Cæsar’s Conquest of Gaul; the Civil War between Cæsar and the Senate; + the Dictatorship of Julius Cæsar.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER XV</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Passing of the Republic: 44–27 b. c.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">185</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">The Rise of Octavian; the Triumvirate of 43 </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 81%">B. C.</span></span><span style="font-size: 75%">; the victory of Octavian + over Antony and Cleopatra; Society and Intellectual Life in the Last Century of the Republic.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center">PART III<br /> + THE PRINCIPATE OR EARLY EMPIRE: 27 B. C.–285 A. D.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER XVI</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Establishment of the Principate: 27 b. c.–14 a. d.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">205</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">The Princeps; the Senate, the Equestrians and the Plebs; the Military Establishment; + the Revival of Religion and Morality; the Provinces and the Frontiers; the Administration of Rome; + the Problem of the Succession; Augustus as a Statesman.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER XVII</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Julio-Claudian Line and the Flavians: 14–96 a. d.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">226</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">Tiberius; Caius Caligula; Claudius; Nero; the First War of the Legions or the Year of the Four Emperors; + Vespasian and Titus; Domitian.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER XVIII</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">From Nerva to Diocletian: 96–285 a. d.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">244</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">Nerva and Trajan; Hadrian; the Antonines; the Second War of the Legions; the Dynasty of the Severi; + the Dissolution and Restoration of the Empire.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER XIX</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Public Administration under the Principate</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">264</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">The Victory of Autocracy; the Growth of the Civil Service; the Army and the Defence of the Frontiers; + the Provinces under the Principate; Municipal Life; the Colonate or Serfdom.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER XX</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Religion and Society</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">293</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">Society under the Principate; the Intellectual World; the Imperial Cult and the Oriental Religions + in Roman Paganism; Christianity and the Roman State.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center">PART IV<br /> + THE AUTOCRACY OR LATE EMPIRE: 285–565 A. D.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER XXI</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">From Diocletian to Theodosius the Great: the Integrity of the Empire Maintained: + 285–395 a. d.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">317</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">Diocletian; Constantine I, the Great; the Dynasty of Constantine; the House of Valentinian and + Theodosius the Great.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER XXII</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Public Administration of the Late Empire</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">333</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">The Autocrat and his Court; the Military Organization; the Perfection of the Bureaucracy; + the Nobility and the Senate; the System of Taxation and the Ruin of the Municipalities.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER XXIII</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Germanic Occupation of Italy and the Western Provinces: 395–493 a. d.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">351</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">General Characteristics of the Period; the Visigothic Migrations; the Vandals; the Burgundians, + Franks and Saxons; the Fall of the Empire in the West; the Survival of the Empire in the East.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER XXIV</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Age of Justinian: 518–565 a. d.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">369</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">The Germanic Kingdoms in the West to 533 </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 81%">A. D.</span></span><span style="font-size: 75%">; the Restoration of the + Imperial Power in the West; Justinian’s Frontier Problems and Internal Administration.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: center"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 75%">CHAPTER XXV</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Religious and Intellectual Life in the Late Empire</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">385</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">The End of Paganism; the Church in the Christian Empire; Sectarian Strife; Monasticism; + Literature and Art.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Epilogue</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">403</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chronological Table</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg405" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">405</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Bibliographical Note</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg415" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">415</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Index</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#Pg423" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">423</a></td> + </tr></tbody></table> + +</div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexi">[pg xi]</span><a name="Pgxi" id="Pgxi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a><a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">LIST OF MAPS</span></h1> + <table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="3"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">The Roman Empire in the Second Century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#illus-001" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: right"><span style="font-style: italic">Frontispiece</span></span></a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: right"><span style="font-size: 75%">PAGE</span></span></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">The Peoples of Italy about 500 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#illus-029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">14</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">The Environs of Rome</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#illus-039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">24</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Roman Expansion in Italy to 265 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#illus-047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">32</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">The Expansion of Rome in the Mediterranean World 265–44 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#illus-083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">68</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">The Roman Empire from 31 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> to 300 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#illus-219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">204</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">The Roman Empire in 395 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#illus-347" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">332</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">The Roman Empire and the Germanic Kingdoms in 526 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#illus-383" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">368</a></td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">The Roman Empire in 565 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell" style="text-align: right"><a href="#illus-395" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: right">380</a></td> + </tr></tbody></table> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexii">[pg xii]</span><a name="Pgxii" id="Pgxii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +</div> + <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexiii">[pg xiii]</span><a name="Pgxiii" id="Pgxiii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a><a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">INTRODUCTION</span></h1> + +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 144%; font-variant: small-caps">The Sources for the Study of Early Roman History</span></span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The student beginning the study of Roman History through the +medium of the works of modern writers cannot fail to note wide +differences in the treatment accorded by them to the early centuries +of the life of the Roman State. These differences are mainly due +to differences of opinion among moderns as to the credibility of the +ancient accounts of this period. And so it will perhaps prove helpful +to give a brief review of these sources, and to indicate the estimate +of their value which is reflected in this book. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The earliest Roman historical records were in the form of annals, +that is, brief notices of important events in connection with the +names of the consuls or other eponymous officials for each year. +They may be compared to the early monastic chronicles of the +Middle Ages. Writing was practised in Rome as early as the sixth +century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> and there can be no doubt that the names of consuls +or their substitutes were recorded from the early years of the republic, +although the form of the record is unknown. It is in the annals +that the oldest list of the consuls was preserved, the Capitoline consular +and triumphal Fasti or lists being reconstructions of the time +of Augustus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The authorship of the earliest annals is not recorded. However, +at the opening of the second century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the Roman pontiffs had +in their custody annals which purported to run back to the foundation +of the city, including the regal period. We know also that as late +as the time of the Gracchi it was customary for the Pontifex Maximus +to record on a tablet for public inspection the chief events of each +year. When this custom began is uncertain and it can only be +proven for the time when the Romans had commenced to undertake +maritime wars. From these pontifical records were compiled the +so-<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexiv">[pg xiv]</span><a name="Pgxiv" id="Pgxiv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">annales Maximi</span></span>, or chief annals, whose name permits the +belief that briefer compilations were also in existence. There were +likewise commentaries preserved in the priestly colleges, which contained +ritualistic formulæ, as well as attempted explanations of the +origins of usages and ceremonies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Apart from these annals and commentaries there existed but little +historical material before the close of the third century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> There +was no Roman literature; no trace remains of any narrative poetry, +nor of family chronicles. Brief funerary inscriptions, like that of +Scipio Barbatus, appear in the course of the third century, and +laudatory funeral orations giving the records of family achievements +seem to have come into vogue about the end of the same century. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +However, the knowledge of writing made possible the inscription +upon stone or other material of public documents which required to +be preserved with exactness. Thus laws and treaties were committed +to writing. But the Romans, unlike the Greeks, paid little attention +to the careful preservation of other documents and, until a late date, +did not even keep a record of the minor magistrates. Votive offerings +and other dedications were also inscribed, but as with the laws and +treaties, few of these survived into the days of historical writing, +owing to neglect and the destruction wrought in the city by the +Gauls in 387 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Nor had the Greeks paid much attention to Roman history prior +to the war with Pyrrhus in 281 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, although from that time +onwards Greek historians devoted themselves to the study of Roman +affairs. From this date the course of Roman history is fairly clear. +However, as early as the opening of the fourth century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the +Greeks had sought to bring the Romans into relation with other +civilized peoples of the ancient world by ascribing the foundation of +Rome to Aeneas and the exiles from Troy; a tale which had gained +acceptance in Rome by the close of the third century. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first step in Roman historical writing was taken at the close +of the Second Punic War by Quintus Fabius Pictor, who wrote in +Greek a history of Rome from its foundation to his own times. A +similar work, also in Greek, was composed by his contemporary, +Lucius Cincius Alimentus. The oldest traditions were thus wrought +into a connected version, which has been preserved in some passages +of Polybius, but to a larger extent in the fragments of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Library of +Universal History</span></span> compiled by Diodorus the Sicilian about 30 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexv">[pg xv]</span><a name="Pgxv" id="Pgxv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Existing portions of his work (books 11 to 20) cover the period +from 480 to 302 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>; and as his library is little more than a series +of excerpts his selections dealing with Roman history reflect his +sources with little contamination. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Other Roman chroniclers of the second century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> also wrote in +Greek and, although early in that century Ennius wrote his epic +relating the story of Rome from the settlement of Aeneas, it was +not until about 168 that the first historical work in Latin prose +appeared. This was the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Origins</span></span> of Marcus Porcius Cato, which +contained an account of the mythical origins of Rome and other +Italian cities, and was subsequently expanded to cover the period +from the opening of the Punic Wars to 149 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Contemporary history soon attracted the attention of the Romans +but they did not neglect the earlier period. In their treatment of +the latter new tendencies appear about the time of Sulla under +patriotic and rhetorical stimuli. The aim of historians now became +to provide the public with an account of the early days of Rome that +would be commeasurate with her later greatness, and to adorn this +narrative, in Greek fashion, with anecdotes, speeches, and detailed +descriptions, which would enliven their pages and fascinate their +readers. Their material they obtained by invention, by falsification, +and by the incorporation into Roman history of incidents from the +history of other peoples. These writers were not strictly historians, +but writers of historical romance. Their chief representative was +Valerius Antias. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Ciceronian age saw great vigor displayed in antiquarian research, +with the object of explaining the origin of ancient Roman +customs, ceremonies, institutions, monuments, and legal formulæ, and +of establishing early Roman chronology. In this field the greatest +activity was shown by Marcus Terentius Varro, whose <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antiquities</span></span> +deeply influenced his contemporaries and successors. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the age of Augustus, between 27 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> and 19 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, Livy wrote +his great history of Rome from its beginnings. His work summed +up the efforts of his predecessors and gave to the history of Rome +down to his own times the form which it preserved for the rest of +antiquity. Although it is lacking in critical acumen in the handling +of sources, and in an understanding for political and military history, +the dramatic and literary qualities of his work have ensured its +popularity. Of it there have been preserved the first ten books (to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexvi">[pg xvi]</span><a name="Pgxvi" id="Pgxvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>293 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>), and books 21 to 45 (from 218 to 167 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). A contemporary +of Livy was the Greek writer Dionysius of Halicarnassus, +who wrote a work called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Antiquities</span></span>, which covered the history +of Rome down to 265 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> The earlier part of his work has +also been preserved. In general he depended upon Varro and Livy, +and gives substantially the same view of early Roman history as +the latter. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What these later writers added to the meagre annalistic narrative +preserved in Diodorus is of little historical value, except in so far +as it shows what the Romans came to believe with regard to their +own past. The problem which faced the later Roman historians +was the one which faces writers of Roman history today, namely, +to explain the origins and early development of the Roman state. +And their explanation does not deserve more credence than a modern +reconstruction simply because they were nearer in point of time to +the period in question, for they had no wealth of historical materials +which have since been lost, and they were not animated by a desire +to reach the truth at all costs nor guided by rational principles of +historical criticism. Accordingly we must regard as mythical the +traditional narrative of the founding of Rome and of the regal period, +and for the history of the republic to the time of the war with +Pyrrhus we should rely upon the list of eponymous magistrates, +whose variations indicate political crises, supplemented by the account +in Diodorus, with the admission that this itself is not infallible. All +that supplements or deviates from this we should frankly acknowledge +to be of a hypothetical nature. Therefore we should concede +the impossibility of giving a complete and adequate account of +the history of these centuries and refrain from doing ourselves what +we criticize in the Roman historians. +</p> + +</div> +</div> +<div class="tei tei-body" style="margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page1">[pg 1]</span><a name="Pg1" id="Pg1" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a><a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">PART I</span></h1> + +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE FORERUNNERS OF ROME IN ITALY</span></h1> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page2">[pg 2]</span><a name="Pg2" id="Pg2" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page3">[pg 3]</span><a name="Pg3" id="Pg3" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<hr class="doublepage" /><p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">A HISTORY OF ROME TO 565 A. D.</span></p> +<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a><a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a> +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER I</span></h2> + +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">THE GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY</span></h2> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Italy, ribbed by the Apennines, girdled by the Alps and the sea, +juts out like a <span class="tei tei-q">“long pier-head”</span> from Europe towards the northern +coast of Africa. It includes two regions of widely differing physical +characteristics: the northern, continental; the southern, peninsular. +The peninsula is slightly larger than the continental portion: together +their area is about 91,200 square miles. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Continental Italy.</span></span> The continental portion of Italy consists of +the southern watershed of the Alps and the northern watershed of +the Apennines, with the intervening lowland plain, drained, for the +most part, by the river Po and its numerous tributaries. On the +north, the Alps extend in an irregular crescent of over 1200 miles +from the Mediterranean to the Adriatic. They rise abruptly on +the Italian side, but their northern slope is gradual, with easy passes +leading over the divide to the southern plain. Thus they invite +rather than deter immigration from central Europe. East and west +continental Italy measures around 320 miles; its width from north +to south does not exceed seventy miles. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The peninsula.</span></span> The southern portion of Italy consists of a long, +narrow peninsula, running northwest and southeast between the +Mediterranean and Adriatic seas, and terminating in two promontories, +which form the toe and heel of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Italian boot.”</span> The length +of the peninsula is 650 miles; its breadth is nowhere more than 125 +miles. In striking contrast to the plains of the Po, southern Italy +is traversed throughout by the parallel ridges of the Apennines, +which give it an endless diversity of hill and valley. The average +height of these mountains, which form a sort of vertebrate system +for the peninsula (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apennino dorso Italia dividitur</span></span>, Livy xxxvi, 15), +is about 4,000 feet, and even their highest peaks (9,500 feet) are +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page4">[pg 4]</span><a name="Pg4" id="Pg4" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>below the line of perpetual snow. The Apennine chain is highest +on its eastern side where it approaches closely to the Adriatic, leaving +only a narrow strip of coast land, intersected by numerous short +mountain torrents. On the west the mountains are lower and recede +further from the sea, leaving the wide lowland areas of Etruria, +Latium and Campania. On this side, too, are rivers of considerable +length, navigable for small craft; the Volturnus and Liris, the Tiber +and the Arno, whose valleys link the coast with the highlands of +the interior. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The </span><a name="corr004" id="corr004" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">coast-line</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700">.</span></span> In comparison with Greece, Italy presents a +striking regularity of coast-line. Throughout its length of over +2000 miles it has remarkably few deep bays or good harbors, and +these few are almost all on the southern and western shores. Thus +the character of the Mediterranean coast of Italy, with its fertile +lowlands, its rivers, its harbors, and its general southerly aspect, +rendered it more inviting and accessible to approach from the sea +than the eastern coast, and determined its leadership in the cultural +and material advancement of the peninsula. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Climate.</span></span> The climate of Italy as a whole, like that of other +Mediterranean lands, is characterized by a high average temperature, +and an absence of extremes of heat or cold. Nevertheless, it varies +greatly in different localities, according to their northern or southern +situation, their elevation, and their proximity to the sea. In the +Po valley there is a close approach to the continental climate of +central Europe, with a marked difference between summer and winter +temperatures and clearly marked transitional periods of spring and +autumn. On the other hand, in the south of the peninsula the +climate becomes more tropical, with its periods of winter rain and +summer drought, and a rapid transition between the moist and the +dry seasons. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Malaria.</span></span> Both in antiquity and in modern times the disease +from which Italy has suffered most has been the dreaded malaria. +The explanation is to be found in the presence of extensive marshy +areas in the river valleys and along the coast. The ravages of this +disease have varied according as the progress of civilization has +brought about the cultivation and drainage of the affected areas or +its decline has wrought the undoing of this beneficial work. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Forests.</span></span> In striking contrast to their present baldness, the slopes +of the Apennines were once heavily wooded, and the well-tilled +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page5">[pg 5]</span><a name="Pg5" id="Pg5" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>fields of the Po valley were also covered with tall forests. Timber +for houses and ships was to be had in abundance, and as late as the +time of Augustus Italy was held to be a well-forested country. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Minerals.</span></span> The mineral wealth of Italy has never been very great +at any time. In antiquity the most important deposits were the iron +ores of the island of Elba, and the copper mines of Etruria and +Liguria. For a time, the gold washings in the valleys of the Graian +Alps were worked with profit. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Agriculture.</span></span> The true wealth of Italy lay in the richness of her +soil, which generously repaid the labor of agriculturist or horticulturist. +The lowland areas yielded large crops of grain of all sorts—millet, +maize, wheat, oats and barley—while legumes were raised in +abundance everywhere. Campania was especially fertile and is reported +to have yielded three successive crops annually. The vine +and the olive flourished, and their cultivation eventually became even +more profitable than the raising of grain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The valleys and mountain sides afforded excellent pasturage at +all seasons, and the raising of cattle and sheep ranked next in importance +to agricultural pursuits among the country’s industries. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The </span><a name="corr005" id="corr005" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">islands</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700">: Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica.</span></span> The geographical location +of the three large islands, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, links +their history closely with that of the Italian peninsula. The large +triangle of Sicily (11,290 sq. mi.) is separated from the southwest +extremity of Italy by the narrow straits of Rhegium, and lies like +a stepping-stone between Europe and Africa. Its situation, and +the richness of its soil, which caused it to become one of the granaries +of Rome, made it of far greater historical importance than the other +two islands. Sardinia (9,400 sq. mi.) and Corsica (3,376 sq. mi.), +owing to their rugged, mountainous character and their greater remoteness +from the coast of Italy, have been always, from both the +economic and the cultural standpoint, far behind the more favored +Sicily. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The historical significance of Italy’s configuration and location.</span></span> +The configuration of the Italian peninsula, long, narrow, and +traversed by mountain ridges, hindered rather than helped its political +unification. Yet the Apennine chain, running parallel to the length +of the peninsula, offered no such serious barriers to that unification +as did the network of mountains and the long inlets that intersect +the peninsula of Greece. And when once Italy had been welded +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page6">[pg 6]</span><a name="Pg6" id="Pg6" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>into a single state by the power of Rome, its central position greatly +facilitated the extension of the Roman dominion over the whole +Mediterranean basin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The name Italia.</span></span> The name Italy is the ancient <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Italia</span></span>, derived +from the people known as the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Itali</span></span>, whose name had its origin in the +word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vitulus</span></span> (calf). It was applied by the Greeks as early as the +fifth century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> to the southwestern extremity of the peninsula, +adjacent to the island of Sicily. It rapidly acquired a much wider +significance, until, from the opening of the second century, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Italia</span></span> in +a geographical sense denoted the whole country as far north as the +Alps. Politically, as we shall see, the name for a long time had a +much more restricted significance. +</p> + +</div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page7">[pg 7]</span><a name="Pg7" id="Pg7" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a><a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a> +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER II</span></h2> + +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">PREHISTORIC CIVILIZATION IN ITALY</span></h2> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Accessibility of Italy to external influences.</span></span> The long coast-line +of the Italian peninsula rendered it peculiarly accessible to influences +from overseas, for the sea united rather than divided the +peoples of antiquity. Thus Italy was constantly subjected to immigration +by sea, and much more so to cultural stimuli from the lands +whose shores bordered the same seas as her own. Nor did the Alps +and the forests and swamps of the Po valley oppose any effectual +barrier to migrations and cultural influences from central Europe. +Consequently we have in Italy the meeting ground of peoples coming +by sea from east and south and coming over land from the north, +each bringing a new racial, linguistic, and cultural element to enrich +the life of the peninsula. These movements had been going on since +remote antiquity, until, at the beginning of the period of recorded +history, Italy was occupied by peoples of different races, speaking +different languages, and living under widely different political and +cultural conditions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As yet many problems connected with the origin and migrations +of the historic peoples of Italy remain unsolved; but the sciences of +archaeology and philology have done much toward enabling us to +present a reasonably clear and connected picture of the development +of civilization and the movements of these peoples in prehistoric +times. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Old Stone Age.</span></span> From all over Italy come proofs of the +presence of man in the earliest stage of human development—the +Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. The chipped flint instruments of this +epoch have been found in considerable abundance, and are chiefly of +the Moustérien and Chelléen types. With these have been unearthed +the bones of the cave bear, cave lion, cave hyena, giant stag, and +early types of the rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and elephant, which +Paleolithic man fought and hunted. In the Balzi Rossi caves, near +Ventimiglia in Liguria, there have been found human skeletons, some +of which, at least, are agreed to be of the Paleolithic Age. But the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page8">[pg 8]</span><a name="Pg8" id="Pg8" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>caves in Liguria and elsewhere, then the only habitations which men +knew, do not reveal the lifelike and vigorous mural drawings and +carvings on bone, which the Old Stone Age has left in the caves of +France and Spain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The New Stone Age.</span></span> With the Neolithic or New Stone Age +there appears in Italy a civilization characterized by the use of instruments +of polished stone. Axes, adzes, and chisels, of various +shapes and sizes, as well as other utensils, were shaped by polishing +and grinding from sandstone, limestone, jade, nephrite, diorite, and +other stones. Along with these, however, articles of chipped flint +and obsidian, for which the workshops have been found, and also +instruments of bone, were in common use. The Neolithic people +were also acquainted with the art of making pottery, an art unknown +to the Paleolithic Age. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Like the men of the preceding epoch, those of the Neolithic Age +readily took up their abode in natural caves. However, they also +built for themselves villages of circular huts of wicker-work and +clay, at times erected over pits excavated in the ground. Such village +sites, the so-called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fonde di capanne</span></span>, are widely distributed +throughout Italy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +They buried their dead in caves, or in pits dug in the ground, +sometimes lining the pit with stones. The corpse was regularly +placed in a contracted position, accompanied by weapons, vases, clothing, +and food. Second burials and the practice of coloring the bones +of the skeletons with red pigment were in vogue. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Climatic change.</span></span> The climate of Italy had changed considerably +from that of the preceding age, and a new fauna had appeared. In +place of the primitive elephant and his associates, Neolithic men +hunted the stag, beaver, bear, fox, wolf and wild boar. Remains +of such domestic animals as the ox, horse, sheep, goat, pig, dog, +and ass, show that they were a pastoral although not an agricultural +people. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">A new racial element.</span></span> The use of polished stone weapons, +the manufacture of pottery, the hut villages and a uniform system +of burial rites distinguished the Neolithic from the Paleolithic civilization. +And, because of these differences, especially because of the +introduction of this system of burial which argues a distinctive set +of religious beliefs, in addition to the fact that the development of +this civilization from that which preceded cannot be traced on Italian +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page9">[pg 9]</span><a name="Pg9" id="Pg9" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>soil, it is held with reason that at the opening of the Neolithic Age +a new race entered Italy, bringing with it the Neolithic culture. +Here and there men of the former age may have survived and copied +the arts of the newcomers, but throughout the whole peninsula the +racial unity of the population is shown by the uniformity of their +burial customs. The inhabitants of Sicily and Sardinia in this age +had a civilization of the same type as that on the mainland. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Ligurians probably a Neolithic people.</span></span> It is highly probable +that one of the historic peoples of Italy was a direct survival +from the Neolithic period. This was the people called the Ligures +(Ligurians), who to a late date maintained themselves in the mountainous +district around the Gulf of Genoa. In support of this view +it may be urged (1) that tradition regarded them as one of the oldest +peoples of Italy, (2) that even when Rome was the dominant state +in Italy they occupied the whole western portion of the Po valley +and extended southward almost to Pisa, while they were believed +to have held at one time a much wider territory, (3) that at the +opening of our own era they were still in a comparatively barbarous +state, living in caves and rude huts, and (4) that the Neolithic culture +survived longest in this region, which was unaffected by the migrations +of subsequent ages. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Aeneolithic Age.</span></span> The introduction of the use of copper +marks the transition from the Neolithic period to that called the +Aeneolithic, or Stone and Copper Age. This itself is but a prelude +to the true Bronze Age. Apparently copper first found its way into +Italy along the trade routes from the Danube valley and from the +eastern Mediterranean, while the local deposits were as yet unworked. +In other respects there is no great difference between the Neolithic +civilization and the Aeneolithic, and there is no evidence to place +the entrance of a new race into Italy at this time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Bronze Age.</span></span> The Bronze Age proper in Italy is marked by +the appearance of a new type of civilization—that of the builders of +the pile villages. There are two distinct forms of pile village. The +one, called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">palafitte</span></span>, is a true lake village, raised on a pile structure +above the waters of the surrounding lake or marsh. The other, called +<span class="tei tei-hi"><a name="corr009" id="corr009" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-style: italic">terramare</span></span></span>, is a pile village constructed on solid ground and surrounded +by an artificial moat. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The palafitte.</span></span> The traces of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">palafitte</span></span> are fairly closely confined +to the Alpine lake region of Italy from Lake Maggiore to Lake +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page10">[pg 10]</span><a name="Pg10" id="Pg10" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Garda. In general, these lake villages date from an early stage of +Bronze Age culture, for later on, in most cases, their inhabitants seem +to have abandoned them for sites on dry land further to the south. +The lake-dwellers were hunters and herdsmen, but they practised +agriculture as well, raising corn and millet. In addition to their +bronze implements, they continued to use those of more primitive +materials—bone and stone. They, too, manufactured a characteristic +sort of pottery, of rather rude workmanship, which differs strikingly +from that of the Neolithic Age. In the late Bronze Age, at any +rate, they cremated their dead and buried the ashes in funerary urns. +For their earlier practice evidence is lacking. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The terramare.</span></span> The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">terramare</span></span> settlements are found chiefly in +the Po valley; to the north of that river around Mantua, and to the +south between Piacenza and Bologna. Scattered villages have been +found throughout the peninsula; one as far south as Taranto. The +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">terramare</span></span> village was regularly constructed in the form of a trapezoid, +with a north and south orientation. It was surrounded by an earthen +wall, around the base of which ran a wide moat, supplied with running +water from a neighboring stream. Access to the settlement was +had by a single wooden bridge, easy to destroy in time of danger. +The space within the wall was divided in the center by a main road +running north and south the whole length of the settlement. It was +paralleled by some narrower roads and intersected at right angles by +others. On one side of this main highway was a space surrounded +by an inner moat, crossed by a bridge. This area was uninhabited +and probably devoted to religious purposes. The dwellings were +built on pile foundations along the roadways. Outside the moat was +placed the cemetery. The dead were cremated and the ashes deposited +in ossuary urns, which were laid side by side in the burial +places. The remains were rarely accompanied by anything but some +smaller vases placed in the ossuary. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The terramare civilization.</span></span> With the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">terramare</span></span> people bronze +had almost completely supplanted stone instruments. Bronze daggers, +swords, axes, arrowheads, spearheads, razors, and pins have been +preserved in abundance. However, articles of bone and of horn were +also in general use. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">terramare</span></span> civilization had likewise its special +type of hand-made pottery of peculiar shapes and ornamentation. +A characteristic form of ornamentation was the crescent-shaped handle +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ansa lunata</span></span>). The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">terramare</span></span> peoples were both agricultural and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page11">[pg 11]</span><a name="Pg11" id="Pg11" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>pastoral, cultivating wheat and flax and raising the better known domestic +animals; while they also hunted the stag and the wild boar. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The peoples of the palafitte and the terramare.</span></span> Owing to +their custom of dwelling in pile villages, their practice of cremating +their dead, and other characteristics peculiar to their type of civilization, +the peoples of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">palafitte</span></span> and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">terramare</span></span> are believed to +have introduced a new racial element into Italy. The former probably +descended from the Swiss lake region, while the latter probably +came from the valley of the Danube. These peoples, abandoning the +lakes and marshes of the Po valley, spread southward over the peninsula. +Because of this expansion and because of the striking similarity +between the design of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">terramare</span></span> settlements and that of the +Roman fortified camps, it has been suggested that they were the forerunners +of the Italian peoples of historic times. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Other types of Bronze Age culture in Italy.</span></span> The Neolithic +population of northern Italy developed a Bronze Age civilization +under the stimulus of contact with the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">terramare</span></span> people and the lake-dwellers. +In the southern part of the peninsula and in Sicily, however, +the Bronze Age developed more independently, although showing +decided traces of influences from the eastern Mediterranean. Only +in its later stages does it show the effect of the southward migration +of the builders of the pile villages. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Iron Age.</span></span> The prehistoric Iron Age in Italy has left extensive +remains in the northern and central regions, but such is by no +means the case in the south. The most important center of this +civilization was at Villanova, near Bologna. Here, again, we have +to do with a new type of civilization, which is not a development of +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">terramare</span></span> culture. In addition to the use of iron, this age is +marked by the practice of cremation, with the employment of burial +urns of a distinctive type, placed in well tombs (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tombe a pozzo</span></span>). +In Etruria, to the south of the Apennines, the Early Iron Age is of +the Villanova type. It seems fairly certain that both in Umbria and +in Etruria this civilization is the work of the Umbrians, who at one +time occupied the territory on both sides of the Apennines. Regarding +the migration of the Umbrians into Italy we know nothing, but it +seems probable that their civilization had its rise in central Europe. +The later Iron Age civilization both in Etruria and northward of the +Apennines has been identified as that of the Etruscans. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Latium.</span></span> In Latium the Iron Age civilization is a development + un<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page12">[pg 12]</span><a name="Pg12" id="Pg12" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>der Villanovan influences. Here a distinctive feature is the use of +a hut-shaped urn to receive the ashes of the dead. This urn was +itself deposited in a larger burial urn. This civilization is that of +the historic Latins, to whom belong also the hill villages of Latium +and the walled towns, constructed between the eighth and the sixth +centuries <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Elsewhere in the northern part of Italy in the Iron Age we have +to do with a culture developing out of that of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">terramare</span></span> period. +Likewise in the east and south of the peninsula the Iron Age is a +local development under outside stimulus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The preceding sketch of the rise of civilization in Italy has brought +us down to the point where we have to do with the peoples who occupied +Italian soil at the beginning of the historic period, for from the +sixth century it is possible to attempt a connected historical record of +the movements of these Italian races. +</p> + +</div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page13">[pg 13]</span><a name="Pg13" id="Pg13" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a><a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a> +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER III</span></h2> + +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">THE PEOPLES OF HISTORIC ITALY: THE ETRUSCANS; THE GREEKS</span></h2> +<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a><a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. The Peoples of Italy</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the close of the sixth century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, the soil of Italy was occupied +by many peoples of diverse language and origin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Ligurians.</span></span> The northwest corner of Italy, including the Po +valley as far east as the river Ticinus and the coast as far south as the +Arno, was occupied by the Ligurians. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Veneti.</span></span> On the opposite side of the continental part of Italy, +in the lowlands to the north of the Po between the Alps and the +Adriatic, dwelt the Veneti, whose name is perpetuated in modern +Venice. They are generally believed to have been a people of +Illyrian origin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Euganei.</span></span> In the mountain valleys, to the east and west of +Lake Garda, lived the Euganei, a people of little historical importance, +whose racial connections are as yet unknown. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Etruscans.</span></span> The central plain of the Po, between the Ligurians +to the west and the Veneti to the east, was controlled by the +Etruscans. Their territory stretched northwards to the Alps and +eastwards to the Adriatic coast. They likewise occupied the district +called after them, Etruria, to the south of the Apennines, between +the Arno and the Tiber. Throughout all this area the Etruscans +were the dominant element, although it was partly peopled by subject +Ligurians and Italians. Etruscan colonies were also established +in Campania. +</p> + <a name="illus-029" id="illus-029" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/illus-029.png" alt="The Peoples of Italy about 500 B. C." /></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Italians.</span></span> Over the central and southwestern portion of the +peninsula were spread a number of peoples speaking more or less +closely related dialects of a common, Indo-germanic, tongue. Of +these, the Latini, the Aurunci (Ausones), the Osci (Opici), the +Oenotri, and the Itali occupied, in the order named, the western coast +from the Tiber to the Straits of Rhegium. Between the valley of +the upper Tiber and the Adriatic were the Umbri, while to the south +of these, in the valleys of the central Apennines and along the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page15">[pg 15]</span><a name="Pg15" id="Pg15" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Adriatic coast, were settled the so-called Sabellian peoples, chief of +whom were the Sabini, the Picentes, the Vestini, the Frentani, the +Marsi, the Aequi, the Hernici, the Volsci, and the Samnites. As we +have noted, one of these peoples, the Itali, gave their name to the whole +country to the south of the Alps, and eventually to this group of peoples +in general, whom we call Italians, as distinct from the other races +who inhabited Italy in antiquity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Iapygians.</span></span> Along the eastern coast from the promontory of +Mt. Garganus southwards were located the Iapygians; most probably, +like the Veneti, an Illyrian folk. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Greeks.</span></span> The western and southern shores of Italy, from the +Bay of Naples to Tarentum, were fringed with a chain of Hellenic +settlements. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The peoples of Sicily.</span></span> The Greeks had likewise colonized the +eastern and southern part of the island of Sicily. The central portion +of the island was still occupied by the Sicans and the Sicels, +peoples who were in possession of Sicily prior to the coming of the +Greeks, and whom some regard as an Italian, others as a Ligurian, +or Iberian, element. In the extreme west of Sicily were wedged in +the small people of the Elymians, another ethnographic puzzle. +Here too the Phoenicians from Carthage had firmly established themselves. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Iberians in Sardinia and Corsica.</span></span> The inhabitants of Sardinia +and Corsica, islands which were unaffected by the migrations subsequent +to the Neolithic Age, are believed to have been of the same +stock as the Iberians of the Spanish peninsula. The Etruscans had +their colonies in eastern Corsica and the Carthaginians had obtained +a footing on the southern and western coasts of Sardinia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From this survey of the peoples of Italy at the close of the sixth +century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, we can see that to the topographical obstacles placed by +nature in the path of the political unification of Italy there was added +a still more serious difficulty—that of racial and cultural antagonism. +</p> +</div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc19" id="toc19"></a><a name="pdf20" id="pdf20"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The Etruscans</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Etruria.</span></span> About the opening of the eighth century, the region to +the north of the Tiber, west and south of the Apennines, was occupied +by the people whom the Greeks called Tyrseni or Tyrreni, the +Romans Etrusci or Tusci, but who styled themselves Rasenna. Their +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page16">[pg 16]</span><a name="Pg16" id="Pg16" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>name still clings to this section of Italy (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">la Toscana</span></span>), which to the +Romans was known as Etruria. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The origin of the Etruscans.</span></span> Racially and linguistically the +Etruscans differed from both Italians and Hellenes, and their presence +in Italy was long a problem to historians. Now, however, it is +generally agreed that their own ancient tradition, according to which +they were immigrants from the shores of the Aegean Sea, is correct. +They were probably one of the pre-Hellenic races of the Aegean +basin, where a people called Tyrreni were found as late as the fifth +century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, and it has been suggested that they are to be identified +with the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tursha</span></span>, who appear among the Aegean invaders of Egypt +in the thirteenth century. Leaving their former abode during the +disturbances caused by the Hellenic occupation of the Aegean islands +and the west coast of Asia Minor, they eventually found a new home +on the western shore of Italy. Here they imposed their rule and their +civilization upon the previous inhabitants. The subsequent presence +of the two elements in the population of Etruria is well attested by +archaeological evidence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Walled towns.</span></span> The Etruscans regularly built their towns on +hill-tops which admitted of easy defence, but, in addition, they fortified +these towns with strong walls of stone, sometimes constructed +of rude polygonal blocks and at other times of dressed stone laid in +regular courses. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Tombs.</span></span> However, the most striking memorials of the presence +of the Etruscans are their elaborate tombs. Their cemeteries contain +sepulchres of two types—trench tombs (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tombe a fossa</span></span>) and chamber +tombs (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tombe a camera</span></span>). The latter, a development of the former +type, are hewn in the rocky hillsides. The Etruscans practised inhumation, +depositing the dead in a stone sarcophagus. However, +under the influence of the Italian peoples with whom they came into +contact, they also employed cremation to a considerable extent. Their +larger chamber tombs were evidently family burial vaults, and were +decorated with reliefs cut on their rocky walls or with painted friezes, +from which we derive most of our information regarding the Etruscan +appearance, dress, and customs. Objects of Phoenician and Greek +manufacture found in these tombs show that the Etruscans traded +with Carthage and the Greeks as early as the seventh century. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Etruscan industries.</span></span> The Etruscans worked the iron mines of +Elba and the copper deposits on the mainland. Their bronzes, +espe<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page17">[pg 17]</span><a name="Pg17" id="Pg17" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>cially their mirrors and candelabra, enjoyed high repute even in +fifth-century Athens. Their goldsmiths, too, fashioned elaborate +ornaments of great technical excellence. Etruria also produced the +type of black pottery with a high polish known as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">bucchero nero</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Etruscan art.</span></span> In general, Etruscan art as revealed in wall paintings +and in the decorations of vases and mirrors displays little originality +in choice of subjects or manner of treatment. In most cases it +is a direct and not too successful imitation of Greek models, rarely +attaining the grace and freedom of the originals. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Architecture.</span></span> In their architecture, however, although even here +affected by foreign influences, the Etruscans displayed more originality +and were the teachers of the Romans and other Italians. They +made great use of the arch and vault, they created distinctive types +of column and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">atrium</span></span> (both later called Etruscan) and they developed +a form of temple architecture, marked by square structures +with a high <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">podium</span></span> and a portico as deep as the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cella</span></span>. Their mural +architecture has been referred to already. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Writing.</span></span> Knowledge of the art of writing reached the Etruscans +from the Greek colony of Cyme, whence they adopted the Chalcidian +form of the Greek alphabet. Several thousand inscriptions in Etruscan +have been preserved, but so far all attempts to translate their +language have failed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Religion.</span></span> The religion of the Etruscans was characterized by the +great stress laid upon the art of divination and augury. Certain features +of this art, especially the use of the liver for divination, appear +to strengthen the evidence that connects the Etruscans with the eastern +Mediterranean. For them the after-world was peopled by powerful, +malicious spirits: a belief which gives a gloomy aspect to their +religion. Their circle of native gods was enlarged by the addition +of Hellenic and Italian divinities and their mythology was greatly +influenced by that of Greece. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Commerce.</span></span> The Etruscans were mariners before they settled on +Italian soil and long continued to be a powerful maritime people. +They early established commercial relations with the Carthaginians +and the Greeks, as is evidenced by the contents of their tombs and +the influence of Greece upon their civilization in general. But they, +as well as the Carthaginians, were jealous of Greek expansion in the +western Mediterranean, and in 536 a combined fleet of these two +peoples forced the Phoceans to abandon their settlement on the island +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page18">[pg 18]</span><a name="Pg18" id="Pg18" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>of Corsica. For the Greeks their name came to be synonymous with +pirates, on account of their depredations which extended even as far +as the Aegean. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Government.</span></span> In Etruria there existed a league of twelve Etruscan +cities. However, as we know of as many as seventeen towns in this +region, it is probable that several cities were not independent members +of the league. This league was a very loose organization, religious +rather than political in its character, which did not impair the +sovereignty of its individual members. Only occasionally do several +cities seem to have joined forces for the conduct of military enterprises. +The cities at an early period were ruled by kings, but later +were under the control of powerful aristocratic families, each backed +by numerous retainers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Expansion north of the Apennines, in Latium and in Campania.</span></span> +In the course of the sixth century the Etruscans crossed the +Apennines and occupied territory in the Po valley northwards to the +Alps and eastwards to the Adriatic. Somewhat earlier, towards the +end of the seventh century, they forced their way through Latium, +established themselves in Campania, where they founded the cities of +Capua and Nola, and gradually completed the subjugation of Latium +itself. This marks the extreme limits of their expansion in Italy, +and before the opening of the fifth century their power was already +on the wane. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The decline of the Etruscan power.</span></span> It was about this time that +Rome freed itself from Etruscan domination, while the other Latins, +aided by Aristodemus, the Greek tyrant of Cyme, inflicted a severe +defeat upon the Etruscans at Aricia (505 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). A land and sea +attack upon Cyme itself, in 474, resulted in the destruction of the +Etruscan fleet by Hieron, tyrant of Syracuse. The year 438 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +saw the end of the Etruscan power in Campania with the fall of +Capua before a Samnite invasion. Not long afterwards, as we shall +see, a Celtic invasion drove them from the valley of the Po. The +explanation of this rapid collapse of the Etruscan power outside +Etruria proper is that, owing to the lack of political unity, these conquests +were not national efforts but were made by independent bands +of adventurers. These failed to assimilate the conquered populations +and after a few generations were overthrown by native revolutions +or outside invasions, especially since there was no Etruscan nation +to protect them in time of need. Thus failure to develop a strong +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page19">[pg 19]</span><a name="Pg19" id="Pg19" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>national state was the chief reason why the Etruscans did not unite +Italy under their dominion, as they gave promise of doing in the +course of the sixth century. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The significance of the Etruscans in the history of Italy.</span></span> +Our general impression of the Etruscans is that they were a wealthy, +luxury-loving people, quick to appreciate and adopt the achievements +of others, but somewhat lacking in originality themselves. Cruel, +they took delight in gladiatorial combats, especially in Campania, +where the Romans learned this custom. Bold and energetic warriors, +as their conquests show, they lacked the spirit of discipline +and coöperation, and were incapable of developing a stable political +organization. Nevertheless, they played an important part in the +cultural development of Italy, even though here their chief mission +was the bringing of the Italian peoples into contact with Hellenic +civilization. +</p> +</div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc21" id="toc21"></a><a name="pdf22" id="pdf22"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. The Greeks</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Greek colonization.</span></span> As early as the eighth century the Greeks +had begun their colonizing activity in the western Mediterranean, and, +in the course of the next two centuries, they had settled the eastern +and southern shores of Sicily, stretched a chain of settlements on the +Italian coast from Tarentum to the Bay of Naples, and established +themselves at the mouth of the Rhone and on the Riviera. The opposition +of Carthage shut them out from the western end of Sicily, and +from Spain; the Etruscans closed to them Italy north of the Tiber; +while the joint action of these two peoples excluded them from Sardinia +and Corsica. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the fifth century these Greek cities in Sicily and Italy were at +the height of their power and prosperity. In Sicily they had penetrated +from the coast far into the interior where they had brought the +Sicels under their domination. By the victory of Himera, in 480 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Gelon of Syracuse secured the Sicilian Greeks in the possession +of the greater part of the island and freed them from all danger of +Carthaginian invasion for over seventy years. Six years later, his +brother and successor, Hieron, in a naval battle off Cyme, struck a +crushing blow at the Etruscan naval power and delivered the mainland +Greeks from all fear of Etruscan aggression. The extreme +southwestern projection of the Italian peninsula had passed +com<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page20">[pg 20]</span><a name="Pg20" id="Pg20" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>pletely under Greek control, but north as far as Posidonia and east +to Tarentum their territory did not extend far from the seaboard. +In these areas they had occupied the territory of the Itali and +Oenotrians, while on the north of the Bay of Naples Cyme, Dicaearchia, +and Neapolis (Naples) were established in the land of the +Opici (Osci). The name Great Greece, given by the Hellenes to +South Italy, shows how firmly they were established there. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Lack of political unity.</span></span> However, the Greeks possessed even less +political cohesion than did the Etruscans. Each colony was itself a +city-state, a sovereign independent community, owning no political +allegiance to its mother city. Thus New Greece reproduced all the +political characteristics of the Old. Only occasionally, in times of +extreme peril, did even a part of the Greek cities lay aside their +mutual jealousies and unite their forces in the common cause. Such +larger political structures as the tyrants of Syracuse built up by the +subjugation of other cities were purely ephemeral, barely outliving +their founders. The individual cities also were greatly weakened by +incessant factional strife within their walls. The result of this disunion +was to restrict the Greek expansion and, eventually, to pave +the way for the conquest of the western Greeks by the Italian +<span class="tei tei-q">“barbarians.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The decline of the Greek power in Italy and Sicily.</span></span> Even +before the close of the fifth century, the decline of the Western Greeks +had begun. In Italy their cities were subjected to repeated assaults +from the expanding Samnite peoples of the central Apennines. In +421, Cyme fell into the hands of a Samnite horde, and from that time +onwards the Greek cities further south were engaged in a struggle for +existence with the Lucanians and the Bruttians, peoples of Samnite +stock. In Sicily the Carthaginians renewed their assault upon the +Greeks in 408 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> For a time (404–367) the genius and energy +of Dionysius I, tyrant of Syracuse, welded the cities of the island and +the mainland into an empire which enabled them to make head +against their foes. But his empire had only been created by breaking +the power of the free cities, and after his death they were left +more disunited and weaker than ever. After further warfare, by 339, +Carthage remained in permanent occupation of the western half of the +island of Sicily, while in Italy only a few Greek towns, such as +Tarentum, Thurii, and Rhegium, were able to maintain themselves, +and that with ever increasing difficulty, against the rising tide of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page21">[pg 21]</span><a name="Pg21" id="Pg21" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Italians. Even by the middle of the fourth century an observant +Greek predicted the speedy disappearance of the Greek language in +the west before that of the Carthaginians or Oscans. However, their +final struggles must be postponed for later consideration. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The rôle of the Greeks in Italian history.</span></span> It was the coming +of the Greeks that brought Italy into the light of history, and into +contact with the more advanced civilization of the eastern Mediterranean. +From the Greek geographers and historians we derive our +earliest information regarding the Italian peoples, and they, too, +shaped the legends that long passed for early Italian history. The +presence of the Greek towns in Italy gave a tremendous stimulus to +the cultural development of the Italians, both by direct intercourse +and indirectly through the agency of the Etruscans. In this spreading +of Greek influences, Cyme, the most northerly of the Greek colonies +and one of the earliest, played a very important part. It was +from Cyme that the Romans as well as the Etruscans took their alphabet. +The more highly developed Greek political institutions, Greek +art, Greek literature, and Greek mythology found a ready reception +among the Italian peoples and profoundly affected their political and +intellectual progress. Traces of this Greek influence are nowhere +more noticeable than in the case of Rome itself, and the +cultural <a name="corr021" id="corr021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">ascendancy</span> which Greece thus early established over Rome +was destined to last until the fall of the Roman Empire. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page22">[pg 22]</span><a name="Pg22" id="Pg22" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +</div> +</div></div><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page23">[pg 23]</span><a name="Pg23" id="Pg23" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc23" id="toc23"></a><a name="pdf24" id="pdf24"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">PART II</span></h1> + +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE PRIMITIVE MONARCHY AND THE REPUBLIC: + </span><br /><span style="font-size: 173%"> +FROM PREHISTORIC TIMES TO 27 B. C.</span></h1> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page24">[pg 24]</span><a name="Pg24" id="Pg24" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="illus-039" id="illus-039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/illus-039.png" alt="The Environs of Rome" /></div> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page25">[pg 25]</span><a name="Pg25" id="Pg25" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc25" id="toc25"></a><a name="pdf26" id="pdf26"></a> +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER IV</span></h2> + +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">EARLY ROME TO THE FALL OF THE MONARCHY</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<a name="toc27" id="toc27"></a><a name="pdf28" id="pdf28"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. The Latins</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Latium and the Latins.</span></span> The district to the south of the Tiber, +extending along the coast to the promontory of Circeii and from the +coast inland to the slopes of the Apennines, was called in antiquity +Latium. Its inhabitants, at the opening of the historic period, were +the Latins (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Latini</span></span>), a branch of the Italian stock, perhaps mingled +with the remnants of an older population. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +They were mainly an agricultural and pastoral people, who had +settled on the land in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pagi</span></span>, or cantons, naturally or artificially defined +rural districts. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pagus</span></span> constituted a rude political and religious +unit. Its population lived scattered in their homesteads. If +some few of the homesteads happened to be grouped together, they +constituted a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vicus</span></span>, which, however, had neither a political nor a +religious organization. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At one or more points within the cantons there soon developed +small towns (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">oppida</span></span>), usually located on hilltops and fortified, at +first with earthen, later with stone, walls. These towns served as +market-places and as points of refuge in time of danger for the people +of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pagus</span></span>. There developed an artisan and mercantile element, +and there the aristocratic element of the population early took up +their abode, i. e., the wealthier landholders, who could leave to others +the immediate oversight of their estates. And so these <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">oppida</span></span> became +the centers of government for the surrounding <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pagi</span></span>. It is very +doubtful if the Latins as a whole were ever united in a single state. +But even if that had once been the case, this loosely organized state +must early have been broken up into a number of smaller units. +These were the various <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">populi</span></span>; that is, the cantons with their <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">oppida</span></span>. +The names of some sixty-five of these towns are known, but before +the close of the sixth century many of the smaller of them had been +merged with their more powerful neighbors. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Latin League.</span></span> The realization of the racial unity of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page26">[pg 26]</span><a name="Pg26" id="Pg26" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Latins was expressed in the annual festival of Jupiter Latiaris celebrated +on the Alban Mount. For a long time also the Latin cities +formed a league, of which there were thirty members according to +tradition. Actually, about the middle of the fifth century there were +only some eight cities participating in the association upon an independent +footing. The central point of the league was the grove and +temple of Diana at Aricia, and it was in the neighborhood of Aricia +that the meetings of the assembly of the league were held. The +league possessed a very loose organization, but we know of a common +executive head—the Latin dictator. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc29" id="toc29"></a><a name="pdf30" id="pdf30"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The Origins of Rome</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The site of Rome.</span></span> Rome, the Latin <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roma</span></span>, is situated on the +Tiber about fifteen miles from the sea. The Rome of the later Republic +and the Empire, the City of the Seven Hills, included the +three isolated eminences of the Capitoline, Palatine and Aventine, and +the spurs of the adjoining plateau, called the Quirinal, Viminal, +Esquiline, and Caelian. Other ground, also on the left bank of the +river, and likewise part of Mount Janiculum, across the Tiber, were +included in the city. But this extent was only attained after a long +period of growth, and early Rome was a town of much smaller +area. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The growth of the city.</span></span> Late Roman historians placed the +founding of Rome about the year 753 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, and used this date as a +basis for Roman chronology. However, it is absolutely impossible +to assign anything like a definite date for the establishment of the +city. Excavations have revealed that in the early Iron Age several +distinct settlements were perched upon the Roman hills, separated +from one another by low, marshy ground, flooded by the Tiber at +high water. These were probably typical Latin walled villages +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">oppida</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At a very early date some of these villages formed a religious union +commemorated in the festival of the Septimontium or Seven Mounts. +These <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">montes</span></span> were crests of the Palatine, Esquiline and Caelian hills, +perhaps each the site of a separate settlement. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But the earliest city to which we can with certainty give the name +of Rome is of later date than the establishment of the Septimontium. +It is the Rome of the Four Regions—the Palatina, Esquilina, +Col<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page27">[pg 27]</span><a name="Pg27" id="Pg27" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>lina and Sucusana (later Suburana)—which included the Quirinal, +Viminal, Esquiline, Caelian and Palatine hills, as well as the intervening +low ground. Within the boundary of this city, but not +included in the four regions, was the Capitoline, which had separate +fortifications and served as the citadel (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">arx</span></span>). It may be that +the organization of this city of the Four Regions was effected by +Etruscan conquerors, for the name Roma seems to be of Etruscan +origin, and, for the Romans, an <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">urbs</span></span>, as they called Rome, was merely +an <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">oppidum</span></span> of which the limits had been marked out according to +Etruscan ritual. The consecrated boundary line drawn in this manner +was called the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pomerium</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Aventine Hill, as well as the part of the plateau back of the +Esquiline, was only brought within the city walls in the fourth +century, and remained outside the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pomerium</span></span> until the time of +Claudius. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The location of Rome, on the Tiber at a point where navigation +for sea-going vessels terminated and where an island made easy the +passage from bank to bank, marked it as a place of commercial importance. +It was at the same time the gateway between Latium and +Etruria and the natural outlet for the trade of the Tiber valley. +Furthermore, its central position in the Italian peninsula gave it a +strategic advantage in its wars for the conquest of Italy. But the +greatness of Rome was not the result of its geographic advantages: +it was the outgrowth of the energy and political capacity of its people, +qualities which became a national heritage because of the character +of the early struggles of the Roman state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Although it is very probable that the historic population of Rome +was the result of a fusion of several racial elements—Latin, Sabine, +Etruscan, and even pre-Italian, nevertheless the Romans were essentially +a Latin people. In language, in religion, in political institutions, +they were characteristically Latin, and their history is inseparably +connected with that of the Latins as a whole. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc31" id="toc31"></a><a name="pdf32" id="pdf32"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. The Early Monarchy</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The tradition.</span></span> The traditional story of the founding of Rome +is mainly the work of Greek writers of the third century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, who +desired to find a link between the new world-power Rome and the +older centers of civilization: while the account of the reign of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page28">[pg 28]</span><a name="Pg28" id="Pg28" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Seven Kings is a reconstruction on the part of Roman annalists and +antiquarians, intended to explain the origins of Roman political and +religious institutions. And, in fact, owing to the absence of any +even relatively contemporaneous records (a lack from which the +Roman historians suffered as well as ourselves) it is impossible to +attempt an historical account of the period of kingly rule. We can +improve but little on the brief statement of Tacitus (i, 1 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ann.</span></span>)—<span class="tei tei-q">“At +first kings ruled the city Rome.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The kingship.</span></span> The existence of the kingship itself is beyond +dispute, owing to the strength of the Roman tradition on this point +and the survival of the title <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rex</span></span> or king in the priestly office of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rex +sacrorum</span></span>. It seems certain, too, that the last of the Roman kings +were Etruscans and belong to the period of Etruscan domination in +Rome and Latium. As far as can be judged, the Roman monarchy +was not purely hereditary but elective within the royal family, like +that of the primitive Greek states, where the king was the head of one +of a group of noble families, chosen by the nobles and approved by +the people as a whole. About the end of the sixth century the kingship +was deprived of its political functions, and remained at Rome +solely as a lifelong priestly office. It is possible that there had been +a gradual decline of the royal authority before the growing power of +the nobles as had been the case at Athens, but it is very probable +that the final step in this change coincided with the fall of an Etruscan +dynasty and the passing of the control of the state into the hands +of the Latin nobility (about 508 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Institutions of the regal period.</span></span> The royal power was not +absolute, for the exercise thereof was tempered by custom, by the lack +of any elaborate machinery of government, and by the practical necessity +for the king to avoid alienating the good will of the community. +The views of the aristocracy were voiced in the Senate +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">senatus</span></span>) or Council of Elders, which developed into a council of +nobles, a body whose functions were primarily advisory in character. +From a very early date the Roman people were divided into thirty +groups called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiae</span></span>, and these <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiae</span></span> served as the units in the +organization of the oldest popular assembly—the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia curiata</span></span>. +Membership in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiae</span></span> was probably hereditary, and each <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curia</span></span> +had its special cult, which was maintained long after the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiae</span></span> had +lost their political importance. The primitive assembly of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiae</span></span> +was convoked at the pleasure of the king to hear matters of interest +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page29">[pg 29]</span><a name="Pg29" id="Pg29" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>to the whole community. It did not have legislative power, but such +important steps as the declaration of war or the appointment of a +new <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rex</span></span> required its formal sanction. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Expansion under the kings.</span></span> Under the kings Rome grew to be +the chief city in Latium, having absorbed several smaller Latin communities +in the immediate neighborhood, extended her territory on +the left bank of the Tiber to the seacoast, where the seaport of Ostia +was founded, and even conquered Alba Longa, the former religious +center of the Latins. It is possible that by the end of the regal period +Rome exercised a general suzerainty over the cities of the Latin plain. +The period of Etruscan domination failed to alter the Latin character +of the Roman people and left its traces chiefly in official paraphernalia, +religious practices (such as the employment of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">haruspices</span></span>), +military organization, and in Etruscan influences in Roman art. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc33" id="toc33"></a><a name="pdf34" id="pdf34"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. Early Roman Society</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Populus Romanus.</span></span> The oldest name of the Romans was +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quirites</span></span>, a name which long survived in official phraseology, but +which was superseded by the name <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Romani</span></span>, derived from that of the +city itself. The whole body of those who were eligible to render +military service, to participate in the public religious rites and to attend +the meetings of the popular assembly, with their families, constituted +the Roman state—the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">populus Romanus</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Patricians and Plebeians.</span></span> At the close of the regal period the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">populus Romanus</span></span> comprised two distinct social and political classes. +These were the Patricians and the Plebeians. A very considerable +element of the latter class was formed by the Clients. These class +distinctions had grown up gradually under the economic and social +influences of the early state; and, in antiquity, were not confined to +Rome but appeared in many of the Greek communities also at a +similar stage of their development. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Patricians were the aristocracy. Their influence rested upon +their wealth as great landholders, their superiority in military equipment +and training, their clan organization, and the support of their +clients. Their position in the community assured to them political +control, and they had early monopolized the right to sit in the Senate. +The members of the Senate were called collectively <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">patres</span></span>, whence the +name <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">patricii</span></span> (patricians) was given to all the members of their +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page30">[pg 30]</span><a name="Pg30" id="Pg30" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>class. The patricians formed a group of many <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">gentes</span></span>, or clans, each +an association of households (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">familiae</span></span>) who claimed descent from +a common ancestor. Each member of a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">gens</span></span> bore the gentile name +and had a right to participate in its religious practices (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sacra</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Patrons and clients.</span></span> Apparently, the clients were tenants who +tilled the estates of the patricians, to whom they stood for a long time +in a condition of economic and political dependence. Each head of +a patrician household was the patron of the clients who resided on +his lands. The clients were obliged to follow their patrons to war +and to the political arena, to render them respectful attention, and, on +occasion, pecuniary support. The patron, in his turn, was obliged to +protect the life and interests of his client. For either patron or client +to fail in his obligations was held to be sacrilege. This relationship, +called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">patronatus</span></span> on the side of the patron, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">clientela</span></span> on that of the +client, was hereditary on both sides. The origin of this form of +clientage is uncertain and it is impossible for us to form a very exact +idea of position of the clients in the early Roman state, for the like-named +institution of the historic republican period is by no means +the one that prevailed at the end of the monarchy. The older, serf-like, +conditions had disappeared; the relationship was voluntarily +assumed, and its obligations, now of a much less serious nature, +depended for their observance solely upon the interest of both +parties. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The patrician aristocracy formed a social caste, the product of a +long period of social development, and this caste was enlarged in +early times by the recognition of new <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">gentes</span></span> as possessing the qualifications +of the older clans (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">patres maiorum</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">minorum gentium</span></span>). +But eventually it became a closed order, jealous of its prerogatives +and refusing to intermarry with the non-patrician element. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Plebs.</span></span> This latter constituted the plebeians or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">plebs</span></span>. They +were free citizens—the less wealthy landholders, tradesmen, craftsmen, +and laborers—who lacked the right to sit in the Senate and so +had no direct share in the administration. Beyond question, however, +they were included in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiae</span></span> and had the right to vote in the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia curiata</span></span>. Nor is there any proof of a racial difference between +plebeians and patricians. It is not easy to determine to what +degree the clients participated in the political life of the community, +yet, in the general use of the term, the plebs included the clients, who +later, under the republic, shared in all the privileges won by the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page31">[pg 31]</span><a name="Pg31" id="Pg31" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>plebeians and who, consequently, must have had the status of plebeians +in the eye of the state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The sharp social and political distinction between nobles and +commons, between patricians and plebeians, is the outstanding feature +of early Roman society, and affords the clue to the political development +of the early republican period. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page32">[pg 32]</span><a name="Pg32" id="Pg32" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="illus-047" id="illus-047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/illus-047.png" alt="Roman Expansion in Italy to 265 B. C." /></div> + + </div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page33">[pg 33]</span><a name="Pg33" id="Pg33" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc35" id="toc35"></a><a name="pdf36" id="pdf36"></a> +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER V</span></h2> + +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">THE EXPANSION OF ROME TO THE UNIFICATION OF +THE ITALIAN PENINSULA: c. 509–265 B. C.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<a name="toc37" id="toc37"></a><a name="pdf38" id="pdf38"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. To the Conquest of Veii—392 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The alliance of Rome and the Latin League, about 486 B. C.</span></span> +At the close of the regal period Rome appears as the chief city in +Latium, controlling a territory of some 350 sq. miles to the south +of the Tiber. But the fall of the monarchy somewhat weakened the +position of Rome, for it brought on hostilities with the Etruscan +prince Lars Porsena of Clusium, which resulted in a defeat for Rome +and the forced acceptance of humiliating conditions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This defeat naturally broke down whatever suzerainty Rome may +have exercised over Latium and necessitated a readjustment of the +relations between Rome and the Latin cities. A treaty attributed by +tradition to Spurius Cassius was finally concluded between Rome on +the one hand and the Latin league on the other, which fixed the relations +of the two parties for nearly one hundred and fifty years. By +this agreement the Romans and the Latin league formed an offensive +and defensive military alliance, each party contributing equal contingents +for joint military enterprises and dividing the spoils of war, while +the Latins at Rome and the Romans in the Latin cities enjoyed the +private rights of citizenship. The small people called the Hernici, +situated to the east of Latium, were early included in this alliance. +This union was cemented largely through the common dangers which +threatened the dwellers in the Latin plain from the Etruscans on the +north and the highland Italian peoples to the east and south. For +Rome it was of importance that the Latin cities interposed a barrier +between the territory of Rome and her most aggressive foes, the Aequi +and the Volsci. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Wars with the Aequi and Volsci.</span></span> Of the details of these early +wars we know practically nothing. However, archæological evidence +seems to show that about the beginning of the fifth century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page34">[pg 34]</span><a name="Pg34" id="Pg34" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Latins sought an outlet for their surplus population in the Volscian +land to the south east. Here they founded the settlements of Signia, +Norba and Satricum. But this expansion came to a halt, and about +the middle of the fifth century the Volsci still held their own as far +north as the vicinity of Antium, while the Aequi were in occupation of +the Latin plain as far west as Tusculum and Mt. Algidus. Towards +the end of the century, however, under Roman leadership the Latins +resumed their expansion at the expense of both these peoples. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Veii.</span></span> In addition to these frequent but not continuous wars, the +Romans had to sustain a serious conflict with the powerful Etruscan +city of Veii, situated about 12 miles to the north of Rome, across the +Tiber. The causes of the struggle are uncertain, but war broke out +in 402, shortly after the Romans had gained possession of Fidenae, +a town which controlled a crossing of the Tiber above the city of +Rome. According to tradition the Romans maintained a blockade of +Veii for eleven years before it fell into their hands. It was in the +course of this war that the Romans introduced the custom of paying +their troops, a practice which enabled them to keep a force under arms +throughout the entire year if necessary. Veii was destroyed, its +population sold into slavery, and its territory incorporated in the +public land of Rome. By this annexation the area of the Roman state +was nearly doubled. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Recent excavations have shown that Veii was a place of importance +from the tenth to the end of the fifth century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, that Etruscan +influence became predominant there in the course of the eighth century, +and that, at the time of its destruction, it was a flourishing town, +which, like Rome itself, was in contact with the Greek cultural influences +then so powerful throughout the Italian peninsula. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc39" id="toc39"></a><a name="pdf40" id="pdf40"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The Gallic Invasion</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Gauls in the Po Valley.</span></span> But scarcely had the Romans +emerged victorious from the contest with Veii when a sudden disaster +overtook them from an unexpected quarter. Towards the close of +the fifth century various Celtic tribes crossed the Alpine passes and +swarmed down into the Po valley. These Gauls overcame and drove +out the Etruscans, and occupied the land from the Ticinus and Lake +Maggiore southeastwards to the Adriatic between the mouth of the +Po and Ancona. This district was subsequently known as Gallia +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page35">[pg 35]</span><a name="Pg35" id="Pg35" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Cisalpina. The Gauls formed a group of eight tribes, which were +often at enmity with one another. Each tribe was divided into +many clans, and there was continual strife between the factions of +the various chieftains. They were a barbarous people, living in rude +villages and supporting themselves by cattle-raising and agriculture +of a primitive sort. Drunkenness and love of strife were their characteristic +vices: war and oratory their passions. In stature they were +very tall; their eyes were blue and their hair blond. Brave to recklessness, +they rushed naked into battle, and the ferocity of their first +assault inspired terror even in the ranks of veteran armies. Their +weapons were long, two-edged swords of soft iron, which frequently +bent and were easily blunted, and small wicker shields. Their +armies were undisciplined mobs, greedy for plunder, but disinclined +to prolonged, strenuous effort, and utterly unskilled in siege operations. +These weaknesses nullified the effects of their victories in the +field and prevented their occupation of Italy south of the Apennines. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The sack of Rome.</span></span> In 387 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, a horde of these marauders +crossed the Apennines and besieged Clusium. Thence, angered, as +was said, by the hostile actions of Roman ambassadors, they marched +directly upon Rome. The Romans marched out with all their forces +and met the Gauls near the Allia, a small tributary of the Tiber above +Fidenae. The fierce onset of the Gauls drove the Roman army in +disorder from the field. Many were slain in the rout and the majority +of the survivors were forced to take refuge within the ruined +fortifications of Veii. Deprived of their help and lacking confidence +in the weak and ill-planned walls, the citizen body evacuated Rome +itself and fled to the neighboring towns. The Capitol, however, with +its separate fortifications, was left with a small garrison. The Gauls +entered Rome and sacked the city, but failed to storm the citadel. +Apparently they had no intention of settling in Latium and therefore, +after a delay of seven months, upon information that the Veneti +were attacking their new settlements in the Po valley, they accepted +a ransom of 1000 pounds of gold (about $225,000) for the city and +marched off home. The Romans at once reoccupied and rebuilt their +city, and soon after provided it with more adequate defences in the +new wall of stone later known as the Servian wall. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Later Gallic invasions.</span></span> For some years the Gauls ceased their +inroads, but in 368 another raid brought them as far as Alba in the +land of the Aequi, and the Romans feared to attack the invaders. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page36">[pg 36]</span><a name="Pg36" id="Pg36" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>However, when a fresh horde appeared in 348 the Romans were prepared. +They and their allies blocked the foe’s path, and the Gauls +retreated, fearing to risk a battle. Rome thus became the successful +champion of the Italian peoples, their bulwark against the barbarian +invaders from the north. In 334 the Gauls and the Romans concluded +peace and entered upon a period of friendly relations which +lasted for the rest of the fourth century. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc41" id="toc41"></a><a name="pdf42" id="pdf42"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. The Disruption of the Latin League and the Roman +Alliance with the Campanians: 387–334 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Wars with the Aequi, Volsci, and Etruscans.</span></span> The disaster that +overtook Rome created a profound impression throughout the civilized +world and was noted by contemporary Greek writers. But the blow +left no permanent traces, for only the city, not the state, had been +destroyed. It is true that, encouraged by their enemy’s defeat, the +Aequi, Volsci and the Etruscan cities previously conquered by Rome +took up arms, but each met defeat in turn. Rome retained and consolidated +her conquests in southern Etruria. Part of the land was +allotted to Romans for settlement and four tribal districts were organized +there. On the remainder, two Latin colonies, Sutrium (383) +and Nepete (372), were founded. The territory won from the Volsci +was treated in like manner. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In 354 the Romans concluded an alliance with the Samnite peoples +of the south central Apennines. Probably this agreement was +reached in view of the common fear of Gallic invasions and because +both parties were at war with the smaller peoples dwelling between +Latium and Campania, so that a delimitation of their respective +spheres of action was deemed advisable. At any rate, it was in the +course of the next few years that Rome completely subdued the Volsci +and Aurunci, while the Samnites overran the land of the Sidicini. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Latin War, 338–336 B. C.</span></span> Not long afterwards, the Latins, +allied with the Campanians, were at war with Rome. Even before +this, subsequent to the Gallic capture of Rome, the Romans had +fought with individual Latin cities, but now practically all the cities +of the Latin league were in arms against them. It is possible that +both Latins and Campanians felt their independence threatened by +the expansion and alliance of the Romans and the Samnites and that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page37">[pg 37]</span><a name="Pg37" id="Pg37" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>this was the underlying cause of hostilities. However that may be, +within two years the Latins had been completely subdued. The +Latin league ceased to exist. The individual cities, except Tibur +and Praeneste, lost their independence and were incorporated in the +Roman state. These two cities preserved their autonomy and concluded +new treaties with Rome. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Alliance with the Campanians, about 334 B. C.</span></span> At about the +same time, the majority of the cities of Campania, including Capua, +concluded an alliance with Rome upon the conditions of the Roman +alliance with the old Latin league. These cities retained their independence, +and extended and received the rights of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">commercium</span></span> and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">connubium</span></span> with Rome. This meant that the citizen of one city could +transact any business in another that was party to this agreement with +the assurance that his contract would be protected by the law of the +second city, while if he married a woman of that city his children +would be considered legitimate heirs to his property. By virtue of +this close alliance, the military resources of Campania were arrayed +on the side of Rome, and Rome and Campania presented a united +front against their common foes. The Roman sphere of influence +was thus extended as far south as the Bay of Naples. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After the Latin war, the territory previously won from the Volsci +and Aurunci was largely occupied by settlements of Roman citizens +or by Latin colonies, for even after the dissolution of the Latin league +the Romans made use of this type of colony to secure their conquests, +as well as to relieve the surplus population of Rome and Latium. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc43" id="toc43"></a><a name="pdf44" id="pdf44"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. Wars with the Samnites, Gauls and Etruscans: +325–280 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The conflict of Rome and the Samnites in Campania.</span></span> The +alliance of Rome and Campania brought the Romans into immediate +contact with the Samnites and converted these former friends into +enemies, since the Samnites regarded Campania as their legitimate +field for expansion and refused to submit to its passing under the +aegis of Rome. However, they had been unable to prevent the union +of Rome with Capua and other cities, for at the time they were engaged +with another enemy, the Tarentines, who were assisted by Alexander, +king of the Molossians (334–331). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Samnites formed a loose confederacy of kindred peoples, with +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page38">[pg 38]</span><a name="Pg38" id="Pg38" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>no strong central authority. Therefore, although bold and skilful +warriors, they were at a disadvantage in a long struggle where unity +of control and continuity of policy became of decisive importance. +Here Rome had the advantage, an advantage that was increased by +the alliances Rome was able to form in the course of her wars against +this enemy. For generations the excess population of the Samnite +valleys had regularly overflowed into the lowland coast areas, and such +migrations had given rise to the Lucanians, Bruttians, and a large +part of the Campanians themselves. However, the danger of being +submerged by fresh waves of Samnites caused the peoples whose +territories bordered on Samnium to look to Rome for support, and so +Rome found allies in the Central Italian peoples, and in the Apulians +and the Lucanians. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The beginning of hostilities, 325–4.</span></span> Hostilities broke out over +the occupation of Naples by the Romans and its incorporation in the +Roman alliance. This step was taken in the interests of the party +in the city that sought Roman protection, and was accomplished in +spite of Samnite opposition. The war was waged chiefly in Campania, +in the valley of the upper Liris, and in Apulia. In 318, a +Roman army attempting to penetrate from Campania into Samnium +was cut off and compelled to surrender at the Caudine Pass. It is +probable that as a result of this defeat the Romans gave up Fregellae +(occupied in 328) and other territory on the Liris, and they may even +have made a temporary truce. However, hostilities were soon resumed. +Once again, in 314, the Samnites won a great victory, this +time at Lautulae not far south of Circeii, and their party acquired +control in Campania. But this temporary success was quickly counterbalanced +by Roman victories in Campanian territory. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The war was prolonged by an Etruscan attack upon Roman territory +that necessitated a division of the Roman forces. But in two +campaigns (309–7 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>), in the course of which a Roman army +advanced through Umbria and invaded northern Etruria, the cities +which had taken up arms against Rome were forced to make peace. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The war against the Samnites could be energetically prosecuted +again. By the construction of the Via Appia the Romans secured a +military highway from Rome to Capua which greatly facilitated the +conduct of operations in Campania. It is probable, too, that the +reorganization of the Roman army, which dates from this period, was +beginning to bear fruit. From both Campania and Apulia the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page39">[pg 39]</span><a name="Pg39" id="Pg39" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Romans took the offensive, and several severe defeats forced the +Samnites to seek peace in 304. They retained their independence, +but the disputed territory on their borders fell to Rome. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was about the close of this war that the Aequi, Marsi, Marrucini, +Frentani, Paeligni, some of the Umbrians, and other of the peoples +of Central Italy became federate allies of Rome. Apulia likewise +passed under Roman control. New Latin colonies and new tribal +districts marked the expansion of Roman territory. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Wars with the Samnites, Gauls and Etruscans, 298–80 B. C.</span></span> +In 298 war broke out again between the Romans and Samnites, apparently +because the Lucanians had deserted the Roman alliance for +the Samnites. Soon the Samnites allied themselves with the Etruscans +and Gauls, and succeeded in uniting the forces of the three +peoples in Umbria. But this host was annihilated by the Romans +in the battle of Sentinum (295). With this victory all danger for +Rome was over. By systematically ravaging the enemy’s country the +Roman consuls in 290 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> forced the Samnites to sue for peace. +They entered the Roman alliance, and a portion of their land was incorporated +in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ager publicus</span></span> of Rome. A similar fate overtook +the Sabines and Picentes, who had taken sides with the Samnites. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The war with the Etruscans and the Gauls still dragged on. But +in 285, after suffering a severe blow at the hands of the Gallic +Senones, the Romans took vigorous action and drove this people from +the land between Ancona and the Rubicon—the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ager Gallicus</span></span>. In +the same year the tribe of the Boii, with Etruscan allies, penetrated as +far as the Vadimonian Lake, where the Romans inflicted upon them +a crushing defeat. Another Roman victory in the next year brought +the Boii to terms, and soon the Etruscan cities one by one submitted +to Rome, until by 280 all were Roman allies. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc45" id="toc45"></a><a name="pdf46" id="pdf46"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">V. The Roman Conquest of South Italy: 281–270 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Italians and Greeks in South Italy.</span></span> The only parts of the +peninsula that had not yet acknowledged the Roman overlordship +were the lands of the Lucanians and Bruttians and the few Greek +cities in the south that still maintained their independence. Of +these latter the chief was Tarentum, a city of considerable commercial +importance. From the middle of the fourth century these cities +had been engaged in continual warfare with the Lucanians and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page40">[pg 40]</span><a name="Pg40" id="Pg40" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Messapians, and in the course of their struggles Tarentum had come +to assume the rôle of protector of the Hellenes in Italy. But even +this city had only been able to make head against its foes through +assistance obtained from Greece. In 338, King Archidamus of +Sparta, and in 331 Alexander, king of Epirus and uncle of Alexander +the Great, fell fighting in the service of the Italian Greeks. +In 303, Cleonymus of Sparta, more fortunate than his predecessors, +compelled the Lucanians to conclude a peace, which probably included +the Romans, at that moment their allies. A little later +(c. 300 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>) Agathocles, king of Syracuse, assisted the Tarentines +against the same foe, and incorporated in his own kingdom the +Bruttians and the Greek cities in the southwest. But with his death +in 289, his kingdom, like that of Dionysius I, fell apart and the +Greeks in the west were left again without a protector. Consequently, +when the Lucanians renewed their attacks upon Thurii, that city, +being unable to find succor in Greece and distrusting Tarentum, appealed +to Rome (282). Rome gave ear to the call, relieved and garrisoned +Thurii. But this action brought Roman ships of war into +the Gulf of Tarentum contrary to an agreement between the two +cities (perhaps that of 303). Enraged, the Tarentines attacked the +Roman fleet, sank some Roman triremes, and then occupied Thurii. +The ensuing Roman demands for reparation were rejected, their ambassadors +insulted, and war began (281). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The war with Pyrrhus and Tarentum.</span></span> The Tarentines were +able to unite against Rome the Messapians, Lucanians, Samnites and +Bruttians, but Roman successes in the first campaign forced them to +call in the aid of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. Pyrrhus was probably +the most skilful Greek general of the time, and he brought with him +into Italy an army organized and equipped according to the Macedonian +system of Alexander the Great, which had become the standard +in the Greek world. His force comprised 20,000 heavy-armed +infantry forming the phalanx, and 3,000 Thessalian cavalry. Besides, +he had a number of war elephants; animals which had figured +on Greek battlefields since Ipsus (301). The first engagement was +fought near Heraclea (280) and after a severe struggle the Romans +were driven from the field. The superior generalship of Pyrrhus, +and the consternation caused by his war elephants, won the day, but +his losses were very heavy, and he himself was wounded. As fighters +the Romans had shown themselves the equal of the foe, and their +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page41">[pg 41]</span><a name="Pg41" id="Pg41" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>tactical organization, perfected in the Samnite Wars, had proved its +value in its first encounter with that developed by the military experts +of Greece. As a result of his victory at Heraclea, Pyrrhus was +able to advance as far north as Latium, but withdrew again without +accomplishing anything of importance. The next year, he won another +hard-fought battle near Ausculum in Apulia. Thereupon the +Romans began negotiations which Pyrrhus welcomed, sending the +orator Cineas to Rome to represent him. But, before an agreement +was reached, the Carthaginians, who feared the intervention of +Pyrrhus in Sicily, offered the Romans assistance. Their proffer was +accepted; the negotiations with Pyrrhus ended; and Rome and Carthage +bound themselves not to make a separate agreement with the +common foe, while the Carthaginian fleet was to coöperate with the +Romans. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Pyrrhus in Sicily, 278–5 B. C.</span></span> Nevertheless, Pyrrhus determined +to answer an appeal from the Sicilian Greeks and to leave +Italy for Sicily. After the death of Agathocles, tyrant and king of +Syracuse (317–289), who had played the rôle of another Dionysius I, +the Greeks in Sicily had fallen upon evil days. The Carthaginians +had renewed their attacks upon them, and a new foe had appeared in +the Mamertini, Campanian mercenary soldiers who had seized Messana +and made it their headquarters for raiding the territory of the +Greek cities. Caught between these two enemies, the Greeks appealed +to Pyrrhus who came to their aid, possibly with the hope of +uniting Sicily under his own control. His success was immediate. +The Carthaginians were forced to give up all their possessions except +Lilybaeum, and Pyrrhus stood ready to carry the war into +Africa. But, at this juncture, the exactions that he laid upon his +Sicilian allies and their fear that his victory would make him their +permanent master caused them to desert his cause and make peace +with their foes. Deprived of their assistance, and seeing that his +allies in Italy were hard pressed by the Romans, he abandoned his +Sicilian venture. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The end of the war.</span></span> Pyrrhus returned to Italy, with the loss +of his fleet in a naval battle with the Carthaginians, reorganized his +forces, and advanced into Lucania or Samnium to meet the Romans. +While manœuvering for an attack, one of his divisions sustained a +severe repulse at Beneventum (275), whereupon he abandoned the +offensive and retired to Tarentum. Leaving a garrison in that city +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page42">[pg 42]</span><a name="Pg42" id="Pg42" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>he withdrew the rest of his forces to Greece, with the intention of +attacking Antigonus Gonatas in Macedonia. His initial successes +in this enterprise led him to withdraw his garrison from Tarentum +and abandon the Western Greeks to their fate. Thereupon the +Romans soon reduced the Samnites and Lucanians, while Tarentum +and the other Greek cities, one after another, were forced to submit +and enter the Roman alliance. By 270 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, all South Italy had +in this way been added to the Roman dominions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +By 265 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> after a few more brief struggles with revolting or +still unsubdued communities in central and northern Italy, the +Romans had completed the subjugation of the entire Italian peninsula. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc47" id="toc47"></a><a name="pdf48" id="pdf48"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">VI. The Roman Confederacy</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Roman foreign policy.</span></span> By wars and alliances Rome had united +Italy. But it is not to be supposed that this was a goal consistently +pursued through many generations by Roman statesmen. Probably +it was not until the end was nearly within sight that the Romans +realized whither their policy was leading them. Indeed, it is certain +that many of Rome’s wars were waged in defence of Rome’s territory +or that of the Roman allies. This seems particularly true of the +period prior to the Gallic inroad of 387. According to the ancient +Roman formula employed in declaring war, that uttered by the +Fetiales, war was looked upon as the last means to obtain reparation +for wrongs that were suffered at the hands of the enemy. Yet, +although the Roman attitude in such matters was doubtless at one +time sincere, we may well question how long this sincerity continued, +and whether the injuries complained of were not sometimes the result +of Roman provocation. Such attempts to place the moral responsibility +for a war upon the enemy are common to all ages and are not +always convincing. However, if we may not convict the Romans +of aggressive imperialism prior to 265, at any rate the methods +which they pursued in their relations with the other peoples of Italy +made their domination inevitable in view of the Roman national +character and their political and military organization. These +methods early became established maxims of Roman foreign policy. +The Romans, whenever possible, waged even their defensive wars +offensively, and rarely made peace save with a beaten foe. As a +rule, the enemy was forced to conclude a treaty with Rome which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page43">[pg 43]</span><a name="Pg43" id="Pg43" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>placed his forces at the disposal of the Roman state. This treaty +was regarded as perpetually binding, and any attempt to break off +the relationship it established was regarded as a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">casus belli</span></span>. Possibly, +the Romans looked upon this as the only policy which would +guarantee peace on their borders, but it inevitably led to further +wars, for it resulted in the continuous extension of the frontiers +defended by Rome and so continually brought Rome into contact +and conflict with new peoples. Nor were the voluntary allies of +Rome allowed to leave the Roman alliance: such action was treated +as equivalent to a declaration of war and regularly punished with +severity. This practice gradually transformed Rome’s independent +into dependent allies. From the middle of the fourth century, it +seems that Rome deliberately sought to prevent the development of +a strong state in the southern part of Italy, and to this end gladly +took under her protection weaker communities that felt themselves +threatened by stronger neighbors, although such action inevitably +led to war with the latter. Furthermore, a conquered state frequently +lost a considerable part of its territory. Portions of this land were +set aside for the foundation of fortress colonies to protect the Roman +conquests and overawe the conquered. The rest was incorporated +in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ager Romanus</span></span> to the profit of both the rich proprietors and +the landless citizens. Usually, the Roman soldiers shared directly +in the distribution of the movable spoils of war; sometimes a huge +booty, as after the subjugation of the Sabines and Picentes in 290. +A long series of successful and profitable wars, for Rome was ultimately +victorious in every struggle after 387, had engendered in the +Roman people a self-confidence and a martial spirit which soon led +them to conquests beyond the confines of Italy. During this period of +expansion within Italy, Roman policy had been guided by the Senate, +a body of unrecorded statesmen of wide outlook and great determination, +who not only made Rome mistress of the peninsula but succeeded +in laying enduring foundations for the Roman power. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Rome and Italy.</span></span> But although Italy was united under the +Roman hegemony it by no means formed a single state. Rather +it was an agglomerate of many states and many peoples, speaking +different tongues and having different political institutions. The +largest single element, however, was formed by the Roman citizens. +These were to be found not only in the city of Rome and its immediate +neighborhood, but also settled in the rural tribal districts (35 in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page44">[pg 44]</span><a name="Pg44" id="Pg44" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>number after 241) organized on conquered territory throughout the +peninsula. In addition, groups of 300 citizens had been settled in +various harbor towns as a sort of resident garrison to protect Roman +interests. In all, down to 183 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, 22 of these maritime colonies +were established, whose members in view of their special duties were +excused from active service with the Roman legions. All these +were full Roman citizens, but there were others who, while enjoying +the private rights of Roman citizenship, lacked the right to vote or +to hold office (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cives sine suffragio</span></span>). Such were the inhabitants of +most of the old Latin communities and some others which had been +absorbed in the Roman state. Such communities were called +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">municipia</span></span> (municipalities). Some of these were permitted to retain +their own magistrates and city organization: others lacked this privilege +of local autonomy. Of the former class, Gabii, conquered during +the monarchy, is said to have been the prototype. This municipal +system had the advantage of providing for local administration and +at the same time reconciling the conquered city to the loss of its +freedom. It was a distinctly Roman institution, and shows the wisdom +of the early Roman statesmen who thus marked out the way +for the complete absorption of the vanquished into the Roman citizen +body, which was thus strengthened to meet its continually increasing +military burdens. By 265, the Roman territory in Italy had an +area of about 10,000 square miles. It extended along the west coast +from the neighborhood of Caere southwards to the southern border +of Campania, and from the latitude of Rome it stretched northeastwards +through the territory of the Sabini to the Adriatic coast, where +the lands of the Picentes and the Senones had been incorporated in +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ager Romanus</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Latin colonies.</span></span> Of the non-Romans in Italy the people most +closely bound to Rome by ties of blood and common interests were +the Latin allies. Outside the few old Latin cities, that had not been +absorbed by Rome in 338, these were the inhabitants of the Latin +colonies, of which thirty-five were founded on Italian soil. Prior +to the destruction of the Latin League seven of these colonies had +been established, whose settlers had been drawn half from the Latin +cities and half from Rome. After 338, these colonies remained in +alliance with Rome, and those subsequently founded received the +same status. But for these the colonists were all supplied by Rome. +These colonists had to surrender their Roman citizenship and become +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page45">[pg 45]</span><a name="Pg45" id="Pg45" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Latins, but if any one of them left a son of military age in his place +he had the right to return to Rome. Each colony had its own +administration, usually modelled upon that of Rome, and enjoyed +the rights of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">commercium</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">connubium</span></span> both with Rome and with +the other Latin colonies. These settlements were towns of considerable +size, having 2,500, 4,000 or 6,000 colonists, each of whom +received a grant of 30 or 50 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iugera</span></span> (20 or 34 acres) of land. Founded +at strategic points on conquered territory, they formed one of the +strongest supports of the Roman authority: at the same time colonization +of this character served to relieve over-population and satisfy +land-hunger in Rome and Latium. In all their internal affairs the +Latin cities were sovereign communities, possessing, in addition to +their own laws and magistrates, the rights of coinage and census. +Their inhabitants constituted the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">nomen Latinum</span></span>, and, unlike the +Roman <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cives sine suffragio</span></span>, did not serve in the Roman legions but +formed separate detachments of horse and foot. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Italian allies.</span></span> The rest of the peoples of Italy, Italian, +Greek, Illyrian and Etruscan, formed the federate allies of Rome—the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">socii Italici</span></span>. These constituted some 150 separate communities, +city or tribal, each bound to Rome by a special treaty (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foedus</span></span>), +whereby its specific relations to Rome were determined. In all +these treaties, however, there was one common feature, namely, the +obligation to lend military aid to Rome and to surrender to Rome +the control over their diplomatic relations with other states. Their +troops were not incorporated in the legions, but were organized as +separate infantry and cavalry units (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cohortes</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">alae</span></span>), raised, +equipped and officered by the communities themselves. However, +they were under the orders of the Roman generals, and if several +allied detachments were combined in one corps the whole was under +a Roman officer. The allied troops, moreover, received their subsistence +from Rome and shared equally with the Romans in the +spoils of war. In the case of the seaboard towns, especially the +Greek cities, this military obligation took the form of supplying ships +and their crews, whence these towns were called naval allies (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">socii +navales</span></span>). All the federate allies had <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">commercium</span></span>, and the majority +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">connubium</span></span> also, with Rome. Apart from the foregoing obligations +towards Rome, each of the allied communities was autonomous, having +its own language, laws and political institutions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +However, a strong bond of sympathy existed between the local +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page46">[pg 46]</span><a name="Pg46" id="Pg46" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>aristocracies of many of the Italian towns and the senatorial order +at Rome. As we have seen, the foreign relations of Rome were +directed by the Senate, which represented the views of the wealthier +landed proprietors, and it was only natural that the senators should +have sought to ally themselves with the corresponding social class +in other states. This class represented the more conservative, and, +from the Roman point of view, more dependable element, while the +support of Rome assured to the local aristocracies the control within +their own communities. Consequently there developed a community +of interest between the Senate and the propertied classes among the +Roman allies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thus Rome was at the head of a military and diplomatic alliance +of many separate states, whose sole point of contact was that each +was in alliance with Rome. As yet there was no such thing as an +Italian nation. Still it was from the time that this unity was +effected that the name <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Italia</span></span> began to be applied to the whole of the +peninsula and the term <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Italici</span></span> was employed, at first by foreigners, +but later by themselves, to designate its inhabitants.<a id="noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href="#note_1"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a> +</p> + + </div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page47">[pg 47]</span><a name="Pg47" id="Pg47" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc49" id="toc49"></a><a name="pdf50" id="pdf50"></a> +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER VI</span></h2> + +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">THE CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROME TO +287 B. C.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<a name="toc51" id="toc51"></a><a name="pdf52" id="pdf52"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. The Early Republic</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While the Romans were engaged in acquiring political supremacy +in Italy, the Roman state itself underwent a profound transformation +as the result of severe internal struggles between the patrician and +the plebeian elements. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The constitution of the early republic: the magistrates.</span></span> +Upon the overthrow of the monarchy, the Romans set up a republican +form of government, where the chief executive office was filled by +popular election. At the head of the state were two annually elected +magistrates, or presidents, called at first praetors but later consuls. +They possessed the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">auspicium</span></span> or the right to consult the gods on +behalf of the state, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span>, which gave them the right of +military command, as well as administrative and judicial authority. +Both enjoyed these powers in equal measure and, by his veto, the one +could suspend the other’s action. Thus from the beginning of the +Republic annuality and collegiality were the characteristics of the +Roman magistracy. Nevertheless, the Romans recognized the advantage +of an occasional concentration of all power in the state in +the hands of a single magistrate and so, in times of emergency, the +consuls, acting upon the advice of the senate, nominated a dictator, +who superseded the consuls themselves for a maximum period of six +months. The dictator, or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">magister populi</span></span>, as he was called in early +times, appointed as his assistant a master of the horse (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">magister +equitum</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Senate.</span></span> At the side of the magistrates stood the Senate, a +body of three hundred members, who acted in an advisory capacity +to the officials, and possessed the power of sanctioning or vetoing +laws passed by the Assembly of the People. The senators were +nominated by the consuls from the patrician order and held office +for life. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page48">[pg 48]</span><a name="Pg48" id="Pg48" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The comitia curiata.</span></span> During the early years of the Republic, +the popular Assembly, which had the power of electing the consuls +and passing or rejecting such measures as the latter brought before +it, was probably the old <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia curiata</span></span>. But, as we shall see, it +was soon superseded in most of its functions by a new primary +assembly. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The priesthoods.</span></span> In Rome a special branch of the administration +was that of public religion, which dealt with the official relations +of the community towards its divine protectors. This sphere was +under the direction of a college of priests, at whose head stood the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pontifex maximus</span></span>. Special priestly brotherhoods or guilds cared for +the performance of particular religious ceremonies, while the use of +divination in its political aspect was under the supervision of the +college of augurs. With the exception of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pontifex maximus</span></span>, +who was elected by the people from an early date, the priesthoods +were filled by nomination or coöptation. The Roman priesthood +did not form a separate caste in the community but, since these +priestly offices were held by the same men who, in another capacity, +acted as magistrates and senators, the Roman official religion was +subordinated to the interests of the state and tended more and more +to assume a purely formal character. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The lines of constitutional development.</span></span> Both the consulate +and the priestly offices, like the senate, were open only to patricians, +who thus enjoyed a complete monopoly of the administration. They +had been responsible for the overthrow of the monarchy, and, consequently, +at the beginning of the Republic they formed the controlling +element in the Roman state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From conditions such as these the constitutional development in +Rome to 287 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> proceeded along two distinct lines. In the first +place there was a gradual change in the magistracy by the creation +of new offices with functions adapted to the needs of a progressive, +expanding, community; and, secondly, there was a long struggle between +the patricians and the plebeians, resulting from the desire of +the latter to place themselves in a position of political, legal, and +social equality with the former. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<a name="toc53" id="toc53"></a><a name="pdf54" id="pdf54"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The Assembly of the Centuries and the Development +of the Magistracy</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Assembly of the Centuries.</span></span> At a time which cannot be +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page49">[pg 49]</span><a name="Pg49" id="Pg49" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>determined with precision, but most probably early in the fifth +century, the Assembly of the Curiae was superseded for elective and +legislative purposes by a new assembly, called the Assembly of the +Centuries (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia centuriata</span></span>), of which the organization was +modelled upon the contemporary military organization of the state. +The land-holding citizens were divided into five classes, according +to the size of their properties, and to each class was allotted a number +of voting groups, divided equally between the men under 46 +years of age (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">juniores</span></span>) and those who were 46 and over (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seniores</span></span>). +The number of voting groups, called centuries, in each class was +possibly in proportion to the total assessment of that class. Thus +the first class had eighty centuries, the second, third, and fourth +classes had twenty each, while the fifth class had thirty. Outside +of the classes, at first six but later eighteen centuries were allotted to +those eligible to serve as cavalry (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">equites</span></span>) whose property qualification +was at least that of the first class; four centuries were given to +musicians and mechanics who performed special military service; +and one century was assigned to the landless citizens (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">proletarii</span></span>). +Of the total of 193 centuries, the first class had eighty and the +equestrians eighteen: together ninety-eight, or a majority of the +voting <a name="corr049" id="corr049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">units.</span> As they had the privilege of voting before the other +classes, they could, if unanimous, control the Assembly. The term +century, it must be noted, which in its original military sense had +been applied to a detachment of 100 men, in political usage was +applied to a voting group of indefinite numbers. The organization +of this Assembly probably was not completed until near the end of +the fourth century, when the basis for enrollment in the five census +classes was changed from landed estate to the total property assessment +reckoned in terms of the copper <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">as</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The old Assembly of the Curiae was not abolished, but lost all its +political functions except the right to pass a law conferring the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> upon the magistrates elected by the Assembly of the Centuries. +In addition to electing these magistrates the Centuriate +Assembly had the sole right of declaring war, voted upon measures +presented to it by the consuls, and acted as a supreme court of appeal +for citizens upon whom a magistrate had pronounced the death +penalty. However, the measures which the Assembly approved had +for a long time to receive subsequent ratification by the patrician +senators (the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">patrum auctoritas</span></span>) before they became laws binding on +the community. Finally, the importance of this sanction was nullified +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page50">[pg 50]</span><a name="Pg50" id="Pg50" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>by the requirement of the Publilian (339?) and Maenian Laws that +it be given before the voting took place. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The magistracy: quaestors and aediles.</span></span> It has been indicated +already that the expansion of the Roman magistracy was effected +through the creation of new offices, to which were assigned duties +that had previously been performed by the consular pair or new +functions required by the rise of new conditions in the Roman state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first change came in connection with the quaestorship. About +the middle of the fifth century, the officials called quaestors, who +had previously been appointed by the consuls to act as their assistants, +were raised to the status of magistrates and elected by popular vote. +Their number was originally two, but in 421 it was increased to +four, two of whom acted as officers of the public treasury (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">quaestores +aerarii</span></span>), while two were assigned to assist the consuls when the latter +took the field. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At approximately the same time that the quaestorship became an +elective office, the two curators of the temple of Ceres, called aediles, +likewise attained the position of public officials. They henceforth +acted as police magistrates, market commissioners, and superintendents +of public works. As we shall have occasion to note in another +connection, these aediles were elected from among the plebeians. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The censors: 443, 435?</span></span> The next new office to be created was +that of censor. The censorship was a commission called into being +at five-year intervals and exercised by two men for a period of eighteen +months. The original duty of the censors was to take the census +of the citizens and their property as a basis for registering the voters +in the five classes, for compiling the roster of those eligible for military +service, and for levying the property tax (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tributum</span></span>). Probably +the reason for the establishment of this office is to be sought in the +heavy demands that such duties made upon the services of the +consuls and the inability of the latter to complete the census within +any one consular year. The censors further had charge of the +letting of public contracts, and, by the end of the fourth century had +acquired the right to compile the list of the senators. As this latter +duty involved an enquiry into the habits of life of the senators, there +arose that aspect of the censors’ power which alone has survived +in the modern conception of a censorship. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The military tribunes with consular power.</span></span> During the +period 436 to 362, on fifty-one occasions the consular college of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page51">[pg 51]</span><a name="Pg51" id="Pg51" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>two was displaced by a board of military tribunes with consular +power (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tribuni militum consulari potestate</span></span>). The number of these +military tribunes varied: there were never less than three, more often +four or six, while two boards had eight and nine tribunes respectively. +As their name indicates, these were essentially military officers, and +this lends support to the tradition that they were elected because the +military situation frequently demanded the presence in the state of +more than two magistrates who could exercise the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The praetorship.</span></span> However, by 362 this method of meeting the +increased burdens of the magistracy was definitely abandoned. For +the future two consuls were annually elected, and, in addition, a +magistrate called the praetor, to whom was assigned the administration +of the civil jurisdiction within the city. The praetor was regarded +as a minor colleague of the consuls and held the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span>. +Consequently, if need arose, he could take command in the field or +exercise the other consular functions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The curule aediles.</span></span> In the same year there was established +the curule aedileship. The two curule aediles were at first elected +from the patricians only, and, although their duties seem to have +been the same as those of the plebeian aediles, their office was considered +more honorable than that of the latter. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Promagistrates.</span></span> The Roman magistrates were elected for one +year only, and after 342 reëlection to the same office could only be +sought after an interval of ten years. This system entailed some +inconveniences, especially in the conduct of military operations, for +in the case of campaigns that lasted longer than one year the consul +in command had to give place to his successor as soon as his own +term of office had expired. Thus the state was unable to utilize for +a longer period the services of men who had displayed special military +capacity. The difficulty was eventually overcome by the prolongation, +at the discretion of the Senate, of the command of a consul +in the field for an indefinite period after the lapse of his consulship. +The person whose term of office was thus extended was no longer +a consul, but acted <span class="tei tei-q">“in the place of a consul”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pro consule</span></span>). This +was the origin of the promagistracy. It first appeared in the campaign +at Naples in 325, and, although for a time employed but +rarely, its use eventually became very widespread. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Characteristics of the magistracy.</span></span> Thus the Roman magistracy +attained the form that it preserved until the end of the Republic. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page52">[pg 52]</span><a name="Pg52" id="Pg52" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>It consisted of a number of committees, each of which, with the +exception of the quaestorship, had a separate sphere of action. But +among these committees there was a regularly established order of +rank, running, from lowest to highest, as follows: quaestors, aediles, +censors, praetors, consuls. With the exception of the censorship that +was regularly filled by ex-consuls, the magistracies were usually +held in the above order. Magistrates of higher rank enjoyed greater +authority than all those who ranked below them, and as a rule could +forbid or annul the actions of the latter. A magistrate could also +veto the action of his colleague in office. In this way the consuls +were able to control the activities of all other regular magistrates. +However, the extraordinary office of the dictatorship outranked the +consulship and consequently the dictator could suspend the action +of the consuls themselves. The unity that was thus given to the +administration by this conception of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">maior potestas</span></span> was increased +by the presence of the Senate, a council whose influence over the +magistracy grew in proportion as the consulate lost in power and +independence through the creation of new offices. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc55" id="toc55"></a><a name="pdf56" id="pdf56"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. The Plebeian Struggle for Political Equality</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The causes of the struggle.</span></span> Of greater moment in the early +history of the republic than the development of the magistracy was +the persistent effort made by the plebeians to secure for themselves +admission to all the offices and privileges that at the beginning of +the republic were monopolized by the patricians. Their demands +were vigorously opposed by the latter, whose position was sustained +by tradition, by their control of the organs of government, by individual +and class prestige, and by the support of their numerous clients. +But among the plebeians there was an ever increasing number whose +fortunes ranked with those of the patricians and who refused to be +excluded from the government. These furnished the leaders among +the plebs. However, a factor of greater importance than the presence +of this element in determining the final outcome of the struggle +was the demand made upon the military resources of the state by +the numerous foreign wars. The plebeian soldiers shared equally +with the patricians in the dangers of the field, and equality of +political rights could not long be withheld from them. As their +services were essential to the state, the patrician senators were +far<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page53">[pg 53]</span><a name="Pg53" id="Pg53" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>sighted enough to make concessions to their demands whenever a +refusal would have led to civil warfare. A great cause of discontent +on the part of the plebs was the indebtedness of the poorer landholders, +caused in great part by their enforced absence from their +lands upon military service and the burden of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tributum</span></span> or property +tax levied for military purposes. Their condition was rendered the +more intolerable because of the operation of the harsh debtor laws, +which permitted the creditor to seize the person of the debtor and +to sell him into slavery. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Evidence that discontent was rife at Rome may be found in the +tradition of three unsuccessful attempts to set up a tyranny, that is, +to seize power by unconstitutional means, made by Spurius Cassius +(478), Spurius Maelius (431), and Marcus Manlius (376), patricians +who figure in later tradition as popular champions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The tribunes of the plebs (466 B. C.), and the assembly of +the tribes.</span></span> The first success won by the plebeians was in securing +protection against unjust or oppressive acts on the part of the patrician +magistrates. In 466, they forced the patricians to acquiesce in the +appointment of four tribunes of the plebs, officers who had the right +to extend protection to all who sought their aid, even against the +magistrate in the exercise of his functions.<a id="noteref_2" name="noteref_2" href="#note_2"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> The tribunes received +power to make effective use of this right from an oath taken by the +plebeians that they would treat as accursed and put to death without +trial any person who disregarded the tribune’s veto or violated the +sanctity of his person. The character of the tribunate and the basis +of its power reveal it as the result of a revolutionary movement and +as existing in defiance of the patricians. The tribunes were elected +in an assembly in which the voting units were tribes, and the number +of the tribunes (four) suggests that this assembly was at first composed +of the citizens of the four city regions or tribes, and that it +was the city plebs who were responsible for the establishment of the +tribunate. In this assembly we have the origin of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia tributa</span></span> +or Assembly of the Tribes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The origin of these tribes is uncertain, but by the middle of the +fifth century the Roman state was divided into twenty or twenty-one +districts, each of which with the citizens resident therein constituted +a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tribus</span></span>. Four of these were located in the city: the remainder were +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page54">[pg 54]</span><a name="Pg54" id="Pg54" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>rural. In the preceding chapter we have seen how the number of +the tribes was increased with the incorporation of conquered territory +within the Roman state and its occupation by Roman colonists. The +tribes were artificial divisions of the community, and served as a +basis for the raising of the levy and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tributum</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Plebeian aediles.</span></span> Associated with the tribunes as officers of +the plebs were two aediles (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">aediles plebi</span></span>). It has been conjectured +that they were originally the curators of the temple of Ceres (established +492?), which was in a special sense a plebeian shrine. As +we have seen they later became magistrates of the whole people. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The codification of the law.</span></span> About the middle of the fifth century +the plebeians secured the codification and publication of the +law. Hitherto the law, which consisted essentially of customs and +precedents, and was largely sacral in character, had been known only +to the magistrates and to the priests, that is to members of the +patrician order. At this time, two commissions of ten men each, +working in successive years (444–2?) drew up these customs into a +code, which, with subsequent additions, formed what was later called +the Law of the XII Tables. This code was in no sense a constitution, +but embodied provisions of both civil and criminal law, with +rules for legal procedure and police regulations. Notable is the +provision which guaranteed the right of appeal to the Assembly of +the Centuries in capital cases. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Development of the tribunate and the comitia tributa.</span></span> The +years which saw the publication of the code mark an important stage +in the struggle of the orders. Serious trouble arose between the +patricians and the plebs under the second college of law-givers, and +the difference was only settled by a treaty which restored the tribunate, +that had been suspended when the decemvirs were first elected. +Henceforth the number of tribunes was ten instead of four and their +position and powers received legal recognition from the patricians. +From this time on, too, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia tributa</span></span>, now embracing all the +tribes, the rural as well as the urban, was a regular institution of +the state. The Assembly of the Tribes was originally, and perhaps +always remained in theory, restricted to the <a name="corr054" id="corr054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">plebeians</span>. And it is +improbable that the patricians ever sought to participate in it. At +any rate, there is no adequate reason for believing in the existence of +two assemblies of this sort, the one composed of both patricians and +plebeians and the other of plebeians only. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page55">[pg 55]</span><a name="Pg55" id="Pg55" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Assembly of the Tribes not only elected the plebeian tribunes +and aediles, but soon chose the quaestors also. Furthermore, the +patrician magistrates, finding this Assembly in many ways more +convenient for the transaction of public business than the Assembly +of the Centuries which met in the Campus Martius outside the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pomerium</span></span> and required more time to register its opinion because of +the greater number of voting units, began to convene it to approve +measures, which, if previously sanctioned by a decree of the Senate, +became law. The tribunes likewise presented resolutions to the Assembly +of the Tribes, and these, too, if sanctioned by the Senate, +were binding on the whole community. Such laws were called +plebiscites (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">plebi scita</span></span>) in contrast with the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">leges</span></span> passed by an assembly +presided over by a magistrate with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span>. It became the +ambition of the tribunes to obtain for their plebiscites the force of +law <a name="corr055" id="corr055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">without</span> regard to the Senate’s approval. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The lex Canuleia.</span></span> The social stigma which rested upon the +plebeians because they could not effect a legal marriage with the +patricians, a disability that had been maintained by the law of the +XII Tables, was removed by the Canuleian Law in 437. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The plebs and the magistracy.</span></span> The plebeians did not rest +content with having spokesmen and defenders in the tribunes: they +also demanded admission to the consulate and the Senate. In 421 +plebeians were admitted to the quaestorship, and by that time the +plebeian aediles could be looked upon as magistrates, but the patricians +tenaciously maintained their monopoly of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> until, +in 396, a plebeian was elected a military tribune with consular power.<a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href="#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Perhaps the appearance of plebeian military tribunes at this time +may be explained on the ground that the vicissitudes of the war with +Veii forced the patricians to accept as magistrates the ablest available +men in the state even if of plebeian origin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With the military tribunate the plebeians had held an office that +conferred the right to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span>. Consequently, when the consulship +was definitely reëstablished in 362, they could not logically be +excluded from it. In 362 the first plebeian consul was elected, but +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page56">[pg 56]</span><a name="Pg56" id="Pg56" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>it was not until 340 that the practice became established that one +consul must, and the other might, be a plebeian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After their admission to the consulship the plebeians were eligible +to all the other magistracies. They gained the dictatorship in 356, +the censorship in 351, and the praetorship in 337. Eventually, the +curule aedileship also was opened to them, and was held by patricians +and plebeians in alternate years. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The plebs and the Senate.</span></span> Since the custom was early established +that ex-consuls, and later ex-praetors, should be enrolled in +the Senate, with the opening of these offices to the plebs the latter +began to have an ever-increasing representation in that body. As +distinguished from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">patres</span></span> or patrician senators, the plebeians +were called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">conscripti</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“the enrolled,”</span> and this distinction was preserved +in the official formula <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">patres conscripti</span></span> used in addressing the +Senate. In this fusion of the leading plebeians with the patricians +in the Senate we have the origin of a new aristocracy in the Roman +state: the so-called senatorial aristocracy or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">nobilitas</span></span>. This consisted +of a large group of influential patrician and plebeian families +which, for some time at least, was continuously quickened and revivified +by the accession of prominent plebeians who entered the +Senate by way of the magistracies. Thus the Senate, by opening its +ranks to the leaders of the plebs, contrived to emerge from the +struggle with its prestige and influence increased rather than impaired. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Appius Claudius, censor, 310 B. C.</span></span> An episode which illustrates +the growing democratic tendencies of the time is the censorship of +Appius Claudius, in 310, whose office is memorable for the construction +of the Via Appia and the Aqua Appia, Rome’s first aqueduct. +In his revision of the Senate, Appius ventured to include +among the senators persons who were the sons of freedmen, and he +permitted the landless population of the city to enroll themselves in +whatever tribal district they pleased. This latter step was taken to +increase the power of the city plebs, who had previously been confined +to the four city tribes, but who might now spread their votes over +the rural districts, of which there were now twenty-seven. However, +the work of Appius was soon undone. The consuls refused to recognize +the senatorial list prepared by him and his colleague, and the +following censors again restricted the city plebs to the urban tribes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The plebs and the priesthood.</span></span> The last stronghold of patrician +privilege was the priesthood which was opened to the plebeians by +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page57">[pg 57]</span><a name="Pg57" id="Pg57" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>the Ogulnian Law of 300 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> The number of pontiffs and augurs +was increased and the new positions were filled by plebeians. The +patricians could no longer make use of religious law and practice +to hamper the political activity of the plebs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Hortensian </span><a name="corr057" id="corr057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">Law</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700">, 287 B. C.</span></span> The end of the struggle between +the orders came with the secession of 287 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Apparently this +crisis was produced by the demands of the farming population who +had become heavily burdened with debt as a result of the economic +strain put upon them by the long Samnite wars. Refusal to meet +their demands led to a schism, and the plebeian soldiers under arms +seceded to the Janiculum. A dictator, Quintus Hortensius, appointed +for the purpose, settled the differences and passed a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex +Hortensia</span></span>, which provided that for the future all measures passed +in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia tributa</span></span>, even without the previous approval of the +Senate, should become binding on the whole state. Thus the Assembly +of the Tribes as a legislative body acquired greater independence +than the Assembly of the Centuries. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The two assemblies of the people.</span></span> Henceforth, the Assembly +of the Tribes tended to become more and more the legislative assembly +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">par excellence</span></span>, while the Assembly of the Centuries remained the chief +elective assembly. For legislative purposes the Assembly of the +Tribes could be convened by a magistrate with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> or by a +tribune; for the election of the plebeian tribunes and aediles it had +to be summoned by a tribune; while to elect the quaestors and curule +aediles it must be called together by a magistrate. For all purposes +the Assembly of the Centuries had to be convened and presided over +by a magistrate. It elected the consuls, praetors, censors and, eventually, +twenty-four military tribunes for the annual levy. It must be +kept in mind that these were both primary assemblies, that each comprised +the whole body of Roman citizens, but that they differed +essentially in the organization of the voting groups. As we have +seen the wealthier classes dominated the Assembly of the Centuries, +but in the Assembly of the Tribes, which was the more democratic +body, a simple majority determined the vote of each tribe. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The increased importance of the tribunate.</span></span> The importance +of the tribunes was greatly enhanced by the Hortensian Law, as +well as by various privileges which they had already acquired by 287 +or gained shortly after that date. The more important of these +powers were the right to sit in the Senate, to address, and even to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page58">[pg 58]</span><a name="Pg58" id="Pg58" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>convene that body, and the right to prosecute any magistrate before +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia tributa</span></span>. The first of these powers was a development +of the tribunician veto, whereby this was given to a proposal under +discussion in the Senate rather than upon a magistrate’s attempt to +execute it after it had taken the form of a law or a senatorial decree. +To permit the tribunes to interpose their veto at this stage they had +to be allowed to hear the debates in the Senate. At first they did +so from their bench which they set at the door of the meeting-place, +but finally they were permitted to enter the council hall itself. +The power of prosecution made the tribunes the guardians of the +interests of the state against any misconduct on the part of a magistrate. +From this time on the tribunes have practically the status +of magistrates of the Roman people. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The struggle of the orders left its mark on the Roman constitution +in providing Rome with a double set of organs of government. The +tribunate, plebeian aedileship, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia tributa</span></span> arose as purely +plebeian institutions, but they came to be incorporated in the governmental +organization of the state along with the magistracies and +the assemblies that had always been institutions of the whole Roman +people. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc57" id="toc57"></a><a name="pdf58" id="pdf58"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. The Roman Military System</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Upon the history of no people has the character of its military +institutions exercised a more profound effect than upon that of Rome. +The Roman military system rested upon the universal obligation of +the male citizens to render military service, but the degree to which +this obligation was enforced varied greatly at different periods. For +the mobilization of the man power of the state was dependent upon +the type of equipment, methods of fighting, and organization of +tactical units in vogue at various times, as well as upon the ability +of the state to equip its troops and the strength of the martial spirit +of the people. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The army of the primitive state.</span></span> In all probability the earliest +Roman army was one of the Homeric type, where the nobles who +went to the battlefield on horseback or in chariots were the decisive +factor and the common folk counted for little. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The phalanx organization.</span></span> However, at an early date, under +Etruscan influences according to tradition, the Romans adopted the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page59">[pg 59]</span><a name="Pg59" id="Pg59" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>phalanx organization, making their tactical unit the long deep line +of infantry armed with lance and shield. Those who were able to +provide themselves with the armor necessary for taking their place in +the phalanx formed the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">classis</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“levy.”</span> The rest were said to be +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">infra classem</span></span>, and were only called upon to act as light troops. But +military necessities compelled the state to incorporate with the heavy-armed +infantry increasingly large contingents of the less wealthy +citizens, who could not provide themselves with the full equipment +of those in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">classis</span></span>, but who could form the rear ranks of the +phalanx. As a result of this step the citizens were ultimately divided +into five orders or classes on the basis of their property, and probably +in raising the levy the required number of soldiers of each class was +drafted in equal proportions from the several tribes. The first three +classes constituted the phalanx, while the fourth and fifth continued +to serve as light troops (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rorarii</span></span>). Those who lacked the property +qualification of the lowest class were only called into service in cases +of great emergency. For such a system the taking of an accurate +census was essential, and it is more than likely that the office of +censor was instituted for this purpose. As we have seen, it was +from this organization of the people for military purposes that there +developed the Assembly of the Centuries. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The introduction of pay for the troops in the field at the time +of the siege of Veii both lessened the economic burden which service +entailed upon the poorer soldiers and enabled the Romans to undertake +campaigns of longer duration, even such as involved winter +operations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The manipular legion.</span></span> How long the phalanx organization +was maintained we do not know: at any rate it did not survive the +Samnite wars. In its place appeared the legionary formation, in +which the largest unit was the legion of about four thousand infantry, +divided into maniples of one hundred and twenty (or sixty) men, +each capable of manœuvering independently. This arrangement admitted +of increased flexibility of movement in broken country, and +of the adoption of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pilum</span></span>, or javelin, as a missile weapon. Both +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pilum</span></span> and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">scutum</span></span>, or oblong shield, were of Samnite origin. +While reorganizing their infantry, the Romans strengthened the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">equites</span></span> +and developed them as a real cavalry force. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Apparently property qualifications no longer counted for much +in the army organization, as the men were assigned to their places in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page60">[pg 60]</span><a name="Pg60" id="Pg60" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>the ranks on the basis of age and experience, and the state furnished +the necessary weapons to those who did not provide their own. By +the third century, all able-bodied men holding property valued at +4000 asses were regularly called upon for military service. The +others were liable to naval service, but only in cases of great need +were they enrolled in the legions. Ordinarily, the service required +amounted to sixteen campaigns in the infantry and ten in the cavalry. +The field army was raised from those between seventeen and forty-six +years of age: those forty-six and over were liable only for garrison +duty in the city. The regular annual levy consisted of four legions, +besides 1800 cavalry. This number could be increased at need, +and the Roman forces in the field were supplemented by at least an +equal number in the contingents from the Italian allies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Roman army was thus a national levy: a militia. It was +commanded by the consuls, the annually elected presidents of the +state. Yet it avoided the characteristic weaknesses of militia troops, +for the frequency of the Roman wars and the length of the period of +liability for service assured the presence of a large quota of veterans +in each levy and maintained a high standard of military efficiency. +Furthermore, the consuls, if not always good generals, were generally +experienced soldiers, for a record of ten campaigns was required of +the candidate for public office. Likewise their subordinates, the +military tribunes, were veterans, having seen some five and others ten +years’ service. But the factor that contributed above all else to the +success of the Roman armies was their iron discipline. The consular +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> gave its holder absolute power over the lives of the soldiers +in the field, and death was the penalty for neglect of duty, disobedience, +or cowardice. The most striking proof of the discipline +of the Roman armies is that after every march they were required +to construct a fortified camp, laid out according to fixed rules and +protected by a ditch, a wall of earth, and a palisade for which they +carried the stakes. No matter how strenuous their labors had been, +they never neglected this task, in striking contrast to the Greek citizen +armies which could not be induced to construct works of this kind. +The fortified camp rendered the Romans safe from surprise <a name="corr060" id="corr060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">attacks,</span> +allowed them to choose their own time for joining battle, and gave +them a secure refuge after a defeat. It played a very large part +in the operations of the Roman armies, especially such as were conducted +in hostile territory. +</p> + + </div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page61">[pg 61]</span><a name="Pg61" id="Pg61" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc59" id="toc59"></a><a name="pdf60" id="pdf60"></a> +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER VII</span></h2> + +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">EARLY RELIGION AND SOCIETY</span></h2> + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc61" id="toc61"></a><a name="pdf62" id="pdf62"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. Early Roman Religion</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Animism.</span></span> The Roman religion of the historic republic was a +composite of beliefs and ceremonies of various origins. The basic +stratum of this system was the Roman element: religious ideas that +the Romans probably held in common with the other Latin and +Italian peoples. Although traces of a belief in magic; and of the +worship of natural objects and animals, survived from earlier stages +of religious development, it was <span class="tei tei-q">“animism”</span> that formed the basis +of what we may call the characteristic Roman religious ideas. Animism +is the belief that natural objects are the abode of spirits more +powerful than man, and that all natural forces and processes are +the expression of the activity of similar spirits. When such powers +or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">numina</span></span> were conceived as personalities with definite names they +became ‘gods,’ <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dei</span></span>. And because the primitive Roman gods were +the spirits of an earlier age, for a long time the Romans worshipped +them without images or temples. But each divinity was regarded +as residing in a certain locality and only there could his worship +be conducted. The true Roman gods lacked human attributes: their +power was admitted but they inspired no personal devotion. Consequently, +Roman theology consisted in the knowledge of these deities +and their powers and of the ceremonial acts necessary to influence +them. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The importance of ritual.</span></span> The Romans, while recognizing +their dependence upon divine powers, considered that their relation +to them was of the nature of a contract. If man observed all proper +ritual in his worship, the god was bound to act propitiously: if the +god granted man’s desire he must be rewarded with an offering. If +man failed in his duty, the god punished him: if the god refused +to hearken, man was not bound to continue his worship. Thus +Roman religion consisted essentially in the performance of ritual, +wherein the correctness of the performance was the chief factor. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page62">[pg 62]</span><a name="Pg62" id="Pg62" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But since the power of the gods could affect the community as +well as the individual, it was necessary for the state to observe with +the same scrupulous care as the latter its obligations towards them. +The knowledge of these obligations and how they were to be performed +constituted the sacred law of Rome, which became a very +important part of the public law. This sacred law was guarded by +the priesthood, and here we have the source of the power of the +pontiffs in the Roman state. The pontiffs not only preserved the +sacred traditions and customs but they also added to them by interpretation +and the establishment of new precedents. The pontiffs +themselves performed or supervised the performance of all public +acts of a purely religious nature, and likewise prescribed the ritual +to be observed by the magistrate in initiating public acts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On the other hand the power of the augurs rested upon the belief +that the gods issued their warnings to men through natural signs, +and that it was possible to discover the attitude of the gods towards +any contemplated human action by the observation of natural +phenomena. For the augurs were the guardians of the science of +the interpretation of such signs or auspices in so far as the state +was concerned. The magistrate initiating any important public act +had to take the auspices, and if the augurs declared any flaw therein +or held that any unfavorable omen had occurred during the performance +of the said act, they could suspend the magistrate’s action +or render it invalid. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +So we see that the Roman priests were not intermediaries between +the individual Roman and his gods, but rather, as has been pointed +out before, officers in charge of one branch of the public administration. +They were responsible for the due observance of the public +religious acts, just as the head of the household supervised the performance +of the family cult. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The cult of the household.</span></span> It is in the cult of the household +that we can best see the true Roman religious ideas. The chief +divinities of the household were: Janus, the spirit of the doorway; +Vesta, the spirit of the fire on the hearth; the Penates, the guardian +spirits of the store-chamber; the Lar Familiaris, which we may perhaps +regard as the spirit of the cultivated land; and the Genius of +the head of the house, originally, it is probable, the spirit of his +generative powers, which became symbolic of the life of the family +as a whole. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page63">[pg 63]</span><a name="Pg63" id="Pg63" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Romans, strictly speaking, did not practice ancestor-worship. +But they believed that the spirits of the departed were affected by +the ministrations of the living, and, in case these were omitted, might +exercise a baneful influence upon the fortunes of their descendants. +Hence came the obligation to remember the dead with offerings at +stated times in the year. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The cult of the fields.</span></span> As early Rome was essentially an agricultural +community, most of its divinities and festivals had to do +with the various phases of agricultural life. Festivals of the sowing, +the harvest, the vineyard and the like, were annually celebrated in +common, at fixed seasons, by the households of the various <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pagi</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The state cult.</span></span> The public or state cult of Rome consisted +mainly in the performance of certain of the rites of the household +and of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pagi</span></span> by or for the people as a whole. The state cult of +Vesta and of the Penates, as well as the festival of the Ambarvalia, +the annual solemn purification of the fields, are of this nature. But, +in addition, the state religion included the worship of certain divinities +whose personalities and powers were conceived with greater distinctness. +At the beginning of the Republic the chief of these gods +were the triad Juppiter, Juno, and Minerva. Juppiter Optimus +Maximus, called also Capitolinus from his place of worship, was +originally a god of the sky. But, adorned with various other attributes, +he was finally worshipped as the chief protecting divinity +of the Roman State. Juno was the female counterpart of Juppiter +and was the great patron goddess of women. Another important +deity was Mars, at one time an agricultural divinity, who in the +state religion developed into the god of warlike, <span class="tei tei-q">“martial,”</span> activities. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Foreign influences.</span></span> It was in connection with the state worship +that foreign influences were first felt. Indeed, it is probable that +the association of Juppiter with Juno and Minerva was due to contact +with Etruria. It was from the Etruscans also that the Romans +derived their knowledge of temple construction, the earliest example +of which was probably the temple of Juppiter on the Capitoline said +to have been dedicated in 508 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> The use of images was likewise +due to Etruscan influences, although here as in other respects +Greek ideas may have been at work. In general the Romans did +not regard the gods of strange people with hostility, but rather admitted +their power and sought to conciliate them. Thus they frequently +transferred to Rome the gods of states that they had conquered +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page64">[pg 64]</span><a name="Pg64" id="Pg64" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>or absorbed. Other foreign divinities, too, on various grounds were +added to the circle of the divine protectors of the Roman state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Religion and morality.</span></span> From the foregoing sketch it will be +seen that the Roman religion did not have profound moral and elevating +influences. Its hold upon the Roman people was chiefly due to +the fact that it symbolized the unity of the various groups whose +members participated in the same worship; i. e. the unity of the +family and the unity of the state. Nevertheless, the idea of obligation +inherent in the Roman conception of the relation between gods +and men and the stress laid upon the exact performance of ritual +inevitably developed among the Romans a strong sense of duty, a +moral factor of considerable value. Further, the power of precedent +and tradition in their religion helped to develop and strengthen the +conservatism so characteristic of the Roman people. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc63" id="toc63"></a><a name="pdf64" id="pdf64"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. Early Roman Society</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The household.</span></span> The cornerstone of the Roman social structure +was the household (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">familia</span></span>). That is to say, the state was an association +of households, and it was the individual’s position in a household +that determined his status in the early community. The Roman +household was a larger unit than our family. It comprised the father +or head of the household (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pater familias</span></span>), his wife, his sons with +their wives and children, if they had such, his unmarried daughters, +and the household slaves. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The patria potestas.</span></span> The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pater familias</span></span> possessed authority over +all other members of the household. His power over the free members +was called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">patria potestas</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“paternal authority”</span>; over the slaves +it was <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dominium</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“lordship.”</span> This paternal authority was in theory +unrestricted and gave the father the right to inflict the death penalty +upon those under his power. But, in practice, the exercise of the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">patria potestas</span></span> was limited by custom and by the habit of consulting +the older male members of the household before any important action +was taken. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The household estate (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">res familiaris</span></span>) was administered by the +head of the household. At the death of a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pater familias</span></span> his sons in +turn became the head of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">familiae</span></span>, dividing the estate. The mother +and unmarried daughters, if surviving, now passed into the power +of a son or the next nearest male relative of the deceased. Although +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page65">[pg 65]</span><a name="Pg65" id="Pg65" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>the Roman women were thus continually in the position of wards, +they nevertheless took a prominent part in the life of the household +and did not live the restricted and secluded lives of the women of +Athens and the Greek cities of Asia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Membership in the household was reckoned only through male +descent, for daughters when they married passed out of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">manus</span></span> +or <span class="tei tei-q">“power”</span> of the head of their own household into that of the +head of the household to which their husbands belonged. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Education.</span></span> The training of the Roman youth at this time was +mainly of a practical nature. There was as yet little interest in +intellectual pursuits and no Roman literature had been developed. +The art of writing, it is true, had long been known and was employed +in the keeping of records and accounts. Such instruction as there +was, was given by the father to his sons. It consisted probably of +athletic exercises, of practical training in agricultural pursuits, in +the traditions of the state and of the Roman heroes, and in the +conduct of public business through attendance at places where this +was transacted. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the age of eighteen the young Roman entered upon a new footing +in relation to the state. He was now liable to military service and +qualified to attend the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia</span></span>. In these respects he was emancipated +from the paternal authority. If he attained a magistracy, his father +obeyed him like any other citizen. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The discipline and respect for authority which was acquired in the +family life was carried with him by the Roman into his public +relations, and this sense of duty was perhaps the strongest quality in +the Roman character. It was supplemented by the characteristic +Roman seriousness (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">gravitas</span></span>), developed under the stress of the long +struggles for existence waged by the early Roman state. In the +Roman the highest virtue was piety (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pietas</span></span>), which meant the dutiful +performance of all one’s obligations, to the gods, to one’s kinsmen, +and to the state. The Romans were preëminently a practical people, +and their practical virtues laid the foundation for their political +greatness. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The mos maiorum.</span></span> We have already referred to the conservatism +of the Romans, and have seen how this characteristic was affected +by their religious beliefs. It was further strengthened by the respect +paid to parental authority and by the absence of intellectual training. +In public affairs this conservatism was shown by the influence of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page66">[pg 66]</span><a name="Pg66" id="Pg66" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>ancestral custom—the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">mos maiorum</span></span>. In the Roman government +this became a very potent factor, since the Roman constitution was +not a single comprehensive document but consisted of a number of +separate enactments supplemented by custom and precedent and interpreted +in the light thereof. +</p> + + </div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page67">[pg 67]</span><a name="Pg67" id="Pg67" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc65" id="toc65"></a><a name="pdf66" id="pdf66"></a> +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER VIII</span></h2> + +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">ROMAN DOMINATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN; THE +FIRST PHASE—THE STRUGGLE WITH +CARTHAGE; 265–201 B. C.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<a name="toc67" id="toc67"></a><a name="pdf68" id="pdf68"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. The Mediterranean World in 265 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Rome a world power.</span></span> With the unification of the Italian peninsula +Rome entered upon a new era in her foreign relations. She +was now one of the great powers of the Mediterranean world and was +inevitably drawn into the vortex of world politics. She could no +longer rest indifferent to what went on beyond the confines of Italy. +She assumed new responsibilities, opened up new diplomatic relations, +developed a new outlook and new ambitions. At this time +the other first-class powers were, in the east, the three Hellenistic +monarchies—Egypt, Syria, and Macedon,—which had emerged +from the ruins of the empire of Alexander the Great, and, in the +west, the city state of Carthage. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Egypt.</span></span> The kingdom of Egypt, ruled by the dynasty of the +Ptolemies, comprised the ancient kingdom of Egypt in the Nile +valley, Cyrene, the coast of Syria, Cyprus, and a number of cities +on the shores and islands of the Aegean Sea. In Egypt the Ptolemies +ruled as foreigners over the subject native population. They maintained +their authority by a small mercenary army recruited chiefly +from Macedonians and Greeks, and by a strongly centralized administration, +of which the offices were in Greek hands. As the ruler was +the sole proprietor of the land of Egypt, the native Egyptians, the +majority of whom were peasants who gained their livelihood by tilling +the rich soil of the Nile valley, were for the most part tenants of the +crown, and the restrictions and obligations to which they were subject +rendered their status little better than that of serfs. A highly developed +but oppressive system of taxation and government monopolies, +largely an inheritance from previous dynasties, enabled the Ptolemies +to wring from their subjects the revenues with which they maintained +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page69">[pg 69]</span><a name="Pg69" id="Pg69" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>a brilliant court life at their capital, Alexandria, and financed their +imperial policy. +</p> +<a name="illus-083" id="illus-083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/illus-083.png" alt="The Expansion of Rome in the Mediterranean World 265–44 B. C." /></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The aim of this policy was to secure Egyptian domination in the +Aegean, among the states of Southern Greece, and in Phoenicia, whose +value lay in the forests of the Lebanon mountains. To carry it +into effect the Ptolemies were obliged to support a navy which would +give them the command of the sea in the eastern Mediterranean. +However, the occupation of their outlying possessions brought Egypt +into perpetual conflict with Macedon and Syria, whose rulers made +continued efforts to oust the Ptolemies from the Aegean and from +the Syrian coast. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Syria.</span></span> Syria, the kingdom of the Seleucids, with its capital at +Antioch on the Orontes, was by far the largest of the Hellenistic +monarchies in extent and population, and in wealth it ranked next +to Egypt. It stretched from the Aegean to the borders of India, and +included the southern part of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Persia, and +northern Syria. But the very size of this kingdom was a source of +weakness, because of the distances which separated its various provinces +and the heterogeneous racial elements which it embraced. The +power of the dynasty was upheld, as in Egypt, by a mercenary army, +and also by the Greek cities which had been founded in large numbers +by Alexander the Great and his successors. However, these +islands of Greek culture did not succeed to any great extent in Hellenizing +the native populations which remained in a state of subjection, +indifferent or hostile to their conquerors. Furthermore the strength of +the Seleucid empire was sapped by repeated revolts in its eastern +provinces and dissensions between the members of the dynasty itself. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Macedon.</span></span> The kingdom of Macedon, ruled by the house of the +Antigonids, was the smallest of the three in extent, population and +resources, but possessed an internal strength and solidarity lacking +in the others. For in Macedon, the Antigonids, by preserving the +traditional character of the patriarchal monarchy, kept alive the national +spirit of the Macedonians and made them loyal to the dynasty. +They also retained a military system which fostered the traditions +of the times of Philip II and Alexander, and which, since the Macedonian +people had not lost its martial character, furnished a small +but efficient national army. Outside of Macedon, the Antigonids +held sway over Thessaly and the eastern part of Greece as far south +as the Isthmus of Corinth. Their attempts to dominate the whole +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page70">[pg 70]</span><a name="Pg70" id="Pg70" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>peninsula were thwarted by the opposition of the Aetolian and Achaian +Confederacies, who were supported in this by the Ptolemies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The minor Greek states.</span></span> In addition to these three great monarchies +we should note as powers of minor importance the Confederacies +mentioned before, the kingdom of Pergamon on the northwest +coast of Asia Minor, the island republic of Rhodes, which was a +naval power of considerable strength, and the kingdom of Syracuse +in Sicily, the last of the independent Greek cities on that island. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Carthage.</span></span> The fourth world power was Carthage, a city state +situated on the northern coast of Africa, opposite the western end +of the island of Sicily, which had created for itself an empire that +controlled the western half of the Mediterranean. Carthage was +founded as a colony of the Phoenician city of Tyre about 814 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +In the sixth century, with the passing of the cities of Phoenicia +under the domination, first of Babylon, and later of the Persian +Empire, their colonies in the western Mediterranean severed political +ties with their mother land and had henceforth to maintain themselves +by their own efforts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Carthaginian Empire.</span></span> Their weakness was the opportunity +of Carthage, which, in the sixth and following centuries, brought +under her control the other Phoenician settlements, in addition to +founding new colonies of her own. She also extended her sway over +the native Libyan population in the vicinity of Carthage. These +Libyans were henceforth tributary and under the obligation of rendering +military service to the Carthaginians: similar obligations rested +upon the dependent Phoenician allies. In the third century the +Carthaginian empire included the northern coast of Africa from the +Gulf of Syrtis westwards beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, the southern +and eastern coasts of Spain as far north as Cape Nao, Corsica, Sardinia, +and Sicily, with the exception of Messana in the extreme northeast +and the Kingdom of Syracuse in the southeastern part of the +island. The smaller islands of the western Mediterranean were likewise +under Carthaginian control. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The government of Carthage.</span></span> At this time the government of +Carthage itself was republican in form and strongly aristocratic in +tone. There was a primary Assembly for all Carthaginian citizens +who could satisfy certain age and property requirements. This body +annually elected the two chief magistrates or suffetes, and likewise +the generals. For the former qualifications of wealth and merit were +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page71">[pg 71]</span><a name="Pg71" id="Pg71" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>prescribed. There was also a Senate, and a Council, whose organization +and powers are uncertain. The Council, the smaller body, prepared +the matters to be discussed in the Senate, which was consulted +by the Suffetes on all matters and usually gave the final decision, +although the Assembly was supposed to be consulted in case the +Senate and Suffetes disagreed. The Suffetes exercised judicial, financial +and religious functions, and presided over the council and senate. +The Carthaginian aristocracy, like that of Venice, was a group +of wealthy families whose fortunes, made in commercial ventures, +were handed down for generations in the same houses. From this +circle came the members of the council and senate, who directed the +policy of the state. The aristocracy itself was split into factions, +struggling to control the offices and through them the public policy, +which they frequently subordinated to their own particular interests. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The commercial policy of Carthage.</span></span> The prosperity of Carthage +depended upon her empire and the maintenance of a commercial +monopoly in the western Mediterranean. This policy of commercial +exclusiveness had caused Carthage to oppose Greek colonial expansion +in Spain, Sardinia and Sicily, and had led to treaties which +placed definite limits upon the trading ventures of the Romans and +their allies, and of the Greeks from Massalia and her colonies in +France and northern Spain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Carthaginian naval and </span><a name="corr071" id="corr071" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">military</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700"> strength.</span></span> Such a policy +could only be maintained by a strong naval power, and, in fact, +Carthage was the undisputed mistress of the seas west of the straits +of Messana. Unlike Rome, however, Carthage had no organized +national army but relied upon an army of mercenaries recruited +from all quarters of the Mediterranean, among such warlike peoples +as the Gauls, Spaniards, Libyans and Greeks. Although brave and +skillful fighters, these, like all troops of the type, were liable to +become dispirited and mutinous under continued reverses or when +faced by shortage of pay and plunder. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Such was the state with which Rome was now brought face to face +by the conquest of South Italy and which was the first power she +was to challenge in a war for dominion beyond the peninsula. As +we have seen, Rome had long ere this come into contact with this great +maritime people.<a id="noteref_4" name="noteref_4" href="#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a> Two treaties, one perhaps dating from the close +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page72">[pg 72]</span><a name="Pg72" id="Pg72" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>of the sixth century, and the other from 348 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, regulated commercial +intercourse between the two states and their respective subjects +and allies. A third, concluded in 279, had provided for military +coöperation against Pyrrhus, but this alliance had ceased after +the defeat of the latter, and with the removal of this common enemy a +feeling of coolness or mutual suspicion seems to have arisen between +the erstwhile allies. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc69" id="toc69"></a><a name="pdf70" id="pdf70"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The First Punic War: 264–241 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The origins of the war.</span></span> The first war between Rome and Carthage +arose out of the political situation in the island of Sicily. There +the town of Messana was occupied by the Mamertini, a band of +Campanian mercenaries, who had been in the service of Syracuse +but who had deserted and seized this town about 284 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Because +of their perpetual acts of brigandage they were a menace to their +neighbors, the Syracusans. The latter, now under an energetic ruler, +Hiero, who had assumed the title of king, in 265 succeeded in blockading +Messana and its ultimate capture seemed certain. In despair +the Mamertini sought help from the Carthaginians who sent a garrison +to Messana, for they looked with jealousy upon any extension of +Syracusan territory. However, the majority of the Mamertini sought +to be taken under the protection of Rome and appealed to the Roman +Senate for aid. The senators on the one hand saw that to espouse +the cause of the Mamertini would be to provoke a war with Carthage, +an eventuality before which they shrank, but on the other hand they +recognized that the Carthaginian occupation of Messana would give +them the control of the Straits of Messana and constitute a perpetual +threat against southern Italy. The strength of these conflicting considerations +made them unwilling to assume responsibility for a decision +and they referred the matter to the Assembly of the Centuries. +Here the people, elated, apparently, by their recent victorious wars in +Italy, and led on by hopes of pecuniary advantage to be derived from +the war, decided to admit the Mamertini to the Roman alliance. One +consul, Appius Claudius, was sent with a small force to relieve the +town (264). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Mamertini induced the Carthaginian garrison to withdraw, and +then admitted the Roman force which crossed the straits with the aid +of vessels furnished by their Greek allies in Italy. Thereupon the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page73">[pg 73]</span><a name="Pg73" id="Pg73" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Carthaginians made an alliance with the Syracusans, but the Romans +defeated each of them. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Alliance of Rome and Syracuse.</span></span> In the next year the Romans +sent a larger army into Sicily to attack Syracuse and met with such +success that Hiero became alarmed, and, making peace upon easy +terms, concluded an alliance with them for fifteen years.<a id="noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href="#note_5"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> Aided by +Hiero the Romans now began an attack upon Agrigentum, the Carthaginian +stronghold which threatened Syracuse. When this was taken in +262, they determined to drive the Carthaginians from the whole island. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Rome builds a fleet.</span></span> However, Roman operations in Sicily could +only be conducted at considerable risk and the coasts of Italy remained +exposed to continued raids as long as Carthage had undisputed +control of the sea. Consequently the Romans decided to build +a fleet that would put an end to the Carthaginian naval supremacy. +They constructed 120 vessels, of which 100 were of the type called +quinquiremes, the regular first class battleships of the day. The complement +of each was three hundred rowers and one hundred and +twenty fighting men.<a id="noteref_6" name="noteref_6" href="#note_6"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a> With this armament, and some vessels from +the Roman allies, the consul, Gaius Duilius, put to sea in 260 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +and won a decisive battle off Mylae on the north coast of Sicily. As +a result of this battle in the next year the Romans were able to occupy +Corsica and attack Sardinia, and finding it impossible to force a decision +in Sicily, they were in a position to attack Carthage in Africa +itself. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Roman invasion of Africa, 256 B. C.</span></span> Another naval victory, +off Ecnomus, on the south coast of Sicily, cleared the way for the +successful landing of an army under the consul Marcus Atilius Regulus. +He defeated the Carthaginians in battle and reduced them to +such extremities that they sought to make peace. But the terms which +Atilius proposed were so harsh that in desperation they resumed hostilities. +At this juncture there arrived at Carthage, with other mercenaries, +a Spartan soldier of fortune, Xantippus, who reorganized the +Carthaginian army. By the skilful use of cavalry and war elephants +he inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Romans and took Atilius prisoner. +A Roman fleet rescued the remnants of the expedition, but was +almost totally lost in a storm off the southern Sicilian coast (255). +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page74">[pg 74]</span><a name="Pg74" id="Pg74" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The war in Sicily, 254–241 B. C.</span></span> The Romans again concentrated +their efforts against the Carthaginian strongholds in Sicily, +which they attacked from land and sea. In 254 they took the important +city of Panormus, and the Carthaginians were soon confined +to the western extremity of the island. There, however, they successfully +maintained themselves in Drepana and Lilybaeum. Meantime +the Romans encountered a series of disasters on the sea. In 253 +they lost a number of ships on the voyage from Lilybaeum to Rome, +in 250 the consul Publius Clodius suffered a severe defeat in a naval +battle at Drepana, and in the next year a third fleet was destroyed by +a storm off Phintias in Sicily. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In 247 a new Carthaginian general, Hamilcar Barca, took command +in Sicily and infused new life into the Carthaginian forces. From +the citadel of Hercte first, and later from Eryx, he continually harassed +the Romans not only in Sicily but even on the coast of Italy. +Finally, in 242 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, when their public treasury was too exhausted to +build another fleet, the Romans by private subscription equipped 200 +vessels, which undertook the blockade of Lilybaeum and Drepana. +A Carthaginian relief expedition was destroyed off the Aegates Islands, +and it was impossible for their forces, now completely cut off in +Sicily, to prolong the struggle. Carthage was compelled to conclude +peace in 241 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The terms of peace.</span></span> Carthage surrendered to Rome her remaining +possessions in Sicily, with the islands between Sicily and Italy, +besides agreeing to pay an indemnity of 3200 talents (about +$3,500,000) in twenty years. For the Romans the long struggle had +been very costly. At sea alone they had lost in the neighborhood of +500 ships and 200,000 men. But again the Roman military system +had proven its worth against a mercenary army, and the excellence +of the Roman soldiery had more than compensated for the weakness +in the custom of annually changing commanders. Moreover, the military +federation which Rome had created in Italy had stood the test of +a long and weary war, without any disloyalty being manifest among +her allies. On the other hand, the losses of Carthage had been even +more heavy, and, most serious of all, her sea power was broken and +Rome controlled the western Mediterranean. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The revolt of the Carthaginian mercenaries.</span></span> Weakened as she +was after the contest with Rome, Carthage became immediately thereafter +involved in a life and death struggle with her mercenary troops. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page75">[pg 75]</span><a name="Pg75" id="Pg75" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>These, upon their return from Sicily, made demands upon the state +which the latter found hard to meet and consequently refused. Thereupon +the mercenaries mutinied and, joining with the native Libyans +and the inhabitants of the subject Phoenician cities (Libyphoenicians), +entered upon a war for the destruction of Carthage. After a +struggle of more than three years, in which the most shocking barbarities +were practised on either side and in which they were brought +face to face with utter ruin, the Carthaginians under the leadership +of Hamilcar Barca stamped out the revolt (238 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Rome acquires Sardinia.</span></span> Up to this point Rome had looked on +without interference, but now, when Carthage sought to recover Sardinia +from the mutinous garrison there, she declared war. Carthage +could not think of accepting the challenge and bought peace at the +price of Sardinia and Corsica and 1200 talents ($1,500,000). This +unjustifiable act of the Romans rankled sore in the memories of the +Carthaginians. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc71" id="toc71"></a><a name="pdf72" id="pdf72"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. The Illyrian and Gallic Wars: 229–219 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The first Illyrian war: 229–228 B. C.</span></span> In assuming control of +the relations of her allies with foreign states, Rome had assumed responsibility +for protecting their interests, and it was the fulfillment +of this obligation which brought the Roman arms to the eastern shores +of the Adriatic. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Under a king named Agron an extensive but loosely organized +state had been formed among the Illyrians, a semibarbarous people +inhabiting the Adriatic coast to the north of Epirus. These Illyrians +were allied with the kingdom of Macedonia and sided with the latter +in its wars with Epirus and the Aetolian and Achaean Confederacies. +In 231 Agron died and was succeeded by his queen Teuta, who continued +his policy of attacking the cities on the west coast of Greece +and practising piracy on a large scale in the Adriatic and Ionian seas. +Among those who suffered thereby were the south Italian cities, which +in 230 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> as the result of fresh and more serious outrages appealed +to Rome for redress. Thereupon the Romans demanded satisfaction +from Teuta and, upon their demands being contemptuously rejected, +they declared war. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Romans cross the Adriatic: 229 B. C.</span></span> In the next spring, +229 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, the Romans sent against the Illyrians a fleet and an army +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page76">[pg 76]</span><a name="Pg76" id="Pg76" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>of such strength that the latter could offer but little resistance and in +the next year were forced to sue for peace. Teuta had to give up a +large part of her territory, to bind herself not to send a fleet into the +Ionian sea, and to pay tribute to Rome. Corcyra, Epidamnus, Apollonia, +and other cities became Roman allies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fact that Rome first crossed the Adriatic to prosecute a war +against the Illyrians placed her in hostility to their ally, Macedonia, +the greatest of the Greek states. And although Macedonia had been +unable to offer aid to the Illyrians because of dynastic troubles that +had followed the death of King Demetrius (229 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>), the Macedonians +regarded with jealous suspicion Rome’s success and the establishment +of a Roman sphere of influence east of the Adriatic. +Conversely, the war had established friendly relations and coöperation +between Rome and the foes of Macedon, the Aetolian and +Achaean Confederacies, which rejoiced in the accession of such a powerful +friend. The way was thus paved for the participation of Rome, +as a partizan of the anti-Macedonian faction, in the struggles which +had so long divided the Greek world. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The second Illyrian war: 220–219 B. C.</span></span> The revival of Macedonian +influence led indirectly to Rome’s second Illyrian war. The +alliance of Antigonus Doson with the Achaean Confederacy and his +conquest of Sparta (222 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>) united almost the whole of Greece +under Macedonian suzerainty. Thereupon Demetrius of Pharos, a +despot whose rule Rome had established in Corcyra, went over to +Macedonia, attacked the cities allied with Rome, and sent a piratical +squadron into Greek waters (220 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). Rome, now threatened with +a second Carthaginian War, acted with energy. Macedonia, under +Philip V, the successor of Antigonus Doson, was involved in a war +with the Aetolians and their allies. Deprived of support from this +quarter Demetrius was speedily driven to take refuge in flight. His +subjects surrendered and Rome took possession of his chief fortresses, +Pharos and Dimillos. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">War with the Gauls in North Italy: 225–22 B. C.</span></span> In the interval +between these Illyrian Wars Rome became involved in a serious +conflict with the Gallic tribes settled in the Po valley. For about +half a century this people had lived at peace with Rome, ceasing their +raids into the peninsula and becoming a prosperous agricultural and +pastoral people. It is claimed that they became alarmed at the +Roman assignment of the public land on their southern borders, called +the Ager Gallicus, to individual colonists in 233 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, and that this +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page77">[pg 77]</span><a name="Pg77" id="Pg77" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>caused them to take up arms. However, this territory had been +Roman since 283 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> and its settlement could hardly have been +interpreted as an hostile act. More probable is it that the cause of +the new Gallic invasion was the coming of fresh swarms from across +the Alps, which some of the Cisalpine Gauls, who had forgotten the +defeats of the previous generation, perhaps invited, and certainly +joined, for the sake of plunder. In 238 such a band of Transalpines +crossed the Roman frontier and penetrated as far as Ariminum, but +serious dissensions broke out within their own ranks and they had to +withdraw. There was no further inroad attempted until 225 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Gallic invasion of 225 B. C.</span></span> In that year a formidable +horde, called the Gasatae, crossed the Alps and, joined by the Boii +and Insubres, prepared to invade Roman territory with a force of +50,000 foot and 20,000 mounted men. The Romans and Italians +were seriously alarmed, for the memory of the fatal day of the Allia +had never been effaced. Rome called for a military census of her +whole federation. The lists showed 700,000 infantry and 70,000 +cavalry. Expecting the Gauls to advance into Umbria the Romans +stationed an army under one consul at Ariminum. The other consul +was sent to Sardinia, possibly from fear of a Carthaginian attack, +while the defence of Etruria was left to a force of Roman allies. Alliances +were concluded with the Cenomani, a Gallic tribe to the +north of the Po, and with the Veneti. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Avoiding the army at Ariminum the Gauls crossed the Apennines +into Etruria, defeated the Roman allies and plundered the country. +But the consul from Ariminum hastened to the rescue, the army in +Sardinia was recalled, and the Gauls began to withdraw northwards +to place their spoils in safety. The Romans followed and as the +army from Sardinia landed to the north of the foe and cut off their +retreat, the latter were surrounded and brought to bay at Telamon. +They were annihilated in a bloody battle won by the superiority of +the Roman tactics and generalship. One of the Roman consuls fell +on the field of battle. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">War against the Boii and Insubres: 224–222 B. C.</span></span> Italy was +saved, and now the Romans decided to expel the Boii and the +Insubres from the Po valley as a penalty for their conduct and to +prevent future invasions of this sort by occupying their territory. In +three hard-fought campaigns the Romans, while they failed to exterminate +or dispossess these peoples, reduced them to subjection, forcing +them to surrender part of their territory and to pay tribute. But the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page78">[pg 78]</span><a name="Pg78" id="Pg78" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Romans did not conquer without suffering heavy losses, and their +ultimate success was to a considerable degree due to the coöperation +of the Cenomani. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Roman frontier reaches the Alps.</span></span> Between 221 and 219 +the Romans subdued the peoples of the Adriatic coast as far as the +peninsula of Istria. Thus, with the exception of Liguria and the +upper valley of the Po, all Italy to the south of the Alps was brought +within the sphere of Roman influence. The Latin colonies Placentia +and Cremona were founded in the territory taken from the Insubres to +secure the Roman authority in this region, but Hannibal’s invasion +of 217 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> found the Cisalpine Gauls ready to revolt against the +Roman yoke. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc73" id="toc73"></a><a name="pdf74" id="pdf74"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. The Second Punic War: 218–202 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Carthaginian expansion in Spain.</span></span> As we have seen, the Roman +seizure of Sardinia and Corsica and the exaction of a fresh indemnity +in 238 left a longing for revenge in the hearts of the dominant faction +at Carthage. This faction was led by Hamilcar Barca, the +victor of the mercenary war, who saw in Spain the opportunity for +repairing the fortunes of his state, for compensating Carthage for the +loss of Sicily and Sardinia, and for developing an army that would +enable him to face the Romans on an equal footing. The Phoenician +subjects of Carthage were hard pressed by the attacks of the +native Iberian peoples when he secured for himself the command +of the Carthaginian forces in the peninsula (238 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). By skilful +generalship and able diplomacy he extended the Carthaginian dominion +over many of the Spanish tribes, and created a strong army, +devoted to himself and his family. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Hasdrubal.</span></span> Consequently, when Hamilcar died in battle in 229 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> he was succeeded in the command by his son-in-law Hasdrubal, +who carried on his predecessor’s policy. He it was who founded the +town of New Carthage (Carthagena) to serve as the center of Carthaginian +influence in Spain. The annual revenue of from 2000 +to 3000 talents ($2,400,000 to $3,000,000) derived from the Spanish +silver mines readily induced the Carthaginians to acquiesce in the +almost regal position that the Barcidae enjoyed in Spain. Thus the +latter could carry out their plans without interference from the home +government. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page79">[pg 79]</span><a name="Pg79" id="Pg79" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Hasdrubal’s treaty with Rome, 226 B. C.</span></span> But the Carthaginian +advance in Spain aroused the alarm of the Greeks of Massalia, and +of her colonies, Emporiae and Rhodae, whose commercial interests +and independence were thereby endangered. Now the Massaliots +had long been in alliance with Rome,—they were said to have contributed +to the ransom which the Romans paid to the Gauls in +387 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>,—and there seems little doubt that they secured the intervention +of Rome on their behalf. In 226 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the Romans concluded +a treaty with Hasdrubal which bound him not to send an +armed force north of the river Ebro. A few years later the Romans +entered into a defensive alliance with the Spanish town of Saguntum, +which lay to the south of the Ebro, but which was not subject to +Carthage. The motive of the Romans in making this alliance is +obscure, but it was probably in answer to a request from the Saguntines. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Hannibal.</span></span> Upon the assassination of Hasdrubal in 221, Hannibal, +son of Hamilcar, then in his twenty-sixth year, was appointed +to the command in Spain. Thereupon, relying upon the army which +his predecessors and he himself had built up in Spain and upon the +resources of the Carthaginian dominions there, he resolved to take a +step which would inevitably lead to war with Rome, namely, to attack +Saguntum. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The siege of Saguntum: 219 B. C.</span></span> Using as a pretext a dispute +between the Saguntines and some of his Spanish allies, he laid +siege to the town in 219 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> and captured it after a siege of eight +months. A Roman embassy appeared at Carthage to demand the +surrender of Hannibal and his staff as the price of averting war with +Rome. But the anti-Roman party was in the majority and the Carthaginian +senate accepted the responsibility for the act of their general, +whatever its consequences might be. The Roman ambassador +replied with the declaration of war. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Roman plan of campaign.</span></span> The most fateful result of the +First Punic War had been the destruction of the maritime supremacy +of Carthage. She never subsequently thought of contesting Rome’s +dominion on the sea, and consequently, while extending her empire +in Spain and Africa she had neglected to rebuild her navy. This +fact was to be of decisive importance in the coming struggle. Rome, +relying upon it, planned an offensive war. One army, under the +consul Publius Cornelius Scipio, was to proceed to Spain, supported +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page80">[pg 80]</span><a name="Pg80" id="Pg80" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>by the fleet of Massalia, and to detain Hannibal there, while a second +army, under the other consul, Tiberius Sempronius, was assembled +in Sicily to embark for Africa. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The plan of Hannibal.</span></span> But the Romans had not taken into +account the military genius of Hannibal, whose audacious plan of +carrying the war into Italy upset their calculations. Realizing that +he could not transport his army to Italy by sea, he was prepared to +cross the Pyrenees, traverse southern Gaul and, crossing the Alps, +descend upon Italy from the north. Among the Gauls of the Po +valley he hoped to find recruits for his army, and expected that, once +he was in Italy, the Roman allies would seize this opportunity of +recovering their independence. Deprived of their support Rome +would have to yield. His ultimate object was not the destruction of +Rome, but the breaking up of the Roman federation in Italy, and the +reduction of the Roman state to the limits attained in 340 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> This +purpose is apparent from the plan of campaign which he followed +after his arrival in Italy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Hannibal’s march into Italy.</span></span> Hannibal’s preparations were +more advanced than those of the Romans and, early in the spring of +218 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, he set out from New Carthage for the Pyrenees. Forcing +a passage there, he left the passes under guard and resumed his march +with a picked army of Spaniards and Numidians. His brother Hasdrubal +was left in Spain to collect reinforcements and follow with +them. Hannibal arrived at the Rhone and crossed it by the time +that Scipio reached Massalia on his way to Spain. The latter, failing +to force Hannibal to give battle on the banks of the Rhone, returned +in person to Italy, but decided to send his army, under the command +of his brother, to Spain, a decision which had the most serious consequences +for Carthage. Meanwhile Hannibal continued his march +and, overcoming the opposition of the peoples whose territory he +traversed, as well as the more serious obstacles of bad roads, dangerous +passes, cold, and hunger, he crossed the Alps and descended into +the plain of North Italy in the autumn of 218, after a march of five +months.<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href="#note_7"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> His army was reduced to 20,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry. +Practically all his elephants perished. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hannibal at once found support and an opportunity to rest his +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page81">[pg 81]</span><a name="Pg81" id="Pg81" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>weary troops among the Insubres and the Boii, the latter of whom +had already taken up arms against the Romans. At the news of his +arrival in Italy Sempronius was at once recalled from Sicily, but +Scipio who had anticipated him ventured to attack Hannibal with +the forces under his command. He was beaten in a skirmish at the +river Ticinus, and Hannibal was able to cross the Po. Upon the +arrival of Sempronius, both consuls attacked the Carthaginians at +the Trebia, only to receive a crushing defeat (December, 218). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Hannibal invades the peninsula: 217 B. C.</span></span> Hannibal wintered +in north Italy and in the spring, with an army raised to 50,000 by +the addition of Celtic recruits, prepared to invade the peninsula. +The Romans divided their forces, stationing one consul at Ariminum +and the other at Arretium in Etruria. Hannibal chose to cross the +Apennines and the marshes of Etruria, where he surprised and +annihilated the army of the consul Flaminius at the Trasimene Lake +(217 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). Flaminius himself was among the slain. This victory +was soon followed by a second in which the cavalry of the army of the +second consul was cut to pieces. Hannibal began his attempt to +detach the Italians from the Roman alliance by releasing his Italian +prisoners to carry word to their cities that he had come to set them +free. Thereupon he marched into Samnium, ravaging the Roman +territory as he went. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Romans in great consternation chose a dictator, Quintus Fabius +Maximus. Fabius recognized the superiority of Hannibal’s +generalship and of the Carthaginian cavalry, and consequently refused +to be drawn into a general engagement. But he followed the +enemy closely and continually threatened an attack, so that Hannibal +could not divide his forces for purposes of raiding and foraging. +Still he was able to penetrate into Campania and thence to recross +the mountains into Apulia, where he decided to establish winter quarters. +The strategy of Fabius, which had not prevented the enemy +from securing supplies and devastating wide areas, grew so irksome +to the Romans that they violated all precedent in appointing Marcus +Minucius, the master of the horse and an advocate of aggressive +tactics, as a second dictator. But when the latter risked an engagement, +he was badly beaten and only prompt assistance from Fabius +saved his army from destruction. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Cannae: 216 B. C.</span></span> Next spring found the Romans and Carthaginians +facing each other in Apulia. The Romans were led by the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page82">[pg 82]</span><a name="Pg82" id="Pg82" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>new consuls, Lucius Aemilius Paulus and Gaius Terentius Varro. +The over-confidence of Varro led to the battle of Cannae, one of the +greatest battles of antiquity and the bloodiest of all Roman defeats. +Of 50,000 Romans and allies, about 25,000 were slain and 10,000 +captured by the numerically inferior Carthaginians. The consequences +of the battle were serious. For the first time Rome’s allies +showed serious signs of disloyalty. In Apulia and in Bruttium Hannibal +found many adherents; ambassadors from Philip of Macedon +appeared at his headquarters, the prelude to an alliance in the next +year; Syracuse also, where Hiero the friend of Rome had just died, +wavered and finally went over to Carthage; and, most serious of all, +Capua opened its gates to Hannibal. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Still the courage of the Romans never wavered. They at once +levied a new force to replace the army destroyed at Cannae. The +central Italian allies, the Greek cities in the south, and the Latins, +remained true to their allegiance, and the fortified towns of the latter +proved to be the pillars of the Roman strength. For Hannibal, +owing to the smallness of his army and the necessity of maintaining +it in a hostile country, had to be continually on the march and could +not undertake siege operations, for which he also lacked engines of +war. Thus the Romans, avoiding pitched battles, were able to attempt +the systematic reduction of the towns which had yielded to Hannibal +and to hamper seriously the provisioning of his forces. At the +same time they still held command of the sea, kept up their offensive +in Spain, and held their ground against Carthaginian attacks in +Sicily and Sardinia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Rome recovers Syracuse and Capua: 212–11 B. C.</span></span> In 213 the +Romans were able to invest Syracuse. The Syracusans with the aid +of engines of war designed by the physicist Archimedes resisted desperately, +but Marcellus, the Roman general, pressed the siege vigorously, +and treachery caused the city to fall (212 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). Syracuse was +sacked, its art treasures carried off to Rome, and for the future it was +subject and tributary to Rome. And in Italy, although Hannibal defeated +and killed the consul Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, and was +able to occupy the cities of Tarentum (although not its citadel), +Heraclea and Thurii, he could not prevent the Romans from laying +siege to Capua (212 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). The next year he thought to force them +to raise the blockade by a sudden incursion into Latium, where he +appeared before the walls of Rome. But Rome was garrisoned, the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page83">[pg 83]</span><a name="Pg83" id="Pg83" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>army besieging Capua was not recalled, and Hannibal’s march was +in vain. Capua was starved into submission, its nobility put to the +sword, its territory confiscated, and its municipal organization dissolved. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Operations against Philip V. of Macedon.</span></span> Upon concluding his +alliance with Hannibal, Philip of Macedon hastened to attack the +Roman possessions in Illyria. Here he met with some successes, but +failed to take Corcyra or Apollonia which were saved by the Roman +fleet. Furthermore, Rome’s command of the sea prevented his lending +any effective aid to his ally in Italy. Before long the Romans were +able to induce the Aetolians to make an alliance with them and attack +Macedonia. Thereupon other enemies of Philip, among them Sparta +and King Attalus of Pergamon, joined in the war on the side of +Rome. The Achaean Confederacy, however, supported Philip. The +coalition against the latter was so strong that he had to cease his attacks +upon Roman territory and Rome could be content with supporting +her Greek allies with a small fleet, while she devoted her +energies to the other theatres of war. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The war in Spain: 218–207 B. C.</span></span> The fall of Capua came at a +moment most opportune for the Romans, since they had immediate +need to send reinforcements to Spain. Thither, as we have seen, +they had sent an army in 218 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> under Gnaeus Scipio, who obtained +a foothold north of the Ebro. In the next year he was joined +by his brother Publius Cornelius. Thereupon the Romans crossed +the Ebro and invaded the Carthaginian dominions to the south. A +revolt of the Numidians caused the recall of Hasdrubal to Africa, +and the Romans were able to capture Saguntum and induce many +Spanish tribes to desert the Carthaginian cause. However, upon the +return of Hasdrubal and the arrival of reinforcements from Carthage, +the Carthaginian commanders united their forces and crushed +the two Roman armies one after the other (211 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). Both the +Scipios fell in battle and the Carthaginians recovered all their territory +south of the Ebro. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Publius Cornelius Scipio sent to Spain: 210 B. C.</span></span> Undismayed +by these disasters the Romans determined to continue their efforts +to conquer Spain because of its importance as a recruiting ground +for the Carthaginian armies and because the continuance of the war +there prevented reinforcements being sent to Hannibal in Italy. The +fall of Capua and the fortunate turn of events in Sicily enabled +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page84">[pg 84]</span><a name="Pg84" id="Pg84" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>them to release fresh troops for service in Spain, and in 210 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, +being dissatisfied with the cautious strategy of the pro-praetor Nero, +then commanding north of the Ebro, the Senate determined to send +out a commander who would continue the aggressive tactics of the +Scipios. As the most suitable person they fixed on Publius Cornelius +Scipio, son of the like-named consul who had fallen in 211. However, +he was only in his twenty-fourth year and having filled no +magistracy except the aedileship, he was technically disqualified from +exercising the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span>. Therefore, his appointment was made the +subject of a special law in the Comitia, which nominated him to the +command in Spain with the rank of a pro-consul. This is the first +authentic instance of the conferment of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> upon a private +citizen. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The capture of New Carthage: 209 B. C.</span></span> Seeing that the armies +of his opponents were divided and engaged in reconquering the +Spanish tribes, Scipio resumed the offensive, crossed the Ebro, and +by a daring stroke seized the chief Carthaginian base—New Carthage. +Here he found vast stores of supplies and, more important +still, the hostages from the Spanish peoples subject to Carthage. His +liberation of these, and his generous treatment of the Spaniards in +general was in such striking contrast with the oppressive measures +of the Carthaginians, that he rapidly won over to his support both +the enemies and the adherents of the former. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Hasdrubal’s march to Italy: 208 B. C.</span></span> Meanwhile in Italy +the Romans proceeded steadily with the reduction of the strongholds +in the hands of Hannibal. Tarentum was recovered in 210, and although +Hannibal defeated and slew the consuls Gnaeus Fulvius +(210) and Marcus Marcellus (208), his forces were so diminished +that his maintaining himself in Italy depended upon the arrival of +strong reinforcements. Since his arrival he had received but insignificant +additions to his army from Carthage, whose energies had been +directed to the other theatres of war. Up to this time also the Roman +activities in Spain had prevented any Carthaginian troops leaving +that country. But after the fall of New Carthage and the subsequent +successes of Scipio, Hasdrubal, despairing of the situation there, +determined to march to the support of his brother by the same route +which the latter had taken. Scipio endeavored to bar his path, but +although Hasdrubal was defeated in battle he and 10,000 of his men +cut their way through the Romans and crossed the Pyrenees (208 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page85">[pg 85]</span><a name="Pg85" id="Pg85" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Metaurus: 207 B. C.</span></span> The next spring he arrived among the +Gauls to the south of the Alps. Reinforced by them he marched into +the peninsula to join forces with Hannibal. For the Romans it was +of supreme importance to prevent this. They therefore divided their +forces; the consul Gaius Claudius faced Hannibal in Apulia, while +Marcus Livius went to intercept Hasdrubal. Through the capture +of messengers sent by the latter Claudius learned of his position and, +leaving part of his army to detain Hannibal, he withdrew the rest +without his enemy’s knowledge and joined his colleague Livius. Together +they attacked Hasdrubal at the Metaurus; his army was cut +to pieces and he himself was slain. With the battle the doom of +Hannibal’s plans was sealed, and with them the doom of Carthage. +Hannibal himself recognized that all was lost and withdrew into the +mountains of Bruttium. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The conquest of Carthaginian Spain, and peace with Philip.</span></span> +For the first time in the war the Romans could breathe freely and +look forward with confidence to the issue. In the two years (207–206 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>) following the departure of Hasdrubal Scipio completed +the conquest of what remained to Carthage in Spain. In 205 he returned +to Rome to enter upon the consulship, and thereupon went to +Sicily to make preparations for the invasion of Africa, since the +Romans were now able to carry out their plan of 218 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> which +Hannibal had then interrupted. At this moment, too, the Romans +found themselves free from any embarrassment from the side of +Macedonia. In Greece the war had dragged on without any decided +advantage for either side until 207, when the temporary withdrawal +of the Roman fleet enabled Philip and the Achaean Confederacy to +win such successes that their opponents listened to the intervention +of the neutral states and made peace (206 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). In the next year +the Romans also came to terms with Philip. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The invasion of Africa: 204 B. C.</span></span> In 204 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Scipio transported +his army to Africa. At first, however, he was able to do +nothing before the combined forces of the Carthaginians and the +Numidian chief, Syphax, who had renewed his alliance with them. +But in the following year he routed both armies so decisively that +he was able to capture and depose Syphax, and to set up in his place +a rival chieftain, Masinissa, whose adherence to the Romans brought +them a welcome superiority in cavalry. The <a name="corr085" id="corr085" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Carthaginians</span> now +sought to make peace. An armistice was granted them; Hannibal +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page86">[pg 86]</span><a name="Pg86" id="Pg86" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>and all Carthaginian forces were recalled from Italy, and the preliminary +terms of peace drawn up (203 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). Hannibal left Italy +with the remnant of his veterans after a campaign which had established +his reputation as one of the world’s greatest masters of the +art of war. For nearly fifteen years he had maintained himself in +the enemy’s country with greatly inferior forces, and now after inflicting +many severe defeats and never losing a battle he was forced to +withdraw because of lack of resources, not because of the superior +generalship of his foes. Before leaving Italian soil he set up a record +of his exploits in the temple of Hera Lacinia in Bruttium. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Zama: 202 B. C.</span></span> An almost incredible feeling of over-confidence +seems to have been aroused in Carthage by the arrival of Hannibal. +The Carthaginians broke the armistice by attacking some Roman +transports and refused to meet Scipio’s demand for an explanation. +Hostilities were therefore resumed. At Zama the two greatest generals +the war had developed met in its final battle. Hannibal’s tactics +were worthy of his reputation but his army was crushed by the flight +of the Carthaginian mercenaries at a critical moment, and by the +Roman superiority in cavalry<a id="noteref_8" name="noteref_8" href="#note_8"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Peace: 201 B. C.</span></span> For Carthage all hope of resistance was over +and she had to accept the Roman terms. These were: the surrender +of all territory except the city of Carthage and the surrounding country +in Africa, an indemnity of 10,000 talents ($12,000,000), the surrender +of all vessels of war except ten triremes, and of all war elephants, +and the obligation to refrain from carrying on war outside +of Africa, or even in Africa unless with Rome’s consent. The Numidians +were united in a strong state on the Carthaginian borders, +under the Roman ally Masinissa. Scipio returned to Rome to triumph +<span class="tei tei-q">“over the Carthaginians and Hannibal,”</span> and to receive, from +the scene of his victory, the name of Africanus. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc75" id="toc75"></a><a name="pdf76" id="pdf76"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">V. The Effect of the Second Punic War upon Italy</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The destruction of the Carthaginian empire left Rome mistress of +the western Mediterranean and by far the greatest power of the time. +But this victory had only been attained after a tremendous struggle, +the greatest probably that the ancient world ever witnessed, a struggle +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page87">[pg 87]</span><a name="Pg87" id="Pg87" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>which called forth in Rome the patriotic virtues of courage, devotion, +and self-sacrifice to a degree that aroused the admiration of +subsequent generations, which drained her resources of men and +treasure and which left ineffaceable scars upon the soil of Italy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One of the main factors in deciding the issue was the Roman command +of the sea which Carthage never felt able to challenge seriously. +Another was the larger citizen body of Rome, and the friendly relations +between herself and her federate allies. This, with the system +of universal military service, gave her a citizen soldiery which in +morale and numbers was superior to the armies of Carthage. As long +as Hannibal was in Italy Rome kept from year to year upwards of +100,000 men in the field. Once only, after the battle of Cannae, was +she unable to replace her losses by the regular system of recruiting +and had to arm 8000 slaves who were promised freedom as a reward +for faithful service. On the other hand, Carthage had to raise her +forces from mercenaries or from subject allies. As her resources +dwindled the former became ever more difficult to obtain, while the +demands made upon the latter caused revolts that cost much effort +to subdue. It required the personality of a Hannibal to develop an +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">esprit de corps</span></span> and discipline such as characterized his army in Italy. +A third factor was the absence in the Roman commanders of the +personal rivalries and lack of coöperation which so greatly hampered +the Carthaginians in Spain and in Sicily. Still one must not be led +into the error of supposing that the Carthaginians did not display +tenacity and patriotism to a very high degree. The senatorial class +especially distinguished itself by courage and ability, and there are +no evidences of factional strife hampering the conduct of the war. +The Romans overcame the disadvantage of the annual change of +commanders-in-chief by the use of the proconsulship and pro-praetorship +often long prorogued, whereby officers of ability retained year +after year the command of the same armies. This system enabled +them to develop such able generals as Metellus and the Scipios. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The cost of maintaining her fleet and her armies taxed the financial +resources of Rome to the utmost. The government had to make +use of a reserve fund which had been accumulating in the treasury +for thirty years from the returns of the 5% tax on the value of +manumitted slaves, and the armies in Spain could only be kept in +the field by the generosity and patriotism of several companies of +contractors who furnished supplies at their own expense until the end +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page88">[pg 88]</span><a name="Pg88" id="Pg88" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>of the war. An additional burden was the increased cost of the necessities +of life and the danger of a grain famine, caused by the disturbed +conditions in Italy and Sicily and the withdrawal of so many +men from agricultural occupations. In 210 the situation was only +relieved by an urgent appeal to Ptolemy Philopator of Egypt, from +whom grain had to be purchased at three times the usual price. However, +this crisis passed with the pacification of Sicily in the next year. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Furthermore, a heavy tribute had been levied upon the man power +of the Roman state. The census list of citizens eligible for military +service fell from about 280,000 at the beginning of the war to +237,000 in 209; and the federate allies must have suffered at least as +heavily. The greatest losses fell upon the southern part of the peninsula. +There, year after year, the fields had been laid waste and the +villages devastated by the opposing armies, until the rural population +had almost entirely disappeared, the land had become a wilderness, +and the more prosperous cities had fallen into decay. From the +effects of these ravages southern Italy never recovered. +</p> + + </div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page89">[pg 89]</span><a name="Pg89" id="Pg89" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc77" id="toc77"></a><a name="pdf78" id="pdf78"></a> +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER IX</span></h2> + +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">ROMAN DOMINATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN</span></h2> + +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">THE SECOND PHASE: ROME AND THE GREEK EAST, +200–167 B. C.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<a name="toc79" id="toc79"></a><a name="pdf80" id="pdf80"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. The Second Macedonian War: 200–196 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The eastern crisis: 202 B. C.</span></span> The Roman senate had been eager +to conclude a satisfactory peace with Carthage as soon as possible in +order to devote its undivided attention to a crisis which had arisen in +the eastern Mediterranean. There Ptolemy IV of Egypt had died +in 203 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, leaving the kingdom to an infant son who was in the +hands of corrupt and dissolute advisors. Egypt had lost her command +of the eastern Mediterranean at the time of Rome’s First Carthaginian +War, and later (217 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>) had only saved herself in a +war against Syria by calling to arms a portion of the native population. +This step had led to internal racial difficulties which weakened +the position of the dynasty. At this juncture Philip V of Macedon, +who had emerged with credit from his recent struggle with Rome and +his foes in Greece, and Antiochus III of Syria, who had just returned +from a series of successful campaigns (212–204 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>) which had +recovered for his kingdom its eastern provinces as far as the Indus +and had won for him the surname of <span class="tei tei-q">“the Great,”</span> judged the moment +favorable for the realization of long-cherished ambitions at the +expense of their rival, Egypt. They formed an alliance for the conquest +of the outlying possessions of the Ptolemies, whereby Philip was +to occupy those in the Aegean, while Antiochus was to <a name="corr089" id="corr089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">seize</span> Phoenicia +and Palestine. In 202 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> they opened hostilities. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The appeal for Roman intervention: 201 B. C.</span></span> But the operations +of the forces of Philip in the Aegean brought him into war with +Rhodes and with Attalus, King of Pergamon, while in Greece a quarrel, +which developed between some of his allies and the Athenians, +involved him in hostilities with the latter. From these three states +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page90">[pg 90]</span><a name="Pg90" id="Pg90" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>and from Egypt, which, having been unable to prevent Antiochus +from occupying her Syrian possessions, was now threatened with invasion, +envoys were sent to Rome, to request Roman intervention +on their behalf, on the ground that they were friends (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">amici</span></span>) of +Rome. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The status of amicitia.</span></span> The Romans had adopted the idea of +international friendship (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">amicitia</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">philia</span></span>) from the Greeks in the +course of the third century. Previously, their only conception of +friendly relations between states was that of alliance (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">societas</span></span>) based +upon a perpetual treaty (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foedus</span></span>), which bound each party to render +military assistance to the other and which neither could terminate at +discretion. However, under the influence of ideas current among the +Hellenic states they began to form friendships, i. e. to open up diplomatic +relations with states and rulers. These <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">amici</span></span> (friends) could +remain neutral in case Rome engaged in war, or they could render +Rome support, which was, however, voluntary and not obligatory. +And Rome enjoyed a similar freedom of action with regard to them. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Rome intervenes: 200 B. C.</span></span> The Roman Senate, influenced by +mixed motives—sympathy for the Hellenes and their culture, ambition +to appear as arbiters of the fate of the Greek world, a desire +for revenge upon Philip for his partial successes in the late war, and +fear of seeing him develop into a more powerful enemy—was anxious +to intervene. But, although the Roman fetials, the members of the +priestly college which was the guardian of the Roman traditions in +international relations, decided that Attalus and the other Roman +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">amici</span></span> might be regarded as allies (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">socii</span></span>) and so be defended legitimately, +the Roman people as a whole shrank from embarking upon +another war. The Comitia once voted against the proposal, and at +a second meeting was only induced to sanction it, when it was represented +to them that they would have to face another invasion of +Italy if they did not anticipate Philip’s action. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Roman ultimatum.</span></span> The Senate next sent ambassadors to +the East to present an ultimatum to Philip, and at the same time to +negotiate with Antiochus for the cessation of his attacks upon Egypt, +for the Romans did not wish to have his forces added to those of the +Macedonian king. When Philip was engaged in the siege of Abydos +on the Hellespont he received the Roman terms, which were that he +should abstain from attacking any cities of the Greeks or the possessions +of Ptolemy, and should submit to arbitration his disputes with +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page91">[pg 91]</span><a name="Pg91" id="Pg91" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Attalus and the Rhodians. Upon his rejection of these proposals the +war opened. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Romans cross the Adriatic.</span></span> Late in 200 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> a Roman +army under the consul Sulpicius crossed into Illyricum and endeavored +to penetrate into Macedonia. However, both in this and in the +succeeding year, the Romans, although aided by the forces of the +Aetolian Confederacy, Pergamon, Rhodes and Athens, were unable +to inflict any decisive defeat upon Philip or to invade his kingdom. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +However, with the arrival of the consul of 198, Titus Flamininus, +the situation speedily changed. The Achaean Confederacy was won +over to the side of Rome, and Flamininus succeeded in forcing Philip +to evacuate his position in Epirus and to withdraw into Thessaly. +In the following winter negotiations for peace were opened, but these +led to nothing, for the Romans demanded the evacuation of Corinth, +Chalcis and Demetrias, three fortresses known as <span class="tei tei-q">“the fetters of +Greece,”</span> and Philip refused to make this concession. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Cynoscephalae: 197 B. C.</span></span> The next year military operations +were resumed with both armies in Thessaly. Early in the summer +a battle was fought on a ridge of hills called Cynoscephalae (the +Dog’s Heads) where the Romans won a complete victory. Although +the Aetolians tendered valuable assistance in this engagement, the +Macedonian defeat was due to the superior flexibility of the Roman +legionary formation over the phalanx. Philip fled to Macedonia and +sued for peace. The Aetolians and his enemies in Greece sought his +utter destruction, but Flamininus realized the importance of Macedonia +to the Greek world as a bulwark against the Celtic peoples +of the lower Danube and would not support their demands. The +terms fixed by the Roman Senate were: the autonomy of the Hellenes, +the evacuation of the Macedonian possessions in Greece, in the +Aegean, and in Illyricum, and an indemnity of 1000 talents +($1,200,000). The conditions Philip was obliged to accept (196 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The proclamation of Flamininus: 196 B. C.</span></span> At the Isthmian +games of the same year Flamininus proclaimed the complete autonomy +of the peoples who had been subject to Macedonia. The announcement +provoked a tremendous outburst of enthusiasm. After +spending some time in carrying this proclamation into effect and in +settling the claims of various states, Flamininus returned to Italy in +194, leaving the Greeks to make what use they could of their freedom. +</p> + +</div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page92">[pg 92]</span><a name="Pg92" id="Pg92" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc81" id="toc81"></a><a name="pdf82" id="pdf82"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The War with Antiochus the Great and the Aetolians: +192–189 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Antiochus in Asia Minor and Thrace.</span></span> Even before Flamininus +and his army had withdrawn from Greece the activities of Antiochus +had awakened the mistrust of the Roman Senate and threatened to +lead to hostilities. The Syrian king had completed the conquest of +Lower Syria in 198, and then, profiting by the difficulties in which +Philip of Macedon was involved, he turned his attention towards +Asia Minor and Thrace with the hope of recovering the possessions +once held by his ancestor, Seleucus I, in these quarters. The Romans +were at the time too much occupied to oppose him, and, outwardly, +he professed to be the friend of Rome and to be limiting his +activities to the reëstablishing of his empire to its former extent. +Eventually, in 195 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, he crossed over into Europe and proceeded +to establish himself in Thrace. Negotiations with the Roman Senate +seemed likely to lead to an agreement that the king should limit his +expansion to Asia and recognize a sort of Roman suzerainty in Europe, +when the action of the Aetolians precipitated a conflict. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Aetolians and Rome.</span></span> The Aetolians, who had been Rome’s +allies in the war just concluded and who greatly exaggerated the importance +of their services, were disgruntled because the kingdom of +Macedonia had not been entirely dismembered and they had been +restrained from enlarging the territory of the Confederacy at the expense +of their neighbors. In short, they wished to take the place formerly +held by Macedonia among the Greek states. Accustomed to +regard war as a legitimate source of revenue, they did not easily +reconcile themselves to Rome’s preservation of peace in Hellas. Ever +since the battle of Cynoscephalae they had striven to undermine Roman +influence among the Greeks, and now they sought to draw Antiochus +into conflict with Rome. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Antiochus invades Greece: 192 B. C.</span></span> In 192 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> they elected +Antiochus as commander-in-chief of the forces of their confederacy +and seized the fortress of Chalcis. This they offered to the king, +to whom they also made an unauthorized promise of aid from Macedonia. +Thereupon, trusting in the support promised by the Aetolians, +Antiochus sailed to Greece with a small force of 10,000 men. It so +happened that Hannibal, who in 196 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> had been forced to flee +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page93">[pg 93]</span><a name="Pg93" id="Pg93" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>his native city owing to the machinations of his enemies and the +Romans, was then at the court of Antiochus, where he had taken +refuge. He advised his protector to invade the Italian peninsula, +but Antiochus rejected the advice, probably with wisdom, for such a +course would have required him to win the control of the sea, which +was a task beyond his resources. But when, throughout his whole +campaign, he neglected to make use of the services of the greatest +commander of the age, he committed a most serious blunder. Had +Hannibal led the forces of Antiochus the task of the Romans would +not have been so simple. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Antiochus driven from Greece: 191 B. C.</span></span> In 191 a Roman +army under the consul Acilius Glabrio appeared in Greece and attacked +and defeated the forces of Antiochus at Thermopylae. The +king fled to Asia. Contrary to his hopes he had found but little +support in Greece. Philip of Macedon and the Achaean Confederacy +adhered to the Romans, and the Aetolians were rendered helpless by +an invasion of their own country. Furthermore, the Rhodians and +Eumenes, the new King of Pergamon, joined their navies to the +Roman fleet. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Romans cross over to Asia Minor: 190 B. C.</span></span> As Antiochus +would not hearken to the terms of peace laid down by the Romans, +the latter resolved upon the invasion of Asia Minor. Two naval +battles, won by the aid of Rhodes and Pergamon, secured the control +of the Aegean and in 190 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> a Roman force crossed the Hellespont. +For its commander the Senate had wished to designate Scipio Africanus, +the greatest of the Roman generals. However, as he had recently +been consul he was now ineligible for that office. The obstacle +of the law was accordingly circumvented by the election of his brother +Lucius to the consulate and his assignment to this command, and by +the appointment of Publius to accompany him as extraordinary proconsul, +with power equal to his own. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Magnesia: 190 B. C.</span></span> One decisive victory over Antiochus at +Magnesia in the autumn of 190 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> brought him to terms. He +agreed to surrender all territory to the north of the Taurus mountains +and west of Pamphylia, to give up his war elephants, to surrender all +but ten of his ships of war, to pay an indemnity of 15,000 talents +($18,000,000) in twelve annual instalments, and to abstain from attacking +the allies of Rome. Still, unlike Carthage, he was at liberty +to defend himself if attacked. The Romans then proceeded to +estab<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page94">[pg 94]</span><a name="Pg94" id="Pg94" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>lish order in Asia Minor. The territories of their friends, Rhodes +and Pergamon, were materially increased, while the enemies of the +latter, the Celts of Galatia were defeated and <a name="corr094" id="corr094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">forced</span> to pay a heavy +indemnity. Rome retained no territory in Asia, but left the country +divided among a number of small states whose mutual jealousies rendered +impossible the rise of a strong power which could venture to +set aside the Roman arrangements. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The subjugation of the Aetolians: 189 B. C.</span></span> The Roman campaign +of 191 against the Aetolians had caused the latter, who were +also attacked by Philip of Macedon, to seek terms. However, as +the Romans demanded an unconditional surrender, the Aetolians decided +to continue the struggle. In the next year no energetic measures +were taken against them, but in 189 the consul Fulvius Nobilior +pressed the war vigorously and besieged their chief city, Ambracia. +But since the obstinate resistance of its defenders defied all his efforts, +and since the Athenians were trying to act as mediators in bringing +the war to a close, the Romans abandoned their demand for an unconditional +surrender and peace was made on the following conditions. +The Aetolian Confederacy gave up all territory captured by its enemies +during the war and entered into a permanent alliance with Rome, +whereby it was bound to send contingents to the Roman armies. +Ambracia was surrendered and destroyed, and the Romans occupied +the pirate nest of Cephallenia. +</p> +</div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc83" id="toc83"></a><a name="pdf84" id="pdf84"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. The Third Macedonian War: 171–167 </span><a name="corr094a" id="corr094a" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a><span class="tei tei-corr" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Rome and the Greek states.</span></span> Although by her alliance with the +Aetolians Rome had planted herself permanently on Greek soil, and +in the war with Antiochus had claimed to exercise a sort of protectorate +over the Greek world, still the Senate as yet gave no indication +of reversing the policy of Flamininus, and the Greek states +remained as the friends of Rome in the enjoyment of political independence. +However, it was not long before these friendly relations +became seriously strained and Rome was induced to embark upon a +policy of interference in Greek affairs which ultimately put an end +to the apparent freedom of Hellas. The fundamental cause of this +change was that while Rome interpreted Greek freedom to mean +liberty of action provided that the wishes and arrangements of Rome +were respected, the Greeks understood it to mean the perfect freedom +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page95">[pg 95]</span><a name="Pg95" id="Pg95" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>of sovereign communities, and resented bitterly any infringement +of their rights. Keeping in mind these conflicting points of view, it +is easy to see how difficulties were bound to arise which would inevitably +be settled according to the wishes of the stronger power. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Rome and the Achaeans.</span></span> The chief specific causes for the +change in the Roman policy are to be found in the troubles of the +Achaean Confederacy and the reviving ambitions of Macedonia. The +Confederacy included many city-states which had been compelled to +join it and which sought to regain their independence. This the +Confederacy was determined to prevent. One such community was +Sparta, and the policy of the Achaeans towards it in the matter of the +restoration of Spartan exiles led to the Spartans appealing to Rome. +The Roman decision wounded the susceptibilities of the Confederacy +without settling the problem, and the tendency of the Achaeans to +stand upon their rights provoked the anger of the Romans. Within +the Confederacy there developed a pro-Roman party ready to submit +to Roman dictatorship, and a national party determined to assert +their right to freedom of action. From 180 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the Romans deliberately +fostered the aristocratic factions throughout the cities of Greece, +feeling that they were the more stable element and more in harmony +with the policy of the Senate. As a consequence the democratic factions +began to look for outside support and cast their eyes towards +Macedonia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Rome and Macedonia.</span></span> Philip V of Macedon considered that +the assistance which he had furnished to Rome in the Syrian War +was proof of his loyalty and warranted the annexation of the territory +he had overrun in that conflict. But the Senate was not inclined +to allow the power of Macedonia to attain dangerous proportions, +and he was forced to forego his claims. Henceforth he was +the bitter foe of the Romans. He devoted himself to the development +of the military resources of his kingdom with the ultimate view of +again challenging Rome’s authority in Greece. At his death in 179 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> he left an army of from 30,000 to 40,000 men and a treasure +of 6,000 talents ($7,200,000). His son and successor Perseus inherited +his father’s anti-Roman policy and entered into relations with +the foes of Rome everywhere in Greece. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Third Macedonian War: 171–167 B. C.</span></span> But the Senate +was kept well aware of his schemes by his enemies in Greece, especially +Eumenes of Pergamon. Therefore they determined to forestall +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page96">[pg 96]</span><a name="Pg96" id="Pg96" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>the completion of his plans and force him into war. In 172, a Roman +commission visited Perseus and required of him concessions which +meant the extinction of his independence. Upon his refusal to comply +with the demands they returned home and Rome declared war. +Now, when success depended upon energetic action, Perseus sought to +avoid the issue and tried to placate the Romans, but in vain. In 171 +a Roman force landed in Greece and made its way to Thessaly. But +in the campaigns of this and the following year the Roman commanders +were too incapable and their troops too undisciplined to make any +headway. Nor did Perseus show ability to take advantage of his +opportunities. Furthermore, by his parsimony he lost the chance to +win valuable aid from the Dardanians, Gesatae, and Celts on his +borders. Finally, in 168, the Romans found an able general in the +consul Aemilius Paulus, who restored the morale of the Roman soldiers +and won a complete victory over Perseus in the battle of Pydna. +The Macedonian kingdom was at an end; its territory was divided +into four autonomous republics, which were forbidden mutual privileges +of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">commercium</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">connubium</span></span>; a yearly tribute of fifty talents +was imposed upon them; and the royal mines and domains became +the property of the Roman state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The aftermath of the war.</span></span> Having disposed of Macedon the +Romans turned their attention to the other Greek states with the intention +of rewarding their friends and punishing their enemies. +Everywhere death or exile awaited the leaders of the anti-Roman party, +many of whose names became known from the seizure of the papers +of Perseus. Although the Achaeans had given no positive proof of +disloyalty 1000 of their leading men, among them the historian Polybius, +were carried off to Italy nominally to be given the chance of +clearing themselves before the Senate but really to be kept as hostages +in Italy for the future conduct of the Confederacy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Rhodians, because they had endeavored to secure a peaceful +settlement between Rome and Perseus, were forced to surrender their +possessions in Asia Minor, and a ruinous blow was dealt to their +commercial prosperity by the establishment of a free port at the island +of Delos. Eumenes of Pergamon, whose actions had aroused suspicions, +had to recognize the independence of the Galatians whom he +had subdued. Far worse was the fate of Epirus. There seventy +towns were sacked and their inhabitants to the number of 150,000 +carried off into slavery. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page97">[pg 97]</span><a name="Pg97" id="Pg97" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Henceforth it was clear that Rome was the real sovereign in the +eastern Mediterranean and that her friends and allies only enjoyed +local autonomy, while they were expected to be obedient to the orders +of Rome. This is well illustrated by the anecdote of the circle of +Popilius. During the Third Macedonian War, Antiochus IV, +Epiphanes, King of Syria, had invaded Egypt. After the battle of +Pydna a Roman ambassador, Popilius by name, was sent to make +him withdraw. Popilius met Antiochus before Alexandria and delivered +the Senate’s message. The king asked for time for consideration, +but the Roman, drawing a circle around him in the sand, bade +him answer before he left the spot. Antiochus yielded and evacuated +Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The spoils of this war with Macedonia brought an enormous booty +into the Roman treasury, and from this time the war tax on property—the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tributum civium Romanorum</span></span>—ceased to be levied. The income +of the empire enabled the government to relieve Roman citizens +of all direct taxation. +</p> +</div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc85" id="toc85"></a><a name="pdf86" id="pdf86"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. Campaigns in Italy and Spain</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +During the Macedonian and Syrian Wars the Romans were busy +strengthening and extending their hold upon northern Italy and +Spain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Cisalpine Gaul.</span></span> Cisalpine Gaul, which had been largely lost to +the Romans since Hannibal’s invasion, was recovered by wars with +the Insubres and Boii between 198 and 191 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> A new military +highway, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">via Flaminia</span></span>, was built from Rome to Ariminum in 187, +and later extended under the name of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">via Aemilia</span></span> to Placentia; +another, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">via Cassia</span></span> (171 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>), linked Rome and the Po valley +by way of Etruria. New fortresses were established; Bononia (189) +and Aquileia (181) as Latin colonies; <a name="corr097" id="corr097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Parma</span> and Mutina (183) as +colonies of Roman citizens. In this way Roman authority was firmly +established and the way prepared for the rapid Latinization of the +land between the Apennines and the Alps. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Ligurians.</span></span> In the same period falls the subjugation of the +Ligurians. In successive campaigns, lasting until 172 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, the +Romans gradually extended their sway over the various Ligurian +tribes until they reached the territory of Massalia in southern Gaul. +Roman colonies were founded at Pisa (180) and Luna (177). +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page98">[pg 98]</span><a name="Pg98" id="Pg98" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Spain.</span></span> The territory acquired from Carthage in Spain was organized +into two provinces, called Hither and Farther Spain, in 197 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +But the allied and subject Spanish tribes were not yet reconciled to +the presence of the Romans and serious revolts broke out. One of +these was subdued by Marcus Porcius Cato in 196, another by Lucius +Aemilius Paulus between 191 and 189, and a third by Tiberius +Sempronius Gracchus in 179 and 178 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> The settlement effected +by Gracchus secured peace for many years. In Spain were founded +Rome’s first colonies beyond the borders of Italy. Italica, near +Seville, was settled in 206, and Carteia in 171; both as Latin colonies. +</p> + +</div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page99">[pg 99]</span><a name="Pg99" id="Pg99" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc87" id="toc87"></a><a name="pdf88" id="pdf88"></a> +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER X</span></h2> + +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">TERRITORIAL EXPANSION IN THREE CONTINENTS: +167–133 B. C.</span></h2> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Roman foreign policy.</span></span> The foreign relations of Rome from 167 +to 133 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> fall into two distinct periods. In the earlier, Roman +foreign policy is directed towards securing Roman domination +throughout the Mediterranean by diplomatic means. War and annexation +of territory are avoided as causing too great a drain upon +the resources of the state and creating difficult administrative problems. +In the later period this policy is abandoned for one more +aggressively imperialistic, which does not hesitate to appeal to armed +force and aims at the incorporation of conquered territory within the +empire. This change of policy was largely due to the influence of +that group in the senate which was eager for foreign commands, the +honors of a triumph, and the spoils of war, as well as that of the +non-senatorial financial interests which sought to open up new fields +for exploitation. It was also felt that the prestige of Rome had suffered +by the disregard of some of her diplomatic representations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This policy of expansion resulted in prolonged wars in Spain, the +annexation of Carthage and Macedon, the establishment of direct control +over Greece, and the acquisition of territory in Asia Minor. The +new tendencies become apparent shortly before 150 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<a name="toc89" id="toc89"></a><a name="pdf90" id="pdf90"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. The Spanish Wars: 154–133 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The revolts of the Celtiberians and the Lusitanians: 154–139 +B. C.</span></span> In 154 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> revolts broke out in both Hither and Farther +Spain. A series of long and bloody campaigns ensued, which were +prolonged by the incapacity, cruelty and faithlessness of the Roman +commanders, and caused a heavy drain upon the military resources +of Italy. The chief opponents of the Romans were the Celtiberians +of Hither, and the Lusitanians of Farther Spain. The desperate +character of these wars made service in Spain very unpopular, and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg 100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>levies for the campaign of 151 were raised with difficulty. The tribunes +interceded to protect certain persons, and when their intercession +was disregarded by the consuls they cast the latter into prison. In +150 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the pro-consul Galba treacherously massacred thousands of +Lusitanians with whom he had made a treaty. For this he was +brought to trial by Cato, but was acquitted. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The massacre led to a renewed outbreak under Viriathus, an able +guerilla leader who defied the power of Rome for about eight years +(147–139 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). Forced eventually to yield, he was assassinated +during an armistice by traitors suborned by the Roman commander. +The complete subjugation of the Lusitanians soon followed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The war with Numantia: 143–133 B. C.</span></span> Meantime, after an +interval of some years, in 143 the war had broken out afresh in the +nearer province where the struggle centered about the town of Numantia. +In 140 the Roman general Pompeius made peace upon easy +terms with the Numantines, but later repudiated it, and the Senate +ignored his arrangements. Again in 138 the tribunes interfered with +the levy, so great was the popular aversion to service in Spain. The +next year witnessed the disgraceful surrender of the consul Mancinus +and his army, comprising 20,000 Romans, to the Numantines. By +concluding a treaty he saved the lives of his army. But the Roman +Senate perfidiously rejected the sworn agreement of the consul, made +him the scapegoat and delivered him bound to the Numantines, who +would have none of him. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At length, weary of defeats, the Romans re-elected to the consulship +for 134 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> their tried general Scipio Aemilianus, the conqueror +of Carthage, and appointed him as commander in Spain. His first +task was to restore the discipline in his army. Then he opened the +blockade of Numantia. After a siege of fifteen months the city was +starved into submission and completely destroyed. A commission +of ten senators reorganized the country and Spain entered upon a +long era of peace. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc91" id="toc91"></a><a name="pdf92" id="pdf92"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The Destruction of Carthage: 149–146 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Third Punic War: 149–146 B. C. Its causes.</span></span> The treaty +which ended the Second Punic War had forbidden the Carthaginians +the right to make war outside of Africa, or within it without the +consent of Rome. At the same time their enemy Masinissa had been +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101" id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>established as a powerful prince on their borders. In such a situation +future Roman intervention was inevitable. But for a generation +Carthage was left in peace. A pro-Roman party was in control there +and bent all its energies to the peaceful revival of Carthaginian commerce. +And the Romans, after a period of suspicion which ended +with the exile of Hannibal in 196, regarded Carthaginian prosperity +without enmity. However, this prosperity in the end led to the ruin +of the city, for it awakened the envy of the Senate and the financial +interests of Rome, which became only too ready to seize upon any +excuse for the destruction of their ancient rival. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Cato and Carthage.</span></span> The opportunity came through the action of +Masinissa. This chieftain, knowing the restrictions imposed upon +Carthage by her treaty with Rome, and sensing the change in the +Roman attitude towards that city after 167 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, revived old claims to +Carthaginian territory. Carthage could only appeal to Rome for +protection, but in 161 and 157 the Roman commissions sent to adjust +the disputes decided in favor of Masinissa. A member of the commission +of 157 was the old Marcus Porcius Cato, who was still +obsessed with the fear which Carthage had inspired in his youth, and +who returned from his mission filled with alarm at the wealth of the +city and henceforth devoted all his energies to accomplish its overthrow. +In the following years he concluded all his speeches in the +Senate with the words, <span class="tei tei-q">“Carthage must be destroyed.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Roman ultimatum: 149 B. C.</span></span> A fresh attack by Masinissa +occurred in 151 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Enraged, the Carthaginians took the field +against him, but suffered defeat. The Romans at once prepared for +war. Conscious of having overstepped their rights and fearful of +Roman vengeance, the Carthaginians offered unconditional submission +in the hope of obtaining pardon. The Senate assured them of +their lives, property and constitution, but required hostages and bade +them execute the commands of the consuls who crossed over to Africa +with an army and ordered the Carthaginians to surrender their arms +and engines of war. The Carthaginians, desirous of appeasing the +Romans at all costs, complied. Then came the ultimatum. They +must abandon their city and settle at least ten miles from the sea +coast. This was practically a death sentence to the ancient mercantile +city. Seized with the fury of despair the Carthaginians improvised +weapons and, manning their walls, bade defiance to the +Romans. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The siege of Carthage: 149–146 B. C.</span></span> For two years the Romans, +owing to the incapacity of their commanders, accomplished +little. Then disappointment and apprehension led the Roman people +to demand as consul Scipio Aemilianus, who had already distinguished +himself as a military tribune. He was only a candidate for +the aedileship and legally ineligible for the consulate. But the restrictions +upon his candidature were suspended, and he was elected +consul for 147 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> A special law entrusted him with the conduct +of the war in Africa. He restored discipline in the Roman army, +defeated the Carthaginians in the field and energetically pressed the +siege of the city. The Carthaginians suffered frightfully from hunger +and their forces were greatly reduced. In the spring of 146 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +the Romans forced their way into the city and captured it after desperate +fighting in the streets and houses. The handful of survivors +were sold into slavery, their city levelled to the ground and its site +declared accursed. Out of the Carthaginian territory the Romans +created a new province, called Africa. The last act in the dramatic +struggle between the two cities was ended. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc93" id="toc93"></a><a name="pdf94" id="pdf94"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. War with Macedonia and the Achaean Confederacy: +149–146 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Fourth Macedonian War: 149–148 B. C.</span></span> The mutual rivalries +among the Greek states, which frequently evoked senatorial intervention, +and the ill-will occasioned by the harshness of the Romans +towards the anti-Roman party everywhere, caused a large faction +among the Hellenes to be ready to seize the first favorable opportunity +for freeing Greece from Roman suzerainty. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Relying upon this antagonism to Rome, a certain Andriscus, who +claimed to be a son of Perseus, appeared in Macedonia in 149 and +claimed the throne. He made himself master of the country and defeated +the first Roman forces sent against him. However, he was +crushed in the following year at Pydna by the praetor Metellus, and +Macedonia was recovered. The four republics were not restored but +the whole country was organized as a Roman province (148 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Achaeans assert their independence.</span></span> The Achaean Confederacy +was one of the states where the feeling against Rome ran +especially high. There the irksomeness of the Roman protectorate +was heightened by the return of the survivors of the political exiles +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg 103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>of 167, 300 in number. The anti-Roman party, supported by the +extreme democratic elements in the cities, was in control of the Confederacy +when border difficulties with Sparta broke out afresh in +149 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> The matter was referred to the Senate for settlement, but +the Achaeans did not await its decision. They attacked and defeated +Sparta, confident that the hands of the Romans were tied by the wars +in Spain, Africa and Macedonia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The dissolution of the Confederacy: 146 B. C.</span></span> The Roman +Senate determined to punish the Confederacy by detaching certain important +cities from its membership. But in 147 the Achaean assembly +tempestuously refused to carry out the orders of the Roman ambassadors, +in spite of the fact that the Macedonian revolt had been +crushed. Their leaders, expecting no mercy from Rome, prepared +for war and they were joined by the Boeotians and other peoples of +central Greece. The next year they resolved to attack Sparta, whereupon +the Romans sent a fleet and an army against them under the +consul Lucius Mummius. Metellus, the conqueror of Macedonia, +subdued central Greece and Mummius routed the forces of the Confederacy +at Leucopetra on the Isthmus (146 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). Corinth was +sacked and burnt; its treasures were carried off to Rome; and its inhabitants +sold into slavery. Its land, like that of Carthage, was +added to the Roman public domain. Like Alexander’s destruction +of Thebes this was a warning which the other cities of Greece could +not misinterpret. A senatorial commission dissolved the Achaean +Confederacy as well as the similar political combinations of the Boeotians +and Phocians, The cities of Greece entered into individual +relations with Rome. Those which had stood on the side of Rome, as +Athens and Sparta, retained their previous status as Roman allies; the +rest were made subject and tributary. Greece was not organized as +a province, but was put under the supervision of the governor of +Macedonia. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc95" id="toc95"></a><a name="pdf96" id="pdf96"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. The Acquisition of Asia</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The province of Asia.</span></span> In 133 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> died Attalus III, King of +Pergamon, the last of his line. In his will he made the Roman people +the heir to his kingdom, probably with the feeling that otherwise +disputes over the succession would end in Roman interference and +conquest. The Romans accepted the inheritance but before they took +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>possession a claimant appeared in the person of an illegitimate son +of Eumenes II, one Aristonicus. He occupied part of the kingdom, +defeated and killed the consul Crassus in 131, but was himself beaten +and captured by the latter’s successor Perpena in <a name="corr104" id="corr104" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">129.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Out of the kingdom of Pergamon there was then formed the Roman +province of Asia (129 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). The occupation of this country +made Rome mistress of both shores of the Aegean and gave her a convenient +bridgehead for an advance further eastward. The question +of the financial administration of Asia and its relation to Roman +politics will be discussed in a subsequent chapter. +</p> + + </div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc97" id="toc97"></a><a name="pdf98" id="pdf98"></a> +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER XI</span></h2> + +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">THE ROMAN STATE AND THE EMPIRE: 265–133 B. C.</span></h2> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The conquest of the hegemony of the Mediterranean world entailed +the most serious consequences for the Roman state itself. Indeed, +the wars which form the subject of the preceding chapters were the +ultimate cause of the crisis that led to the fall of the Roman Republic. +In the present chapter it will be our task to trace the changes and indicate +the problems that had their origin in these wars and the ensuing +conquests. Such a survey is best begun by considering the +character of the Roman government during the epoch in question. +</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<a name="toc99" id="toc99"></a><a name="pdf100" id="pdf100"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. The Rule of the Senatorial Aristocracy</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Senate’s control over the magistrates, tribunate, and +assemblies.</span></span> From the passing of the Hortensian Law in 287 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +to the tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus in 133 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the Senate exercised +a practically unchallenged control over the policy of the Roman state. +For the Senate was able to guide or nullify the actions of the magistrates, +the tribunate, and the assemblies; a condition made possible +by the composition of the Senate, which, in addition to the ex-magistrates, +included all those above the rank of quaestor actually in office, +and by the peculiar organization and limitations of the Roman popular +assemblies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The higher magistrates were simply committees of senators elected +by the assemblies. Their interests were those of the Senate as a +whole, and constitutional practice required them to seek its advice +upon all matters of importance. The Senate assigned to the consuls +and praetors their spheres of duty, appointed pro-magistrates and +allotted them their commands, and no contracts let by the censors were +valid unless approved by the Senate. Except when the consuls were +in the city, the Senate controlled all expenditures from the public +treasury. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The chief weapon of the tribunes, their right of veto, which had +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page106">[pg 106]</span><a name="Pg106" id="Pg106" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>been instituted as a check upon the power of the Senate and the magistrates, +became an instrument whereby the Senate bridled the tribunate +itself. For, since after 287 the plebeians speedily came to constitute +a majority in the senate chamber, it was not difficult for this body to +secure the veto of the tribunes upon any measures of which it disapproved, +whether they originated with a consul or a tribune. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And, because the popular assemblies could only vote upon such +measures or for such candidates as were submitted to them by the presiding +magistrates, the Senate through its influence over magistrates +and tribunes controlled both the legislative and elective activities of +the comitia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Senate and the public policy.</span></span> Since the Senate was a permanent +body, easily assembled and regularly summoned by the consuls +to discuss all matters of public concern, it was natural that the +foreign policy of the state should be entirely in its hands—subject, +of course, to the right of the Assembly of the Centuries to sanction +the making of war or peace—and hence the organization and government +of Rome’s foreign possessions became a senatorial prerogative. +And, likewise, it fell to the Senate to deal with all sudden crises which +constituted a menace to the welfare of the state, like the spread of the +Bacchanalian associations which was ended by the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Senatus Consultum</span></span> +of 186 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> And, finally, the Senate claimed the right to proclaim +a state of martial law by passing the so-called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Senatus Consultum +ultimum</span></span>, a decree which authorized the magistrates to use any means +whatsoever to preserve the state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Polybius and the Roman Constitution.</span></span> Thus in spite of the +fact that the Greek historian and statesman, Polybius, who was an +intimate of the governing circles in Rome about the middle of the +second century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, in looking at the form of the Roman constitution +could call it a nice balance between monarchy, represented by the consuls, +aristocracy, represented by the Senate, and democracy, represented +by the tribunate and assemblies, in actual practice the state +was governed by the Senate. It is true that the Senate was not always +absolute master of the situation. Between 233 and 217 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, the +popular leader Caius Flaminius, as tribune, consul and censor, was +able to carry out a democratic policy at variance with the Senate’s +wishes, but with his death the control of the Senate became firmer than +ever. From what has been said it will readily be seen that the Senate’s +power rested mainly upon custom and precedent and upon the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg 107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>prestige and influence of itself as a whole and its individual members, +not upon powers guaranteed by law. The Roman republic never +was a true democracy, but was strongly aristocratic in character. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The aristocracy of office.</span></span> The Senate was representative of a +narrow circle of wealthy patrician and plebeian families, which constituted +the new nobility that came into being with the cessation of +the patricio-plebeian struggle and which was in truth an office-holding +aristocracy. For, after the initial widening of the circle of families +enobled by admission to the Senate, the third century saw these create +for themselves a real, if not legal, monopoly of the magistracies and +thus of the regular gateway to the senate chamber. This they could +do because the expense involved in holding public offices, which were +without salary, and in conducting the election campaigns, which became +increasingly costly as time went on, deterred all but persons of +considerable fortune from seeking office, and because the exercise of +personal influence and the right of the officer conducting an election +to reject the candidature of a person of whom he disapproved, made it +possible to prevent in most cases the election of any one not <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">persona +grata</span></span> to the majority of the senators. It was only individuals of +exceptional force and ability, like Cato the Elder, and in later times +Marius and Cicero, who could penetrate the barriers thus established. +Such a person was signalled as a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">novus homo</span></span>, a <span class="tei tei-q">“new-comer.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The goal of office.</span></span> While Rome was hard-pressed by her enemies +and while the issue of the struggle for world empire was still in +doubt, the Senate displayed to a remarkable degree the qualities of +self-sacrifice and steadfastness which so largely contributed to Rome’s +ultimate triumph, as well as great political adroitness in the foreign +relations of the state. But with the passing of all external dangers, +personal ambition and class interest became more and more evident to +the detriment of its patriotism and prestige. Office-holding, with the +opportunities it offered for ruling over subject peoples and of commanding +in profitable wars, became a ready means for securing for +oneself and one’s friends the wealth which was needed to maintain +the new standard of luxurious living now affected by the ruling class +of the imperial city. The higher magistracies were rendered still more +valuable in the eyes of the senators when the latter were prohibited +from participating directly in commercial ventures outside of Italy +by a law passed in 219 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, which forbade senators to own ships of +seagoing capacity, with the object probably of preventing the foreign +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>policy of the state from being directed by commercial interests. As +a consequence the rivalry for office became extremely keen, and the +customary canvassing for votes tended to degenerate into bribery both +of individuals and of the voting masses. In the latter case it took +the form of entertaining the public by the elaborate exhibition of +lavish spectacles in the theatre and the arena. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Attempts to restrain abuses.</span></span> However, the sense of responsibility +was still strong enough in the Senate as a whole to secure the +passing of legislation designed to check this evil. The Villian law +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Villia annalis</span></span>) of 180 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> established a regular sequence for +the holding of the magistracies. Henceforth the quaestorship had to +be held before the praetorship, and the latter before the consulate. +The aedileship was not made imperative, but was regularly sought +after the quaestorship, because it involved the supervision of the public +games and festivals, and in this way gave a good opportunity for +ingratiating oneself with the populace. The tribunate was not considered +as one of the regular magistracies, and the censorship, according +to the custom previously established, followed the consulship. +The minimum age of twenty-eight years was set for the holding of +the quaestorship, and an interval of two years was required between +successive magistracies. Somewhat later, about 151 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, re-elections +to the same office were forbidden. In the years 181 and 159 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +laws were passed which established severe penalties for the bribery +of electors. Another attempt to check the same abuse was the introduction +of the secret ballot for voting in the assemblies. The Gabinian +Law of 139 provided for the use of the ballot in elections; two +years later the Cassian Law extended its use to trials in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia</span></span>, +and in 131 it was finally employed in the legislative assemblies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But these laws accomplished no great results, as they dealt merely +with the symptoms, and not with the cause of the disorder. And the +Roman Senate, deteriorating in capacity and morale, was facing administrative, +military, and social problems, which might well have +been beyond its power to solve even in the days of its greatness. As +we have indicated the Senate’s power rested largely upon its successful +foreign policy, but its initial failures in the last wars with +Macedonia and Carthage, and the long and bloody struggles in Spain, +had weakened its reputation and its claim to control the public policy +was challenged, from the middle of the second century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, by the +new commercial and capitalist class. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109" id="Pg109" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Roman Constitution from 265 to 133 B. C.</span></span> During the +period in question there were few changes of importance in the political +organization of the Roman state. The dictatorship had been discarded, +although not abolished, before the close of the Hannibalic +War, a step which was in harmony with the policy of the Senate which +sought to prevent any official from attaining too independent a position. +In 242 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> a second praetorship, the office of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">praetor +peregrinus</span></span> or alien praetor was established. The duty of this officer +was to preside over the trial of disputes arising between Roman citizens +and foreigners. Two additional praetorships were added in 227, and +two more in 197 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, to provide provincial governors of praetorian +rank. In 241 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the last two rural tribal districts were created, +making thirty-five tribes in all. Hereafter when new settlements +of Roman colonists were undertaken, or new peoples admitted to citizenship, +they were assigned to one or other of the old tribes, and +membership therein became hereditary, irrespective of change of +residence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The reform of the centuries.</span></span> At some time subsequent to the +creation of these last two tribes, very probably in the censorship of +Flaminius in 220 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, a change was made in the organization of the +centuriate assembly. The centuries were organized on the basis of the +tribes, an equal number of centuries of juniors and seniors of each +class being assigned to each tribe.<a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href="#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> The reform was evidently democratic +in its nature, as it diminished the relative importance of the +first class, deprived the equestrian centuries of the right of casting +the first votes—a right now exercised by a century chosen by lot for +each meeting—and placed in control of the Assembly of the Centuries +the same elements as controlled the Assembly of the Tribes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The comitia an antiquated institution.</span></span> But by the second century +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the Roman primary assemblies had become antiquated as +a vehicle for the expression of the wishes of the majority of the Roman +citizens, because with the spread of the Roman citizen body throughout +Italy it was impossible for more than a small percentage to attend +the meetings of the Comitia, and this situation became much worse +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>with the settlement of Romans in their foreign dependencies. It was +the failure of the Romans to devise some adequate substitute for this +institution of a primitive city-state, which was largely responsible for +the people’s loss of its sovereign powers. As it was, the assemblies +came to be dominated by the urban proletariat, a class absolutely unfitted +to represent the Roman citizens as a whole. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The allies of Rome in Italy.</span></span> The Latin and Italian allies, with +the exception of such as were punished for their defection in the +war with Hannibal, remained in their previous federate relationship +with Rome. However, the Romans were no longer careful to adhere +strictly to their treaty rights, and began to trespass upon the local +independence of their allies. Roman magistrates did not hesitate +to issue orders to the magistrates of federate communities, and to +punish them for failure to obey or for lack of respect. The spoils of +war, furthermore, were no longer divided in equal proportions between +the Roman and allied troops. Added to these aggravations +came the fact that the allies were after all dependents and had no +share in the government or the financial administration of the lands +they had helped to conquer. But their most serious grievance was +their obligation to military service, which was exacted without relaxation, +and which, owing to reasons which we shall discuss later, +had become much more burdensome than when originally imposed. +It is not surprising, then, to find that by 133 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the federate allies +were demanding to be admitted to Roman citizenship. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +However, it was not in Rome or in Italy, but in Rome’s foreign +possessions that the important administrative development of the +third and second centuries occurred. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc101" id="toc101"></a><a name="pdf102" id="pdf102"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The Administration of the Provinces</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The status of the conquered peoples.</span></span> The acquisition of Sicily +in 241, and of Sardinia and Corsica in 238 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> raised the question +whether Rome should extend to her non-Italian conquests the same +treatment accorded to the Italian peoples and include them within her +military federation. This question was answered in the negative and +the status of federate allies was only accorded to such communities +as had previously attained this relationship or merited it by zeal in +the cause of Rome. All the rest were treated as subjects, not as +allies, enjoying only such rights as the conquerors chose to leave them. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" id="Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>The distinguishing mark of their condition was their obligation to pay +a tax or tribute to Rome. Except on special occasions they were not +called upon to render military service. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The provinces.</span></span> At first the Romans tried to conduct the administration +of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica through the regular city magistrates, +but finding this unsatisfactory in 227 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> they created two +separate administrative districts—Sicily forming one, and the other +two islands the second—called provinces from the word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">provincia</span></span>, +which meant the sphere of duty assigned to a particular official. And +in fact special magistrates were assigned to them, two additional +praetors being annually elected for this purpose. In like manner +the Romans in 197 organized the provinces of Hither and Farther +Spain, in 148 the province of Macedonia, in 146 that of Africa, and +in 129 Asia. Subsequent conquests were treated in the same way. +For the Spanish provinces new praetorships were created, <span class="tei tei-q">“with consular +authority”</span> because of the military importance of their posts. +But for those afterwards organized no new magistracies were added, +and the practice was established of appointing as governor an ex-consul +or ex-praetor with the title of pro-consul or pro-praetor. This +method of appointing provincial governors became, as we shall see, +the rule for all provinces under the republican régime. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The provincial charter.</span></span> Although each province had its own +peculiar features, in general all were organized and administered in +the following way. A provincial charter (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex provinciae</span></span>) drawn up +on the ground by a commission of ten senators and ratified by the +Senate fixed the rights and obligations of the provincials. Each +province was an aggregate of communities (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">civitates</span></span>), enjoying city +or tribal organization, which had no political bond of unity except +in the representative of the Roman authority. There were three +classes of these communities: the free and federate, the free and non-tributary, +and the tributary (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">civitates liberae et foederatae</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">liberae et +immunes</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">stipendiariae</span></span>). The first were few in number and although +within the borders of a province did not really belong to it, as they +were free allies of Rome whose status was assured by a permanent +treaty with the Roman state. The second class, likewise not very +numerous, enjoyed exemption from taxation by virtue of the provincial +charter, and this privilege the Senate could revoke at will. The third +group was by far the most numerous and furnished the tribute laid +upon the province. As a rule each of the communities enjoyed its +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>former constitution and laws, subject to the supervision of the Roman +authorities. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Roman governor.</span></span> Over this aggregate of communities stood +the Roman governor and his staff. We have already seen how the +governor was appointed and what was his rank among the Roman +magistrates. His term of office was regularly for one year, except +in the Spanish provinces where a term of two years was usual. His +duties were of a threefold nature: military, administrative, and judicial. +He was in command of the Roman troops stationed in the +province for the maintenance of order and the protection of the frontiers; +he supervised the relations between the communities of his +province and their internal administration, as well as the collection +of the tribute; he presided over the trial of the more serious cases +arising among provincials, over all cases between provincials and +Romans, or between Roman citizens. Upon entering his province +the governor published an edict, usually modelled upon that of his +predecessors or the praetor’s edict at Rome, stating what legal principles +he would enforce during his term of office. The province was +divided into judicial circuits (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">conventus</span></span>), and cases arising in each +of these were tried in designated places at fixed times. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The governor’s staff.</span></span> The governor was accompanied by a +quaestor, who acted as his treasurer and received the provincial revenue +from the tax collectors. His staff also comprised three <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">legati</span></span> or +lieutenants, senators appointed by the senate, but usually nominated +by himself, whose function it was to assist him with their counsel +and act as his deputies when necessary. He also took with him a +number of companions (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comites</span></span>), usually young men from the families +of his friends, who were given this opportunity of gaining a knowledge +of provincial government and who could be used in any official +capacity. In addition, the governor brought his own retinue, comprising +clerks and household servants. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The provincial taxes.</span></span> The taxes levied upon the provinces were +at first designed to pay the expenses of occupation and defence. +Hence they bore the name <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">stipendium</span></span>, or soldiers’ pay. At a later +date the provinces were looked upon as the estates of the Roman +people and the taxes as a form of rental. The term <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tributum</span></span> (tribute), +used of the property tax imposed on Roman citizens did not +come into general use for the provincial revenues until a later epoch. +As a rule the Romans accepted the tax system already in vogue in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name="Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>each district before their occupancy, and exacted either a fixed annual +sum from the province as in Spain, Africa and Macedonia or one tenth +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">decuma</span></span>) of the annual produce of the soil, as in Sicily and Asia. +The tribute imposed by the Romans was not higher, but usually lower +than what had been exacted by the previous rulers. The public lands, +mines, and forests, of the conquered state were incorporated in the +Roman public domain, and the right to occupy or exploit them was +leased to individuals or companies of contractors. Customs dues +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">portoria</span></span>) were also collected in the harbors and on the frontiers of +the provinces. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The tax collectors.</span></span> Following the custom established in Italy, +the Roman state did not collect its taxes in the provinces through +public officials but leased for a period of five years the right to +collect each particular tax to the private corporation of tax collectors +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">publicani</span></span>) which made the highest bid for the privilege. These +corporations were joint stock companies, with a central office at Rome +and agencies in the provinces in which they were interested. It was +this system which was responsible for the greatest evils of Roman +provincial administration. For the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">publicani</span></span> were usually corporations +of Romans, bent on making a profit from their speculation, and +practised under the guise of raising the revenue, all manner of extortion +upon the provincials. It was the duty of the governor to check +their rapacity, but from want of sympathy with the oppressed and +unwillingness to offend the Roman business interests this duty was +rarely performed. Hand in hand with tax collecting went the business +of money lending, for the Romans found a state of chronic bankruptcy +prevailing in the Greek world and made loans everywhere at +exorbitant rates of interest. To collect overdue payments the Roman +bankers appealed to the governor, who usually quartered troops +upon delinquent communities until they satisfied their creditors. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The rapacity of the governors.</span></span> A further source of misgovernment +lay in the greed of the governor and his staff. The temptations +of unrestricted power proved too great for the morality of the average +Roman. It is true that there were not wanting Roman governors who +maintained the highest traditions of Roman integrity in public office, +but there were also only too many who abused their power to enrich +themselves. While the shortness of his term of office prevented a +good governor from thoroughly understanding the conditions of his +province, it served to augment the criminal zeal with which an +ava<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page114">[pg 114]</span><a name="Pg114" id="Pg114" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>ricious proconsul, often heavily indebted from the expenses of his +election campaigns, sought to wring a fortune from the hapless provincials. +Bribes, presents, illegal exactions, and open confiscations +were the chief means of amassing wealth. In this the almost sovereign +position of the governor and his freedom from immediate senatorial +control guaranteed him a free hand. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The quaestio rerum repetundarum: 149 B. C.</span></span> The mischief +became so serious that in 149 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the public conscience awoke to +the wrong and ruin inflicted upon the provinces, and by a Calpurnian +Law a standing court was instituted for the trial of officials accused of +extortion in the provinces. This court was composed of fifty jurors +drawn from the Senate and was presided over by a praetor. From +its judgment there was no appeal. Its establishment marks an important +innovation in Roman legal procedure in criminal cases. It +is possible also that the Senate was encouraged to undertake the organization +of new provinces shortly after 149 because it believed that +this court would serve as an adequate means of controlling the provincial +governors. But it was useless to expect very much from such +a tribunal. The cost of a long trial at Rome, the difficulty of securing +testimony, the inadequacy of the penalty provided, which was +limited to restitution of the damage inflicted, as well as the fear of +vengeance from future governors, would deter the majority of sufferers +from seeking reparation. Nor could an impartial verdict be expected +from a jury of senators trying one of their own number for an offense +which many of them regarded as their prerogative. And so till the +end of the republic the provincials suffered from the oppression of +their governors, as well as from that of the tax-collectors. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc103" id="toc103"></a><a name="pdf104" id="pdf104"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. Social and Economic Development</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Outstanding characteristics of the period.</span></span> The epoch of foreign +expansion which we are considering was marked by a complete +revolution in the social and economic life of Rome and Italy. It witnessed +the spread of the slave plantations, the decline of the free +Italian peasantry, the growth of the city mob of Rome, the great increase +in the power of the commercial and capitalist class, and the +introduction of a new standard of living among the well-to-do. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The slave </span><a name="corr114" id="corr114" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">plantations.</span></span></span> The introduction of the plantation system, +that is, of the cultivation of large estates (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">latifundia</span></span>) by slave +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" id="Pg115" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>labor, was the result of several causes: the Roman system of administering +the public domain, the devastation of the rural districts of +South Italy in the Hannibalic War, the abundant supply of cheap +slaves taken as prisoners of war, and the inability of the small proprietors +to maintain themselves in the face of the demands of military +service abroad and the competition of imported grain as well as +that of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">latifundia</span></span> themselves. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The public domain that was not required for purposes of colonization +had always been open for pasturage or cultivation to persons +paying a nominal rental to the state. Those who profited most from +this system were the wealthier landholders who could occupy and +cultivate very considerable areas. This fact explains the senatorial +opposition to the division and settlement of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ager Gallicus</span></span> proposed +and carried by the tribune Flaminius in 233 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> The dangers +of the practice to the smaller proprietors caused the passing of +laws, probably late in the third century, which limited the amount of +public land to be occupied by any individual and his family. But +these laws were disregarded, for the Senate administered the public +domain and the senators were the wealthy landholders. After several +generations the public lands occupied in this way came to be regarded +as private property. The havoc wrought by Hannibal in +South Italy, where he destroyed four hundred communities, caused the +disappearance of the country population and opened the way for the +acquisition of large estates there, and the law which restricted the +commercial activities of senators and forbade their engaging in tax +collecting or undertaking similar state contracts encouraged them to +invest their capital in Italian land and stimulated the growth of their +holdings. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The change in agrarian conditions in Italy was also advantageous +to large estates. The cheapness of Sicilian grain rendered it more +profitable in Italy to cultivate vineyards and olive orchards, and to +raise cattle and sheep on a large scale. For the latter wide acreages +were needed: a summer pasturage in the mountains and a winter one +in the lowlands of the coast. Abundant capital and cheap labor were +other requisites. And slaves were to be had in such numbers that +their labor was exploited without regard for their lives. Cato the +Elder, who exemplified the vices as well as the virtues of the old +Roman character, treated his slaves like cattle and recommended +that they be disposed of when no longer fit for work. Often the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>slaves worked in irons, and were housed in underground prisons +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ergastula</span></span>). The dangers of the presence of such masses of slaves so +brutally treated came to light in the Sicilian Slave War which broke +out in 136 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, when over 200,000 of them rebelled and defied the +Roman arms for a period of four years. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The decline of the free peasantry.</span></span> Partly a cause and partly a +result of the spread of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">latifundia</span></span> was the decline of the free +Italian peasantry. As we have seen, the competition of the slave +plantations proved ruinous to those who tilled their own land. But +another very potent cause contributing to this result was the burden +imposed by Rome’s foreign wars. Since only those who had a property +assessment of at least 4000 asses were liable to military service, +and since the majority of Roman citizens were engaged in agricultural +occupations, the Roman armies were chiefly recruited from +the country population. And no longer for a part of each year only, +but for a number of consecutive years, was the peasant soldier kept +from his home to the inevitable detriment of his fields and his +finances. Furthermore, a long period of military service with the +chances of gaining temporary riches from the spoils of war unfitted +men for the steady, laborious life of the farm. And so many discharged +soldiers, returning to find that their lands had been mortgaged +in their absence for the support of their families, and being +unable or unwilling to gain a livelihood on their small estates, let +these pass into the hands of their wealthier neighbors and flocked to +Rome to swell the mob of idlers there. Then came the heavy losses +of the Second Punic and the Spanish Wars. Although the census +list of Roman citizens eligible for military service shows an increase +in the first half of the second century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, between 164 and 136 it +sank from 337,000 to 317,000. Yet the levies had to be raised, even +if, as we have seen, they were unpopular enough to induce the tribunes +to intercede against them. The Latin and Italian allies felt the +same drain as the Roman citizens, but had no recourse to the tribunician +intercession. The Senate was consequently brought face to +face with a very serious military problem. The provinces, once occupied, +had to be kept in subjection and defended. Since the Roman +government would not, or dare not, raise armies in the provinces, it +had to meet increasing military obligations with declining resources. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The urban proletariat.</span></span> Another difficulty was destined to arise +from the growth of a turbulent mob in Rome itself. This was in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117" id="Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>large measure due to Rome’s position as the political and commercial +center of the Mediterranean world. By the end of this period of +expansion the city had a population of at least half a million, rivalling +Alexandria and Antioch, the great Hellenistic capitals. Although +not a manufacturing city, Rome had always been important as a market, +and now her streets were thronged with traders from all lands, +and with persons who could cater in any way to the wants and the +appetites of an imperial city. There was a large proportion of slaves +belonging to the mansions of the wealthy, and of freedmen engaged in +business for themselves or for their patrons. Hither flocked also the +peasants who for various reasons had abandoned their agricultural +pursuits to pick up a precarious living in the city or to depend upon +the bounty of the patron to whom they attached themselves. Owing +to the slowness of transportation by land and its uncertainties by sea, +the congestion of population in Rome made the problem of supplying +the city with food one of great difficulty, since a rise in the price of +grain, or a delay in the arrival of the Sicilian wheat convoy would +bring the proletariat to the verge of starvation. And upon the popular +assemblies the presence of this unstable element had an unwholesome +effect. Dominated as these assemblies were by those who resided +in the city, their actions were bound to be determined by the particular +interests and passions of this portion of the citizen body. +Furthermore, in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">contiones</span></span> or mass meetings for political purposes, +non-citizens as well as citizens could attend, and this afforded a ready +means for evoking the mob spirit in the hope of overawing the +Comitia. This danger would not have been present if the Roman +constitution had provided adequate means for policing the city. As +it was, however, beyond the magistrates and their personal attendants, +there were no persons authorized to maintain order in the city. And +since the consuls lacked military authority within the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pomerium</span></span>, +there were no armed forces at their disposal. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The equestrian order.</span></span> The Roman custom of depending as +much as possible upon individual initiative for the conduct of public +business, as in the construction of roads, aqueducts and other public +works, the operation of mines, and the collection of taxes of all kinds, +had given rise to a class of professional public contractors—the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">publicani</span></span>. Their operations, with the allied occupations of banking +and money-lending, had been greatly enlarged by the period of +war and conquest which followed 265 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> through the opportunities +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>it brought for the exploitation of subject peoples. Roman commerce, +too, had spread with the extension of Roman political influence. The +exclusion of senators from direct participation in these ventures led to +the rise of a numerous, wealthy and influential class whose interests +differed from and often ran counter to those of the senatorial order. +In general they supported an aggressive foreign policy, with the ruthless +exploitation of conquered peoples, and they were powerful enough +to influence the destruction of Carthage and Corinth. In the course +of the second century this class developed into a distinct order in the +state—the equestrians. Since the Roman cavalry had practically +ceased to serve in the field, the term <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">equites</span></span> came to be applied to all +those whose property would have permitted their serving as cavalry at +their own expense. The majority of these was formed by the business +class, although under the name of equestrians were still included such +members of the senatorial families as had not yet held office. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The new scale of living.</span></span> In the course of their campaigns in +Sicily, Africa, Greece, and Asia Minor, the Romans came into close +contact with a civilization older and higher than their own, where the +art of living was practised with a refinement and elegance unknown +in Latium. In this respect the conquerors showed themselves only +too ready to learn from the conquered, and all the luxurious externals +of culture were transplanted to Rome. But the old Periclean motto, +<span class="tei tei-q">“refinement without extravagance,”</span> did not appeal to the Romans +who, like typical <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">nouveaux riches</span></span> vied with one another in the extravagant +display of their wealth. The simple Roman house with +its one large <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">atrium</span></span>, serving at once as kitchen, living room, and bed +chamber, was completely transformed. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">atrium</span></span> became a pillared +reception hall, special rooms were added for the various phases of +domestic life; in the rear of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">atrium</span></span> arose a Greek peristyle courtyard, +and the house was filled with costly sculptures and other works +of art, plundered or purchased in the cities of Hellas. Banquets +were served on silver plate and exhibited the rarest and costliest +dishes. The homes of the wealthy were thronged with retinues of +slaves, each specially trained for some particular task; the looms of +the East supplied garments of delicate texture. A wide gulf yawned +between the life of the rich and the life of the poor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Sumptuary legislation.</span></span> But the change did not come about without +vigorous opposition from the champions of the old Roman simplicity +of life who saw in the new refinement and luxury a danger to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name="Pg119" id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Roman vigor and morality. The spokesman of the reactionaries was +Cato the Elder, who in his censorship in 184 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> assessed articles of +luxury and expensive slaves at ten times their market value and made +them liable to taxation at an exceptionally high rate, in case the +property tax should be levied. But such action was contrary to the +spirit of the age; the next censors let his regulations fall into abeyance. +Attempts to check the growth of luxury by legislation were equally +futile. The Oppian Law, passed under stress of the need for conservation +in 215 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, restricting female extravagance in dress and +ornaments, was repealed in 195, and subsequent attempts at sumptuary +legislation in 181, 161, and 143, were equally in vain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To resume: in 133 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the Roman state was faced with a bitter +contest between the Senate and the equestrians for the control of the +government, the Comitia was dominated by an unstable urban proletariat, +the provisioning of Rome was a source of anxiety, dissatisfaction +was rife among the Latin and Italian allies, the military resources +of the state were weakening, while its military burdens were +greater than ever, and the ruling circles had begun to display unmistakable +signs of a declining public morality. With a constitution +adapted to a city-state Rome was now forced to grapple with all the +problems of imperial government. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc105" id="toc105"></a><a name="pdf106" id="pdf106"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. Cultural Progress</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Greek influences.</span></span> In addition to creating new administrative +problems and transforming the economic life of Italy, the expansion +of Rome gave a tremendous impulse to its cultural development. The +chief stimulus thereto was the close contact with Hellenic civilization. +We have previously mentioned that Rome had been subject to Greek +influences both indirectly through Etruria and directly from the Greek +cities of South Italy, but with the conquest of the latter, and the occupation +of Sicily, Greece, and part of Asia Minor, these influences became +infinitely more immediate and powerful. They were intensified +by the number of Greeks who flocked to Rome as ambassadors, +teachers, physicians, merchants and artists, and by the multitude of +educated Greek slaves employed in Roman households. And as the +Hellenic civilization was more ancient and had reached a higher +stage than the Latin, it was inevitable that the latter should borrow +largely from the former and consciously or unconsciously imitate it +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page120">[pg 120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>in many respects. In fact the intellectual life of Rome never attained +the freedom and richness of that of Greece upon which it was +always dependent. In this domain, as Horace phrased it, <span class="tei tei-q">“Captive +Greece took captive her rude conqueror.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">New tendencies in Roman education.</span></span> A knowledge of Greek +now became part of the equipment of every educated man, the training +of the sons of the well-to-do was placed in the hands of Greek +tutors, who were chiefly domestic slaves, and the study of the masterpieces +of Greek literature created the genuine admiration for Greek +achievements and the respect that men like Flamininus showed towards +their Greek contemporaries—a respect which the political +ineptitude of the latter soon changed to contempt. These tendencies +were vigorously opposed by the conservative Cato, who regarded +Greek influences as demoralizing. Following the old Roman custom +he personally trained his sons, and had no sympathy with a philhellenic +foreign policy. But even Cato in the end yielded so far as +to learn Greek. The chief patrons of Hellenism were men of the +type of Scipio Africanus the Elder; notably Titus Flamininus, +Aemilius Paulus and Scipio Aemilianus, at whose house gathered the +leading intellectuals of the day. Intimate associates there were the +Achaean historian Polybius and the Stoic philosopher Panaetius of +Rhodes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Roman literature: I. Poetry.</span></span> More than anything else Greek +influences contributed to the rise of Roman literature. Prior to the +war with Hannibal the Romans had no literature, although Latin +prose had attained a certain development in the formulation of laws +and treaties and a rude Latin verse had appeared. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Not unnaturally Roman literature began with translations from +the Greek, and here poetry preceded prose. In the latter half of the +third century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Livius Andronicus, a Greek freedman, translated +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Odyssey</span></span> into Latin Saturnian verse, as a text-book for school use. +He also translated Greek comedies and tragedies. At about the same +time Cnaeus Naevius wrote comedies and tragedies having Roman as +well as Greek subjects. He also composed an epic poem on the First +Punic War, still using the native Saturnian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Dramatic literature developed rapidly under the demand for plays +to be presented at the public festivals. In the second century appeared +the great comic poet Plautus, who drew his subjects from the +Greek New Comedy, but whose metre and language were strictly +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg 121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Latin. He was followed by Terence, a man of lesser genius, who +depended largely upon Greek originals, but who was distinguished +for the purity and elegance of his Latin. A later dramatist of note +was Lucius Accius, who brought Roman tragedy to its height. In +both comedy and tragedy Greek plots and characters were gradually +abandoned for those of native origin, but tragedy failed to appeal to +the Roman public which was in general too uneducated to appreciate +its worth and preferred the comedy, mime or gladiatorial combat. A +notable figure is Ennius, a Messapian, who began to write at the close +of the third century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> He created the Latin hexameter verse in +which he wrote a great epic portraying the history of Rome from the +migration of Aeneas. Another famous member of the Scipionic circle +was Gaius Lucilius, a Roman of equestrian rank, who originated +the one specifically Roman contribution to literary types, the satire. +His poems were a criticism of life in all its aspects, public and private. +He called them <span class="tei tei-q">“talks”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sermones</span></span>), but they received the +popular name of satires because their colloquial language and the variety +of their subjects recalled the native Italian medley of prose and +verse, narrative and drama, known as the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">satura</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">II. Prose.</span></span> Latin prose developed more slowly. The earliest Roman +historical works by Fabius Pictor (after 201 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>), Cincius +Alimentus, and others, were written in Greek, for in that language +alone could they find suitable models. It remained for Cato, here as +elsewhere the foe of Hellenism, to create Latin historical prose in his +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Origins</span></span>, an account of the beginnings of Rome and the Italian peoples +written about 168 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> His earlier work on agriculture was the first +book in Latin prose. The work of the Carthaginian Mago on the +same subject was translated into Latin by a commission appointed by +the Senate. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Oratory.</span></span> The demands of public life in Rome had already created +a native oratory. A speech delivered by Appius Claudius in 279 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +had been written down and published, as were several funeral orations +from the close of the third century. But it was Cato who first published +a collection of his speeches, about one hundred and fifty in +number, which enjoyed a great reputation. A new impulse to this +branch of literature was given by the introduction of the systematic +study of rhetoric under the influence of Greek orators and teachers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Juristic writings.</span></span> In the field of jurisprudence the Romans at +this period, were but little subject to Greek influences. The +codifica<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page122">[pg 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>tion of the law in the fifth century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> had been followed by the +introduction of new principles and forms of action, chiefly through +the praetor’s edict. The necessity arose of harmonizing the old law +and the new, and of systematizing the various forms of legal procedure. +Roman juristic literature begins with Sextus Aelius Paetus +(consul in 198 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>), surnamed Catus <span class="tei tei-q">“the shrewd,”</span> who compiled +a work which later generations regarded as <span class="tei tei-q">“the cradle of the law.”</span> +It was in three parts; the first contained an interpretation of the +XII Tables, the second the development of the law by the jurists, +and the third new methods of legal procedure. A knowledge of the +law had always been highly esteemed at Rome and the position of a +jurist consult, that is, one who was consulted on difficult legal problems, +was one of especial honor. Consequently the study of the law, +together with that of oratory, formed the regular preparation for the +Roman who aimed at a public career. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Religion.</span></span> Greek religion, like Greek literature, had attained a +more advanced stage than that of Rome, and possessed a rich mythology +when the Romans had barely begun to ascribe distinct personalities +to their gods. Hence there came about a ready identification between +Greek and Roman divinities to whom similar powers were +ascribed and the wholesale adoption of Greek mythological lore. By +the close of the third century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> there was formally recognized in +Rome a group of twelve greater divinities who were identical with the +twelve Olympic gods of Greece. There ensued also a rapid neglect of +the minor Latin divinities whose place was taken by those of Greek +origin. The old impersonal Roman deities had given place to +anthropomorphic Hellenic conceptions. This is reflected in the acceptance +of Greek types for the plastic representations of the gods, a +strong demand for which arose with the acquaintance of the works of +art carried off from Syracuse and other Greek cities. An important +factor in this hellenization of the Roman religion was the influence +of the Sibylline Books, a collection of Greek oracles imported from +Cumae in the days of the Roman kings and consulted in times of national +danger. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The decree of the Senate against Bacchanalian societies: +186 B. C.</span></span> But Greek influence in the sphere of religion went deeper +than the identification of Greek and Roman divinities, for the emotional +cult of Bacchus with its mystic ceremonies and doctrines made +its way into Italy where religious associations for its celebration were +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>formed even in Rome itself. The demoralizing effects of this worship +called forth a senatorial investigation which resulted, as we have +seen, in the suppression of these associations. A similar action was +taken with regard to the Chaldean astrologers, banished from Italy +in 139 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The worship of the Great Mother.</span></span> Of a different character was +the cult of the Great Mother officially introduced into Rome in the +year 204 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> This was in essence a native nature worship of Asia +Minor, disguised with a veneer of Hellenism. It was the first of the +so-called Oriental cults to obtain a footing in the Roman world. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Skepticism and Stoicism.</span></span> Although the formalities of religion +in so far as they concerned public life were still scrupulously observed, +there was an ever increasing skepticism with regard to the +existence and power of the gods of the Graeco-Roman mythology. +This was especially true of the educated classes, who were influenced +to a certain extent by the rationalism of Euhemerus, whose work on +the origin of the gods had been translated by Ennius, but much more +by the pantheism of the Stoic philosophy. The Stoic doctrines, with +their practical ethical prescriptions, made a strong appeal to the +Roman character and found an able expositor in Panaetius of Rhodes +who taught under the patronage of Scipio Aemilianus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Public festivals.</span></span> Of great importance in the life of the city were +the annual public festivals or games, of which six came to be regularly +celebrated by the middle of the second century, each lasting for +several days. Five of these were celebrated by the aediles, one by +the city praetor. A fixed sum was allotted by the state to defray the +expenses of these exhibits, but custom required that this must be +largely supplemented from the private purse of the person in charge. +In this way the aedileship afforded an excellent opportunity to win +public favor by an exhibition of generosity. To the original horse +and chariot races there came to be added scenic productions, wild +beast hunts, and gladiatorial combats, in imitation of those exhibited +by private persons. The first private exhibition of gladiators was +given at a funeral in 264 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, and the first wild beast hunt in 186 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> These types of exhibitions soon became the most popular of all +and exercised a brutalizing effect upon the spectators. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The city Rome.</span></span> The growth of Rome in population and wealth +brought about a corresponding change in the appearance of the city. +Tenement houses of several stories and high rentals reflected the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id="Pg124" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>influx into the capital. Public buildings began to be erected on a +large scale. The Circus Flaminius dates from the end of the third +century, and several basilicas or large public halls, suitable as places +for transacting business or conducting judicial hearings, were erected +by 169 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> A new stone bridge was built across the Tiber, a quay +to facilitate the unloading of ships was constructed on the bank of the +river, a third aqueduct brought into the city, and stone paving laid on +many streets. Many temples were erected, adorned with votive offerings, +mainly spoils of war from Greek cities. But no native art or +architecture arose that was worthy of the imperial position of Rome. +</p> + + </div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc107" id="toc107"></a><a name="pdf108" id="pdf108"></a> +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER XII</span></h2> + +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">THE STRUGGLE OF THE OPTIMATES AND THE +POPULARES: 133–78 B. C.</span></h2> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Civil war and imperial expansion.</span></span> The century which began +with the year 133 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> is characterized by a condition of perpetual +factional strife within the Roman state; strife which frequently blazed +forth into civil war and which culminated in the fall of the republican +system of government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The question at issue was the right of the Senate to direct the +policy of Rome, and this right was challenged by the tribunate and the +Assembly of Tribes, by the equestrian order, and by the great military +leaders who appeared in the course of civil and foreign wars. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +For in spite of these unceasing internal disorders this century marks +an imperial expansion which rivalled that of the era of the Punic +and Macedonian Wars. In Gaul the Roman sway was extended to +the Rhine and the Ocean; in the east practically the whole peninsula +of Asia Minor, as well as Syria and Egypt, was incorporated in the +Empire. With the exception of Mauretania (i. e. modern Morocco, +which was really a Roman dependency) the Roman provinces completely +encircled the Mediterranean. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the same time a new Italian nation was created by the admission +to Roman citizenship of all the peoples dwelling in Italy south +of the Alps. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The period 133 to 78 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> covers the first stage in the struggle +which brought the Republic to an end, and closes with the Senate in +full possession of its old prerogatives, while the powers of the tribunate +and Assembly have been seriously curtailed. In this struggle the +Roman citizen body was aligned in two groups. The one, which +supported the claims of the Senate, was called the party of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Optimates”</span> +or aristocrats; the other, which challenged these claims, was +known as the people’s party or the <span class="tei tei-q">“Populares.”</span> +</p> + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126" id="Pg126" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc109" id="toc109"></a><a name="pdf110" id="pdf110"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. The Agrarian Laws of Tiberius Gracchus: 133 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Tiberius Gracchus, tribune, 133 B. C.</span></span> The opening of the struggle +was brought on by the agrarian legislation proposed by Tiberius +Gracchus, a tribune for the year 133 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Gracchus, then thirty +years of age, was one of the most prominent young Romans of his +time, being the son of the consul whose name he bore and of Cornelia, +daughter of the great Scipio Africanus. Under his mother’s supervision, +he had received a careful education, which included rhetoric +and Greek Stoic philosophy. As quaestor in Spain in 136 he had +distinguished himself for courage and honesty in dealing with the +native population and had acquainted himself with the military needs +of Rome. He saw in the decline of the free peasantry of Italy the +chief menace to the state, and when elected to the tribunate proposed +legislation which aimed to re-establish the class of free Roman farmers, +and thus provide new strength for the Roman armies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The land law.</span></span> His proposed land law took the form of a re-enactment +of a previous agrarian measure dating, probably, from +the end of the third century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> This law had restricted the amount +of public land which any person might occupy to five hundred iugera +(about three hundred and ten acres), an amount which Gracchus +augmented by two hundred and fifty iugera for each of two grown +sons. All land held in excess of this limit was to be surrendered to +the state, further occupation of public land was forbidden, and +what was within the legal limit was to be declared private property. +Compensation for improvements on surrendered lands was offered to +the late occupants, and a commission of three men was to be annually +elected with judicial powers to decide upon the rights of possessors +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">III vir agris iudicandis assignandis</span></span>). The land thus resumed by +the state was to be assigned by the commissioners to landless Roman +citizens in small allotments, incapable of alienation, and subject to a +nominal rental to the state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Deposition of the tribune Octavius.</span></span> This proposal aroused +widespread consternation among the Senators, who saw their holdings +threatened. In many cases it had doubtless become impossible for +them to distinguish between their private properties and the public +lands occupied by their families for several generations. The Senate +resorted to its customary procedure in protecting its prerogatives and +induced a tribune named Octavius to veto the measure. But +Grac<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name="Pg127" id="Pg127" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>chus was terribly in earnest with his project of reform and took the +unprecedented step of appealing to the Assembly of the Tribes to +depose Octavius, on the ground that he was thwarting the will of the +people. The Assembly voiced their approval of Tiberius by depriving +his opponent of his office. The land bill was thereupon presented +to the Assembly and passed. The first commissioners elected +to carry it into effect were Tiberius himself, his younger brother +Caius, and his father-in-law, Appius Claudius. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Death of Tiberius Gracchus.</span></span> To equip the allotments made to +poor settlers, Tiberius proposed the appropriation of the treasure of +King Attalus III of Pergamon, to which the Roman state had lately +fallen heir. Here was a direct attack upon the Senate’s customary +control of such matters. But before this proposal could be presented +to the Comitia, the elections to the tribunate for 132 fell due. Tiberius +determined to present himself for re-election in order to ensure +the carrying out of his land law and to protect himself from prosecution +on the ground of the unconstitutionality of some of his actions. +Such a procedure was unusual, if not illegal, and the Senate determined +to prevent it at any cost. The elections culminated in a riot +in which Gracchus and three hundred adherents were massacred by +the armed slaves and clients of the senators. Their bodies were +thrown into the Tiber. A judicial commission appointed by the +Senate sought out and punished the leading supporters of the murdered +tribune. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The fate of the land commission.</span></span> However, the land law remained +in force and the commission set to work. But in 129 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +the commissioners were deprived of their judicial powers, and, since +they could no longer expropriate land, their activity practically +ceased. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Still, the Senate’s opponents were not utterly crushed. In 131 an +attempt was made to legalize re-election to the tribunate, and although +the proposal failed at first, a law to that effect was passed some time +prior to 123 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> In the year 129 died Scipio Aemilianus, the conqueror +of Carthage and Numantia, the foremost Roman of the day. +Upon returning from Spain in 132 he had energetically taken sides +with the Senate and had caused the land commissioners to lose their +right of jurisdiction. Thereby he had become exceedingly unpopular +with the Gracchan party, and when he died suddenly in his fifty-sixth +year, there were not wanting those who accused his wife +Sem<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page128">[pg 128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>pronia, sister of Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, and others of their +family, of being responsible for his decease. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc111" id="toc111"></a><a name="pdf112" id="pdf112"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The Tribunate of Caius Gracchus: 124–121 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Caius Gracchus, tribune, 123 B. C.</span></span> The return of Caius Gracchus +from his quaestorship in Sardinia in 124 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> and his immediate +election to the tribunate for the ensuing year heralded the opening +of a new phase in the conflict between the Optimates and the +Populares. Caius was a passionate orator, and a man of greater +energy and more violent temperament than his brother. He entered +office pledged to support the agrarian policy of Tiberius, but likewise +determined to avenge the latter’s death and to wrest from the Senate +its control of the government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The legislation of Caius Gracchus, 123 B. C.</span></span> Upon assuming +office Caius developed an extensive legislative program. Extraordinary +judicial commissions established by the Senate were declared +illegal and the ex-consul Popilius who had been the leader in the +prosecution of the followers of Tiberius, was forced into exile. A +law was passed which provided for a monthly distribution of grain to +the city populace at one half the current market price. In this way +an expedient which had occasionally been resorted to in times of distress +was laid as a permanent obligation upon the government. It +has been pointed out above that the lower classes in the city lived in +perpetual danger of famine, and Caius probably hoped to relieve the +state of the perpetual menace of a hungry proletariat at the capital by +improving the arrangements for the city’s grain supply and lowering +the cost of grain to the poor. But in the end this measure had the +evil results of putting a severe drain upon the treasury and a premium +upon idleness. For the moment, however, it made the city mob +devoted adherents of Caius and strengthened his control of the Assembly. +The land law of 133 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> was re-enacted and the land commissioners +reclothed with judicial authority. In connection therewith +there was undertaken the extension and improvement of the road +system of Italy. Caius then assured himself of the support of the +financial interests by a law which provided that the whole revenue +from the new province of Asia should be auctioned off at Rome in a +lump to Roman contractors. A rich field was thus opened up to the +Roman bankers. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg 129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Caius re-elected tribune for 122 B. C.</span></span> The activity of Caius in +supervising the execution of his legislation made him the leading +figure in the government, and he was re-elected to the tribunate for +122 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> It seemed as though a sort of Periclean democracy had +been established in Rome, where the statesman who commanded a majority +in the popular assembly by securing his continuous re-election to +the tribunate might supplant the Senate in directing the public policy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Judiciary Law, 123 B. C.</span></span> Gracchus continued his legislative +activity. One of his most important laws was that which deprived +senators of the right to act as judges in the courts, including +the permanent <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">quaestiones</span></span>, and transferred this prerogative to the +equestrians. This was probably done by defining the qualifications +of jurors in such a way as to exclude both senators and those not +potentially able to maintain the equipment of a cavalryman at their +own expense, i. e. those assessed at less than 400,000 sesterces +($20,000). By the Acilian Law of 123, which reorganized the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">quaestio</span></span> for the recovery of damages, the relatives of senators, who +were still eligible to the eighteen equestrian centuries, were specifically +excluded from serving as jurors. In this way the equestrian order in +its widest sense was defined and, being given specific public duties, +was rendered more conscious of its power and special interests. In +consequence the permanent tribunal for trying officials charged with +extortion in the provinces was manned by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">equites</span></span> instead of senators. +But the change brought no relief to the subjects of Rome for this court +was now composed of men who were interested in the financial exploitation +of the provincials and who thus were in a position to intimidate +a governor who endeavored to restrain the rapacity of tax +collectors and money-lenders. The control of the law courts became +a standing bone of contention between the Senate and the equestrian +order. Another law, which further restricted the powers of the Senate, +dealt with the allotment of the consular provinces. Previously these +had been assigned by the Senate after the election of the consuls, so +that the activities of one distrusted by the senators could be considerably +restricted. For the future the consular provinces had to be +designated prior to the elections and then assigned to the successful +candidates. The Senate’s control over the consuls was thereby considerably +weakened. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Schemes for </span><a name="corr129" id="corr129" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">colonization</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700"> and </span><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">extension</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700"> of Roman + </span><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">citizenship</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700">.</span></span> +Caius also secured the passage of an extensive scheme of colonization, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>which provided for the establishment of Roman colonies at Capua and +Tarentum, and, what was an innovation, for a colony outside of Italy +on the site of Carthage. He further championed the cause of the +Latin and Italian allies, for whom he sought to secure Roman citizenship. +The Senatorial party thereupon endeavored to undermine his +influence with the people by proposing through the tribune Livius +Drusus a more extensive scheme of colonization, with exemption from +rentals for colonists, and opposing the extension of the franchise to +the allied communities, a measure unpopular with the masses who +were jealous of sharing their privileges with numbers of new citizens. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The overthrow of Caius Gracchus: 121 B. C.</span></span> Caius personally +undertook the foundation of the colony, named Junonia, which was +located at Carthage, and his absence of seventy days on this mission +gave the opposition time to organize their forces. His enemies accused +him of aiming at a tyranny, his proposal for extension of the +franchise was quashed by the veto of Drusus, and he himself failed +to secure his election as tribune for 121. With the opening of that +year the Senate initiated an attack upon some of his measures, especially +the founding of Junonia. The senators were determined to +impeach or kill Gracchus, while he and his friends organized themselves +for defence. A riot in which one of the senatorial faction was +killed gave the Senate the pretext to proclaim a state of martial law +and authorize the consul Opimius to take any steps to safeguard the +state. The followers of Gracchus assembled on the Aventine, their +overtures were rejected and upon the refusal of Caius and his chief +adherent Flaccus to appear before the Senate, Opimius attacked them +at the head of the Senators, armed slaves and Cretan archers. The +Gracchans were routed; Caius had himself killed by a faithful slave, +and a judicial commission condemned three thousand of his followers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The consequences of the Gracchan disorders.</span></span> The memory of +the Gracchi retained a lasting hold upon the affections of the Roman +plebs. But although both were earnest patriots, who made a sincere +attempt to reform existing abuses in the state, one cannot but feel that +the success of their political aims would have brought about no permanent +improvement. To substitute for the Senate the fickle Assembly +as the governing force in the state was no true democratic measure +owing to the fact that the Assembly did not properly represent the +mass of the citizen body, and as the future years were to show, would +merely have shifted the reins of power from one incompetent body +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id="Pg131" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>to another more incompetent still. As it was, the Senate, although +victorious, emerged from the contest weakened in authority and prestige, +and having left a feeling of bitter resentment in the hearts of +its opponents. It owed its success to violence and not to legal measures +and thus offered a precedent which others might follow against +itself. The alliance between the equestrians and the urban proletariat +while it lasted had proven stronger than the Senate, and this lesson, +too, was not lost upon future statesmen. Besides the loss of some of +its prerogatives, the Senate was weakened by the consolidation of the +business interests as a political party, with which it was brought into +sharp opposition over the question of provincial government. Well +might Caius Gracchus declare that by his judiciary law he had +<span class="tei tei-q">“thrust a dagger into the side of the Senate.”</span> For the provincials, +the result of this law was to usher in an era of increased oppression +and misgovernment. The refusal of the Romans to grant the franchise +to the allies served to estrange them still further from Rome. +On the whole we may say that conditions in Rome, Italy and the +provinces were worse after the time of the Gracchi than before. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Fate of the agrarian legislation.</span></span> It is impossible to estimate +how many Romans received allotments of land under the Gracchan +laws. Although the census list rose from 317,000 in 136 to 394,000 +in 125, we cannot ascribe this increase altogether to an increase in the +number of small proprietors. The admission of freedmen to citizenship +doubtless accounts for many. Still there was beyond question a +decided addition made to the free peasantry. The colony of Junonia +was abandoned, but the settlers in Africa were left undisturbed on +their lands. By 120 the restrictions on the sale of allotments in Italy +were withdrawn; in 118 assignments ceased; and in 111 rentals to the +state were abolished and all lands then held in possession were declared +private property; an enactment which benefited greatly the +wealthy proprietors. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc113" id="toc113"></a><a name="pdf114" id="pdf114"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. The War with Jugurtha and the Rise of Marius</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Foreign wars of the Gracchan Age.</span></span> While the Senate and the +Gracchi were struggling for the mastery in Rome, the Roman state +engaged in continual frontier struggles, particularly on the northern +borders of Italy and Macedonia. Most of these wars were of slight +importance, but one resulted in the occupation of the <a name="corr131" id="corr131" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Balearic</span> Islands, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132" id="Pg132" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>in 123–122, which gave Rome full command of the sea route to Spain. +Another, still more important, was that waged between 125 and 123 +in answer to an appeal from Massalia against the Ligurian Salyes to +the north of that city. Their subjugation gave the Romans the +command of the route across the Maritime Alps from Italy to Gaul. +The fortress of Aquae Sextiae was established to guard this passage. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Roman advance in Transalpine Gaul.</span></span> It now became the +object of the Romans to secure the land route to Spain. But beyond +the territory of their ally Massalia the way was blocked by powerful +coalitions of Gallic tribes. Chief among these were the Allobroges +to the east of the Rhone, the Arverni the greatest of all, whose territory +lay west of that river, from the Loire to the Pyrenees, and the +Aedui, to the north of the Arverni. The Romans made an alliance +with the latter people who were at enmity with the other two, and attacked +the Allobroges because they had received fugitives from the +Salyes. The Arverni were drawn into the conflict on the side of the +Allobroges. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The province of Narbonese Gaul.</span></span> In 121 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> both these peoples +were decisively beaten in a great battle near the junction of the +Isère and the Rhone by the consul Fabius Maximus and the proconsul +Domitius. The Romans were now masters of all southern +Gaul, except Massalia, and organized it as a province. In 118 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +a Roman colony was established at Narbo, which was with the exception +of the abandoned settlement of Junonia, the first colony of +Roman citizens sent beyond the Italian peninsula, although colonies +with Latin rights had been founded in Spain long before. To +link Italy with Spain there was constructed the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">via Domitia</span></span>, a military +road traversing the new province. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Jugurthine War.</span></span> It was not long before Rome became involved +in a much more serious conflict that was destined to reveal +to the world the rottenness and incapacity of its ruling class, and to +reawaken internal political strife. In 118 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> occurred the death of +Micipsa, who had succeeded Masinissa as king of Numidia. Micipsa +left his kingdom to be ruled jointly by his two sons, Adherbal and +Hiempsal, and a nephew, Jugurtha. The latter was an able, energetic, +but ambitious and unscrupulous prince, who had gained a good +knowledge of Roman society through serving in the Roman army before +Numantia. However, the three soon quarreled and divided the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>kingdom. It was not long before Jugurtha caused Hiempsal to be +assassinated and drove Adherbal from the country. The latter fled +to Rome to appeal for aid, on the basis of the alliance with Rome +which he had inherited from his ancestors. Thereupon Jugurtha sent +his agents, with well filled purses, to plead his case before the Senate. +So successful was he that a Roman commission appointed to divide +Numidia between himself and Adherbal gave him the western or +richest part of the kingdom. But Jugurtha’s aim was to rule over +the whole of Numidia, and so he provoked Adherbal to war. In +113 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> he succeeded in besieging him in his capital, Cirta, which +was defended chiefly by Italians who had settled there for commercial +reasons. Two Roman commissions sent to investigate the situation +succumbed to Jugurtha’s diplomacy, and Cirta was forced to +surrender. Adherbal and all its defenders were put to death. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Rome declares war.</span></span> The slaughter of so many Italians raised a +storm in Rome, where the business elements and populace forced the +Senate, which was inclined to wink at Jugurtha’s disregard of its +African settlement, to declare war. In 111 a Roman army under +the consul Bestia invaded Numidia. Again Jugurtha resorted to +bribes and secured terms of peace from the consul after a sham submission. +However, the opponents of the Senate saw through the trick +and forced an investigation. Jugurtha was summoned to come to +Rome under safe conduct to give evidence as to his relations with the +Roman officials in Numidia. He came and contrived to buy the intervention +of two tribunes who prevented his testimony from being +taken. But, relying too much upon his ability to buy immunity +for any action, he ventured to procure the assassination in Rome +itself of a rival claimant to the Numidian throne (110 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). His +friends in the Senate dared protect him no longer and he had to leave +Italy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">A Roman defeat, 109 B. C.</span></span> The war reopened but the first +operations ended in the early part of 109 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> with the defeat and +capitulation of a Roman army, which was forced to pass under the +yoke, to be released when its commander consented to a recognition +of Jugurtha’s position and an alliance between him and Rome. In +this shameful episode bribery and treachery had played their part. +The terms were rejected at Rome, and a tribunician proposal to try +those guilty of misconduct with Jugurtha was ratified by the +Assem<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg 134]</span><a name="Pg134" id="Pg134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>bly. In the same year the consul Metellus took command in Africa. +One of his officers was Caius Marius. Marius was born of an equestrian +family at <a name="corr134" id="corr134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Arpinum</span>; he served in the cavalry under Scipio +Aemilianus in the Numantine War; engaged with success in the +handling of state contracts; became tribune in 119, praetor in 116, +and propraetor in Spain in 115 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> He was able and ambitious +and chafed under the disdain with which he as a <span class="tei tei-q">“new man”</span> was +treated by the senatorial aristocrats. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Marius, consul: 107 B. C.</span></span> Metellus, in contrast to the former +commanders against Jugurtha, was both energetic and honorable. He +began a methodical devastation of Numidia, and forced Jugurtha to +abandon the field and resort to guerilla warfare. He also tried to +stir up disloyalty among the king’s followers. But he failed to kill +or capture the latter, which alone would terminate the war. Hence +when he scornfully refused the request of Marius to be allowed to +return and stand for the consulship in 108, Marius intrigued to get +the command transferred to himself, alleging that Metellus was purposely +prolonging the campaign. Finally, Metellus saw fit to let +him go and he was elected consul for the following year. However, +the Senate, wishing to keep Metellus in command, had not designated +Numidia as a consular province. And so the popular party passed +a law in the Assembly of the Tribes which conferred the command +against Jugurtha upon Marius. The Senate yielded to this encroachment +upon its prerogatives and Marius superseded Metellus in +107. His quaestor was Lucius Cornelius Sulla, scion of a decayed patrician +family, who was destined to become the bitter rival of his chief. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The end of the war: 107–105 B. C.</span></span> Marius continued the methodical +subjugation of Numidia, but Jugurtha was strengthened by +an alliance with his father-in-law Bocchus, king of Mauretania. +However, Marius won several hard fought battles over the forces of +both kings, and finally, through the agency of Sulla, detached Bocchus +from the cause of Jugurtha. Bocchus treacherously seized his son-in-law +and handed him over to the Romans. This brought the war +to an end. Numidia was divided among princes friendly to Rome, +and Marius returned to triumph in Rome, and to find himself elected +consul for the year 104 in defiance of precedent, owing to the fear +of a barbarian invasion of Italy from the north and the popular +confidence in him engendered by his African successes. Jugurtha, +after gracing his victor’s triumph, perished in a Roman dungeon. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Consequences of the war.</span></span> The corruptibility and incapacity, +combined with an utter lack of public responsibility, displayed by +the senators in this war contributed to further weaken the already +diminished prestige of their order. Besides it had again been demonstrated +that a coalition of the equestrians and the city populace could +control the public policy, and in the person of Marius, the war had +produced a leader upon whom they could unite. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc115" id="toc115"></a><a name="pdf116" id="pdf116"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. The Invasion of the Cimbri and Teutons</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The movements of the Cimbri and Teutons.</span></span> The fear of a barbarian +invasion of Italy which caused Marius to be elected to his +second consulship was occasioned by the wanderings of a group of +Germanic and Celtic peoples, chief of which were the Cimbri and the +Teutons. In 113 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the former, a Germanic tribe, invaded the +country of the Taurisci, allies of Rome, who dwelt north of the Alps. +A Roman army sent to the rescue was defeated. The Cimbri then +moved westwards to the Rhine, where they were joined by the Teutons +(Toygeni), who were probably a branch of the Celtic Helvetii, +by the Tigurini, another division of the same people, and by the +Ambrones, a tribe of uncertain origin. In 111, the united peoples +crossed the Rhine into Gaul and came into conflict with the Romans in +the new province. Two years later the consul Julius Silanus was defeated +by the Cimbri, who demanded lands for settlement within +Roman territory. Their demand was refused and hostilities continued. +In 107 another consul, Lucius Cassius, was defeated and +slain by the Tigurini. In 106 Quintus Servilius Caepio recovered +the town of Tolosa, which had deserted the Roman cause, and carried +off its immense temple treasures. Three years later he was tried +and condemned for defrauding the state of this booty. In 105, two +Roman armies were destroyed by the united tribes in a battle at +Arausio (Orange), in which 60,000 Romans were said to have fallen. +This disaster, the greatest suffered by Rome since Cannae, was +largely brought about by friction between the two Roman commanders. +The way to Italy lay open but the barbarians failed to take advantage +of their opportunity. The Cimbri invaded Spain and the rest +remained in Gaul. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The army reforms of Marius.</span></span> In this crisis Marius was appointed +to the command against the Cimbri and their allies, and at +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg 136]</span><a name="Pg136" id="Pg136" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>once set to work to create an army for the defence of Italy. The increasing +luxury and refinements of civilization in Italy had begun +to undermine the military spirit among the Romans, especially the +propertied classes, and this had led to a decline of discipline and +efficiency in the Roman armies. Furthermore, the universal obligation +to military service was no longer rigidly enforced, partly because +of the residence abroad of so many citizens. Appeals to volunteers +became more and more frequent. No longer were recruits enrolled +for one year only, but took the oath of service for sixteen years. In +building up his new army Marius recognized these new tendencies. +He relied mainly upon voluntary enlistments, admitting to the ranks, +as he had done already in the Jugurthine War, those whose lack of +property had previously disqualified them for service in the legions. +The soldiers now became recognized professionals, who upon their +discharge looked to their commanders to provide for their future. +Among the troops loyalty to the state was supplanted by devotion +to a successful general, and the latter could rely upon his veterans to +support him in his political career. Marius also introduced changes +in the arms and equipment of the soldiers, and he is also credited, +although with less certainty, with the increase in the size of the legion +to 6000 men and its division into ten cohorts as tactical units. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Marius in Gaul.</span></span> During the years 104 and 103 Marius kept his +army in Gaul guarding the passage to Italy, while he completed the +training of his troops and dug a new channel at the mouth of the +Rhone to facilitate the passage of his transports into the river. He +was re-elected to the consulship for 103 and again for 102 since the +danger from the barbarians was not over. In 102 the Cimbri returned +from Spain and, joining the other tribes, prepared to invade +Italy. The Teutons and Ambrones followed the direct route from +southern Gaul, while the Cimbri and Tigurini moved to the north +of the Alps to enter Italy by the eastern Alpine passes. Marius permitted +the Teutons and Ambrones to march by him, then he overtook +and annihilated them at Aquae Sextiae. In the meantime, the Cimbri +had forced the other consul, Quintus Lutatius Catulus, to abandon +the defence of the eastern passes and had crossed the Adige into the +Po Valley, where they wintered. Marius returned to Italy to join +his colleague and face the new peril. In the next year, while consul +for the fifth time, he met and destroyed the Cimbri on the Raudine +plains near Vercellae. Thus Italy was saved from a repetition of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id="Pg137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>the Gallic invasion of the fourth century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The vitality of the Roman state was by no means exhausted as +the defeat of the barbarians shows, and men of energy and ability +were not lacking, but under the existing régime it required a crisis +to bring them to the front. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Second Sicilian Slave War, 104–101 B. C.</span></span> While the +barbarians were knocking at the gates of Italy, Rome was +called upon to suppress a series of disorders in other parts of +her empire, some of which were only quelled after considerable effort. +In 104 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> occurred a serious rebellion of the slaves in Sicily, headed +by two leaders Salvius and Anthenion, the former of whom took +the title of King Typhon. The rebels became masters of the open +country, defeated the forces sent against them, reduced the Sicilian +cities to the verge of starvation, and were only subdued by a consular +army under Manius <a name="corr137" id="corr137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Aquillius</span> in 101 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">War with the Pirates.</span></span> Before the slave war in Sicily had been +brought to a close the Romans were forced to make an effort to suppress +piracy in the Mediterranean. Piracy had been on the increase +ever since the decline of the Rhodian sea power, following +the Second Macedonian War, for as there were no longer any rival +maritime powers Rome had neglected to maintain a navy adequate +even for policing the seas. The pirates were at the same time slave +traders, who made a business of kidnapping all over the Mediterranean +but particularly in the east to supply the slave mart at +Delos. In 104 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the king of Bithynia complained to the Senate +that one-half of his ablebodied men had been carried into slavery. +This traffic was winked at by the Romans, since they needed slaves +in great numbers for their plantations, and their business interests +profited by the trade. However the depredations of the pirates at +length became too serious to be ignored, and in 102 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the praetor +Marcus Antonius was given a special command against them. They +had their chief strongholds on the Cilician coast and the island of +Crete, and Antonius proceeded to Cilicia, where he destroyed several +of their towns and annexed some territory, which became the province +of Cilicia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Besides these troubles the Romans had to face revolts in Spain +which broke out spasmodically down to 95 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, as well as continual +inroads of barbarians from Thrace into the provinces of Macedonia +and Illyricum. +</p> + +</div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg 138]</span><a name="Pg138" id="Pg138" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc117" id="toc117"></a><a name="pdf118" id="pdf118"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">V. Saturninus and </span><a name="corr138" id="corr138" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a><span class="tei tei-corr" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">Glaucia</span></span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Popular </span><a name="corr138a" id="corr138a" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">triumphs</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700"> in Rome.</span></span> The successes of their champion, +Marius, emboldened the populares to undertake the prosecution +of the corrupt and incapable generals of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">optimates</span></span>, a number +of whom were brought to trial and convicted. Another popular +victory was won in 104 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> when the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Domitia</span></span> transferred the +election of new members of the colleges of augurs and pontiffs from +the colleges themselves to a Comitia of seventeen tribes chosen by +lot. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The sixth consulship of Marius, 100 B. C.</span></span> Upon Marius +himself his present prestige had an unwholesome effect. In spite +of the fact that he had violated the constitution by his five consulships, +four of which were held in succession, he determined to seek +a sixth term, although there was now no military danger to excuse +his ambition. He leagued himself with the leaders of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">populares</span></span>, +Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, who as tribune had supported +Marius in 103, and Caius Servilius Glaucia. Both were ambitious +demagogues, who sought to imitate the rôle of the Gracchi by introducing +a legislative program catering to the popular party. For +the moment they were successful. Marius secured his sixth consulship +for 100 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Saturninus became tribune a second time, +and Glaucia praetor. But violence had to be resorted to in order +to carry the elections. Saturninus then introduced bills for the +distribution of grain to the city proletariat at much less than half +the market price, for the allotment of the lands in north Italy which +had been ravaged by the Cimbri, and for the founding of colonies +in the provinces. His corn law failed, but the others were forced +through by the aid of the disbanded Marian soldiers. However, +this appeal to mob violence caused the equestrians to desert the +popular leaders, who also lost the sympathy of Marius. Saturninus +then sought the consulship for the next year, and, when it seemed +that he would be defeated, caused one of his most influential rivals +to be killed. The Senate thereupon proclaimed a state of martial +law and called upon Marius to restore order. Saturninus, Glaucia, +and their followers occupied the Capitol, where they were attacked +and forced to surrender upon promise that their lives would be +spared. But Marius was unable to protect them from the +ven<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg 139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>geance of their foes who massacred all the captives. Again the +Senate had conquered by a resort to force, but this time their opponents +had first appealed to the same means. For the time Marius +suffered a political eclipse; he had shown no political capacity and +had been unable to control or protect his own party which was now +divided and discredited. +</p> +</div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc119" id="toc119"></a><a name="pdf120" id="pdf120"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">VI. The Tribunate of Marcus Livius Drusus, 91 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The </span><a name="corr139" id="corr139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">trial</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700"> of Rutilius Rufus: 93 B. C.</span></span> The senators and the +equestrians had combined for the moment against the terrorism instituted +by the popular demagogues but the coalition was not lasting. +As Caius Gracchus had foreseen the control of the law courts +proved a standing bone of contention between the two orders. Especially +aggravating to the senators was the use of the court established +for the trial of cases of extortion to force the provincial +governors to administer the provinces in the interest of the Roman +financiers. A scandalous instance of this abuse was the case of +Rutilius Rufus in 93 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> He had been quaestor under Mucius +Scaevola, in 98 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> governor of Asia, where both had sternly +checked any unjust exactions by the agents of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">publicani</span></span>. A +trumped-up charge of extortion was now brought against Rutilius, and +he was tried and adjudged guilty. His fate was to serve as a warning +to officers who took their provincial obligations seriously. Rutilius +retired to Asia and lived in great esteem among the people whom +he was condemned for having oppressed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The </span><a name="corr139a" id="corr139a" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">legislative program</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700"> of Livius Drusus: 91 B. C.</span></span> Two +years later Marcus Livius Drusus, a tribune, of a prominent senatorial +house, brought forward a proposal for the reform of the +juries. He proposed to increase the number of the Senate to six +hundred by the inclusion of three hundred prominent equestrians, +and to have the juries chosen half from the new Senate and half +from the remaining equestrians.<a id="noteref_10" name="noteref_10" href="#note_10"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> Equestrian <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">jurors</span></span> were to be made +liable to prosecution for accepting bribes. To secure support for +his judiciary law, Drusus introduced a bill to found new colonies +and another to provide cheaper grain for the city populace. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +However, when he encountered serious opposition to his judicial +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page140">[pg 140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>reform in the Senate as well as among the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">equites</span></span>, Drusus combined +this and his other reforms with a law for the enfranchisement of +the Italian allies. He contrived to carry his measures through the +Assembly, which was probably coerced by the presence of large +numbers of Italians in the city, but since he had included several +distinct proposals in one bill, which was unconstitutional, the Senate +declared his law invalid. Drusus yielded but prepared to introduce +the franchise bill to be voted on a second time. Before this could +be done he was mysteriously assassinated, doubtless by an agent +of his political opponents. Thus died the last civilian reformer of +Roman history. Later reforms were carried by the power of the +sword. +</p> +</div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc121" id="toc121"></a><a name="pdf122" id="pdf122"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">VII. The Italian or Marsic War, 90–88 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Italian Confederacy.</span></span> The death of Drusus was the signal +for a revolt of the Italian allies. They had been in close alliance +with him, and had taken steps for concerted action in arms if his +bill should fail to pass. A confederacy was organized, the government +of which was vested in a Senate of five hundred members +with absolute powers, having as executive officers two annual consuls +and twelve praetors. The capital of the confederacy was at +Corfinium, in the territory of the Paeligni, which was renamed +Italia. A federal coinage was issued. Before opening hostilities +the Italians made a formal demand for Roman citizenship, which the +Senate definitely refused. Thereupon they declared their independence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The resources of the rivals.</span></span> The Italian Confederacy embraced +practically all the warlike peoples of central and southern +Italy. Of particular importance were the Marsi who gave their +name to the war. In numbers the Italians were a match for the +Romans, and they had acquired Roman military tactics, organization +and discipline through long service in the Roman armies. They +also could count on leaders of approved ability. But the Latin +colonies and the Greek cities in the south remained true to their +allegiance, and thus the Italians were cut off from the coast. Furthermore +Umbria and Etruria, although disaffected, did not at once +take up arms. Rome’s control of the sea enabled her to draw upon +the resources of the provinces in men, money, and supplies, and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" id="Pg141" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>consequently she was in a much better position to sustain a prolonged +struggle. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The first year of the war: 90 B. C.</span></span> Hostilities opened in 90 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> with the Italian forces attempting to reach Etruria in the north +and occupy Campania in the south and the Romans trying to forestall +them by invading the territory of the allies. In the south +the year’s campaign resulted in numerous Roman disasters. Much +of Campania was won by the allies who succeeded in penetrating +to the coast. In the north the Romans also suffered defeats, but +were able to maintain themselves and win several successes. Here +Marius, in the capacity of a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">legatus</span></span>, rendered valuable service. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before the close of the year the revolt began to spread to Etruria +and Umbria. Thereupon the Romans, with the object of securing +the support of their still faithful allies and of weakening the ranks +of the rebels, passed the Julian Law which granted Roman citizenship +to all who had not joined the revolt and all who should at once +lay down their arms. In this way the Umbrians and Etrurians were +quieted, the Latins and the Greek allies rewarded, and many communities, +which sought Roman citizenship but not independence, induced +to surrender. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The second year of the war.</span></span> In the following year the fortune +of war changed. The Romans were everywhere successful. +The consul Pompeius practically pacified the north, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">legatus</span></span> +Sulla broke the power of the allies in south Italy. A second +franchise law, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Plautia Papiria</span></span>, helped thin the ranks of the +allies by offering Roman citizenship to all citizens of Italian federate +communities who would claim it within sixty days. A third, the +Pompeian Law, gave the franchise to all non-Romans in Gaul south +of the Po, and Latin rights to those north of the Po river. The +Senate was now anxious to bring the war to a close because affairs +in the East had assumed a threatening aspect. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The end of the war and its significance.</span></span> In the course of the +year 88 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> organized resistance among the rebels died out. The +new citizens were not to be enrolled in all of the thirty-five Roman +tribes, a step which might make them dominate the Assemblies, but +they were to vote in certain tribes only, so that their influence could +be restricted.<a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href="#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> Naturally, they were dissatisfied with this + arrange<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page142">[pg 142]</span><a name="Pg142" id="Pg142" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>ment and their enrollment became a burning question of Roman +politics. Henceforth all Italians were Romans and in the course of +the next generation the various racial elements of Italy were gradually +welded into a Latin nation. As it was impossible for the magistrates +of Rome to oversee the administration throughout so wide an +area, the Romans organized the Italian towns into locally self-governing +municipalities of the type previously established on Roman territory. +At first these municipalities retained many of their ancestral +laws, customs and institutions, but in time they conformed to a uniform +type, the government of which was modelled upon that of the +capital city Rome. The municipalities were powerful agents in the +Latinization of the peninsula. +</p> +</div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc123" id="toc123"></a><a name="pdf124" id="pdf124"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">VIII. The First Mithradatic War</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Mithradates VI., Eupator, King of Pontus.</span></span> The danger which +in 89 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> directed the attention of the Senate to the eastern Mediterranean +was the result of the establishment of the Kingdom of Pontus +under an able and ambitious ruler, Mithradates Eupator, who challenged +the supremacy of Rome in Asia Minor. In 121 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Mithradates +had succeeded to the throne of northern Cappadocia, a small +kingdom on the south shore of the Black Sea, whose Asiatic population +was imbued with Hellenistic culture and whose rulers claimed +descent from the ancient royal house of Persia and from Seleucus, +the founder of the Macedonian kingdom of Syria. For seven years +Mithradates shared the throne with his brother, under his mother’s +regency, but in 114 when eighteen years of age, he seized the reins +of government for himself. Subsequently he extended his power over +the eastern and northern shores of the Black Sea as far west as the +Danube and thus built up the kingdom of Pontus, i. e. the coast +land of the Black Sea, a name which later was applied to his +native state of north Cappadocia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">His </span><a name="corr142" id="corr142" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">conflict</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700"> with Rome.</span></span> However, Mithradates also sought to +extend his sway in Asia Minor, where Greater Cappadocia became +the object of his ambitions. This brought him into conflict with +Rome, whose policy was to prevent the rise of any dangerous neighbor +in the East and who refused to suffer her settlement of Asia +Minor to be disturbed. No less than five times did Mithradates, +between 112 and 92 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, attempt to bring this district under his +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page143">[pg 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>control, but upon each occasion he was forced by Roman interference +to forego the fruits of his victories, since he was not yet prepared +for war with Rome. In 91 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> he occupied the kingdom of Bithynia, +which lay between Pontus and the Roman province of Asia, +but again he yielded to Rome’s demands and withdrew. However, +when Roman agents encouraged the King of Bithynia to raid his +territory and refused him satisfaction he decided to challenge the +Roman arms, seeing that Rome was now involved in the war with +her Italian allies. War began late in 89 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The conquests of Mithradates in Asia, 89–88 B. C.</span></span> Mithradates +was well prepared; he had a trained army and a fleet of three +hundred ships. He experienced no difficulty in defeating the local +levies raised by the Roman governor of Asia, and speedily overran +Bithynia and most of the Roman province. Meanwhile his fleet +swept the Aegean Sea. The Roman provincials who had been unmercifully +exploited by tax gatherers and money-lenders greeted +Mithradates as a deliverer. At his order on a set date in 88 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +they massacred the Romans and Italians resident in Asia, said to +have numbered 80,000, a step which bound them firmly to the cause +of the king. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Athens and Delos.</span></span> In the same year, 88 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the populace of +Athens, in the hope of overthrowing the oligarchic government which +had been set up in the city with the support of Rome, seized control +of the state and threw themselves into the hands of Mithradates. +One of the king’s generals, Archelaus, while on his way to Athens, +exterminated the Italian colony at Delos, the center of the Roman +commercial and banking interests in the East. From this blow the +island port never fully recovered. Archelaus soon won over most +of southern Greece to his master’s cause, while Mithradates sent a +large army to enter Hellas by the northerly route through Thrace +and Macedonia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Disorders in Rome.</span></span> This situation produced a crisis in Rome. +Sulla, who had been elected consul for 88 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, was allotted the +command in the East upon the outbreak of hostilities. However, +he had been unable to leave Italy where he was conducting the siege +of Nola in Campania. Marius, although in his sixty-eighth year, +was as ambitious as ever and schemed to secure the command against +Mithradates for himself. In this he was supported by the equestrians, +who knew Sulla to be a firm upholder of the Senate. +Accord<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg 144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>ingly the Marians joined forces with the tribune Publius Sulpicius +Rufus, who had brought forward a bill to enroll the new citizens +and freedmen equally in each of the thirty-five tribes. Sulpicius +organized a body-guard of equestrians and instituted a reign of terror. +He passed his law by force in spite of the opposition of the consuls. +When Sulla had left the city to join his army, a law was passed +in the Assembly transferring his command in the East to Marius. +But Sulla refused to admit the legality of the act, and, relying upon +the support of his troops, marched on Rome. Having taken the city +by surprise, he caused Sulpicius, Marius, and others of their party +to be outlawed. Sulpicius was slain; but Marius made good his +escape to Mauretania. The Sulpician Laws were abrogated, and +Sulla introduced a number of reforms, with the object of strengthening +the position of the Senate. The most significant of these +reforms was the revival of the Senatorial veto over laws proposed +in the Assembly of the Tribes. This done, upon the conclusion of his +consulate, Sulla embarked with his army for Greece early in 87 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Siege of Athens and Piraeus, 87–86 B. C.</span></span> Driving the forces +of Archelaus and the Athenians from the open country, Sulla began +the siege of Athens and of its harbor town Piraeus in the autumn +of 87. Athens was completely invested, but in spite of hunger the +resistance was prolonged until March, 86, when Sulla’s troops penetrated +an unguarded spot on the walls and the city was sacked. A +large number of the inhabitants were massacred but the public +buildings were spared. Soon after Piraeus was taken by storm +at terrific cost to the victors, but its citadel Munychia held out until +evacuated by Archelaus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Chaeronea and Orchomenus.</span></span> From Athens Sulla hastened to +meet the army of Mithradates which had penetrated as far as +Boeotia. At Chaeronea the numerically inferior but better disciplined +Romans won a complete victory. At this juncture there +arrived in Greece the consul Flaccus at the head of another army, +with orders to supersede Sulla. The latter, however, was not disposed +to give up his command and as Flaccus feared to force the +issue they came to an agreement whereby each pursued a separate +campaign. This left Sulla free to meet a new Mithradatic army +which had crossed the Aegean. At Orchomenus he attacked and +annihilated it. But Mithradates still controlled the Aegean, and +Sulla, being unable to cross into Asia, was forced to winter in Greece. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg 145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Peace with Mithradates, 85 B. C.</span></span> In 85 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Lucius Lucullus, +Sulla’s quaestor, appeared in the Aegean with a fleet that he had +gathered among Rome’s allies in the East. He defeated the fleet +of Mithradates and secured Sulla’s passage to Asia. The king’s +position was now precarious. His exactions had alienated the sympathies +of the Greek cities which now began to desert his cause. +Furthermore Flaccus, after recovering Macedonia and Thrace, had +crossed the Bosphorus into Bithynia. There he was killed in a mutiny +of his soldiers and was succeeded by his legate Fimbria, who was +popular with the troops because he gratified their desire for plunder. +But Fimbria was energetic; he defeated Mithradates and recovered +the coast district as far south as Pergamon (86 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). Mithradates +was ready for peace and Sulla was anxious to have his hands free +to return to Italy, where the Marians were again in power. Negotiations +were opened by Mithradates with Sulla and after some delay +peace was concluded in 85 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> on the following terms: The king +was to surrender Cappadocia, Bithynia, the Roman province of Asia +and his other conquests in Asia Minor, to pay an indemnity of +3000 talents, and give up a part of his fleet. His kingdom of +Pontus remained intact. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Sulla’s treatment of Asia and Greece, 85–83 B. C.</span></span> Sulla spent +the following winter in Asia, readjusting affairs in the province. +The rebellious communities were punished by the quartering of troops +upon them, and by being forced to contribute to Sulla the huge sum +of 20,000 talents, or $24,000,000. To raise this amount they were +forced to borrow from Roman bankers and incur a crushing burden +of debt. In 84 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Sulla crossed to Greece, there to complete his +preparations for a return to Italy. The Greek states had suffered +heavily in the recent campaigns on her soil. Sulla had carried off +the temple treasures of Olympia, Delphi and Epidaurus, Attica and +Boeotia had been ravaged and depopulated, and the coasts had +been raided by the Mithradatic fleet. From the devastations of the +Mithradatic war Hellas never recovered. +</p> +</div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc125" id="toc125"></a><a name="pdf126" id="pdf126"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IX. Sulla’s Dictatorship</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Marian party in Rome 87–84 B. C.</span></span> While Sulla had been +conducting his successful campaign in Greece, in Italy the Marian +party had again won the upper hand. Scarcely had Sulla left Italy +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg 146]</span><a name="Pg146" id="Pg146" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>with his army when the consul Cinna re-enacted the Sulpician Laws. +His colleague Gnaeus Octavius and the senatorial faction drove +him from the city and had him deposed from office. But Cinna received +the support of the army in Campania, recalled Marius, and +made peace with the Samnites still under arms by granting them +Roman citizenship. Marius landed in Etruria, raised an army there, +and he and Cinna advanced on Rome. They forced the capitulation +of their opponents, had Cinna reinstated as consul, and had the +banishment of Marius revoked; Sulla’s laws were repealed, and his +property confiscated. Then ensued a massacre of the leading senators, +including Octavius the consul. On 1 January, 86, Marius +entered upon his seventh consulship and died a few days later. +His successor, Lucius Valerius Flaccus, was sent to supersede Sulla, +a mission which cost him his life, as related before. In 85 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, +the war with Mithradates was at an end and the Marians had to +face the prospect of the return of Sulla at the head of a victorious +army. The consuls Cinna and Carbo proceeded to raise troops to +oppose him. They illegally prolonged their office for the next year +(84) and made preparations to cross the Adriatic and meet Sulla in +Macedonia. But the army gathered for this purpose at Brundisium +mutinied and murdered Cinna. Carbo prevented the election of a +successor and held office as sole consul. The Senate had previously +begun negotiations with Sulla in an effort to prevent further civil +war. He now demanded the restitution of property and honors +both for himself and all those who had taken refuge with him. The +Senate was inclined to yield, but was prevented by Carbo. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the spring of 83 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Sulla landed at Brundisium, with an +army of 40,000 veterans from whom he exacted an oath of allegiance +to himself. He made known his intentions of respecting all privileges +granted to the Italians, to prevent their joining his enemies. +Still the bulk of the new citizens, particularly in Samnium and +Etruria, supported the Marian party. Sulla was joined at once by +the young Cnaeus Pompey, who had raised an army on his own +authority in Picenum, and by other men of influence. In the operations +which followed the leaders of the Marians showed themselves +lacking in coöperation and military skill. Sulla penetrated into Campania, +where he defeated one consul Norbanus, at Mount Tifata. +The other consul Scipio Asiaticus, entered into negotiations with him, +and was deserted by his army which went over to Sulla. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name="Pg147" id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the following year Sulla advanced into Latium and won a hard +fought victory over the younger Marius, now consul, at Sacriportus. +Rome fell into his hands and Marius took refuge in Praeneste. +Sulla then turned against the second consul, Carbo, in Etruria, and, +after several victories forced him to flee to Africa. In a final +effort the Marians, united with the Samnites, tried to relieve Praeneste; +failing to accomplish this they made a dash upon Rome. But +Sulla appeared in time to save the city and utterly defeat his enemies +in a bloody contest at the Colline Gate. Praeneste fell soon after; +Marius committed suicide, and except at a few isolated points all resistance +in Italy was over. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Sulla’s aims.</span></span> Sulla was absolute master of the situation and at +once proceeded to punish his enemies and reward his friends. In +cold-blooded cruelty, without any legal condemnation, his leading opponents +were marked out for vengeance; their names were posted in +lists in the forum to indicate that they might be slain with impunity +and that their goods were confiscated. Rewards were offered to informers +who brought about the death of such victims, and many were +included in the lists to gratify the personal enmities of Sulla’s friends. +The goods of the proscribed were auctioned off publicly under Sulla’s +direction, and their children and grandchildren declared ineligible for +public office. From these proscriptions the equestrians suffered particularly; +2600 of them are said to have perished, together with ninety +senators. The Italian municipalities also felt Sulla’s avenging hand. +Widespread confiscations of land, especially in Samnium and Etruria, +enabled him to provide for 150,000 of his veterans, whose settlement +did much to hasten the latinization of these districts. Ten thousand +slaves of the proscribed were set free by Sulla and took the name of +Cornelii from their patron. These arrangements were given the sanction +of legality by a decree of the Senate and a law which confirmed +all his acts as consul and proconsul and gave him full power for the +future. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Sulla dictator: 82–79 B. C.</span></span> But Sulla’s aims went further than +the destruction of the Marian party. He sought to recreate a stable +government in the state. For this he required more constitutional +powers than the right of might. Therefore, since both consuls were +dead, he caused the appointment of an <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">interrex</span></span> who by virtue of a +special law appointed him a dictator for an unlimited term to enact +legislation and reorganize the commonwealth (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dictator legibus + scri</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148" id="Pg148" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-style: italic">bundis et rei publicae constituendae</span></span>). Sulla’s appointment occurred +late in 82 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> The scope of his powers and their unlimited duration +gave him monarchical or rather tyrannical authority. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Sulla’s reforms.</span></span> The general aim of Sulla’s legislation was to +restore the Senate to the position which it had held prior to 133 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +and to guarantee the perpetuation of this condition. His reforms fall +into two classes; firstly, those directed to securing the rule of the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">optimates</span></span>, which were not long-lived; secondly, those seeking to increase +the efficiency of the administration, which being of a non-partizan +character enjoyed greater permanency than the preceding. +Those of the former sort constituted a renewal and extension of his +reforms of 88 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> The senatorial veto over legislation in the Assembly +of Tribes was renewed, and the tribunes’ intercession restricted to +interference with the exercise of the magistrate’s <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span>. To deter +able and ambitious men from seeking the tribunate, it was made a bar +to further political office. The senators were once more made eligible +for the juries, while the equestrians were disqualified. The Domitian +Law of 104 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> was abrogated and the practise of co-opting the members +of the priestly college was revived. Most important of Sulla’s +administrative reforms was that which concerned the magistracy. +The established order of offices in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cursus honorum</span></span> was maintained, +an age limit set for eligibility to each office, and an interval +of ten years required between successive tenures of the same post. +The number of quaestors was increased to twenty, that of the praetors +raised from six to eight. In connection therewith the method of appointing +provincial governors was regulated. By the organization of +the province of Cisalpine Gaul, the number of provinces was raised +to ten, and the two consuls and eight praetors, upon the completion of +their year of office in Rome, were to be appointed to the provinces as +pro-consuls and propraetors for one year. The pro-magistrates thus +lost their original extraordinary character and this change marks the +first step in the creation of an imperial civil service. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As before, the Senate designated the consular provinces before the +election of the consuls who would be their proconsular governors. +The consuls were not deprived of the right of military command, but, +as before, regularly assumed control of military operations in Italy. +The consular <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> remained senior to that of the provincial +governors, and might be exercised beyond the frontiers of Italy. However, +in practise the consuls were not regularly employed for overseas +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>campaigns, since the Senate now arrogated to itself what had previously +been a prerogative of the Assembly, namely, the right of selecting +any person whatever to exercise military <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> in any sphere +determined by itself. A new field for the activity of the praetors +arose from the establishment of special jury courts for the trial of +cases of bribery, treason, fraud, peculation, assassination and assault +with violence. These were modelled on the court for damage suits +brought against provincial officers, and superseded the old procedure +with its appeal from the verdict of the magistrate to the Comitia. To +provide a sufficient number of jurors for these tribunals the membership +of the Senate was increased from three hundred to six hundred +by enrolling equestrians who had supported Sulla. This increased +number was maintained by the annual admission of the +twenty ex-quaestors, whereby censors were rendered unnecessary for +enrolling the Senators. The administration, especially in its imperial +aspects, was more than ever concentrated in the Senate’s hands. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Pompey </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-weight: 700">“</span><span style="font-weight: 700">the Great,</span><span style="font-weight: 700">”</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700"> 79 B. C.</span></span> While Sulla was effecting his +settlement of affairs in Rome and Italy, the Marians in Sicily and +Africa were crushed by his lieutenant Cnaeus Pompey. Their leader +Carbo was taken and executed. In 82 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Sulla had caused the +Senate to confer upon Pompey the command in this campaign with +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> of a propraetor, although he had not yet held any public +office. Having finished his task Pompey demanded a triumph, an +honor which previously had only been granted to regular magistrates. +Sulla at first opposed his wishes, but as Pompey was insistent and defiant, +he yielded to avoid a quarrel, and even accorded him the name of +Magnus or the Great. Pompey celebrated his triumph 12 March, +79 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Sulla’s retirement and death, 78 B. C.</span></span> Sulla did not seek political +power for its own sake, and, after carrying his reforms into effect, +he resigned his dictatorship in 79 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> He retired to enjoy a life +of ease and pleasure on his Campanian estate, relying for his personal +security and that of his measures upon his veterans and the Cornelian +freedmen. In the following year he died at the age of sixty. Sulla’s +genius was rather military than political. Fond though he was of +sensual pleasures, he was possessed of great ambition which led him +to such a position of prominence that he was forced to adopt the cause +of one of the two political factions in the state. From that point he +must crush his enemies or be crushed by them; and in this lies the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" id="Pg150" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>explanation of his attempt to extirpate the Marian party. As a +statesman he displayed little imagination or constructive ability. He +could think of nothing better than to restore the Senate to a position +which it had shown itself unable to maintain; and his persecutions +of his political opponents had not crushed out opposition to the Senate, +but left a legacy of hatred endangering the permanence of his +reforms. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The epoch between the tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus and the +death of Sulla revealed the incapacity of either the Senate or the +tribunes and the Assembly to give a peaceful and stable government +to the Roman state. Sulla’s career, anticipating those of Caesar and +Augustus, pointed the way to the ultimate solution. +</p> +</div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page151">[pg 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc127" id="toc127"></a><a name="pdf128" id="pdf128"></a> +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER XIII</span></h2> + +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">THE RISE OF POMPEY THE GREAT: 78–60 B. C.</span></h2> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The extraordinary commands.</span></span> For the period following the +death of Sulla in 78 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Roman history centers around the lives of +a small group of eminent men, whose ambitions and rivalries are the +determining factors in the political life of the state. This is due to +the fact that neither the Senate nor the Assembly have the power to +control the men to whom the needs of the empire compel them to give +military authority. The generation of Marius and Sulla had seen the +rise of the professional army which revealed itself as the true power +in the state, and the disturbances of the Italian and Civil Wars supplied +an abundance of needy recruits who sought service with a +popular and successful general for the sake of the rewards which it +lay in his power to bestow. As military achievements were the sole +sure foundation for political success, able men made it the goal of +their ambition to be entrusted with an important military command. +The dangers of civil and foreign wars at first compelled the Senate +to confer military power upon the few available men of recognized +ability even when it distrusted their ulterior motives, and later such +appointments were made by the Assembly through the coalition of the +general and the tribunate. In this way arose the so-called extraordinary +commands, that is, such as involved a military <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> which +in some way exceeded that of the regular constitutional officers and +required to be created or defined by a special enactment of the Senate +or Comitia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The man who first realized the value of the extraordinary command +as a path to power was Pompey the Great. +</p> + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<a name="toc129" id="toc129"></a><a name="pdf130" id="pdf130"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. Pompey’s Command against Sertorius in Spain: +77–71 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The revolt of Lepidus.</span></span> It was not to be expected that Sulla’s +measures would long remain unassailed. Those dispossessed of their +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg 152]</span><a name="Pg152" id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>property, those disqualified for office, and the equestrians who sought +to regain control of the courts, were all anxious to undo part of his +work. They found a leader in Lepidus, who as consul in 78 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, the +very year of Sulla’s death, sought to renew the distribution of cheap +grain to the masses in Rome, which Sulla had suppressed, to restore +the Marian exiles, and reinstate those who had lost their lands. For +the time he failed to carry his proposals, but in the next year, as +proconsul of Cisalpine Gaul, he raised an army and marched on +Rome to seize the consulate for a second term, since disorders had +prevented the election of consuls for that year. However he was defeated +by his former colleague, the proconsul Catulus, and Pompey, +whom the Senate had appointed to a subordinate command in view +of his military expedience. Lepidus crossed over to Sardinia where +he died shortly after, and the bulk of his forces under Marcus Perperna +withdrew to Spain, to join the Marians who were in revolt +there. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Sertorius in Spain, 83–78 B. C.</span></span> The rebellion in Spain was +headed by Quintus Sertorius, who had been appointed governor of +Hither Spain by Cinna in 83 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Two years later he was driven +out by Sulla’s representative, but, after various adventures, returned +in 80 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> to head a revolt of the Lusitanians. His ability as a +guerrilla leader, and the confidence which he aroused among the native +Spaniards soon created alarm in Rome. Sertorius professed to +take the field not against Rome but against the Senate. He regarded +himself as the legitimate governor of Spain, employed members of +the Marian party as his military and civil subordinates and organized +a Senate among the Romans of his following. To crush the revolt +Sulla sent out to Farther Spain Metellus, the consul of 80 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, but +he failed to make any headway, and Sertorius was able to overrun +Hither Spain also. In 79 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the praetor of that province was +killed in battle, and the same fate befell the proconsul of Narbonese +Gaul who came to the help of Metellus (78 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Pompey sent to Spain, 78 B. C.</span></span> It was imperative to send a +new commander and a new army to Spain. As the consuls were unwilling +to go, Pompey, who had refused to disband his army at the +orders of Catulus, sought the command. The Senate could not help +itself and, in spite of considerable opposition, passed a decree conferring +upon him proconsular <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> and entrusting him with the +conduct of the war in Hither Spain. Even after the arrival of +Pom<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page153">[pg 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>pey with an army of 40,000 men Sertorius was more than able to hold +his own against his foes in 76 and 75 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> At the end of the latter +year Pompey was forced to recross the Pyrenees and appeal to the +Senate for reinforcements. At the same time Sertorius, through the +agency of the pirates, entered into alliance with Mithradates, King +of Pontus, who was again on the point of war with Rome. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The arrival of the desired reinforcements enabled Pompey in 74 +and 73 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> to turn the tide against Sertorius. To prevent desertions +the latter resorted to severe punishments which alienated the +Spaniards, who were already estranged by the acts of his subordinates. +He was further hampered by dissensions in the ranks of his Roman +supporters. The center of disaffection was Perpenna, who treacherously +assassinated Sertorius in 72 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> and assumed command of his +forces. However he was defeated by Pompey, taken captive and +executed. The revolt was broken and pacification of Spain speedily +accomplished. Pompey was able to return to Rome in 71 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc131" id="toc131"></a><a name="pdf132" id="pdf132"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The Command of Lucullus against Mithradates: +74–66 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The situation in the Near East.</span></span> After concluding peace with +Sulla in 85 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Mithradates Eupator directed his energies to consolidating +his kingdom and reorganizing his forces in expectation of a +renewal of the struggle with Rome. He recognised that Sulla had +been ready to make peace only because of the situation in Italy and +the fact that he had been unable to secure written confirmation of the +terms of the treaty warned him that the Romans still contemplated his +complete overthrow. Indeed he had been attacked in the years 83 +and 82 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> by Lucius Murena, the proconsul of Asia, but had been +able to defend himself and Sulla had once more brought about a +cessation of hostilities. Meantime, Tigranes of Armenia, the ally of +Mithradates, had enlarged his dominions by the annexation of Syria +(83 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>), where he terminated the rule of the house of Seleucus, +and of Greater Cappadocia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The command of Lucullus and Cotta, 74 B. C.</span></span> In 75 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> occurred +the death of Nicomedes III, King of Bithynia, who left his +kingdom to the Roman people. The Senate accepted the inheritance +and made Bithynia a province, but Mithradates championed the +claims of a son of Nicomedes and determined to dispute the +posses<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page154">[pg 154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>sion of Bithynia with the Romans. He had raised an efficient army +and navy, was leagued with the pirates, and in alliance with Sertorius, +who supplied him with officers and recognized his claims to +Bithynia and other districts in Asia Minor. Rome was threatened +with another serious war. One of the senatorial faction, the consul +Lucius Lucullus, contrived to have assigned to himself by a senatorial +decree the provinces of Cilicia and Asia with command of the +main operations against Mithradates, while his colleague Cotta received +Bithynia and a fleet to guard the Hellespont. At the same +time a praetor, Marcus Antonius, was given an extraordinary command +against the pirates with an unlimited <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> over the Mediterranean +Sea and its coast. However, he proved utterly incompetent, +was defeated in an attack upon Crete, and died there. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Siege of Cyzicus, 74–3 B. C.</span></span> Early in 74 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Mithradates invaded +Bithynia. There he was encountered by Cotta, whom he defeated +and blockaded in Chalcedon. Thereupon he invaded Asia +and laid siege to Cyzicus. But Lucullus cut off his communications +and in the ensuing winter he was forced to raise the siege and retire +with heavy losses into Bithynia. The following year a fleet which +Lucullus had raised defeated that of Mithradates. This enabled the +Romans to recover Bithynia and invade Pontus. In 72 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Lucullus +defeated Mithradates and forced him to take refuge in Armenia. In +the course of this and the two following years he completed the subjugation +of Pontus by the systematic reduction of its fortified cities. +Cotta undertook the siege of Heraclea in Bithynia and upon its fall +in 71 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> returned to Rome. The winter of 71–70 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Lucullus +spent in Asia reorganizing the financial situation. There the cities +were laboring under a frightful burden of indebtedness to Roman +bankers and taxgatherers which had its origin in the exactions of +Sulla. Lucullus interfered on behalf of the provincials and by reducing +the accumulated interest on their debts enabled them to pay +off their obligations within four years. This care for the provincials +won for himself the bitter enmity of the Roman financial interests +which sought to deprive him of his command. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Invasion of Armenia, 69 B. C.</span></span> As the war could not be regarded +as terminated so long as Mithradates was at large, Lucullus +demanded his surrender from Tigranes. When the latter refused +Lucullus invaded Armenia, defeated him and took his capital, Tigranocerta, +69 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> In the following year Lucullus attempted to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page155">[pg 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>complete the subjugation of Armenia but was prevented by the mutinous +conduct of his troops. He was unpopular with his men because +he maintained discipline and protected the subject peoples from the +excesses of the soldiers. Also some of his legions had come to the +East with Fimbria in 86 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> and clamored for the discharge to +which they were entitled. In 67 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Mithradates reappeared in +Pontus and Lucullus had to return from Armenia to face him, whereupon +Tigranes began to recover lost ground. Because of the mutiny +in his army Lucullus was forced to remain inactive. He had already +been superseded in the command of Asia, Cilicia and Bithynia, which +had come under his control with the return of Cotta, and his enemies +in Rome deprived him of the remnants of his authority in 66 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc133" id="toc133"></a><a name="pdf134" id="pdf134"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. The Revolt of the Gladiators: 73–71 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Spartacus.</span></span> While Pompey was fighting Sertorius in Spain and +Lucullus was pursuing Mithradates in Bithynia a serious slave war +arose in Italy. It began in 73 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> with the revolt of a band of +gladiators from a training school in Capua under the leadership of +the Thracian Spartacus and the Gauls, Crixus and Onemaus. Taking +refuge on the slopes of Vesuvius they rapidly recruited large numbers +of runaway slaves. They defeated the armies of two Roman +praetors and overran Campania, Lucania, and all southern Italy. +By the end of the year 73 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> their number had grown to 70,000. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the next year they divided their forces; the Gauls and Germans +followed Crixus, the Thracians Spartacus. The two consuls took the +field against them; Crixus and his horde were defeated in Apulia. +Spartacus marched north, intending to make his way through the Alps +to Thrace. The consuls pursued him, and he defeated them one after +the other. Thereupon his followers refused to leave Italy and turned +southwards, plundering as they went. Again Spartacus defeated the +consuls but dared not attack Rome and retired to South Italy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Crassus in command, 71 B. C.</span></span> In 71 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the consuls displayed +no enthusiasm to undertake the command against Spartacus, and so +the Senate appointed as extraordinary commander the praetor Marcus +Licinius Crassus, one of Sulla’s veteran officers, who volunteered his +services. After restoring discipline among his troops, Crassus succeeded +in penning up Spartacus in the peninsula of Bruttium. Spartacus +hired some Cilician pirates to transport him to Sicily, but, after +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page156">[pg 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>receiving their price, they abandoned him to his fate. He succeeded +in breaking through Crassus’ lines, but his forces divided into two +detachments, each of which was caught and beaten. Spartacus fell +in battle; while 6000 of his following were taken and crucified. +Crassus had bent all his energies to bring the revolt to a close before +the arrival of Pompey, who was on his way from Spain. This he +might fairly claim to have accomplished although a body of 5000 +slaves who had escaped to North Italy were met by Pompey and +annihilated. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc135" id="toc135"></a><a name="pdf136" id="pdf136"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. The Consulate of Pompey and Crassus: 70 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Pompey and Crassus consuls.</span></span> Both Pompey and Crassus, +flushed by their victories in Spain and in Italy, now demanded the +right to stand for the consulship for 70 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Both sought triumphs +and under this pretext did not disband their armies. The Senate resisted +their claims, for Pompey’s candidature was clearly unconstitutional, +and since Crassus was praetor in 71 he was not eligible for +the consulate in the following year. Furthermore both were distrusted +because of their ambitious natures. In view of this opposition Crassus, +in spite of mutual jealousy between himself and Pompey, made +overtures to the latter and they agreed to unite their forces. They +also made a bid for the support of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">populares</span></span> by promising to restore +the tribunate to its former privileges and for that of the equestrians +by promising to reinstate them in the jury courts. This combination +overawed senatorial opposition, their candidatures were +legalized by special bills and both were elected. In their consulate +the tribunes were relieved of the restrictions which Sulla had placed +upon their activities, and the jury courts were reorganized. However, +the latter were not given over completely to the equestrians, but each +panel of jurors was to consist of three equal sections, one drawn from +the Senate, one from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">equites</span></span>, and one from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tribuni aerarii</span></span>, the +class of citizens whose assessment was next to that of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">equites</span></span>. +The Sullan régime was at an end, and in the tribunate emancipated +from the Senate’s control the ambitious general of the future was to +find his most valuable ally. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Trial of Verres.</span></span> In the same year, prior to the passing of the +Aurelian Law which reformed the juries, occurred the trial of Caius +Verres, ex-propraetor of Sicily, a case notable because the +prosecu<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>tion was conducted by the young Marcus Tullius Cicero, whose accusation +contained in his published <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Orations against Caius Verres</span></span> constitutes +a most illuminating commentary upon provincial misgovernment +under the Sullan régime. The senatorial juries after 82 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, +had protected the interests of the provinces no better than had the +equestrian juries established by Caius Gracchus. They had shown +themselves shamelessly venal, and a provincial governor who made +judicious disbursements could be confident that he would be acquitted +of any charges of extortion brought against him. Relying upon this +Verres, who was propraetor of Sicily in 73, 72 and 71 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, had +carried off from that province money and valuables estimated at +40,000,000 sesterces ($2,000,000). He had openly boasted that he +intended the profits of one year for himself, those of the second for +his friends and patrons, and those of the third for his jurors. At the +opening of the year 70 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the Sicilian cities sued Verres for restitution +of damages and chose Cicero as their advocate. Cicero was a +native of Arpinum, the birthplace of Marius, and was now in his +thirty-sixth year. His upright conduct as quaestor in western Sicily +in 75 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> had earned him the confidence of the Sicilians, and his +successful conduct of the defense in several previous trials had marked +him as a pleader of exceptional ability. But Verres had entrusted his +case to Quintus Hortensius Hortalus, regarded at the time as the +foremost of Roman orators, and every conceivable device was resorted +to in order to prevent the case from coming to trial. Another prosecutor +appeared, who claimed to have a better right than Cicero to +bring suit against Verres. This necessitated a trial to decide which +could better claim to represent the Sicilians. Cicero was able to expose +the falsity of the claims of his rival, who was acting in collusion +with Verres. He then proceeded to Sicily where he gathered his evidence +in fifty of the hundred and ten days allowed him for the purpose. +Before the hearing the elections for the next year were held +and Hortensius elected consul, but Cicero was returned as aedile in +spite of all the efforts of his opponents to weaken his prestige by a +defeat at the polls. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The trial was set for the fifth of August, and as there were fifty +holidays for various festivals between that date and the end of the +year, the defense hoped to drag out the trial until after January first, +when a praetor friendly to Verres would preside over the court for +extortion. But Cicero defeated their hopes by abstaining from any +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg 158]</span><a name="Pg158" id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>long formal speech of accusation and contenting himself with a brief +statement of the obstacles the defense had placed in his way, a threat +to punish in his capacity of aedile any attempts at corruption, and +a short statement of the charge against Verres. He then called his +witnesses. Hortensius found himself without any arguments to combat +and could not refute the evidence. Before the hearing of the witnesses +was concluded Verres went into exile. He was condemned in +his absence and Cicero became the leading advocate of the day. However, +it must be admitted that the condemnation of Verres was also +partly due to the danger of the loss of their privileges which threatened +the senatorial jurors. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The crimes of Verres.</span></span> The evidence which had been brought +out against Verres was afterwards used by Cicero in composing his +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Second Pleading against Verres</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">actio secunda in Verrem</span></span>) which was +of course never delivered, but was a political pamphlet in the form +of a fictitious oration. From it we learn the devices of which the +governor made use to amass a fortune at the expense of his province. +By initiating false accusations, by rendering, or intimidating other +judges to render unjust decisions, he secured the confiscation of property +the value of which he diverted to his own pockets. He sold justice +to the highest bidder. While saving himself expense by defrauding +the collectors of port dues of the tax on his valuables shipped out +of Sicily, he added to his profits by the sale of municipal offices and +priesthoods. He entered into partnership with the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">decumani</span></span> or collectors +of the ten per cent produce tax, and ordered the cultivators to +pay whatever the collectors demanded, and then, if dissatisfied, seek +redress in his court, a redress which, needless to say, was never gained. +He loaned public funds at usurious rates of interest, and either did +not pay in full or paid nothing for corn purchased from the Sicilian +communities for the Roman government, while charging the state the +market price. At the same time he insisted upon the cities commuting +into money payments at rates far above current prices the grain allotted +for the upkeep of the governor’s establishment. At times the +demands made upon cultivators exceeded the total of their annual +crop, and in despair they fled from their holdings. To the money +gained by such methods Verres added a costly treasure of works of +art, which he collected from both individuals and cities by theft, +seizure and intimidation. Even the sacred ornaments of temples were +not spared. All who resisted or denounced him, even Roman citizens, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg 159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>were subjected to illegal imprisonment, torture or execution. These +iniquities were carried out in defiance of the provincial charter, but +there was no power in his province to restrain him, and the Senate, +which should have done so, remained indifferent to the complaints +which were carried to Rome. The sad truth was that after all Verres +was only more shameless and unscrupulous than the average provincial +governor, and consequently the sympathies of the Senate were +with him rather than with his victims—the provincials. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc137" id="toc137"></a><a name="pdf138" id="pdf138"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">V. The Commands of Pompey against the Pirates and in +the East: 67–62 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The pirate scourge.</span></span> Both Pompey and Crassus had declined proconsular +appointments at the close of 70 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, because there were no +provinces open which promised an opportunity to augment their influence +or military reputation. Accordingly they remained in Rome +watching for some more favorable chance to employ their talents. +Pompey found such an opportunity in the ravages of the Cilician +pirates. After the failure of Marcus Antonius (74–72 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>), Caecilius +Metellus had been sent to Crete in 69 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> and in the course +of the next two years reduced the island to subjection and made it a +province. But his operations there did little to check the pirate +plague. So bold had these robbers become that they did not hesitate +to raid the coasts of Italy and to plunder Ostia. When finally their +depredations interrupted the importation of grain for the supply of +the city, a famine threatened, and decisive measures had to be taken +against them. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Gabinian Law, 67 B. C.</span></span> The only way to deal with the +question was to appoint a commander with power to operate against +the pirates everywhere, and the obvious man for the position was +Pompey. However, the Senate mistrusted him and in addition feared +the consequences of creating such an extensive extraordinary command. +But since 71 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Pompey had stood on the side of the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">populares</span></span> and now, like Marius, he found in the tribunate an ally +able to aid him in attaining his goal. In 67 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the tribune Aulus +Gabinius proposed a law for the appointment of a single commander +of consular rank who should have command over the whole sea within +the pillars of Hercules and all Roman territory to a distance of fifty +miles inland. His appointment was to be for three years, he was +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page160">[pg 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>to have the power to nominate senatorial <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">legati</span></span>, to raise money in +addition to what he received from the quaestors, and recruit soldiers +and sailors at discretion for his fleet. This command was modelled +upon that of Antonius the praetor in 74 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, but conveyed higher +authority and greater resources. The Senate bitterly resisted the +passage of the bill but it passed and the Senate had to relinquish +its prerogative of creating the extraordinary commands. Although no +person had been nominated for this command in the law of Gabinius, +the opinion of the voters had been so clearly expressed in a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">contio</span></span> that +the Senate had to appoint Pompey. He received twenty-four <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">legati</span></span> +and a fleet of five hundred vessels. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The pirates crushed.</span></span> Pompey set to work energetically and systematically. +In forty days he swept the pirates from the western +Mediterranean. In forty-nine more he cornered them in Cilicia, +where he forced the surrender of their strongholds. His victory was +hastened by the mildness shown to those who surrendered. They +received their lives and freedom, and in many cases were used as colonists +to revive cities with a declining population. Within three +months he had brought the pirate war to a triumphant conclusion, but +his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> would not terminate for three years and he was anxious +to gather fresh laurels. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Manilian Law, 66 B. C.</span></span> It so happened that Pompey’s success +coincided with the temporary check to the Roman arms in Pontus, +owing to the disaffection of the troops of Lucullus and the machinations +of the latter’s enemies in Rome. Pompey now sought to have +the command of Lucullus added to his own, and in this he had the +support of the equestrian order. Early in 66 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> one of the tribunes, +Caius Manilius, proposed a law transferring to Pompey the +provinces of Bithynia and Cilicia and the conduct of the war against +Mithradates and Tigranes. Cicero, then a praetor, supported the +measure in his speech, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">For the Manilian Law</span></span>. His support was +probably dictated by the fact that he was a man without family backing +and consequently had to have the friendship of an influential +personage if he was to secure the political advancement which he desired. +The Senate strongly opposed any extension of Pompey’s military +authority, but the bill was passed and he took over the command +of Lucullus. He was clothed with power to make peace or war with +whom he chose, and enjoyed an unexampled concentration of authority +in his hands. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The campaigns of Pompey in the East.</span></span> Pompey at once advanced +into Pontus and attacked Mithradates. The latter was forced +to withdraw into Lesser Armenia where he was overtaken and his +army scattered by Pompey. The king fled to the neighborhood of the +Sea of Asov. Upon the defeat of Mithradates, Tigranes deserted his +cause and submitted to Pompey. He was permitted to retain his +kingdom as a Roman ally. In the following year, 65 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Pompey +reduced to submission the peoples situated south of the Caucasus, between +the Black and the Caspian Seas, who had been in alliance with +Mithradates, and so completed the subjugation of Pontus, which he +made into a province (64 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In 64 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> he turned his attention to Syria, where a state of chaos +had reigned since Lucullus had wrested it from Tigranes and where +a scion of the Seleucids had failed to find recognition. Pompey decided +to treat Syria as a Roman conquest and incorporate it within +the empire. He then interfered in a dynastic struggle in the kingdom +of Judaea. After a brief struggle, in which the temple of Jerusalem +was stormed by the Romans, he installed his nominee as High +Priest at the head of the local government. Judaea was then annexed +to the province of Syria (63 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While Pompey was in Judaea the death of Mithradates occurred. +Deserted by the Greek cities of the northern Euxine, he formed the +plan of joining the Celtic peoples of the Danube valley and invading +Italy. But his army deserted him for his son Pharnaces, who revolted +against his father, and Mithradates committed suicide. Thereupon +Pharnaces made peace with Pompey. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Mithradatic war was finally over and Pompey, after organizing +affairs in Asia Minor and the adjoining countries, started on a triumphal +return to Italy with his victorious army and rich spoils of +war (62 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc139" id="toc139"></a><a name="pdf140" id="pdf140"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">VI. The Conspiracy of Catiline, 63 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The situation in Rome.</span></span> While Pompey was adding to his military +reputation in the East he was regarded with jealous and anxious +eyes not only by the Senate but also by the other champions of the +popular party, Crassus who found his wealth no match for Pompey’s +military achievements, and Caius Julius Caesar who was rapidly +coming to be one of the leading figures in Roman public life. Caesar +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page162">[pg 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>was born in 100 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, of the patrician <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">gens</span></span> of the Julii, but since his +aunt was the wife of Marius, and he himself had married the daughter +of Cinna, his lot was cast with the Populares. As a young man +he had distinguished himself by refusing to divorce his wife at Sulla’s +behest, whereat Sulla was with difficulty induced to spare his life, +saying that he saw in him many a Marius. For the time being Caesar +judged it prudent to withdraw from Rome to Rhodes. While in the +East he was captured by pirates, and after being ransomed, fulfilled +his threat to avenge himself by taking and executing his captors. +After the death of Sulla, Caesar returned to Rome and devoted his +more than average oratorical abilities to the cause of the Marians. +In 69 or 68 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> he was quaestor in Farther Spain, and shortly afterwards +he became closely associated with Crassus in the attempt to +develop a counterpoise to Pompey’s influence. While aedile in 65 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> he curried favor with the populace by the extraordinary lavishness +with which he celebrated the public festivals, by the restoration +of the public monuments of the campaign of Marius and by supporting +the prosecution of agents in the Sullan proscriptions. The splendor +of his shows had obliged Caesar to contract heavy debts, and Crassus +was in all probability his chief creditor. Both were therefore interested +in securing for Caesar a position in which he could secure the +wealth to meet his obligations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The unrest in Rome was heightened by the presence there of a +number of men of ruined fortunes, both Marians dispossessed by +Sulla and those of the opposite party who had squandered their resources +or had been excluded from the Senate by the censors of 70 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +This element was ready to resort to any means, however desperate, to +win wealth or office. Foremost among them was Lucius Sergius +Catilina, a patrician who enjoyed an evil repute for his share in the +Sullan proscriptions and the viciousness of his private life. Symptomatic +of the weakening of the public authority was the organization +of partizan gangs to terrorize opposition and control the Assembly. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Cicero elected consul, 64 B. C.</span></span> In the year 64 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> three candidates +presented themselves for the consulship, Catiline, Caius Antonius, +a noble of the same type as Catiline, and Cicero. The first +two were supported by Caesar and Crassus who hoped to use them +for their own ends. Cicero, as a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">novus homo</span></span>, was distasteful to the +Optimates, but since they felt that Catiline must be defeated at all +costs they supported the orator, who was elected with Antonius. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" id="Pg163" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>From that time Cicero ranged himself on the side of the <a name="corr163" id="corr163" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Optimates,</span> +and his political watchword was the <span class="tei tei-q">“harmony of the orders,”</span> that +is, of the senators and the equestrians. Of the consular provinces +Cicero received by lot Macedonia and Antonius Cisalpine Gaul. As +the latter was dissatisfied Cicero resigned Macedonia to him, in return +for his public assurance of abstaining from opposing Cicero’s acts +during their year of office. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The land bill of Rullus, 63 B. C.</span></span> On the first day of his consulate +Cicero delivered a speech in which he scathingly criticized a +land bill proposed by the tribune Servilius Rullus. This bill aimed +to create a land commission of ten members of praetorian rank, elected +in a special <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia</span></span> of seventeen tribes, which Rullus was to choose +by lot. These commissioners were to be vested with extraordinary +powers for five years, including the right to sell the public land in +Italy and in Pompey’s recent conquests, to exercise judicial authority, +to confiscate lands, to found colonies, and to enroll and maintain +troops. The bill would have placed in the hands of the commissioners +extraordinary military authority both in Italy and in the provinces, +guaranteed by the income derived from the sale of land. Pompey +was excluded from the commission by a clause requiring the personal +appearance of candidates. Everyone was aware that the measure +was devised in the interests of Caesar and Crassus and that they +would dominate the commission. However, the attack upon the Senate’s +control of the public land and the general mistrust of the purposes +of a bill of this sort caused such strong opposition that its +sponsors did not bring the matter to a vote. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Caesar, </span><a name="corr163a" id="corr163a" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">Pontifex</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700"> Maximus.</span></span> But Caesar could console himself +with victory in another sphere. The position of <span class="tei tei-corr">Pontifex</span> Maximus +had become vacant, and by a tribunician bill the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Domitia</span></span>, revoked +by Sulla, was again brought into effect and election to the +priesthood entrusted to a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia</span></span> of seventeen tribes. In the ensuing +election Caesar was victorious. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Catilinarian conspiracy: 63 B. C.</span></span> In July, 63 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, occurred +the consular elections for the next year. Catiline was again +a competitor, but now he lacked the support of Crassus and Caesar +and appealed directly to all needy and desperate characters throughout +Italy, who hoped to enrich themselves by violent means. He was +bitterly opposed by Cicero and the Optimates and was defeated. +Thereupon he and his followers conspired to overthrow the +govern<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg 164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>ment by armed force. Cicero, who was on the watch, got news of the +conspiracy and induced the Senate to pass the <span class="tei tei-q">“last decree”</span> empowering +him to use any means to save the state. Catiline then left +the city to join the bands his supporters had raised in Etruria. He +was declared a public enemy and a force under the consul Antonius +dispatched against him. December seventeenth was the day set for +a rising in Rome, when the city was to be fired, the consuls and others +murdered, and a reign of terror instituted. But the plan was betrayed +by a delegation of the Gallic Allobroges who happened to be +in Rome and whom the conspirators endeavored to enlist on their +side. The leading Catilinarians in Rome were arrested, and, in accordance +with a decree of the Senate, put to death. Caesar had +argued for a milder sentence, but the firm stand of the young Marcus +Porcius Cato, a man of uncompromising uprightness and loyalty to +the constitution, sealed the fate of the plotters. Upon the failure of +his plans in Rome, Catiline endeavored to make his way with his +army into Cisalpine Gaul, but was overtaken and forced to give battle +to the forces of Antonius at Pistoria. He and most of his followers +died sword in hand. The suppression of the conspiracy added to +Cicero’s reputation and greatly strengthened the position of the Senate +and the Optimates. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But the whole episode bears testimony to the general weakness of +the government and the danger of the absence of a regular police +force for the maintenance of the public peace. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc141" id="toc141"></a><a name="pdf142" id="pdf142"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">VII. The Coalition of Pompey, Caesar and Crassus: +60 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Pompey’s return.</span></span> Towards the close of the year 62 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Pompey +landed in Italy and, contrary to the expectations of those who feared +that he would prove a second Sulla, disbanded his army. The following +September (61) he celebrated a memorable triumph. He was +exceedingly anxious to crown his achievements by having the Senate +ratify his eastern arrangements and securing land grants for his +veterans. However, since the dismissal of his troops he was no +longer feared by the Senate, which insisted on examining his acts in +detail and not ratifying them <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">en bloc</span></span> as he demanded. Thus the +Optimates lost the opportunity of binding Pompey to their side, and +at the same time they fell out with the equestrians over the demand +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg 165]</span><a name="Pg165" id="Pg165" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>made by the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">publicani</span></span> who had contracted for the taxes of Asia for a +modification of the terms of their contract on the ground of poor harvests +in the province. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The coalition of 60 B. C.</span></span> No settlement had been reached when +Caesar returned to Rome in 60 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> He had been praetor in 62 and +for the following year governor of Further Spain, where he waged successful +border wars, conciliated the provincials and yet contrived to +find the means to satisfy his creditors. He now requested a triumph +and the privilege of standing for the consulate while waiting outside +the city for the former honor. However, when the Senate delayed its +decision he gave up the triumph and became a candidate for the +consulate. He now succeeded in reconciling Pompey and Crassus and +the three formed a secret coalition to secure the election of Caesar +and the satisfaction of their particular aims. This unofficial coalition +is known as the First Triumvirate. Through the influence of his +supporters Caesar was easily elected but his colleague was Calpurnius +Bibulus, the nominee of the Optimates. +</p> + + </div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc143" id="toc143"></a><a name="pdf144" id="pdf144"></a> +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER XIV</span></h2> + +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">THE RIVALRY OF POMPEY AND CAESAR: CAESAR’S +DICTATORSHIP; 59–44 B. C.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<a name="toc145" id="toc145"></a><a name="pdf146" id="pdf146"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. Caesar Consul: 59 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">A rule of force.</span></span> At the beginning of his consulship Caesar tried +to induce the Senate to approve his measures, but, when they failed +to do so, he carried them directly to the Assembly. And when Bibulus +and Cato essayed to obstruct legislation in the Comitia he crushed +all opposition by the aid of Pompey’s veterans. Bibulus, protesting +against the illegality of Caesar’s proceedings, shut himself up in his +own house. Thus Caesar carried two land laws for the benefit of the +soldiers of Pompey, induced the Senate to ratify the latter’s eastern +settlement, and secured for the equestrians, whose cause was championed +by Crassus, the remission of one third of the contract price +for the revenues of Asia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Vatinian Law.</span></span> A lucky chance enabled Caesar to secure +his own future by an extended military command. The Senate had +taken pains to render him harmless by assigning as the consular +provinces for 58 the care of forests and country roads in Italy, but in +February, 59, the death of Metellus Celer, proconsul of Cisalpine +Gaul, left vacant a post of considerable importance in view of the +imminent danger of war breaking out in Transalpine Gaul. Accordingly +a law proposed by the tribune Vatinius transferred to Caesar +the command of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum, with a garrison of +three legions, for a term of five years beginning 1 March, 59. To +this the Senate, at the suggestion of Pompey, added Transalpine Gaul +and another legion. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The banishment of Cicero, 58 B. C.</span></span> Caesar’s consulship had +been an open defiance of constitutional precedent, and had revealed +the fact that the triumvirate was stronger than the established organs +of government, and that the Roman Empire was really controlled by +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg 167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>three men. Well might Cato say that the coalition was the beginning +of the end of the Republic. Within the triumvirate itself Pompey +was the dominant figure owing to his military renown and the influence +of his veterans. Caesar appeared as his agent, yet displayed far +greater political insight and succeeded in creating for himself a position +which would enable him to play a more independent rôle in the +future. The coalition did not break up at the end of Caesar’s consulship; +its members determined to retain their control of the state +policy, and to this end secured for 58 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the election of two consuls +in whom they had confidence. To cement the alliance Pompey married +Caesar’s daughter Julia, and Caesar married the daughter of +Piso, one of the consuls-elect. To secure themselves from attack they +felt it necessary to remove from the city their two ablest opponents, +Cato and Cicero. The latter had refused all proposals to join their +side, and had sharply criticized them on several public occasions. +His banishment was secured through the agency of the tribune Clodius, +whose transfer from patrician to plebeian status Caesar had +facilitated. Clodius was a man of ill repute who hated Cicero because +the latter had testified against him when he was on trial for +sacrilege. Early in 58 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Clodius carried a bill which outlawed +any person who had put to death Roman citizens without regular +judicial proceedings. This law was aimed at Cicero for his share +in the execution of the Catalinarian conspirators. Finding that he +could not rely upon the support of his friends, Cicero went into exile +without awaiting trial. He was formally banished, his property was +confiscated, and he himself sought refuge in Thessalonica, where the +governor of Macedonia offered him protection. Cato was entrusted +with a special mission to accomplish the incorporation of Cyprus, then +ruled by one of the Egyptian Ptolemies, into the Roman Empire, and +his Stoic conception of duty prevented him from refusing the appointment. +Caesar remained with his army in the vicinity of Rome +until after Cicero’s banishment and then set out for his province. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc147" id="toc147"></a><a name="pdf148" id="pdf148"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul: 58–51 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The defeat of the Helvetii and Ariovistus: 58 B. C.</span></span> In 58 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, +when Caesar entered upon his Gallic command, the Roman province +in Transalpine Gaul (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gallia </span><a name="corr167" id="corr167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-style: italic">Narbonensis</span></span></span>) embraced the coast districts +from the Alps to the borders of Spain and the land between the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Alps and the Rhone as far north as Lake Geneva. The country +which stretched from the Pyrenees to the Rhine, and from the Rhone +to the ocean was called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gallia comata</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“long-haired Gaul,”</span> and +was occupied by a large number of peoples of varying importance. +These were usually regarded as falling into three groups, (1) those +of Aquitania, between the Pyrenees and the Loire, where there was a +large Iberian element, (2) those called Celts, in a narrow sense of +the word, stretching from the Loire to the Seine and the Marne, and +(3) the Belgian Gauls, dwelling between these rivers and the Rhine. +Among the latter were peoples of Germanic origin. Although conscious +of a general unity of language, race and customs, the Gauls +had not developed a national state, owing to the mutual jealousy of +the individual peoples, and each tribe was perpetually divided into +rival factions supporting different chiefs. Rome had sought to protect +the province of Narbonensis by establishing friendly relations +with some of these Gallic peoples and had long before (c. 121 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>) +made an alliance with the Aedui. About 70 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> conditions in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gallia +comata</span></span> had been disturbed by an invasion of Germanic Suevi, from +across the Rhine, under their King Ariovistus. He united with the +rivals of the Aedui, the Sequani, and after a number of years reduced +the former to submission. In 59 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> he reached an agreement with +Rome, became a <span class="tei tei-q">“friend”</span> of the Roman people, and, while abstaining +from further aggression, remained firmly established in what is +now Alsace. For some time the Roman province had been alarmed +by the threat of a migration of the Helvetii, then settled in western +Switzerland, and in March, 58 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, this people started in search of +new abodes. Caesar reached Gaul in time to prevent their crossing +the upper Rhone, and followed them as they turned westward into the +lands of the Sequani and Aedui. Defeated in two battles, they were +forced to return to their home and to become allies of Rome. The +movement of the Helvetii had given Caesar the opportunity for intervention +in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gallia comata</span></span>, and a pretext for extending his influence +there was found in the hostility of some of the Gauls to Ariovistus, +and the knowledge that a band of Suevi was expected soon to cross +the Rhine to reinforce the latter. To frustrate a German occupation +of Gaul now became Caesar’s object. Ariovistus rejected the demands +of Caesar, who thereupon attacked him, defeated him in the +vicinity of Strassburg and drove him across the Rhine. Caesar was +now the dominant power in Gaul, and many of the leading tribes +en<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg 169]</span><a name="Pg169" id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>tered into alliance with Rome. Of the Belgae, however, only the +Remi came over to the side of Rome. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The conquest of the Belgae, Veneti, and Aquitanians, 57–56 +B. C.</span></span> In the next year, 57 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Caesar marched against the united +forces of the Belgae, defeated them, and subdued many tribes, chief +of whom were the Nervii. At the same time his legates received the +submission of the peoples of Normandy and Brittany. In the course +of the following winter some of these, led by the Veneti, broke off their +alliance and attacked Caesar’s garrisons. Thereupon he set to work +to build a fleet, with which in the course of the next summer the +fleet of the Veneti was destroyed and their strongholds on the coast +taken (56 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). The same year witnessed the submission of the +Aquitanians, which brought practically the whole of Gaul under +Roman sway. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Events in Rome, 58–55 B. C.</span></span> Meanwhile important changes had +taken place in the situation at Rome. Pompey had broken with Clodius, +and supported the tribune Titus Annius Milo who pressed for +Cicero’s recall. A law of the Assembly withdrew his sentence of +outlawry, his property was restored, and the orator returned in September, +57 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, to enjoy a warm reception both in the municipal +towns and at the capital. For the moment Pompey and the Optimates +were on friendly terms, and the former made use of a grain +famine in the city to secure for himself an appointment as curator of +the grain supply (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curator annonae</span></span>) for a period of five years. This +appointment carried with it <a name="corr169" id="corr169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">proconsular</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> within and without +Italy, and the control of the ports, markets and traffic in grain +within the Roman dominions. It was really an extraordinary military +command. Pompey relieved the situation but could do nothing +to allay the disorders in Rome, where Clodius and Milo with their +armed gangs set law and order at defiance. The news of Caesar’s +victories and the influence which he was acquiring in the city by a +judicious distribution of the spoils of war fired the ambitions of +Pompey and Crassus who were no longer on good terms with one +another. Furthermore, the return of Cato in 56 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> had again given +the Optimates an energetic leader. Consequently Caesar felt it necessary +for the coalition to reach a new agreement. Accordingly while +spending the winter in Cisalpine Gaul he arranged a conference at +Luca in April, 56, where the three settled their differences and laid +plans for the future. They agreed that Pompey and Crassus should +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg 170]</span><a name="Pg170" id="Pg170" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>be consuls in 55 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, that the former should be given the Spanish +provinces and Libya for five years, that Crassus should have Syria +for an equal period, and that Caesar’s command in Gaul should be +prolonged for another five year term to run from 1 March, 54.<a id="noteref_12" name="noteref_12" href="#note_12"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These arrangements were duly carried out. Since it was too late +for Pompey and Crassus to be candidates at the regular elections in +56 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, they forcibly prevented any elections being held that year. +The following January, after forcing the other candidates to withdraw, +they secured their election. Thereupon a law of the tribune +Gaius Trebonius made effective the assignment of provinces agreed +upon at Luca. Once more it was made plain that the coalition +actually ruled the empire. Cicero, who was indebted to Pompey for +his recall, was forced to support the triumvirate, and the Optimates +found their boldest leader in Cato, who had returned to Rome early +in 56 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Caesar’s crossing of the Rhine and invasion of Britain: 55–54 +B. C.</span></span> During the winter following the subjugation of the Veneti, +two Germanic tribes, the Usipetes and the Tencteri, crossed the lower +Rhine into Gaul. In the next summer, 55 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Caesar attacked and +annihilated their forces, only a few escaping across the river. As a +warning against future invasion, Caesar bridged the Rhine and made +a demonstration upon the right bank, destroying his bridge when he +withdrew. Towards the close of the summer he crossed the Straits of +Dover to Britain, to punish the Britons for aiding his enemies in +Gaul. But owing to the lateness of the season and the smallness of +his force he returned to Gaul after a brief reconnaissance. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the following year, after gathering a larger fleet, he again landed +on the island with a force of almost 30,000 men. This time he forced +his way across the Thames and received the submission of Cassivellaunus, +the chief who led the British tribes against the invaders. +After taking hostages, and receiving promises of tribute, Caesar returned +to Gaul. Britain was in no sense subdued, but the island had +felt the power of Rome, and, besides enlarging the geographical knowledge +of the time, Caesar had brought back numbers of captives. In +Rome the exploit produced great excitement and enthusiasm. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Revolts in Gaul: 54–53 B. C.</span></span> Although the Gauls had submitted +to Caesar, they were not yet reconciled to Roman rule, which put an +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg 171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>end to their inter-tribal wars and to the feuds among the nobility. +Consequently, many of the tribes were restive and not inclined to surrender +all hopes of freedom without another struggle. In the course +of the winter 54–53 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the Nervii, Treveri and Eburones in Belgian +Gaul attacked the Roman detachments stationed in their territories. +One of these was cut to pieces but the rest held their ground until +relieved by Caesar, who stamped out the rebellion. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Vercingetorix, 52 B. C.</span></span> A more serious movement started in +52 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> among the peoples of central Gaul who found a national +leader in Vercingetorix, a young noble of the Arverni. The revolt +took Caesar by surprise when he was in Cisalpine Gaul and his +troops still scattered in winter quarters. He recrossed the Alps with +all haste, secured the Narbonese province and succeeded in uniting +his forces. These he strengthened with German cavalry from across +the Rhine. However, a temporary check in an attack upon the position +of Vercingetorix at Gergovia caused the Aedui to desert the Roman +cause, and the revolt spread to practically the whole of Gaul. +Caesar was on the point of retiring to the province, but after repulsing +an attack made upon him he was able to pen up Vercingetorix +in the fortress of Alesia. A great effort made by the Gauls to relieve +the siege failed to break Caesar’s lines, and the defenders were +starved into submission. The crisis was over, although another year +was required before the revolting tribes were all reduced to submission +and the Roman authority re-established (51 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). Caesar used +all possible mildness in his treatment of the conquered and the Gauls +were not only pacified but won over. In the days to come they were +among his most loyal supporters. The conquest of Gaul was an +event of supreme importance for the future history of the Roman +empire, and for the development of European civilization as well. +For the time <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gallia comata</span></span> was not formed into a province. Its peoples +were made allies of Rome, under the supervision of the governor +of Narbonese Gaul, under obligation to furnish troops and for the +most part liable to a fixed tribute. Caesar’s campaign in Gaul had +given him the opportunity to develop his unusual military talents +and to create a veteran army devoted to himself. His power had +become so great that both Pompey and the Optimates desired his destruction +and he was in a position to refuse to be eliminated without +a struggle. The plots laid in Rome to deprive him of his power had +made him hasten to quell the revolt of the Gauls with all speed. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page172">[pg 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>When this was accomplished he was free to turn his attention to +Roman affairs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Crassus in Syria, 55–53 B. C.</span></span> After the assignment of the +provinces by the Trebonian Law in 55 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Crassus set out for Syria +intending to win military power and prestige by a war against the +Parthians, an Asiatic people who, once the subjects of the Persians +and Seleucids, had established a kingdom which included the provinces +of the Seleucid empire as far west as the Euphrates. Crassus +had no real excuse for opening hostilities, but the Parthians were a +potentially dangerous neighbor and a campaign against them gave +promise of profit and glory. Accordingly, in 54 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Crassus made +a short incursion into Mesopotamia and then withdrew to Syria. The +next year he again crossed the Euphrates, intending to penetrate +deeply into the enemy’s country. But he had underestimated the +strength of the Parthians and the difficulties of desert warfare. In +the Mesopotamian desert near Carrhae his troops were surrounded +and cut to pieces by the Parthian horsemen; Crassus himself was +enticed into a conference and treacherously slain, and only a small +remnant of his force escaped (53 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). But the Parthians were +slow in following up their advantage and Crassus’ quaestor, Cassius +Longinus, was able to hold Syria. Still Roman prestige in the East +had received a severe blow and for the next three centuries the Romans +found the Parthians dangerous neighbors. The death of +Crassus tended to hasten a crisis in Rome for it brought into sharp +conflict the incompatible ambitions of Pompey and Caesar, whose +estrangement had already begun with the death of Pompey’s wife +Julia in 54 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Affairs in Rome, 54–49 B. C.</span></span> At the end of his consulship Pompey +left Rome but remained in Italy, on the pretext of his curatorship +of the grain supply, and governed his province through his legates. +In Rome disorder reigned; no consuls were elected in 54 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> nor +before July of the following year; the partizans of Clodius and Milo +kept everything in confusion. Pompey could have restored order +but preferred to create a situation which would force the Senate to +grant him new powers, so he backed Clodius, while Milo championed +the Optimates. Owing to broils between the supporters of the candidates, +no consuls or praetors could be elected for 52 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> In January +of that year Clodius was slain by Milo’s body-guard on the +Appian Way, and the ensuing outburst of mob violence in the city +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page173">[pg 173]</span><a name="Pg173" id="Pg173" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>forced the Senate to appeal to Pompey. He was made sole consul, +until he should choose a colleague, and was entrusted with the task of +restoring order. His troops brought quiet into the city; Milo was +tried on a charge of public violence, convicted, and banished. Pompey +had attained the height of his official career; he was sole consul, +at the same time he had a province embracing the Spains, Libya, +and the sphere assigned to him with the grain curatorship, he governed +his provinces through <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">legati</span></span>, and his armies were maintained +by the public treasury. In reality he was the chief power in the +state, for without him the Senate was helpless, and he was justly +regarded by contemporaries as the First Citizen or Princeps. In +many ways his position foreshadowed the Principate of Augustus. +However, Pompey did not wish to overthrow the republican régime; +his ambition was to be regarded as the indispensable and permanent +mainstay of the government and to enjoy corresponding power and +honor. In such a scheme there was no room for a rival, and therefore +he determined upon Caesar’s overthrow. This decision put him +on the side of the extreme Optimates, who were alarmed by Caesar’s +wealth, influence and fame and feared him as a dangerous radical. +They had no hesitation in choosing between Pompey and Caesar. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Pompey’s attack upon Caesar: 52 B. C.</span></span> The latter’s immediate +aim was to secure the consulship for 48 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> and to retain his proconsular +command until the end of December, 49. He knew that he +had reached a position where his destruction was the desire of many, +and that the moment he surrendered his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> he would be open +to prosecution by those seeking to procure his ruin. But he had no +intention of placing himself in the power of his enemies. The consulship +would not only save him from prosecution but would enable him +to confirm his arrangements in Gaul, reward his army, and secure +his own future by another proconsular appointment. However, to +secure his election, he had to be exempted from presenting himself +in person for his candidature in 49, and this permission was accorded +him by a tribunician law early in 52 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> So far his position was +strictly legal, but Pompey, whose own consulship was unconstitutional, +now broke openly with Caesar by passing legislation which +would undermine the latter’s position. One of Pompey’s laws prohibited +candidacies for office <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">in absentia</span></span>, and when Caesar’s friends +protested, he added to the text of the law after it had passed a clause +exempting Caesar from its operation; a procedure of more than dubious +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg 174]</span><a name="Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>legality. A second law provided that in future provincial governorships +should not be filled by the city magistrates just completing their +term of office but by those whose terms had expired five years previously. +This latter law may have been intended to check the mad +rivalry for provincial appointments, but its immediate significance +lay in the fact that it permitted a successor to be appointed to take +over Caesar’s provinces on 1 March, 49 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> He would thus have +to stand as a private citizen for the consulship and would no longer +enjoy immunity from legal attack. At the same time Pompey had his +own command in Spain extended for another five years. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Negotiations between Caesar, Pompey and the Senate, 51–50 +B. C.</span></span> The question of appointing a successor to Caesar’s provinces +filled the next two years and was the immediate cause of civil war. +Caesar claimed that his position should not be affected by the Pompeian +law, and pressed for permission to hold his command until the +close of 49 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> The extreme conservatives sought to supersede him +on March first of that year, but Caesar’s friends and agents thwarted +their efforts. Pompey was not willing to have Caesar’s command to +run beyond 13 November, 49. Cicero, who had distinguished himself +by his uprightness as governor of Cilicia in 51, strove to effect +a compromise, but in vain. Caesar offered to give up Transalpine +Gaul and part of his army, if allowed to retain the Cisalpine province +but the overture was rejected. Finally, in December, 50 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, he +formally promised to resign his provinces and disband his troops, if +Pompey would do the same, but the Senate insisted upon his absolute +surrender. On 7 January, 49 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, the Senate passed the <span class="tei tei-q">“last decree”</span> +calling upon the magistrates and proconsuls (i. e. Pompey) +to protect the state, and declaring Caesar a public enemy. Caesar’s +friends left the city and fled to meet him in Cisalpine Gaul, where he +and his army were in readiness for this emergency. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc149" id="toc149"></a><a name="pdf150" id="pdf150"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. The Civil War between Caesar and the Senate: +49–46 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Caesar’s conquest of Italy and Spain, 49 B. C.</span></span> The senatorial +conservatives had forced the issue and for Caesar there remained the +alternative of victory or destruction. He possessed the advantages of +a loyal army ready for immediate action and the undisputed control +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg 175]</span><a name="Pg175" id="Pg175" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>over his own troops. On the other hand, his opponents had no veteran +troops in Italy, and although Pompey acted as commander-in-chief of +the senatorial forces, he was greatly hampered by having at times to +defer to the judgment of the consuls and senators who were in his +camp. It was obviously to Caesar’s advantage to take the offensive +and to force a decision before his enemies could concentrate against +him the resources of the provinces. Hence he determined to act without +delay, and, upon receiving news of the Senate’s action on 7 January, +he crossed the Rubicon, which divided Cisalpine Gaul and Italy, +with a small force, ordering the legions beyond the Alps to join him +with all speed. The Italian municipalities opened their gates at his +approach and the newly raised levies went over to his side. Everywhere +his mildness to his opponents won him new adherents. Pompey +decided to abandon Italy and withdraw to the East, intending +later to concentrate upon the peninsula from all sides; a plan made +feasible by his control of the sea. Caesar divined his intention and +tried to cut off his retreat at Brundisium, but could not prevent his +embarkation. With his army and the majority of the Senate Pompey +crossed to Epirus. Owing to his lack of a fleet Caesar could not follow +and returned to Rome. There some of the magistrates were still +functioning, in conjunction with a remnant of the Senate. Being in +dire need of money, he wished to obtain funds from the treasury, and +when this was opposed by a tribune, Caesar ignored the latter’s +veto and forcibly seized the reserve treasure which the Pompeians +had left behind in their hasty flight. In the meantime Caesar’s lieutenants +had seized Sardinia and Sicily, and crossed over into Africa. +He himself determined to attack the well organized Pompeian forces +in Spain and destroy them before Pompey was ready for an offensive +from the East. On his way to Spain, Caesar began the siege of +Massalia which closed its gates to him. Leaving the city under +blockade he hastened to Spain, where after an initial defeat he forced +the surrender of the Pompeian armies. Some of the prisoners joined +his forces; the rest were dismissed to their homes. Caesar hastened +back to Massalia. The city capitulated at his arrival, and was punished +by requisitions, the loss of its territory and the temporary deprivation +of its autonomy. From here Caesar pressed on to Rome, where +he had been appointed dictator by virtue of a special law. After +holding the elections in which he and an approved colleague were +returned as consuls for 48, he resigned his dictatorship and set out +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg 176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>for Brundisium. There he had assembled his army and transports +for the passage to Epirus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Pharsalus, 48 B. C.</span></span> During Caesar’s Spanish campaign Pompey +had gathered a large force in Macedonia, nine Roman legions reinforced +by contingents from the Roman allies. His fleet, recruited +largely from the maritime cities in the East, commanded the Adriatic. +Nevertheless, at the opening of winter (Nov. 49 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>) Caesar effected +a landing on the coast of Epirus with part of his army and seized +Apollonia. However, Pompey arrived from Macedonia in time to +save Dyrrhachium. Throughout the winter the two armies remained +inactive, but Pompey’s fleet prevented Caesar from receiving reinforcements +until the spring of 48 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, when Marcus Antonius effected +a crossing with another detachment. As Caesar’s troops began to +suffer from shortage of supplies he was forced to take the offensive +and tried to blockade Pompey’s larger force in Dyrrhachium. However, +the attempt failed, his lines of investment were broken, and he +withdrew to Thessaly. Thither he was followed by Pompey, who +suffered himself to be influenced by the overconfident senators to risk +a battle. Near the town of Old Pharsalus he attacked Caesar but +was defeated and his army dispersed. He himself sought refuge in +Egypt and there he was put to death by order of the king whose +father he had protected in the days of his power. Pompey’s great +weakness was that his resolution did not match his ambition. His +ambition led him to seek a position incompatible with the constitution; +but his lack of resolution did not permit him to overthrow the +constitution. The Optimates had sided with him only because they +held him less dangerous than Caesar and had he been victorious they +would have sought to compass his downfall. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Caesar in the East, 48–47 B. C.</span></span> After Pharsalus Caesar had set +out in pursuit of Pompey, but arrived in Egypt after the murder of +his foe. His ever pressing need of money probably induced Caesar +to intervene as arbiter in the name of Rome in the dynastic struggle +then raging in Egypt between the twenty-year-old Cleopatra and her +thirteen-year-old brother, Ptolemy XIV Dionysus, who was also, following +the Egyptian custom, her husband. Caesar got the young +king in his power and brought back Cleopatra, whom the people of +Alexandria had driven out. Angered thereat, and resenting his exactions, +the Alexandrians rose in arms and from October, 48, to March, +47 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a name="corr176" id="corr176" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">besieged</span> Caesar in the royal quarter of the city. Having +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page177">[pg 177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>but few troops with him Caesar was in dire straits and was only able +to maintain himself through his control of the sea which enabled him +to eventually receive reinforcements. His relief was effected by a +force raised by Mithradates of Pergamon who invaded Egypt from +Syria. In co-operation with him Caesar defeated the Egyptians in +battle; Ptolemy Dionysus perished in flight; and Alexandria submitted. +Cleopatra was married to a still younger brother and put in +possession of the kingdom of Egypt. Caesar had succumbed to the +charms of the Egyptian queen and tarried in her company for the rest +of the winter. He was called away to face a new danger in Pharnaces, +son of Mithradates Eupator, who had taken advantage of the civil war +to recover Pontus and overrun Lesser Armenia, Cappadocia and Bithynia. +Hastening through Syria Caesar entered Pontus and defeated +<a name="corr177" id="corr177" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Pharnaces</span> at Zela. After settling affairs in Asia Minor he proceeded +with all speed to the West, where his presence was urgently needed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Thapsus, 46 B. C.</span></span> Both the fleet and the army of Pompey had +dispersed after Pharsalus, but Caesar’s delay in the East had given +the republicans an opportunity to reassemble their forces. They +gathered in Africa where Caesar’s lieutenant Curio, who had invaded +the province in 49 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, had been defeated and killed by the Pompeians +through the aid of King Juba of Numidia. From Africa they +were now preparing to attack Italy. In Rome, Caesar had been appointed +dictator for 47 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> with Antony as his master of the horse. +Here disorder reigned as a result of the distress arising from the +financial stringency brought on by the war. Antony, who was in +Rome, had proved unable to deal with the situation. Caesar reached +Italy in September, 47 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, and soon restored order in the city. He +was then called upon to face a serious mutiny of his troops who demanded +the fulfillment of his promises of money and land and their +release from service. By boldness and presence of mind Caesar won +them back to their allegiance and set out for Africa in December, +47 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> He landed with only a portion of his troops and at first +was defeated by the republicans under Scipio and Juba. But he was +supported by King Bogud of Mauretania and a Catalinarian soldier +of fortune, Publius Sittius, and after receiving reinforcements +from Italy he besieged the seaport Thapsus. Scipio came to the +rescue but was completely defeated in a bloody battle near the town. +The whole of the province fell into Caesar’s hands. Cato, who was +in command of Utica, did not force the citizens to resist but +com<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page178">[pg 178]</span><a name="Pg178" id="Pg178" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>mitted suicide; the other republican leaders, including Juba, either +followed his example, or were taken and executed by the Caesarians. +From Africa Caesar returned to Rome where he celebrated a costly +triumph over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces and Juba. He was now undisputed +master of the state and proceeded according to his own judgment +to settle the problem of governing the Roman world. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc151" id="toc151"></a><a name="pdf152" id="pdf152"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. The Dictatorship of Julius Caesar: 46–44 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The problem of imperial government.</span></span> From 28 July, 46, to +15 March, 44 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Caesar ruled the Roman Empire with despotic +power, his position unchallenged except for a revolt of the Pompeian +party in Spain which required his attention from the autumn of 46 +to the spring of 45 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> His victory over Pompey and the republicans +had placed upon him the obligation to provide the empire with +a stable form of government and this responsibility he accepted. +Sulla, when faced with the same problem, had been content to place +the Senate once more at the head of the state, but from his own experience +Caesar knew how futile this policy had been. Nor could the +ideal of Pompey commend itself as a means of ending civil war and +rebellion. Caesar was prepared to deal much more radically with the +old régime, but death overtook him before he had completed his reorganization. +What was the goal of his policy will best be understood +from a consideration of his official position during the year and +a half which followed the battle of Thapsus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Caesar’s offices, powers and honors.</span></span> Caesar’s autocratic position +rested in the last instance upon the support of his veterans, of the +associates who owed their advancement to him, and of such small +forces as he kept under arms, but his position was legalized by the +accumulation in his hands of various offices, special powers and unusual +honors. Foremost among his offices came the dictatorship. +We have seen that he had held this already for a short time in 49 +and again in 47. In 46 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> he was appointed dictator for ten +years, and in the following year for life. At the same time he was +consul, an office which he held continuously from 48 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, in 45 as +sole consul, but usually with a colleague. In addition to these offices +he enjoyed the tribunician authority (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tribunicia potestas</span></span>), that is, +the power of the tribunes without the name. This included the right +to sit with the tribunes and the right of intercession, granted him as +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page179">[pg 179]</span><a name="Pg179" id="Pg179" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>early as 48 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, and also personal inviolability (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sacrosanctitas</span></span>) +which he received in 45. He had been Chief Pontiff since 63, and in +48 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> was admitted to all the patrician priestly corporations. And +in 46 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> he was given the powers of the censorship under the title +of <span class="tei tei-q">“prefect of morals”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">praefectus morum</span></span>), at first for three years +and later for life. In addition to these official positions of more or +less established scope, Caesar received other powers not dependent +upon any office. He was granted the right to appoint to both Roman +and provincial magistracies, until in 44 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> he had the authority to +nominate half the officials annually; and in reality appointed all. In +48 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> he received the power of making war and peace without consulting +the Senate, in 46 the right of expressing his opinion first in +the Senate (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ius primae sententiae</span></span>), and in 45 the sole right to command +troops and to control the public moneys. In the next year +ratification was given in advance to all his future arrangements, and +magistrates entering upon office were required to swear to uphold his +acts. The concentration of these powers in his person placed Caesar +above the law, and reduced the holders of public offices to the position +of his servants. Honors to match his extraordinary powers were +heaped upon Caesar, partly by his own desire, partly by the servility +and fulsome flattery of the Senate. He was granted a seat with the +consuls in the Senate, if he should not be consul himself; he received +the title of parent or father of his country (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">parens</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pater patriae</span></span>); +his statue was placed among those of the kings of Rome, his image in +the temple of Quirinus; the month Quinctilis, in which he was born, +was renamed Julius (July) in his honor; a new college of priests, the +Julian Luperci, was created; a temple was erected to himself and +the Goddess Clementia, and a priest (flamen) appointed for his worship +there; and he was authorized to build a house on the Palatine +with a pediment like a temple. Most of these honors he received +after his victory over the Pompeians in Spain in 45 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> However, +the title <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperator</span></span> (Emperor), which was regularly the prerogative +of a general who was entitled to a triumph and was surrendered along +with his military <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span>, was employed by Caesar continuously +from 49 until after the battle of Thapsus in 46, when he celebrated +his triumph over the Gauls and his other non-Roman enemies. He +assumed it again after Munda in the following year. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Caesar’s aim—monarchy.</span></span> Taking into account the powers +which Caesar wielded and his lifelong tenure of certain offices there +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name="Pg180" id="Pg180" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>can be no doubt that he not only had established monarchical government +in Rome but also aimed to make his monarchy permanent. +And this gives the explanation why he accepted honors which were +more suited to a god than to a man, for since the time of Alexander +the Great deification had been accepted in the Greek East as the legal +and moral basis for the exercise of absolute power, and as distinguishing +a legitimate autocracy from a tyranny. To a polytheistic +age, familiar with the idea of the deification of <span class="tei tei-q">“heroes”</span> after death +and permeated in its educated circles with the teaching of Euhemerus +that the gods were but men who in their sojourn upon earth had been +benefactors of the human race, the deification of a monarch in no +way offended religious susceptibilities. The Romans were acquainted +with monarchies of this type in Syria and in Egypt. Indeed this was +the only type of monarchy familiar to the Romans of the first century +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, if we exclude the Parthian and other despotisms, and it +was bound to influence any form of monarchical government set up in +Rome. The plebs actually hailed Caesar as <span class="tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rex</span></span>,”</span> and at the feast +of the Lupercalia in February, 44 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Antony publicly offered him +a crown. It is possible that he would have assumed the title if popular +opinion had supported this step. And there may well have been +some truth in the rumor that he contemplated marriage with Cleopatra, +who came to Rome in 46 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, for a queen would be a fit mate +for a monarch and such a step would have effected the peaceful incorporation +of Egypt into the Roman Empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Caesar’s reforms.</span></span> Upon returning to Rome after the battle of +Thapsus Caesar began a series of reforms which affected practically +every side of Roman life. One of the most useful was the reform +of the Roman calendar. Hitherto the Romans had employed a lunar +year of three hundred and fifty-five days (the calendar year beginning +on March first and the civil year, since 153 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, on January first) +which was approximately corrected to the solar year by the addition +of an intercalary month of twenty-two days in the second, and one of +twenty-three days in the fourth year, of cycles of four years. For +personal or political motives the pontiffs had trifled with the intercalation +of these months until in 46 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the Roman year was completely +out of touch with the solar year. With the assistance of the Greek +astronomer Sosigenes, Caesar introduced the Egyptian solar year of +approximately 365¼ days, in such a way that three years of 365 +days were followed by one of 366 days in which an extra day was +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page181">[pg 181]</span><a name="Pg181" id="Pg181" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>added to February after the twenty-fourth of the month. The new +Julian calendar went into effect on 1 January, 45 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Another +abuse was partially rectified by the reduction of the number who were +entitled to receive cheap grain in Rome from about 320,000 to +150,000. The Roman plebeian colleges and guilds, which had become +political clubs and had contributed to the recent disorders in the city, +were dissolved with the exception of the ancient association of craftsmen. +The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tribuni aerarii</span></span> were removed from the jury courts and the +penalties for criminal offences increased. Plans were laid for a +codification of the Roman law but this was not carried into effect. +Municipal administration in Rome and the Italian towns was regulated +by the Julian Municipal Law, which brought uniformity into +the municipal organization of Italy. The Roman magistracies were +increased in number; the quaestorships from twenty to forty, and +the eight praetorships finally to sixteen. At the same time the priesthoods +were likewise enlarged. Administrative needs and the wish to +reward a greater number of followers probably influenced these +changes. A number of new patrician families were created to take +the places of those which had died out. The membership of the +Senate was increased to 900, and many new men, including ex-soldiers +of Caesar and enfranchised Gauls, were enrolled in it. Caesar provided +for his veterans by settling them in Italian municipalities and +in colonies in the provinces. The deserted sites of Carthage and +Corinth were repeopled with Roman colonists and once more became +flourishing cities. In this way Caesar promoted the romanization +of the provinces, a policy which he had begun with his conferment of +the franchise upon the Transpadane Gauls in 49, and continued in +the case of many Spanish communities. This romanization of the +provinces and the admission of provincials to the Senate points to an +imperial policy which would end the exploitation of the provinces +in the interests of a governing caste and a city mob. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Munda, 45 B. C.</span></span> Caesar proved himself a magnanimous conqueror. +No Sullan proscriptions disgraced his victory. After Pharsalus +he permitted all the republican leaders who submitted (among +them Cicero), to return to Rome. Even after Thapsus at the intercession +of his friends he pardoned bitter foes like Marcus Marcellus, +one of the consuls of 50 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> But there remained some irreconcilables +led by his old lieutenant Labienus, Varus, and Gnaeus and Sextus +Pompey, sons of Pompey the Great, who after Pharsalus had betaken +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page182">[pg 182]</span><a name="Pg182" id="Pg182" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>themselves with a small naval force to the western Mediterranean. +In 46 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> they were joined by Labienus and Varus and landed in +Spain where they rallied to their cause the old Pompeian soldiers +who had entered Caesar’s service but whose sympathies had been +alienated by one of his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">legati</span></span>, Quintus Cassius. The Caesarian +commanders could make no headway against them and it became +necessary for the dictator to take the field in person. In December +46 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> he set out for Spain. Throughout the winter he sought in +vain to force the enemy to battle, but in March 45 the two armies +met at Munda, where Caesar’s eight defeated the thirteen Pompeian +legions. The Caesarians gave no quarter and the Pompeian forces +were annihilated; Labienus and Varus fell on the field, Gnaeus +Pompey was later taken and put to death, but his brother Sextus +escaped. Caesar returned to Italy in September, 45 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, and celebrated +a triumph for his success. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The </span><a name="corr182" id="corr182" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">assassination</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700"> of Julius Caesar, 15 March, 44 B. C.</span></span> His +victory at Munda had strengthened Caesar’s autocratic position, and +was responsible for the granting of most of the exceptional honors +which we have noted above. It was now clear at Rome that Caesar +did not intend to restore the republic. In the conduct of the government +he allowed no freedom of action to either Senate or Assembly, +and although in general mild and forgiving he was quick to resent +any attempt to slight him or question his authority. The realization +that Caesar contemplated the establishment of a monarchy aroused +bitter animosity among certain representatives of the old governing +oligarchy, who chafed under the restraints imposed upon them by his +autocratic power and resented the degradation of the Senate to the +position of a mere advisory council. It could hardly be expected +that members of the Roman aristocracy with all their traditions of +imperial government would tamely submit to being excluded from +political life except as ministers of an autocrat who was until lately +one of themselves. This attitude was shared by many who had +hitherto been active in Caesar’s cause, as well as by republicans who +had made their peace with him. And so among these disgruntled +elements a conspiracy was formed against the dictator’s life. The +originator of the plot was the ex-Pompeian Caius Cassius, whom +Caesar had made praetor for 44, and who won over to his design +Marcus Junius Brutus, a member of the house descended from the +Brutus who was reputed to have delivered Rome from the tyranny +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg 183]</span><a name="Pg183" id="Pg183" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>of the Tarquins. Brutus had gone over to Caesar after the battle of +Pharsalus and was highly esteemed by him, but allowed himself to be +persuaded that it was his duty to imitate his ancestor’s conduct. +Other conspirators of note were the Caesarians Gaius Trebonius and +Decimus Junius Brutus. In all some sixty senators shared in the +conspiracy. They set the Ides of March, 44, as the date for the +execution of the plot. Caesar was now busily engaged with preparations +for a war against the Parthians, who had been a menace to +Syria ever since the defeat of Crassus. This defeat Caesar aimed to +avenge and, in addition, to definitely secure the eastern frontier of +the empire. An army of sixteen legions and 10,000 cavalry was +being assembled in Greece for this campaign, and Caesar was about +to leave Rome to assume command. He is said to have been informed +that a conspiracy against his life was on foot, but to have disregarded +the warning. He had dismissed his body-guard of soldiers +and refused one of senators and equestrians. On the fatal day he +entered the Senate chamber, where the question of granting him the +title of king in the provinces was to be discussed. A group of the +conspirators surrounded him, and, drawing concealed daggers, stabbed +him to death. He fell at the foot of Pompey’s statue. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Estimate of Caesar’s career.</span></span> By the Roman writers who preserved +the republican tradition Brutus, Cassius, and their associates +were honored as tyrannicides who in the name of liberty had sought +to save the republic. Cato, who had died rather than witness the +triumph of Caesar, became their hero. But this is an extremely narrow +and partizan view. The republic which Caesar had overthrown +was no system of popular government but one whereby a small group +of Roman nobles and capitalists exploited for their own personal +ends and for the satisfaction of an idle city mob millions of subjects +in the provinces. The republican organs of government had ceased +to voice the opinion even of the whole Roman citizen body. The +governing circles had proven themselves incapable of bringing about +any improvement in the situation and had completely lost the power +of preserving peace in the state. Radical reforms were imperative +and could only be effective by virtue of superior force. In his resort +to corruption and violence in furthering his own career and in his +appeal to arms to decide the issue between himself and the Senate, +Caesar must be judged according to the practices of his time. He +was the child of his age and advanced himself by means which his +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page184">[pg 184]</span><a name="Pg184" id="Pg184" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>predecessors and contemporaries employed. That he was ambitious +and a lover of power is undeniable but hardly a cause for reproach; +and who shall blame him, if when the Senate sought to destroy him +by force, he used the same means to defend himself. His claim +to greatness lies not in his ability to outwit his rivals in the political +arena or outgeneral his enemies on the field of battle, but in his +realization, when the fate of the civilized world was in his hands, +that the old order was beyond remedy and in his courage in attempting +to set up a new order which promised to give peace and security +both to Roman citizens and to the provincials. Caesar fell before he +had been able to give stability to his organization, but the republic +could not be quickened into life. After Caesar some form of monarchical +government was inevitable. +</p> + + </div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page185">[pg 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc153" id="toc153"></a><a name="pdf154" id="pdf154"></a> +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER XV</span></h2> + +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">THE PASSING OF THE REPUBLIC: 44–27 B. C.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<a name="toc155" id="toc155"></a><a name="pdf156" id="pdf156"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. The Rise of Octavian</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The political situation after Caesar’s death.</span></span> Caesar had +made no arrangements for a successor, and his death produced the +greatest consternation in Rome. The conspirators had made no +plans to seize the reins of power, and instead of finding their act +greeted with an outburst of popular approval, they were left face to +face with the fact that although Caesar was dead the Caesarian party +lived on in his veterans and the city populace, led by the consul +Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Caesar’s master of +the horse. The Senate met on 17 March, and it was evident that +a majority of its members supported the assassins, but they were +afraid of the legion which Lepidus had under his orders and the +Caesarian veterans in the city. Antony, who had obtained possession +of Caesar’s papers and money, took the lead of the Caesarian party +and came to terms with their opponents. It was agreed that the +conspirators should go unpunished, but that the acts of Caesar should +be ratified, even those which had not yet been carried into effect, +that his will should be approved, and that he should receive a public +funeral. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The reading of Caesar’s will revealed that he had left his gardens +on the right bank of the Tiber as a public park, had bequeathed +a donation of three hundred sesterces (about fifteen dollars) to each +Roman citizen and had adopted his grand-nephew Caius Octavius +as his son and heir to three-fourths of his fortune. By a speech +delivered to the people on the day of Caesar’s funeral Antony skilfully +enflamed popular sentiment against Caesar’s murderers. The mob +seized the dictator’s corpse, burned it in the forum and buried the +ashes there. The chief conspirators did not dare to remain in the +city; Decimus Brutus went to his province of Cisalpine Gaul, Marcus +Brutus and Cassius lingered in the neighborhood of Rome. Antony +was master of the situation in the capital and overawed opposition +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg 186]</span><a name="Pg186" id="Pg186" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>by his bodyguard of 6000 veterans. He held in check Lepidus +and other Caesarians who called for vengeance upon the conspirators. +Lepidus was won over by his election to the position of Pontifex +Maximus to succeed Caesar and was induced to leave the city for +his province of Hither Spain to check the progress of Sextus Pompey, +who had reappeared in Farther Spain and defeated the Caesarian +governor. It was hoped that Sextus would be satisfied with permission +to return to Rome and compensation for his father’s property. +Caesar’s arrangements for the provincial governorships had assigned +Macedonia to Antony and Syria to Dolabella, who became Antony’s +colleague in the consulate at Caesar’s death. This assignment Antony +altered by a law which granted him Cisalpine Gaul and the Transalpine +district outside the Narbonese province for a term of six years +in violation of a law of Caesar’s, which limited proconsular commands +to two years. Dolabella was to have Syria for a like period and +Decimus Brutus was given Macedonia in exchange for Cisalpine +Gaul. The consuls were to occupy their provinces at once. To +Brutus and Cassius were assigned for the next year the provinces of +Crete and Cyrene; while for the present they were given a special +commission to collect grain in Sicily and Asia. The two left Italy +for the East with the intention of seizing the provinces there before +the arrival of Dolabella. They hoped to raise a force which would +enable them to check Antony’s career, for it was evident that Antony +regarded himself as Caesar’s political heir and was planning to +follow the latter’s path to absolute power. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Caius Octavius.</span></span> But he found an unexpected rival in the person +of Caesar’s adopted son, Caius Octavius, a youth of eighteen years, +who at the time of Caesar’s death was at Apollonia in Illyricum +with the army that was being assembled for the Parthian War. +Against the advice of his parents he returned to Rome and claimed +his inheritance. His presence was unwelcome to Antony, who had +expended Caesar’s money, and refused to refund it. Thereupon +Octavius raised funds by selling his own properties and borrowing, +and began to pay off the legacies of Caesar. By this means he soon +acquired popularity with the Caesarians. The formalities of his +adoption were not completed until the following year, but from this +time on he took the name of Caesar.<a id="noteref_13" name="noteref_13" href="#note_13"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187" id="Pg187" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Antony underestimated the capacities of this rather sickly youth +and continued to refuse him recognition, but was soon made aware +of his mistake. He himself was anxious to occupy his province of +Cisalpine Gaul, and since Decimus Brutus refused to evacuate it, +Antony determined to drive him out and obtained permission to recall +for that purpose the four legions from Macedonia. Before their arrival +Octavian raised a force among Caesar’s veterans in Campania, +and on the march from Brundisium to Rome two of the four Macedonian +legions deserted to him. The Caesarians were now divided +into two parties, and Octavian began to coöperate with the republicans +in the Senate. The latter were thus encouraged to oppose Antony +with whom reconciliation was impossible. Cicero, who had not been +among the conspirators but who had subsequently approved Caesar’s +murder, was about to leave Italy to join Brutus when he heard of the +changed situation in Rome and returned to assume the leadership +of the republican party. Antony left Rome for the Cisalpine province +early in December, 44 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, and Cicero induced the Senate to enter +into a coalition with Octavian against him. In his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philippic Orations</span></span> +he gave full vent to his bitter hatred of Antony and so aroused the +latter’s undying enmity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The war at Mutina, December 44–April 43 B. C.</span></span> In Cisalpine +Gaul Decimus Brutus, relying upon the support of the Senate, refused +to yield to Antony and was blockaded in Mutina. The Senate made +preparations for his relief. Antony was ordered to leave the province, +and Hirtius and Pansa, who became consuls in January, 43, took +the field against him. The aid of Octavian was indispensable and +the Senate conferred upon him the propraetorian <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> with consular +rank in the Senate. The combined armies defeated Antony +in two battles in the vicinity of Mutina, forcing him to give up the +siege and flee towards Transalpine Gaul. But Pansa died of wounds +received in the first engagement and Hirtius fell in the course of the +second. Ignoring Octavian, the Senate entrusted Brutus with the +command and the task of pursuing Antony. The power of the Senate +seemed reëstablished, for Marcus Brutus and Cassius had succeeded +in their design of getting control of the eastern provinces, Dolabella +having perished in the conflict, and were at the head of a considerable +military and naval force. The Senate accordingly conferred upon +them supreme military authority (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">maius imperium</span></span>), and gave to +Sextus Pompey, then at Massalia, a naval command. At last Cicero +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page188">[pg 188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>could induce the senators to declare Antony a public enemy. He +no longer felt the support of Octavian a necessity and expressed the +attitude of the republicans towards him in the saying <span class="tei tei-q">“the young +man is to be praised, to be honored, to be set aside.”</span><a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href="#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a> But it was +soon evident that the experienced orator had entirely misjudged this +young man who, so far from being the tool of the Senate, had used +that body for his own ends. Octavian refused to aid Decimus +Brutus, and demanded from the Senate his own appointment as consul, +a triumph, and rewards for his troops. His demands were rejected, +whereupon he marched upon Rome with his army, and occupied +the city. On 19 August, he had himself elected consul with +Quintus Pedius as his colleague. The latter carried a bill which +established a special court for the trial of Caesar’s murderers, who +were condemned and banished. The same penalty was pronounced +upon Sextus Pompey. The Senate’s decree against Antony was +revoked. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Triumvirate, 43 B. C.</span></span> On his way to Transalpine Gaul +Antony had met with Lepidus, whom the Senate had summoned +from Spain to the assistance of Decimus Brutus. But Lepidus was +a Caesarian and, alarmed by the success of Marcus Brutus and Cassius, +allowed his troops to go over to Antony. Decimus Brutus had +taken up the pursuit of Antony and joined forces with Plancus, governor +of Narbonese Gaul. However, upon news of the events in +Rome, Plancus abandoned Brutus and joined Antony. Brutus was +deserted by his troops and killed while a fugitive in Gaul. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc157" id="toc157"></a><a name="pdf158" id="pdf158"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The Triumvirate of 43 b. c.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Octavian had taken care to have the defense of Italy against +Antony and Lepidus entrusted to himself, and hastened northwards +to meet the advance of their forces. But both sides were ready to +come to terms and unite their forces for the purpose of crushing their +common enemies, Brutus and Cassius. Accordingly, at a conference +of the three leaders on an island in the river Renus near Bononia, +a reconciliation between Antony and Octavian was effected and plans +laid for their coöperation in the immediate future. The three decided +to have themselves appointed triumvirs for the settlement of the +commonwealth (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">triumviri reipublicae </span><a name="corr188" id="corr188" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-style: italic">constituendae</span></span></span>) for a term of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page189">[pg 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>five years. They were to have consular <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> with the right to +appoint to the magistracies and their acts were to be valid without +the approval of the Senate. Furthermore, they divided among themselves +the western provinces; Antony received those previously assigned +to him, Lepidus took the Spains and Narbonese Gaul; +while to Octavian fell Sardinia, Sicily and Africa. Octavian was +to resign his consulship, but in the next year to be joint commander +with Antony in a campaign against the republican armies in the East +while Lepidus protected their interests in Rome. The triumvirate +was legalized by a tribunician law (the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Titia</span></span>) of 27 November, +43, and its members formally entered upon office on the first of +January following. Unlike the secret coalition of Pompey, Crassus +and Caesar, the present one constituted a commission clothed with +almost supreme public powers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Proscriptions.</span></span> The formation of the coalition was followed by +the proscription of the enemies of the triumvirs, partly for the sake +of vengeance but largely to secure money for their troops from the +confiscation of the properties of the proscribed. Among the chief +victims was Cicero, whose death Antony demanded. He died with +courage for the sake of the republican ideal to which he was devoted, +but it must be recognized that this devotion was to the cause of a +corrupt aristocracy, whose crimes he refused to share, although he +forced himself to condone and justify them. The exactions of the +triumvirs did not end with the confiscation of the goods of the proscribed; +special taxes were laid upon the propertied classes in Italy +and eighteen of the most flourishing Italian municipalities were +marked out as sites for colonies of veterans. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Divus Julius.</span></span> In 42 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Octavian dedicated a temple to Julius +Caesar in the forum where his body had been burned. Later by a +special law Caesar was elevated among the gods of the Roman state +with the name of Divus Julius. Meanwhile Octavian had found +difficulty in occupying his allotted provinces. Africa was eventually +conquered by one of his lieutenants, but Sextus Pompey, who controlled +the sea, had occupied Sardinia and Sicily. His forces were +augmented by many of the proscribed and by adventurers of all sorts, +and Octavian could not dislodge him before setting out against Brutus +and Cassius. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Philippi, 42 B. C.</span></span> These republican generals had raised an army +of 80,000 troops, in addition to allied contingents, and taken up a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page190">[pg 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>position in Thrace to await the attack of the triumvirs. In the summer +of 42 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the latter transported their troops across the Adriatic +in spite of the fleet of their enemies, and the two armies faced each +other near Philippi on the borders of Macedonia and Thrace. An +indecisive battle was fought in which Antony defeated Cassius, who +committed suicide in despair, but Brutus routed the troops commanded +by Octavian. Shortly afterwards Brutus was forced by his soldiers +to risk another battle. This time he was completely defeated, and +took his own life. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The division of the Empire.</span></span> The triumvirs now redistributed +the provinces among themselves, Cisalpine Gaul was incorporated +in Italy, whose political boundaries at length coincided with its geographical +frontier. The whole of Transalpine Gaul was given to +Antony, Octavian received the two Spains, while Lepidus was forced +to content himself with Africa. He was suspected by his colleagues +of having intrigued with Sextus Pompey, and they were now in a +position to weaken him at the risk of his open hostility. From the +time of the meeting near Bononia Antony had been the chief personage +in the coalition and his prestige was enhanced by his success at +Philippi. It was now agreed that he should settle conditions in the +eastern provinces and raise funds there, while Octavian should return +to Italy and carry out the promised assignment of lands to their troops. +This decision was of momentous consequence for the future. In the +summer of 41 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Antony received a visit from Cleopatra at Tarsus +in Cilicia. Her personal charms and keen intelligence, which had +enthralled the great Julius, exercised an even greater fascination over +Antony, whose cardinal weaknesses were indolence and sensual indulgence. +He followed Cleopatra to Egypt, where he remained until 40 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Octavian in Italy, 42–40 B. C.</span></span> In Italy Octavian was confronted +with the task of providing lands for some 170,000 veterans. +The eighteen municipalities previously selected for this purpose proved +insufficient, and a general confiscation of small holdings took place, +whereby many persons were rendered homeless and destitute. Few, +like the poet Virgil, found compensation through the influence of a +powerful patron. A heavy blow was dealt to the prosperity of Italy. +The task of Octavian was greatly hampered by opposition from the +friends of Antony, led by the latter’s wife Fulvia and his brother +Lucius Antonius. Hostilities broke out in which Lucius was +be<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg 191]</span><a name="Pg191" id="Pg191" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>sieged in Perusia and starved into submission (40 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). Fulvia +went to join Antony, while others of their faction fled to Sextus +Pompey who still held Sicily. Of great importance to Octavian +was his acquisition of Gaul which came into his hands through the +death of Antony’s legate, Calenus. An indication of the approaching +break between Octavian and Antony was the former’s divorce of his +wife Clodia, and his marriage with Scribonia, a relative of Sextus +Pompey, whom he hoped to win over to his side. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Treaty of Brundisium, 40 B. C.</span></span> While Octavian had been involved +in the Perusian war, the Parthians had overrun the province +of Syria, and in conjunction with them Quintus Labienus, a follower +of Brutus and Cassius, penetrated Asia Minor as far as the Aegean +coast. Antony thereupon returned to Italy to gather troops to +reëstablish Roman authority in the East. Both he and Octavian +were prepared for war and hostilities began around Brundisium, +which refused Antony admittance. However, a reconciliation was +effected, and an agreement entered into which was known as the +treaty of Brundisium. It was provided that Octavian should have +Spain, Gaul, Sardinia, Sicily and Dalmatia, while Antony should +hold the Roman possessions east of the Ionian sea; Lepidus retained +Africa, and Italy was to be held in common. To cement the alliance +Antony, whose wife Fulvia had died, married Octavia, sister of +Octavian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The treaty of Misenum, 39 B. C.</span></span> In the following year Antony +and Octavian were forced to come to terms with Sextus Pompey. +He still defiantly held Sicily and in addition wrested Sardinia from +Octavian. His command of these islands and of the seas about Italy +enabled him to cut off the grain supply of Rome, where a famine broke +out. This brought about a meeting of the three at Misenum in which +it was agreed that Sextus should govern Sardinia, Sicily and Achaia +for five years, should be consul and augur, and receive a monetary +compensation for his father’s property in Rome. In return he engaged +to secure peace at sea and convoy the grain supply for the +city. However, the terms of the treaty were never fully carried out +and in the next year Octavian and Sextus were again at war. The +former regained possession of Sardinia but failed in an attack upon +Sicily. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Treaty of Tarentum, 37 B. C.</span></span> Meanwhile Antony had returned +to the East where in the years 39–37 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> his lieutenants won back +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page192">[pg 192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>the Asiatic provinces from Labienus and the Parthians and drove the +latter beyond the Euphrates. He now resolved to carry out the plan +of Julius Caesar for the conquest of the Parthian kingdom. This +necessitated his return to Italy to secure reinforcements. But, his +landing was opposed by Octavian who was angry because Antony +had not supported him against Sextus Pompey, whom Antony evidently +regarded as a useful check upon his colleague’s power. However, +Octavia managed to reconcile her brother and her husband, and +the two reached a new agreement at Tarentum. Here it was arranged +that Antony should supply Octavian with one hundred ships for +operations against Pompey, that Lepidus should coöperate in the +attack upon Sicily, and that both he and Octavian should furnish +Antony with soldiers for the Parthian war. As the power of the +triumvirs had legally lapsed on 31 December, 38 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, they decided to +have themselves reappointed for another five years, which would +terminate at the close of 33 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> This appointment like the first +was carried into effect by a special law. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The defeat of Sextus Pompey, 36 B. C.</span></span> Octavian now energetically +pressed his attack upon Sicily, while Lepidus coöperated +by besieging Lilybaeum. At length, in September, 36 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Marcus +Vipsanius Agrippa, Octavian’s ablest general, destroyed the bulk of +Pompey’s fleet in a battle off Naulochus. Pompey fled to Asia, where +two years later he was captured by Antony’s forces and executed. +After the flight of Sextus, Lepidus challenged Octavian’s claim to +Sicily, but his troops deserted him for Octavian and he was forced to +throw himself upon the latter’s mercy. Stripped of his power and +retaining only his office of chief pontiff, he lived under guard in +an Italian municipality until his death in 12 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> His provinces +were taken by Octavian. The defeat of Sextus Pompey and the +deposition of Lepidus gave Octavian sole power over the western half +of the empire, and inevitably tended to sharpen the rivalry and antagonism +which had long existed between himself and Antony. In the +same year Octavian was granted the tribunician sacrosanctity and the +right to sit on the tribune’s bench in the Senate. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc159" id="toc159"></a><a name="pdf160" id="pdf160"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. The Victory of Octavian </span><a name="corr192" id="corr192" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a><span class="tei tei-corr" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">over</span></span><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps"> Antony and Cleopatra</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Parthian war, 36 B. C.</span></span> After the Treaty of Tarentum +Antony proceeded to Syria to begin preparations for his campaign +against the Parthians which he began in 36 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Avoiding the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page193">[pg 193]</span><a name="Pg193" id="Pg193" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Mesopotamian desert, he marched to the north through Armenia into +Media Atropatene in the hope of surprising the enemy. However, +having met with a repulse in his siege of the fortress Phraata (or +Praaspa), he was forced to retreat. He was vigorously pursued by +the Parthians, but by skilful generalship managed to conduct the +bulk of his army back to Armenia. Still he lost over 20,000 of +his troops, and his reputation suffered severely from the complete +failure of the undertaking. And so he prepared once more to take +the offensive. As he attributed the failure of the late expedition to +the disloyalty of the king of Armenia, Antony marched against him, +treacherously took him prisoner and occupied his kingdom (34 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). Thereupon he entered into an alliance with the king of +Media Atropatene, a vassal of Parthia, and formed ambitious projects +for the conquest of the eastern provinces of the empires of Alexander +the great and the Seleucids. But these plans could only be executed +with the help of the military resources of Italy and the western +provinces that were now completely in the hands of Octavian. In +view of the jealousy existing between the two triumvirs it was not +likely that Octavian would willingly provide Antony with the means +to increase his power, and so the latter was prepared to resort to +force to make good his claim upon Italy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Antony and Cleopatra.</span></span> Another factor in the quarrel was +Antony’s connection with Cleopatra. While in Antioch in 36 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +he openly married Cleopatra, and in the next year refused his legal +wife, Octavia, permission to join him. This was equivalent to +publicly renouncing his friendship with Octavian. Although it cannot +be said that Antony had become a mere tool of Cleopatra, he +was completely won over to her plans for the future of Egypt; namely, +that since Egypt must sooner or later be incorporated in the Roman +empire, this should be brought about by her union with the ruler +of the Romans. Consequently, since her marriage with Antony she +actively supported his ambition to be the successor of Julius Caesar. +Their aims were clearly revealed by a pageant staged in Alexandria +in 34 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, in which Antony and Cleopatra appeared as the god +Dionysus and the goddess Isis, seated on golden thrones. In an +address to the assembled public Antony proclaimed Cleopatra <span class="tei tei-q">“queen +of queens,”</span> and ruler of Egypt, Cyprus, Crete and Coele-Syria; joint +ruler with her was Ptolemy Caesarion, the son she had borne to +Caesar. The two young sons of Antony and Cleopatra were +pro<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg 194]</span><a name="Pg194" id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>claimed <span class="tei tei-q">“kings of kings”</span>; the elder as king of Armenia, Media +and the Parthians, the younger as king of Syria, Phoenicia and +Cilicia. To their daughter, Cleopatra, was assigned Cyrene. These +arrangements aroused great mistrust and hostility towards Antony +among the Romans, who resented the partition of Rome’s eastern +provinces in the interest of oriental potentates. Relying upon this +sentiment, Octavian in 33 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> refused Antony’s demands for troops +and joint authority in Italy. Antony at once postponed the resumption +of the Parthian war and prepared to march against his rival. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The outbreak of hostilities, 32 B. C.</span></span> The final break came +early in 32 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> The triumvirate legally terminated with the close +of 33 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> and two consuls of Antony’s faction came into office for +the following year. To win support in Rome, Antony wrote to the +Senate offering to surrender his powers as triumvir and restore the +old constitution. His friends introduced a proposal that Octavian +should surrender his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> at once, but this was vetoed by a +tribune. Octavian then took charge of affairs in Rome, and the +consuls, not daring to oppose him, fled to Antony, accompanied by +many senators of his party. Thereupon Octavian caused the Assembly +to abrogate the former’s <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> and also his appointment to +the consulship for 31 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> To justify his actions and convince the +Italians of the danger which threatened them from the alliance of +Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian seized and published Antony’s will +which had been deposited in the temple of Vesta. The will confirmed +the disposition which he had made of the eastern provinces +in the interest of the house of Cleopatra. Octavian was now able +to bring about a declaration of war against the Egyptian queen and +to exact an oath of loyalty to himself from the senators in Rome and +from the municipalities of Italy and the western provinces. It was +this oath of allegiance which was the main basis of his authority for +the next few years. In reply to these measures, Antony formally +divorced Octavia and refused to recognize the validity of the laws +which deprived him of his powers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Actium, 31 B. C.</span></span> In the fall of 33 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Antony and Cleopatra +began assembling their forces in Greece with the intention of invading +Italy. By the next year they had brought together an army of about +100,000 men, supported by a fleet of 500 ships of war. However, +no favorable occasion for attempting a landing in Italy presented +itself and both the fleet and the army went into winter quarters in the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg 195]</span><a name="Pg195" id="Pg195" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>gulf of Ambracia (32–1 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). In the spring of 31 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Octavian +with 80,000 men and 400 warships crossed over to Epirus and took +up a position facing his opponents who had taken their station in the +bay of Actium at the entrance to the gulf of Ambracia. His most +capable general was Agrippa. Owing to discord which had arisen +between Cleopatra and his Roman officers, Antony remained inactive +while detachments of Octavian’s forces won over important points in +Greece. Antony began to suffer from a shortage of supplies and +some of his influential followers deserted to the opposite camp. At +length he risked a naval battle, in the course of which Cleopatra and +the Egyptian squadron set sail for Egypt and Antony followed her. +His fleet was defeated and his army, which attempted to retreat to +Macedonia, was forced to surrender. There is little doubt that Cleopatra +had for some time been contemplating treachery to Antony, +and her desertion was probably based on the calculation that if +Octavian should prove victorious she would be able to claim credit +for her services, while if Antony should be the victor, she was confident +of obtaining pardon for her conduct. Probably she did not +anticipate that Antony would join her in flight. At any rate, when +Antony abandoned his still undefeated fleet and army he sealed both +his fate and hers. The victor advanced slowly eastwards and in the +summer of 30 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> began his invasion of Egypt. Antony’s attempts +at defense were unavailing; his troops went over to Octavian who +occupied Alexandria. In despair he committed suicide. For a time +Cleopatra, who had frustrated Antony’s last attempt at resistance, +hoped to win over Octavian as she had won Caesar and Antony, so +that she might save at least Egypt for her dynasty. But finding her +efforts unavailing, she poisoned herself rather than grace Octavian’s +triumph. The kingdom of Egypt was added to the Roman empire, +not as a province but as part of an estate to be directly administered +by the ruler of the Roman world who took his place as the heir of +the Pharaohs and the Ptolemies. The treasures of Egypt reimbursed +Octavian for the expenses of his late campaigns. After reëstablishing +the old provinces and client kingdoms in the East, Octavian returned +to Rome in 29 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, where he celebrated a three-day triumph +over the non-Roman peoples of Europe, Asia and Africa, whom he or +his generals had subjugated during his triumvirate. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the age of thirty-three Octavian had made good his claim to +the political inheritance of Julius Caesar. His victory over Antony +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id="Pg196" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>closed the century of civil strife which had begun with the tribunate +of Tiberius Gracchus. War and the proscriptions had exacted a +heavy toll from Romans and Italians; Greece, Macedonia and Asia +had been brought to the verge of ruin; the whole empire longed for +peace. Everywhere was Octavian hailed as the savior of the world +and, as the founder of a new golden age, men were ready to worship +him as a god. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc161" id="toc161"></a><a name="pdf162" id="pdf162"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. Society and Intellectual Life in the Last Century +of the Republic</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The upper classes.</span></span> The characteristics of Roman society in the +last century of the republic are the same which we have previously +seen developing as a result of Rome’s imperial expansion. The upper +classes of society comprise the senatorial nobility and the equestrians; +the former finding their goal in public office, the latter in banking +and financial ventures, and both alike callously exploiting the subjects +of Rome in their own interests. Of this one example will suffice. +Marcus Brutus, the conspirator, who enjoyed a high repute for his +honorable character, loaned money to the cities of Cyprus at the +exorbitant rate of 48% and influenced the senate to declare the contract +valid. He did not hesitate to secure for his agents military +authority with which to enforce payment, and was much disappointed +when Cicero, as governor of Cilicia and Cyprus, refused to give his +representative such power or to allow him to collect more than 12% +interest on his debt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As corruption characterized the public, so did extravagance and +luxury the private life of the governing classes. The palaces of the +wealthy in Rome were supplemented by villas in the Sabine hills, +in the watering places of the Campanian coast, and other attractive +points. The word villa, which originally designated a farm house, +now meant a country seat equipped with all the modern conveniences +of city life. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The solidarity of the family life which had been the foundation +of Roman morality was fast disappearing. In general, wives no +longer came under the authority (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">manus</span></span>) of their husbands upon +marriage, and so retained control of their properties acquired by inheritance +or dowry through a guardian from their own families. Consequently +women played an increasingly independent and important +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page197">[pg 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>part in the society of the day. In Rome at least the age was one +of a low tone in morals, and divorces were of common occurrence. +At the same time social intercourse was characterized by a high degree +of urbanity—the good manners which mark the society of cultured +men. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The plebs.</span></span> Of the life of the plebs who thronged the high tenement +houses and narrow streets of Rome we know very little. But +until the Assembly was overawed or superseded by armed forces the +city populace could not be ignored by the upper classes. Their votes +must be courted by magnificent displays at the public games, by +entertainments and largesses of all kinds, and care must be taken to +provide them with food to prevent their becoming a menace to the +public peace. This latter problem was solved as we have seen +after the time of Caius Gracchus by providing them with a monthly +allowance of corn, at first at a greatly reduced price, but after 57 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> gratuitously. Julius Caesar found about 320,000 persons sharing +in this distribution, and reduced the number to 150,000 male citizens. +The city mob thus became to a certain degree state pensioners, +and placed a heavy burden on the treasury. There can be no doubt +that the ranks of the urban proletariat were swelled by peasants who +had lost their holdings in the course of the civil wars and the settlements +of discharged soldiers on Italian soil, but the chief increase +came from the manumission of slaves, who as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">liberti</span></span> or freedmen +became Roman citizens. Sulla’s 10,000 Cornelii were of this number. +The influx of these heterogeneous elements radically changed the +character of the city populace which could no longer claim to be +mainly of Roman and Italian stock but embraced representatives of +all races of the Mediterranean world. The population was further +augmented by the great numbers of slaves attached to the houses of +the wealthy or engaged in various industrial occupations for their +masters or others who hired their services. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the rural districts of Italy the plantation system had been widely +extended and agriculture and grazing were in the main carried on by +slave labor. Yet the free farmers had by no means entirely disappeared +and free labor was employed even on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">latifundia</span></span> themselves. +The discharged veterans who were provided with lands attest the +presence of considerable numbers of free landholders. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Religion.</span></span> In religion this period witnessed a striking decline of +interest and faith in the public religion of the Roman state. This +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page198">[pg 198]</span><a name="Pg198" id="Pg198" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>was in part due to the influence of Greek mythology which changed +the current conceptions of the Roman divinities and to Greek philosophy +with its varying doctrines as to the nature and powers of the +gods. The latter especially affected the upper classes of society upon +whom fell the duty of maintaining the public cults. From the time +of the Gracchi the public priesthoods declined in importance; and +in many cases they were used solely as a tool for political purposes. +The increase in the numbers of the priestly colleges and the substitution +of election for coöptation brought in many members unversed in +the ancient traditions, and the holders of the priesthoods in general +showed great ignorance of their duties, especially with regard to the +ordering of the state calendar. Some religious associations like the +Arval Brotherhood ceased to exist and knowledge of the character +of some of the minor deities was completely lost. The patrician +priesthoods, which involved serious duties and restricted the freedom +of their incumbents were avoided as much as possible. At the same +time the private religious rites, hereditary within family groups, fell +into decay. While the attitude of educated circles towards the state +cults was thus one of indifference or skepticism, it is hard to speak +of that of the common people. Superstitious they were beyond a +doubt, but in the performance of the state cults they had never +actively participated. The more emotional cults of the oriental type +made a greater appeal to them if we may judge from the difficulty +which the Senate experienced in banishing the priests of Isis from +the city. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Stoicism and Epicureanism.</span></span> The philosophic systems which +made the most converts among the educated Romans were Stoicism +and Epicureanism. The former, as we have seen, had been introduced +to Rome by Panaetius, whose teaching was continued by +Posidonius. It appealed to the Romans as offering a practical rule +of life for men engaged in public affairs. On the other hand, the +doctrine of Epicurus that men should withdraw from the annoyances +of political life and seek happiness in the pursuit of pleasure, that is, +intellectual pleasure, was interpreted by the Roman as sanctioning +sensual indulgence and became the creed of those who gave themselves +up to a life of ease and indolence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Literature.</span></span> The last century of the republic saw the completion +of the amalgamation of Greek and Roman culture which had begun +in the previous epoch. The resulting Graeco-Roman culture was a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page199">[pg 199]</span><a name="Pg199" id="Pg199" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>bi-lingual civilization based upon Greek intellectual and Roman +political achievement which it was the mission of the empire to +spread to the barbaric peoples of the western provinces. The age +was marked by many-sided, keen, intellectual activity which brought +Rome’s intellectual development to its height. Yet this Graeco-Roman +culture was almost exclusively a possession of the higher classes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The drama.</span></span> In the field of dramatic literature the writing of +tragedy practically ceased and comedy took the popular forms of +caricature (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fabula Atellana</span></span>) and the mime, or realistic imitation +of the life of the lower classes. Both forms were derived from Greek +prototypes but dealt with subjects of everyday life and won great +popularity in the theatrical exhibitions given at the public games. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Poetry: Catullus, 87–c. 54 B. C.</span></span> The best exponent of the poetry +of the age is Catullus, a native of Verona in Cisalpine Gaul, who as a +young man was drawn into the vortex of fashionable society at the +capital. This new poetry appealed to a highly educated class, conversant +alike with the literature of the Greek classic and Hellenistic +periods as well as with modern production, and able to appreciate +the most elaborate and diversified meters. The works of Catullus +show the wide range of form and subject which appealed to contemporary +taste. Translations and copies of Greek originals find +their place alongside epigrams and lyric poems of personal experience. +It is his poetry of passion, of love and hate, which places him among +the foremost lyric poets of all time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Lucretius, 98–53 B. C.</span></span> An exception among the poets of his time +was Lucretius, who combined the spirit of a poet with that of a +religious teacher. He felt a mission to free the minds of men from +fear of the power of the gods and of death. To this end he wrote +a didactic epic poem, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">On the Nature of Things</span></span>, in which he explained +the atomic theory of Democritus which was the foundation +of the philosophical teachings of Epicurus. The essence of this doctrine +was that the world and all living creatures were produced by +the fortuitous concourse of atoms falling through space and that death +was simply the dissolution of the body into its component atomic elements. +Consequently, there was no future existence to be dreaded. +True poetic value is given to the work by the author’s great imaginative +powers and his keen observation of nature and human life. +Lucretius made the Latin hexameter a fitting medium for the expression +of sustained and lofty thought. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page200">[pg 200]</span><a name="Pg200" id="Pg200" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Oratory.</span></span> It was through the study and practice of oratory that +Roman prose attained its perfection between the time of the Gracchi +and Julius Caesar. Political and legal orations were weapons in the +party strife of the day and were frequently polished and edited as +political pamphlets. Along with political documents of this type appeared +orations that were not written to be delivered in the forum or +senate chamber but were addressed solely to a reading public. Among +the great forensic orators of the age were the two Gracchi, of whom +the younger, Caius, had the reputation of being the most effective +speaker that Rome ever knew. Others of note were Marcus Antonius, +grandfather of the triumvir, Lucius Licinius Crassus, and Quintus +Hortensius Hortalus. But it was Cicero who brought to its perfection +the Roman oration in its literary form. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Cicero, 106–43 B. C.</span></span> Cicero was beyond question the intellectual +leader of his day. He was above all things an orator and until past +the age of fifty his literary productivity was almost entirely in that +field. In his latter years he undertook the great task of making +Hellenistic philosophy accessible to the Roman world through the +medium of Latin prose. In addition to his speeches and oratorical +and philosophic treatises Cicero left to posterity a great collection of +letters which were collected and published after his death by his +freedman secretary. His correspondence with his friends is a mine +of information for the student of society and politics in the last century +of the republic. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Caesar, 100–44 B. C.</span></span> Julius Caesar made his genius felt in the +world of letters as well as of politics. Though an orator of high +rank, he is better known as the author of his lucid commentaries on +the Gallic war and on the Civil war, which present the view that +he desired the Roman public to take of his conflict with the senate. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Sallust, 86–36 B. C.</span></span> Foremost among historical writers of the +period was Caius Sallustius Crispus, <span class="tei tei-q">“the first scientific Roman historian.”</span> +Subsequent generations ranked him as the greatest Roman +historian. His chief work, a history of the period 78–67 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, is +almost entirely lost, but two shorter studies on the Jugurthine war +and Cataline’s conspiracy have been preserved. In contrast to Cicero, +he is the protagonist of Caesarianism. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Varro, 116–27 B. C.</span></span> Of great interest to later ages were the works +of the antiquarian and philologist, Marcus Terentius Varro, the most +learned Roman of his time. His great work on Roman religious and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page201">[pg 201]</span><a name="Pg201" id="Pg201" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>political antiquities has been lost, but a part of his study <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">On the +Latin Language</span></span> is still extant, as well as his three books <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">On Rural +Conditions</span></span>. The latter give a good picture of agricultural conditions +in Italy towards the end of the republic. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Jurisprudence.</span></span> To legal literature considerable contributions +were made both in the domain of applied law and of legal theory. +We have already noticed the appeal which the Stoic philosophy made +to the best that was in Roman character and many of the leading +Roman jurists accepted its principles. It was natural then that +Roman legal philosophy should begin under the influence of the Stoic +doctrine of a universal divine law ruling the world, this law being an +emanation of right reason, i. e. the divine power governing the universe. +The most influential legal writers of the period were Quintus +Mucius Scaevola who compiled a systematic treatment of the civil +law in eighteen books, and Servius Sulpicius Rufus, the contemporary +of Cicero. Sulpicius was a most productive author, whose works included +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Commentaries</span></span> on the XII Tables, and on the Praetor’s Edict, +as well as studies on special aspects of Roman law. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg 202]</span><a name="Pg202" id="Pg202" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +</div></div></div><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page203">[pg 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc163" id="toc163"></a><a name="pdf164" id="pdf164"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">PART III</span></h1> + +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE PRINCIPATE OR EARLY EMPIRE: +27 B. C.–285 A. D.</span></h1> +<a name="illus-219" id="illus-219" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page204">[pg 204]</span><a name="Pg204" id="Pg204" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/illus-219.png" alt="The Roman Empire from 31 B. C. to 300 A. D." /></div> +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page205">[pg 205]</span><a name="Pg205" id="Pg205" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc165" id="toc165"></a><a name="pdf166" id="pdf166"></a> +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER XVI</span></h2> + +<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRINCIPATE: +27 B. C.–14 A. D.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<a name="toc167" id="toc167"></a><a name="pdf168" id="pdf168"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. The Princeps</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The settlement of 27 B. C.</span></span> During his sixth and seventh consulships, +in the years 28 and 27 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Octavian surrendered the +extraordinary powers which he had exercised during the war against +Antony and Cleopatra and, as he later expressed it, placed the commonwealth +at the disposal of the Senate and the Roman people. But +this step did not imply that the old machinery of government was +to be restored without modifications and restrictions or that Octavian +intended to abdicate his position as arbiter of the fate of the Roman +world. Nor would he have been justified in so doing, for such a +course of action would have led to a repetition of the anarchy which +followed the retirement and death of Sulla, and, in disposing of his +rivals, Octavian had assumed the obligation of giving to the Roman +world a stable form of government. Public sentiment demanded a +strong administration, even if this could only be attained at the expense +of the old republican institutions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But while ambition and duty alike forbade him to relinquish his +hold upon the helm of state, Octavian shrank from realizing the ideal +of Julius Caesar and establishing a monarchical form of government. +From this he was deterred both by the fate of his adoptive father and +his own cautious, conservative character which gave him such a shrewd +understanding of Roman temperament. His solution of the problem +was to retain the old Roman constitution as far as was practicable, +while securing for himself such powers as would enable him to uphold +the constitution and prevent a renewal of the disorders of the preceding +century. What powers were necessary to this end, Octavian determined +on the basis of practical experience between 27 and 18 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +And so his restoration of the commonwealth signified the end of a +régime of force and paved the way for his reception of new authority +legally conferred upon him. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page206">[pg 206]</span><a name="Pg206" id="Pg206" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The imperium.</span></span> Nothing had contributed more directly to the +failure of the republican form of government than the growth of the +professional army and the inability of the Senate to control its commanders. +Therefore, it was absolutely necessary for the guardian of +peace and of the constitution to concentrate the supreme military +authority in his own hands. Consequently on 13 January, 27 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, +the birthday of the new order, Octavian, by vote of the Assembly +and Senate, received for a period of ten years the command and +administration of the provinces of Hither Spain, Gaul and Syria, +that is, the chief provinces in which peace was not yet firmly established +and which consequently required the presence of the bulk of +the Roman armies. Egypt, over which he had ruled as the successor +of the Ptolemies since 30 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, remained directly subject to his authority. +As long as he continued to hold the consulship, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> +of Octavian was senior (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">maius</span></span>) to that of the governors of the other +provinces which remained under the control of the Senate. In effect, +his solution of the military problem was to have conferred upon himself +an extraordinary command which found its precedents in those +of Lucullus, Pompey and Caesar, but which was of such scope and +duration that it made him the commander-in-chief of the forces of +the empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The titles Augustus and Imperator.</span></span> On 16 January of the +same year the Senate conferred upon Octavian the title of Augustus +(Greek, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sebastos</span></span>) by which he was henceforth regularly designated. +It was a term which implied no definite powers, but, being an epithet +equally applicable to gods or men, was well adapted to express the +exalted position of its bearer. A second title was that of Imperator. +Following the republican custom, this had been conferred upon Augustus +by his army and the Senate after his victory at Mutina in 43 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, +and in imitation of Julius Caesar he converted this temporary title +of honor into a permanent one. Finally, in 38 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, he placed it first +among his personal names (as a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">praenomen</span></span>). After 27 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Augustus +made a two-fold use of the term; as a permanent <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">praenomen</span></span>, and +as a title of honor assumed upon the occasion of victories won by his +officers. From this time the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">praenomen</span></span> Imperator was a prerogative +of the Roman commander-in-chief. However, during his principate +Augustus did not stress its use, since he did not wish to emphasize +the military basis of his power. But in the Greek-speaking +provinces, where his power rested exclusively upon his military +author<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page207">[pg 207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>ity, the title Imperator was seized upon as the expression of his unlimited +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> and was translated in that sense by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">autocrator</span></span>. +From the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">praenomen</span></span> imperator is derived the term emperor, commonly +used in modern times to designate Augustus and his successors. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The tribunicia potestas, 23 B. C.</span></span> From 27 to 23 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the +authority of Augustus rested upon his annual tenure of the consulship +and his provincial command. But in the summer of 23 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> he +resigned the consulship and received from the Senate and people the +tribunician authority (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tribunicia potestas</span></span>) for life. As early as 36 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> he had been granted the personal inviolability of the tribunes, +and in 30 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> their right of giving aid (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">auxilium</span></span>). To these privileges +there must now have been added the right of intercession and +of summoning the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">jus agendi cum populo</span></span>).<a id="noteref_15" name="noteref_15" href="#note_15"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a> In this way +Augustus acquired a control over comitial and senatorial legislation +and openly assumed the position of protector of the interests of the +city plebs. He was moreover amply compensated for the loss of +civil power which his resignation of the consulship involved, and +at the same time he got rid of an office which must be shared with a +colleague of equal rank and the perpetual tenure of which was a +violation of constitutional tradition. The tribunician authority was +regarded as being held for successive annual periods, which Augustus +reckoned from 23 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Special powers and honors.</span></span> At the time of the conferment of +the tribunician authority, a series of senatorial decrees added or gave +greater precision to the powers of Augustus. He received the right +to introduce the first topic for consideration at each meeting of the +Senate, his military <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> was made valid within the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pomerium</span></span>, +but, in view of his resignation of the consulship, became proconsular +in the provinces. It was probably in 23 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> also that Augustus +received the unrestricted right of making war or peace, upon the +occasion of the coming of an embassy from the king of the Parthians. +In the next year he was granted the right to call meetings of the +Senate. Three years later he was accorded the consular insignia, +with twelve lictors, and the privilege of taking his seat on a curule +chair between the consuls in office. These marks of honor gave him +upon official occasions the precedence among the magistrates which +his authority warranted. On the other hand, in 22 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Augustus +refused the dictatorship or the perpetual consulship, which were +con<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page208">[pg 208]</span><a name="Pg208" id="Pg208" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>ferred upon him at the insistence of the city populace; and in the same +spirit he declined to accept a general censorship of laws and morals +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cura legum et morum</span></span>) which was proffered to him in 19 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The principate.</span></span> It was by the gradual acquisition of the above +powers that the position which Augustus was to hold in the state was +finally determined. This position may be defined as that of a magistrate, +whose province was a combination of various powers conferred +upon him by the Senate and the Roman people, and who differed from +the other magistrates of the state in the immensely wider scope of his +functions and the greater length of his official term. But these +various powers were separately conferred upon him and for each +he could urge constitutional precedents. It was in this spirit of +deference to constitutional traditions that Augustus did not create for +himself one new office which would have given him the same authority +nor accept any position that would have clothed him with autocratic +power. Therefore, as he held no definite office, Augustus had no +definite official title. But the reception of such wide powers caused +him to surpass all other Romans in dignity; hence he came to be +designated as the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">princeps</span></span>, i. e. the first of the Roman citizens +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">princeps civium Romanorum</span></span>). From this arose the term principate +to designate the tenure of office of the princeps; a term which we now +apply also to the system of government that Augustus established for +the Roman Empire. The crowning honor of his career was received +by Augustus in 2 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, when the senate, upon the motion of one who +had fought under Brutus at Philippi, conferred upon him the title +of <span class="tei tei-q">“Father of His Country”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pater patriae</span></span>), thus marking the reconciliation +between the bulk of the old aristocracy and the new régime. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Renewal of the imperium.</span></span> His <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span>, which lapsed in 18 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Augustus caused to be reconferred upon himself for successive +periods of five or ten years, thus preserving the continuity of his +power until his death in 14 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc169" id="toc169"></a><a name="pdf170" id="pdf170"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The Senate, the Equestrians and the Plebs</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The three orders.</span></span> The social classification of the Romans into +the senatorial, equestrian and plebeian orders passed, with sharper +definitions, from the republic into the principate. For each class a +distinct field of opportunity and public service was opened; for senators, +the magistracies and the chief military posts; for the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">equites</span></span> a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page209">[pg 209]</span><a name="Pg209" id="Pg209" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>new career in the civil and military service of the princeps, and for +the plebs service as privates and subaltern officers in the professional +army. However, these orders were by no means closed castes; the +way lay open to able and successful men for advancement from the +lower to the higher grades, and for the consequent infusion of fresh +vitality into the ranks of the latter. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Senate and the senatorial order.</span></span> The senatorial order +was composed of the members of the Senate and their families. Its +distinctive emblem was the broad purple stripe worn on the toga. +Sons of senators assumed this badge of the order by right of birth; +equestrians, by grant of the princeps. However, of the former those +who failed to qualify for the Senate were reduced to the rank of +equestrians. The possession of property valued at 1,000,000 sesterces +($50,000) was made a requirement for admission to the Senate. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The prospective senator was obliged to fill one of the minor city +magistracies known as the board of twenty (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">viginti-virate</span></span>), next to +serve as a legionary tribune and then, at the age of twenty-five, to +become a candidate for the quaestorship, which gave admission to +the Senate. From the quaestorship the official career of the senator +led through the regular magistracies, the aedileship or tribunate, and +the praetorship, to the consulship. As an ex-praetor and ex-consul +a senator might be appointed a promagistrate to govern a senatorial +province; a legate to command a legion or administer an imperial +province; or a curator in charge of some administrative commission +in Rome or Italy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +During the republic the Senate had been the actual center of the +administration and Augustus intended that it should continue to be +so for the greater part of the empire. Through the ordinary magistrates +it should govern Rome and Italy, and through the promagistrates +the senatorial provinces. Furthermore, the state treasury, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">aerarium +saturni</span></span>, supported by the revenues from Italy and the Senate’s provinces, +remained under the authority of that body. However, to render +it capable of fulfilling its task and to reëstablish its prestige, the +Senate which now numbered over one thousand had to be purged +of many undesirable members who had been admitted to its roll during +the recent civil wars. Therefore, in 28 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Augustus in his +consular capacity supervised a revision of the senatorial list whereby +two hundred unworthy persons were excluded. On that occasion his +name was placed at the head of the new roll as the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">princeps senatus</span></span>. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page210">[pg 210]</span><a name="Pg210" id="Pg210" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>A second recension ten years later reduced the total membership to +six hundred. A third, in 4 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, commenced through a specially +chosen committee of three with the object of further reducing their +number was not carried out. The Senate was automatically recruited +by the annual admission of the twenty quaestors, but in addition +the princeps enjoyed the right of appointing new members who +might be entered upon the roll of the Senate among the past holders +of any magistracy. In this way many prominent equestrians were +admitted to the senatorial order. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The equestrian order.</span></span> For the conduct of his share of the +public administration the princeps required a great number of assistants +in his personal employ. For his legates to command the legions +or his provinces with delegated military authority Augustus could +draw upon the senators, but both custom and the prestige of the +Senate forbade their entering his service in other capacities. On the +other hand, freedmen and slaves, who might well be employed in a +clerical position, obviously could not be made the sole civil servants +of the princeps. Therefore, Augustus drew into his service the +equestrian order whose business interests and traditional connection +with the public finances seemed to mark them out as peculiarly fitted +to be his agents in the financial administration of the provinces. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The equestrian order in general was open to all Roman citizens in +Italy and the provinces who were eighteen years of age, of free birth +and good character, and possessed a census rating of 400,000 sesterces +($20,000). Admission to the order was in the control of the princeps, +and carried the right to wear a narrow purple stripe on the toga +and to receive a public horse, the possession of which qualified an +equestrian for the imperial civil and military service. With the bestowal +of the public horse Augustus revived the long neglected annual +parade and inspection of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">equites</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Like the career of the senators, that of the equestrians included +both military and civil appointments. At the outset of his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cursus +honorum</span></span> the equestrian held several military appointments, which +somewhat later came regularly to include a prefecture of a corps of +auxiliary infantry, a tribunate of a legionary cohort, and a prefecture +of an auxiliary cavalry corps. Thereupon he was eligible for a procuratorship, +that is, a post in the imperial civil service, usually in +connection with the administration of the finances. After filling several +of these procuratorships, of which there were a great number of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page211">[pg 211]</span><a name="Pg211" id="Pg211" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>varying importance, an equestrian might finally attain one of the +great prefectures, as commander of the city watch, administrator of +the corn supply of Rome, commander of the imperial guards, or governor +of Egypt. At the end of his equestrian career he might be +enrolled in the senatorial order. Thus through the imperial service +the equestrian order was bound closely to the princeps and from its +ranks there gradually developed a nobility thoroughly loyal to the +new régime. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Comitia and the plebs.</span></span> The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia</span></span>, which had so long +voiced the will of the sovereign Roman people was not abolished, +although it could no longer claim to speak in the name of the Roman +citizens as a whole. It still kept up the form of electing magistrates +and enacting legislation, but its action was largely determined by +the recommendations of the princeps and his tribunician authority. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While the city plebs, accustomed to receive its free distributions +of grain, and to be entertained at costly public spectacles, was a heavy +drain upon the resources of the state, the vigorous third estate in +the Italian municipalities supplied the subaltern officers of the legions. +These were the centurions, who were the mainstay of the discipline +and efficiency of the troops, and from whose ranks many advanced to +an equestrian career. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc171" id="toc171"></a><a name="pdf172" id="pdf172"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. The Military Establishment</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Reorganization of the army.</span></span> Upon his return to Italy in 30 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Augustus found himself at the head of an army of about 500,000 +men. Of these he released more than 300,000 from service and settled +them in colonies or in their native municipalities upon lands +which it was his boast to have purchased and not confiscated. This +done, he proceeded to reorganize the military establishment. Accepting +the lessons of the civil wars, he maintained a permanent, professional +army, recruited as far as possible by voluntary enlistment. +This army comprised two main categories of troops, the legionaries +and the auxiliaries. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The legions and auxilia.</span></span> The legionaries were recruited from +Roman citizens or from provincials who received Roman citizenship +upon their enlistment. Their units of organization, the legions, comprised +nearly 6000 men, of whom 120 were cavalry and the rest infantry. +The number of legions was at first eighteen, but was later +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page212">[pg 212]</span><a name="Pg212" id="Pg212" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>raised to twenty-five, giving a total of about 150,000 men. The auxiliaries, +who took the place of the contingents of Italian allies of earlier +days, were recruited from among the most warlike subject peoples of +the empire and their numbers were approximately equal to the legionaries. +They were organized in small infantry and cavalry corps +(cohorts and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">alae</span></span>), each 480 or 960 strong. At the expiration of their +term of service the auxiliaries were granted the reward of Roman citizenship. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The praetorians.</span></span> A third category of troops, which, although +greatly inferior in number to the legions and auxiliaries, played an +exceptionally influential rôle in the history of the principate, was +the praetorian guard. This was the imperial bodyguard which +attended Augustus in his capacity of commander-in-chief of the +Roman armies. It owed its influence to the fact that it was stationed +in the vicinity of Rome while the other troops were stationed in the +provinces. Under Augustus the praetorian guard comprised nine +cohorts, each 1000 strong, under the command of two praetorian prefects +of equestrian rank. The praetorians were recruited exclusively +from the Italian peninsula, and enjoyed a shorter term of service and +higher pay than the other corps. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Conditions of service.</span></span> It was not until 6 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> that the term of +enlistment and the conditions of discharge were definitely fixed. From +that date service in the praetorian guard was for sixteen years, in +the legions for twenty and in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">auxilia</span></span> for twenty-five. At their +discharge the praetorians received a bonus of 5000 denarii ($1000), +while the legionaries were given 3000 denarii ($600) in addition to +an assignment of land. The discharged legionaries were regularly +settled in colonies throughout the provinces. To meet this increased +expense Augustus was obliged to establish a military treasury (the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">aerarium militare</span></span>), endowed out of his private patrimony, and supported +by the revenue derived from two newly imposed taxes, a five +per cent inheritance tax (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vincesima hereditatium</span></span>) which affected all +Roman citizens, and a one per cent tax on all goods publicly sold +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">centesima rerum venalium</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The fleets.</span></span> For the policing of the coast of Italy and the adjacent +seas Augustus created a permanent fleet with stations at Ravenna and +Misenum. Conforming to the comparative unimportance of the +Roman naval, in contrast to their military establishment, the personnel +of this fleet was recruited in large measure from imperial freedmen +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page213">[pg 213]</span><a name="Pg213" id="Pg213" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>and slaves. Only after Augustus were these squadrons and other +similar ones in the provinces placed under equestrian prefects. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The military system of Augustus strongly emphasized and guaranteed +the supremacy of Italy and the Italians over the provincials. +Both the officers and the elite troops were drawn almost exclusively +from Italy or the latinized parts of the western provinces. In like +manner the reservation of the higher grades of the civil administration, +the second prop of Roman rule, for Roman senators and equestrians, +as well as the exclusion of the provincial imperial cult from +Italian soil, marked clearly the distinction between the conquering +and the subject races of the empire. Yet it was Augustus himself +who pointed the way to the ultimate romanization of the provincials +by the bestowal of citizenship as one of the rewards for military service +and by the settlement of colonies of veterans in the provinces. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc173" id="toc173"></a><a name="pdf174" id="pdf174"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. The Revival of Religion and Morality</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The ideals of Augustus.</span></span> A counterpart to the governmental reorganization +effected by Augustus was his attempt to revive the old +time Roman virtues which had fallen into contempt during the last +centuries of the republic. This moral regeneration of the Roman +people he regarded as the absolutely essential basis for a new era of +peace and prosperity. And the reawakening of morality was necessarily +preceded by a revival of the religious rites and ceremonies +that in recent times had passed into oblivion through the attraction of +new cults, the growth of skepticism, or the general disorder into which +the public administration had fallen as a result of civil strife. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The revival of public religion.</span></span> One step in this direction was +the reëstablishment of the ancient priestly colleges devoted to the +performance of particular rites or the cult of particular <a name="corr213" id="corr213" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">deities</span>. To +provide these colleges with the required number of patrician members +Augustus created new patrician families. He himself was enrolled +in each of these colleges and, at the death of Lepidus in 12 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, was +elected chief pontiff, the head of the state religion. A second measure +was the repair of temples and shrines which had lapsed into decay. +The temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, those of Quirinus and the Magna +Mater, besides eighty-two other shrines of lesser fame, were repaired +or restored by him. One of his generals, Munatius Plancus, renewed +the temple of Saturn in the forum. A new temple was erected by +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg 214]</span><a name="Pg214" id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Augustus to Mars the Avenger on the forum begun by Julius Caesar, +another to the deified Julius himself on the old forum, and a third on +the Palatine hill to Apollo, to whom he rendered thanks for the victory +at Actium. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Lares and the Genius Augusti.</span></span> Among the divinities whose +cult was thus quickened into life were the Lares, the guardian deities +of the crossways, whose worship was especially practiced by the common +folk. Between the years 12 and 7 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> each of the two hundred +and sixty-five <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vici</span></span> into which the city of Rome was then divided was +provided with a shrine dedicated to the Lares and the Genius of +Augustus, that is, the divine spirit which watched over his fortunes. +This worship was conducted by a committee of masters, annually +elected by the inhabitants of these quarters. In this way the city +plebs while not worshipping the princeps himself, were yet encouraged +to look upon him as their protector and guardian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The imperial cult.</span></span> A new religion which was to be symbolic of +the unity of the empire and the loyalty of the provincials was the cult +of Rome and Augustus, commonly known as the imperial cult. The +worship of the goddess Roma, the personification of the Roman state, +had sprung up voluntarily in the cities of Greece and Asia after +197 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> when the power of Rome began to supplant the authority +of the Hellenistic monarchs for whom deification by their subjects was +the theoretical basis of their autocratic power. This voluntary worship +had also been accorded to individual Romans, as Flamininus, +Sulla, Caesar and Mark Antony. As early as 29 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the cities of +Pergamon in Asia and Nicomedia in Bithynia erected temples dedicated +to Roma and Augustus, and established quinquennial religious +festivals called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Romaia Sebasta</span></span>. Other cities followed their example +and before the death of Augustus each province in the Orient had at +least one altar dedicated to Roma and the princeps. From the East +the imperial cult was officially transplanted to the West. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the year 12 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> an altar of Rome and Augustus was established +at the junction of the rivers Rhone and Sâone, opposite the +town of Lugdunum (modern Lyons), the administrative center of +Transalpine Gaul apart from the Narbonese province. Here the peoples +of Gaul were to unite in the outward manifestation of their +loyalty to Roman rule. A similar altar was erected at what is now +Cologne in the land of the Ubii between 9 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> and 9 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Both in +the East and in the West the maintenance of the imperial cult was +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg 215]</span><a name="Pg215" id="Pg215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>imposed upon provincial councils, composed of representatives of the +municipal or tribal units in which each province was divided. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The imperial cult in the provinces was thus the expression of the +absolute authority of Rome and Augustus over the subjects of Rome, +but for that very reason Augustus could not admit its development on +Italian soil; for to do so would be to deny his claim to be a Roman +magistrate, deriving his authority from the Roman people, among +whom he was the chief citizen, and would stamp his government as +monarchical and autocratic. Therefore, although the poet Horace, +voicing the public sentiment, in 27 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> acclaimed him as the new +Mercury, and both municipalities and individuals in southern Italy +spontaneously established his worship, this movement received no +official encouragement and never became important. However, from +the year 12 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> onwards, there were established religious colleges of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Augustales</span></span>, or priestly officers called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sevìri Augustales</span></span>, in many +Italian municipalities for the celebration of the cult of Augustus either +alone or in conjunction with some other divinity such as Mercury +or Hercules. As these Augustales were almost exclusively drawn +from the class of <a name="corr215" id="corr215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">freedmen</span> who were no longer admitted to full Roman +citizenship, Augustus avoided receiving worship from the latter, while +assuring himself of the loyalty of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">liberti</span></span> and gratifying their pride +by encouraging a municipal office to which they were eligible. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The leges Juliae and the lex Papia Poppaea.</span></span> However, Augustus +was not content to trust solely to the moral effects of religious +exercises and resorted to legislative action to check the degenerate +tendencies of his age. The Julian laws of 19 and 18 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> aimed at +the restoration of the soundness of family life, the encouragement of +marriage, and the discouragement of childlessness, by placing disabilities +upon unmarried and childless persons. These measures provoked +great opposition, but Augustus was in earnest and supplemented +his earlier laws by the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Papia Poppaea</span></span> of 9 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> which gave precedence +to fathers over less fortunate persons among the candidates for +public office. A commentary on the effectiveness of his earlier laws +was the fact that both the consuls who sponsored this later one were +themselves unmarried. To prevent the Italian element among the +citizens from being swamped by a continuous influx of liberated +slaves, Augustus placed restrictions upon the right of manumission +and refused freedmen the public rights of Roman citizens, although +granting these to their sons. By example as well as by precept he +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page216">[pg 216]</span><a name="Pg216" id="Pg216" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>sought to hold in check the luxurious tendencies of the age, and in his +own household to furnish a model of ancient Roman simplicity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Secular Games, 17 B. C.</span></span> To publicly inaugurate the new +era in the life of the state begun under his auspices, Augustus celebrated +the festival of the Secular Games in the year 17 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, for which +Horace wrote the inaugural ode, his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Carmen Saeculare</span></span>. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc175" id="toc175"></a><a name="pdf176" id="pdf176"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">V. The Provinces and the Frontiers</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Dyarchy.</span></span> The division of the provinces between Augustus +and the Senate in 27 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> had the effect of creating an administrative +dyarchy, or joint rule of two independent authorities, for the empire. +However, the original allotment of the provinces underwent some +modification subsequent to 27 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> In 23 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Augustus transferred +to the Senate Narbonese Gaul where the rapid progress of colonization +had made it <span class="tei tei-q">“more a part of Italy than a province.”</span> In exchange +he took over Illyricum, where the progress of the Roman arms +had been interrupted by the outbreak of the war with Antony and +where the Romans were confronted by warlike and restless peoples of +the hinterland. Somewhat later Cilicia also became an imperial +province and in 6 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Sardinia was placed under an imperial procurator +because of disturbances on the island. Southern Greece, previously +dependent upon the province of Macedon, was placed under +the government of the Senate as the province of Achaea. New administrative +districts organized by Augustus out of territories conquered +by his generals remained under his control. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Survey and census of the empire.</span></span> The main expense of the +military and civil establishment of the empire was defrayed by the +revenues from the provinces. As a basis for an accurate estimate of +their resources for purposes of taxation and recruitment Augustus +caused a comprehensive census of the population and an evaluation +of property to be taken in each newly organized district, and provided +for a systematic revision of the census in all the imperial provinces. +In addition a general chart of the empire was compiled on the basis +of an extended survey conducted under the direction of Agrippa. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The foreign policy of Augustus.</span></span> As we have seen, Augustus +since he was commander-in-chief of the Roman armies and in charge +of the administration of the most important border provinces, was entrusted +by the senate with the direction of the foreign relations of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page217">[pg 217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>state. Here his aims conformed to the general conservatism of his +policies and were directed towards securing a defensible frontier for +the empire which should protect the peace that he had established +within its borders. His military operations were conducted with due +regard to the man power and the financial resources of the state. To +secure the defensible frontier at which he aimed it was necessary for +Augustus to incorporate in the empire a number of border peoples +whose independence was a menace to the peace of the provinces and +to establish some client kingdoms as buffer states between Roman territory +and otherwise dangerous neighbors. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The settlement in Spain.</span></span> The northwestern corner of the Spanish +peninsula was still occupied by independent peoples, the Cantabri, +Astures and the Callaeci, who <a name="corr217" id="corr217" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">harassed</span> with their forays the pacified +inhabitants of the Roman provinces. To secure peace in this quarter +Augustus determined upon the complete subjugation of these peoples. +From 27 to 24 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> he was present in Spain and between these years +his lieutenants Antistius, Carisius and Agrippa conducted campaigns +against them in their mountain fastness, and, overcoming their desperate +resistance, settled them in the valleys and secured their territory +by founding colonies of veterans. A subsequent revolt in 20–19 +was crushed by Marcus Agrippa. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The pacification of the Alps, 25–8 B. C.</span></span> A similar problem was +presented by the Alpine peoples, who not only made devastating raids +into northern Italy but also in the west occupied the passes which +offered the most direct routes between Italy and Transalpine Gaul. +In 26 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> occurred a revolt of the Salassi, in the neighborhood of +the Little St. Bernard, who had been subdued eight years before. +In the following year they were completely subjugated, and those who +escaped slaughter were sold into slavery. In 16 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the district of +Noricum, i. e., modern Tyrol and Salzburg, was occupied by Publius +Silius Nerva, in consequence of a raid of the Noricans into the Istrian +peninsula. In 15 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, the step-son of Augustus, Nero Claudius +Drusus, crossed the Brenner Pass and forced his way over the Vorarlberg +range to Lake Constance, subduing the Raeti on his way. On +the shores of Lake Constance he met his elder brother, Tiberius Claudius +Nero, who had marched eastwards from Gaul. Together they +defeated and subjugated the Vindelici. On the north the Danube +was now the Roman frontier. A number of isolated campaigns +completed the subjugation of the remaining Alpine peoples by 8 +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg 218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Raetia and Noricum were organized as procuratorial provinces, +while the smaller Alpine districts were placed under imperial +prefects. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Gaul and Germany.</span></span> Caesar had left the land of Gallia Comata +crushed but still unsettled and not fully incorporated in the empire. +It fell to the lot of Augustus to complete its organization, which was +accomplished between 27 and 13 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Subsequent to the transfer of +the Narbonese province to the Senate <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gallia comata</span></span> was divided into +three districts; Aquitania, Lugdunensis and Belgica, which, however, +during the lifetime of Augustus, formed an administrative unity, +under one governor with subordinate <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">legati</span></span> in each district. The +colony of Lugdunum was the seat of the administration, as well as of +the imperial cult. No attempt was made to latinize the three Gauls +by the founding of Roman colonies; but they remained divided into +sixty-four separate peoples, called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">civitates</span></span>, with a tribal organization +under the control of a native nobility. As early as 27 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> Augustus +took a census in Gaul, and on this basis fixed its tax obligations. +The rich lands of Gaul were as important a source of imperial revenue +as its vigorous population was of recruits for the Roman auxiliary +forces. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But the Gauls were restive under their new burdens and were in +addition liable to be stirred up by the Germanic tribes who came from +across the Rhine. An invading horde of Sugambri in 16 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> defeated +a Roman army and, upon a renewed inroad by the same people +in 12 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Augustus determined to cross the Rhine and secure the +frontier of Gaul by the subjugation of the Germans to the north. +The Germans, like the Gauls at the time of the Roman conquest, were +divided into a number of independent tribes usually at enmity with +one another and hence incapable of forming a lasting combination +against a common foe. Individually they were powerful and courageous, +but their military efficiency was impaired by their lack of +unity and discipline. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Drusus, conqueror of the Raeti, was appointed to command the +Roman army of invasion. He first secured the Rhine frontier by the +construction of a line of fortresses stretching from Vindonissa (near +Basle) to Castra Vetera (near Xanten), the latter of which, with +Mogontiacum (Mainz) were his chief bases. Then, crossing the +river, in four campaigns (12–9 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>) he overran and subjugated the +territory between the Rhine and the Elbe. His operations were greatly +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page219">[pg 219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>aided by his fleet, for which he constructed a canal from the Rhine +to the Zuider Zee, and which facilitated the conquest of the coast +peoples, among them the Batavi, who became firm Roman allies. On +the return march from the Elbe in 9 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Drusus was fatally injured +by a fall from his horse. His brother Tiberius succeeded him in command +and strengthened the Roman hold on the transrhenene conquests. +Drusus was buried in Rome, whither Tiberius escorted his +corpse on foot, and was honored with the name Germanicus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Illyricum and Thrace.</span></span> To the east of the Adriatic the Roman +provinces of Illyricum and Macedonia were subject to constant incursions +of the Pannonians, Getae (or Dacians) and Bastarnae, peoples +settled in the middle and lower Danube valley. Marcus Licinius +Crassus, Governor of Macedonia, in 30 and 29 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> defeated the +Getae and Bastarnae, crossed the Balkans, carried the Roman arms +to the Danube and subdued the Moesi to the south of that river. +However, it required a considerable time before the various Thracian +tribes were finally subdued and a client kingdom under the Thracian +prince Cotys was interposed between Macedonia and the lower Danube. +Meantime, the Pannonians had been conquered in a number +of hard fought campaigns which were brought to a successful conclusion +by Tiberius (12–9 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>) who made the Drave the Roman +boundary. The contemporaneous conquest of Pannonia and of Germany +between the Rhine and the Elbe was one of the greatest feats of +Roman arms and reveals the army of the empire at the height of its +discipline and organization. In 13 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, during a lull in these frontier +struggles, the Senate voted the erection of an altar to the peace of +Augustus (the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ara pacis Augustae</span></span>), in grateful recognition of his +maintenance of peace within the empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The revolt of Illyricum and Germany.</span></span> For several years following +the death of Drusus no further conquests were attempted until 4 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, when Tiberius was again appointed to command the army of +the Rhine. After assuring himself of the allegiance of the Germans +by a demonstration as far as the Elbe and by the establishment of +fortified posts, he prepared to complete the northern boundary by the +conquest of the kingdom of the Marcomanni, in modern Bohemia, +between the Elbe and the Danube. In 6 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Tiberius was on the +point of advancing northward from the Danube, in coöperation with +Gaius Saturninus, who was to move eastwards from the Rhine, when +a revolt broke out in Illyricum which forced the abandonment of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page220">[pg 220]</span><a name="Pg220" id="Pg220" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>undertaking and the conclusion of peace with Marbod, the king of +the Marcomanni. The revolt, in which both Pannonians and Dalmatians +joined, was caused by the severity of the Roman exactions, +especially the levies for the army. For a moment Italy trembled in +fear of an invasion; in the raising of new legions even freedmen were +called into service. But the arrival of reinforcements from other +provinces enabled Tiberius after three years of ruthless warfare to +utterly crush the desperate resistance of the rebels (9 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). The +organization of Pannonia as a separate province followed the reëstablishment +of peace. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Until the last year of the war in Illyricum the Germanic tribes had +remained quiet under Roman overlordship. But in 9 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, provoked +by the attempt of the new Roman commander, Publius Quinctilius +Varus, to subject them to stricter control, they united to free themselves +from foreign rule. In the coalition the Cherusci and Chatti +were the chief peoples, and Arminius, a young chieftain of the +Cherusci, was its leading spirit. Varus and his army of three legions +were surprised on the march in the Teutoberg Forest and completely +annihilated. Rome was in panic over the news, but the Germans did +not follow up their initial success. Tiberius was again sent to the +post of danger and vindicated the honor of Rome by two successful +expeditions across the Rhine. But no attempt was made to recover +permanently the lost ground. The frontier of the Elbe was given up +for that of the Rhine with momentous consequences for the future of +the empire and of Europe. The coast peoples, however, remained +Roman allies and a narrow strip of territory was held on the right +bank of the Rhine. The reason lay in the weakness of the Roman +military organization, caused by the strain of the Illyrian revolt and +the difficulty of finding recruits for the Roman legions among the +Italians. The cry of Augustus, <span class="tei tei-q">“Quinctilius Varus, give back my +legions,”</span> gives the clue to his abandonment of Germany. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The eastern frontier.</span></span> In the East alone was Rome confronted +by a power which was in any way a match for her military strength +and which had disastrously defeated two Roman invasions. The +conquest of this, the Parthian kingdom, appeared to Augustus to +offer no compensation comparable to the exertions it would entail and +therefore he determined to rest content with such a reassertion of +Roman supremacy in the Near East as would wipe out the shame of +the defeats of Crassus and Antony and guarantee Roman territory +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page221">[pg 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>from Parthian attack. He was prepared to accept the natural frontier +of the Euphrates as the eastern boundary of Roman territory. +Between the Roman provinces in Asia Minor and the upper Euphrates +lay a number of client kingdoms, Galatia, Pontus, Cappadocia and +Lesser Armenia, and Commagene. At the death of Amyntas, king +of Galatia, in 25 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, his kingdom was made into a province, but +the others were left under their native dynasts. Across the Euphrates +lay Armenia, a buffer state between the Roman possessions and Parthia, +which was of strategic importance because it commanded the +military routes between Asia Minor and the heart of the Parthian +country. To establish a protectorate over Armenia was therefore the +ambition of both Rome and Parthia. During the presence of Augustus +in the East (22–19 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>), Tiberius placed a Roman nominee on +the Armenian throne, and received from the Parthian king, Phraates +IV, the Roman standards and captives in Parthian hands, a success +which earned Augustus the salutation of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperator</span></span> from his troops. +Later Phraates sent four of his sons as hostages to Rome. But the +Roman protectorate over Armenia was by no means permanent; its +supporters had soon to give way to the Parthian party. Gaius Caesar +between 1 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> and 2 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> restored Roman influence, but again the +Parthians got the upper hand and held it until 9 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, when Phraates +was overthrown and was succeeded by one of his sons whom Augustus +sent from Rome at the request of the Parthians. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Judaea and Arabia.</span></span> To the south of the Roman province of +Syria lay the kingdom of Judaea, ruled by Herod until his death in +4 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, when it was divided among his sons. Subsequently Judaea +proper was made a province administered by a Roman procurator. +To the east of the Dead Sea was the kingdom of the Nabataean +Arabs, who controlled the caravan routes of the Arabian peninsula +and who were firm Roman allies. With their aid a Roman army +under Aelius Gallus in 25 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> sought to penetrate into the rich spice +land of Arabia Felix, but suffered such losses in its march across +the desert that it was forced to return without effecting a conquest. +At the same time Gaius Petronius defeated the Ethiopians under +Queen Candace and secured the southern frontier of Egypt. Through +the ports of Egypt on the Red Sea a brisk trade developed with India, +from which distant land embassies on various occasions came to +Augustus. Further west in Africa, Augustus added the kingdom of +Numidia to the province of Africa, and transferred its ruler, Juba II, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg 222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>whose wife was Cleopatra, daughter of Antony the triumvir, to the +kingdom of Mauretania (25 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The conquests of Augustus established in their essential features the +future boundaries of the Roman Empire. At his death he left it as a +maxim of state for his successor to abstain from further expansion. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc177" id="toc177"></a><a name="pdf178" id="pdf178"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">VI. The Administration of Rome</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The problem of police.</span></span> One of the great problems which had +confronted the Roman government from the time of the Gracchi was +the policing of Rome and the suppression of mob violence. To a certain +extent the establishment of the praetorian guard served to overawe +the city mob, although only three of its cohorts were at first stationed +in the city. As a supplement to the praetorians Augustus +organized three urban cohorts, each originally 1500 strong, who +ranked between the legionaries and praetorians. Between 12 and +7 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the city was divided for administrative purposes into fourteen +regions, subdivided into 265 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vici</span></span> or wards. Each region was put +in charge of a tribune or aedile. A force of six hundred slaves under +the two curule aediles was formed as a fire brigade. But as these +proved ineffective in 6 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Augustus created a corps of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vigiles</span></span> to +serve as a fire brigade and night watch. This corps consisted of +seven cohorts, one for every two regions, and was under the command +of an equestrian prefect of the watch (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">praefectus vigilum</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Annona.</span></span> Another vital problem was the provision of an adequate +supply of grain for the city. A famine in 22 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> produced +so serious a situation that the Senate was forced to call upon Augustus +to assume the responsibility for this branch of the administration. +At first he tried to meet the situation through the appointment of +curators of senatorial rank, but after 6 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> he created the office of +prefect of the grain supply, filled by an equestrian appointee of the +princeps. His duty was to see that there was an adequate supply of +grain on hand for the market at a reasonable price and in addition +to make the monthly distribution of free grain to the city plebs. The +number of recipients of this benefit was fixed at 200,000. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In this way Augustus was forced to take over one of the spheres +of the government which he had intended should remain under the +direction of the Senate and to witness himself the first step towards the +breakdown of the administrative dyarchy which he had created. +</p> + +</div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page223">[pg 223]</span><a name="Pg223" id="Pg223" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <a name="toc179" id="toc179"></a><a name="pdf180" id="pdf180"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">VII. The Problem of the Succession</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The policy of Augustus.</span></span> In theory the position of the princeps +was that of a magistrate who derived his powers from the Senate and +the Roman people, and hence the choice of his successor legally lay +in their hands. However, Augustus realized that to leave the field +open to rival candidates would inevitably lead to a recrudescence of +civil war. Therefore he determined to designate his own successor +and to make the latter’s appointment a matter beyond dispute. Furthermore, +his own career as the son and heir of Julius Caesar warned +him that this heir to the principate must be found within his own +household, and his precarious health was a constant reminder that +he could not await the approach of old age before settling this problem. +And so, from the early years of his office, he arranged the +matrimonial alliances of his kinsfolk in the interests of the state +without regard to their personal preferences, to the end that in the +event of his decease there would be a member of the Julian house +prepared to assume his laborious task. Yet the unexpected length of +his life caused Augustus to outlive many of those whom he from +time to time looked upon as the heirs to his position in the state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Marcus Marcellus and Agrippa.</span></span> Augustus had one daughter +Julia, by his second wife Scribonia. He had no sons, but Livia +Drusilla, whom he took as his third wife in 36 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, brought him +two stepsons, Tiberius and Drusus. Yet not one of these but his +nephew, Marcus Marcellus, was his first choice for a successor. +Marcellus received Julia as his wife in 25 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, the next year at the +age of nineteen he was admitted to the Senate, and in 23 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, as +aedile, he won the favor of the populace by his magnificent public +shows. When Marcellus died in 23 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, Augustus turned to his +loyal adherent Agrippa, to whom Julia was now wedded. In 18 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +Agrippa received proconsular <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tribunicia potestas</span></span> for +five years, powers that were reconferred with those of Augustus in +13 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Tiberius.</span></span> But in the next year Agrippa died, and Augustus, regarding +his eldest stepson Tiberius, the conqueror of Noricum, as the +one best qualified to succeed himself, forced him to divorce the wife +to whom he was devoted and to marry Julia. At that time he was +given the important Illyrian command and in 6 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the tribunician +authority was granted him for a five year term. But Tiberius, +recog<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page224">[pg 224]</span><a name="Pg224" id="Pg224" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>nizing that he was soon to be set aside for the two elder sons of +Agrippa and Julia, Gaius and Lucius Caesar, whom Augustus had +adopted and taken into his own house, and being disgusted with the +flagrant unfaithfulness of Julia, retired into private life at Rhodes, +thereby incurring the deep enmity of his stepfather. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Gaius and Lucius Caesar.</span></span> Gaius and Lucius Caesar assumed +the garb of manhood (the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">toga virilis</span></span>) at the age of fifteen in 5 and +2 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, respectively. To celebrate each occasion Augustus held the +consulship, and placed them at the head of the equestrian order with +the title <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">principes iuventutis</span></span>. They were exempted from the limitations +of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cursus honorum</span></span> so that each might hold the consulate in +his twentieth year. In 1 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Gaius was sent to the East with proconsular +imperium to settle fresh trouble in Armenia. There in the +siege of a petty fortress he received a wound from which he died in +4 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Two years previously Lucius had fallen a victim to fever +while on his way to Spain. In the meantime Augustus had experienced +another blow in his discovery of the scandalous conduct of +Julia. Her guilt was the more unpardonable in view of the efforts +of her father to restore the moral tone of society. She was banished +to the island rock of Pandataria, her companions in crime were punished, +the most with banishment, one with death on a charge of treason +(1 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>). Her elder daughter, also called Julia, later met the +same fate for a like offence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Tiberius.</span></span> At the death of Gaius Caesar, Augustus turned once +more to Tiberius, who had been permitted to leave Rhodes at the +intercession of Livia. In 4 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> he was adopted by Augustus and +received the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tribunicia potestas</span></span> for ten years. In 13 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> his tribunician +power was renewed and he was made the colleague of Augustus +in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span>. Tiberius himself had been obliged to adopt his +nephew Germanicus, the son of Drusus, who married Agrippina, the +younger daughter of Agrippa and Julia. Association in authority +and adoption where necessary had become the means of designating +the successor in the principate. +</p> +</div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc181" id="toc181"></a><a name="pdf182" id="pdf182"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">VIII. Augustus as a Statesman</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The death of Augustus.</span></span> In 14 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Augustus held a census of +the Roman citizens in the empire. They numbered 4,937,000, an +increase of 826,000 since 28 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> In the same year he set up in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page225">[pg 225]</span><a name="Pg225" id="Pg225" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Rome an inscription recording his exploits and the sums which he had +expended in the interests of the state. A copy of this has been found +inscribed on the walls of the temple of Roma and Augustus at Ancyra, +and hence is known as the Monument of Ancyra. On 19 August, +14 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, Augustus died at Nola in Campania, at the age of seventy-six. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">An estimate of his statesmanship.</span></span> Opinions have differed and +probably always will differ upon the question whether or not Augustus +sought to establish a disguised form of monarchical government. +Still, in his favor stands the fact that, although when a young man +confronted or allied with rivals who sought his destruction he seized +power by illegal means, after the fate of the state was in his hands +and he had reëstablished an orderly form of government, he conscientiously +restricted himself to the use of the powers which were +legally conferred upon him. So ably did he conciliate public opinion +that the few conspiracies formed against his life and power had no +serious backing and constituted no real danger to himself or his +system. To have effected so important a change in the constitution +with so little friction is proof of a statesmanship of a high order. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +His principate marks the beginning of a new epoch in Roman history +and determined the course of the subsequent political development +of the empire. And the system he inaugurated finds its greatest +justification in the era of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pax Romana</span></span> which it ushered in. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The weakness of his system.</span></span> Yet it must be admitted that this +system contained two innate weaknesses. Firstly, it was built up +around the personality of Augustus, who could trust himself not to +abuse his great power, and secondly, the princeps, as commander-in-chief +of the Roman army, was immeasurably more powerful than the +second partner in the administration, the Senate, and able to assert +his will against all opposition. Now, as has well been observed, the +working of the principate depended upon the coöperation of the +Senate and the self-restraint of the emperors, consequently, when the +former proved incapable and the latter abused their power, the inevitable +consequence was an autocracy. That Augustus realized this +himself towards the end of his life is highly probable, yet as the one +who brought order out of chaos and gave peace to an exhausted world +his name will always be one of the greatest in the history of Rome or +indeed of the human race. +</p> + +</div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page226">[pg 226]</span><a name="Pg226" id="Pg226" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <a name="toc183" id="toc183"></a><a name="pdf184" id="pdf184"></a> + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER XVII</span></h2> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">THE JULIO-CLAUDIAN LINE AND THE FLAVIANS: + 14–96 A. D.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc185" id="toc185"></a><a name="pdf186" id="pdf186"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. Tiberius, 14–37 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Tiberius princeps.</span></span> At the death of Augustus, Tiberius by right +of his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> assumed command of the army and through his tribunician +authority convoked the Senate to pay the last honors to Augustus +and decide upon his successor. Like Julius Caesar, Augustus was +deified, and a priestly college of Augustales, chosen from the senatorial +order was founded to maintain his worship in Rome. In accordance +with a wish expressed in his will, his widow Livia was +honored with the name Augusta. Tiberius received the title of Augustus +and the other honors and powers which his predecessor had +made the prerogatives of the princeps. His <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span>, however, was +conferred for life, and not for a limited period. The ease of his +succession shows how solidly the principate was established at the +death of its founder. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Character and policy.</span></span> Tiberius was now fifty-six years of age. +He had spent the greater part of his life in the public service, and +consequently had a full appreciation of the burden of responsibility +which the princeps must assume. He was the incarnation of the old +Roman sense of duty to the state, and at the same time exhibited the +proud reserve of the Roman patricians. Stern in his maintenance of +law and order, he made an excellent subordinate, but when called +upon to guide the policy of state, he displayed hesitation and lack +of decision. The incidents of his marriage with Julia and his exile +had rendered him bitter and suspicious, and he utterly lacked the +personal charm and adaptability of his predecessor. Thus he was +temperamentally unsuited to the position he was called upon to fill +and this was responsible for his frequent misunderstandings with the +Senate. Such an incident occurred in the meetings of the Senate +after the death of Augustus. Tiberius, conscious of his +unpopu<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg 227]</span><a name="Pg227" id="Pg227" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>larity, sought to have the Senate press upon him the appointment as +the successor of Augustus, and so feigned reluctance to accept, a +course which made the senators suspect that he was laying a trap for +possible rivals. Yet there was no princeps who tried more conscientiously +to govern in the spirit of Augustus, or upheld more rigidly +the rights and dignity of the Senate. At the beginning of his principate +he transferred from the Assembly to the Senate the right of the +election to the magistracies, thus relieving the senators from the expense +and annoyance of canvassing the populace. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Mutinies in Illyricum and on the Rhine.</span></span> Two serious mutinies +followed the accession of Tiberius, one in the army stationed in +Illyricum, the other among the legions on the Rhine. Failure to +discharge those who had completed their terms of service and the +severity of the service itself were the grounds of dissatisfaction. The +Illyrian mutiny was quelled by the praetorian prefect Lucius Aelius +Seianus; the army of the Rhine was brought back to its allegiance by +Germanicus, the son of Drusus, whom Tiberius had adopted at the +command of Augustus in 4 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> He had married Agrippina, daughter +of Agrippa and Julia, and was looked upon as the heir of Tiberius +in preference to the latter’s younger and less able son, Drusus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The campaigns of Germanicus, 14–17 A. D.</span></span> To restore discipline +among his troops and relieve them from the monotony of camp +life, as well as to emulate the achievements of his father, Germanicus, +without the authorization of Tiberius, led his army across the Rhine. +The German tribes were still united in the coalition formed in the +time of Varus, and, under their leaders Arminius and Inguiomerus, +offered vigorous opposition to the Roman invasion. Nevertheless, in +three successive campaigns (14–16 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), Germanicus ravaged the +territory between the Rhine and the Weser and inflicted several defeats +upon the Germans. Still Arminius and his allies were by no +means subdued, and the Romans had sustained heavy losses. One +army had narrowly escaped the fate of the legions of Varus, and twice +had the transports of Germanicus suffered through storms in the +North Sea. For these reasons Tiberius forbade the prolongation of +the war and recalled Germanicus. With his departure, each of the +three Gauls was made an independent province, and two new administrative +districts called Upper and Lower Germany, under legates of +consular rank, were created on the left bank of the Rhine. Freed +from the danger of Roman interference, the Germanic tribes led by +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page228">[pg 228]</span><a name="Pg228" id="Pg228" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Arminius now engaged in a bitter struggle with Marbod, king of the + <a name="corr228" id="corr228" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Marcomanni</span>, which ultimately led to the overthrow of the latter’s kingdom. +Not long afterwards Arminius himself fell a victim to the +jealousy of his fellow tribesmen (19 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Eastern mission and death of Germanicus, 17–19 A. D.</span></span> After +his return from Gaul, Germanicus was sent by Tiberius to settle +affairs in the East, where the Armenian question had again become +acute. While he was in Syria, a bitter quarrel developed between +himself and Piso, the legate of the province. Accordingly, when Germanicus +fell ill and died there, many accused Piso of having poisoned +him. Although the accusation was false Piso was called to Rome to +stand his trial on that charge, and, finding that the popularity of +Germanicus had biased popular opinion against him, and that Tiberius +refused him his protection because of his attempt to assert his +rights by armed force, he committed suicide. Agrippina, the ambitious +wife of Germanicus, believed that Tiberius from motives of +jealousy had been responsible for her husband’s death. She openly +displayed her hostility to the princeps, and by plotting to secure the +succession for her own children, helped to bring about their ruin +and her own. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The withdrawal of Tiberius from Rome, 26 A. D.</span></span> The decision +of Tiberius to leave Rome in 26 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> and take up his residence on +the island of Capri had important consequences. One was that the +office of city prefect, who was the representative of the princeps, became +permanent. It was filled by a senator of consular rank who +commanded the urban cohorts and had wide judicial functions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The plot of Seianus.</span></span> In the second place the absence of Tiberius +gave his able and ambitious praetorian prefect Aelius Seianus encouragement +and opportunity to perfect the plot he had formed to +seize the principate for himself. He it was who concentrated the +praetorian guard, <a name="corr228a" id="corr228a" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">now</span> 10,000 strong, in their camp on the edge of +the city, and paved the way for their baneful influence upon the future +history of the principate. Having caused the death of Drusus, the +son of Tiberius, by poison, in 23 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, he intrigued to remove from +his path the sons of Germanicus, Drusus and Nero. They and their +mother Agrippina were condemned to imprisonment or exile on +charges of treason. In 31 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Seianus attained the consulate and +received proconsular <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> in the provinces. He allied himself +with the Julian house by his betrothal to Julia, the grand-daughter of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page229">[pg 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Tiberius. But in the same year the princeps became aware of his +plans. Tiberius acted with energy. Seianus and many of his supporters +were arrested and executed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The last years of Tiberius.</span></span> The discovery of Seianus’ treachery +seems to have affected the reason of the aging princeps. His fear of +treachery became an obsession. The law of treason (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex de maiestate</span></span>) +was rigorously enforced and many persons were condemned to death, +among them Agrippina and her sons. The senators lived in terror of +being accused by informers (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">delatores</span></span>), and in their anxiety to conciliate +the princeps they were only too ready to condemn any of their +own number. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The memory of his later years caused Tiberius to pass down in the +traditions of the senatorial order, represented by Tacitus and Suetonius, +as a ruthless tyrant, and to obscure his real services as a conscientious +and economical administrator. His parsimony in expenditures of +the public money won him unpopularity with the city mob, but was a +blessing to the provincials to whose welfare Tiberius directed particular +attention, while he vigorously protected them against the oppression +of imperial officials. During his rule the peace of the empire +was disturbed only by a brief rising in Gaul (21 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>) and a rather +prolonged struggle with Tacfarinas, a rebellious Berber chieftain, in +Numidia (17–24 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc187" id="toc187"></a><a name="pdf188" id="pdf188"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. Caius Caligula, 37–41 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Accession.</span></span> Tiberius left as his heirs his adoptive grandson Caius, +the sole surviving son of Germanicus, better known by his childhood +name of Caligula, acquired in the camps on the Rhine, and his +grandson by birth, Tiberius Gemellus. Upon Caius, the elder of +the two, then twenty-five years of age, the Senate immediately conferred +the powers of the principate. The resentment of the senators +towards his predecessor found vent in refusing him the posthumous +honor of deification. Caius adopted his cousin, but within a year +had him put to death. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Early months of his rule.</span></span> The early months of his rule seemed +the dawn of a new era. The pardoning of political offenders, the +banishment of informers, the reduction of taxes, coupled with lavishness +in public entertainments and donations, all made Gaius popular +with the Senate, the army and the city plebs. However, he was a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg 230]</span><a name="Pg230" id="Pg230" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>weakling in body and in mind, and a serious illness, brought on by +his excesses, seems to have left him mentally deranged. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Absolutism his ideal.</span></span> Reared in the house of Antonia, daughter +of Antony and Octavia, in company with eastern princes of the stamp +of Herod Agrippa, he naturally came to look upon the principate as +an autocracy of the Hellenistic type. In his attempt to carry this +conception into effect, the vein of madness in his character led him +to ridiculous extremes. Not content with claiming deification for +himself and his sisters, he built a lofty bridge connecting the Palatine +Hill with the Capitoline, so that he might communicate with +Jupiter, his brother god. He prescribed the sacrifices to be offered +to himself, and was accused of seeking to imitate the Ptolemaic custom +of sister marriage. Thoroughly consistent with absolutism was +his scorn of republican magistracies and disregard of the rights of +the Senate; likewise his attempt to have himself saluted as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dominus</span></span> +or <span class="tei tei-q">“lord.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The conflict with the Jews.</span></span> His demand for the acknowledgment +of his deification by all inhabitants of the empire brought Caius +into conflict with the Jews, who had been exempted from this formal +expression of loyalty. In Alexandria there was a large Jewish colony, +which enjoyed exceptional privileges and was consequently hated +by the other Alexandrians. Their refusal to worship the images of +Caius furnished the mob with a pretext for sacking the Jewish quarters +and forcibly installing statues of the princeps in some of their +synagogues. The Jews sent a delegation to plead their case before +Caius but could obtain no redress. In the meantime Caius had ordered +Petronius, the legate of Syria, to set up his statue in the temple +at Jerusalem, by force, if need be. However, the prudent Petronius, +seeing that this would bring about a national revolt among the Jews +delayed obeying the order, and the death of Caius relieved him of the +necessity of executing it at all. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Tyranny.</span></span> In less than a year the reckless extravagance of Caius +had exhausted the immense surplus Tiberius had left in the treasury. +To secure new funds he resorted to openly tyrannical measures, extraordinary +taxes, judicial murders, confiscations, and forced legacies. +By these means money was extorted not only from Romans of all +classes but provincials also. Ptolemy, king of Mauretania, was executed +for the sake of his treasure and his kingdom made a province. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Assassination.</span></span> Caius contemplated invasions of Germany and of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page231">[pg 231]</span><a name="Pg231" id="Pg231" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Britain, but the former ended with a military parade across the +Rhine and the latter with a march to the shores of the Straits of +Dover. The fear awakened by his rule of capricious violence soon +resulted in conspiracies against his life. In January, 41 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, he +was assassinated by a tribune of the imperial guards. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc189" id="toc189"></a><a name="pdf190" id="pdf190"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. Claudius, 41–54 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Nominated by the Praetorians.</span></span> In the choice of a successor to +Caius the power of the praetorian guard was first clearly demonstrated. +Caius was the last male representative of the Julian <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">gens</span></span>, and at his +death the Senate debated the question of restoring the republic. +However, the decision was made for them by the praetorians, who +dragged from his hiding place and saluted as Imperator the surviving +brother of Germanicus, Tiberius Claudius Germanicus. The Senate +had to acquiesce in his nomination and grant him the powers of the +princeps. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Character.</span></span> Claudius was already fifty-one years old, but because +of his ungainly figure and limited mentality had never been seriously +considered for the principate. He was learned and pedantic, but +lacking in energy and resolution. His greatest weakness was that he +was completely under the influence of his wives, of whom he had in +succession four, and his favorite freedmen. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Policy.</span></span> In general the policy of Claudius followed that of Augustus +and Tiberius. But in 47 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> he assumed the censorship for +five years, an office which Augustus had avoided because it set its +holder directly above the Senate. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the capacity of censor, Claudius extended to the Gallic Aedui +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">jus honorum</span></span> and consequently the right of admission to the Senate. +This was in accord with his policy of generously granting citizenship +to the provincials. The census taken in 47 and 48 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> showed +approximately six million Romans, nearly a million more than in the +time of Augustus. Claudius also renewed the attempt of Julius +Caesar to occupy the island of Britain. In 43 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> his legates Aulus + <a name="corr231" id="corr231" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Plautius,</span> Vespasian and Ostorius Scapula subdued the island as far +as the Thames, and in the following years extended their conquests +farther northward. The southern part of the island became the +province of Britain. In 46 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, Thrace was incorporated as a +province at the death of its client prince. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page232">[pg 232]</span><a name="Pg232" id="Pg232" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Influence of freedmen.</span></span> During the rule of Claudius the real +heads of the administration were a group of able freedmen, Narcissus, +Pallas, Polybius and, later, Callistus. While it is true that they +abused their power to amass riches for themselves, they contributed +a great deal to the organization of the imperial bureaucracy. Their +influence caused the widespread employment of imperial freedmen in +procuratorial positions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Agrippina the younger.</span></span> In 49 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> the plot of Messalina, the +third wife of Claudius, and her lover Gaius Silius, to depose the +princeps in favor of Silius, endangered the power of the trio Pallas, +Narcissus and Callistus. It was Narcissus who revealed the conspiracy +to Claudius, secured his order for the execution of Messalina, +and saw that it was carried into effect. But it was Pallas who induced +the princeps to take as his fourth wife his own niece Agrippina, +whose ambitions were to prove his ruin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Death of Claudius.</span></span> By Messalina Claudius had a son Britannicus +and a daughter Octavia, but Agrippina determined to secure the +succession for Domitius, her son by her previous husband Lucius +Domitius Ahenobarbus. In 50 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, Domitius was adopted by Claudius +as Nero Claudius Caesar. The following year he received the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span>, and was thus openly designated as the future princeps. +In 53 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Nero was married to Octavia and a year later Claudius +died, poisoned, as all believed, by Agrippina, who feared that further +delay would endanger her plans. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc191" id="toc191"></a><a name="pdf192" id="pdf192"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. Nero, 54–68 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The quinquennium Neronis.</span></span> Agrippina had previously made +sure of the support of the praetorians, and so the appointment of Nero +to the principate transpired without opposition. The first five years +of his rule were noted as a period of excellent administration. During +that time his counsels were guided by the praetorian prefect, Afranius +Burrus from Narbonese Gaul, and by Lucius Annaeus Seneca, the +famous writer and orator from Spain, whom Agrippina had appointed +as his tutor in 49 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Fall of Agrippina.</span></span> This epoch is also characterized by the attempt +of Agrippina to act as regent for her son and retain the influence +she had acquired during the later years of the life of Claudius. +But in this she was opposed both by Nero himself and his able +ad<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page233">[pg 233]</span><a name="Pg233" id="Pg233" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>visors. In 55 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Nero caused his adoptive brother Britannicus +to be poisoned, through fear that he might prove a rival. Finally, +under the influence of his mistress, Poppaea Sabina, the wife of Titus +Salvius Otho, he had Agrippina murdered (59 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). Thereupon he +divorced Octavia, who was later banished and put to death, and married +Poppaea. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The government of Nero.</span></span> Freed from the fear of any rival influence, +Nero, now twenty-two years of age, took the reins of government +into his own hands. After the death of Burrus in 62, Seneca +lost his influence over the princeps, who took as his chief advisor the +worthless praetorian prefect, Tigellinus. The Senate, whose support +he had courted in his opposition to Agrippina, now found itself without +any influence; and, since his wanton extravagances emptied the +treasury, Nero was forced to resort to oppressive measures to satisfy +his needs. The sole object of his policy was the gratification of his +capricious whims. In the conviction that he was an artist of extraordinary +genius, he hungered for the applause of the successful +performer, and in 65 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> publicly appeared in the theatre as a +singer and musician. Nothing could have more deeply alienated the +respect of the upper classes of Roman society. Eager to duplicate +his theatrical successes in the home of the Muses, in 66 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Nero +visited Greece and exhibited his talent at the Olympian and Delphic +games. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The fire in Rome and the first persecution of the Christians, +64 A. D.</span></span> In 64 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> a tremendous fire, which lasted for six continuous +days and broke out a second time, devastated the greater part +of the city of Rome. Subsequently, Nero was accused of having +caused the fire, but there is absolutely no proof of his guilt. However, +he did seize the opportunity to rebuild the damaged quarter on a +new plan which did away with the offensive slum districts, and to +erect his famous <span class="tei tei-q">“Golden House,”</span> a magnificent palace and park +on the Esquiline. Popular opinion demanded some scapegoat for the +disaster, and Nero laid the blame upon the Christians in Rome, possibly +at the instigation of the Jews whose community was divided by +the spread of Christian doctrines. Many Christians were condemned +as incendiaries, and suffered painful and ignominious deaths. This +was the first persecution of the Christians. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Armenian problem, 51–67 A. D.</span></span> In 51 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> an able and +ambitious ruler, Vologases, came to the Parthian throne. He soon +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg 234]</span><a name="Pg234" id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>found a chance to set his brother Tiridates on the throne of Armenia +and was able to maintain him there until the death of Claudius. +However, at the accession of Nero, Caius Domitius Corbulo was sent +to Cappadocia to reassert the Roman suzerainty over Armenia. At +first Vologases abandoned Armenia, owing to a revolt in Parthia, but +in 58 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Tiridates reappeared on the scene and war broke out. +In two campaigns Corbulo was able to occupy the country and set up +a Roman nominee as the Armenian king (60 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). It was not long +before the latter was driven out by Vologases, who succeeded in surrounding +a Roman force under Caesennius Paetus, the new commander +in Cappadocia, and forcing him to purchase his safety by +concluding an agreement favorable to the Parthian (62 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). The +situation was saved by Corbulo, then legate of Syria, who was finally +entrusted with the sole command of operations and forced Vologases +to meet the Roman terms (63 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). Tiridates retained the Armenian +throne, but acknowledged the Roman overlordship by coming to +Rome to receive his crown from Nero’s hands. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The revolt in Britain, 60 A. D.</span></span> Under Claudius the Romans +had extended their dominion in Britain as far north as the Humber, +and westwards to Cornwall and Wales. In 59 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> <a name="corr234" id="corr234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Suetonius</span> +Paulinus occupied the island of Mona (Anglesea), the chief seat of +the religion of the Druids. While he was engaged in this undertaking +a serious revolt broke out among the Iceni and Trinovantes, +who lived between the Wash and the Thames. It was caused by the +severity of the Roman administration and in particular the ill-treatment +of Boudicca, the queen of the Iceni, who headed the insurrection, +by Roman procurators. The Roman towns of Camulodunum +(Colchester), Verulamium (St. Alban’s), and Londinium (London) +were destroyed, and 70,000 Romans were said to have been massacred. +A Roman legion was defeated in battle and it was not until Paulinus +returned and united the scattered Roman forces that the insurgents +were checked. The Britons were decisively defeated and Boudicca +committed suicide. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The conspiracy of Piso, 65 A. D.</span></span> About 62 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> there began a +long series of treason trials in Rome occasioned partly by the desire +to confiscate the property of the accused and partly by the suspicion +which is the inevitable concomitant of tyranny. The resulting insecurity +of the senatorial order naturally produced a real attempt +to overthrow the princeps. A wide-reaching conspiracy, in which one +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg 235]</span><a name="Pg235" id="Pg235" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>of the praetorian prefects was involved and which was headed by the +senator Gaius Calpurnius Piso, was discovered in 65 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Among +those who were executed for complicity therein were the poet Lucan +and his uncle Seneca. Other notable victims of Nero’s vengeance +were Thrasea Paetus and Borea Sonarus, the Stoic senators, whose +guilt was their silent but unmistakable disapproval of his tyrannical +acts. No man of prominence was safe; even the famous general Corbulo +was forced to commit suicide in 67 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The rebellion of Vindex, 68 A. D.</span></span> Upon Nero’s return from +Greece, a more serious movement began in Gaul where Caius Julius +Vindex, the legate of the province of Lugdunensis, raised the standard +of revolt and was supported by the provincials who were suffering +under the pressure of taxation. Vindex was joined by Sulpicius +Galba, governor of Hither Spain, and other legates. The commander +of Upper Germany, Verginius Rufus, who remained true to Nero, defeated +Vindex, but, the revolt spread to the troops of Verginius himself +and these hailed their commander as imperator. He, however, +refused the honor and gave the Senate the opportunity to name the +princeps. Nero’s fate was sealed by his own cowardice and the +treachery of the prefect Sabinus, who bought the support of the praetorian +guards for Galba. The Senate followed their lead, and Nero, +who had fled from Rome, had himself killed by a faithful freedman. +With him ends the Julio-Claudian dynasty. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc193" id="toc193"></a><a name="pdf194" id="pdf194"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">V. The First War of the Legions or the Year of the Four +Emperors, 68–69 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The power of the army.</span></span> The year 68–69 witnessed the accession +of four emperors, each the nominee of the soldiery. And, while +up to this time the praetorians had exercised the right of acclamation +in the name of the army as a whole, now the legions stationed on the +various frontiers asserted for themselves the same privilege. As +Tacitus expresses it, the fatal secret of the empire was discovered, +namely, that the princeps could be nominated elsewhere than in Rome. +Although the principate may be said to have been founded by the +universal consent of the Roman world, nevertheless, from its inception +the power of the princeps had rested directly upon his military +command, and the civil war of 68–69 showed how completely the +professional army was master of the situation. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page236">[pg 236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Galba, 68 A. D.</span></span> Galba, who succeeded Nero, was a man of good +family but moderate attainments and soon showed himself unable to +maintain his authority. That he would have been held <span class="tei tei-q">“fit to rule, +had he not ruled,”</span> is the judgment of Tacitus. He had never been +enthusiastically supported by the Rhine legions nor the praetorians, +and his severity in maintaining discipline, added to his failure to pay +the promised donative, completely alienated the loyalty of the guards. +At the news that the troops in Upper and Lower Germany had declared +for Aulus Vitellius, legate of the latter province (1 Jan., 69), +Galba sought to strengthen his position by adopting as his son and +destined successor, Lucius Calpurnius Piso, a young man of high +birth but no experience. By this step he offended Marcus Salvius +Otho, the onetime husband of Nero’s wife Poppaea Sabina, who had +been one of Galba’s staunch adherents and hoped to succeed him. +Otho now won over the disgruntled praetorian guards who slew Galba +and Piso, and proclaimed Otho Imperator. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Otho, Jan.–April, 69.</span></span> The Senate acquiesced in their decision +but not so the legions of Vitellius which were already on the march +to Italy. They crossed the Alps without opposition but were checked +by the forces of Otho at Bedriacum, north of the Po. Without waiting +for the arrival of reinforcements from the Danubian army, Otho +ordered an attack upon the Vitellians at Cremona. His army was +defeated and he took his own life. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Vitellius, April–December, 69 A. D.</span></span> Thereupon Vitellius was +recognized as princeps by the Senate and his forces occupied Rome. +Vitellius owed his nomination to the energy of the legates Valens and +Caecina, and, although well-meaning and by no means tyrannical, +showed himself lacking in energy and force of character. He was +unable to control the license of his soldiery who plundered the Italian +towns or his officers who enriched themselves at the public expense, +while he devoted himself to the pleasures of the table. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Meanwhile the army of the East, which had recognized Galba, +Otho and, at first, Vitellius also, set up its own Imperator, Titus +Flavius Vespasianus, who as legate of Judaea was conducting a war +against the Jews. Vespasian himself proceeded to occupy Egypt and +thus cut off the grain supply of Rome while his ablest lieutenant, +Mucianus, set out for Italy. The Danubian legions, who had supported +Otho, now declared themselves for Vespasian and, led by Antonius +Primus, marched at once upon Italy. The fleet at Ravenna +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page237">[pg 237]</span><a name="Pg237" id="Pg237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>espoused Vespasian’s cause, and Caecina, who led the Vitellians +against Primus, contemplated treachery. His troops, however, were +loyal, but were defeated in a bloody night battle at Cremona and the +way lay open to Rome. Vitellius then opened negotiations and offered +to abdicate, but his soldiers would not let him and suppressed a +rising in Rome led by the brother of Vespasian. Thereupon the city +was stormed and sacked by the army of Primus. Vitellius himself +was slain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Vespasian, December, 69 A. D.</span></span> Vespasian obtained his recognition +as princeps from the Senate and the troops in the West. He entered +Rome early in 70 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc195" id="toc195"></a><a name="pdf196" id="pdf196"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">VI. Vespasian and Titus, 69–81 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Caesar an imperial title.</span></span> Following the example of Galba, Vespasian +on his accession took the name of Caesar, which became from +this time a prerogative of the family of the <a name="corr237" id="corr237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">princeps.</span> The new +princeps inherited from his predecessors two serious wars, both national +revolts against Roman rule, the one in Gaul and Lower Germany, +the other in Judaea. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The revolt of the Batavi, 69 A. D.</span></span> The movement in Lower +Germany was headed by Julius Civilis, a Batavian chieftain, formerly +an officer in the Roman service, who won over the eight Batavian +cohorts attached to the Rhine army. At first he posed as a +supporter of Vespasian against Vitellius, but at the news of the +former’s victory he renounced his allegiance to Rome and called to +his aid Germanic tribes from across the Rhine. At the same time +the Gallic Treveri and Lingones, the former led by Julius Classicus +and Julius Tutor, the latter by Julius Sabinus, rose in rebellion and +sought to establish an empire of the Gauls with its capital at Trèves +(Augusta Treverorum). They were joined by the Roman legions +stationed on the Rhine. However, the remaining peoples of Gaul +refused to join the revolt, preferring the Roman peace to a renewal +of the old intertribal struggles. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Upon the arrival of an adequate Roman force despatched by Vespasian +the mutinous legions returned to their duty, the Treveri and +Lingones were subdued, and Civilis forced to flee into Germany. The +Batavi returned to their former status of Roman allies under the +obligation of furnishing troops to the Roman armies (70 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). But +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page238">[pg 238]</span><a name="Pg238" id="Pg238" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Rome had seen the danger of stationing national corps under their +native officers in their home countries. Henceforth the auxiliaries +were no longer organized on a national basis and served in provinces +other than those in which they were recruited. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Jewish War, 66–70 A. D.</span></span> From the year 6 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Judaea +had formed a Roman procuratorial province except for its brief incorporation +in the principality of Agrippa I (41–44 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). During +this time the Jews had occupied a privileged position among the +Roman subjects, being exempted from military service and the obligation +of the imperial cult, notwithstanding the design of Caligula to +set up his image in the temple at Jerusalem. These privileges were +the source of constant friction between the Jews and the Greco-Syrian +inhabitants of the cities of Palestine, which frequently necessitated the +interference of Roman officials. Another cause of unrest was the +pressure of the Roman taxation, which rendered agriculture unprofitable +and drove many persons from the plains to the mountains +to find a livelihood through brigandage. But a more deeply-seated +cause of animosity to Roman rule lay in the fact that the Jewish +people were a religious community and that for them national loyalty +was identical with religious fanaticism. The chief Jewish sects were +those of the Sadducees and the Pharisees, of whom the former composed +the aristocracy and the latter the democracy. The Sadducees +were supported by the Romans and monopolized the offices of the +religious community, whereas the Pharisees courted the support of the +masses by a policy of hostility to Rome and religious intolerance. It +is improbable that the Pharisees actually sought to bring about a +revolt but they kindled a fire which they could not control and +strengthened the development of a party of direct action, the Zealots, +who aimed to liberate Judaea from the Roman force, trusting in the +support of Jehovah. By 66 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> all Judaea was in a ferment and it +required but little incitement to produce a national revolt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Massacres in Caesarea and Jerusalem, 66 A. D.</span></span> Such a provocation +was afforded by the decision of the Roman government that +Jews were not entitled to citizenship in Caesarea, the Roman capital +of Judaea, and by a massacre of the Jews by the Greeks in a riot +which followed. However, at the same time in Jerusalem the Zealots +had overpowered the Roman garrison of one cohort, and massacred +both the Romans and their Jewish supporters. At the news, further +massacres took place in the towns of Syria and Egypt, the Jews +suffer<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page239">[pg 239]</span><a name="Pg239" id="Pg239" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>ing wherever they were in a minority but avenging their countrymen +where they got the upper hand. The Romans awoke to the seriousness +of the situation when the legate of Syria, Cestius Gallus, who +had marched on Jerusalem, was forced to beat an ignominious retreat. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Vespasian in command, 67 A. D.</span></span> In 67 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Vespasian was +appointed to the command of an army of 50,000 assembled for the +reconquest of Judaea. In this and the following year he reduced the +open country and isolated fortresses, and was ready to begin the +blockade of Jerusalem, where the majority of the Jews had fled for +refuge. However, Vespasian’s elevation to the principate caused a +suspension of hostilities for ten months, during which factional strife +raged fiercely within the city. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Siege of Jerusalem, 70 A. D.</span></span> The conclusion of the war Vespasian +entrusted to his eldest son Titus, who at once began the siege of +Jerusalem (70 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). The city had a double line of fortifications, +and within the inner wall were two natural citadels, the temple and +the old city of Mount Zion. The population, augmented by great +numbers of refugees, suffered terribly from hunger but resisted with +the fury of despair. The outer and inner walls were stormed, and +then the Romans forced their way into the temple which was destroyed +by fire. Mount Zion defied assault but was starved into submission. +Jerusalem was destroyed, and Judaea became a province +under an imperial legate. The political community of the Jews was +dissolved and they were subjugated to a yearly head-tax of two denarii +(40 cents) each, payable to the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, in consideration +of which they enjoyed their previous immunities. The +victory of Titus was commemorated by the arch which still stands +near the Roman forum. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The frontiers.</span></span> The disorders of the recent wars rendered it necessary +for Vespasian to reorganize many branches of the administration, +a task which won for him the name of the second founder of the +principate. The security of the frontiers received his particular attention. +In Germany he annexed the territory between the Rhine +above its junction with the Main and the upper Danube, henceforth +known as the Agri Decumates from the tithe (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">decuma</span></span>) paid as +rental by colonists who settled there. Further east on the Danube +two strong legionary camps were constructed at Carnuntum and Vindobona +(Vienna). The Euphrates frontier was strengthened by the +establishment of Roman garrisons at Melitene and Satala on the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page240">[pg 240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Upper Euphrates, and by annexing to the Syrian province the kingdom +of Commagene, which Gaius had restored to its native dynasty. +Other client principalities met a like fate. Among the soldiery discipline +was restored by disbanding four of the mutinous Rhine legions +and replacing them with new units. The praetorian guard, dissolved +by Vitellius, was reconstituted out of Italian cohorts following the +precedent set by Augustus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The finances.</span></span> The most serious problem was that of the finances, +for the extravagance of the preceding emperors had left the government +in a state of bankruptcy and the provinces financially exhausted. +Vespasian estimated that the sum of $2,000,000,000 was required to +make the necessary outlays. To obtain this amount it was necessary +to impose new taxes and avoid all needless expenditures. Yet he +not only succeeded in making the state solvent but was able to carry +out extensive building operations in Italy and in the provinces. In +Rome the Capitoline Temple which had been burned in the fighting +with the Vitellians was rebuilt, a temple of Peace was erected on the +forum, and the huge Colosseum arose on the site of one of the lakes +of Nero’s Golden House. Vespasian also granted state support to +the teachers of Greek and Roman oratory in Rome. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In 74 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Vespasian assumed the censorship and took a census +of the empire in addition to filling the ranks of the Senate which +had been depleted by the late civil wars. He was generous in his +grants of citizenship to provincials, and bestowed the Latin right on +all the non-Roman communities of Spain, as a preliminary step to +their complete romanization. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Vespasian and the senate.</span></span> Vespasian was the first princeps who +was not of the Roman nobility. He was a native of the Italian municipality +of Reate and his family was only of equestrian rank. He +was furthermore an eminently practical man who made no attempt +to disguise the fact that he was the real master in the state. Significant +in this respect was his revival of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">praenomen</span></span> imperator, +which had been neglected by the successors of Augustus. He treated +the Senate with respect, and recognized its judicial authority, but +excluded it from all effective share in the government. A senatorial +decree and a law of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia</span></span> conferred upon Vespasian the powers +of the principate, yet he dated the beginning of his reign from the +day of his salutation as Imperator by his army. All these things, +combined with his refusal to punish the informers of Nero’s reign, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page241">[pg 241]</span><a name="Pg241" id="Pg241" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>earned him the ill-will of the senators. Some of them proceeded to +open criticism of the princeps and a futile advocacy of republicanism +in the form of a cult of Brutus and Cato the Younger. The leader +of this group was Helvidius Priscus, son-in-law of Paetus Thrasea, +whom Nero had put to death, and like him a Stoic. Although not +very dangerous, such opposition could not be ignored and Priscus was +banished. He was later executed, probably for conspiracy. In all +probability it was the antimonarchical tendency of contemporary Stoic +teachings that induced Vespasian to banish philosophers from Rome. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The praetorian prefecture.</span></span> To forestall any disloyalty in the +praetorian guard, Vespasian made his son Titus praetorian prefect. +Titus also received the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tribunicia potestas</span></span>, and when +Vespasian died in 79 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> succeeded to the principate. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Titus, 79–81 A. D.</span></span> His rule lasted little over two years, and is +chiefly remarkable for two great disasters. In 79 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> an eruption +of the volcano of Vesuvius buried the cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, +and Stabii in Campania. Beneath the heavy deposit of volcanic ashes +the buildings of these towns have been preserved from disintegration, +and the excavation of the site of Pompeii has revealed with wonderful +freshness the life of an Italian municipality under the principate. +The following year Rome was devastated by a fire which raged +for three days and destroyed Vespasian’s new temple of Capitoline +Jupiter. In September, 81 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, Titus died, deeply mourned by the +whole Roman world. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc197" id="toc197"></a><a name="pdf198" id="pdf198"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">VII. Domitian, 81–96 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Character and policy.</span></span> Titus was followed by his younger brother +Domitian, whom, on account of his ambition, neither Vespasian nor +Titus had permitted to share in the government. Domitian was a +thorough autocrat and his administration was characterized by great +vigor and capacity. Far from being a mere tyrant, he paid great attention +to the welfare of the provinces and exercised a strict supervision +over his officers. He also displayed a real interest in literature +and replaced the libraries destroyed in the fire of 80 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +His autocratic policy is clearly seen in his assumption of the censorship +as perpetual censor in 84 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, whereby he acquired complete +control over the composition of the Senate, a power which, without +the title, was henceforth one of the prerogatives of the princeps. Even +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page242">[pg 242]</span><a name="Pg242" id="Pg242" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>more emphatically does his absolutism come to light in the title + <span class="tei tei-hi"><a name="corr242" id="corr242" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-style: italic">dominus</span></span><span style="font-style: italic"> et deus</span></span> (Lord and God), which he required from the officers +of his household, and by which he was generally designated, although +he did not employ it himself in official documents. For the cult of +the deified emperors Domitian erected a special temple in Rome, and +he also established a priestly college of Flaviales, modelled on the +Augustales of Rome, to perpetuate the worship of his deified father +and brother. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Frontier policy: Britain.</span></span> The desire for military successes as +a support for his absolutism led Domitian to adopt an aggressive +frontier policy. In Britain, Julius Agricola, legate from 77 to 84 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, led the Roman legions north of the Clyde and Firth of Forth +and defeated the united Caledonians under their chief Galgacus +(84 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). He also sent his fleet around the north of Scotland and +proved that Great Britain was an island. But his projects, which included +an invasion of Ireland, seemed too costly to Domitian who +recalled him, possibly in view of the military situation on the continent. +The conquest of Scotland was not completed and the Roman +authority was confined to the territory south of the Tyne. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Germany.</span></span> In 83 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Domitian led an army across the Rhine +from Mainz and annexed the district of Wetterau, where the lowlands +were already in Roman hands although the hills were still +occupied by the hostile Chatti. A chain of forts was built to protect +the conquered region. In the winter of 88–89 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> the legate +of Upper Germany, Antonius Saturninus, was hailed as Imperator +by the two legions stationed at Mainz. Aid was expected by the +mutineers from the German tribes, but this failed to materialize and +the movement was suppressed by loyal troops, possibly from the lower +province. In consequence of this mutiny Domitian adopted the +policy of not quartering more than one legion in any permanent +camp. At the same time he separated the financial administration +of the German provinces from that of Gallia Belgica. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The lower Danube.</span></span> More powerful neighbors faced the Romans +along the middle and lower Danube, and in dealing with these the +policy of Domitian was less successful. These people were the Germanic +tribes of the Marcomanni and Quadi in Bohemia, the Sarmatian +Iazyges between the Danube and the Theiss, and the Dacians, +who occupied the greater portion of modern Hungary and Roumania. +The most powerful of all were the Dacians, among whom a king +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page243">[pg 243]</span><a name="Pg243" id="Pg243" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>named Decebalus had built up a strong state. In 85 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> they +crossed the Danube into Moesia, where they defeated and killed the +Roman governor. Thereupon Domitian himself took command and +drove the Dacians back across the river. But the pretorian prefect +Cornelius Fuscus in attempting to invade Dacia suffered a disastrous +defeat in which he and most of his army perished. His successor +Tettius Julianus was more successful. However, a complete victory +was prevented by Domitian, who rashly invaded the territory of the +Marcomanni and Iazyges, and was defeated by them. He thereupon +made peace with Decebalus, who gave up his prisoners of war and +acknowledged the formal overlordship of Rome, but received an annual +subsidy from Domitian in addition to the services of Roman +military engineers (89 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). Although Domitian celebrated a triumph +for his exploits, his victory was by no means certain and his +settlement was only temporary. In the course of the Dacian war +Moesia was divided into two provinces. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Conflict with the Senate.</span></span> Feeling that the army was the surest +support of his power, Domitian sought to secure its fidelity by increasing +the pay of the soldiers by one third. This new expense, +added to the outlays necessitated by his wars, the construction of +public works, like the restoration of the Capitoline Temple, and the +celebration of public festivals, forced him to augment the taxes and +this produced discontent in the provinces. In Rome, particularly +after the revolt of Saturninus, his relations with the Senate became +more and more strained. Many prominent senators were executed on +charges of treason; the teachers of philosophy were again banished +from Italy; and notable converts to Judaism or Christianity were +prosecuted, the latter on the ground of atheism. The general feeling +of insecurity produced the inevitable result; a plot in which the praetorian +prefects and his wife Domitia were concerned was formed +against his life; he was assassinated, 18 September, 96 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> His +memory was cursed by the Senate and his name erased from public +monuments. It was the oppression of the last years of Domitian’s +rule that so strongly biased the attitude of Tacitus towards the principate +and its founder. +</p> + + </div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page244">[pg 244]</span><a name="Pg244" id="Pg244" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <a name="toc199" id="toc199"></a><a name="pdf200" id="pdf200"></a> + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER XVIII</span></h2> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">FROM NERVA TO DIOCLETIAN: 96–285 A. D.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc201" id="toc201"></a><a name="pdf202" id="pdf202"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. Nerva and Trajan, 96–117 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Nerva and the Senate.</span></span> Before assassinating Domitian, the conspirators +had secured a successor who would be supported by the +Senate and not prove inacceptable to the pretorians. Their choice +was the elderly senator Marcus Cocceius Nerva, one of a family distinguished +for its juristic attainments. He took an oath never to put +a senator to death, recalled the philosophers and political exiles, and +permitted the prosecution of informers. But he was lacking in force +and did not feel his position sufficiently secure to refuse the demands +of the praetorian guard for vengeance upon the murderers of Domitian. +Therefore to strengthen his authority he adopted a tried soldier, +Marcus Ulpius Traianus, the legate of Upper Germany. Trajan +received the tribunician authority and proconsular <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> (97 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The alimenta.</span></span> Nerva’s administration benefitted Italy in particular. +Not only were the taxes and other obligations of the Italians +lessened, but the so-called alimentary system was devised in the interests +of poor farmers and the children of poor parents. Under +this system of state charity, sums of money were lent to poor landholders +at low rates of interest on the security of their land. The interest +from these loans was paid over to their respective municipalities +and expended by them in supporting the pauper children. The +scheme was perfected and extended by the succeeding princes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">An era of internal peace.</span></span> With Nerva begins a period in the +history of the principate that is characterized by amicable relations +between the princeps and the Senate. The basis of this concord was +the agreement by the successive emperors to acknowledge the freedom +of senators from the imperial jurisdiction. There was no longer any +question of an active participation by the Senate as a whole in the +administration, nevertheless it continued to exercise its influence +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page245">[pg 245]</span><a name="Pg245" id="Pg245" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>through the official posts reserved for senators. In addition to the +establishment of these harmonious relations, the peaceful succession +of a number of able rulers who were designated by adoption and association +in the powers of the principate has caused this epoch to be +regarded as one of the happiest periods of Roman history. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Nerva died in January, 98 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, after a rule of less than two +years, and was succeeded by Trajan, who assumed office at Cologne. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Trajan’s character and policy.</span></span> Trajan was a native of the Roman +colony of Italica in Spain, and the first provincial to attain the +principate. His accession is evidence not only for the degree of +romanization in the Spanish provinces but also for the decline of the +dominance of the strictly Italian element within the empire and the +transformation of the Italian into an imperial nobility of wealth +and office. The new princeps was above all things a soldier, and +the desire for military glory was his chief weakness. At the same +time he was an energetic and conscientious administrator, and showed +a personal interest in the welfare of Italy and the provinces, as we +see from his correspondence with the younger Pliny, governor of +Bithynia in 111–113 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> He respected the rights of the Senate +and repeated Nerva’s oath not to condemn one of that body to death. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The </span><a name="corr245" id="corr245" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">conquest</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700"> of Dacia, 101–106 A. D.</span></span> In the third year of his +rule Trajan undertook the conquest of Dacia, for Domitian’s agreement +with Decebalus was regarded as a disgrace and the existence of +a strong Dacian kingdom was a perpetual menace to the Danubian +frontier. Decebalus was still king of the Dacians and proved himself +a valiant opponent, but in two well-conducted campaigns (101–102 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>) Trajan forced him to sue for peace. He was obliged to +give up his engines of war with the Roman engineers whom he had +received from Domitian, to acknowledge Roman overlordship and +render military service to Rome. Trajan built a permanent stone +bridge across the Danube below the Iron Gates to secure communication +with the northern bank, and returned to Rome to celebrate his +victory with a triumph. But Decebalus was not content to remain +as a Roman vassal and made preparations to recover his people’s +independence. In 105 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> he opened hostilities by an invasion of +Moesia. However, Trajan hurried to the scene, secured the support +of the neighboring tribes, and in the following year entered Dacia. +His victory was complete, the capital of Decebalus was captured, the +king took his own life, and such of the Dacians as did not abandon +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page246">[pg 246]</span><a name="Pg246" id="Pg246" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>their country were hunted down and exterminated. Dacia was made +a Roman province, and was peopled with settlers from various parts +of the empire, particularly from Asia Minor. The new province +was of importance both on account of its gold mines and its position +as a bulwark defending the provinces to the south of the Danube. +To commemorate his Dacian wars, Trajan erected a stone column, +one hundred feet high, in the new forum which bore his name. +The column, which is still in place, is adorned with a spiral band +of sculptured reliefs that vividly trace the course of the military +operations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On other frontiers also Trajan strengthened or extended the boundaries +of the empire. In 106 he annexed the kingdom of the Nabataean +Arabs to the east of Palestine and Syria. From this was +formed the province of Arabia. In Africa also the Romans occupied +new territory, and secured it against Berber raids by creating new +fortresses at Lambaesis and Timgad. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Parthian war, 114–116 A. D.</span></span> The peaceful relations which +had existed between Rome and Parthia since the time of Nero were +broken in 114 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> when the Parthian king Chosroes drove out the +Armenian ruler, who had received his crown from Trajan’s hands, +and set his own son Parthamasiris in his stead. Trajan at once +repaired to the East and concentrated an army for the invasion of +Armenia. Parthamasiris offered to acknowledge the Roman suzerainty +over Armenia, but Trajan determined to effect a definite settlement +of the eastern frontier by the permanent occupation of Armenia +and, for strategic reasons, of Mesopotamia also. In 114 he effected +an easy conquest of Armenia, and in the next year annexed Upper +Mesopotamia. He now resolved to complete his success by the overthrow +of the Parthian kingdom. Accordingly, in 116 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, he overran +Assyria and made it a province, and then pressed on to the +Persian gulf, capturing Seleucia, Babylon and the Parthian capital +Ctesiphon on his way. From dreams of further conquests Trajan +was recalled by a serious revolt in Mesopotamia which was only subdued +with great effort, and in 117 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Chosroes was able to reoccupy +his capital. At the same time the eastern provinces were disturbed +by a rising of the Jews, which began in Cyrene in 115 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> and spread +to Cyprus, Egypt and Mesopotamia. Horrible massacres were perpetrated +both by the Jews and their enemies, and large numbers of +troops had to be employed before order was restored. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page247">[pg 247]</span><a name="Pg247" id="Pg247" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +News of revolts in Africa and Britain, and of troubles on the +Danubian border, led Trajan to set out for Rome. On the way he +fell ill and died at Selinus in Cilicia on 8 August, 117 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc203" id="toc203"></a><a name="pdf204" id="pdf204"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. Hadrian, 117–138 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Hadrian princeps.</span></span> Trajan left no male heir and had associated +no one with himself in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> or tribunician power. However, +on his deathbed he adopted his cousin and one-time ward, +Publius Aelius Hadrianus, also a native of Italica. Hadrian was +married to Sabina, a grand-daughter of Trajan’s sister Marciana. +He had had a distinguished military career and in 117 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> was +commander of the army in Syria. At the news of his adoption his +troops saluted him as Imperator and his nomination was confirmed +by the Senate. The only opposition came from some of the ablest +of Trajan’s officers, notably Lusius Quietus, who soon plotted against +his life. But their conspiracy was detected and the Senate condemned +to death the four leaders in the plot. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Hellenism.</span></span> Hadrian was a man of restless energy and extraordinary +versatility. He had a keen appreciation of all forms of art +and literature, and a great admiration for Hellenism; an admiration +which probably arose from a realization of the fact that the culture +of the Roman empire was in its foundations Hellenic, but which +caused him to be scornfully dubbed a <span class="tei tei-q">“Greekling”</span> by the Roman +aristocracy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">General character of Hadrian’s government.</span></span> In public life he +displayed the greatest devotion to duty, in the belief that <span class="tei tei-q">“the ruler +exists for the state, not the state for the ruler,”</span> and there was no +branch of the public administration that was not affected by his zeal. +Two extended tours, one in 121–126 and the other in 129–132 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, +made him acquainted with conditions in the provinces and enabled +him to take measures to promote their welfare. The Senate he +treated with all outward marks of respect, taking the oath to respect +the lives of its members, but at the same time he regarded it as a +negligible factor in the government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Military policy.</span></span> Realizing that Trajan’s policy of imperial expansion +had overtaxed the economic resources of the empire, he began +his rule by abandoning the new provinces of Mesopotamia and +Assyria, and reverting to the previous Roman policy in Armenia, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page248">[pg 248]</span><a name="Pg248" id="Pg248" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>where a Parthian prince acknowledged his overlordship. He devoted +his energies to strengthening the system of frontier defences and raising +the standards of discipline and efficiency among the soldiers. +Aside from the suppression of the revolts which had broken out +in the last years of Trajan’s rule, his most serious military undertaking +was the quelling of a new rising of the Jews in Palestine, +which followed the foundation of a Roman colony on the site of +Jerusalem. Only after a two years’ struggle (132–134 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>) was +the rebellion crushed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Judicial and administrative reforms.</span></span> To aid him in the administration +of justice, Hadrian formed a permanent council of +eminent jurists. He, too, was responsible for codifying and editing +in a final form the praetor’s edict, upon which was based the +procedure of the Roman civil law. This task was carried out by +the jurist Salvius Julianus. With the object of relieving the city +courts of an excessive burden of judicial business, Hadrian divided +Italy into four districts, and appointed an official of consular rank +to administer justice in each. This was a further step in removing +Italy from the control of the Senate and approximating its status to +that of a province. Hadrian’s administrative reforms were the result +of the steady increase in the sphere of public business carried on by +the officers of the princeps, and furthered the development of a centralized +bureaucracy. By creating new offices—among them the post of +advocate of the fiscus (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">advocatus fisci</span></span>) as an alternative for the +subaltern military offices—he greatly increased the importance of +the equestrian career and the influence of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">equites</span></span> in the government. +In the three departments of the military, civil and judicial +administration the principate of Hadrian marks a distinct epoch. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Building activity.</span></span> Everywhere throughout the empire Hadrian +built and repaired with the greatest zeal; but particularly in Rome +and Athens. In Rome, among other structures, he built the great +double temple of Venus and Roma and his own mausoleum, the present +Castel Sant’ Angelo. At Athens he completed the great temple +of Olympian Zeus, begun by Pisistratus in the sixth century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, +and added a new quarter to the city. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The choice of a successor.</span></span> In 136 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, Hadrian fell seriously +ill and, having no children, adopted Lucius Ceionius Commodus +under the name of Lucius Aelius Caesar, and clothed him with the +tribunician authority. Hadrian himself withdrew from Rome to his +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page249">[pg 249]</span><a name="Pg249" id="Pg249" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>splendid villa at Tibur. However, Aelius died at the beginning of +138 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, and thereupon the princeps adopted an elderly senator +named Titus Aurelius Antoninus, who in turn adopted the son of +the deceased Aelius and his own nephew, Marcus Annius Verus. +Antoninus received the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> and tribunician power and became +the partner of Hadrian in the principate. After a long and painful +illness the latter died in July, 138 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> His later years were clouded +by ill health which rendered him moody and suspicious, and probably +led to the execution of his brother-in-law and the latter’s grandson +on a charge of conspiracy. He had never been popular with the +Senate and this step widened the breach between them. Only the +energetic action of his successor prevented the execration of his memory +and secured his deification. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc205" id="toc205"></a><a name="pdf206" id="pdf206"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. The Antonines, 138–192 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Antoninus Pius, 138–161 A. D.</span></span> Antoninus, who received the +name of Pius in the first year of his rule, was the personification +of ancient Roman piety, i. e. the dutiful performance of obligations +in public and private life. His mildness and uprightness enabled +him to act in perfect harmony with the senators, and as a concession +to them he removed the four <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">consulares juridici</span></span> whom Hadrian had +appointed in Italy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">His public policy.</span></span> Antoninus adhered to Hadrian’s peaceful +foreign policy, but had to wage several border wars and suppress some +insurrections in the provinces. In Britain a line of fortifications was +constructed from the Firth of Forth to the Clyde. Antoninus laid +great emphasis upon an upright administration of justice. At this +time, too, the Roman law was greatly enriched through the introduction +of principles of equity and began to receive at the hands of the +jurists the systematic form by which it was later characterized. In +147 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> he conferred the title of Caesar upon the elder of his adopted +sons, Marcus Aurelius, whom he had previously married to his daughter, +and took him as an associate in the government. Upon the death +of Antoninus in March, 161 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, Aurelius succeeded to the principate. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The dual principate—Marcus Aurelius, 161–180 A. D., and +Lucius Verus, 161–169.</span></span> Marcus Aurelius at once took as associate +in the principate his adoptive brother, Lucius Verus, and for the first +time two Augusti shared the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span>. But the real power rested +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page250">[pg 250]</span><a name="Pg250" id="Pg250" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>in the hands of Aurelius, for Verus was a weak character, indolent +and sensual. Although he did not take the oath not to put a senator +to death, and restored the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">consulares iuridici</span></span> removed by Antoninus, +the elder Augustus respected the Senate and remained on good terms +with it. Marcus Aurelius was by nature a student and philosopher, +a devoted follower of the Stoic rule of life; his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Meditations</span></span> bear testimony +to the true nobility of his character. Such was the princeps who +was fated to spend his remaining years in an unceasing struggle against +the enemies of the state and, true to his principles, he obeyed the call +of duty and devoted himself unsparingly to the public service. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Parthian war: 161–65 A. D.</span></span> Even before the death of Antoninus, +Vologases III of Parthia had begun hostilities and had overrun +Armenia. The Roman legate of Cappadocia was defeated and the +Parthians broke into Syria, where they won another victory. The +situation was critical. Aurelius sent his colleague Verus to the +scene, and although the latter displayed neither energy nor capacity, +his able generals restored the fortunes of the Roman arms. In 163 +Statius Priscus reëstablished Roman authority over Armenia and +placed a Roman vassal on the throne. In 164–65, Avidius Cassius +invaded Mesopotamia and took the Parthian capitals Seleucia and +Ctesiphon. Yet, on the march back, he suffered considerable losses +from hunger and disease, and a peace was made with Parthia which +gave the Romans territory in upper Mesopotamia to the east of the +Euphrates (166 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). But the returning troops brought with them +a plague which ravaged the whole empire and caused widespread +depopulation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Wars with the Marcomanni, Quadi and Iazyges: 167–175 A. D.</span></span> +In the meantime a dangerous situation had arisen on the Danubian +frontier, where, probably in consequence of the pressure of migratory +peoples, the Marcomanni, Quadi and the Sarmatian Iazyges united in +an attempt to force their way into the Roman provinces. The army +of the Danube had been weakened to reinforce the Syrian troops in +the Parthian war and this enabled the barbarians to penetrate the +frontier defences and ravage Noricum and Pannonia as far as Aquileia +at the head of the Adriatic. The two Augusti proceeded to the scene +of war, and after a protracted struggle in which Dacia suffered from +a hostile invasion, the enemy were forced to make peace. The Marcomanni +submitted in 172, and the Quadi and Sarmatians in 175 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +They were forced to surrender the prisoners carried off from the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page251">[pg 251]</span><a name="Pg251" id="Pg251" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Roman provinces, over 160,000 in number, and to furnish military +aid to Rome, while large numbers of them were settled on waste +lands south of the Danube under the obligation of tilling the soil +and rendering military service. The Roman victory was commemorated +by the erection of a column at Rome with sculptures picturing +incidents of the war, in imitation of Trajan’s memorial. In +addition to the prosecution of this war, the strength of the empire +had been taxed by serious outbreaks in Mauretania, Gaul and Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Revolt of Avidius Cassius, 175 A. D.</span></span> The complete subjugation +of the northern foe was hindered by the revolt of Avidius Cassius, +the general who had distinguished himself in the Parthian war and +had suppressed the revolt in Egypt. Verus, the colleague of Aurelius, +had died in 169, and at a rumor of the death of Aurelius himself in +175 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, Cassius proclaimed himself Imperator in Syria. Thereupon +Aurelius hastened to conclude peace with the Sarmatians and +proceeded to the East. Upon his arrival he found that Cassius had +been killed by his own soldiers. Soon afterwards Commodus, the +son of Aurelius, received the title Augustus and became co-ruler with +his father (177 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Second war with the Marcomanni and Quadi, 177–180 A. D.</span></span> +In 177 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> war broke out anew with the Quadi and Marcomanni. +Aurelius again took command on the Danube and after two years’ +fighting had won so complete a victory that he contemplated the +annexation of the region occupied by these peoples. But for a +second time he was robbed of the fruits of his toil, on this occasion +by the hand of death, 17 March, 180 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> The principate passed +to his son and colleague, Commodus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Lucius Aurelius Commodus, </span><a name="corr251" id="corr251" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">sole princeps</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700">, 180–192 A. D.</span></span> +Lucius Aurelius Commodus, the ignoble son of a noble father, is +one of the few in the long line of Roman rulers of whom nothing +good can be said. Cowardly, cruel and sensual, he gave himself up +to a life of pleasure and left the conduct of the government in the +hands of a succession of favorites, who used their power to further +their own interests. He abandoned the war with the Marcomanni +and Quadi without carrying out his father’s plans and granted them +peace on lenient terms so that he might return to the enjoyments of +the capital. His chief ambition was to win fame as a gladiator. +He frequently appeared in the arena, and finally determined to +assume the consulate on 1 January, 193 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> in a gladiator’s + cos<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page252">[pg 252]</span><a name="Pg252" id="Pg252" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>tume. However, on the preceding night he was assassinated at the +instigation of the pretorian prefect, Quintus Aemilius Laetus. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc207" id="toc207"></a><a name="pdf208" id="pdf208"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. The Second War of the Legions, 193–197 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Pertinax: January–March, 193 A. D.</span></span> The new princeps (Publius +Helvius Pertinax, a senator of low birth but proved military capacity) +was the nominee of Laetus. However, his strictness in enforcing +discipline among the troops and his economies, necessitated +by the exhausted condition of the public finances, soon alienated the +goodwill of the praetorians and Laetus himself. After less than three +months’ rule he was killed in a mutiny of the pretorian guard (March, +193 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Didius Julianus.</span></span> Their choice for a successor was an old and +wealthy senator, Didius Julianus, who purchased his nomination by +the promise of a high donative. But his rule was destined to be +short for, as in 68 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, the armies on the frontiers asserted their +claim to appoint the princeps. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The </span><a name="corr252" id="corr252" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">rivals</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700">: Severus, Niger and Albinus.</span></span> Almost simultaneously +three commanders were saluted as Imperator by their soldiers. +These were Pescennius Niger in Syria, Clodius Albinus in Britain, +and Septimius Severus in Upper Pannonia. With their nominations +a second war of the legions began. Severus had the advantage of +position and immediately marched on Rome as the avenger of Pertinax. +He also was able to arrange a truce with Albinus by promising +to recognize him as his successor with the title of Caesar. The +praetorians offered no resistance to the Danubian army; Julianus was +deposed by the Senate and put to death (June, 193 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>); and the +Senate ratified the nomination of Severus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Defeat of Niger and Albinus.</span></span> But the position of Severus was +not yet secure, for Niger had been recognized in the eastern provinces +and also had a strong following in Rome. He was preparing to march +upon Italy and had already occupied Byzantium. Severus at once +set out to anticipate his attack. After investing Byzantium he crossed +over to Asia Minor and defeated the forces of his rival near Cyzicus +and Nicaea, forcing them to withdraw south of the Taurus mountains. +The Cilician Gates were forced and Niger decisively beaten in a +battle at Issus (194 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). He tried to escape into Parthia but was +overtaken and killed. Severus advanced across the Euphrates to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page253">[pg 253]</span><a name="Pg253" id="Pg253" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>punish the Parthian king for his support of Niger. He occupied +northern Mesopotamia, and made Nisibis a Roman colony and frontier +fortress (196 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). In the same year Byzantium was taken, +its fortifications destroyed, and its inhabitants deprived of the right +of municipal organization. Severus had brought his Parthian campaign +to a hasty conclusion, for in the West Clodius Albinus, feeling +his position insecure, had assumed the title of Augustus and occupied +Gaul. Severus now elevated his eldest son Bassianus, better known +as Caracalla, to the position of Caesar with the additional title of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperator designatus</span></span>, and set out to meet the usurper. In a great +battle at Lugdunum, in which 150,000 men are said to have fought +on either side, the army of Severus was <a name="corr253" id="corr253" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">victorious</span> and Albinus fell +by his own hand (197 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). Many of his adherents, including +numerous senators, were put to death. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc209" id="toc209"></a><a name="pdf210" id="pdf210"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">V. The Dynasty of the Severi, 197–235 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Parthian war of 197–199 A. D.</span></span> Severus was now unchallenged +ruler of the empire. Shortly after the defeat of Albinus, he +returned to the East and resumed hostilities against the Parthians, +whose king, Vologases IV, had taken advantage of his absence to +invade Armenia and Mesopotamia and was besieging Nisibis. Severus +relieved the <a name="corr253a" id="corr253a" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">beleaguered</span> town and pressed on into the enemy’s +territory, where he sacked the two Parthian capitals, Seleucia and +Ctesiphon, in 198 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> By a peace arranged in the next year northern +Mesopotamia was ceded to Rome and was organized as a province +under a governor of equestrian rank. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">A </span><a name="corr253b" id="corr253b" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">military monarchy</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700">.</span></span> Septimius Severus was a native of Leptis +in Africa. He came from an equestrian family and had begun his +official career as an advocate of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fiscus</span></span>. To secure the prestige of +noble lineage he caused himself to be proclaimed as the adopted son +of Marcus Aurelius, and took the latter’s family name of Antoninus +for himself and his house. His rule was frankly autocratic in character +and he made no attempt to disguise the fact that his authority +rested upon the support of the soldiery. Light is thrown upon Severus’ +policy in general by the significant fact that under him Rome, +which he adorned with magnificent structures, received the title <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sacra</span></span> +(sacred), a term regularly used to designate things under the control +of the princeps. The activity of the Senate was limited to +register<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page254">[pg 254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>ing its approval of his measures, and equestrians were appointed to +military posts hitherto filled only by senators. The special privileges +which Italy and the Italians had continued to enjoy were equally disregarded. +The title proconsul, which Trajan and his successors had +used in the provinces, was now employed by Severus in Italy. In +193 he disbanded the old praetorian guard, which had been recruited +from Italy and the more thoroughly latinized provinces, and organized +a new corps of picked troops drawn from the legions in general, but +especially those of the Danubian army. Severus enrolled three new +legions for the Parthian war and placed them under the command +of equestrian prefects instead of senatorial legates. Two of these +legions were stationed in Mesopotamia, but the third was quartered +at the Alban Mount in Latium. This step had the effect of reducing +Italy to the status of a garrisoned province, but it was probably taken +with the view of providing a larger reserve force to supplement the +frontier garrisons. Severus also was the author of many reforms +which improved the conditions or increased the rewards of military +service. The pay of the troops was raised, the legionaries were +allowed to contract a legal marriage when in service, and the equestrian +career was opened to veteran centurians. However, there seems to +be no proof that Severus deliberately fostered the barbarization of the +army by the exclusion of Italian centurians, or that he ruined the +discipline of the soldiers by permitting the married legionaries to +reside outside of barracks. To rescue the government from the state +of insolvency into which it had been brought by his predecessors, +Severus stood in need of a large sum of money. This he secured by +confiscating the estates of the adherents of Niger and Albinus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Of signal importance was the increase in the power of the praetorian +prefecture at this time. This office was for a number of years held +by a single prefect, Publius Fulvius Plautianus, whose daughter was +married to the eldest son of Severus. However, his great power +proved his undoing, and in 205 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> he was executed on a charge of +treason made by his own son-in-law. At his death two prefects +were again appointed, one of whom was Papinian, the greatest of all +Roman jurists. His appointment seems to indicate a division between +the military and the civil functions of the prefecture. For +from this time the prefect exercised supreme jurisdiction over criminal +cases in Italy beyond the hundredth milestone from the city, and in +the matter of appeals from the judgments of provincial governors. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page255">[pg 255]</span><a name="Pg255" id="Pg255" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>In the absence of the princeps he also presided over the imperial +judicial council. Following Papinian other eminent jurists filled +this office. Furthermore, the supervision of the transportation of +grain to Rome was transferred from the prefect of the grain supply +to the praetorian prefect, and the former officer merely supervised its +distribution within the city. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">War in Britain, 208–211 A. D.</span></span> Like Hadrian, Severus paid +great attention to strengthening the frontier defences of the empire, +particularly the fortifications which linked the Rhine and the Danube. +In 208 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> when Britain was invaded by the Caledonians, he took +the field, accompanied by his two sons. He reinforced Hadrian’s +earthen wall between the Tyne and the Solway by a wall of stone, +and carried on guerilla warfare against the tribes of the northern +part of the island. However, they had not been completely pacified +when he died at York in February, 211 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, leaving the principate +to his sons, Caracalla and Geta, both of whom had previously received +the title of Augustus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Caracalla, 211–217 A. D.</span></span> The bitter enmity which had long +existed between the two brothers continued during a year of joint +rule, and divided the empire into rival factions. Then Caracalla, +who had previously sought to make himself sole ruler, succeeded +in having Geta assassinated. Many of the latter’s friends, among +them the prefect Papinian, were executed. Caracalla was cruel and +vicious, and displayed no capacity for governing. He relied solely +upon the goodwill of the soldiery and courted their support by increased +pay and lavish donatives. In 212 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, by the famous Antonian +Constitution (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">constitutio Antoniniana</span></span>) he extended Roman +citizenship to all the provincials of the empire, except those who were +in a condition of vassalage, such as some of the barbarian peoples +who had been settled on waste lands within the Roman borders, and +not citizens of organized municipalities (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dediticii</span></span>). This act was +the logical culmination of the policy of his predecessors who had +granted citizenship to many provincial municipalities and had sanctioned +its automatic extension to soldiers of the legions and auxiliary +corps. Perhaps Caracalla’s chief motive was to supply a fresh source +of income for the treasury, which was sadly depleted by his extravagances, +for he greatly increased the number of those liable to +the five per cent inheritance tax which fell only upon Roman citizens. +A second motive may well have been the desire to secure a +uniform<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page256">[pg 256]</span><a name="Pg256" id="Pg256" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>ity of legal status and of municipal organization throughout the +empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Germanic and Parthian wars.</span></span> In 213 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> an attack of a confederacy +of German tribes, the Alamanni, upon the Raetian frontier +was successfully repelled, and in the next year Caracalla set out for +the East, where he planned to conduct a Parthian war in imitation +of the conquests of his idol, Alexander the Great. In 215, the +Parthian king, Vologases V, came to terms, but when he was dethroned +by his brother, Artabanos V, who refused Caracalla’s request +for the hand of his daughter, <a name="corr256" id="corr256" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Caracalla</span> prepared to invade Parthian +territory. But before he embarked on his venture he was assassinated +by the order of the praetorian prefect Marcus Opellius Macrinus, +April, 217 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Macrinus, 217–218 A. D.</span></span> Macrinus was recognized without opposition +as Caracalla’s successor, and bestowed upon his young son +Diadumenianus the title of Caesar. He was the first princeps who +had not attained senatorial rank. As a ruler he displayed moderation +and good sense, but was lacking in force. He purchased peace +from the Parthians, abolished oppressive taxes, and sought to lessen +the military burden by cancelling the increases of pay which Caracalla +had granted to the troops. This latter step cost him the support of +the soldiery, and part of the Syrian army declared its allegiance to +the fourteen-year-old Bassianus, a great-nephew of Julia Domna, +the Syrian wife of Septimius Severus. Bassianus could claim to be +a representative of the house of Severus, and consequently was hailed +as Imperator under the name of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. However, +he is better known as Elagabalus, for he was by hereditary right +the priest of the Sun God worshipped under that name at Emesa. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Macrinus tried to suppress the revolt, but he was defeated near +Antioch, and he and his son were captured and killed (June, +218 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Elagabalus, 218–222 A. D.</span></span> Thereupon Elagabalus was universally +recognized as princeps and entered Rome in the following year. +There he introduced the worship of the sun as the supreme deity +of the Roman world, and added to the imperial title that of <span class="tei tei-q">“most +exalted priest of the Unconquered Sun God Elagabalus.”</span> His rule +was a riot of debauch, in which his associates were worthless favorites, +whom he appointed to the highest offices. His grandmother, Julia +Maesa, really conducted the government and, realizing his unfitness +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page257">[pg 257]</span><a name="Pg257" id="Pg257" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>to rule, forced him to adopt his cousin Severus Alexander with the +title of Caesar in 221 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> When Elagabalus sought to rid himself +of his relative the praetorians forced him to make Alexander his colleague, +and finally murdered him (March, 222 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Severus Alexander, 222–235 A. D.</span></span> Marcus Aurelius Severus +Alexander was now sole ruler. However, since he was a mere youth, +his mother, Julia Mamaea, daughter of Julia Maesa, exercised the +powers of a regent. As he grew up Alexander showed himself well-meaning +and conscientious, but lacking in self-reliance, and he never +emancipated himself from his mother’s tutelage. During his rule +the Senate enjoyed a temporary revival of influence. Two councils +of senators, one of sixteen and one of seventy members, acted as an +imperial cabinet and an advisory legislative council, respectively. At +this time, too, the praetorian prefecture became a senatorial office in +that it conferred senatorial rank upon its holder. An attempt was +made to remedy public abuses, in particular to restore discipline +among the troops, and to reduce the military expenditure. But the +army had gotten out of hand, especially the praetorians, from whose +anger Alexander was unable to protect the noted jurist Paul, who +held the praetorian prefecture. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The new Persian empire.</span></span> The widespread military insubordination +was all the more dangerous since new and more aggressive +foes began to threaten the integrity of the empire. In 227 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> the +Parthian dynasty of the Arsacids was overthrown by the Persian Ardaschir +(Artaxerxes) who founded the dynasty of the Sassanids. The +establishment of this new Persian kingdom was accompanied by a +revival of the national Persian religion, Zoroastrianism, and of the +Persian claims to the eastern Roman provinces. In 231 the Persians +drove the Roman troops out of Mesopotamia and penetrated Cappadocia +and Syria. Alexander himself then went to the East, where he +took the offensive in the following year. The details of his campaign +are uncertain, but at any rate Mesopotamia was recovered and +Alexander celebrated a triumph over the Persians in Rome (233 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Germanic campaign and death of Severus Alexander.</span></span> +But the northern frontier was threatened by the attacks of Germanic +tribes, and in 234 Alexander assumed the conduct of operations on +the Rhine, with his headquarters at Mainz. The barbarians were +induced to make peace, but only by the payment of subsidies, and +this cost Alexander the respect of the army, who were disgruntled +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page258">[pg 258]</span><a name="Pg258" id="Pg258" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>at his policy of retrenchment and his subservience to his mother. A +mutiny broke out, led by Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus, a Thracian +of peasant origin who had risen from the ranks to high command. +Alexander and Julia Mamaea were put to death, and Maximinus +was proclaimed Augustus (March, 235 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). With his accession +began a half century of confusion and anarchy. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<a name="toc211" id="toc211"></a><a name="pdf212" id="pdf212"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">VI. The Dissolution and Restoration of the Empire: +235–285 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The end of the pax Romana.</span></span> The period of fifty years from +235 to 285 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> is a prolonged repetition of the shorter epochs of civil +war of 68–69 and 193–197 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> During this interval twenty-six +Augusti, including such as were colleagues in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span>, obtained +recognition in Rome and of these only one escaped a violent death. +In addition, there were numerous usurpers or <span class="tei tei-q">“tyrants,”</span> as candidates +who failed to make good their claims to the principate were called. +Almost all of these emperors were the nominees of the soldiery, and +at least possessed military qualifications that were above the average. +In general they conscientiously devoted themselves to the task of restoring +order in the empire, but their efforts were in the main nullified +by the treachery of their own troops and the rise of rival emperors. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The mutiny of the army.</span></span> The main cause of this disorganization +lay in the fact that the professional army had lost all sense of +loyalty to the empire, an attitude already frequently evidenced by the +praetorians, and by the legions also under Caracalla and his successors. +Recruited, as the latter now were, almost entirely from the +frontiers of the Roman world, they felt no community of interest with +the inhabitants of the peaceful provinces and turned upon them, like +unfaithful sheep dogs upon the flocks whom it was their duty to guard. +The sole object of the troops was to enrich themselves by plunder +and the extortion of high pay and frequent largesses from the emperor +whom they supported. Hence, in the expectation of fresh rewards, +each army hailed as Imperator the commander who had led it to +victory over foreign foes or revolting soldiers of Rome. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Barbarian invasions.</span></span> In addition to constant civil war, the +Roman world was exposed to all the horrors of barbarian invasions. +We have already noticed the rise of a new Persian state whose object +was the reëstablishment of the empire as it had existed prior to the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page259">[pg 259]</span><a name="Pg259" id="Pg259" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>conquests of Alexander the Great. Likewise on the whole extent +of the northern frontier new and more aggressive peoples assaulted +and penetrated the frontier defences. On the North Sea coast, between +the Rhine and the Weser were the Saxons whose ships raided the +shores of Britain and Gaul. Facing the Romans along the lower +Rhine were the Franks, along the upper Rhine the Alamanni, further +east on the upper Danube the Marcomanni, while on the eastern +frontier of Dacia and to the north of the Black Sea were situated +the Goths and the Heruli. The withdrawal of troops from some +sectors of the frontier to meet attacks at others and the neglect of their +duty by the army corps who plunged into the maelstrom of civil war +in support of various candidates for the imperial power gave the +northern barbarians the opportunity to sweep down in destructive +hordes upon the peaceful and undefended provinces. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Dissolution of the empire.</span></span> The natural consequence of the +failure of the imperial government to defend the provinces from +hostile invasions was that the provincials began to take measures for +their own protection and to transfer their allegiance from the Roman +emperors to local authorities, who proved a more efficient help in +time of trouble. These separatist tendencies were active both in the +East and in the West and led to a temporary dissolution of the +unity of the Empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Pestilence.</span></span> A third scourge which afflicted the Roman world at +this critical period was a pestilence which, originating in the East, +entered the Empire about 252 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, and raged for fifteen years. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Valerian and Gallienus: 253–268 A. D.</span></span> The fortunes of the +Empire reached their lowest ebb under Valerian and his son Gallienus +(253–268 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). In 256, the Persians invaded Mesopotamia and +Syria, and captured Antioch. Valerian at once undertook the defence +of the eastern provinces, leaving Gallienus in charge of the +West. Antioch was recovered, but when Valerian entered Mesopotamia +to relieve the blockade of Edessa, he was defeated by the +Persian king Sapor, and taken prisoner (258 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). He died soon +afterwards in captivity. The Persians not only reoccupied Antioch +but also seized Tarsus in Cilicia and Caesarea in Cappadocia, and +ravaged Asia Minor to the shores of the Aegean Sea. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While Valerian was waging his ill-fated war in the East, the rest +of the empire was in a continual state of turmoil. In 257 the Goths +and other peoples overran Dacia, crossed the Danube and penetrated +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page260">[pg 260]</span><a name="Pg260" id="Pg260" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>as far south as Macedonia and Achaia. In 258 a revolt broke out +in Mauretania. The Berber tribesmen, led by an able chief, Faraxen, +invaded the province of Numidia, and were only reduced to submission +by the capture of their leader (260 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). At the same time +the Alamanni broke into Raetia, and made their way over the Alps +into the Po valley. Gallienus hastened to the rescue and defeated +them near Milan. But in his absence in Italy the Franks crossed +the Rhine and poured in devastating hordes over Gaul and Spain. +The Roman possessions on the right bank of the Rhine were lost at +this time and never recovered. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The empire of the Gauls.</span></span> At the news of the death of Valerian +the commander in Pannonia, Ingenuus, raised the standard of revolt. +After defeating him, Gallienus found another serious rival in Regalianus, +whom, however, he was likewise able to overcome. But at +the same time (258 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), Marcus Cassius Latinius Postumus, whom +Gallienus had left in command in Gaul, assumed the imperial title, +after a victory gained over a body of Franks. He was able to clear +Gaul of its foes and make himself master of Britain and Spain. +Gallienus was powerless to depose him. Postumus did not endeavor +to establish a national Gallic state but regarded himself as exercising +the Roman <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> in a portion of the empire. He fixed his capital +at Trèves, and organized a senate and other institutions on the Roman +model. His coins bore the inscription <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roma Aeterna</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Palmyra.</span></span> In the Orient the Persians were unable to retain their +hold on Syria and Asia Minor. Their withdrawal was in large +measure caused by the activities of Odaenathus, the ruler of the city +of Palmyra, who inflicted a severe defeat upon Sapor and recovered +Roman Mesopotamia. Thereupon two brothers, Fulvius Macrianus +and Fulvius Quietus, sons of an officer who had distinguished himself +against the Persians, were acclaimed as emperors in Asia Minor. +However, the one was defeated in attempting to invade Europe and +the other was overthrown by Odaenathus. In recognition of his +services Gallienus bestowed upon him the title of <span class="tei tei-q">“Commander of the +East”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dux orientis</span></span>), with the duty of protecting the East (264 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). In Palmyra, he ruled as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">basileus</span></span>, or king, and although he +nominally acknowledged the overlordship of the Roman emperor, he +was practically an independent sovereign. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Goths.</span></span> A fresh peril arose in the maritime raids of the +Goths, Heruli, and other tribes who had seized the harbors on the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page261">[pg 261]</span><a name="Pg261" id="Pg261" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>north coast of the Black Sea. With the ships that they thus secured +they ravaged the northern coast of Asia Minor as early as 256 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +In 262 they forced the passage of the Bosphorus and Hellespont and +plundered the shores of the Aegean. Their most noted raid was in +267, when they sacked the chief cities of Greece, including Athens. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +No less than eighteen usurpers, for the most part officers who had +risen from the ranks, had unsuccessfully challenged the authority of +Gallienus in the various provinces. At last, in 268 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, one of his +leading generals, Aureolus, laid claim to the imperial title. Gallienus +defeated him and was besieging him in Milan, when he was killed +at the instigation of his officers, who proclaimed as his successor one +of their own number, Marcus Aurelius Claudius. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Claudius Gothicus, 268–270 A. D.</span></span> The rule of Claudius lasted +only two years, in which his greatest achievement was the crushing +defeat which he inflicted upon the Goths who had again overrun +Greece and the adjacent lands (269 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). This victory won him +the name of Gothicus. Upon the death of Claudius in 270 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, +the army chose Lucius Domitius Aurelianus as emperor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, 270–275 A. D.</span></span> Aurelian’s first +task was to clear Italy and the Danubian provinces of barbarian invaders. +Two incursions of the Alamanni into Raetia and Italy +were repulsed, the latter with great slaughter. But the emperor +recognized that the security of Italy could no longer be guaranteed +and so he ordered the fortification of the Italian cities. The imposing +wall which still marks the boundary of part of ancient Rome was +begun by Aurelian. A horde of Vandals were beaten and driven out +of Pannonia and a victory was won over the Goths in Moesia. But +the exposed position of Dacia, and the fact that it was already in large +part occupied by the barbarians, induced Aurelian to abandon it +altogether. The rest of the Roman settlers were withdrawn to Moesia, +where a new province of Dacia was formed behind the barrier of the +Danube. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The overthrow of Palmyra.</span></span> Aurelian was now ready to attempt +his second and greater task, the restoration of imperial unity. And +in this the East first claimed his attention. There Vaballathus, the +son of Odaenathus, ruled over Palmyra, supported and directed by +his mother, Zenobia. At the outset Aurelian had recognized his +position but in 271 Vaballathus assumed the title of Augustus and +thereby declared his independence of Roman suzerainty. He was +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg 262]</span><a name="Pg262" id="Pg262" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>able to extend his authority over Egypt and a great part of Asia +Minor. In 272 Aurelian set out to bring back the East to its allegiance. +He speedily recovered Asia Minor, and entered Syria, where +he signally defeated the famous Palmyrene archers and mailed horsemen +at Emesa. He then crossed the desert and laid siege to Palmyra +itself. Zenobia tried to escape, but was taken, and the city surrendered. +The queen and her family were carried off to Rome but +Palmyra was at first spared. However, it rebelled again when Aurelian +had set out for Rome. Thereupon the emperor returned with +all speed and recaptured the city. This time it was utterly destroyed. +The authority of Rome was once more firmly reëstablished in the East. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The reconquest of Gaul.</span></span> Following his conquest of Palmyra, +Aurelian proceeded to overthrow the already tottering empire of the +Gauls. At the death of Postumus in 268, Spain and Narbonese Gaul +had acknowledged the Roman emperor Claudius Gothicus. After +several successors of Postumus had been overthrown by the mutinous +Gallic soldiery, Publius Esuvius Tetricus was appointed emperor in +Gaul and Britain. However, foreseeing the speedy dissolution of +his empire, he secretly entered into negotiations with Aurelian. The +latter invaded Gaul and met the Gallic army at the plain of Chalons. +In the course of the battle, Tetricus went over to Aurelian, who won +a complete victory. Britain and Gaul submitted to the conqueror +(274 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). Thus the unity of the empire was restored and Aurelian +assumed the title of <span class="tei tei-q">“Restorer of the World”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">restitutor orbis</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Dominus et deus natus.</span></span> Not only was Aurelian one of the greatest +of Roman commanders; he also displayed sound judgment in his +administration. Here his chief work was the suppression of the +debased silver currency and the issuing of a much improved coinage. +Aurelian regarded himself as an absolute monarch and employed on +his coins the titles <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dominus et deus natus</span></span>—<span class="tei tei-q">“born Lord and God.”</span> +He likewise reëstablished in Rome the official cult of the Unconquered +Sun God, previously introduced by Elagabalus. One of the characteristics +of this cult was the belief that the monarch was the incarnation +of the divine spirit, a belief which gave a moral justification to +absolutism. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Probus, 276–282 A. D.</span></span> Aurelian was murdered in 275 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, and +was succeeded by Tacitus, who met a like fate after a rule of less +than two years. He was followed by Marcus Aurelius Probus, an +able Illyrian officer. Probus was called upon to repel fresh invasions +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page263">[pg 263]</span><a name="Pg263" id="Pg263" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>of Germanic peoples, to subdue the rebellious Isaurians in Asia Minor +and suppress a revolt in Egypt. Everywhere he successfully upheld +the authority of the empire, but his strict discipline eventually cost +him the favor of the soldiers who hailed as Imperator Marcus Aurelius +Carus. Probus was put to death (282 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). Like his predecessor, +Carus was a general of great ability. He appointed his eldest son +Carinus Augustus as his co-ruler, and left him in charge of the +West while he embarked on a campaign against the Persians. This +was crowned with complete success and terminated with the capture +of Ctesiphon. But on his return march he died, probably at the +hands of his troops (283 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). His younger son, the Caesar Numerianus, +who took command of the army, was assassinated by the +praetorian prefect Aper. However, the choice of the army fell upon +Gaius Valerius Aurelius Diocletianus, who assumed the imperial title +in September, 284 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> But Carinus had retained his hold upon +the West and <a name="corr263" id="corr263" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">advanced</span> to crush Diocletian. In the course of a +battle at the river Margus in Moesia he was murdered by his own +officers (285 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), and with the victory of Diocletian a new period +of Roman history begins. +</p> + + </div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page264">[pg 264]</span><a name="Pg264" id="Pg264" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <a name="toc213" id="toc213"></a><a name="pdf214" id="pdf214"></a> + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER XIX</span></h2> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">THE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE + PRINCIPATE</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc215" id="toc215"></a><a name="pdf216" id="pdf216"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. The Victory of Autocracy</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The senate and the appointment of the princeps.</span></span> In the preceding +chapters we have traced in outline the political history of the +principate to the point where it had become an undisguised military +autocracy. This change is clearly seen in connection with the imperial +nomination. The appointment to the principate originally involved +the conferment of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span>, the tribunician power and +other rights and privileges. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> might be bestowed either +by a senatorial decree or through the acclamation as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperator</span></span> by a +part of the soldiery. Each of these forms was regarded as valid, +but was regularly confirmed by the other. But the tribunician authority +and the remaining powers of the princeps were conferred only +by a decree of the Senate, confirmed, during the first century at least, +by a vote of the Assembly of the Centuries. However, after the accession +of Carus (282 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), the Senate, which could no longer claim +to exercise any authority in the state, ceased to participate in the +appointment of the new ruler. This marks the formal end of the +principate. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Senate’s loss of administrative power. I. Rome and +Italy.</span></span> The constitutional history of the principate is the story of +the gradual absorption of the Senate’s powers by the princeps and the +supplanting of the Senate’s officers by those in the imperial service. +It has been well said that Augustus aimed at the impossible when he +sought to be the chief magistrate in the state without being at the +same time the head of the administration. He had intended that the +Senate should conduct the administration of Rome, Italy and the ungarrisoned +provinces, but, as we have seen, he himself had been +brought by force of circumstances to take the initial steps in infringing +upon the Senate’s prerogatives. Not only did he take over the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page265">[pg 265]</span><a name="Pg265" id="Pg265" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>duties of provisioning and policing the city by establishing the prefectures +of the grain supply and the watch, but he also assumed responsibility +for the upkeep of the public buildings, streets and aqueducts +of Rome, as well as the highways of Italy. These departments +of public works were put in charge of commissioners of senatorial +rank, called curators, whom the princeps nominated. However, from +the time of Claudius equestrian officials, entitled procurators, were +appointed to these departments and became their real directors. +Finally, under Septimius Severus, the senatorial curators were dispensed +with. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">II. The aerarium.</span></span> Augustus had left to the Senate the control of +the public treasury, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">aerarium</span></span>, which was maintained by revenues +from the senatorial provinces and Italy. But when the princeps +came to assume control of those branches of the administration the +expense of which was defrayed by the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">aerarium</span></span>, it was inevitable +that the treasury itself should pass in some degree under his supervision. +And so in 44 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> the princeps began to designate two +quaestors to be in charge of the treasury for a three-year period. +Under Nero the place of these quaestors was taken by two prefects +appointed in the same manner but from among the ex-praetors. The +importance of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">aerarium</span></span> declined in proportion as its revenues +passed into the hands of the ministers of the princeps, until in the +period between Septimius Severus and Diocletian it sank to the position +of a municipal chest for the city of Rome. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">III. The senatorial provinces.</span></span> In the early principate the senatorial +provinces were administered by appointees of the Senate, all +of whom now bore the title of proconsul, assisted as in former days +by quaestors. However, only the proconsul of Africa was at the same +time commander of a provincial garrison, and his command was transferred +to the imperial governor of Numidia by Caligula. Even in +the time of Augustus the imperial procurators had appeared in the +senatorial provinces in charge of the revenues which were at the disposal +of the princeps, and, before the close of the third century they +were in complete control of the financial administration of these +provinces. But long before this, by the opening of the second century, +the princeps had usurped the Senate’s privilege of appointing +the proconsuls. The result was that by the close of the principate +all the provinces without distinction were equally under imperial +control. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page266">[pg 266]</span><a name="Pg266" id="Pg266" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Restriction of Senate’s elective powers.</span></span> It was Tiberius who +transferred to the Senate the electoral functions of the Assembly but +he, as Augustus before him, limited the Senate’s freedom of action +by the recommendation of imperial candidates for the lower magistracies. +From the time of Nero the consulship also was regularly +filled by nominees of the emperors. The custom of appointing several +successive consular pairs in the course of each year, each pair +functioning for two or four months, greatly weakened the influence +of the consulate, while it enabled the emperors to gratify the ambitions +of a larger number of candidates for that office. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Loss of legislative functions.</span></span> The rapid disappearance of the +Assembly resulted in the transfer of its sovereign legislative powers to +the Senate. The decrees of the Senate thus acquired the validity of +laws and after the time of Nerva comitial legislation completely +ceased. However, the influence of the princeps encroached more and +more upon the legislative freedom of the Senate until in the time of +the Severi the senatorial decrees were merely proclamations of the +princeps (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">orationes principis</span></span>) which were read to the Senate and approved +by it. Furthermore, the princeps developed independent legislative +power and by the middle of the second century the ordinances +or constitutions of the princeps had acquired the force of law. Early +in the third century legislation of this type altogether <a name="corr266" id="corr266" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">superseded</span> +the senatorial decrees. The imperial constitutions included edicts, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">decreta</span></span>, or judicial verdicts, responses to the petitions of officers of +the princeps or private citizens, and mandates or instructions to his +subordinates. Originally, the edicts were only valid during the principate +of their author and the other forms of constitutions merely +applied to special cases. However, in course of time, they all alike +came to be recognized as establishing rules of public and private law +which remained in force unless they were specifically revoked by +another imperial constitution. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The administration of justice.</span></span> The republican system of civil +and criminal jurisdiction was inherited by the principate, and the +courts of the praetors continued to function for Rome and Italy, +while the proconsuls were in charge of the administration of justice +in the senatorial provinces. In addition the Senate, under the presidency +of the consuls, acted as a tribunal for the trial of political +offences and criminal charges brought against members of the senatorial +order. The Senate also served as a court of appeals from the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page267">[pg 267]</span><a name="Pg267" id="Pg267" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>decisions of the proconsuls. But from the time of Augustus the +princeps exercised an unlimited right of jurisdiction which enabled +him to take cases under his personal cognizance (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cognitio</span></span>), or appoint +a delegate to try them. The imperial officials administered justice +in their respective spheres by virtue of delegated authority and consequently +appeals from their courts were directed to the princeps. +The development of judicial functions by the military and administrative +officials of the princeps in Rome—the praetorian prefect, the +city prefect, the prefects of the watch and the prefect of the grain +supply—seriously encroached upon the judicial power of the praetors. +In addition, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">consulares</span></span> of Hadrian, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iuridici</span></span> of Marcus +Aurelius further limited the sphere of the praetorian courts. Ultimately, +under Septimius Severus, we find the city prefect as the +supreme judicial authority for all criminal cases arising in Rome or +within a radius of one hundred miles of the city and also exercising +appellate jurisdiction in civil cases within the same limits, subject +however, to an appeal to the court of the princeps. For the rest of +Italy, the court of the praetorian prefect was now the highest tribunal +in both criminal and civil suits. By this time also the princeps had +acquired supreme appellate jurisdiction for the whole empire, a +power which was regularly exercised by the praetorian prefect acting +in his place, In the third century the Senate ceased to exercise any +judicial authority whatever. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As a result of the above processes the princeps became in the end +the sole source of legislative, administrative and judicial authority. +The republican magistrates had become practically municipal officers, +and one of them, the aedileship, disappeared in the third century. +The complete victory of the princeps over the Senate is marked by +the exclusion of senators from military commands under Gallienus, +and their removal from the provincial governorships in which they +had continued to exercise civil authority between the time of Aurelian +and the accession of Diocletian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The friction between the Senate and the princeps.</span></span> It might +be thought that owing to the gradual admission to the Senate of the +nominees of the princeps that harmony would have been established +between the two administrative heads of the state. But although this +new nobility was thoroughly loyal to the principate, they proved +just as tenacious of the rights of the Senate as the descendants of the +older nobility who preserved the tradition of senatorial rule. +Au<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page268">[pg 268]</span><a name="Pg268" id="Pg268" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>gustus and Tiberius endeavored to govern in concord with the Senate +by organizing an advisory council appointed from the Senate, but +their successors abandoned the practice. The friction between the +princeps and the Senate was due in part to the realization that it +was from the senatorial order that rivals might arise and in part to +the fact that those emperors who did not interpret their position, as +did Augustus, in the light of a magistracy responsible to the Senate, +were bound to regard the Senate’s powers as restrictions upon their +own freedom of action, and as an unnecessary complication of the +administration. The chief services of the Senate were to provide a +head for the government when the principate was vacant, and to +furnish the only means for the expression of opinion with regard to +the character of the administration of the individual emperors. The +spontaneous deification or the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">damnatio memoriae</span></span> of a deceased princeps +was not without weight, for it expressed the opinion of the most +influential class in the state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While the Senate as a body was thus stripped of its power, the +senatorial order remained a powerful class. Originally embracing +the chief landholders of Italy, it came to include those of the whole +empire. Collectively the senators lost in influence, but individually +they gained. By the end of the second century the senatorial order +had acquired an hereditary title, that of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">clarissimus</span></span> (most noble), +indicative of their rank. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc217" id="toc217"></a><a name="pdf218" id="pdf218"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The Growth of the Civil Service</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The first steps.</span></span> The necessary counterpart to the assumption +of administrative duties by the princeps was the development of an +imperial civil service, the officials of which were nominated by the +princeps, and promoted or removed at his pleasure. In this Augustus +had taken the first steps by the establishment of equestrian procuratorships +and prefectures, and the opening up of an equestrian career, but +the number of these posts greatly increased with the extension of the +administrative sphere of the princeps at the expense of the Senate. +The idea of conducting the government through various departments +manned by permanent salaried officials was absolutely foreign to the +Roman republic, which only employed such servants for clerical positions +of minor importance in Rome. However, the chaotic conditions +which had resulted from the republican system showed the need of a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page269">[pg 269]</span><a name="Pg269" id="Pg269" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>change, and the concentration of a large share of the administration +in the hands of the princeps both required and gave the opportunity +for the development of an organized civil service. This development +was unquestionably stimulated and influenced by the incorporation +in the Roman empire of the kingdom of Egypt, which possessed a +highly organized bureaucratic system that continued to function unchanged +in its essential characteristics. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The imperial secretaryships.</span></span> At first the imperial civil service +lacked system and there was little or no connection between the +various administrative offices in Italy and in the provinces. Augustus +and his immediate successors conducted the administration as part +of their private business, keeping in touch with the imperial officials +through the private secretaries of their own households, that is to say, +their freedmen, who, in another capacity, conducted the management +of the private estate of the princeps. An important change was introduced +under Claudius, when his influential freedmen caused the +creation within the imperial household of a number of secretaryships +with definite titles that indicated the sphere of their duties. The +chief of these secretaryships were the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a rationibus</span></span>, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ab epistulis</span></span>, +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a libellis</span></span>, the <a name="corr269" id="corr269" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a </span><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-style: italic">cognitionibus</span></span></span> and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a studiis.</span></span> The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a rationibus</span></span> +acted as a secretary of the treasury, being in charge of the finances +of the empire which were controlled by the princeps; the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ab epistulis</span></span> +was a secretary for correspondence, who prepared the orders which +the princeps issued to his officials and other persons; the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a libellis</span></span> +was a secretary for petitions, who received all requests addressed to +the princeps; the <a name="corr269a" id="corr269a" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a </span><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-style: italic">cognitionibus</span></span></span> served as a secretary for the imperial +inquests, entrusted with the duty of preparing the information +necessary for the rendering of the imperial decision in the judicial +investigations personally conducted by the princeps (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cognitiones</span></span>); +and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a studiis</span></span>, or secretary of the records, had the duty of searching +out precedents for the guidance of the princeps in the conduct of +judicial or administrative business. The establishment of these secretaryships +in the imperial household tended to centralize more completely +the imperial administration and to give it greater uniformity +and regularity. At the same time the influence of the freedmen who +occupied these important positions was responsible for the admission +of freedmen to many of the minor administrative procuratorships. +It was under Claudius also that the preliminary military career of the +procurators was more definitely fixed. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name="Pg270" id="Pg270" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The reforms of Hadrian and Septimius Severus.</span></span> Hadrian took +the next decisive step in the development of the central administrative +offices when he transformed the secretaryships of the imperial household +into secretaryships of state by filling them with equestrians of +procuratorial rank in place of imperial freedmen. From this time +the latter were restricted to minor positions in the various departments. +Under Hadrian also there was a marked increase in the number of +administrative procuratorships owing to the final abolition of the system +of farming the revenues and their subsequent direct collection +by imperial officials as well as the establishment of the public post +as a means of intercourse throughout all the provinces. It was +possibly with the object of supplying the necessary officials to undertake +these new tasks that Hadrian created the office of the advocate +of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fiscus</span></span> as an alternative for the preliminary military career of +the procurators. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Septimius Severus, as we have seen, opened the posts of the civil +administration to veteran officers upon the completion of a long period +of military service. Thus, although a purely civil career was established, +which led ultimately to the highest prefectures, nevertheless, +during the principate the civil administrative offices were never completely +separated from the traditional preliminary military service. +It was Septimius Severus also who made the praetorian prefect, as the +representative of the princeps, the head of the civil as well as of the +military administration. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The salary and titles of the equestrian officials.</span></span> The ordinary +career of an official in the imperial civil service included a +considerable number of procuratorships in various branches of the +administration, both in Rome, Italy and the provinces. Although +from the time of Augustus a definite salary was attached to each of +these offices, it was not until after the reforms of Hadrian that four +distinct classes of procurators were recognized on the basis of the +relative importance of their offices expressed in terms of pay. These +four classes of procurators were the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tercenarii</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ducenarii</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">centenarii</span></span> +and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sexagenarii</span></span>, who received respectively an annual salary of 300,000, +200,000, 100,000 and 60,000 sesterces; this classification remained +unchanged until the close of the third century. At that time +the highest class included the imperial secretaries of state, whose title +was now that of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">magister</span></span>, or master. The salary of the four chief +prefectures was probably higher still. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page271">[pg 271]</span><a name="Pg271" id="Pg271" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Following the example of the senatorial order, the equestrians also +acquired titles of honor, which depended upon their official rank. +From the time of Hadrian the title <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vir eminentissimus</span></span> (most eminent) +was the prerogative of the praetorian prefects. Under Marcus Aurelius +appear two other equestrian titles, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vir perfectissimus</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vir egregius</span></span>. +In the third century the latter was borne by all the imperial procurators, +while the former was reserved for the higher prefectures +(apart from the praetorian), the chief officials of the treasury and the +imperial secretaries. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Administration of the finances: (I). The Fiscus.</span></span> The most +important branch of the civil administration was that of the public +finances, which merits special consideration. Augustus did not centralize +the administration of the provincial revenues which were at +his disposal, but created a separate treasury or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fiscus</span></span> for each imperial +province. However, he did establish the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">aerarium militare</span></span> +at Rome for the control of the revenues destined for the pensioning +of veteran troops. Furthermore, Augustus drew a sharp distinction +between the public revenues which were administered by the princeps +in his magisterial capacity, and the income from his own private +property or patrimony. For the expenditure of the former he acknowledged +a strict accountability to the Senate. The policy of Augustus +was followed by Tiberius and Caligula, but under Claudius a central +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fiscus</span></span> was organized at Rome for the administration of all the public +revenues of the princeps. The provincial <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fisci</span></span> disappeared, and the +military treasury became a department of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fiscus</span></span>. This new imperial +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fiscus</span></span> was under the direction of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a rationibus</span></span>. From this +time the princeps ceased to hold himself accountable for the expenditure +of the public imperial revenues, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fiscus</span></span> assumes an +independent position alongside of the old <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">aerarium</span></span> of the Roman +people, which, as we have shown, it ultimately deprived of all share +in the control of the public finances. However, the distinction between +the public and private revenues of the princeps was still +observed, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">patrimonium</span></span> was independently administered by a +special procurator. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">(II). The Patrimonium.</span></span> But with the extinction of the Julio-Claudian +house and the accession of Vespasian the patrimony of the +Caesars passed as an appendage of the principate to the new ruler. +It then became state property, and as it had grown to enormous size +owing to the inheritances of Augustus and the confiscations of Caligula +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page272">[pg 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>and Nero, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">patrimonium</span></span> was organized as an independent branch +of the imperial financial administration. The personal estate of the +princeps was henceforth distinguished as the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">patrimonium privatum</span></span>. +This situation continued until the accession of Septimius Severus, +whose enormous confiscations of the property of the adherents of +Niger and Albinus were incorporated in his personal estate. This, +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">patrimonium privatum</span></span>, was now placed under a new department +of the public administration called the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ratio</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">res privata</span></span>. The old +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">patrimonium</span></span> became a subordinate branch of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fiscus</span></span>. The title +of the secretary of the treasury in charge of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fiscus</span></span> was now +changed to that of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rationalis</span></span>, while the new secretary in charge of + the privy purse was called at first <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">procurator</span></span>, and later <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">magister</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rei +privatae</span></span>. The reform of Severus, which gave to the private income +of the princeps a status in the administration comparable to that of +the public revenues, is a further expression of the monarchical tendencies +of his rule. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The officiales.</span></span> The subaltern personnel of the various bureaus, +the clerks, accountants, etc., during the first two centuries of the +principate was composed almost entirely of imperial freedmen and +slaves. Among these there was apparently no fixed order of promotion +or uniform system of pay, nor could they ever advance to the +higher ranks of the service. However, from the time of Severus +soldiers began to be employed in these capacities and a military +organization was introduced into the bureaus. The way was thus +gradually paved for completely dispensing with the services of freedmen +and slaves in any part of the civil administration. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc219" id="toc219"></a><a name="pdf220" id="pdf220"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. The Army and the Defence of the Frontiers</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The barbarization of the army.</span></span> It will be recalled that the +military policy of Augustus aimed at securing the supremacy of the +Roman element in the empire by restricting admission to the legions +to Roman citizens or to freeborn inhabitants of provincial municipalities +who received a grant of citizenship upon entering the service. +The gradual abandonment of this policy is one of the most significant +facts in the military history of the principate. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The territorial recruitment of the legions.</span></span> Under the Augustan +system the legions in the West were recruited from Italy and the +romanized provinces of the West, the eastern legions from the Greek +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page273">[pg 273]</span><a name="Pg273" id="Pg273" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>East and Galatia. But the increasing reluctance of the Italians to +render military service led to the practical, although not to the +theoretical, exemption of Italy from this burden which now rested +more heavily upon the latinized provinces. An innovation of utmost +importance was the introduction of the principle of territorial recruitment +for the legions by Hadrian. Henceforth these corps were recruited +principally from the provinces in which they were stationed, +and consequently freedom from the levy was extended to the ungarrisoned +provinces, Baetica, Narbonese Gaul, Achaia and Asia. The +effect of Hadrian’s reform is well illustrated by a comparison of the +various racial elements in the legions stationed in Egypt under the +early principate with those in the same legions in the time of Marcus +Aurelius. The lists of the veterans discharged from these legions +under Augustus or Tiberius show that fifty per cent were recruited +from Galatia, twenty-five per cent from the Greek municipalities in +Egypt, fifteen per cent from Syria and the Greek East, and the remainder +from the western provinces. A similar list from 168 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +shows sixty-five per cent from Egypt, the remainder from the Greek +East, and none from Galatia or the West. In general, the consequence +of Hadrian’s policy was to displace gradually in the legions +the more cultured element by the more warlike, but less civilized, +population from the frontiers of the provinces. It was Hadrian +also who opened the pretorian guard to provincials from Spain, +Noricum and Macedonia. As we have seen, Severus recruited the +pretorians from the legions and so deprived the more thoroughly +latinized parts of the empire of any real representation in the ranks +of the army. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The auxiliaries.</span></span> The auxiliary corps, unlike the legions, were +not raised by Augustus from Roman citizens but from the non-Roman +provincials and allies. At first they were recruited and stationed +in their native provinces, but after the revolt of the Batavi in 68 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +they were regularly quartered along distant frontiers. From the time +of Hadrian, they were generally recruited, in the same manner as the +legions, from the districts in which they were in garrison. The extension +of Roman citizenship to practically the whole Roman world +by Caracalla in 212 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> removed the basic distinction between the +legions and the auxiliaries. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The numeri.</span></span> A new and completely barbarous element was introduced +by Hadrian into the Roman army by the organization of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page274">[pg 274]</span><a name="Pg274" id="Pg274" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>so-called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">numeri</span></span>, corps of varying size, recruited from the non-Romanized +peoples on the frontiers, who retained their local language, +weapons and methods of warfare but were commanded by Roman +prefects. The conquered German peoples settled on Roman soil by +Marcus Aurelius and his successors supplied contingents of this sort. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The strength of the army.</span></span> At the death of Augustus the number +of the legions was twenty-five; under Vespasian it was thirty; +and Severus increased it to thirty-three, totalling over 180,000 men. +A corresponding increase had been made in the numbers of the +auxiliaries. From about 150,000 in the time of Augustus they had +increased to about 220,000 in the second century. The total number +of troops in the Roman service at the opening of the third century +was therefore about 400,000; one of the largest professional armies +the world has ever seen. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The system of frontier defence.</span></span> A second momentous fact in +the military history of the principate was the transformation of the +army from a field force into garrison troops. This was the result +of the system developed for the defence of the frontiers. Augustus, +for the first time in the history of the Roman state endeavored to preclude +the possibility of indefinite expansion by attaining a frontier +protected by natural barriers beyond which the Roman power should +not be extended. Roughly speaking these natural defences of the +empire were the ocean on the west, the Rhine and the Danube on the +north, and the desert on the east and south. At strategic points behind +this frontier Augustus stationed his troops in large fortified +camps, in which both legionaries and auxiliaries were quartered. +These camps served as bases of operations and from them military +roads were constructed to advantageous points on the frontier itself to +permit the rapid movement of troops for offensive or defensive purposes. +Such roads were called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limites</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“boundary paths,”</span> a name +which subsequently was used in the sense of frontiers. These <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limites</span></span> +were protected by small forts manned by auxiliary troops. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The fortification of the limites.</span></span> Although Claudius and Vespasian +discarded the maxims of Augustus in favor of an aggressive +border policy they adhered to his system for protecting their new +acquisitions in Britain and the Agri Decumates. However, these conquests +and that of the Wetterau region by Domitian pushed the frontier +beyond the line of natural defences and led to the attempt to construct +an artificial barrier as a substitute. It was Domitian who took +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page275">[pg 275]</span><a name="Pg275" id="Pg275" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>the initial step in this direction by fortifying the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limites</span></span> between the +Rhine and Main, and the Main and the Neckar, with a chain of small +earthen forts connected by a line of wooden watchtowers. To the +rear of this advanced line there were placed larger stone forts, each +garrisoned by a corps of auxiliaries, and connected by roads to the +posts on the border. While the auxiliary troops were thus distributed +along the frontiers in small detachments, the larger legionary cantonments +were broken up, and after 89 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> no camp regularly contained +more than a single legion. Trajan, who also waged his frontier wars +offensively, merely improved the system of communication between the +border provinces by building military highways along the line of the +frontier from the Rhine to the Black Sea, in Arabia, and in Africa. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the matter of frontier defence, as in so many other spheres, a +new epoch begins with Hadrian. He reverted abruptly to the defensive +policy of Augustus and began to fortify the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limites</span></span> on a more +elaborate scale. The frontier between the Rhine and the Danube was +protected by an unbroken line of ditch and palisade, in which stone +forts, each large enough for an auxiliary cohort, took the place of the +earthen forts of Domitian. At the same time the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limes</span></span> was shortened +and straightened, and the secondary line of forts abandoned. +In Britain a wall of turf was constructed from the Tyne to the Solway, +and in the Dobrudja a similar wall linked the Danube to the Black +Sea. The eastern frontier of Dacia was likewise defended by a line +of fortifications. Here, as on the other borders, the Roman sphere of +influence, and even of military occupation, extended beyond the fortified +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limes</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Antonius Pius followed Hadrian’s example and ran an earthen +rampart with forts at intervals from the Forth to the Clyde in northern +Britain. This line of defence was abandoned by Septimius +Severus, who rebuilt Hadrian’s rampart in the form of a stone wall +with small forts at intervals of a mile and intervening watch towers. +In addition seventeen larger forts were constructed along the line of +the wall. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limes</span></span> in Germany was strengthened by the addition of +a ditch and earthen wall behind Hadrian’s palisade, but along the +so-called Raetian <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limes</span></span>, between the Danube and the Main, another +stone wall, 110 miles long, took the place of the earlier defences. A +similar change was made in the fortifications of the Dobrudja. However, +this system was not followed out in the East or in Africa, where +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limes</span></span> was guarded merely by a chain of blockhouses. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page276">[pg 276]</span><a name="Pg276" id="Pg276" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The consequences of permanent fortifications.</span></span> The result of +the construction of permanent fortifications along the frontier was the +complete immobilization of the auxiliary corps. Stationed continuously +as they were for the most part in the same sectors from early in +the second century, and recruited, in increasing proportion, from among +the children of the camps, it only required the granting to them of +frontier lands by Severus Alexander, upon condition of their defending +them, to complete their transformation into a border militia +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limitanei</span></span>). At the same time the scattering of the legions along the +line of the frontiers made the assembling of any adequate mobile force +a matter of considerable time. And the fortifications themselves, +while useful in checking predatory raids by isolated bands and in +regulating intercourse across the frontiers, proved incapable of preventing +the invasion of larger forces. Consequently, when in the third +century the barbarians broke through the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limites</span></span> they found no forces +capable of checking them until they had penetrated deeply into the +heart of the provinces. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The chaos which followed the death of Severus Alexander was the +result of a military policy which left the richest and most highly +civilized parts of the empire without any means of self-defence; created +a huge professional army the rank and file of which had come to +lose all contact with the ungarrisoned provinces, all interest in the +maintenance of an orderly government and all respect for civil authority; +and at the same time rendered the army itself incapable of +performing the task for which it was organized. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On the other hand the army had been one of the most influential +agents in the spread of the material and cultural aspects of Roman +civilization. The great highways of the empire, bridges, fortifications +and numerous public works of other sorts were constructed by +the soldiers. Every camp was a center for the spread of the Latin +language and Roman institutions and the number of Roman citizens +was being augmented continuously by the stream of discharged +auxiliaries whose term of service had expired. In the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">canabae</span></span>, or +villages of the civilian hangers-on of the army corps, sprang up organized +communities of Roman veterans with all the institutions and +material advantages of municipal life. The constant movement of +troops from one quarter of the empire to another furnished a ready +medium for the exchange of cultural, in particular of religious, ideas. +To the ideal of the empire the army remained loyal throughout the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page277">[pg 277]</span><a name="Pg277" id="Pg277" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>principate, although this loyalty came at length to be interpreted in +the light of its own particular interests. Not only was the army the +support of the power of the princeps; it was also the mainstay of the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pax Romana</span></span> which endured with two brief interruptions from the +battle of Actium to the death of Severus Alexander and was the +necessary condition for the civilizing mission of Rome. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc221" id="toc221"></a><a name="pdf222" id="pdf222"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. The Provinces under the Principate</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is to the provinces that one must turn to win a true appreciation +of the beneficial aspects of Roman government during the principate. +As Mommsen<a id="noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href="#note_16"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> has said: <span class="tei tei-q">“It is in the agricultural towns of Africa, +in the homes of the vine-dressers on the Moselle, in the flourishing +townships of the Lycian mountains, and on the margin of the Syrian +desert that the work of the imperial period is to be sought and found.”</span> +In this sphere the chief tasks of the principate were the correction of +the abuses of the republican administration and the extension of +Graeco-Roman civilization over the barbarian provinces of the west +and north. How well this latter work was done is attested not merely +by the material remains of once flourishing communities but also by +the extent to which the civilization of Western Europe rests upon the +basis of Roman culture. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Number of the provinces.</span></span> At the establishment of the principate +there were about thirteen provinces, at the death of Augustus twenty-eight, +and under Hadrian forty-five. In the course of the third century +the latter number was considerably increased. The new provinces +were formed partly by the organization of newly conquered +countries as separate administrative districts and partly by the subdivision +of larger units. At times this subdivision was made in +order to relieve a governor of an excessively heavy task and to improve +the administration, and at times it proceeded from a desire to lessen +the dangers of a revolt of the army by breaking up the larger military +commands. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Senatorial and imperial provinces.</span></span> As we have seen the provinces +were divided into two classes, senatorial or public and imperial +or Caesarian, corresponding to the division of administrative authority +between the Senate and the princeps. The general principle laid +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page278">[pg 278]</span><a name="Pg278" id="Pg278" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>down by Augustus that the garrisoned provinces should come under +the authority of the princeps was adhered to, and consequently certain +provinces were at times taken over by the latter in view of military +necessities while others were given up by him to the Senate. As +a rule newly organized provinces were placed under imperial governors, +so that these soon came to outnumber the appointees of the Senate. +Eventually, as has been observed in connection with the history +of the civil service, the public provinces passed completely into the +hands of the princeps. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Administrative officials.</span></span> The governors of the senatorial provinces +were entitled proconsuls, even if they were of pretorian rank. +However, Asia and Africa were reserved for ex-consuls. Following +the law of Pompey, a period of five years intervened between the +holding of a magistracy and a promagisterial appointment. Each +proconsul was assisted by a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">quaestor</span></span>, and by three propraetorian +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">legati</span></span> whose appointment was approved by the princeps. The imperial +governors were of two classes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">legati Augusti</span></span> and procurators. +In the time of Hadrian there were eleven proconsuls, twenty-four +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">legati Augusti</span></span> and nine procurators, besides the prefect of Egypt. +The subordinates of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">legati Augusti</span></span> were the legates in command +of the legions, and the fiscal procurators. The procuratorial governors, +at first called prefects, were equestrians, and were placed in command +of military districts of lesser importance which were garrisoned +by auxiliaries only. An exception to this practice was made in the +case of Egypt, which senators were forbidden to enter, and which was +governed by a prefect who ranked next to the praetorian prefect and +had under his orders a garrison of three legions. These governmental +procurators had, in addition to their military duties, the task of +supervising financial administration. The title <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">praeses</span></span> (plural <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">praesides</span></span>) +which was used in the second century for the imperial governors +of senatorial rank, came to designate the equestrian governors +when these supplanted the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">legati</span></span> in the latter half of the third century. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As under the republic, the governors exercised administrative, judicial, +and, in the imperial provinces, military authority. However, +with the advent of the principate the government of the empire aimed +to secure the welfare and not the spoliation of its subjects, and hence +a new era dawned for the provinces. All the governors now received +fixed salaries and thus one of their chief temptations to abuse their +power was removed. Oppressive governors were still to be found, but +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page279">[pg 279]</span><a name="Pg279" id="Pg279" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>they were readily brought to justice—the senatorial governors before +the Senate and the imperial before the princeps—and condemnations, +not acquittals, were the rule. It was from the exactions of the imperial +fiscal procurators rather than those of the governors that the +provinces suffered under the principate. Although the term of the +senatorial governors, as before, was limited to one year, tried imperial +appointees were frequently kept at their posts for a number of +years in the interests of good government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It has been mentioned before that under Augustus the taxation of +the provinces was revised to correspond more closely to their taxpaying +capacity. Under the principate these taxes were of two kinds, +direct or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tributa</span></span> and indirect or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vectigalia</span></span>. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tributa</span></span>, consisted of +a poll-tax (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tributum capitis</span></span>), payable by all who had not Roman or +Latin citizenship, and a land and property tax (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tributum soli</span></span>), from +which only communities whose land was granted the status of Italian +soil (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ius Italicum</span></span>) were exempt. The chief indirect taxes were the +customs dues (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">portoria</span></span>), the five per cent tax on the value of emancipated +slaves, possibly the one per cent tax on sales, and the five per +cent inheritance tax which was levied on Roman citizens only. In +the imperial provinces the land tax was a fixed proportion of the +annual yield of the soil, whereas in the senatorial provinces it was +a definite sum (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">stipendium</span></span>) annually fixed for each community. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The principate did not break abruptly with the republican practice +of employing associations of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">publicani</span></span> in collecting the public +revenues. It is true that they had been excluded from Asia by Julius +Caesar, and it is possible that Augustus dispensed with them for the +raising of the direct taxes in the imperial provinces, but even in the +time of Tiberius they seem to have been active in connection with the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tributa</span></span> in some of the senatorial provinces. Their place in the imperial +provinces was taken by the procurator and his agents, in the +senatorial at first by the proconsul assisted by the taxpaying communities +themselves and later by imperial officials. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On the other hand the indirect taxes long continued to be raised +exclusively by the corporations of tax collectors in all the provinces. +However, the operations of these <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">publicani</span></span> were strictly supervised +by the imperial procurators. In place of the previous custom of +paying a fixed sum to the state in return for which they acquired a +right to the total returns from the taxes in question, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">publicani</span></span> now +received a fixed percentage of the amount actually collected. Under +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page280">[pg 280]</span><a name="Pg280" id="Pg280" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Hadrian the companies of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">publicani</span></span> engaged in collecting the customs +dues began to be superseded by individual contractors (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">conductores</span></span>), +who like the companies received a definite proportion of the amount +raised. About the time of Commodus the system of direct collection +by public officials was introduced and the contractors gave way to +imperial procurators. In the same way, the five percent taxes on +inheritances and manumissions were at first farmed out, but later +(under Hadrian in the case of the former) collected directly by agents +of the state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The municipalities.</span></span> Each province was an aggregate of communes +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">civitates</span></span>), some of which were organized towns, while others +were tribal or village communities. From the opening of the principate +it became a fixed principle of imperial policy to convert the +rural communities into organized municipalities, which would assume +the burden of local administration. Under the Republic the provincial +communities had been grouped into the three classes, free and +federate (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">liberae et foederatae</span></span>), free and immune (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">liberae et immunes</span></span>), +and tributary (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">stipendiariae</span></span>). In addition to these native +communities there had begun to appear in the provinces Roman and +Latin colonies. Towards the close of the Republic and in the early +principate the majority of the free communities lost their immunity +from taxation and became tributary. Some of them exchanged the +status of federate allies of Rome for that of Roman colonies. During +the same period the number of colonies of both types was greatly +increased by the founding of new settlements or the planting of +colonists in provincial towns. Some of the latter also acquired the +status of Roman municipalities. Thus arose a great variety of provincial +communities, which is well illustrated by conditions in the +Spanish province of Baetica (Farther Spain) under Vespasian. At +that time this province contained nine colonies and eight municipalities +of Roman citizens; twenty-nine Latin towns; six free, three federate, +and one hundred and twenty tributary communities. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have already mentioned the policy of transforming rural communities +into organized municipalities. How rapidly this transformation +took place may be gathered from the fact that in Tarraconesis +(Hither Spain) the number of rural districts sunk from one hundred +and fourteen to twenty-seven between the time of Vespasian and that +of Hadrian. A parallel movement was the conversion of the native +towns into Roman colonies and municipalities, often through the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page281">[pg 281]</span><a name="Pg281" id="Pg281" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>transitional stage of Latin communities, a status that now existed in +the provinces only. The acquirement of Roman or Latin status +brought exemption from the poll-tax, while the former opened the +way to all the civil and military offices of the empire. An added +advantage was won with the charter of a Roman colony, for this +usually involved immunity from the land tax also. The last step in +the Romanization of the provincial towns was Caracalla’s edict of +212 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> which conferred Roman citizenship upon all non-Roman +municipalities throughout the empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The three Gauls and Egypt.</span></span> From this municipalization of the +provinces two districts were at first excluded on grounds of public +policy. These districts were the three Gauls (Aquitania, Lugdunensis +and Belgica) and Egypt. At the time of its conquest Gaul was a +rich agricultural country, with sharply defined tribal communities, +but little or no city development. This condition Augustus judged +well adapted, under strict imperial control, to furnishing recruits and +supplies of money and kind for the great army of the Rhine. Therefore +he continued the division of Gaul in tribal units (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">civitates</span></span>), +sixty-four in number, each controlled by its native nobility. His +policy was in general adhered to for about two hundred years, but +in the course of the third century the municipal system was introduced +by converting the chief town of each <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">civitas</span></span> into a municipality +with the rest of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">civitas</span></span> as its <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">territorium</span></span> or district under +its administrative control. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Egypt Augustus by right of conquest was the heir of the +Ptolemies and was recognized by the Egyptians proper as <span class="tei tei-q">“king of +upper Egypt and king of lower Egypt, lord of the two lands, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">autocrator</span></span>, +son of the Sun.”</span> For the Greek residents he was an absolute +deified ruler of the Hellenistic type. Thus Egypt, although a part +of the Roman empire, was looked upon as subject to the rule of +the princeps alone. And, as in the theory of government, so in +the political institutions of the country the Romans adapted to +their purposes existing conditions in place of introducing radical +changes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the time of Augustus there were three Greek towns in Egypt, +Alexandria the capital, Ptolemais and Naucratis. To these Hadrian +added a third, Antinoopolis. Ptolemais, Naucratis and Antinoopolis +enjoyed municipal institutions, but Alexandria because of the turbulence +of its population was ruled by imperial officials following the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page282">[pg 282]</span><a name="Pg282" id="Pg282" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Ptolemaic practice. The rest of the population of the country lived +in villages throughout the Nile Valley, which was divided for administrative +purposes into thirty-six districts called nomes (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">nomoi</span></span>). +The bulk of the land of Egypt was imperial or public domain land, +and the great majority of the Egyptian population were tenants on the +imperial domain. For the collection of the land tax, poll tax, professional +and other taxes, for the supervision of irrigation, and for +the maintenance of the public records of the cultivated acreage and +the population (for which a census was taken every fourteen years) +there had been developed a highly organized bureaucracy with central +offices at Alexandria and agents in each of the nomes. This system +of government was maintained by the Romans, and profoundly influenced +the organization of the imperial civil service. At the head of +the administration of Egypt stood the prefect, an equestrian because +of his position as a personal employee of the princeps, and because +the power concentrated in his hands would have proved a dangerous +temptation to a senator. The chief burden laid upon Egypt was to +supply one third of the grain consumed at Rome, or about 5,000,000 +bushels annually. This amount was drawn partly from the land tax +which was paid in kind and partly from grain purchased by the +government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first step towards spreading municipal government throughout +all Egypt was taken in 202 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, when Septimius Severus organized +a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">boule</span></span>, or senate of the Greek type, in Alexandria and in the metropolis +or seat of administration of each nome. His object was to +create in each metropolis a body which could be made to assume definite +responsibilities in connection with the administration. However, +it was not until after Diocletian that these villages received a +full municipal organization. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The principate’s greatest service to the provinces was the gift of +two and a half centuries of orderly government, which led in many +quarters to a material development unequalled in these regions before +or since. It is in these centuries that the history of Rome becomes +the history of the provinces. At the opening of the period the Italians +occupied a privileged position within the empire, at its close they and +their one-time subjects were on the same level. The army and the +senatorial and equestrian orders had been thoroughly provincialized, +and the emperors had come to be as a rule of provincial birth. Rome +was still the seat of the administration, but this and the corn dole to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page283">[pg 283]</span><a name="Pg283" id="Pg283" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>the city proletariat were the only things that distinguished it from a +provincial city. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The imperial government of Rome had crushed out all vestiges of +national loyalty among the peoples it had absorbed, and had failed +to create any political institutions which would have permitted the +provincials, as such, to have participated in the government of the +empire. With the gradual decline of municipal autonomy the great +mass of the provincials were deprived of the last traces of an independent +political life. The provincial councils established for the +maintenance of the imperial cult did indeed occasionally voice the +complaints of the provincials but never acquired active political powers. +And that the Roman administration proved a heavy burden is +attested by the numerous complaints against the weight of taxation +and the necessity which many emperors felt of remitting the arrears +of tribute. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc223" id="toc223"></a><a name="pdf224" id="pdf224"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">V. Municipal Life</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Roman empire was at bottom an aggregate of locally self-governing +communities, which served as units for conscription, taxation +and jurisdiction. They were held together by the army and +the civil service, and were united by the bonds of a common Graeco-Roman +civilization. These municipalities were of two general types, +the Hellenic in the East and the Latin in the West. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Hellenic municipalities were developments from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">poleis</span></span>, or +city-states, which existed prior to the Roman conquest in Greece and +the Hellenized areas of Asia and Africa. Municipal towns organized +in these areas subsequent to the Roman occupation were of the same +type. Their language of government, as well as of general intercourse, +was Greek. The characteristic political institutions of the Hellenic +municipalities were a popular assembly, a council or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">boule</span></span> and annual +magistrates. The assembly had the power to initiate legislation; +the council and magistrates were elected by it or were chosen by lot. +But even under the Roman republic these democratic institutions +were considerably modified in the interests of the wealthier classes. +Timocratic constitutions were established with required property qualifications +for citizenship and for the council and offices. The principate +saw a further development along the same lines. The assemblies +lost their right to initiate legislation, a power which passed to +the magistrates, while the council tended to become a body of +ex-<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page284">[pg 284]</span><a name="Pg284" id="Pg284" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>magistrates who held their seats for life. However, in spite of this +approximation to the Latin type, the Greek official terminology remained +unchanged throughout the first three centuries <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Latin type of municipality was that which developed on Italian +soil with the extension of Roman domination over the peninsula, and +which was given uniformity by the legislation of Julius Caesar. +With the Romanization of the western part of the empire it spread +to Africa, Spain, Gaul, Britain, Germany and the Danubian provinces. +In spite of the distinctions in status between Roman and +Latin colonies and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">municipia</span></span>, all these classes of municipalities were +of the same general type which is revealed to us in the Julian Municipal +Law (45 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>), the charter of the Roman <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Colonia Genetiva +Julia</span></span> (44 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>), and those of the Latin municipalities of Malaca and +Salpensa (81–84 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The constitutions of these municipalities were patterned closely +after that of Rome, although certain titles, like those of consul and +Senate were reserved for the capital city. Like Rome, the municipal +towns had their officials, their council (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curia</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ordo</span></span>), and their plebs. +The chief magistrates were a pair of duovirs (or at times a college of +quattuovirs), who were assisted by two aediles, and two quaestors +The duovirs were in charge of the local administration of justice, and +in general conducted the public affairs of the community. Every +fifth year the duovirs were called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">quinquennales</span></span> and took the census. +The aediles had charge of public works, and market and police regulations, +while the quaestors were the local treasury officials. All the +officials were elected by popular vote, but a definite property qualification +was required of each candidate. If no candidates presented +themselves for any particular office, provision was made for the nomination +of candidates who must serve if elected. At his election each +magistrate paid into the treasury, or expended in accordance with the +direction of the council, a definite sum of money (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">summa honoraria</span></span>), +which varied for each office in different communities. Oftentimes +these officers did not restrict themselves to the required sum but took +this opportunity for displaying their municipal loyalty. As other +prominent citizens followed their example the municipalities were +richly provided with useful and ornamental public works donated by +the richer classes. Thus the municipal offices, being unsalaried, +were a heavy drain upon the resources of their holders, but at the +same time they offered almost the sole opportunity for gratifying the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page285">[pg 285]</span><a name="Pg285" id="Pg285" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>political ambitions of the population of the provinces. In addition +to these civil officials, each community had its colleges of pontiffs and +augurs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The members of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curia</span></span> were called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">decuriones</span></span>, and were usually +one hundred in number. They comprised those who had held some +local magistracy, and others having the requisite property qualification +who were enrolled directly (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">adlecti</span></span>) in the council. The council +supervised the work of the magistrates and really directed the municipal +administration. As in early Rome, so in the municipalities +the people were grouped in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiae</span></span>, which were the voting units in +the local assembly or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia</span></span>. This assembly elected the magistrates +and had legislative powers corresponding to those of the Roman assemblies. +However, in the course of the second century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> these +legislative powers passed into the hands of the council, whose decrees +became the sole form of municipal legislation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The collegia.</span></span> While the plebs of Rome and the municipalities +alike had little opportunity for political activity they found a compensation +in the social life of their guilds or colleges. These were +associations of persons who had some common tie, such as a common +trade or profession, a common worship, or the humble desire to secure +for themselves a decent burial by mutual coöperation. Thus +arose professional, religious, and funerary colleges. The organization +of the colleges was modelled on that of the municipalities. They +had their patrons, their presidents (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">magistri</span></span>, or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">quinquennales</span></span>), +their quaestors, and their treasury sustained by initiation fees, +monthly dues, fines, contributions, gifts and legacies. The membership +was called plebs or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">populus</span></span>. The chief factor in the life of the +colleges was the social element and their most important gatherings +were for the purpose of holding a common banquet. The professional +colleges in no way corresponded to the modern trades unions; +they attempted no collective bargaining with regard to wages, prices or +working hours, although they did not altogether neglect the common +interests of their profession. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Apparently until late republican times no restrictions had been +placed upon the forming of such collegiate associations, but in 64 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> +all such unions in Rome had been abolished because of the disorders +occasioned by political clubs. In 58 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> complete freedom of association +was restored, only to be revoked again by Julius Caesar +who permitted only the old and reputable professional and religious +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page286">[pg 286]</span><a name="Pg286" id="Pg286" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>colleges to remain in existence. Under Augustus a law was passed +which regulated for the future the character, organization and activities +of these associations. New colleges could only be established +in Italy or the provinces if sanctioned by a decree of the Senate or +edict of the princeps, and membership in an unauthorized college was +a treasonable offence. Trajan authorized the unrestricted formation +of funerary colleges (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">collegia tenuiorum</span></span>) in Rome, and Septimius +Severus extended this privilege to Italy and the provinces. Under +Marcus Aurelius the colleges were recognized as juristic persons, with +power to manumit slaves and receive legacies. Not only persons of +free birth but also freedmen and slaves, and in many cases women as +well as men, were freely admitted to membership in the colleges. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The decline of the municipalities.</span></span> The prosperity of the empire +depended upon the prosperity of the municipalities and it is in +the latter that the first symptoms of internal decay are noticeable. +These symptoms were economic decline and the consequent loss of +local autonomy. The reasons for the economic decline are hard to +trace. Among them we may perhaps place the ruin of many of the +wealthier families by the requirements of office-holding, the withdrawal +of others who were eligible for the imperial service with its +salaried offices; overtaxation, bad management of local finances, and +the disappearance of a free peasantry in the surrounding rural districts +who had furnished a market for the manufacturers and merchants +of the towns. The devastating wars of the third century with +the resultant general paralysis of trade and commerce, plus the depopulation +caused by plague and barbarian invasions, struck the municipalities +a crushing blow from which they never recovered. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As early as the time of Trajan the imperial government found it +necessary to appoint officials called curators to reorganize the financial +conditions in one or more municipalities, sometimes those of a +whole province. At first these were irregular officials, senators or +equestrians, but by the third century they had become a fixture in municipal +administration and were chosen from among the local <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">decuriones</span></span>. +Another evidence of the same conditions is the change +which took place in the position of the local magistracies. In the +second century these offices were still an honor for which candidates +voluntarily presented themselves, although there were unmistakable +signs that in some districts they were coming to be regarded as a +burden. In the third century the magistracies had become an +obli<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page287">[pg 287]</span><a name="Pg287" id="Pg287" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>gation resting upon the local senatorial order, and to which appointments +were made by the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curia</span></span>. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">decurionate</span></span> also had become a +burden which all who possessed a definite census rating must assume. +To assure itself of its revenues in view of the declining prosperity +of the communities the imperial government had hit upon the expedient +of making the local decurions responsible for collecting the +taxes, and consequently had been forced to make the decurionate an +obligatory status. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curia</span></span> and municipal magistracies had ended +by becoming unwilling cogs in the imperial financial administration. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This loss of municipal independence was accompanied by the conversion +of the voluntary professional colleges into compulsory public +service corporations. From the opening of the principate the government +had depended largely upon private initiative for the performance +of many necessary services in connection with the provisioning +of the city of Rome, a task which became increasingly complicated +when the state undertook the distribution of oil under Septimius +Severus, of bread in place of grain and of cheap wine under Aurelian. +Therefore such colleges as the shipowners (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">navicularii</span></span>), bakers +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pistores</span></span>), pork merchants (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">suarii</span></span>), wine merchants (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vinarii</span></span>), and +oil merchants (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">olerarii</span></span>) received official encouragement. Their members +individually assumed public contracts and in course of time +came to receive certain privileges because it was recognized that they +were performing services necessary to the public welfare. Marcus +Aurelius, Severus and Caracalla were among the emperors who thus +fostered the professional guilds. Gradually the idea developed that +these services were public duties (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">munera</span></span>) to which the several colleges +were obligated, and hence Severus Alexander took the initiative +in founding new colleges until all the city trades were thus organized. +The same princeps appointed judicial representatives from each guild +and placed them under the jurisdiction of definite courts. The colleges +from this time onward operated under governmental supervision +and really formed a part of the machinery of the administration, although +they had not yet become compulsory and hereditary organizations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The history of the colleges in the municipalities paralleled that of +the Roman guilds, although it cannot be traced so clearly in detail. +The best known of the municipal colleges are those of the artificers +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fabri</span></span>), the makers of rag cloths (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">centonarii</span></span>), and the wood cutters +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dendrophori</span></span>). The organization of these colleges was everywhere +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page288">[pg 288]</span><a name="Pg288" id="Pg288" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>encouraged because their members had the obligation of acting as a +local fire brigade, but in the exercise of their trades they were not in +the service of their respective communities. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was in the latter part of the third century, when the whole fabric +of society seemed threatened with destruction, that the state, with the +object of maintaining organized industry and commerce, placed upon +the properties of the members of the various colleges in Rome and in +the municipalities the burden of maintaining the work of these corporations; +a burden which soon came also to be laid upon the individual +members thereof. In this way the plebeian class throughout +the empire sank to the status of laborers in the service of the state. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc225" id="toc225"></a><a name="pdf226" id="pdf226"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">VI. The Colonate or Serfdom</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While the municipal decurions, and the Roman and municipal +plebs had thus sunk to the position of fiscally exploited classes, the +bulk of the agricultural population of the empire had fallen into a +species of serfdom known to the Romans as the colonate, from the +use of the word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">colonus</span></span> to denote a tenant farmer. This condition +arose under varying circumstances in the different parts of the empire, +but its development in Italy and the West was much influenced +by the situation in some of the eastern provinces, where the peasantry +were in a state of quasi-serfdom prior to the Roman conquest. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Egypt.</span></span> In Egypt under the Ptolemies the inhabitants of village +communities were compelled to perform personal services to the state, +including the cultivation of royal land not let out on contract, each +within the boundaries of the community in which he was registered +(his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">idia</span></span>). With the introduction of Roman rule this theory of the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">idia</span></span> was given greater precision. All the land of each village had to +be tilled by the residents thereof, either as owners or tenants. At +times, indeed, the inhabitants of one village might be forced to cultivate +vacant lands at a distance. During the seasons of sowing and +harvest the presence of every villager was required in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">idia</span></span>. The +crushing weight of taxation, added to the other obligations of the +peasantry caused many of them to flee from their <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">idia</span></span>, and this led +to an increasing amount of unleased state land. As a large number +of private estates had developed, chiefly because of the encouragement +extended to those who brought waste land under cultivation, the government +forced the property holders to assume the contracts for the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page289">[pg 289]</span><a name="Pg289" id="Pg289" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>vacant public lands in their districts. With the introduction of the +municipal councils in the course of the third century, these were made +responsible for the collection of the taxes of each nome. To enable +the councillors, who were property holders, to fulfill this obligation, +their tenants were forbidden to leave their holdings. And so, as state +or private tenants, the peasants came to be bound to the soil. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The development in Asia Minor was similar. There the royal +lands of the Seleucids became the public land of Rome, and out of +this the Roman magnates of the later Republic developed vast estates +which in turn were concentrated in the hands of Augustus. These +imperial domains were cultivated by peasants, who lived in village +communities and paid a yearly rental for the land they occupied. +The rest of the land of Asia formed the territories dependent upon +the Greek cities, and was occupied by a native population who were +in part free peasants settled in villages. On the imperial domains +the village came to be the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">idia</span></span> to which the peasant was permanently +attached for the performance of his liturgies or obligatory services, +while on the municipal territories the agricultural population was +bound to the soil as tenants of the municipal landholders, the local +senators, upon whom had been placed the responsibility for the payment +of the taxes of their municipalities. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Africa.</span></span> In Africa the transformation was effected differently. +There, at the opening of the principate, outside of the municipal territories, +the land fell into <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ager publicus</span></span>, private estates of Roman +senators and imperial domains. Under the early emperors, particularly +Nero, the bulk of the private estates passed by legacy and confiscation +into the control of the princeps, who also took over the administration +of the public domain in so far as it was not absorbed in +new municipal areas. This domain land was divided into large districts +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tractus</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">regiones</span></span>) which were directly administered by imperial +procurators. Each district comprised a number of estates (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">saltus</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fundi</span></span>). Whatever slave labor had at one time been used in African +<a name="corr289" id="corr289" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">agricultural</span> operations was, by the early principate, largely displaced +by free laborers, called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span>. These <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> were either Italian immigrants +or tributary native holders of the public land. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The estates were usually managed as follows. The procurators +leased them to tenant contractors (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">conductores</span></span>), who retained a part +of their lease holds under their own supervision, and sublet the remainder +to tenant farmers (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span>). The relation of these <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page290">[pg 290]</span><a name="Pg290" id="Pg290" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>the contractors as well as to the owners of private estates or their +bailiffs (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vilici</span></span>), was regulated by an edict of a certain Mancia, apparently +a procurator under the Flavians. By this edict the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> +were obliged to pay a definite proportion of their crop as rental, and +in addition to render a certain number of days’ work, personally +and with their teams, on the land of the person from whom they held +their lease. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> comprised both landless residents on the estates +and small landholders from neighboring villages. They were +encouraged to occupy vacant domain land and bring it under cultivation. +Over plough land thus cultivated they obtained the right of +occupation for life, but orchard land became an hereditary possession, +while in both cases the occupant was required to pay rental in +kind to the state. Hadrian also tried to further the development of +peasant landholders by permitting the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> to occupy any lands not +tilled by the middlemen, and giving them rights of possession over all +types of land. However, the forced services still remained and these +constituted the chief grievance of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span>. And here the government +was on the horns of a dilemma, for if the middlemen were restrained +from undue exactions often large areas remained untilled, +and if the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> were oppressed they absconded and left their holdings +without tenants. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was in the course of the third century that the failure to create +an adequate class of independent small farmers caused the state to fall +back upon the development of large private estates as the only way of +keeping the land under cultivation and maintaining the public revenues. +As a result of this change of policy the middlemen were transformed +from tenants into proprietors, and, like the landholders of +Egypt, they were forced to assume the lease of vacant public land +adjacent to their estates. But to make it possible for the proprietors +to fulfill this obligation the state had to give them control over the +labor needed to till the soil. Hence the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> were forbidden to +leave the estates where they had once established themselves as +tenants. In Africa the estate became the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">idia</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">origo</span></span> corresponding +to the village in Egypt. In the municipal territories the landholders +of the towns played the rôle of the middlemen on the imperial domains. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Italy.</span></span> In Italy, unlike Africa, conditions upon the private, rather +than the imperial, domains determined the rise of the colonate. At +the close of the Republic the land of Italy was occupied by the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page291">[pg 291]</span><a name="Pg291" id="Pg291" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">latifundia</span></span> and peasant holdings, the former of which were by far +the most important factor in agricultural life. It will be recalled +that the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">latifundia</span></span> were great plantations and ranches whose development +had been facilitated by an abundant supply of cheap slave +labor. However, even in the first century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> these plantations were +partly tilled by free peasants, either as tenants or day laborers, and +under the principate there was a gradual displacement of slaves by +free <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span>. The causes for this transformation lay in the cutting off +of the main supply of slaves through the suppression of the slave-trading +pirates and the cessation of aggressive foreign wars, the decrease +in the number of slaves through manumissions, the growth of +humanitarian tendencies which checked their ruthless exploitation, +and the realization that the employment of free labor was in the long +run more profitable than that of slaves, particularly when the latter +were becoming increasingly expensive to procure. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> worked +the estates of the landowners for a certain proportion of the harvest. +As elsewhere, in Italy it was fiscal necessity which converted the +free <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> into serfs. With the spread of waste lands, due partly +to a decline of the population, the state intervened on behalf of the +landlords as it had in the provinces and attached the peasants to the +domain where they had once been voluntary tenants. Elsewhere +throughout the empire, although the process cannot be traced in detail, +a similar transformation took place. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Perhaps the ultimate responsibility for the development of the +colonate may rest upon the attempt of the imperial government to +incorporate within the empire vast territories in a comparatively low +state of civilization, and upon the fiscal system whereby it was designed +that the expenses imposed by this policy should be met. In +the West the administration strove to develop a strong class of prosperous +peasants as state tenants; in the East its object was to maintain +this class which was already in existence. But the financial +needs of the state caused such a heavy burden to be laid upon the +agricultural population that the ideal of a prosperous free peasantry +proved impossible of realization. The ravages of war and plague in +the second and third centuries also fell heavily upon the peasants. As +a last resource to check the decline of agriculture the government +placed the small farmer at the disposal of the rich landlord and made +him a serf. The results were oppression, poverty, lack of initiative, +a decline in the birth rate, flight and at the end an increase of +un<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page292">[pg 292]</span><a name="Pg292" id="Pg292" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>cultivated, unproductive land. The transplanting of conquered barbarians +within the empire swelled the class of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> but proved +only a partial palliative to the general shrinkage of the agricultural +elements. But the converse to the development of the colonate was +the creation of a powerful class of landholders who were the owners +of large domains exempt from the control of municipal authorities. +</p> + + </div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page293">[pg 293]</span><a name="Pg293" id="Pg293" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <a name="toc227" id="toc227"></a><a name="pdf228" id="pdf228"></a> + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER XX</span></h2> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">RELIGION AND SOCIETY</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc229" id="toc229"></a><a name="pdf230" id="pdf230"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. Society under the Principate</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Imperial Rome.</span></span> Roman society under the Principate exhibits in +general the same characteristics as during the last century of the +Republic. Rome itself was a thoroughly cosmopolitan city, where +the concentration of wealth and political power attracted the ambitious, +the adventurous and the curious from all lands. Whole +quarters were occupied by various nationalities, most prominent among +whom were the Greeks, the Syrians, and the Jews, speaking their own +languages and plying their native trades. With the freeborn foreign +population mingled the thousands of slaves and freedmen of every +race and tongue. During the first and second century the population +of Rome must have been in the neighborhood of one million, but in +the third century it began to decline as a result of pestilence and the +general bankruptcy of the empire. Inevitably in such a city there +were the sharpest contrasts between riches and poverty, and the +luxurious palaces of the wealthy were matched by the squalid tenements +of the proletariat. In outward appearance Rome underwent +a transformation which made her worthy to be capital of so vast an +empire. This was largely due to the great number of public buildings +erected by the various emperors and to the lavish employment of +marble in public and private architecture from the time of Augustus. +The temples, basilicas, fora, aqueducts, public baths, theatres, palaces, +triumphal arches, statues, and parks combined to arouse the enthusiastic +admiration of travelers and the pride of its inhabitants. But, +although after the great fire of 64 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> many improvements were +made in the plan of the city, restrictions placed upon the height of +buildings, and fireproof construction required for the lower stories, +still the streets remained narrow and dingy, the lofty tenements were +of flimsy construction, in perpetual danger of collapse, and devastating +conflagrations occurred periodically. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page294">[pg 294]</span><a name="Pg294" id="Pg294" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The task of feeding the city plebs and providing for their entertainment +was a ruinous legacy left by the Republic to the principate. Although +the number of recipients of free corn was not increased after +Augustus, the public spectacles became ever more numerous and more +magnificent. Under Tiberius eighty-seven days of the year were +regularly occupied by these entertainments but by the time of Marcus +Aurelius there were one hundred and thirty-five such holidays. In +addition came extraordinary festivals to celebrate special occasions, +like the one hundred and twenty-three day carnival given by Trajan +at his second Dacian triumph in 106 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> The spectacles were of +three main types; the chariot races in the circus, the gladiatorial combats +and animal baiting in the amphitheatre, and the dramatic and +other performances in the theatre. The expense of these celebrations +fell upon the senatorial order and the princeps. Indeed the most important +function of the consulship, praetorship and, until its disappearance +in the third century, the aedileship, came to be the celebration +of the regular festivals. The sums provided for such purposes +by the state were entirely inadequate and so the cost had to be +met largely from the magistrates’ private resources. The extraordinary +spectacles were all given at the expense of the princeps who also +at times granted subventions to favored senators from the imperial +purse. The cost of the public shows placed as heavy a drain upon +the fortunes of the senatorial order as did the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">summa honoraria</span></span> upon +the holders of municipal offices. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A new feature of Roman society under the principate was the +growth of the imperial court. In spite of the wishes of Augustus +and some of his successors to live on a footing of equality with the +rest of the nobility, it was inevitable that the exceptional political +power of the princeps should give a corresponding importance to his +household organization. Definite offices developed within the imperial +household not only for the conduct of public business but also +for the control of slaves and freedmen in the domestic service of the +princeps. The chief household officials were the chamberlain <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a +cubiculo</span></span> and the chief usher (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ab admissione</span></span>). Because of their +intimate personal association with the princeps their influence over +him was very great, and as a rule they did not hesitate to use their +position to enrich themselves at the expense of those who sought the +imperial favor. From among the senators and equestrians the princeps +chose a number of intimate associates and advisors who were +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page295">[pg 295]</span><a name="Pg295" id="Pg295" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>called his <span class="tei tei-q">“friends.”</span> When forming part of his cortege away from +Rome they were known as his companions (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comites Augusti</span></span>). In +connection with the imperial audiences a certain degree of ceremonial +developed, with fixed forms of salutation which differentiated the +rank and station of those attending these functions. In the society +of the capital the personal tastes of the princeps set the fashion of +the day. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Clients.</span></span> Characteristic of the times was the new form of clientage +which was a voluntary association of master and paid retainer. +Under the republic eminent men had throngs of adherents to greet +them at their morning reception and accompany them to the forum. +It had now become obligatory for practically every man of wealth +to maintain such a retinue, which should be at his beck and call at +all hours of the day and be prepared to serve him in various ways. +In return the patron helped to support his clients with fees, food, and +gifts of clothing, and rendered them other favors. The clients were +recruited partly from freedmen, partly from citizens of low birth, and +partly from persons of the better class who had fallen upon evil days. +In general the lot of these pensioners does not seem to have been a +very happy one—even the slaves of their patrons despised them—and +their large numbers are to be attributed to the superior attractions +of city over country life, and to the stigma which in Rome +rested upon industrial employment. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Slaves and freedmen.</span></span> In the early principate slave-holding continued +on as large a scale as in the late republic. The palaces of +the wealthy in Rome could count slaves by hundreds; on the larger +plantations they were numbered by thousands. Trained slaves were +also employed in great numbers in various trades and industries. +Their treatment varied according to their employment and the character +of their owners, but there was a steady progress towards greater +humanitarianism, largely due to the influence of philosophic doctrines. +In the age of the Antonines this produced legislation which limited the +power of the master over his slave. As time went on the number of +slaves steadily diminished, in part because of the cessation of continual +foreign wars after the time of Augustus, in part because of the +great increase of manumissions. Not only were large numbers set +free at the death of their owners as a final act of generosity, but also +many found it profitable to liberate their slaves and provide them +with capital to engage in business for themselves. Many slaves also +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page296">[pg 296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>had good opportunities for accumulating a small store of money +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">peculium</span></span>) with which they could purchase their freedom. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The result of these wholesale manumissions was a tremendous increase +in the freedmen class. Foreseeing the effect that this would +have upon the Roman citizen body, Augustus endeavored to restrict +the right of emancipation. By the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Fufia Caninia</span></span> (2 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>) testamentary +manumissions were limited to a fixed proportion of the total +number of slaves held by the deceased, and not more than one hundred +allowed in any case. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Aelia Sentia</span></span> (4 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>) placed restrictions +upon the master’s right of manumission during his lifetime, and +the Junian law of about the same time prevented slaves liberated +without certain formalities from receiving Roman citizenship although +granting them the status of Latins. Even freedmen who became Romans +lacked the right of voting or of holding office in Rome or the +municipalities, unless they received from the princeps the right to +wear the gold ring which gave them the privileges of freeborn citizens. +In spite of these laws the number of the freedmen grew apace, +and there is no doubt that in the course of the principate the racial +characteristics of the population of Rome and of the whole peninsula +of Italy underwent a complete transformation as a result of the infusion +of this new element, combined with the emigration of Italians +to the provinces. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The importance of the rôle played by the freedmen in Roman +society was in proportion to their numbers. From them were recruited +the lower ranks of the civil service, they filled every trade and +profession, the commerce of the empire was largely in their hands, +they became the managers of estates and of business undertakings of +all sorts. The eager pursuit of money at all costs was their common +characteristic, and <span class="tei tei-q">“freedman’s wealth”</span> was a proverbial expression +for riches quickly acquired. The more successful of their class became +landholders in Italy and aped the life and manners of the nobility. +Their lack of good taste, so common to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">nouveaux riches</span></span> +of all ages, afforded a good target for the jibes of satirists and is caricatured +in the novel of Petronius. We have already seen the influence +of the few among them who by the emperors’ favor attained positions +of political importance. Despise the freedmen though they +might, the Romans found them indispensable for the conduct of public +and private business. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page297">[pg 297]</span><a name="Pg297" id="Pg297" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Commerce and industry.</span></span> The restoration of peace within the +empire, the suppression of piracy, the extension of the Roman military +highways throughout all the provinces, the establishment of a +single currency valid for the whole empire, and the low duties levied +at the provincial customs frontiers combined to produce an hitherto +unexampled development of commercial enterprise. Traders from +all parts of the provinces thronged the ports of Italy, and one merchant +of Hierapolis in Phrygia has left a record of his seventy-two +voyages there. But Roman commerce was not confined within the +Roman borders, it also flourished with outside peoples, particularly +those of the East. From the ports of Egypt on the Red Sea large +merchant fleets sailed for southern Arabia and India, while a brisk +caravan trade through the Parthian and Bactrian kingdoms brought +the silks of China to the Roman markets. Even the occasional presence +of Roman merchants in China is vouched for by Chinese records. +Among all the races of the empire the most active in these mercantile +ventures were the Syrians, whose presence may be traced not only in +the commercial centers of the East, but also in the harbors of Italy +and throughout all the western provinces. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The increased opportunities for trading stimulated the development +of manufacturing, for not only could raw materials be more easily +procured but towns favorably situated for the manufacture of particular +types of goods could find a wider market for their products. +However, industrial organization never attained a high degree of development. +In the production of certain wares, such as articles of +bronze, silver, glass, and, especially, pottery and bricks, the factory +system seems to have been employed, with a division of labor among +specialized artisans. In general, however, this was not the case and +each manufactured article was the product of one man’s labor. In +Italy, and probably throughout the western provinces, the bulk of the +work of this sort was done by slaves and freedmen. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the same time the art of agriculture had been developed to a +very high degree, and Columella, an agricultural writer of the time +of Nero, shows a good knowledge of the principles of fertilization +and rotation of crops. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +However, this material prosperity, which attained its height early +in the second century of our era, declined from reasons which have +already been described until the whole empire reached a state of +eco<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page298">[pg 298]</span><a name="Pg298" id="Pg298" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>nomic bankruptcy in the course of the third century. The progressive +bankruptcy of the government is shown by the steady deterioration +of the coinage. Under Nero the denarius, the standard silver coin, +was first debased. This debasement continued until under Septimius +Severus it became one half copper. Caracalla issued a new silver +coin, the Antoninianus, one and a half times the weight of the denarius +of the day. Both these coins rapidly deteriorated in quality +until they became mere copper coins with a wash of silver. Aurelian +made the first attempt to correct this evil by issuing only the Antoninianus +and giving this a standard value. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To pass a moral judgment upon society under the principate is a +difficult task. The society depicted in the satires of Juvenal and in +Martial, in the court gossip of Suetonius, or in the polemics of the +Christian writers seems hopelessly corrupt and vicious. But their +picture is not complete. The letters of Pliny reveal an entirely different +world with a high standard of human conduct, whose ideals are +expressed in the philosophic doctrines of Seneca and Marcus Aurelius. +And the funerary inscriptions from the municipalities, where life +was more wholesome and simple than in the large cities, pay a sincere +tribute to virtue in all its forms. The luxurious extravagance of imperial +Rome has been equalled and surpassed in more recent times, +and, apart from the vices of slavery and the arena, modern society has +little wherewith to reproach that of the principate. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc231" id="toc231"></a><a name="pdf232" id="pdf232"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The Intellectual World</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Literature.</span></span> The principate had two literatures; one Greek, the +other Roman. But the forms of literary production were the same +in each, and the Roman authors took rank with those of Greece in +their respective fields. For the Romans could boast that they had +adapted the Latin tongue to the literary types of the older culture +world, while preserving in their work a spirit genuinely Roman. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Augustan age.</span></span> The feeling of relief produced by the cessation +of the civil wars, and the hopes engendered by the policy of +Augustus inspired a group of writers whose genius made the age of +Augustus the culminating point in the development of Roman poetry, +like the age of Cicero in Roman prose. Foremost among the poets +of the new era was Virgil (70–19 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>), the son of a small landholder +of Mantua, whose <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aeneid</span></span>, a national epic, the glorification +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page299">[pg 299]</span><a name="Pg299" id="Pg299" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>alike of Rome and of the Julian house, placed him with Homer in +the front rank of epic poets for all time. His greatest contemporary +was Horace (65–8 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>), the son of a freedman from South Italy. +It was Horace who first wrote Latin lyrics in the complicated meters +of Greece, and whose genial satire and insight into human nature +have combined with his remarkable happiness of phrase to make him +the delight of cultivated society both in antiquity and modern times. +The leading <a name="corr299" id="corr299" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">elegiac</span> poets were Propertius, Tibullus and Ovid (43 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>–17 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). In his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fasti</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Metamorphoses</span></span> the latter recounted +with masterly narrative skill the legends of Greek and Roman +mythology. His elegies reveal the spirit of the pleasure-seeking society +of new Rome and show the ineffectiveness of the attempt of +Augustus to bring about a moral regeneration of the Roman people. +This, probably, was the true ground for his banishment from Rome. +Livy (59 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>–17 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>) was the one prose writer of note in the +Augustan age. His history of Rome is a great work of art, an +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aeneid</span></span> in prose, which celebrated the past greatness of Rome and the +virtues whereby this had been attained—those virtues which Augustus +aimed to revive. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The age of Nero.</span></span> From Augustus to Nero there are no names of +note in Roman literature, but under the latter came a slight reawakening +of literary productivity. Seneca (4 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>–65 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), a Spaniard +from Corduba, Nero’s tutor, minister and victim, is best known as the +exponent of the practical Stoic religion and the only Roman tragedian +whose works have survived. His nephew Lucan (39–65 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>) portrayed +in his epic, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pharsalia</span></span>, the struggle of the republicans +against Julius Caesar. His work shows a reawakening of a vain republican +idealism and is the counterpart to the Stoic opposition in +the senate. Petronius (d. 66 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), the arbiter of the refinements +of luxury at Nero’s court, displayed his originality by giving, in the +form of a novel, a skilful and lively picture of the society of the +freedmen in the Greek municipalities of South Italy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Flavian era.</span></span> Under the Flavians, Pliny the Elder (23–79 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), a native of Cisalpine Gaul, compiled his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Natural History</span></span>, +which he aimed to make an encyclopaedia of information on the whole +world of nature. It is a work of monumental industry but displays a +lack of critical acumen and scientific training. At about the same +time there taught in Rome the Spaniard Quintilian (d. 95 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), who +wrote on the theory and practice of rhetoric, expressing in charming +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page300">[pg 300]</span><a name="Pg300" id="Pg300" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>prose the Ciceronian ideal of life and education. His countryman +Martial (d. 102 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>) gave in satiric epigrams glimpses of the meaner +aspects of contemporary life. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Tacitus and his contemporaries.</span></span> The freer atmosphere of the +government of Nerva and Trajan allowed the senatorial aristocracy +to voice feelings carefully suppressed under the terror of Domitian. +Their spokesman was Tacitus (55–116 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), a man of true genius, +who ranks next to Thucydides as the representative of artistic historical +writing in ancient times. His <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Treatise on the Orators</span></span>, his +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Agricola</span></span>, and his descriptive account of the German peoples +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Germania</span></span>) were preludes to two great historical works, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annals</span></span> +and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histories</span></span>, which together covered the period from 14–96 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +His attitude is strongly influenced by the persecutions of senators +under Domitian, and is the expression of his personal animosity and +that of the descendants of the older republican nobility towards the +principate in general. A friend of Tacitus, the younger Pliny +(62–113 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), imitated Cicero in collecting and publishing his letters. +This correspondence is valuable as an illustration of the life +and literary diletantism of educated circles of the day, as also for +the light it throws upon the administrative policies of Trajan. An +embittered critic of the age was the satirist Juvenal (d. about 130 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), from Aquinum in Italy, who wrote from a stoical standpoint +but with little learning and narrow vision. Somewhat later the first +literary history of Rome was written by Suetonius (75–150 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), +who is better known as the author of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lives of the Caesars</span></span> (from +Julius to Domitian), a series of gossipy narratives which set the style +for future historical writing in Rome. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With Hadrian begins the period of archaism in Roman literature, +that is, an artificial return to the Latin of Cato, Ennius and Plautus, +an unmistakable symptom of intellectual sterility. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Provincial literature.</span></span> The progress of Romanization in the +provinces is clearly marked by the participation of provincials in the +literary life of Rome. From the Cisalpine, from Narbonese Gaul, +and from Spain, men with literary instincts and ability had been +drawn to the capital as the sole place where their talents would find +recognition. But gradually some of the provinces developed a Latin +culture of their own. The first evidences of this change came from +the age of the Antonines, when a Latin literature made its appearance +in the province of Africa. Its earliest representative was the +sophist Apuleius, the author of the romance entitled <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Golden Ass</span></span>. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page301">[pg 301]</span><a name="Pg301" id="Pg301" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Christian literature.</span></span> It was in Africa also that a Latin Christian +literature first arose, and it was the African Christian writers +who made Latin the language of the church in Italy and the West. +Of these Christian apologists the earliest and most influential was +Tertullian of Carthage, whose literary activity falls in the time of +the Severi. Cyprian and Arnobius continued his task in the third +century. In Minucius Felix, a contemporary of Tertullian, the +Christian community at Rome found an able defender of the faith. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Jurisprudence.</span></span> In all other sciences the Romans sat at the feet +of the Greeks, but in that of jurisprudence they displayed both independence +and originality. The growth of Roman jurisprudence was +not hampered but furthered by the establishment of the principate, +for the development of a uniform administrative system for the whole +empire called for the corresponding development of a uniform system +of law. The study of law was stimulated by the practice of Augustus +and his successors who gave to prominent jurists the right of publicly +giving opinions (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">jus publice respondendi</span></span>) by his authority on the +legal merits of cases under trial. A further encouragement was given +by Hadrian’s organization of his judicial council. The great service +of the jurists of the principate was the introduction into Roman law +of the principles of equity founded on a philosophic conception of +natural law and the systematic organization and interpretation of the +body of the civil law. Roman jurisprudence reached its height between +the accession of Hadrian and the death of Severus Alexander. +The chief legal writers of this period were Julian in the time of +Hadrian, Gaius in the age of the Antonines, his contemporary Scaevola, +the three celebrated jurists of the time of the Severi—Papinian, +Paul and Ulpian, all pretorian prefects,—and lastly Modestine, +who closes the long line of classic juris-consults. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Greek literature.</span></span> If we except the brief period of the Augustan +age, the Greek literature of the principate stands both in quantity +and quality above the Latin. Even Augustus had recognized Greek +as the language of government in the eastern half of the empire, and +with the gradual abandonment of his policy of preserving the domination +of the Italians over the provincials Greeks stood upon the same +footing as the Latin speaking provincials in the eyes of the imperial +government. In Rome the Greek author received the same recognition +as his Roman <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">confrère</span></span>. Greek historians, geographers, scientists, +rhetoricians and philosophers wrote not only for Greeks, but +for the educated circles of the whole empire. And it was in Greek +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page302">[pg 302]</span><a name="Pg302" id="Pg302" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>that the princeps Marcus Aurelius chose to write his Meditations. +Nor should it be forgotten that Greek was the language of the early +Christian writers, beginning with the Apostle Paul. By the opening +of the third century the champions of the new faith had begun to +rank among the leading authors of the day in the East as well as in +the West. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Plutarch (c. 50–120 A. D.) and Lucian (c. 125–200 A. D.)</span><a name="corr302" id="corr302" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">.</span></span></span> +The best known names in the Greek literature of the principate are +Plutarch and Lucian. Plutarch’s <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Parallel Lives</span></span> of famous Greeks +and Romans possess a perpetual freshness and charm. Lucian was +essentially a writer of prose satires, a journalist who was <span class="tei tei-q">“the last +great master of Attic eloquence and Attic wit.”</span> In the realm of +science, Ptolemy the astronomer, and Galen the student of medicine, +both active in the second century, profoundly influenced their own +and subsequent times. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Philosophy.</span></span> As we have seen, the doctrines of Stoicism continued +to appeal to the highest instincts of Roman character. Besides +Seneca and Marcus Aurelius this creed found a worthy exponent in +the ex-slave Epictetus, who taught between 90 and 120 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> at Nicopolis +in Epirus. With Plotinus (204–270 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), Greek philosophy +became definitely religious in character, resting upon the basis of +revelation and belief, not upon that of reason. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Art.</span></span> Roman art found its chief inspiration in, and remained in +close contact with, Roman public life. The artists of the principate +may well have been Greeks, but they wrought for Romans and had +to satisfy Roman standards of taste. Realism and careful attention +to details may be said to be the two great characteristics of Roman +art. This is true both of Roman sculpture, which excelled in statues, +portrait busts, and the bas-reliefs depicting historical events with +which public monuments were richly decorated, and of the repoussé +and relief work which adorned table ware and other articles of silver, +bronze and pottery. The Roman fondness for costly decorations is +well illustrated by the elaborateness of the frescoes and the mosaics +of the villas of Pompeii, and other sites where excavations have revealed +the interiors of Roman public and private buildings. The +erection of the many temples, basilicas, baths, aqueducts, bridges, +amphitheatres and other structures in Rome, Italy and other provinces +supplied a great stimulus to Roman architecture and engineering. It +was in the use of the arch and the vault, particularly the vault of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page303">[pg 303]</span><a name="Pg303" id="Pg303" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>concrete, that the Roman architects excelled, and their highest +achievements were great vaulted structures like the Pantheon and the +Baths of Caracalla. The most striking testimony to the grandeur of +Rome comes from the remains of Roman architecture in the provinces—from +such imposing ruins as the Porta Nigra of Trèves, the +theatre at Orange, the Pont du Gard near Nîmes, the bridge over the +Tagus at Alcantara and the amphitheatres of Nîmes in France and +El-Djemm in Tunisia. But, like the literature, the Roman art of the +principate in time experienced a loss of creative power. It reached +its height under the Flavians and Trajan and then a steady deterioration +set in. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Causes of intellectual decline.</span></span> The third century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> witnessed +a general collapse of ancient civilization, no less striking in its cultural +than in its political and economic aspects. This cultural decline +was the result of political causes which had been gradually undermining +the foundations of a vigorous intellectual life. The culture +of Greece culminated in its scientific achievements of the third +century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> At that time in comparison with the Greeks the neighboring, +peoples were at best semi-barbarians; in the eastern Mediterranean +the Greeks were the dominant race, still animated by a strong +love of political freedom. But the Roman conquest with its ruthless +exploitation of the provinces ruined the Greek world economically +and broke the morale of the Greek peoples, forcing them to seek their +salvation in fawning servility to Rome. The consequence was that +as the Greeks came under the dominion of Rome their creative impulses +withered, their intellectual progress ceased and their eyes were +turned backward upon their past achievements. And the Italians +themselves were on too low an intellectual level to develop a culture +of their own. They had not progressed beyond the adoption of certain +aspects of Greek culture before the century of civil wars between +133 and 30 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> resulted in the establishment of a type of government +which gradually crushed out the spirit of initiative in the +Latin speaking world. The material prosperity and peace during the +first two centuries of the principate made possible the diffusion of a +uniform type of culture throughout the empire as a whole, but after +the age of Augustus this is characterized both in the East and in the +West by its imitation of the past and its lack of creative power. +The third century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> with its long period of civil war, foreign invasions, +and economic chaos, dealt a fatal blow to the material basis of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page304">[pg 304]</span><a name="Pg304" id="Pg304" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>ancient civilization. The collapse of Graeco-Roman culture was +rapid and complete, resembling the breakdown of the civilization of +the Aegean Bronze age toward the close of the second millennium before +the Christian era. Culturally, the fourth century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> belongs +to the Middle Ages. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<a name="toc233" id="toc233"></a><a name="pdf234" id="pdf234"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. The Imperial Cult and the Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The religious transformation of the Roman world.</span></span> The religious +transformation of the Roman world during the principate was +fully as important for future ages as its political transformation. +This religious development consisted in the diffusion throughout the +empire of a group of religions which originated in the countries bordering +the eastern shores of the Mediterranean and hence are generally +known as Oriental cults. And among these oriental religions +are included both Judaism and Christianity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The state cults.</span></span> However, the worship of the divinities of +Graeco-Roman theology by no means died out during the first three +centuries of the Christian era. It continued to flourish in the state +cult of Rome, and the municipal cults of the Italian and provincial +towns. With the romanization of the semi-barbarous provinces +Graeco-Roman deities displaced or assimilated to themselves the gods +of the native populations. Druidism, the national religion of Gaul +and Britain, was suppressed chiefly because it fostered a spirit of +resistance to Roman rule. But the most widespread and vigorous of +the state cults was the worship of the princeps. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The imperial cult.</span></span> We have already discussed the establishment +of the imperial cult by Augustus, as a visible expression of the +loyalty of the provincials and their acknowledgment of the authority +of Rome and the princeps. We have also seen how this cult was +perpetuated by the provincial councils organized for that purpose. +After the death of Augustus the imperial cult in the provinces gradually +came to include the worship of both the ruling Augustus and +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Divi</span></span>, or deceased emperors, who had received deification at the +hands of the Senate. This practise was established in all the eastern +provinces after the time of Claudius, and in the West under the +Flavians. In Rome where the cult of the ruling princeps was not +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page305">[pg 305]</span><a name="Pg305" id="Pg305" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>practised, Domitian converted the temple of Augustus into a temple of +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Divi</span></span> or the Caesars. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The pagan Oriental cults.</span></span> The pagan Oriental cults whose +penetration of the European provinces is so marked a feature in the +religious life of the principate were the cults of the peoples of western +Asia and Egypt which had become Hellenized and adapted for +world expansion after Alexander’s conquest of the Persian empire. +From this time onward they spread throughout the Greek culture +world but it was not until the establishment of the world empire of +Rome with its facilities for, and stimulus to, intercourse between +all peoples within the Roman frontiers that they were able to obtain +a foothold in western Europe. Their penetration of Italy began with +the official reception of the cult of the Great Mother of Pessinus at +Rome in 205 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, but the Roman world as a whole held aloof from +them until the close of the republic. However, during the first two +centuries of the principate they gradually made their way over the +western parts of the empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The expansion of the Oriental cults followed the lines of the much +frequented trade routes along which they were carried by travelers, +merchants and colonies of oriental traders. The army cantonments +were also centers for their diffusion, not only through the agency of +troops recruited in the East but also through detachments which had +seen service there in the course of the numerous wars on the eastern +frontiers. Likewise the oriental slaves were active propagandists of +their native faiths. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The explanation of the ready reception of these cults among all +classes of society is that they guaranteed their adherents a satisfaction +which the official religions were unable to offer. The state +and municipal cults were mainly political in character, and with the +disappearance of independent political life they lost their hold upon +men who began to seek a refuge from the miseries of the present +world in the world of the spirit and the promise of a future life. +This want the Oriental cults were able to meet with the doctrines of a +personal religion far different from the formal worship of the Graeco-Roman +deities. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Certain characteristics of doctrine and ritual were common to the +majority of the Oriental cults. They had an elaborate ritual which +appealed both to the senses and to the emotions of the worshippers. +By witnessing certain symbolic ceremonies the believer was roused +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page306">[pg 306]</span><a name="Pg306" id="Pg306" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>to a state of spiritual ecstasy in which he felt himself in communion +with the deity, while by the performance of sacramental rites he felt +himself cleansed from the defilements of his earthly life and fitted for +a purer spiritual existence. A professional priesthood had charge of +the worship, ministered to the needs of individuals, and conducted +missionary work. To an age of declining intellectual vigor, when +men gave over the attempt to solve by scientific methods the riddle of +the universe, they spoke with the authority of revelation, giving a +comforting theological interpretation of life. And they appealed to +the conscience by imposing a rigid rule of conduct, the observance of +which would fit the believer for a happier existence in a future life. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The most important of these oriental divinities were the Great +Mother of Pessinus, otherwise known as Cybele, worshipped in company +with the male deity Attis; the Egyptian pair Isis and Serapis; +Atayatis or the Syrian goddess, the chief female divinity of North +Syria; a number of Syrian gods (Ba’als) named from the site of their +Syrian shrines; and finally Mithra, a deity whose cult had long +formed a part of the national Iranian religion. Towards all these +cults the Roman state displayed wide toleration, only interfering with +them when their orgiastic rites came into conflict with Roman conceptions +of morality. But in spite of this toleration it required a long +time before the conservative prejudices of the upper classes of Roman +society were sufficiently undermined to permit of their participation +in these foreign rites. For one hundred years after the introduction +of the worship of the Magna Mater Romans were prohibited from +enrolling themselves in the ranks of her priesthood. A determined +but unsuccessful attempt was made by the Senate during the last century +of the republic to drive from Rome the cult of Isis, the second +of these religions to find a home in Italy, and in 42 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> the triumvirs +erected a temple to this goddess. Augustus, however, banished +her worship beyond the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pomerium</span></span>. But this restriction was not enforced +by his successors, and by 69 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> the cult of the Egyptian +goddess was firmly established in the capital. The various Syrian +deities were of less significance in the religious life of the West, although +as we have seen Elagabalus set up the worship of one of them, +the Sun god of Emesa, as an official cult at Rome. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Oriental cult which in importance overshadowed all the rest +was Mithraism, one of the latest to cross from Asia into Europe. +In Zoroastrian theology Mithra appears as the spirit who is the chief +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page307">[pg 307]</span><a name="Pg307" id="Pg307" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>agent of the supreme god of light Ormuzd in his struggle against +Ahriman, the god of darkness. He is at the same time a beneficent +force in the natural world and in the moral world the champion of +righteousness against the powers of evil. Under Babylonian and +Greek influences Mithra was identified with the Sun-god, and appears +in Rome with the title the Unconquered Sun-god Mithra (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">deus +invictus sol Mithra</span></span>). Towards the close of the first century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +Mithraism began to make its influence felt in Rome and the western +provinces, and from that time it spread with great rapidity. Mithra, +as the god of battles, was a patron deity of the soldiers, who became +his zealous missionaries in the frontier camps. His cult was also +regarded with particular favor by the emperors, whose authority it +supported by the doctrine that the ruler is the chosen of Ormuzd and +an embodiment of the divine spirit. It is not surprising then that +Aurelian, whose coins bore the legend <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dominus et deus natus</span></span> (born +god and lord), made the worship of the Unconquered Sun-god the +chief cult of the state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Philosophy.</span></span> Attention has already been called to the value of +Stoicism in supplying its adherents with a highly moral code of conduct. +Other philosophical systems, notably Epicureanism, likewise +inculcated particular rules of life. But the philosophical doctrines +which were best able to hold their own with the new religions were +those of Neoplatonism and Neopythagoreanism, which came into +vogue in the course of the second century, and exhibited a combination +of mysticism and idealism well suited to the spirit of the age. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Astrology and magic.</span></span> Throughout the principate all classes of +society were deeply imbued with a superstitious fatalism which caused +them to place implicit belief in the efficacy of astrology and magic. +Chaldean and Egyptian astrologers enjoyed a great reputation, and +were consulted on all important questions. They were frequently +banished from Rome by the emperors who feared that their predictions +might give encouragement to their enemies. However, these +very emperors kept astrologers in their own service, and the decrees +of banishment never remained long in force. The almost universal +belief in miracles and oracles caused the appearance of a large number +of imposters who throve on the credulity of their clients. One +of the most celebrated of these was the Alexander who founded a new +oracle of Aesculapius at Abonoteichus in Paphlagonia, the fame of +which spread throughout the whole empire and even beyond its +bor<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page308">[pg 308]</span><a name="Pg308" id="Pg308" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>ders. In his exposé of the methods employed by this false prophet, +the satirist Lucian gives a vivid picture of the depraved superstition +of his time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the close of the principate the pagan world presented a great +confusion of religious beliefs and doctrines. However, the various +pagan cults were tolerant one of another, for the followers of one +god were ready to acknowledge the divinity of the gods worshipped +by their neighbors. On the contrary, the adherents of Judaism and +Christianity refused to recognize the pagan gods, and hence stood in +irreconcilable opposition to the whole pagan world. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc235" id="toc235"></a><a name="pdf236" id="pdf236"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. Christianity and Its Relation to the Roman State</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Jews of the Roman empire.</span></span> Alexander the Great’s conquest +of the Near East had thrown open to the Jews the whole Graeco-Macedonian +world, and Jewish settlements rapidly appeared in all its +important commercial centers. The Jewish colonies were encouraged +by the Hellenistic monarchs who granted them immunity from military +service, protection in the exercise of their religion, and a privileged +judicial status in the cities where they were established. In course +of time the number of Jews in these <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">diaspora</span></span> became much greater +than in Judaea itself. Although the Jews resident outside of Syria +had adopted the Greek language, and were influenced in many ways +by their contact with Hellenistic culture, they still formed part of the +religious community presided over by the High Priest at Jerusalem, +and in addition to the annual contribution of two drachmas to the +temple of Jehovah, every Jew was expected to visit Jerusalem and +offer up sacrifice in the temple at least once in the course of his life. +Moreover, they were active in proselytizing and made many converts +among the Greeks and other peoples with whom they came into contact. +However, their connection with Judaea was purely religious +and not political in character. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The privileged status which the Jews had enjoyed in the Hellenistic +states was recognized by the Romans and was specifically confirmed +by Augustus, although this policy caused considerable dissatisfaction +among their Greek fellow townsmen. Furthermore, in deference to +the peculiarity of their religion, the Jews were not required to participate +in the imperial cult. However, the imperial government +made no attempt to foster settlements of the Jews in the western +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page309">[pg 309]</span><a name="Pg309" id="Pg309" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>provinces, and during the early principate the only considerable Jewish +colony west of the Adriatic was that in Rome. With the exception +of Caligula, who tried to force the imperial cult upon the Jews, +the successors of Augustus did not interfere with the Jewish religion, +except to forbid its propaganda. The expulsions of the Jews from +Rome under Tiberius and Claudius were not religious persecutions +but police measures taken for the maintenance of good order within +the city. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Christianity and Judaism.</span></span> The Christian religion had its origin +in Judaea as a result of the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, who was +crucified by the Roman authorities in the principate of Tiberius, +after having been condemned for blasphemy by the Sanhedrin, the +Jewish high court for the enforcement of the law of Moses. From +Judaea Christianity spread to the Jewish <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">diaspora</span></span> through the missionary +activity of the disciples and other followers of Jesus, particularly +the Apostle Paul. Although the Christian propaganda was +not confined to these Jewish communities, it was among them that +the first Christian congregations arose, and this, with the Jewish +origin of the new faith, caused the Christians to be regarded by the +Roman government as a sect of the Jews. In 49 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Claudius banished +the Jews from Rome because of disorders among them between +the Christians and the adherents of the older faith. Nero’s persecution +of the Christians in 64 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> was, as we have seen, not undertaken +on religious grounds, and was perhaps due to Jewish instigation. +On the whole, the Christians benefited by the attitude of Rome +towards their sect, for it gave them the benefit of the immunities which +the adherents of Judaism enjoyed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Although the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> brought about +the predominance of the non-Jewish element in the Christian ranks, +until the end of the rule of the Flavians the Roman official world +made no distinction between Jew and Christian. Domitian apparently +exacted the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">didrachma</span></span> from both alike. Towards the close +of his reign, in 95 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, this princeps executed or banished a number +of Romans of senatorial rank on charges of atheism or conversion to +Judaism. Among the victims were some who professed Christianity. +At the same time the Christian communities of Asia Minor seem to +have suffered a rather serious persecution on the part of the state. +However, this may have been due to disturbances between the Christian +and the non-Christian elements in the Greek cities, and there +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page310">[pg 310]</span><a name="Pg310" id="Pg310" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>is no definite proof that Domitian made the suppression of Christianity +part of the public policy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Christianity and the Roman state.</span></span> After Domitian, Christians +were no longer liable to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">didrachma</span></span>, and therefore lost their claim +to the privileges and exemptions of the Jews. A conflict with the +secular power was rendered inevitable by the very nature of Christianity, +which was non-Roman, non-national, and monotheistic, refusing +recognition to the cults of the state, and denying the divinity of +the ruler. The Romans regarded the imperial cult from the political +standpoint and considered the refusal to recognize the divinity of the +princeps as an act of treason. On the other hand, Christians looked +upon the question as a matter of conscience and morality and regarded +the worship of the princeps as an act of idolatry. They could pray +for him, but not to him. These two points of view were impossible +of reconciliation. Furthermore, since the worship of the state gods +formed such an integral part of the public life of each community, +it was inevitable that those who refused to participate in this worship +should be looked upon as atheists and public enemies. On another +ground also the Christians were liable to punishment under the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex +maiestatis</span></span>, namely, as forming unauthorized religious associations. +These constituted the crimes for which the Christians were actually +punished from the close of the first to the middle of the third century +of our era. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Popular accusations against the Christians.</span></span> However, throughout +this period the state did not take the initiative against +Christians as such, but only dealt with those individuals against whom +specific charges were laid by private initiative or the action of local +magistrates. These popular accusations charged the Christians with +forming illegal associations, with seeking the destruction of mankind +(as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">odiatores humani generis</span></span>), and with perpetrating all sorts of +monstrous crimes in their religious rites. Such accusations were +partly due to the belief of the early Christian church in the immediate +coming of the kingdom of Christ, to their consequent scorn of wealth +and public honors, and to the secrecy which surrounded the exercise +of their religion. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The imperial policy from Trajan to Maximus.</span></span> The attitude +of the Roman government towards the Christians in the early second +century is clearly seen from the correspondence between Trajan and +Pliny the younger, the governor of Bithynia in 112 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> This + cor<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page311">[pg 311]</span><a name="Pg311" id="Pg311" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>respondence fails to reveal any specific law prohibiting Christianity, +but shows that the admission of the name of Christian, accompanied +by the refusal to worship the gods of the state and the princeps, +constituted sufficient grounds for punishment. Thus a great deal of +discretion was left to the provincial governor, who was directed to +pay no attention to anonymous accusations but who was expected to +repress Christianity whenever its spread caused conflicts with the +non-Christian element under his authority. A rescript of Hadrian +to Minucius Fundanus, proconsul of Asia, ordained that Christians +should receive the benefit of a regular trial, and that they should not +be condemned for the name, but for some definite crime, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e. g.</span></span>, for +treason. An exception to the general policy of the emperors in the +second century was the persecution of the Christian community at +Lyons authorized by Marcus Aurelius. With the state straining every +nerve in its struggle with the barbarians, he regarded the Christians +as defaulters to the cause of the empire, and as unreasonable, ecstatic +transgressors of the law. The attitude of Septimius Severus towards +the Christians was in harmony with the procedure of Trajan and +Hadrian. In 202 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> he ordered the governor of Syria to forbid +Jewish proselytizing and Christian propaganda, but forbade that +Christians should be sought out with the object of persecution. Severus +Alexander showed himself well-disposed towards Christianity +and the brief persecution of Maximinus the Thracian was merely a +spasmodic expression of hatred against those protected by his predecessor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The persecutions of the third century.</span></span> By the middle of the +third century the Christian church was in a flourishing condition. It +numbered among its adherents men in all walks of life, its leaders +were men of culture and ability, and abandoning the attitude of the +early church towards the Kingdom of Heaven, the Christians were +taking an active part in the society in which they lived. The number +of the Christians was so great as to disquiet the government, since +in view of their attitude towards the cults of the state they were +still traitors in the eyes of the law. And so in their struggle against +the forces which threatened the dissolution of the empire, certain of +its rulers sought to stamp out Christianity as a means of restoring +religious and political harmony and loyalty among their subjects. +The Christians were regarded as enemies within the gates and the +calamities of the time were attributed to the anger of the gods towards +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page312">[pg 312]</span><a name="Pg312" id="Pg312" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>these unbelievers. In 250 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Decius reversed the principle enunciated +by Septimius Severus and ordained that Christians were to +be sought out and brought to trial. This was accomplished by ordering +all the citizens of the empire by municipalities to perform public +acts of worship to the gods of the state. Those who refused were +punished. The persecution of Decius was terminated by his death +in 251, but his policy was renewed by Valerian in 257 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> In that +year Valerian required the Christians to offer sacrifice publicly, forbade +their reunions and closed their cemeteries. In 258 he ordered +the immediate trial of bishops, priests and other officers of the +churches, and set penalties for the various grades of the clergy who +persisted in their beliefs. But Valerian’s persecution also was brief +and ended with his defeat and capture by the Persians in 258 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +Naturally, in so large a body as the Christians now were not all +were animated by the zeal and sincerity of the early brethren, and +under threat of punishment many, at least openly, abjured their faith. +However, many others cheerfully suffered martyrdom and by their +example furthered the Christian cause. Truly, <span class="tei tei-q">“the blood of the +martyrs was the seed of the church.”</span> The persecutions tried the +church sorely, but it emerged triumphant from the ordeal. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Organization of the Christian church.</span></span> The early Christians +formed a number of small, independent communities, united by ties +of common interest, of belief, and of continual intercourse. Although +the majority of their members were drawn, from the humbler walks +of life, they were by no means confined to the proletariat. In their +organization these communities were all of the same general type, +resembling the Roman religious <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">collegia</span></span>, but local variations were +common. Each church community was directed by a committee, +whose members were called at times elders (presbyters), at times +overseers (bishops). These were assisted by deacons, who, like themselves, +were elected by the congregation to which they belonged. +Among the presbyters or bishops one may have acted as president. +The functions of the bishops were primarily administrative, including +the care of the funds of the association, the care of the poor, the +friendless, and traveling brethren, and of discipline among the members +of the community. The deacons were the subordinates of the +bishops, and assisted in the religious services and the general administration +of the community. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But before the close of the principate this loose organization had +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page313">[pg 313]</span><a name="Pg313" id="Pg313" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>been completely changed as a result of separatist tendencies among +the Christians themselves and the increasing official oppression to +which they were exposed. The opposition to these forces resulted +in a strict formulation of evangelic doctrine and a firmer organization +of the church communities. This organization came to be centralized +in the hands of the bishops, now the representatives of the communities. +The episcopate was no longer collegiate, but monarchical, and +claimed authority by virtue of apostolic succession. Apparently the +president of the committee of bishops or presbyters had become the +sole bishop, and the presbyters had become priests subject to his +authority, although at times presiding over separate congregations. +The bishops were now regularly nominated by the clergy, approved +by the congregation, and finally inducted into office by the ceremony +of ordination. Besides their administrative powers, the bishops had +the guardianship of the traditions and doctrines of the church. The +clergy were now salaried officers, sharply distinguished from the +laity, who gradually ceased to participate actively in the government +and regulation of worship of their respective communities, and these +communities had developed into corporations organized on a juristic +basis, promising redemption to their members and withholding it from +deserters. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The primacy of Rome.</span></span> In the third century, a movement took +place for the organization of the separate churches in larger unions, +and in this way the provincial synods arose. In these the metropolitan +bishops, that is, those from the provincial administrative centers, +assumed the leadership. Among the churches of the empire as a +whole two rival tendencies made themselves manifest. The one was +to accord equal authority to all the bishops, the other to recognize +the supremacy of the bishop of Rome. The claim for the primacy +of the Roman see was based upon the imperial political status of +Rome, and the special history of the Roman church. It was strongly +pressed by certain bishops of the second century who laid emphasis +upon the claim of the Roman bishopric to have been established by +the Apostle Peter. +</p> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page314">[pg 314]</span><a name="Pg314" id="Pg314" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +</div></div> +</div><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page315">[pg 315]</span><a name="Pg315" id="Pg315" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <a name="toc237" id="toc237"></a><a name="pdf238" id="pdf238"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">PART IV</span></h1> + +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE AUTOCRACY OR LATE EMPIRE: +285–565 A. D.</span></h1> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page316">[pg 316]</span><a name="Pg316" id="Pg316" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page317">[pg 317]</span><a name="Pg317" id="Pg317" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <a name="toc239" id="toc239"></a><a name="pdf240" id="pdf240"></a> + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER XXI</span></h2> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">FROM DIOCLETIAN TO THEODOSIUS THE GREAT; THE + INTEGRITY OF THE EMPIRE MAINTAINED; + 285–395 A. D.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc241" id="toc241"></a><a name="pdf242" id="pdf242"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. Diocletian: 285–305 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The epoch-making character of Diocletian’s reign.</span></span> Upon +Diocletian devolved the task of bringing order out of chaos, of rebuilding +the shattered fabric of the Roman empire, of reëstablishing +the civil administration and taking effective measures to secure an +enduring peace. Like many of the emperors of the third century, +Diocletian was an Illyrian of humble origin who by sheer ability +and force of character had won his way up from the ranks to the +imperial throne. In attacking the problem of imperial restoration +he displayed restless energy and versatility, a thorough-going radicalism +which knew little respect for traditions, and a supreme confidence +in his ability to restore the economic welfare of the empire by legislative +means. In his administrative reforms he gave expression to the +tendencies which had been at work in the later principate and with +him begins the period of undisguised autocracy, in which the emperor, +supported by the army and the bureaucracy, is the sole source +of authority in the state. Like Augustus, Diocletian was the founder +of a new régime; one in which the absolutist ideal of Julius Caesar +finally attained realization. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Maximian co-emperor, 286 A. D.</span></span> One of the first acts of Diocletian +was to coöpt as his associate in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span>, with the rank of +Caesar, a Pannonian officer named Valerius Maximianus. In 286 +Maximian received the title of Augustus and equal authority with +Diocletian. However, the latter always dominated his younger colleague, +and really determined the imperial policy. In conformity +with the undisguised absolutism of his rule, Diocletian assumed the +divine title of Jovius, and that of Herculius was bestowed upon +Maximian. Diocletian’s choice of a co-emperor was determined +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page318">[pg 318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>largely by the conviction that the burden of empire was too heavy +to be borne by one man. He therefore entrusted the defense of the +western provinces to Maximian, while he devoted his attention to +the Danubian and eastern frontiers. Maximian’s first task was to +quell a serious revolt of the Gallic peasants, called Bagaudae, occasioned +by the exactions of the state and the landholders. After crushing +this outbreak (285 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), he successfully defended the Rhine +frontier against the attacks of Franks, Alamanni and Burgundians +(286–88 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). However, in the meantime a usurper had arisen in +Carausius, an officer entrusted with the defense of the Gallic coast +against the North Sea pirates, who made himself master of Britain +and proclaimed himself Augustus (286 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). Maximian was unable +to subdue him, and the two emperors were forced against their will +to acknowledge him as their colleague. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Regulation of the succession.</span></span> Diocletian saw in the absence of +a strict regulation of the succession a fertile cause of civil strife. To +do away with this, and to discourage the rise of usurpers, as well as +to relieve the Augusti of a part of their military and administrative +burdens, he determined to appoint two Caesars as the assistants and +destined successors of Maximian and himself. His choice fell upon +Gaius Galerius and Flavius Valerius Constantius, both Illyrian officers +of tried military capacity. They received the title of Caesar on +1 March, 293 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> To cement the tie between the Caesars and the +Augusti, Diocletian adopted Galerius and gave him his daughter in +marriage, while Maximian bound Constantius to himself in the same +way. It was the plan of Diocletian that the Augusti should voluntarily +abdicate after a definite period, and be succeeded by the +Caesars, who in turn should then nominate and adopt their successors. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The division of the empire.</span></span> To each of the four rulers there +was assigned a part of the empire as his particular administrative +sphere. Diocletian took Thrace, Egypt and the Asiatic provinces, +fixing his headquarters at Nicomedia. Maximian received Italy, +Raetia, Spain and Africa, and took up his residence at Milan. To +Galerius were allotted the Danubian provinces and the remainder +of the Balkan peninsula, with Sirmium as his residence; while +Constantius, to whose lot fell the provinces of Gaul, established himself +at Trèves. However, this arrangement was not a fourfold division +of the empire, for the Caesars were subject to the authority of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page319">[pg 319]</span><a name="Pg319" id="Pg319" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>the Augusti, and imperial edicts were issued in the name of all four +rulers. Additional unity was given to the government by the personal +ascendancy which Diocletian continued to maintain over his associates. +One result of this arrangement was that Rome ceased to be the permanent +imperial residence and capital of the empire, Milan and later +Ravenna being preferred as the seat of government for the West. +This change was largely the result of the exclusion of the Senate +from all active participation in the government, and the fact that +Rome retained traditions of republican and senatorial rule incompatible +with the spirit of the new order. Yet, in spite of its loss of +prestige, the Eternal City continued to hold a privileged status, and +its citizens were fed and amused at the expense of the empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The restoration of the frontiers.</span></span> The division of the military +authority among four able commanders enabled the government to +deal energetically with all frontier wars or internal revolts. In 296 +Constantius recovered Britain from Allectus, who three years previously +had overthrown Carausius and proclaimed himself Augustus. +In 297 Maximian was forced to appear in person in Africa to suppress +a revolt of the Quinquegentiani. Meanwhile, Diocletian crushed a +usurper named Achilles in Egypt and repulsed the invading Blemyes. +Galerius, under the orders of Diocletian, after repelling attacks of the +Iazyges (294 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>) and Carpi (296 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), was called upon to meet +a Persian invasion of Armenia and Mesopotamia. He was at first +severely defeated, but, after being reinforced, won a decisive victory +over Narses, the Persian king, and recovered Armenia. Diocletian +himself won back Mesopotamia and the Persians were forced to +acknowledge the Roman suzerainty over Armenia, while the Roman +frontier in Mesopotamia was advanced to the upper Tigris. In all +parts of the empire the border defenses were repaired and strengthened. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Army reforms; provincial organization.</span></span> The military reforms +of Diocletian aimed to correct the weakness revealed in the previous +system by the wars of the third century. He created a powerful +mobile force—the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitatenses</span></span>; while organizing the permanent garrison +along the frontier in the form of a border militia—the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limitanei</span></span>. +At the same time, the military and civil authority in the +provinces was sharply divided to prevent a dangerous concentration +of power in the hands of any one official. And the same motive is +to be traced in the subdivision of the province, the number of which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page320">[pg 320]</span><a name="Pg320" id="Pg320" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>was raised to 101. These were grouped in thirteen dioceses, administered +by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vicarii</span></span> (vicars), who were subordinate to the praetorian +prefects. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The edict of prices, 301 A. D.</span></span> Diocletian also made a thorough +revision of the system of taxation, and tried, but without success, to +establish a satisfactory monetary standard. A more conspicuous failure, +however, was his attempt to stabilize economic conditions by government +regulation. By the Edict of Prices issued in 301, he fixed +a uniform price for each commodity and every form of labor or professional +service throughout the empire. The penalty of death was +provided for all who demanded or offered more than the legal price. +The law proved impossible to enforce. It took no account of the +variations of supply and demand in the various parts of the empire, +of the difference between wholesale and retail trade, or in the quality +of articles of the same kind. In spite of the severe penalty prescribed, +the provisions of the law were so generally disregarded that the government +abandoned the attempt to carry them into effect. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Persecution of the Christians, 302 A. D.</span></span> Equally unsuccessful +were his measures for the suppression of Christianity. For nearly +half a century following Valerian’s persecution the Christians had +enjoyed immunity from repressive legislation. They had continued +to increase rapidly in numbers and it has been estimated that at this +time perhaps two-fifths of the population of the empire were adherents +of the Christian faith. The reason for the revival of persecution +by Diocletian is uncertain, although it may possibly have been +at the instigation of Galerius, who displayed the greatest zeal in +carrying it into effect. In 302 Diocletian issued three edicts, ordering +the confiscation of church property, the dismissal of Christians from +civil offices, the abrogation of their judicial rights, the enslavement +of Christians of plebeian status, the arrest and imprisonment of the +heads of the church, and heavy penalties for those who refused to +offer sacrifice to the state gods, while granting liberty to all who did +so. In 304, a fourth edict ordered all citizens without exception to +make public sacrifice and libation to the gods. The degree to which +these edicts were enforced varied in the different parts of the empire. +The most energetic persecutors were Maximian and Galerius, while +in Gaul Constantius made little or no effort to molest the Christians. +The persecution lasted with interruptions till 313 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Many leading +Christians met a martyr’s death, but the church emerged from the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page321">[pg 321]</span><a name="Pg321" id="Pg321" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>ordeal more strongly organized and aggressive than before. Its victory +made it a political force of supreme importance. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Abdication, 305 A. D.</span></span> On 1 May, 305 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, Diocletian and +Maximian, after a joint rule of twenty years, formally abdicated their +authority and retired into private life. Diocletian withdrew to his +palace near Salona in Dalmatia, and Maximian, much against his +will, to an estate in Lucania. Galerius and Constantius succeeded +them as Augusti. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc243" id="toc243"></a><a name="pdf244" id="pdf244"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. Constantine I, the Great: 306–337 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Constantine Caesar, 306 A. D.</span></span> Diocletian’s plan for securing +an orderly succession of rulers for the empire had neglected to take +into account individual ambitions and the strength of dynastic loyalty +among the soldiers. Its failure was forecast in the appointment of +the new Caesars. Galerius, who was the more influential of the +new Augusti, disregarded the claims of Constantine, the son of Constantius, +and nominated two of his own favorites, Severus and Maximinus +Daia. In this Constantius acquiesced but when he died in +Britain in 306 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, his army acclaimed Constantine as his successor. +Galerius was forced to acknowledge him as Caesar. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The revolt of Maxentius, 306 A. D.</span></span> In the same year Maxentius, +the son of Maximian, took advantage of the opposition aroused +in Rome by the attempt of Galerius to make the city subject to taxation, +and caused himself to be proclaimed Caesar. He was supported +by his father, who emerged from his enforced retirement, and +defeated and brought about the death of Severus, whom Galerius +had made Augustus, and sent to subdue him. Maxentius then took +the title of Augustus for himself. The same rank was accorded +to Constantine by Maximian, who made an alliance with him and +gave him his daughter, Fausta, in marriage. Upon the failure of an +attempt by Galerius to overthrow Maxentius, an appeal was made to +Diocletian to return to power and put an end to the rivalries of his +successors (307 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). He refused to do so, but induced Maximian, +who had quarrelled with his son, to withdraw a second time from +public life. Licinius, who had been made Caesar by Galerius in +place of Severus, became an Augustus, while Daia and Constantine +each received the title of Son of Augustus (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">filius Augusti</span></span>), a distinction +which Constantine, from the beginning, and Daia, soon +after<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page322">[pg 322]</span><a name="Pg322" id="Pg322" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>wards, ignored. Thus, by 310 A. D., there were five Augusti (including +Maxentius), in the empire and no Caesars. It was not long +before the ambitions of the rival emperors led to a renewal of civil war. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The rival Augusti, 310–312 A. D.</span></span> In 310 Maximian tried to +win over the army of Constantine, but his attempt failed and cost him +his life. The following year Galerius died, after having, in concert +with Constantine and Licinius, issued an edict which put an end to +the persecution of the Christians and granted them the right to practice +their religion; an admission that the state had failed in its plan to +stamp out the religion of Christ. The empire was then divided as +follows: Constantine held Britain, Gaul and Raetia, Maxentius +Spain, Italy and Africa, Licinius the Illyrian and Balkan provinces, +and Maximinus Daia the lands to the east of the Aegean, including +Egypt. The attempt of Maxentius to add Raetia to his dominions +brought him into conflict with Constantine. Constantine allied himself +with Licinius, and Maxentius found a supporter in Maximinus. +Without delay Constantine invaded Italy, and routed the troops of +Maxentius at Verona. He then pressed on to Rome and won a final +victory not far from the Milvian bridge (312 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). Maxentius +perished in the rout. It was in this campaign, as a result of a vision, +that Constantine adopted as his standard the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">labarum</span></span>, a cross combined +with the Christian monogram formed of the first two letters +of the Greek word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christos</span></span> (Christ). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Constantine and Licinius, 313–324 A. D.</span></span> In 313 Constantine +and Licinius met at Milan, where they issued a joint edict of toleration, +which placed Christianity upon an equal footing with the pagan +cults of the state. Although this edict enunciated the principle of +religious toleration for the empire, it was issued with a view to win +the political support of the Christians and pointed unmistakably to +Christianity as the future state religion. Shortly after the publication +of the Edict of Milan, Maximinus Daia crossed the Bosphorus +and invaded the territory of Licinius. He was defeated by the latter, +who followed up his advantage and occupied Asia Minor. Upon +the death of Maximinus, which followed within a short time, Licinius +fell heir to the remaining eastern provinces. These now received the +religious toleration previously extended to the rest of the empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +However, the concord between the surviving Augusti was soon +broken by the ambitions of Constantine, who felt aggrieved since +Licinius controlled a larger share of the empire than himself. A +brief war ensued, which was terminated by an agreement whereby +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page323">[pg 323]</span><a name="Pg323" id="Pg323" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Licinius ceded to Constantine the dioceses of Moesia and Pannonia +(314 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). In 317 they jointly nominated as Caesars and their +successors, Crispus and Constantine, the younger sons of Constantine, +and Licinianus, the son of Licinius. However, although they continued +to act in harmony for some years longer, it was evident that +they still regarded one another with jealous suspicion. This came +clearly to light in the difference of their policies towards the Christians. +The more Constantine courted their support by granting them +special privileges, the more Licinius tended to regard them with disfavor +and restrict their religious liberty. Finally, in 322 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, when +repelling a Gothic inroad, Constantine led his forces into the territory +of Licinius, who treated the trespass as an act of war. Constantine +won a signal victory at Adrianople and his son Crispus +destroyed the fleet of Licinius at the Hellespont. These disasters +induced Licinius to withdraw to Asia Minor. There he was completely +defeated by Constantine near Chrysopolis (18 September, 324 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). Licinius surrendered upon assurance of his life, but the following +year he was executed on a charge of treason. Constantine +was now sole emperor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Constantine sole emperor, 324–337 A. D.</span></span> Constantine’s administrative +policy followed in the steps of Diocletian, whose organization +he elaborated and perfected in many respects. The praetorian prefecture +was deprived of its military authority, which was conferred upon +the newly-created military offices of master of the horse and the foot +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">magister equitum</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">peditum</span></span>). This completed the separation +between the military and civil offices. Diocletian’s field force was +strengthened by the creation of new mobile units, and his efficient +army enabled Constantine to defend the empire against all barbarian +attacks. Upon waste lands within the frontiers he settled Sarmatians +and Vandals, while he greatly increased the barbarian element in the +army as a whole, but particularly among the officers of higher rank. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Constantinople, 330 A. D.</span></span> Of special importance for the future +history of the empire was the founding of a new capital, called Constantinople, +on the site of ancient Byzantium. After four years’ +preparation, the new city was formally dedicated on 11 May, 330 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +The choice of the site of the new capital of the empire was determined +by its strategic importance. It was conveniently situated with respect +to the eastern and Danubian frontiers, and well adapted as a link +between the European and Asiatic parts of the empire. The aim of +the emperor was to make Constantinople a new Rome, and he gave +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page324">[pg 324]</span><a name="Pg324" id="Pg324" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>it the organization and the institutions of Rome on the Tiber. A +new Senate was established there; likewise the public festivals and +free bread for the populace. For the latter purpose the grain of +Egypt was diverted from Rome to Constantinople. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Constantine and the succession.</span></span> Like Diocletian, Constantine +realized the necessity of having more than a single ruler for the +empire, but he determined to choose his associates from the members +of his own household. Accordingly, following Crispus and Constantine, +his younger sons, Constantius and Constans, were given the title +of Caesar, while Licinianus, the son of Licinius, was gotten rid of in +326. In the same year Crispus was also put to death. The cause +of his fall is uncertain. It involved the death of his stepmother, +Fausta, the mother of Constantine’s other sons. Ultimately, the three +surviving Caesars were set over approximately equal portions of the +empire. In 335 Constantine the younger governed Britain, Gaul +and Illyricum; Constans ruled Italy, Africa and Pannonia; and +Constantius was in control of Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt. In +that year Constantine appointed as a fourth Caesar his nephew, +Delmatius, to whom he intended to entrust the government of Thrace, +Macedonia and Achaea. At the same time, Annabalianus, a brother +of Delmatius, was designated as the future ruler of Pontus and +Armenia, with the title of King of Kings. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Constantine’s Christianity.</span></span> Constantine died in May, 337 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +shortly after having been baptized into the Christian church. Although +his mother, Helena, was a Christian, it seems improbable +that Constantine himself was from the first an adherent of that faith. +On the whole, one may say that his attitude towards Christianity +was determined largely by political rather than religious convictions. +However, his mother’s influence and his father’s toleration of Christianity +doubtless predisposed him to consider the Christians with +favor. He soon sought the support of the Christians on political +grounds, and his successes over his rivals seem to have confirmed him +in this policy. Finally, he appears to have seen in Christianity the +religion best suited to a universal faith for the empire. However, +Constantine himself did not raise Christianity to that position, although +he prepared the way to this end. Although he forbade the +performance of private sacrifices and magical rites, in other respects +he adhered faithfully to his policy of religious toleration. He took +the title of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pontifex maximus</span></span>, maintained the imperial cult, and until +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page325">[pg 325]</span><a name="Pg325" id="Pg325" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>330 issued coins with the image of the Sun-god, with whom the +emperor was often identified. His designation of Sunday as a general +holiday in 321 was in full accord with this policy of toleration, +for although this was the day celebrated by the Christians as <span class="tei tei-q">“the +Lord’s day,”</span> as the <span class="tei tei-q">“day of the Sun”</span> it could be celebrated by +pagans also. Nevertheless, he exhibited an ever-increasing personal +leaning towards Christianity, and granted special privileges to the +Christian clergy. He caused his sons to be brought up as Christians, +and really established a special relation between the emperor and the +church. For his services to the cause of Christianity he well merited +the title of <span class="tei tei-q">“the Great,”</span> bestowed upon him by Christian historians. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc245" id="toc245"></a><a name="pdf246" id="pdf246"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. The Dynasty of Constantine: 337–363 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Constantine II, Constans and Constantius, 337–340 A. D.</span></span> +Constantine’s plans for the succession were thwarted by the troops +at Constantinople, who, instigated, as was said, by Constantius, +refused to acknowledge any other rulers than the sons of Constantine +and put to death the rest of his relatives, with the exception of his +two youthful nephews, Gallus and Julian. Constantius and his two +brothers then declared themselves Augusti and divided the empire. +Constantine II received Spain, Gaul and Britain, Constantius Thrace, +Egypt and the Orient, while the youngest, Constans, took the central +dioceses, Africa, Italy and Illyricum. However, this arrangement +endured only for a brief time. The peace was broken by Constantine, +who encroached upon the territory of Constans, and affected to play +the rôle of the senior Augustus. However, he was defeated and +killed at Aquileia by the troops of Constans, who annexed his +dominions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Constantius and Constans, 340–350 A. D.</span></span> The joint rule of +Constantius and Constans lasted for ten years. The latter showed +himself an energetic sovereign and maintained peace in the western +part of the empire. At length, however, his harshness and personal +vices cost him the loyalty of his own officers, who caused him to be deposed +in favor of Magnentius, an officer of Frankish origin (350 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>)<a name="corr325" id="corr325" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">.</span> +And while Magnentius secured recognition in Italy and the West, <a name="corr325a" id="corr325a" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">the</span> +army in Illyricum raised its commander, Vetranio, to the purple. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Constantius sole emperor, 350–360 A. D.</span></span> From 338 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Constantius +had been engaged in an almost perpetual but indecisive +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page326">[pg 326]</span><a name="Pg326" id="Pg326" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>struggle with Sapor II, king of Persia, over the possession of +Mesopotamia and Armenia. It was not until late in 350 that he +was able to leave the eastern frontier to attempt to reëstablish the +authority of his house in the West. He soon came to an agreement +with Vetranio, who seems to have accepted the title of Augustus solely +to save Illyricum from Magnentius. Vetranio passed into honorable +retirement, but when Constantius refused to recognize Magnentius +as Augustus the latter marched eastwards to enforce his claims. He +was defeated in a desperate battle at Mursa in Pannonia (351 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), +where the victory was won by the mailed horsemen of Constantius, +who from this time onwards formed the most effective arm in the +Roman service. In the next year Constantius recovered Italy, and in +353 invaded Gaul, whereupon Magnentius took his own life. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Gallus, Caesar, 351–4 A. D.</span></span> Constantius had no son, and so to +strengthen his position, he made his cousin, Gallus, Caesar and +placed him in charge of the Orient when he set out to meet Magnentius +in 351 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> But Gallus soon showed himself unworthy of his office. +His mistreatment of the representatives of the emperor sent to investigate +his conduct caused him to be suspected of treasonable ambitions, +and he was recalled and put to death in 354 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Julian, Caesar, 335 A. D.</span></span> However, Constantius still found himself +in need of an associate in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span>. In addition to the +danger of invasion on both northern and eastern frontiers, came the +revolt of Silvanus at Cologne in 355, which, although quickly suppressed, +was a reminder that every successful general was potentially +a candidate for the throne. Accordingly, at the advice of the empress +Eudoxia, he called from the enforced seclusion of a scholar’s life +Julian, the younger brother of Gallus, whom he made Caesar and +dispatched to Gaul (355 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). Since the fall of Magnentius the +Gallic provinces had been exposed to the devastating incursions of +Franks and Alemanni, and the first task of the young Caesar was +to deal with these barbarians. In a battle near Strassburg in 357 +he broke the power of the Alemanni, and drove them over the Rhine. +The Franks were forced to acknowledge Roman overlordship, but +the Salian branch of that people were allowed to settle to the south +of the Rhine (358 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). In addition to displaying unexpected +capacities as a general, Julian showed himself a forceful and upright +administrator, whose chief aim was to revive the prosperity of his +sorely-tried provincials. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page327">[pg 327]</span><a name="Pg327" id="Pg327" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Julian, Augustus, 360 A. D.</span></span> In 359 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> a fresh invasion of +Mesopotamia by Sapor II called Constantius to the East. The +seriousness of the situation there caused him to demand considerable +reinforcements from the army in Gaul. This was resented both by +the soldiers themselves and by Julian, who saw in the order a prelude +to his own undoing, for he knew the suspicious nature of his cousin, +and was aware that his own successes and the restraint he imposed +upon the rapacity of his officials had aroused the enmity of those +who had the emperor’s confidence. However, after a vain protest, +he yielded; but the troops took matters into their own hands, mutinied +and hailed Julian as Augustus. His ambitions, which had been +awakened by the taste of power, and the precariousness of his present +situation led him to accept the title (360 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). He then sought to +obtain from Constantius recognition of his position and the cession +of the western provinces. The latter rejected his demand, although +he did not deem it advisable to leave the East unprotected at that +moment and attempt to reassert his authority. Julian then took the +offensive to enforce his claims, and, upon the retirement of the Persian +army, Constantius hastened to meet him. But on the march he +fell ill and died in Cilicia, having designated Julian as his successor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The pagan reaction.</span></span> The importance of Julian’s reign lies in +his attempt to make paganism once more the dominant religion of +the empire. His own early saturation with the fascinating literature +of Hellenism and the mystical strain in his character made Julian +an easy convert to Neo-platonism. He had become a pagan in +secret before he had been called to the Caesarship, and after the +death of Constantius openly proclaimed his apostacy. While he +adhered in general to the principle of religious toleration and did +not institute any systematic persecution of the Christians, he prohibited +them from interpreting classical literature in the schools, +forced them to surrender many pagan shrines which they had occupied, +deprived the clergy of their immunities, endeavored to sow +dissension in their ranks by supporting unorthodox bishops, and +stimulated a literary warfare against them in which he himself took +a prominent part. Following the example of Maximinus Daia, Julian +attempted to combat Christianity with its own weapons, and tried to +establish a universal pagan church with a clergy and liturgy on the +Christian model. He also sought to infuse paganism with the morality +and missionary zeal of Christianity. But his efforts were in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page328">[pg 328]</span><a name="Pg328" id="Pg328" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +vain; the pagan cults had lost their appeal for the masses, and the +only converts were those who sought to win the imperial favor by +abandoning the Christian faith. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Persian war and death, 363 A. D.</span></span> In his administration of the +empire Julian pursued the same policy as in Gaul. He checked +the greed of government officials, abolished oppressive offices, and +in every way tried to restrain extravagances and lighten the burdens +of his subjects. The war with Persia which had begun under Constantius +had not been concluded and Julian was fired by the ambition +to imitate the career of Alexander the Great and overthrow the Persian +kingdom. After long preparations he began his attack early +in 363 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> He succeeded in reaching Ctesiphon where he defeated +a Persian army. But his attempt to penetrate further into the enemy’s +country failed for want of supplies, and he was forced to begin a +retreat. On the march up the Tigris valley he was mortally wounded +in a skirmish (26 June, 363 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), and with his death ended the rule +of the dynasty of Constantine the Great. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Jovian, 363–4 A. D.</span></span> The army chose as his successor Jovian, +the commander of the imperial guard. To rescue his forces, Jovian +made peace with Sapor, surrendering the Roman territory east of +the Tigris, with part of Mesopotamia, and abandoning the Roman +claim to suzerainty over Armenia. Julian’s enactments against the +Christians were abrogated and religious toleration proclaimed. After +a brief reign of eight months, Jovian died at Antioch in 364 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<a name="toc247" id="toc247"></a><a name="pdf248" id="pdf248"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. The House of Valentinian and Theodosius the Great: +364–395 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Valentinian I and Valens, Augusti, 364 A. D.</span></span> At the death of +Jovian the choice of the military and civil officials fell upon Flavius +Valentinianus, an officer of Pannonian origin. He nominated as his +co-ruler his brother, Valens, whom he set over the East, reserving +the West for himself. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Valentinian’s reign was an unceasing struggle to protect the western +provinces against barbarian invaders. The emperor personally directed +the defense of the Rhine and Danubian frontiers against the +incursions of the Alemanni, Quadi and Sarmatians, while his able +general Theodosius cleared Britain of Picts, Scots and Saxons, and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page329">[pg 329]</span><a name="Pg329" id="Pg329" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>suppressed a dangerous revolt of the Moors in Africa. In 375 +Valentinian died at Brigetio in the course of a war with the Sarmatians. +Although imperious and prone to violent outbursts of +temper, he had shown himself tireless in his efforts to protect the +empire from foreign foes and his subjects from official oppression. +In this latter aim, however, he was frequently thwarted by the intrigues +of his own officers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Gratian and Valentinian II.</span></span> As early as 367 Valentinian had +appointed as a third Augustus his eldest son, Gratian, then only +seven years old. The latter now succeeded to the government of +the West, although the army also acclaimed as emperor his four-year-old +brother, Valentinian II. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Gothic invasion, 376 A. D.</span></span> Meanwhile Valens, who exercised +the imperial power in the East, had been involved in protracted +struggles with the Goths along the lower Danube and with the Persians, +whose attempt to convert Armenia into a Persian province constituted +a threat too dangerous to be ignored. Peace had been established +with the Goths in 369, but in 376 new and unexpected developments +brought them again into conflict with the Romans. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The cause lay in the westward movement of the Huns, a nomadic +race of Mongolian origin, whose appearance in the regions to the +north of the Black Sea marks the beginning of the period of the +great migrations. In 375 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> they overwhelmed the Greuthungi, <a name="corr329" id="corr329" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">or</span> +East Goths, and assailed the Thervingi, or West Goths. Unable to +defend themselves, the latter in 376 sought permission to settle on +Roman territory to the south of the Danube. Valens acceded to their +request upon the condition of their giving up their weapons. The +reception and settlement of the Goths was entrusted to Roman officers +who neglected to enforce the surrender of their arms, while they +enriched themselves by extorting high prices from the immigrants +for the necessities of life. Thereupon, threatened by starvation, the +Goths rebelled, defeated the Romans, and began to plunder the country +(377 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). The news of this peril summoned Valens from the +East, but Gratian was hindered from coming to the rescue by an +incursion of the Alemanni into Gaul. However, as soon as he had +defeated the invaders he hastened to the assistance of his uncle. +Without awaiting his arrival, Valens rashly attacked the Goths at +Hadrianople. His army was cut to pieces, he himself slain, and +Goths overran the whole Balkan peninsula (378 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page330">[pg 330]</span><a name="Pg330" id="Pg330" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Theodosius I, the Great, 378 A. D.</span></span> To meet this crisis, Gratian +appointed as Augustus, Theodosius, the son of the Theodosius who +had distinguished himself as a general under Valentinian I, but who +had fallen a victim to official intrigues at the latter’s death. The new +emperor undertook with vigor the task of clearing Thrace and the +adjoining provinces of the plundering hordes of Goths. By 382 he +had forced them to sue for peace and had settled them on waste lands +to the south of the Danube. There they remained as an independent +people under their native rulers, bound, however, to supply contingents +to the Roman armies in return for fixed subsidies. They thus became +imperial <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The revolt of Arbogast and Eugenius, 392 A. D.</span></span> In 391 Theodosius +reduced the Goths to submission when a revolt of the troops +in Britain raised Magnus Maximus to the purple. Gratian had +shown himself a feeble administrator and had alienated the sympathies +of the bulk of his troops by his partiality towards the Germans +in his service. Maximus at once crossed into Gaul and was +confronted by Gratian at Paris. But the latter was deserted by his +army, and was captured and put to death. The authority of Maximus +was now firmly established in Britain, Gaul and Spain. He +demanded and received recognition from Theodosius, who was prevented +from avenging Gratian’s death by threatening conditions in +the East. The third Augustus, the young Valentinian II, acquired +for the time an independent sphere of authority in Italy. However, +in 387 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Maximus suddenly crossed the Alps and forced him to +take refuge with Theodosius. Having come to terms with Persia, +Theodosius refused to sanction the action of Maximus and marched +against him. The troops of Maximus were defeated, and he himself +captured and executed at <a name="corr330" id="corr330" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Aquileia</span> (388 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). Gaul and the +West were speedily recovered for Theodosius by his general, Arbogast. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Theodosius and Ambrose.</span></span> While Theodosius was at Milan in +390 occurred his famous conflict with Bishop Ambrose. In a riot +at Thessalonica the commander of the garrison had been killed by +the mob, and Theodosius, in his anger, had turned loose the soldiery +upon the citizens, of whom seven thousand are said to have been +butchered. Scarcely had Theodosius issued the order when he was +seized with regret, and endeavored to countermand it; but it was too +late. Upon the news of the massacre, Ambrose excluded the emperor +from his church and refused to admit him to communion until he +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page331">[pg 331]</span><a name="Pg331" id="Pg331" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>had publicly done penance for his sin. For eight months Theodosius +refused to yield, but Ambrose remained obdurate, and the emperor +finally humbled himself and publicly acknowledged his guilt. The +question at issue was not the supremacy of secular or religious authority, +but whether the emperor was subject to the same moral laws as +other men. Nevertheless, it required a high degree of courage for +the bishop to assert the right of the church to pass judgment in such +a matter upon the head of the state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The revolt of Arbogast and Eugenius, 392 A. D.</span></span> In 391 Theodosius +returned to the East, leaving Valentinian as emperor in the +West with his residence at Vienna in Gaul. But the powerful Arbogast, +whom Theodosius had placed in command of the western troops, +refused to act under the orders of the young Augustus, and finally +compassed his death (392 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). However, he did not dare, in view +of his Frankish origin, to assume the purple himself, and so induced +a prominent Roman official named Eugenius to accept the title of +Augustus. The authority of Eugenius was acknowledged in Italy +and all the West, but Theodosius refused him recognition and prepared +to crush the usurper. In the autumn of 394 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, at the river +Frigidus, near Aquileia, Theodosius won a complete victory over +Arbogast and Eugenius. The former committed suicide and the +latter was put to death. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Early in the next year Theodosius died, leaving the empire to his +two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, upon both of whom he had previously +conferred the rank of Augustus. The success of Theodosius +in coping with the Gothic peril and in suppressing the usurpers +Maximus and Eugenius, combined with his vigorous championship +of orthodox Christianity, won for him the title of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Great.”</span> With +the accession of Arcadius and Honorius and the permanent division +of the empire into an eastern and a western half, there begins a +new epoch of Roman history. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page332">[pg 332]</span><a name="Pg332" id="Pg332" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="illus-347" id="illus-347" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/illus-347.png" alt="The Roman Empire in 395 A. D." /></div> + + </div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page333">[pg 333]</span><a name="Pg333" id="Pg333" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <a name="toc249" id="toc249"></a><a name="pdf250" id="pdf250"></a> + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER XXII</span></h2> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">THE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION OF THE LATE EMPIRE</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc251" id="toc251"></a><a name="pdf252" id="pdf252"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. The Autocrat and His Court</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Powers and titles of the emperor.</span></span> The government of the late +Roman empire was an autocracy, in which the emperor was the +active head of the administration and at the same time the source of +all legislative, judicial and military authority. For the exercise of +this authority the support of the army and the bureaucracy was essential. +All the sovereign rights of the Roman people were regarded +as having been transferred to the imperial power. The emperor was +no longer the First of the Roman citizens—the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">primus inter pares</span></span>—but +all within the empire were in equal degree his subjects. This +view of the exalted status of the emperor was expressed in the +assumption of the divine titles Jovius and Herculius by Diocletian +and Maximian. Their Christian successors, although for the greater +part of the fourth century they accepted deification from their pagan +subjects, found a new basis for their absolutism in the conception of +the emperor as the elect of God, who ruled by divine guidance. Thus +the emperor could speak of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> which had been conferred +upon him by the heavenly majesty. The adjectives <span class="tei tei-q">“sacred”</span> and +<span class="tei tei-q">“divine”</span> were applied not only to the emperor’s person but also to +everything that in any way belonged to him, and the <span class="tei tei-q">“imperial divinity”</span> +was an expression in common use. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As the sole author of the laws, the emperor was also their final +interpreter; and since he acted under divine guidance those who +questioned his decisions, and those who neglected or transgressed his +ordinances, were both alike guilty of sacrilege. The emperor was +held to be freed from the laws in the sense that he was not responsible +for his legislative and administrative acts, yet he was bound by the +laws in that he had to adhere to the general principles and forms of +the established law of the state, and had to abide by his own edicts, +for the imperial authority rested upon the authority of the laws. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page334">[pg 334]</span><a name="Pg334" id="Pg334" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The titles of the emperor bore witness to his autocratic power. +From the principate he had inherited those of Imperator, the significance +of which was revealed in its Greek rendering of Autocrator, +and Augustus, which was as well suited to the new as to the old +position of the emperor. More striking, however, was the use of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dominus</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dominus noster</span></span>, a title which, as we have seen, was but +rarely used during the principate, but which was officially prescribed +by Diocletian. The term princeps, although it has long lost its original +significance, still continued to be employed in official documents, +at times in conjunction with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dominus</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Imperial regalia.</span></span> The imperial regalia likewise expressed the +emperor’s autocratic power. With Diocletian the military garb of +the principate was discarded for a robe of silk interwoven with gold +and Constantine I introduced the use of the diadem, a narrow band +ornamented with jewels, which formed part of the insignia of the +Persian monarchs, and was symbolic of absolutism in the ancient +world. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The succession.</span></span> We have seen how the scheme devised by Diocletian +for regulating the succession to the throne broke down after his +retirement. His successors refused to abdicate their imperial authority +and only surrendered it with life itself. In the appointment of +new emperors two principles found recognition—election and coöptation. +The system of election was a legacy from the principate, and +recourse was regularly had to it when the imperial throne was vacant. +The elected emperor was usually the choice of the leading military +and civil officials, approved by the army. In Constantinople, from +the fifth century at least, the nomination was made by these officers +in conjunction with the reorganized senate, and the new emperor was +proclaimed before the people assembled in the Hippodrome. The +emperors thus appointed claimed to have been elected by the officials, +the Senate, and the army with the sanction of the people. However, +as the history of the time shows, the right of election might be exercised +at any time, and a victorious usurper became a legal ruler. +Thus the autocracy, as has been aptly remarked, was tempered by a +legal right of revolution. As this method of election guaranteed a +high average of ability among emperors, so the custom of coöptation +gave opportunity to admit the claim of dynastic succession. +An Augustus could appoint as his colleague the one whom he wished +to succeed him on the throne. However, it is to be noted that a son +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page335">[pg 335]</span><a name="Pg335" id="Pg335" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>who was thus elevated to the purple became emperor by virtue of his +father’s will and not by the right of birth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The imperial court.</span></span> Under Diocletian the organization and ceremonial +of the imperial palace were thoroughly remodelled. The +servants of the household—ushers, chamberlains, grooms and the +like—were now formed into corps on a military basis, with a definite +regulation of insignia, pay, term of service and promotion. In harmony +with the general spirit of the autocracy, the court ceremonial +was designed to widen the gulf between the ruler and his subjects and +to protect his person by rendering it inaccessible. Surrounded by +all the pomp and pageantry of an oriental potentate, the Roman +emperor was removed from contact with all but his immediate <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">entourage</span></span>. +The effect of this seclusion was to enhance the power of the +few who were permitted to come into touch with him, in particular +the officials of the imperial household. The personal servants of the +emperor were placed on the same level as the public administrative +officers, and the most important of them, the grand chamberlain, +before the close of the fourth century had become one of the great +ministers of state, with a seat in the imperial cabinet. In conformity +with the assumption of the title <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dominus</span></span> and of the diadem, was the +requirement of prostration from all who were admitted to an audience +with the emperor. In addition to its civilian employees, the palace +had its special armed guard. These household troops were the +scholarians, organized by Constantine I when he disbanded the praetorian +guards who had upheld the cause of Maxentius. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc253" id="toc253"></a><a name="pdf254" id="pdf254"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The Military Organization</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">General characteristics.</span></span> The chief characteristics of the military +organization of the late empire were the complete separation of civil +and military authority except in the person of the emperor, the sharp +distinction between the mobile forces and the frontier garrisons, and +the ever-increasing predominance of the barbarian element, not merely +in the rank and file of the soldiers, but also among the officers of +highest rank. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The limitanei.</span></span> The troops composing the frontier garrisons were +called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limitanei</span></span>, or borderers; also, when stationed along a river frontier, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">riparienses</span></span>. They were the successors of the garrison army of +the principate and were distributed among small fortified posts +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page336">[pg 336]</span><a name="Pg336" id="Pg336" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">castella</span></span>). To each of these garrisons there was assigned for purposes +of cultivation a tract of land free from municipal authority. +These lands were exempt from taxation, and, although they were +not alienable, the right to occupy them passed from father to son +with the obligation to military service. Thus the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limitanei</span></span> were +practically a border militia. Their numbers were materially increased +by Diocletian but reduced again by Constantine I who transferred +their best units to the field army. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limitanei</span></span> ranked below the +field troops; their physical standards were lower, and their rewards at +the end of their term of service inferior. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The palatini and comitatenses.</span></span> To remedy the greatest weakness +in the army of the principate, namely, its lack of mobility, +Diocletian formed a permanent field force to accompany the emperor +on his campaigns, for it was his intention that the emperors should +personally lead their armies. Since the field troops thus formed the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitatus</span></span>, or escort, of the emperor they received the name of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitatenses</span></span>. +Later certain units of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitatenses</span></span> were called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">palatini</span></span>, +or palace troops, a purely honorary distinction. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">palatini</span></span> and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitatenses</span></span> were stationed at strategic points well within the frontiers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Numbers.</span></span> In both the garrison and field armies the old legion +was broken up into smaller detachments, to each of which the name +legion was given. They still continued to be recruited from Romans, +but were regarded as inferior in caliber to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">auxilia</span></span>, the light infantry +corps which were largely drawn from barbarian volunteers. +A great number of new cavalry units were formed, so that the proportion +of cavalry to infantry was largely increased. At the opening +of the fifth century the troops stationed in Spain, in the Danubian +provinces, in the Orient and in Egypt had a nominal strength of +554,500 of which 360,000 were <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limitanei</span></span> and 194,500 field troops. +However, it is extremely doubtful if the separate detachments were +maintained at their full numbers. The scholarians, organized as an +imperial bodyguard by Constantine I, numbered 3500. They were +divided into seven companies called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">scholae</span></span>, from the fact that a +particular <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">schola</span></span>, or waiting hall in the palace, was assigned to each. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Recruitment.</span></span> In the late empire the ranks of the Roman army +stood open to all free men who possessed the requisite physical qualifications. +Slaves were also enrolled from the fifth century onwards +but their admission to military service brought them freedom. Recruits +were either volunteers or conscripts. The universal liability +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page337">[pg 337]</span><a name="Pg337" id="Pg337" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>to service existed until the time of Valentinian I, although in practice +it was limited to the municipal plebs and the agricultural classes. +Valentinian placed the obligation to furnish a specified number of +recruits upon the landholders of certain provinces, and levied a corresponding +monetary tax upon the other provinces. He also made +it obligatory for the sons of soldiers to present themselves for service. +Many barbarian peoples, settled within the empire, were likewise +under an obligation to furnish a yearly number of recruits, who, +however, were regarded as volunteers. Still voluntary recruitment +was the rule under the late empire even more than under the +principate, and the majority of the volunteers for military service +were of barbarian origin. Corps of all sorts were named after barbarian +peoples, and while barbarian officers received Roman citizenship, +the rank and file remained aliens. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Discipline.</span></span> The chief reason for the victories of the Roman armies +of the early principate over their barbarian foes lay in their superior +discipline and organization. And the burden of maintaining this +discipline had rested upon the junior officers or centurions who came +from the senatorial order of the Roman municipalities. By the end +of the third century the centuriate had disappeared for lack of volunteers +of this class and with its disappearance began a decline in +discipline and training. The construction of the fortified camp was +no longer required, the soldier’s heavy pack was discarded, and before +the close of the fourth century the burdensome defensive armor was +also given up. In equipment and tactics the Roman troops of the +late empire were on a level with their barbarian opponents. Just +as the Roman empire was unable to assimilate the barbarian settlers +within its frontiers, so the Roman army proved unable to absorb +the barbarian elements within its ranks. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Foederati.</span></span> The decline in efficiency of the Roman troops and +the confessed inability of the state to deal with its military obligations +led to the taking into the Roman pay of warlike peoples along the +Roman frontiers. Such peoples were called federated allies (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span>), +and guaranteed to protect the territory of the empire in return +for a stipulated remuneration in money or supplies. Such were the +terms upon which the Goths were granted lands south of the Danube +by Theodosius the Great. But in this case, as in others, it is hard to +distinguish between subsidies paid to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span> and the payments +made by many emperors to purchase immunity from invasion by +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page338">[pg 338]</span><a name="Pg338" id="Pg338" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>dangerous neighbors. A danger inherent in the system was that the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span> might at any moment turn their arms against their employers. +Retaining as they did their political autonomy and serving +under their own chiefs, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span> were not regarded as forming a +part of the imperial forces. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The duces and the magistri militum.</span></span> We have already referred +to the complete separation of military and civil authority. +This was carried out as far as the border troops were concerned by +Diocletian. He divided the frontiers into military districts which +corresponded to the provinces and placed the garrisons in each under +an officer with the title of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dux</span></span>. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">duces</span></span> of highest rank were regularly +known as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comites</span></span> (counts). Under Diocletian the praetorian +prefects remained the highest military officers, and were in command +of the field army. As we have seen, Constantine I deprived the praetorian +prefecture of its military functions and appointed two new +commanders-in-chief—the master of the foot (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">magister peditum</span></span>) +and the master of the horse (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">magister equitum</span></span>). Under the successors +of Constantine these offices were increased in number and the +distinction between infantry and cavalry commands was abandoned. +Consequently, the titles of master of the horse and master of the +foot were altered to those of masters of horse and foot, masters of +each service, or masters of the soldiers. In the East by the close +of the fourth century there were two masters of the soldiers at Constantinople, +each commanding half of the palatini in the vicinity of +the capital, and three others commanding the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitatenses</span></span> in the +Orient, Thrace and Illyricum, respectively. In the West there were +two masterships at the court, and a master of the horse in the diocese +of Gaul. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But while in the East the several masters of the soldiers enjoyed +independent commands, in the West by 395 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> there had developed +a concentration of the supreme military power in the hands of one +master, who united in his person the two masterships at the court. +The master in Gaul, with the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">duces</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comites</span></span> in the provinces were +under his orders. This subordination was emphasized by the fact +that the heads of the office staff (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">principes</span></span>) of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comites</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">duces</span></span> +were appointed by the master at the court. On the other hand, in the +East, these <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">principes</span></span> were appointed by a civil official, the master of +the offices, who was also charged with the inspection of the frontier +defences, and from the opening of the fifth century exercised judicial +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page339">[pg 339]</span><a name="Pg339" id="Pg339" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>authority over the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">duces</span></span>. The latter, however, remained the military +subordinates of the masters of the soldiers. Thus the concentration +of military power in the West in the hands of a single commander-in-chief +prepared the way for the rise of the king-makers of the fifth +century, while the division of the higher command in the East prevented +a single general from completely dominating the political +situation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Judicial status of the soldiers.</span></span> Characteristic of the times was +the removal of soldiers from the jurisdiction of the civil authority. +In the fourth century they could only be prosecuted on criminal charges +in the courts of their military commanders, and in the fifth century +they were granted this privilege in civil cases also. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc255" id="toc255"></a><a name="pdf256" id="pdf256"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. The Perfection of the Bureaucracy</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The administrative divisions of the empire.</span></span> The administrative +machinery of the late empire was simply an outgrowth from, +and a more complete form of, the bureaucracy which had developed +under the principate. All the officers of the state were now servants +of the emperor, appointed by him and dismissed at his pleasure. +At the basis of the administrative organization lay the division of the +empire into prefectures, dioceses and provinces. By the close of the +fourth century there were one hundred and twenty provinces, grouped +into fourteen dioceses, which made up the four prefectures of Gaul, +Italy, Illyricum and the Orient.<a id="noteref_17" name="noteref_17" href="#note_17"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a> This division of the empire into +four prefectures was carried out under Constans and Constantius. +Until the death of Constantine I, the pretorian prefecture had remained +an office associated with the person of the emperor, and from +the time of Diocletian the number of praetorian prefects had corresponded +to the number of Augusti, each emperor appointing one for +his own part of the empire. This practice was followed by the sons +of Constantine. But after Constans had overthrown Constantine II +he left the latter’s territory under the administration of a special +prefect, thus establishing the prefecture of Gaul. He afterwards +appointed another prefect for Illyricum, which was separated from +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page340">[pg 340]</span><a name="Pg340" id="Pg340" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>the jurisdiction of the prefect of Italy. When Constantius became +sole emperor in 351, he retained the three prefectures of Constans, +and his own previous dominions constituted the fourth, that of the +Orient. In 379, Gratian, the emperor in the West, transferred the +Illyrian prefecture from his sphere to that of Theodosius, his colleague +in the East. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The praetorian prefects and their subordinates.</span></span> Each province +had a civil governor, variously known as proconsul, consular, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">corrector</span></span> +or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">praeses</span></span>, according to the relative importance of his governorship. +The provincial governors, with a few exceptions, were subject to the +vicars, who were in charge of the several dioceses, and who, in turn, +were under the administrative control of the four praetorian prefects, +the heads of the prefectures. The prefects and their subordinates +were in charge of the raising of taxes paid in kind and of the administration +of justice for the provincials. Italy was now divided into +several provinces and Italian soil was no longer exempt from taxation. +With the exception of the population of Rome, the inhabitants of +Italy were upon the same footing as those of the other provinces, +with whom they shared the name of provincials. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The central administrative bureaus.</span></span> The remaining branches +of the civil administration were directed by a group of ministers +resident at the court, with subordinates in the various administrative +departments. These ministers were the master of the offices, the +quaestor, the count of the sacred largesses and the count of the +private purse. The master of the offices united in his hands the +control of the secretarial bureaus of the palace, the oversight over +the public post, the direction of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">agentes-in-rebus</span></span>, who constituted +the imperial secret service, the command of the scholarians, the supervision +of several branches of the palace administration, and jurisdiction +over practically all of the personal servants of the emperor. As +we have seen, in the East he also exercised certain authority over the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">duces</span></span>. The quaestor (to be distinguished from the holders of the +urban quaestorships) was a minister of justice, part of whose duties +consisted in the preparation of imperial legislation. The count of +the sacred largesses was the successor to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rationalis</span></span>, who had been +in charge of the imperial fiscus under the principate. He was +charged with the collection and disbursement of the public revenues +which were paid in money, and his title was derived from the fact +that the funds under his control were used for the imperial donations +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page341">[pg 341]</span><a name="Pg341" id="Pg341" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>or largesses. He likewise had the supervision of the imperial factories +engaged in the manufacture of silks, and other textiles. The +count of the private purse was the head of the department of the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">res privata</span></span> and in charge of the revenues from the imperial domains. +These ministers with certain other administrative officials of the court +and the chief officers of the imperial household, such as the grand +chamberlain, were known as the palace dignitaries (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dignitates palatinae</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Rome and Constantinople were exempt from the authority of the +praetorian prefects, and were each administered by a city prefect. +Two consuls were nominated annually, one at Rome and one at Constantinople, +and gave their names to the official year, but their duties +were limited to furnishing certain entertainments for the populace of +the capitals. This was also the sole function of the praetorship and +quaestorship, which were now filled by imperial appointment upon +the recommendation of the city prefects. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The imperial council of state.</span></span> The system of graded subordination, +which placed the lower officials in each department under the +orders of those having wider powers, brought about the ultimate concentration +of the civil and military administration in the hands of +about twenty officers who were directly in touch with the emperor +and responsible to him alone. From these were drawn the members +of the council of state or imperial consistory (so-called from the +obligation to remain standing in the presence of the emperor). Permanent +members of this council were the four ministers of the court +mentioned above, who were known as the counts of the consistory, +and also the grand chamberlain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The officia.</span></span> The officials who were at the head of administrative +departments, civil or military, had at their disposal an <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">officium</span></span> or +bureau, the members of which were known as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">officiales</span></span>. These subaltern +employees of the state were free men, no longer slaves or freedmen +like their predecessors of the principate. As in the case of the +palace servants their numbers, terms of service (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">militia</span></span>), promotion +and discharge were fixed by imperial edicts, and they were not placed +at the mercy of the functionary whose office staff they formed. Indeed, +owing to the permanent character of the organization of the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">officia</span></span>, the burden of the routine administration fell upon their members, +and not upon their temporary director, for whose acts they were +made to share the responsibility. This was particularly true of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page342">[pg 342]</span><a name="Pg342" id="Pg342" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>bureau chief (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">princeps</span></span>), who was regularly appointed from the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">agentes-in-rebus</span></span> as a spy upon the actions of his superior. Like the +soldiers, the civil service employees enjoyed exemption from the ordinary +courts of justice and the privilege of defending themselves in the +courts of the chief of that branch of the administration to which they +were attached. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Official corruption.</span></span> The attitude of the emperor towards his chief +servants was marked by mistrust and suspicion. The policy which +led to the attempt to weaken the more powerful offices by the separation +of civil and military authority and by the subdivision of the +administrative districts was adhered to in the provisions for direct +communication between the emperor and the subordinates of the great +ministers, and the highly developed system of state espionage whereby +the ruler kept watch upon the actions of his officers. However, in +spite of the efforts of the majority of the emperors to secure an honest +and efficient administration, the actual result of the development of +this elaborate bureaucratic system was the erection of an almost impassable +barrier between the emperor and his subjects. Neither did +their complaints reach his ears, nor were his ordinances for their +relief effective, because the officials coöperated with one another to +conceal their misdemeanors and to enrich themselves at the expense +of the civilian population. So thoroughly had the spirit of <span class="tei tei-q">“graft”</span> +and intrigue penetrated all ranks of the civil and military service that +to gratify their personal ambitions they were even willing to compromise +the safety of the empire itself. The burden imposed upon the +tax payers by the vast military and civil establishment was immensely +aggravated by the extortions practised by representatives of both services, +whose rapacity knew no bounds. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc257" id="toc257"></a><a name="pdf258" id="pdf258"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. The Nobility and the Senate</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The senatorial order.</span></span> The conflict between the principate and +the Senate resulted, as we have seen, in the exclusion of members of +the senatorial order from all offices of state. But it was unthinkable +that the great landed proprietors should be permanently shut out of +the public service, and with the loss of any claim to authority by the +Senate as a body there was no longer any objection to their entering +the service of the emperor. Consequently, the essential distinction +be<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page343">[pg 343]</span><a name="Pg343" id="Pg343" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>tween the senatorial and equestrian orders vanished and a new senatorial +order arose into which was merged a large equestrian element. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The clarissimate.</span></span> The distinguishing mark of this new senatorial +order was the right to the title <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">clarissimus</span></span>, which might be acquired +by inheritance, by imperial grant, or by the attainment of an office +which conferred the clarissimate upon its holder, either during his +term of service or upon his retirement. Practically all of the higher +officials in the imperial service were <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">clarissimi</span></span> and there was consequently +a great increase in the number of senators in the course of +the fourth century. The place of the equestrian order was in part +filled by the <a name="corr343" id="corr343" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">perfectissimate</span>, an inferior order of rank conferred upon +lower imperial officials and municipal senators. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The higher orders of rank.</span></span> The development of an oriental +court life with its elaborate ceremonial demanding a fixed order of +precedence among those present at imperial audiences, and the increase +in the number and importance of the public officials, which +necessitated a classification of the various official posts from the point +of view of rank, led to the establishment of new and more exclusive +rank classes within the circle of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">clarissimi</span></span>. There were in the +ascending order the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">spectabiles</span></span>, or Respectables, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">illustres</span></span>, or +Illustrious. The illustriate was conferred solely upon the great ministers +of state. Under Justinian, in the sixth century, there was established +the still higher order of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">gloriosi</span></span> (the Glorious). The +official positions, to which these titles of rank were attached, were +called dignities (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dignitates</span></span>), and the great demand for admission to +these rank classes, which entitled their members to valuable privileges, +caused the conferment of many honorary dignities, i. e., titles of +official posts with their appropriate rank but without the duties of +office. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The patricians and counts.</span></span> The other titles of nobility were +those of patrician and count. The former, created by Constantine I +in imitation of the older patrician order, was granted solely to the +highest dignitaries, although it was not attached to any definite official +post. It was Constantine also who revived the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitiva</span></span>, which had +been used irregularly of the chief associates of the princeps until the +death of Severus Alexander, and put it to a new use. The term count +became a title of honor definitely attached to certain offices, but also +capable of being conferred as a favor or a reward of merit. Like the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page344">[pg 344]</span><a name="Pg344" id="Pg344" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>other titles of rank the patriciate and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitiva</span></span> brought with them +not only precedence but also valuable immunities. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Nothing illustrates more clearly the importance of official positions +than the division of the people of the empire as a whole into two +classes—the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">honestiores</span></span> (more honorable) and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">humiliores</span></span> (more +humble or plebeians). The former class, which included the imperial +senators, the soldiers and the veterans, were exempt from execution +except with the emperor’s consent, from penal servitude, and, +with some limitations, from torture in the course of judicial investigations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Senate.</span></span> The Senate at Rome was not abolished but continued +to function both as a municipal council and as the mouthpiece +of the senatorial order. After the founding of Constantinople a +similar Senate was established there for the eastern part of the empire. +At first all <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">clarissimi</span></span> had a right to participate in the meetings +of the Senate, and their sons were expected to fill the quaestorship. +However, after the middle of the fifth century only those having the +rank of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">illustris</span></span> were admitted to the senate chamber, and the active +Senate became a gathering of the highest officials and ex-officials of +the state. In addition to their functions as municipal councils, the +Senates made recommendations for the quaestorship and praetorship, +discussed with the imperial officials the taxes which affected the +senatorial order and even participated to a certain extent in drafting +imperial legislation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The senators and the municipalities.</span></span> The most important +privilege enjoyed by the senators was their exemption from the control +of the officials of the municipalities within whose territories their +estates were situated. As we shall see, this was one of the chief reasons +for the extension of their power in the provinces. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<a name="toc259" id="toc259"></a><a name="pdf260" id="pdf260"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">V. The System of Taxation and the Ruin of the +Municipalities</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The system of taxation.</span></span> The debasement of the Roman coinage +in the course of the third century resulted in a thorough disorganization +of the public finances, for the taxes and disbursements fixed in +terms of money had no longer their previous value. Diocletian completely +reorganized the financial system by introducing a general +scheme of taxation and remuneration in produce in place of <a name="corr344" id="corr344" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">coin,</span> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page345">[pg 345]</span><a name="Pg345" id="Pg345" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>and by establishing a new method of assessment. This latter consisted +in the division of the land, cattle and agricultural labor into +units of equal tax value. The unit of taxation for land was the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iugum</span></span>, which differed in size for arable land, vineyards and orchards, +as well as for soils of varying fertility. A fixed number of cattle +likewise constituted a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iugum</span></span>, assessed at the same value as a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iugum</span></span> +of land. The unit of labor, regarded as the equivalent of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iugum</span></span> +was the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">caput</span></span>, which was defined as one man or two women engaged +in agricultural occupations. Thus the workers were taxed in addition +to the land they tilled. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The indiction.</span></span> The amount of the land tax to be raised each year +was announced in an annual proclamation called an indiction (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">indictio</span></span>), +and a revaluation of the tax units was made periodically. +The term indiction was also used of the period between two reassessments, +which occurred at first every five, but after 312 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> every +fifteen, years. The indictions thus furnished the basis for a new +system of chronology. From the taxes raised in kind the soldiers +and those in the civil service received their pay in the form of an allowance +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">annona</span></span>), which might under certain conditions be commuted +for its monetary equivalent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Special taxes.</span></span> In addition to the land tax raised in the form of +produce on the basis of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iuga</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">capita</span></span>, there were certain other +taxes payable in money. The chief of these were: the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">chrysargyrum</span></span>, +a tax levied on all trades; the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">aurum coronarium</span></span>, a nominally voluntary +but really compulsory contribution paid by the municipal senators +every five years to enable the emperor to distribute largesses to +his officials and troops; the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">aurum oblaticium</span></span>, a similar payment +made by the senatorial order of the empire; and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">collatio glebalis</span></span> +or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">follis senatoria</span></span>, a special tax imposed upon senators by Constantine +I. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Munera.</span></span> Besides the taxes, the government laid upon its subjects +the burden of performing certain public services without compensation. +The most burdensome of these charges (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">munera</span></span>) were the +upkeep of the public post, and the furnishing of quarters (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">hospitium</span></span>) +and rendering other services in connection with the movement of +troops, officials and supplies. So heavy was the burden of the post +that it denuded of draught animals the districts it traversed and had +to be abandoned in the sixth century. It was in connection with the +exaction of these charges, the collection of the revenue in kind, and in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page346">[pg 346]</span><a name="Pg346" id="Pg346" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>the administration of justice that the imperial officials found opportunity +to practice extortions which weighed more heavily upon the +taxpayers than the taxes themselves. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The curiales.</span></span> The class which suffered most directly from the +established fiscal system was that of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiales</span></span>, as the members of +the municipal senatorial orders were now called. In the course of +the third century the status of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curialis</span></span> had become hereditary, and +was an obligation upon all who possessed a definite property qualification, +fixed at twenty-five <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iugera</span></span> of land in the fourth century. +Since the local senates had become agents of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fiscus</span></span> in collecting +the revenues from their municipal territories, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiales</span></span>, through +the municipal officers or committees of the local council, had to apportion +the quotas of the municipal burden among the landholders, to +collect them, and be responsible for the payment of the total amount +to the public officers. They were also responsible for the maintenance +of the public post and the performance of other services resting +upon the municipalities. Inevitably the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiales</span></span> sought to protect +themselves by shifting the burden of taxation as much as possible +upon the lower classes in the municipal territory who regarded them +as oppressors. <span class="tei tei-q">“Every <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curialis</span></span> is a tyrant”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">quot curiales, tot +tyranni</span></span>), says a fourth century writer. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The exactions of the imperial officers proved more than the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiales</span></span> +could meet, and they sought to withdraw from their order and its +obligations. But the government required responsible landholders +and so they were forbidden to dispose of their properties or to leave +their place of residence without special permission. And when they +tried to find exemption by entering the imperial senatorial order, the +military or civil service, or the clergy, these avenues of escape were +likewise closed. Only those who had filled all the municipal offices +might become <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">clarissimi</span></span> and immune from the curial obligations, and +only clergy of the rank of bishops were excused, while the lower orders +had to supply a substitute or surrender two-thirds of their +property before they could leave the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curia</span></span>. Valentinian I attempted +to aid the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiales</span></span> by appointing officials known as + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">defensores </span><a name="corr346" id="corr346" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-style: italic">civitatium</span></span></span> +or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">plebis</span></span>—<span class="tei tei-q">“defenders of the cities”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“of the plebs”</span>—whose +duty it was to check unjust exactions and protect the common +people against officials and judges. These <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">defensores</span></span> were at first +persons of influence, chosen by the municipalities and approved by +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page347">[pg 347]</span><a name="Pg347" id="Pg347" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>the emperor. They were empowered to try certain cases themselves, +and had the right to address themselves directly to the emperor without +reference to the provincial governor. However, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">defensores</span></span> accomplished little, and in the fifth century their office had become +an additional obligatory service resting upon the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiales</span></span>. By 429 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> hardly a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curialis</span></span> with adequate property qualifications could be +found in any city, and by the sixth century the class of municipal +landholders had practically disappeared. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The hereditary corporations.</span></span> We have seen how, in the course +of the third century, the professional corporations were burdened +with the duty of performing certain public services in the interest of +the communities to which they belonged. The first step taken by the +state to insure the performance of these services was to make this +duty a charge which rested permanently upon the property of the +members of the corporations (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">corporati</span></span>), no matter into whose possession +it passed. But men as well as money were needed for the +performance of these charges, and consequently, in order to prevent +a decline in the numbers of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">corporati</span></span>, the state made membership +in these associations an hereditary obligation. This was really an +extension of the principle that a man was bound to perform certain +services in the community in which he was enrolled (his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">origo</span></span>). Finally, +the emperors exercised the right of conscription, and attached to +the various corporations which were in need of recruits persons who +were engaged in less needed occupations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The burden of their charges led the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">corporati</span></span>, like the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiales</span></span>, +to seek refuge in some other profession. They tried to secure enrollment +in the army, among the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">officiales</span></span>, or to become <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> of the +emperor or senatorial landholders. But all these havens of refuge +were closed by imperial edicts, and when discovered the truant <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">corporatus</span></span> +was dragged back to his association. Only those who attained +the highest office within their corporation were legally freed +from their obligations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Although the corporations probably retained their former organization +and officers, their active heads were now called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">patroni</span></span>, and these +directed the public services of their colleges. In Rome and Constantinople +the colleges were under the supervision of the city prefects, in +the municipalities under that of the local magistrates and provincial +governors. The professional colleges are the only ones which +sur<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page348">[pg 348]</span><a name="Pg348" id="Pg348" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>vived during the late empire. The religious and funerary associations +vanished with the spread of Christianity and the general impoverishment +of the lower classes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The coloni.</span></span> Among the agricultural classes the forces which had +developed in the course of the principate were still at work. In the +fourth century the attachment of the tenant farmers and peasant laborers +to the soil was extended to the whole empire. The status of the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> became hereditary, like that of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">corporati</span></span>. Their condition +was half way between that of freedmen and that of slaves, for while +they were bound to the estate upon which they resided and passed +with it from one owner to another, they were not absolutely under the +power of the owner and could not be disposed of by him apart from +the land. They had also other rights which slaves lacked, yet as +time went on their condition tended to approximate more and more +closely to servitude. <span class="tei tei-q">“Slaves of the soil,”</span> they were called in the +sixth century. As this status of serfdom was hitherto unknown in +Roman law, a great many imperial enactments had to be issued +defining the rights and duties of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The growth of private domains.</span></span> The development of vast private +estates at the expense of the public and imperial domains was +another prominent characteristic of the times. This was the result +of the failure of the state to check the spread of waste lands, in spite +of its attempt to develop the system of hereditary leaseholds to small +farmers. To maintain the level of production the government opened +the way for the great proprietors to take over all deserted lands under +various forms of heritable lease or in freehold tenure. The system +of attaching waste lands to those of the neighboring landholders and +making the latter responsible for their cultivation was an added cause +of the growth of large estates. The result of this development was +that the state tenants became <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> of the great landlords, and the +latter were responsible for the taxes and other obligations of their +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> to the state. The weight of these obligations rested as before +upon the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span>, and led to their continued flight and a further increase +in waste land. Like the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiales</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">corporati</span></span>, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> +tried to exchange their status by entering the public service or attaining +admission to some other social class. But, in like manner also, +they found themselves excluded from all other occupations and classes. +Only the fugitive <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">colonus</span></span> who had managed to remain undetected for +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page349">[pg 349]</span><a name="Pg349" id="Pg349" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>thirty years (in the case of women twenty years) could escape being +handed back to the land which he had deserted. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The power of the landed nobility.</span></span> The immunities of the senatorial +order and the power of the high officials tended to give an almost +feudal character to the position of the great landed proprietors. +These had inherited the judicial powers of the procurators on the +imperial estates and transferred this authority to their own domains. +Over their slaves and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> they exercised the powers of police and +jurisdiction. As they were not subject to the municipal authorities, +and, during the greater part of the fourth century, were also exempt +from the jurisdiction of the provincial governors they assumed a very +independent position, and did not hesitate to defy the municipal +magistrates and even the minor agents of the imperial government. +Their power made their protection extremely valuable, and led to a +new type of patronage. Individuals and village communities, desirous +of escaping from the exactions to which they were subject in +their municipal districts, placed themselves under the patronage of +some senatorial landholder and became his tenants. And he did not +hesitate to afford them an illegal protection against the local authorities. +Complaints by the latter to higher officials secured little redress +for they were themselves proprietors and sided with those of +their own class. The power of the state was thus nullified by its +chief servants and the landed aristocracy became the heirs of the +empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Resumé.</span></span> The transformation which society underwent during the +empire may be aptly described as the transition from a régime of individual +initiative to a régime of status, that is, from one in which +the position of an individual in society was mainly determined by +his own volition to one in which this was fixed by the accident of his +birth. The population of the empire was divided into a number of +sharply defined castes, each of which was compelled to play a definite +rôle in the life of the state. The sons of senators, soldiers, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiales</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">corporati</span></span>, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> had to follow in their fathers’ walks of life, and +each sought to escape from the tasks to which he was born. In the +eyes of the government <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">collegiati</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiales</span></span>, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> existed solely +to pay taxes for the support of the bureaucracy and the army. The +consequence was the attempted flight of the population to the army, +civil service, the church or the wilderness. Private industry +lan<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page350">[pg 350]</span><a name="Pg350" id="Pg350" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>guished, commerce declined, the fields lay untilled; a general feeling +of hopelessness paralyzed all initiative. And when the barbarians +began to occupy the provinces they encountered no national resistance; +rather were they looked upon as deliverers from the burdensome +yoke of Rome. +</p> + + </div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page351">[pg 351]</span><a name="Pg351" id="Pg351" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <a name="toc261" id="toc261"></a><a name="pdf262" id="pdf262"></a> + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER XXIII</span></h2> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">THE GERMANIC OCCUPATION OF ITALY AND THE + WESTERN PROVINCES: 395–493 A. D.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc263" id="toc263"></a><a name="pdf264" id="pdf264"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. General Characteristics of the Period</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The partition of the empire.</span></span> With the death of Theodosius the +Great the empire passed to his sons, Arcadius a youth of eighteen, +whom he had left in Constantinople, and Honorius a boy of eleven, +whom he had designated as the Augustus for the West. However, +in the East the government was really in the hands of Rufinus, the +pretorian prefect of Illyricum, while an even greater influence was +exercised in the West by Stilicho, the Vandal master of the soldiers, +whom Theodosius had selected as regent for the young Honorius. +The rivalry of these two ambitious men, and the attempt of Stilicho +to secure for Honorius the restoration of eastern Illyricum, which had +been attached by Gratian to the sphere of the eastern emperor, were +the immediate causes of the complete and formal division of the +empire into an eastern and a western half, a condition which had +been foreshadowed by the division of the imperial power throughout +the greater part of the fourth century. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fiction of imperial unity was still preserved by the nomination +of one consul in Rome and one in Constantinople, by the association of +the statues of both Augusti in each part of the empire, and by the +issuance of imperial enactments under their joint names. Nevertheless, +there was a complete separation of administrative authority, the +edicts issued by one emperor required the sanction of the other before +attaining validity within his territory, and upon the death of one +Augustus the actual government of the whole empire did not pass into +the hands of the survivor. The empire had really split into two independent +states. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Germanic invasions.</span></span> In addition to the partition of the +empire, the period between 395 and 493 is marked by the complete +breakdown of the Roman resistance to barbarian invasions, and the +penetration and occupation of the western provinces and Italy itself +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page352">[pg 352]</span><a name="Pg352" id="Pg352" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>by peoples of Germanic stock. The position of Roman and barbarian +is reversed; the latter become the rulers, the former their subjects, +and the power passes from the Roman officials to the Germanic +kings. Finally, a barbarian soldier seats himself upon the throne +of the western emperor, and a Germanic kingdom is established in +Italy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The military dictators.</span></span> During this period of disintegration, the +real power in the western empire was in the hands of a series of +military dictators, who with the office of master of the soldiers secured +the position of commander-in-chief of the imperial armies. +Beside them the emperors exercised only nominal authority. But as +these dictators were either barbarians themselves, or depended upon +barbarian troops for their support, they were continually intrigued +against and opposed by the Roman or civilian element, headed by the +civil officers of the court. Yet the fall of one <span class="tei tei-q">“kingmaker”</span> was +always followed by the rise of another, for by their aid alone could +the Romans offer any effective resistance to the flood of barbarian invasion. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The empire maintained in the East.</span></span> But while the western +empire was thus absorbed by the Germanic invaders, the empire in +the East was able to offer a successful resistance both to foreign invasions +and the ambitions of its own barbarian generals. This is in +part accounted for by the greater solidarity and vigor of the Hellenic +civilization of the eastern provinces, and the military strength of the +population, particularly in Asia Minor, and in part by the success of +the bureaucracy in holding the generals in check, a task which was +facilitated by the division of the supreme military authority among +several masters of the soldiers. The strength of the eastern empire +caused the West to look to it for support and the western emperors +upon several occasions were nominated, and at other times given the +sanction of legitimacy, by those in the East. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc265" id="toc265"></a><a name="pdf266" id="pdf266"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The Visigothic Migrations</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The revolt of Alaric, 395 A. D.</span></span> Seizing the opportunity created +by the death of Theodosius and the absence of the army of the +East which he had led into Italy, Alaric, a prince of the Visigothic +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span>, began to ravage Thrace and Macedonia with a band of his +own people, aided by other tribes from across the Danube. He was +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page353">[pg 353]</span><a name="Pg353" id="Pg353" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>opposed by Stilicho who was leading back the troops of the eastern +emperor and intended to occupy eastern Illyricum. However, the +latter was ordered by Arcadius to send the army of the East to Constantinople +and complied. This gave Alaric free access to southern +Greece which he systematically plundered. However, Stilicho again +intervened. He transported an army by sea to the Peloponnesus, and +maneuvered Alaric into a precarious situation, but came to terms with +him, possibly because of a revolt which had broken out in Africa. +Stilicho was declared an enemy by Arcadius, while Alaric, after +devastating Epirus, settled there with his Goths, and extorted the +title of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">magister militum</span></span> from the eastern court. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The death of Stilicho, 408 A. D.</span></span> In 401 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, when Stilicho +was occupied with an inroad of Vandals and Alans into Raetia, +Alaric invaded Italy. However, Stilicho forced him to withdraw, and +foiled a second attempt at invasion in 403 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> But Alaric did not +long remain inactive. He now held the title of master of the soldiers +from Honorius and had agreed to help Stilicho to accomplish his +designs upon Illyricum. But when the western empire was embarrassed +by new invasions and the appearance of a usurper in Gaul, +he made his way into Noricum and demanded an indemnity and +employment for his troops. By the advice of Stilicho his demands, +which included a payment of 4000 pounds of gold, were complied +with. Shortly afterwards, Stilicho fell a victim to a plot hatched by +the court officials who were jealous of his influence (408 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Visigoths in Italy.</span></span> The death of Stilicho removed the only +capable defender of Italy and, when Honorius refused to carry out +the agreement with Alaric, the latter crossed the Alps. Honorius +shut himself up in Ravenna, and the Goths marched on Rome, which +ransomed itself at a heavy price. As Honorius still refused to make +him master of the soldiers and to give him lands and supplies for his +men, Alaric returned to Rome and set up a new emperor, named +Attalus. Yet Honorius, supported by troops from the eastern empire, +remained obdurate, and a disagreement between Alaric and Attalus +led to the latter’s deposition. Rome was then occupied by the Goths +who plundered it for three days (410 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). Alaric’s next move was +to march to south Italy with the intention of crossing to Sicily and +Africa. But his flotilla was destroyed by a storm, and while retracing +his steps northwards he suddenly took sick and died. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Goths in Gaul and Spain.</span></span> Alaric’s successor was his +brother-in-law, Ataulf, who led the Visigoths into Gaul (412 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page354">[pg 354]</span><a name="Pg354" id="Pg354" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>where he at first allied himself with a usurper, Jovinus, but soon +deserted him to take service with the Romans. However, when +Honorius failed to furnish him supplies, he seized Narbonne and +other towns in southern Gaul and married the emperor’s sister, Placidia, +whom the Goths had carried off captive from Rome. He again +attempted to come to terms with the Romans, but failed, and Constantius, +the Roman master of the soldiers, who had succeeded to the +position and influence of Stilicho, forced him to abandon Gaul. +Ataulf and the Goths crossed the Pyrenees into Spain, where he died +in 415 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> His successor Wallia, being hard pressed by famine and +failing in an attempt to invade Africa, came to terms with the Romans. +He surrendered Placidia and in the name of the emperor attacked the +Vandals and Alans who had occupied parts of Spain. Alarmed by +his success Constantius recalled the Goths to Gaul, where they were +settled in southern Aquitania (418 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Visigothic kingdom in Gaul.</span></span> The status of the Goths in +Gaul was that of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span>, bound to render military aid to Rome, +but governed by their own kings. The latter, however, had no authority +over the Roman population among whom the Goths were settled. +This condition was unsatisfactory to the Gothic rulers who +sought to establish an independent Gothic kingdom. Theodoric I, +the successor of Wallia, forced the Romans to acknowledge his complete +sovereignty over Aquitania, but failed in his attempt to conquer +Narbonese Gaul. However, he joined forces with the Romans against +Attila the Hun and was largely responsible for checking the latter at +the battle of the Mauriac plain (451 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>) in which he lost his life. +For a time the Goths remained on friendly terms with the imperial +authority but under Euric, who became king in 466 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, the anti-Roman +faction was in the ascendant and they embarked upon a policy +of expansion. In 475 Euric, after a protracted struggle, gained possession +of the district of Auvergne, and the Roman emperor acknowledged +his sovereignty over the country between the Atlantic and the +Rhone, the Loire and the Pyrenees, besides some territory in Spain. +Two years later the district between the Rhone and the Alps, south +of the Durance, was added to the Visigothic kingdom. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc267" id="toc267"></a><a name="pdf268" id="pdf268"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. The Vandals</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The invasions of 406 A. D.</span></span> In 405 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> an invading horde of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page355">[pg 355]</span><a name="Pg355" id="Pg355" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Vandals and Alans, who had descended upon Italy, was utterly defeated +by Stilicho. But in the following year fresh swarms of the +same peoples, united with the Suevi, crossed the Rhine near Mainz +and plundered Gaul as far as the Pyrenees. For a short time they +were held in check by the usurper Constantine, who held sway in +Gaul and Spain. However, when he was involved in a struggle with +a rival, Gerontius, they found an opportunity to make their way into +Spain (409 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The occupation of Spain.</span></span> The united peoples speedily made +themselves masters of the whole Iberian peninsula. But in spite of +their successes over the Roman troops, the lack of supplies forced +them to come to terms with the empire. In 411 they became Roman +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span> and were granted lands for settlement. Under this agreement +the Asdingian Vandals and the Suevi occupied the northwest +of Spain, the Alans the center, and the Silingian Vandals the south. +However, the Roman government had only made peace with the Vandals +and their allies under pressure, and seized the first opportunity +to rid themselves of these unwelcome guests. In 416 Constantius +authorized the Visigoths under Wallia to attack them in the name of +the emperor. Wallia was so successful that he utterly annihilated the +Silingian Vandals, and so weakened the Alans that they united themselves +with the Asdingian Vandals, who escaped destruction only +through the recall of the Visigoths to Gaul. However, the Vandals +quickly recovered from their defeats, waged successful war upon the +Suevi, who had reached an agreement with the Romans, and occupied +the whole of southern Spain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Vandal kingdom in Africa.</span></span> In 429 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> the Vandals under +the leadership of their king Gaiseric crossed into Africa, attracted by +the richness of its soil and its strategic importance as one of the +granaries of the Roman world. Their invasion was facilitated by +the existence of a state of war between Count Bonifacius, the military +governor of Africa, and the western emperor. The number of the +invaders was estimated at 80,000, of whom probably 15,000 or 20,000 +were fighting men. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In spite of the reconciliation between Bonifacius and the imperial +government and their united opposition, Gaiseric was able to overrun +the open country although he failed to capture the chief cities. In +435 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> peace was concluded and the Vandals were allowed to settle +in Numidia, once more as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span> of the empire. However, in 439 +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page356">[pg 356]</span><a name="Pg356" id="Pg356" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Gaiseric broke the peace and treacherously seized Carthage. +This step was followed by the organization of a fleet which harried +the coasts of Sicily. In 442 the western emperor acknowledged the +independence of the Vandal kingdom. Peace continued until 455, +when the assassination of the emperor Valentinian III gave Gaiseric +the pretext for a descent upon Italy and the seizure of Rome which +was systematically plundered of its remaining treasures, although its +buildings and monuments were not wantonly destroyed. Among the +captives was Eudoxia, widow of the late emperor, and her daughters, +who were valuable hostages in the hands of Gaiseric. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The lack of coöperation between the eastern and western empires +against the Vandals enabled them to extend their power still further. +Their fleets controlled the whole of the Mediterranean and ravaged +both its western and its eastern coasts. A powerful expedition fitted +out by the eastern emperor Leo I in 468 for the invasion of Africa +ended in utter failure, and in 476 his successor Zeno was compelled +to come to terms and acknowledge the authority of the Vandals over +the territory under their control. At the death of Gaiseric in 477 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +the Vandal kingdom included all Roman Africa, the Balearic Islands, +Corsica, Sardinia, and the fortress of Lilybaeum in Sicily. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc269" id="toc269"></a><a name="pdf270" id="pdf270"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. The Burgundians, Franks, and Saxons</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Burgundian invasion of Gaul.</span></span> The invasion of Gaul by the +Vandals and Alans in 406 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> was followed by an inroad of the +Burgundians, Ripuarian Franks and Alemanni. The two latter peoples +established themselves on the left bank of the Rhine, while the +Burgundians penetrated further south. In 433 the Burgundians were +at war with the empire and were defeated by Aetius, the Roman master +of the soldiers in Gaul. Subsequently they were settled in the +Savoy. Thence, about 457, they began to expand until they occupied +the whole valley of the Rhone as far south as the Durance. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Yet on the whole they remained loyal <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span> of the empire. +They fought under Aetius against Attila in 451, and their kings bore +the Roman title of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">magister militum</span></span> until the reign of Gundobad +(473–516), who was given the rank of patrician by the emperor +Olybrius. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Salian Franks.</span></span> The Salian Franks, as those who had once +dwelt on the shores of the North Sea were called in contrast to the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page357">[pg 357]</span><a name="Pg357" id="Pg357" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Ripuarians, whose home was on the banks of the Rhine, crossed the +lower Rhine before the middle of the fourth century and occupied +Toxandria, the region between the Meuse and the Scheldt. They +were defeated by Julian who, however, left them in possession of this +district as Roman <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span>. The disturbances of the early fifth century +enabled the Salian Franks to assert their independence of Roman +suzerainty, and to extend their territory as far south as the Somme. +Still, they fought as Roman allies against the Huns in 451 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, and +their king Childeric, who began to rule shortly afterwards, remained +a faithful <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederatus</span></span> of Rome until his death in 481 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In 486 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Clovis, the successor of Childeric, overthrew the Gallo-Roman +state to the south of the Somme and extended his kingdom to +meet the Visigoths on the Loire. Thus the whole of Gaul passed +under the rule of Germanic peoples. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Saxons in Britain.</span></span> After the decisive defeat of the Picts and +Scots by Theodosius, the father of Theodosius the Great, in 368 and +369 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, the Romans were able to maintain the defence of Britain +until the close of the fourth century. But in 402 Stilicho was obliged +to recall part of the garrison of the island for the protection of Italy, +and in 406 Constantine, who had laid claim to the imperial crown in +Britain, took with him the remaining Roman troops in his attempt to +obtain recognition on the continent. The ensuing struggles with the +barbarians in Gaul prevented the Romans from sending officials or +troops across the channel, and the Britons had to depend upon their +own resources for their defense. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The task proved beyond their strength and it is probable that by +the middle of the fifth century the Germanic tribes of Saxons, Angles +and Jutes were firmly established in the eastern part of Britain. Because +of the uncivilized character of these peoples, of the fact that +Roman culture was not very deeply rooted among the native population, +and of the desperate resistance offered by the latter to the invaders, +the subsequent struggle for the possession of the island resulted +in the obliteration of the Latin language and the disappearance +of that material civilization which had developed under four centuries +of Roman rule. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc271" id="toc271"></a><a name="pdf272" id="pdf272"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">V. The Fall of the Western Empire</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Honorius, 395–432 A. D.</span></span> After the murder of Stilicho in 408 +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page358">[pg 358]</span><a name="Pg358" id="Pg358" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, Honorius was faced with the problem of restoring his authority +in Gaul, where for a time he had been forced to acknowledge the rule +of a rival emperor Constantine who had donned the purple in Britain +in 406 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Constantius, a Roman noble who had succeeded Stilicho +as master of the soldiers, was despatched to Gaul in 411 and soon +overthrew the usurper. Two years later another rival, Jovinus, was +crushed with the help of the Visigoths. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Constantius, the leader of the anti-barbarian faction of the court, +was now the mainstay of the power of Honorius and used his influence +to further his own ambitions. After the surrender of the princess +Placidia by the Visigoths he induced the emperor to grant him her +hand in marriage (417 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). In 421 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Honorius appointed him +co-emperor, but he was not recognized as an Augustus at Constantinople +and died in the same year. His death was followed by a quarrel +between the emperor and his sister, as a result of which Placidia +and her son took refuge under the protection of the eastern emperor, +Theodosius II. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Valentinian III, 425–455 A. D.</span></span> Honorius died in 423 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, +leaving no children, and Castinus, the new master of the soldiers, +secured the nomination of John, a high officer of the court, as his successor. +However, Theodosius refused him recognition and his authority +was defied by Bonifacius, an influential officer who had established +himself in Africa. Valentinian, the five-year-old son of Placidia +and Constantius, was escorted to Italy by forces of the eastern +empire and John was deposed. His chief supporter Aetius, who had +brought an army of Huns to his aid, was induced to dismiss his troops +and accept a command in Gaul with the rank of count. Placidia, +who had returned to Italy with Valentinian, became regent with the +title of Augusta. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Aetius.</span></span> During the reign of Valentinian III interest centers about +the career of Aetius, <span class="tei tei-q">“last of the Romans.”</span> In 429, after getting +rid of his enemy Felix, who had succeeded to the position of Castinus, +Aetius himself became master of the soldiers and the real ruler +of the empire. However, the Augusta Placidia endeavored to compass +his downfall by an appeal to Bonifacius, who after his revolt of +427 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> had fought in the imperial cause against the Vandals. In +432 Bonifacius returned to Italy and was appointed master of the +soldiers in place of Aetius. The latter appealed to arms, was defeated +near Ariminum, and forced to flee for refuge to his friends +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page359">[pg 359]</span><a name="Pg359" id="Pg359" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>the Huns. But as Bonifacius died not long after his victory, Aetius, +with the backing of the Huns, was able to force the emperor to reappoint +him master of the soldiers in 433 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> From that time +until his death in 454 he directed the imperial policy in the West. +He received embassies from foreign peoples and the latter made treaties +with him and not with the emperor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Attila’s invasion of Gaul, 451 A. D.</span></span> The chief efforts of Aetius +were directed towards the preservation of central and southeastern +Gaul for the empire. In this he was successful, holding in check +the Franks on the north, the Burgundians on the east, and the Goths +in the southwest. But though Gaul was saved, Africa was lost to +the Vandals, Britain to the Saxons and the greater part of Spain to +the Suevi. The success of Aetius in Gaul was principally due to his +ability to draw into his service large numbers of Hunnish troops, +owing to the influence he had acquired with the leaders of that people +while a hostage among them. At this time the Huns occupied the +region of modern Hungary, Rumania, and South Russia. They comprised +a number of separate tribes, which in 444 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> were united +under the strong hand of King Attila, who also extended his sway over +neighboring Germanic and Scythian peoples. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At first Attila remained on friendly terms with Aetius but his ambitions +and his interference in the affairs of Gaul led to friction and +to his demand for the hand of Honoria, sister of Valentinian III, +with half of the western empire as her dowry. When the emperor +refused to comply Attila led a great army across the Rhine into Gaul +and laid siege to Orleans. Their common danger brought together +the Romans and the Germanic peoples of Gaul, and Aetius was able +to face the Huns with an army strengthened by the presence of the +kings of the Visigoths and the Franks. Repulsed at Orleans, Attila +withdrew to the Mauric plains where, in the vicinity of Troyes, a +memorable battle was fought between the Huns and the forces of +Aetius. Although the result was indecisive, Attila would not risk +another engagement and recrossed the Rhine. The next year he invaded +Italy, but the presence of famine and disease among his own +forces and the arrival of troops from the Eastern Empire induced +him to listen to the appeal of a Roman embassy, led by the Roman +bishop Leo, and to withdraw from the peninsula without occupying +Rome. Upon his death in 453 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> his empire fell to pieces and the +power of the Huns began to decline. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page360">[pg 360]</span><a name="Pg360" id="Pg360" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Maximus and Avitus, 455–6 A. D.</span></span> The death of Attila was soon +followed by that of Aetius, who was murdered by Valentinian at the +instigation of his chamberlain Heraclius (454 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). This rash +act deprived him of the best support of his authority and in the next +year Valentinian himself fell a victim to the vengeance of followers +of Aetius. With him ended the dynasty of Theodosius in the West. +The new emperor, a senator named Petronius Maximus, compelled +Valentinian’s widow, Eudoxia, to marry him, but when the Vandal +Gaiseric appeared in Italy in answer to her call he offered no resistance +and perished in flight. Maximus was succeeded by Avitus, a +Gallic follower of Aetius, whom he had made master of the soldiers. +But after ruling little more than a year Avitus was deposed by his +own master of the soldiers, Ricimer (456 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Ricimer.</span></span> Ricimer, a German of Suevic and Gothic ancestry, who +succeeded to the power of Aetius, was the virtual ruler of the western +empire from 456 until his death in 472. Backed by his mercenary +troops he made and unmade emperors at his pleasure, and never permitted +his nominees to be more than his puppets. Majorian, who was +appointed emperor in 457 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, was overthrown by Ricimer in 461, +and was followed by Severus. After the death of Severus in 465 no +emperor was appointed in the West for two years. The imperial +power was nominally concentrated in the hands of the eastern emperor, +Leo, while Ricimer was in actual control of the government in Italy. +In 467, Leo sent as emperor to Rome, Anthemius, a prominent dignitary +of the eastern court, whose daughter was married to Ricimer +in order to secure the coöperation of the latter in a joint attack of the +two empires upon the Vandal kingdom in Africa. However, in 472 +Ricimer broke with Anthemius who had endeavored with the support +of the Roman Senate to free himself from the influence of the +powerful barbarian. Anthemius was besieged in Rome, and put to +death following the capture of the city. Thereupon Ricimer raised +to the purple Olybrius, a son-in-law of <a name="corr360" id="corr360" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Valentinian</span> III. But both +the new emperor and his patron died in the course of the same year +(472 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The last years of the western empire.</span></span> In 473 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Gundobad, +the nephew of Ricimer, caused Glycerius to be proclaimed emperor. +However, his appointment was not recognized by Leo, who nominated +Julius Nepos. The next year Nepos invaded Italy and overthrew his +rival, only to meet a like fate at the hands of Orestes, whom he had +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page361">[pg 361]</span><a name="Pg361" id="Pg361" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>made master of the soldiers (475 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). Orestes did not assume the +imperial title himself, but bestowed it upon his son Romulus, known +as Augustulus. But Orestes was unable to maintain his position for +long. The Germanic mercenaries in Italy—Herculi, Sciri, and +others—led by Odovacar, demanded for themselves lands in Italy +such as their kinsmen had been granted as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span> in the provinces. +When their demands were refused they mutinied and slew Orestes. +Romulus was forced to abdicate, and Odovacar assumed the title of +king (476 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). The soldiers were settled on Italian soil and the +barbarians acquired full control of the western empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The kingship of Odovacar, 476–493 A. D.</span></span> With the deposition +of Romulus Augustulus, the commander-in-chief of the barbarian +soldiery, long the virtual ruler in the western empire, was recognized +as legally exercising this power. The imperial authority was united +in the person of the eastern emperor who sanctioned the rule of +Odovacar by granting him the title of patrician, which had been held +already by Aetius, Ricimer and Orestes. The barbarian king was at +the same time the imperial regent in Italy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But it was only in Italy that Odovacar obtained recognition. The +last remnants of Roman authority vanished in Gaul and Spain, while +Raetia and Noricum were abandoned to the Alamanni, Thuringi and +Rugii. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Ostrogothic conquest of Italy, 488–493 A. D.</span></span> In 488 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +the position of Odovacar in Italy was challenged by Theodoric, king +of the Ostrogoths. This people after having long been subject to +the Huns, recovered their freedom at the death of Attila, and settled +in Pannonia as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span> of the eastern empire. Theodoric, who became +sole ruler of the Ostrogoths in 481 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, had proved himself a +troublesome ally of the emperor Zeno who mistrusted his ambitions. +Accordingly when Theodoric demanded an imperial commission to +attack Odovacar in Italy, Zeno readily granted him the desired authority +in order to remove him to a greater distance from Constantinople. +In 488 Theodoric set out with his followers to invade Italy. +Odovacar was defeated in two battles and, in 490 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, blockaded +in Ravenna. After a long siege he agreed to surrender upon condition +that he and Theodoric should rule jointly over Italy. Shortly +afterwards he and most of his followers were treacherously assassinated +by the Ostrogoths (493 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). Theodoric now ruled Italy as +king of the Ostrogoths and an official of the Roman empire, probably +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page362">[pg 362]</span><a name="Pg362" id="Pg362" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>retaining the title of master of the soldiers which he had held in the +East. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc273" id="toc273"></a><a name="pdf274" id="pdf274"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">VI. The Survival of the Empire in the East</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Arcadius, 395–408 A. D.</span></span> The year of the death of Theodosius +the Great saw the Asiatic provinces of the empire overrun by the +Huns who ravaged Syria and Asia Minor, while the Visigoths under +Alaric devastated the Balkan peninsula. The absence of the eastern +troops in Italy prevented the government from offering any effective +opposition to either foe. And when Stilicho came to the rescue from +Italy and was holding the Visigoths in check, his rival the praetorian +prefect Rufinus, who directed the policy of the young Arcadius, induced +the emperor to order Stilicho to withdraw and sent the troops +of the East to Constantinople. This order resulted in the death of +Rufinus, who was killed by the returning soldiery at the orders of +their commander, the Goth Gaïnas. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The influential position of Rufinus at the court fell to the grand-chamberlain +Eutropius, who had been an enemy of the late prefect. +He had induced Arcadius to marry Eudoxia, daughter of a Frankish +chief, instead of the daughter of Rufinus, as the latter had desired. +The fall of Eutropius was brought about by Gaïnas, now a master +of the soldiers, who sought to play the rôle of Stilicho in the East. +He was supported by the empress Eudoxia, who chafed under the +domination of the chamberlain. In 399 on the occasion of a revolt +of the Gothic troops in Phrygia, Gaïnas held aloof and the failure +of the nominee of Eutropius to crush the movement gave him the +opportunity to bring about the latter’s dismissal and eventually his +death. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But Gaïnas did not long retain his power. He quarrelled with +the empress, and the Arianism of himself and his followers roused +the animosity of the population of the capital. A massacre of the +Goths in Constantinople followed and with the aid of a loyal Goth +Fravitta, Gaïnas was driven north of the Danube where he was slain +by the Huns (400 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). The influence of Eudoxia was now paramount. +However, she found a critic in the eloquent bishop of Constantinople, +John Chrysostom, who inveighed against the extravagance +and dissipation of the society of the court, and directed his censures +towards the empress in particular. Ultimately, Eudoxia was able to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page363">[pg 363]</span><a name="Pg363" id="Pg363" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>have him deposed from his see in 404 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, a few months before his +death. Four years later Arcadius himself died, leaving the empire +to his eight-year-old son Theodosius II. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Theodosius II, 408–450 A. D.</span></span> At the opening of the reign of +Theodosius II the government was in the hands of the praetorian prefect +Anthemius, who had shown himself an able administrator during +the last years of Arcadius. However, in 414, the emperor’s elder +sister, Pulcheria, was made regent with the title of Augusta. She +was a strong personality and for many years completely dominated +the emperor who was lacking in independence of character and energy. +In 421 Pulcheria selected as a wife for Theodosius, Athenais, the +daughter of an Athenian sophist, who took the name of Eudocia +upon accepting Christianity. After a lapse of some years differences +arose between the empress and her sister-in-law which led to the latter’s +withdrawal from the court (after 431 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). But, about 440, +Eudocia lost her influence over the emperor; she was compelled to +retire from Constantinople and reside in Jerusalem, where she lived +until her death in 460. The reins of power then passed to the grand +chamberlain Chrysapius, whose corrupt administration rivalled that +of his predecessor Eutropius. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +During the reign of Theodosius II the peace of the eastern empire +was broken by a war with Persia and by inroads of the Huns. The +Persian war which began in 421 as a result of persecutions of the +Christians in Persia was brought to a victorious conclusion in the +next year. A second war, the result of a Persian invasion in 441, +ended with a Persian defeat in 442. But with the Huns the Romans +were not so fortunate. In 434, king Rua, the ruler of the Huns in +the plains of Hungary, had extorted from the empire the payment +of an annual tribute to secure immunity from invasion. At the accession +of Attila and his brother in 433, this tribute was raised to +700 pounds of gold and the Romans were forbidden to give shelter +to fugitives from the power of the Huns. But the payment of tribute +failed to win a permanent respite, for Attila was bent on draining the +wealth of the empire and reducing it to a condition of helplessness. +In 441–43 the Huns swarmed over the Balkan provinces and defeated +the imperial armies. An indemnity of 6000 pounds of gold was exacted +and the annual payment increased to 2100 pounds. Another +disastrous raid occurred in 447. The empire could offer no resistance, +and so Chrysapius plotted the assassination of Attila, but the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page364">[pg 364]</span><a name="Pg364" id="Pg364" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>plot was detected. Attila claimed to regard himself as the overlord +of Theodosius. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In 438 there was published the Theodosian code, a collection of +imperial edicts which constituted the administrative law of the empire, +and which was accepted in the West as well as in the East. +Theodosius died in 450, without having made any arrangements for +a successor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Marcian, 450–57 A. D.</span></span> The officials left the choice of a new +emperor to the Augusta Pulcheria. She selected Marcian, a tried +officer, to whom she gave her hand in formal marriage. Marcian +proved himself an able and conscientious ruler. He refused to continue +the indemnity to Attila, and was able to adhere to this policy +owing to the latter’s invasion of the West and subsequent death. It +was he who permitted the Ostrogoths to settle as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span> in Pannonia +(454 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Leo I, 457–474 A. D.</span></span> At the death of Marcian in 457 the imperial +authority was conferred upon Leo, an officer of Dacian origin. +His appointment was due to the Alan Aspar, one of the masters of +the soldiers, whose power in the East rivalled that of Ricimer in the +West. But Leo did not intend to be the puppet of the powerful general, +whose loyalty he eventually came to suspect. Accordingly as a +counterpoise to the Gothic mercenaries and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span>, the mainstay of +Aspar’s power, he drew into his service the Isaurians, the warlike +mountaineers of southern Anatolia, who had defied the empire under +Arcadius and Theodosius. The emperor’s eldest daughter was given +in marriage to Zeno, an Isaurian, who was made master of the soldiers +in the Orient. However, in 470 Aspar was still strong enough +to force Leo to bestow the hand of his second daughter upon his son +Leontius and to appoint the latter Caesar. But in the following year +when Zeno returned to Constantinople the Alan and his eldest sons +were treacherously assassinated in the palace. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Leo II, 473–4 A. D.</span></span> In 473 Leo took as his colleague and destined +successor his grandson, also called Leo, the son of Zeno. The +death of the elder Leo occurred early in 474, and the younger soon +crowned his father Zeno as co-emperor. When Leo II died before +the close of the same year, Zeno became sole ruler. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Zeno, 474–491 A. D.</span></span> The reign of Zeno was an almost uninterrupted +struggle against usurpers and revolting Gothic <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span>. In +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page365">[pg 365]</span><a name="Pg365" id="Pg365" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>474 occurred an outbreak of the latter led by their king Theodoric the +son of Triarius, called Strabo or <span class="tei tei-q">“the Squinter,”</span> who ruled over the +Goths settled in Thrace as a master of the soldiers of the empire. +Before this revolt was over, the unpopularity of the Isaurians induced +Basiliscus, the brother-in-law of Leo I, to plot to seize the throne for +himself. He was supported by his sister, the ex-empress Verina, and +Illus, the chief Isaurian officer in Zeno’s service. The conspirators +seized Constantinople and proclaimed Basiliscus emperor (475 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +But his heretical religious views aroused strong opposition, and he +was deserted by both Verina and Illus. Zeno re-entered the capital +and Basiliscus was executed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +During the revolt Zeno had been supported by Theoderic the Amal, +a Gothic prince who was a rival of Theoderic son of Triarius. The +emperor therefore tried to crush the latter with the help of the former, +but the two Theoderics came to an agreement and acted in concert +against Zeno (478 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). In 479 peace was made with Strabo, but +hostilities continued with the Amal. At this time another insurrection +broke out in Constantinople, under the leadership of Marcian, +a son-in-law of Leo I, as a protest against the predominance of the +Isaurians, in particular Illus. However, this revolt was easily put +down. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Theoderic son of Triarius was killed in 481, and in 483 Zeno +made peace with Theoderic the Amal, creating him patrician and +master of the soldiers, and granting him lands in Dacia and lower +Moesia. These concessions were made in consequence of the antagonism +which had developed between the emperor and his all-powerful +minister Illus. This friction culminated in 484 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> when Illus, +who was master of the soldiers in the Orient, induced the dowager +empress Verina to crown a general, named Leontius, as emperor. +But outside of Isauria the movement found little support and after +a long siege in an Isaurian fortress the leaders of the revolt were +taken and put to death (488 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). In the meantime Theoderic the +Amal had asked and received an imperial warrant for the conquest +of Italy, and with the departure of the Goths the eastern empire +was delivered from the danger of Germanic domination. Zeno died +in April, 491 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Anastasius, 491–518 A. D.</span></span> The choice of a successor was left +to the empress Ariadne, who selected as emperor and her husband an +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page366">[pg 366]</span><a name="Pg366" id="Pg366" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>experienced officer of the court, Anastasius. The first act of Anastasius +was to remove the Isaurian officials and troops from Constantinople. +This led to an Isaurian rebellion in southern Asia +Minor which was not stamped out until 498. In the struggle the +power of the Isaurians was broken, their strongholds were captured, +part of their population transported to Thrace, and they ceased to be +a menace to the peace of the empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the place of the Goths new enemies appeared on the Danubian +border in the Slavic Getae and the Bulgars who overran the depopulated +provinces of the northern Balkan peninsula. So extended were +their ravages and so utterly did the imperial troops fail to hold them +in check that Anastasius was obliged to build a wall across the peninsula, +upon which the city of Constantinople stands, for the protection +of the capital itself. Anastasius had also to cope with a serious +Persian war which began with an invasion of Roman Armenia and +Mesopotamia by King Kawad in 502 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> After four years of border +warfare, in which the Persians gained initial success but the fortune +of the Roman arms was restored by the master of the offices +Celer, peace was reëstablished on the basis of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">status quo ante</span></span><a name="corr366" id="corr366" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The civil administration of Anastasius is noteworthy for the abolition +of the tax called the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">chrysargyrum</span></span> (498 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), and his relief +of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curiales</span></span> from the responsibility for the collection of the municipal +taxes. A testimony of the increasing influences of Christian +morality was the abolition of certain pagan festivals and of combats +between gladiators and wild beasts in the circus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But in spite of the justness and efficiency of his administration +the reign of Anastasius was marked by several popular upheavals in +Constantinople, and in other cities of the empire as well. The cause +lay in his sympathy for the monophysite doctrine which was vigorously +opposed by the orthodox Christians. In 512 the appointment +of a monophysite bishop at Constantinople provoked a serious rebellion +which almost cost Anastasius his throne. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Although the emperor was able to quiet the city rabble by a display +of cool courage the prevailing religious discord encouraged Vitalian, +the commander of the Bulgarian <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span> in the Thracian army, to +raise the standard of revolt (514 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). He defeated all forces sent +against him and endangered the safety of the capital. However, he +was induced to withdraw by a ransom of 5000 pounds of gold and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page367">[pg 367]</span><a name="Pg367" id="Pg367" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>the office of master of the soldiers in Thrace. But the truce was only +temporary, and in 515 he again advanced on Constantinople. This +time his forces met with a crushing defeat on land and sea, and the +rebellion came to an end. Three years later Anastasius died. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page368">[pg 368]</span><a name="Pg368" id="Pg368" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="illus-383" id="illus-383" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/illus-383.png" alt="The Roman Empire and the Germanic Kingdoms in 526 A. D." /></div> + + </div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page369">[pg 369]</span><a name="Pg369" id="Pg369" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <a name="toc275" id="toc275"></a><a name="pdf276" id="pdf276"></a> + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER XXIV</span></h2> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">THE AGE OF JUSTINIAN: 518–565 A. D.</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc277" id="toc277"></a><a name="pdf278" id="pdf278"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. The Germanic Kingdoms in the West to 533 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Germans and the Romans.</span></span> The passing of Italy and the +western provinces under the sway of Germanic kings was accomplished, +as we have seen, by the settlement of large numbers of barbarians +in the conquered territories. This necessitated a division of +the soil and a definition of the status of the Romans with respect to +the invaders, who were everywhere less numerous than the native +population. These questions were settled in different ways in the +several kingdoms. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Under the Visigoths.</span></span> In the Visigothic kingdom in Gaul the +Goths and the Romans lived side by side as separate peoples, each +enjoying its own laws, and the Romans were not regarded as subjects +having no rights against their conquerors. However, intermarriage +between the two races was forbidden. The law which applied +to the Romans was published by King Alaric in 506 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, and +is known as the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex Romana Visigothorum</span></span>, or the Breviary of +Alaric; his predecessor Euric had caused the compilation of a code +of the Gothic customary law in imitation of the imperial Theodosian +code. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The settlement of the Goths on the land took the form of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">hospitium</span></span> +or quartering. By this arrangement the Roman landholders gave up +to the Goths two thirds of their property, both the land itself and the +cattle, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> and slaves which were on it. The shares which the +Goths received were not subject to taxation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +For the purposes of administration the Roman provincial and municipal +divisions were retained (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">provinciae</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">civitates</span></span>), the former +being placed under <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">duces</span></span> and the latter under <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comites civitatum</span></span>. +The Goths settled within these districts formed their national associations +of tens, hundreds, and thousands, under native Gothic officers. +But the adoption of a more settled form of life deeply affected +the Gothic tribal institutions. The Gothic national assembly could +no longer be easily called together and came to exist in the form of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page370">[pg 370]</span><a name="Pg370" id="Pg370" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>the army alone. In the division of the land the more influential +warriors and friends of the king received the larger shares and this +helped the rise of a landed nobility. The government was concentrated +at the capital, Toulouse, where central ministries were established +modelled on those of the Roman court. This led to a considerable +strengthening of the royal power. The language of government +remained Gothic for the Goths and Latin for the Romans, +but the leading Goths appear to have been familiar with both tongues. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Under the Vandals.</span></span> In the Vandal kingdom of Africa the position +of the Romans was much less favorable. They were treated as +conquered subjects, and, as under the Goths, intermarriage between +them and the conquering race was prohibited. In the province of +Zeugitana (old Africa), where the Vandal settlement occurred, the +Roman landowners were completely dispossessed and their estates +turned over to new proprietors. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coloni</span></span> and other tenants, however, +remained on the soil, and the Vandal landlords entrusted the +management of their properties to Roman stewards. Elsewhere the +Romans were undisturbed in their possessions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Roman administrative territorial divisions were retained, but +the regions settled by the Vandals stood outside of these and had a +separate organization. Here the Vandals preserved their tribal divisions +of hundreds and thousands. The administration of justice +for the Vandals was in the hands of their own officials and according +to their customary laws; for the Romans it rested with their previous +authorities in accordance with Roman law but under the supervision +of the Vandal king. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Vandal kingdom was a strongly centralized monarchy. This +led to the development of a nobility based on employment in the imperial +service. The African climate and the sudden acquirement of +wealth which enabled them to enjoy all the luxurious extravagance of +Roman life in the upper classes of society soon produced an enervating +effect upon the northern conquerors. On the other hand, although +they were completely lacking in political rights, the Roman +agricultural population of Africa felt the rule of the Vandals to be +less oppressive than that of the Roman bureaucracy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Under the Ostrogoths.</span></span> In Italy, Odovacar had maintained the +Roman administrative system in its entirety and Theoderic continued +his policy. He made no attempt to found a new state but regarded +himself as one of the rulers of the Roman empire. In 497 he asked +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page371">[pg 371]</span><a name="Pg371" id="Pg371" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>and received from Anastasius the symbols of imperial power which +Odovacar had sent to Constantinople upon the deposition of Romulus +Augustulus in 476. From this time the Gothic king may be regarded +as a colleague of the eastern emperor. Not merely did he +retain the Roman administrative organization but all his civil officials +were Romans. He published an edict which constituted a code of +law applicable to Goths and Romans alike. So thoroughly Roman +was Theoderic’s administration that even the army was open to +Romans, who are found among his prominent generals. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Ostrogoths received assignments of land in Italy but it seems +probable that there was no confiscation of private property, one third +of the state lands being allotted for this purpose. Ravenna was the +royal residence and center of government, but the Roman Senate exercised +a great deal of influence and until the later years of his reign +cordially supported the authority of Theoderic. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Burgundians and the Franks.</span></span> The Burgundians in the +Rhone valley effected their settlement like the Visigoths according to +the system of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">hospitium</span></span>. In general their relations with the Roman +population were peaceful, intermarriage between the two peoples was +sanctioned, and the Burgundian kings showed themselves appreciative +of Roman culture. Gundobad, who reigned from 473 to 516, issued +both a code of Burgundian laws and the Burgundian Roman Law +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex Romana Burgundionum</span></span>) which applied to his Roman subjects +and also to the Burgundians in their disputes with Romans. The +Franks in the course of their advance to the Seine had annihilated +the Roman population of northern Gaul. However, in the region between +the Seine and the Loire they left the Romans in undisturbed +possession of their property, the Frankish kings making no distinction +between their Frank and Roman subjects. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The religious question.</span></span> In addition to racial differences, there +was also a religious line of demarcation between the Goths, Vandals +and Burgundians on the one hand, and the Roman population on the +other. The Goths and neighboring Germanic peoples had been converted +to Christianity in the latter half of the fourth century, largely +through the missionary activities of Ulfila, who translated the Bible +into Gothic. However, they had been won to the Arian and not the +Nicaean creed, and consequently were regarded as heretics by the +orthodox Romans, who never became reconciled to rulers of another +confession than themselves. This hostility led frequently to +govern<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page372">[pg 372]</span><a name="Pg372" id="Pg372" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>ment intervention and persecution. But in this respect the policy of +the several Germanic kingdoms varied under different rulers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In general the Visigoths pursued a policy of toleration, leaving the +orthodox clergy undisturbed except when the latter were guilty of disloyalty +in giving support to outside enemies. At the time of their +settlement in Zeugitana the Vandals confiscated the property of the +orthodox church in that province and turned it over to their own +Arian clergy. Elsewhere in Africa the Catholics remained unmolested +during the reign of Gaiseric but were persecuted by his successors. +In the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy Theoderic, although an +Arian, gave complete freedom to the orthodox church throughout the +greater part of his rule. However, his policy changed when the eastern +emperor, Justin, began to persecute the Arians within his dominions +in 523 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> The ban upon Arianism found support among +the Romans in Italy, particularly among the orthodox clergy and the +senators. This caused Theoderic to suspect that the emperor’s action +had been stimulated by a faction in the Roman Senate, and led to the +execution of Boethius and other notables on the charge of treason. +Realizing the effect that the imperial proscription of Arianism would +produce upon the relations of his Roman and Gothic subjects, Theoderic +sent a delegation, headed by the bishop of Rome, to Constantinople +to secure the annulment of the anti-Arian decree. When he +failed to attain this, he resolved upon a general persecution of the +Catholics which was forestalled, however, by his death in 526 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Burgundians were also Arians, and this prevented their winning +the loyal support of the orthodox clergy, who, however, recognized +the authority of the Burgundian kings. Although Sigismund, +the son of Gundobad, who came to the throne in 516, was converted +to orthodoxy, it was too late to heal this religious breach before the +fall of the Burgundian power. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Unlike their neighbors, the Visigoths and Burgundians, the Franks +were pagans when they established themselves upon Roman territory +and remained so until toward the close of the fifth century. In 496 +the Frankish king Clovis was converted to Christianity, and to the +orthodox, not the Arian, belief, a fact of supreme importance in his +relations with the other Germanic peoples in Gaul. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The expansion of the Franks.</span></span> The foreign policy of Theoderic +was directed towards strengthening his position in Italy by establishing +friendly relations with the western Germanic kingdoms and +main<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page373">[pg 373]</span><a name="Pg373" id="Pg373" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>taining peace and a balance of power among them. To this end he +contracted a series of family alliances with the rulers of these states. +In 492 he himself wedded a sister of Clovis the Frank, and gave his +own sister in marriage to the Vandal king Thrasamund. One of his +daughters became the wife of Sigismund, king of the Burgundians, +and another was married to Alaric II, who succeeded Euric as king of +the Visigoths. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +However, Theoderic’s scheme was rudely disturbed by the ambitions +of Clovis. In 496 the latter conquered the Alamanni. He next +forced the Burgundians to acknowledge his overlordship, and with +these as his allies in 507 he attacked the Visigothic kingdom. The +conquests of Euric in Gaul and Spain had overtaxed the strength of +the Visigothic people and weakened their hold upon the territory they +occupied. Furthermore, their Roman subjects gave active aid to the +orthodox Clovis. In a battle near Poitiers the Visigoths were defeated +and their king, Alaric II, slain. Theoderic had been hindered +from intervening previously by the outbreak of hostilities between +himself and the emperor Anastasius, who gave his sanction to the +action of Clovis and sent him the insignia of the consulship. Now, +however, the Ostrogothic king came to the aid of the Visigoths. He +repulsed the Franks and Burgundians before Arles (508 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). and +recovered Narbonese Gaul. However, the greater part of Aquitania +remained in the hands of the Franks. Theoderic established his +grandson Amalaric as king of the Visigoths and exercised a regency +in his name (510 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). Clovis died in 511 and the expansion of +the Franks ceased for a time. However, the death of Theoderic in +526 was the signal for fresh disturbances. The Visigothic king +Amalaric at once asserted his independence in southern Gaul and in +Spain. But not long afterwards, in 531, he fell in battle against the +Franks, who seized the remaining Visigothic possessions in Gaul except +Septimania—the coast district between the Pyrenees and the +Rhone. Three years later they overthrew the kingdom of the Burgundians +and so brought under their sway the whole of Gaul outside +of Septimania and Provence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In 533 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> the situation in the west was as follows. Gaul was +mainly in the hands of the Franks, Spain was under the Visigoths, +the Vandals were still established in Africa, and the Ostrogoths in +Italy. Both of the latter kingdoms, however, were showing signs of +internal weakness. In addition to the hostility between the Germanic +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page374">[pg 374]</span><a name="Pg374" id="Pg374" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>conquerors and the subject Roman population, factional strife had +broken out over the succession to the throne. Evidence of the declining +power of the Vandals in particular was the success of the +Moorish tribes in winning their independence. By 525 both Mauretania +and Numidia had been abandoned to them, and the tribes of +Tripolis had shaken off the Vandal yoke. In 530 the Moors of +southern Byzacene inflicted a severe defeat on the Vandals, which led +to the deposition of the ruling king. The weakness of these states +seemed to offer a favorable opportunity for the reëstablishment of +the imperial authority in the West. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<a name="toc279" id="toc279"></a><a name="pdf280" id="pdf280"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The Restoration of the Imperial Power in the West: +553–554 a. d.</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Justin I, 518–527 A. D.</span></span> Anastasius died in 518 and was succeeded +by Justin, an Illyrian of humble origin who had risen to the +important post of commander of the imperial body guard (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comes +excubitorum</span></span>). Unlike his predecessor Justin was an adherent of the +orthodox faith, and at the opening of his reign an exceedingly influential +position was held by the general Vitalian, who had been the +champion of orthodoxy against Anastasius. He became master of +the soldiers at Constantinople and in 520 was honored with the consulship. +But his power and unscrupulous ambitions constituted a +real menace to the emperor and induced the latter to procure his +murder. Justin ruled for nine years. He was an experienced soldier, +but illiterate, and personally unequal to the task of imperial +government. The guiding spirit of his administration was his +nephew Justinian, who was largely responsible for Vitalian’s removal. +In fact the reign of Justin served as a brief introduction to +the long rule of Justinian himself, whom his uncle crowned as his +colleague in 527 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, and who became sole emperor at the latter’s +death in the same year. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Justinian’s imperial policy.</span></span> Justinian was by birth a Latin +peasant from near Scupi (modern Uskub) in Upper Moesia, but +through his uncle he had been able to enjoy all the educational advantages +offered by the schools of Constantinople. In public life he +showed himself a laborious and careful administrator, of an extremely +autocratic, and yet at the same time somewhat vacillating, character. +He was a devout Christian, zealous for the propagation of the +ortho<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page375">[pg 375]</span><a name="Pg375" id="Pg375" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>dox faith, with a strong liking for, and considerable learning in, +questions of dogmatic theology. He regarded religious and secular +affairs as equally subject to the imperial will, and in each sphere he +exercised absolute authority. In him the ideal of autocracy found +its most perfect embodiment. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The goal of Justinian’s imperial policy was the recovery of the +lands of the western empire from their Germanic rulers and the reëstablishment +of imperial unity in the person of the eastern emperor. +The attainment of unity of belief throughout the Christian world he +regarded as no less important than that of political unity: one empire, +one church, was his motto. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Reconciliation with the western Church: 519 A. D.</span></span> The way +was paved for the reconquest of the Roman West by a reconciliation +with the Roman bishop Hormisdas, as a result of which orthodoxy +was once more formally received at Constantinople and a persecution +of the monophysites and other heretics inaugurated in the eastern +empire (519 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). Although this union with Rome was brought +about while the influence of Vitalian was predominant, it had the +cordial support of Justinian, who recognized that the good will of the +clergy and the Roman population of the western provinces would in +this way be won for the eastern emperor. Such proved to be the +case, and the subsequent wars for the recovery of the West assumed +the aspect of crusades for the deliverance of the followers of the +orthodox church from Arian domination. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Outbreak of the Vandal war, 533 A. D.</span></span> The deposition of +Hilderic, who had been on friendly terms with the eastern empire, +and the accession of Gelimer who reverted to an anti-Roman policy, +afforded Justinian a pretext for intervention in the Vandal kingdom. +In conformity with his policy of treating the Germanic kings as vassal +princes of the empire, he demanded the reinstatement of Hilderic, +and when this was refused, he prepared to invade Africa. An expeditionary +force of ten thousand foot and five thousand horse, accompanied +by a powerful fleet, was placed under the command of the +able general Belisarius and despatched from Constantinople in 533 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> An alliance concluded with the Ostrogoths forestalled the possibility +of their coming to the aid of the Vandals. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The military condition of the empire.</span></span> The imperial armies +of the sixth century were entirely composed of mercenary troops. +While the voluntary enlistment of barbarians had been a regular +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page376">[pg 376]</span><a name="Pg376" id="Pg376" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>method of recruitment from the time of Diocletian, such troops were +at first enrolled directly in the imperial service. But by the opening +of the sixth century it had become customary for private individuals, +as a rule officers of repute, to enlist troops in their personal service. +Such troops were known as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">bucellarii</span></span>, from the word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">bucella</span></span>, signifying +soldiers’ bread. These <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">bucellarii</span></span> were usually taken into the +service of the state along with their leaders, and were then maintained +at the public expense. It was with mercenaries of this type that the +ranks of Justinian’s armies were largely filled. For the most part +they were veteran troops and good fighters, but with all the weaknesses +of their class. They were greedy of plunder, impatient of +discipline, and both officers and men displayed a conspicuous lack +of loyalty. The most effective troops were the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cataphracti</span></span>, mailed +horsemen armed with bow, lance and sword. Beside them the infantry +played only a subordinate rôle. The fact that the government was +obliged to rely upon <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">condottieri</span></span> for its own maintenance reveals the +internal decay of the whole imperial system, and the smallness of the +forces which it could put into the field shows the weakness of its +resources compared with the aims of Justinian and explains the +protracted character of the wars of the period. In fact, the emperor +was on the point of abandoning the invasion of Africa for financial +reasons, when the prophecy of an eastern bishop induced him to +persevere. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The reconquest of Africa, 533–4 A. D.</span></span> The landing of Belisarius +in Africa (September, 533) completely surprised the Vandals. +Gailimer was defeated in battle and Belisarius occupied Carthage. +A second defeat before the close of the year sealed the fate of the +Vandal kingdom. Early in 534 Gailimer surrendered and all resistance +came to an end. The Vandal insular possessions—Sardinia, +Corsica and the Balearic Islands—fell to the Romans without +further opposition. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Revolts of the Moors.</span></span> However, the Moors, who had managed +to assert their independence against the Vandals, were not disposed +to pass under the Roman yoke without a struggle. A revolt which +broke out in 535 was not finally crushed until 539; and another, +which was complicated by a mutiny of the imperial troops, raged +between 546 and 548. In the end, the Roman authority was reëstablished +over all the African provinces except Mauretania Caesariensis +and <a name="corr376" id="corr376" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Tingitana</span>. The previous system of civil administration was +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page377">[pg 377]</span><a name="Pg377" id="Pg377" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>revived and elaborate measures taken to secure the defence of the +frontiers. However, the ravages of the Moors and the war of restoration +had played sad havoc with economic conditions in Africa, and +in spite of government assistance, its former prosperity was never +revived. Still, Africa had been recovered for the empire and was +destined to remain a part of it until the Saracen invasion nearly a +century and a half later. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The recovery of Italy, first phase, 535–540 A. D.</span></span> The overthrow +of the Vandal kingdom had scarcely been accomplished when +events in Italy gave Justinian the desired pretext for the invasion +of the peninsula. Upon the death of King Athalaric, Theoderic’s +grandson and successor, in 534, his mother, the regent Amalasuntha, +had married Theodahad, whom she made her consort. Shortly afterwards, +however, he caused her to be imprisoned and, when she appealed +to Justinian for aid, put her to death. As the avenger of his +former ally, Justinian made war upon the Gothic king. The possession +of Africa gave the Romans an excellent base of operations +against Italy. In 535 Belisarius invaded Sicily with 7500 men +and speedily reduced the whole island, while another Roman army +marched on Dalmatia. From Sicily Belisarius crossed into South +Italy, where he found little resistance. The inactivity of Theodahad +produced a revolt among his own people. He was deposed, and +Witiges became king in his place. The new king was able to purchase +the neutrality of the Franks, who were in alliance with Justinian, +by ceding to them the Ostrogothic possessions in South Gaul. However, +Belisarius continued his advance and occupied Rome (December, +536 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). There he was besieged for a year (March, 537 to +March, 538) by the Goths, who were in the end forced to abandon +the blockade and fall back upon North Italy. At the same time, +the eunuch Narses arrived in Italy at the head of a new Roman +army. But since his presence was largely due to Justinian’s mistrust +of Belisarius, he failed to coöperate with the latter and accomplished +nothing before his recall in 539. The last episode of the +campaign was the siege of Ravenna (539–540 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), which was +defended by the Gothic king. With its fall and his capture in 540, +the resistance of the Goths came to an end. Italy was declared a +Roman province, the civil administration was reëstablished, and +Belisarius was recalled to assume the command against Persia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Second phase, 541–554 A. D.</span></span> But the withdrawal of Belisarius +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page378">[pg 378]</span><a name="Pg378" id="Pg378" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>and his best troops led to a revolt of the Goths under the leadership +of the brave and energetic Totila (or Baduila) in 541. Within the +next three years he drove the Roman garrisons from the greater part +of Italy, including Rome. Belisarius was despatched against him, +but was given inadequate support and accomplished nothing except +the recovery of Rome, which he held until he was recalled at his own +request in 548. The drain of a fresh Persian war upon the resources +of the empire forced Justinian to the temporary abandonment of +Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Italy, apart from Ravenna and a few +other fortresses. At last in 552 he was able to resume the struggle +and entrusted the conduct of the war to Narses, whose ability as a +commander was superior to that of Belisarius himself. The army +of Narses numbered over 30,000, and consisted chiefly of barbarian +auxiliaries, in particular Lombards, who had been settled as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span> +in Noricum since 547. Narses marched upon Italy by way of +Illyricum and reached the Roman base at Ravenna. Thence he +advanced towards Rome and met and defeated the Goths in a decisive +engagement in Umbria (552 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). Totila fell in the battle. A +second victory in Campania in the following spring forced the surviving +Goths to come to terms. They were allowed to leave Italy +and seek a new home beyond the Roman borders. A fresh enemy +then appeared in the Franks, who had been nominal allies of the +Goths but had rendered them little assistance. A horde of Alamanni +and Franks swept down upon Italy and penetrated deep into the +peninsula. But Narses annihilated one of their divisions at Capua +(554 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), and the remainder were decimated by disease and forced +to withdraw. The Roman sway was firmly established over Italy as +far as the Alps; but Raetia, Noricum and the Danubian provinces +remained lost to the empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The long and bitter wars of restoration had wrought frightful +damage to the material welfare of Italy, and the heavy financial burdens +imposed by the Roman administrative system aroused bitter +protests. The measures of relief attempted proved insufficient, the +middle class disappeared, the richer landed proprietors left the peninsula, +and, as in Africa, the former prosperity was never recalled. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The attempted recovery of Spain, 554 A. D.</span></span> Following the +conclusion of hostilities in Italy, Justinian seized the opportunity +which presented itself for intervention in Spain. He sent an army +to the support of the rebel Agila against Athanagild, the king of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page379">[pg 379]</span><a name="Pg379" id="Pg379" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Visigoths (554 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). The Roman forces occupied Corduba, Carthagena +and other coast towns, but on the death of Athanagild, Agila +succeeded to his throne and headed the Visigothic opposition to the +Romans, who were unable to advance further. However, they retained +what they had already conquered. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Extent of the Roman conquests.</span></span> Justinian’s policy had resulted +in the overthrow of the Vandal and Ostrogothic kingdoms, and in +the recovery for the empire of Africa, Italy, the Mediterranean islands, +and a strip of the Spanish coast. More, the empire was too weak to +accomplish. +</p> + </div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc281" id="toc281"></a><a name="pdf282" id="pdf282"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. Justinian’s Frontier Problems and Internal Administration</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Barbarian invasions of the Balkan peninsula.</span></span> The strain +which the policy of expansion in the West imposed upon the strength +of the empire is clearly seen in the failure to defend the Danubian +frontier and the ineffective conduct of the Persian wars. Time after +time hordes of Bulgars and Slavs poured into the Balkans. Especially +destructive were the inroads of 540 and 559. In the former +the invaders penetrated as far as the Isthmus of Corinth; in the +latter they threatened the capital itself, but were driven off by the +aged Belisarius. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Persian wars.</span></span> In 527, the Persian king Kawad declared +war upon the empire. The struggle was indecisive, and, at the death +of Kawad in 532, Justinian, who wished to be free at any price to +pursue his western policy, was able to conclude peace with his successor, +Chosroes I, upon condition of paying an annual indemnity. +But the successes of Justinian in the West aroused the jealousy and +ambitions of Chosroes in 539. The Persians overran Syria and +captured Antioch, carrying off its population into captivity (540). +However, they failed to take Edessa (544). In Mesopotamia an +armistice was concluded in 545, although war continued between +the Arab dependents of both states, and in the district of Lazica +(ancient Colchis), a Roman protectorate which transferred its allegiance +to Persia. Finally, a fifty years’ peace was concluded in 562 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> The Roman suzerainty over Lazica was acknowledged by the +Persians, but the Romans obligated themselves to pay the Persians a +heavy annual subsidy, in return for which the Persians undertook the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page381">[pg 381]</span><a name="Pg381" id="Pg381" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>defence of the Caucasus. In this way the Persians became technically +Roman <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span>; however, as in the case of the Visigoths in the +fourth century, this was equivalent to a confession that the Romans +were unable to subdue their enemy, who looked upon the subsidy +as tribute. +</p> + <a name="illus-395" id="illus-395" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/illus-395.png" alt="The Roman Empire in 565 A. D." /></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The empress Theodora.</span></span> In 523 Justinian married Theodora, a +former professional pantomime actress from the purlieus of the Hippodrome, +after he had induced his uncle to cancel the law which forbade +the marriage of senators and actresses. And when Justinian +became emperor in 527, Theodora was crowned with him as Augusta. +From that time until her death in 553 she was in a very real sense +joint ruler with her husband. Whatever the character of her previous +career, her private life as empress was beyond reproach. She was +fond of power, jealous of the influence of others with the emperor, +and unforgiving towards those who thwarted her purposes; both +Belisarius and John of Cappadocia, the powerful praetorian prefect, +were driven from the emperor’s service by her enmity. On the other +hand, she was a woman of dauntless courage, and possessed of remarkable +foresight in political affairs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-weight: 700">“</span><span style="font-weight: 700">Nika</span><span style="font-weight: 700">”</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700"> riot, 532 A. D.</span></span> The courage of the empress was +conspicuously displayed on the occasion of the great riot of the factions +of the Hippodrome—the Greens and the Blues—in 532 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> +These factions had been organized in Constantinople in imitation of +the circus factions of Rome, but had acquired a different character +and a greater importance in the new capital. The two factions +divided between them the entire urban population, and had their +regularly appointed leaders, who enjoyed a recognized place in the +administrative organization of the city. These parties may be regarded +as the last survival of the Hellenic popular assembly of the +city-state, and owing to the extreme centralization of the administration +at Constantinople, they were able to exercise considerable pressure +upon the government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The emperor and the court regularly supported one or other of +the parties. Anastasius had favored the Greens, but Justinian was +a partizan of the Blues. The rivalry of the factions was intense, +and culminated, in the early years of Justinian’s reign, in open warfare, +which gave the lower elements the opportunity for the perpetration +of crimes of all sorts. The punishment of notorious criminals +of both factions in 532 led to their uniting in a revolt which nearly +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page382">[pg 382]</span><a name="Pg382" id="Pg382" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>cost the emperor his throne. At first the mob demanded the release +of their partizans, and the dismissal of John, the praetorian prefect, +whose financial policy was extremely oppressive, of Trebonian, the +able but unscrupulous quaestor, and of the prefect of the city. Later, +emboldened by their success, they crowned as emperor Hypatius, a +nephew of Anastasius. The situation became extremely critical, for, +with the exception of the palace, the whole city fell into the hands +of the rebels, whose battle cry was <span class="tei tei-q">“Nika”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“Conquer.”</span> Justinian +and his councillors had already resolved upon flight, when Theodora, +by a spirited speech in which she declared that she would die before +abandoning the capital, reanimated their hearts and induced them +to alter their decision. By a judicious use of bribes they induced +the Blues to desert the Greens, and the imperial troops exacted a +bloody vengeance from the rebellious populace. For the future the +population of the capital was politically a negligible quantity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The codification of the Roman law.</span></span> One of the greatest monuments +to the reign of Justinian is the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">corpus iuris civilis</span></span>, a codification +of the Roman law by a commission of expert jurists, headed by +Trebonian. The object of this codification was the collection in a +convenient form of all the sources of law then in force, and the +settlement of controversies in the interpretative juristic literature. +The compilation was divided into three parts; the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Code of Justinian</span></span>, +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Digest</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pandects</span></span>, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Institutes</span></span>. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Code</span></span> was a collection +of all imperial constitutions of general validity; it was first published +in 529, but a revised edition was issued in 534. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Digest</span></span>, +which was issued in 533, consisted of abstracts from the writings of +the most famous Roman jurists systematically arranged so as to +present the whole civil law in so far as it was not contained in the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Code</span></span>. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Institutes</span></span> was a brief manual designed as a text-book +for the use of students of the law. From the time of their promulgation +these compilations constituted the sole law of the empire and +alone carried validity in the courts and formed the only material +for instruction in the law schools of recognized status—those at +Rome, Constantinople and Berytus. Provision was made for the +publication of future legislation in a fourth compilation—the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Novels</span></span> +or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">New Constitutions</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">St. Sophia.</span></span> Justinian’s administration was characterized by great +building activity. He was zealous in the construction of frontier +defences, the rebuilding of ruined cities, the founding of new ones, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page383">[pg 383]</span><a name="Pg383" id="Pg383" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>and the erection of religious edifices. Among the latter the most +famous was the great church of the Holy Wisdom (St. Sophia), +which took the place of an older building destroyed in the Nika riot. +Transformed into a Mohammedan mosque, it remains to the present +day as the greatest architectural monument of the eastern Roman +empire. The execution of grandiose works of this sort augmented +the heavy expenditures necessitated by Justinian’s foreign policy, +and required the continual wringing of fresh contributions from the +already overburdened taxpayers. In raising the revenues needed to +meet the demands upon the fiscus, the emperor found the prefect John +an invaluable agent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Justinian’s religious policy.</span></span> Throughout the whole of his reign +Justinian strove with unflagging zeal to secure a united Christian +church within the empire. To this end he did not hesitate to make +use of the autocratic power which he claimed in religious as well as +secular affairs and which was formally admitted by the synod of 536, +which declared that <span class="tei tei-q">“Nothing whatsoever may occur in the church +contrary to the wishes and orders of the emperor.”</span> His own views +Justinian set forth in extensive writings on dogmatic questions. The +reconciliation with Rome in 519, so necessary for the recovery of +the West, had alienated the Monophysites, who were predominant +in Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia, especially among the lower classes +of society. For the rest of his reign Justinian strove indefatigably +to heal this breach, a policy in which he was largely influenced by +Theodora, who was personally sympathetic with the Monophysites +and saw the danger to the empire in the continued hostility of the +eastern peoples. An ecumenical council summoned by him at Constantinople +in 553 accepted a formula of belief upon which he hoped +both orthodox and monophysites could unite. The Pope Vergilius was +forced to submit to Justinian’s will, but the clergy of Italy and Africa +regarded the new doctrine as heretical, and some openly condemned it. +Nor was the desired end attained, for the Monophysites still refused +to be conciliated. A final edict, issued in 565, went still further in +its recognition of the tenets of this sect, but the emperor’s death forestalled +its enforcement and saved the orthodox clergy from the alternative +of submission or persecution. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A far harsher treatment was meted out to the Arians, who were +treated as hereticals and punished as criminals. A rebellion of the +Samaritans, occasioned by their persecution, was stamped out in blood. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page384">[pg 384]</span><a name="Pg384" id="Pg384" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>A determined effort was made to eradicate the last remains of the old +Hellenic faith which still claimed many adherents of note. In 529 +the endowment of Plato’s Academy was confiscated and the teaching +of philosophy forbidden at Athens. The persecution of heretics and +unbelievers was accompanied by a vigorous missionary movement +which carried the Christian gospel to the peoples of southern Russia, +the Caucasus, Arabia, the Soudan and the oases of the Sahara. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The </span><a name="corr384" id="corr384" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-weight: 700">condition</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700"> of the empire at the death of Justinian.</span></span> Justinian +died on 14 November, 565 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> He left the empire completely +exhausted by the conquest of the western provinces. The national +antagonism between Greeks and Romans which was coming more +and more clearly to light was not effectively bridged by a formal +church union, and a mistaken religious policy had fostered the growth +of national ambitions among the native populations of Syria and +Egypt and led to further disunion with the empire. Under Justinian +the annual consulship, for a thousand years identified with the life +of the Roman state, was abolished (540 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). In the government +of the provinces Justinian took the initial steps towards abandoning +the principle of the division of civil and military authority, which +was so marked a feature of Diocletian’s organization, and thus prepared +the way for the later form of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">themes</span></span>, or military districts, in +which the military commanders were at the head of the civil government +as well. It was in his reign also that the culture of the silkworm +was introduced into the empire by Persian monks, who had +lived in China, learned the jealously guarded secrets of this art, and +brought some eggs of the silkworm out of the country concealed in +hollow canes. The manufacture of silk goods had long been a flourishing +industry in certain cities of the Greek East and was made an +imperial monopoly by Justinian. The introduction of the silkworm +rendered this trade to a large degree independent of the importation +of raw silk from the Orient. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As Justinian was the last emperor whose native tongue was Latin, +so he was the last who maintained that language as the language of +government at Constantinople and upheld the traditions of the Roman +imperial policy. +</p> + + </div></div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page385">[pg 385]</span><a name="Pg385" id="Pg385" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <a name="toc283" id="toc283"></a><a name="pdf284" id="pdf284"></a> + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">CHAPTER XXV</span></h2> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">RELIGIOUS AND INTELLECTUAL LIFE IN THE LATE + EMPIRE</span></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc285" id="toc285"></a><a name="pdf286" id="pdf286"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">I. The End of Paganism</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The paganism of the late empire.</span></span> In spite of the tremendous +impulse given to the spread of Christianity by Constantine’s policy +of toleration and by its adoption as the religion of the imperial house, +the extinction of paganism was by no means rapid. While the chief +pagan religions during the fourth century were the Oriental cults and +the Orphic mysteries of Eleusis, which strongly resembled them in +character, the worship of the Graeco-Roman Olympic divinities still +attracted numerous followers. But, although paganism persisted in +many and divers forms, these, by a process of religious syncretism, +had come to find their place in a common theological system. This +development had its basis in the common characteristics of the Oriental +cults, each of which inculcated the belief in a supreme deity, and +received its stimulus through the conscious opposition of all forms +of paganism to Christianity, which they had come to recognize as +their common, implacable foe. The chief characteristic of later paganism +was its tendency to monotheism—a belief in one abstract +divinity of whom the various gods were but so many separate manifestations. +The development of a harmonious system of pagan theology +was greatly aided by Neoplatonic philosophy, which may be +regarded as the ultimate expression of ancient paganism. Neoplatonism +was essentially a pantheism, in which all forms of life were +regarded as emanations of the divine mind. But Neoplatonism was +more than a philosophical system; it was a religion, and, like the +Oriental cults, preached a doctrine of salvation for the souls of men. +Such was the paganism by which the Christians of the late empire +were confronted, and which, because of its many points of resemblance +to their own beliefs and practices, they admitted to be a dangerous +rival. At the same time, this similarity made the task of conversion +less difficult. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page386">[pg 386]</span><a name="Pg386" id="Pg386" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Causes of the persistence of paganism.</span></span> There were several reasons +for the persistence of paganism. The Oriental and Orphic cults +exercised a powerful hold over their votaries, and made an appeal +very similar to that of Christianity. Stoicism, with its high ideal of +conduct, remained a strong tradition among the upper classes of +society; and Neoplatonism had a special attraction for men of intelligence +and culture. Roman patriotism, too, fostered loyalty to the +gods under whose aegis Rome had grown great, and until the close +of the fourth century the Roman Senate was an indefatigable champion +of the ancient faith. But more potent than all these causes was +the fact that, apart from some works of a theological character, the +whole literature of the day was pagan in origin and in spirit. This +was the only material available for instruction in the schools, and +formed the basis of the rhetorical studies which constituted the higher +education of the time. Thus, throughout the whole period of their +intellectual training, the minds of the young were subjected to pagan +influences. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The persecution of paganism.</span></span> Constantine the Great adhered +strictly to his policy of religious toleration and, although an active +supporter of Christianity, took no measures against the pagan cults +except to forbid the private sacrifices and practice of certain types of +magical rites. He held the title of pontifex maximus and consequently +was at the head of the official pagan worship. With his +sons, Constantius and Constans, the Christian persecution of the +pagan began. In 341 they prohibited public performance of pagan +sacrifices, and they permitted the confiscation of temples and their +conversion into Christian places of worship. With the accession of +Julian this persecution came to an end, and there was in the main +a return to the policy of religious toleration, although Christians were +prohibited from interpreting classical literature in the schools. The +attempt of Julian to create a universal pagan church proved abortive +and his scheme did not survive his death. His successors, Jovian, +Valentinian I and Valens, adhered to the policy of Constantine the +Great. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Gratian was the first emperor to refuse the title of pontifex maximus, +and to deprive paganism of its status as an official religion of +Rome. In 382 he withdrew the state support of the priesthoods of +Rome, and removed from the Senate house the altar and statue of +Victory, which Julian had restored after its temporary removal by +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page387">[pg 387]</span><a name="Pg387" id="Pg387" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Constantius. This altar was for many of the senators the symbol of +the life of the state itself, and their spokesman Symmachus made an +eloquent plea for its restoration. However, owing to the influence of +Ambrose, the bishop of Milan, the emperor remained obdurate, and +a second appeal to Valentinian II was equally in vain. Although +the brief reign of Eugenius produced a pagan revival in Rome, the +cause of paganism was lost forever in the imperial city. In the +fifth century the Senate of Rome was thoroughly Christian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Theodosius the Great was even more energetic than his colleague +Gratian in the suppression of paganism. In 380 he issued an edict +requiring all his subjects to embrace <a name="corr387" id="corr387" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Christianity</span>. In 391 he ordered +the destruction of the great temple of Serapis at Alexandria, an event +which sounded the death knell of the pagan cause in the East. The +following year Theodosius absolutely forbade the practice of heathen +worship under the penalties for treason and sacrilege. Theodosius II +continued the vigorous persecution of the heathen. Adherence to +pagan beliefs constituted a crime, and in the Theodosian Code of 438 +the laws against pagans find their place among the laws regulating +civic life. It was during the reign of Theodosius II, in 415, that the +pagan philosopher and mathematician, Hypatia, fell a victim to the +fanaticism of the Christian mob of Alexandria. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Still, many persons of prominence continued to be secret devotees +of pagan beliefs, and pagan philosophy was openly taught at Athens +until the closing of the schools by Justinian. The acceptance of +Christianity was more rapid in the cities than in the rural districts. +This gave rise to the use of the term pagan (from the Latin <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">paganus</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-q">“rural”</span>) to designate non-Christian; a usage which became official +about 370. And it was among the rural population that pagan beliefs +and practices persisted longest. However, between the fifth and the +ninth centuries paganism practically disappeared within the lands +of the empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The long association with paganism and the rapid incorporation +of large numbers of new converts into the ranks of the church were +not without influence upon the character of Christianity itself. The +ancient belief in magic contributed largely to the spread of the belief +in miracles, and the development of the cult of the saints was stimulated +by the pagan conception of inferior divinities, demigods, and +daemons, while many pagan festivals were Christianized and made +festivals of the church. +</p> + +</div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page388">[pg 388]</span><a name="Pg388" id="Pg388" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <a name="toc287" id="toc287"></a><a name="pdf288" id="pdf288"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">II. The Church in the Christian Empire</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The emperor and the church.</span></span> The religious policy of Constantine +the Great had the effect of making Christianity a religion of +state and incorporating the Christian church in the state organism. +Thereby the clergy gained the support of the imperial authority in +spreading the belief of the church and in enforcing its ordinances +throughout the empire. Yet this support was won at the price of +the recognition of the autocratic power of the emperor over the church +as well as in the political sphere. Subsequently, however, this recognition +was only accorded to orthodox emperors; that is those who +supported the traditional doctrine of the church as sanctioned in its +general councils. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Constantine made use of his supremacy over the church to enforce +unity within its ranks. However, he did not champion any particular +creed but limited his interference to carrying into effect the decisions +of the church councils or synods which he summoned to pass judgment +upon questions which threatened the unity of the church and +the peace of the state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These councils were a development from the provincial synods, +which had previously met to decide church matters of local importance. +Procedure in the councils was modelled upon that of the +Roman Senate; the meetings were conducted by imperial legates, +their decisions were issued in the form of imperial edicts, and it was +to the emperor that appeals from these decrees were made. The first +of the great councils was the Synod of Arles, a council of the bishops +of the western church, summoned by Constantine in 314 to settle the +Donatist schism in the church in Africa. This was followed in 325 +by the first universal or ecumenical council of the whole Christian +church which met at Nicaea to decide upon the orthodoxy of the +teachings of Arius of Alexandria. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Constantine’s successors followed his example of summoning church +councils to settle sectarian controversies, though, unlike him, many +of them sought to force upon the church the doctrines of their particular +sect. As the general councils accentuated rather than allayed +antagonisms, the eastern emperor Zeno substituted a referendum of +the bishops by provinces. But this precedent was not followed. +Justinian was the emperor who asserted most effectively his authority +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page389">[pg 389]</span><a name="Pg389" id="Pg389" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>over the church. He issued edicts upon purely theological questions +and upon matters of church discipline without reference to church +councils, and he received from the populace of Constantinople the +salutation of <span class="tei tei-q">“High Priest and King.”</span><a id="noteref_18" name="noteref_18" href="#note_18"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a> The decision of the council +of 553 provoked an attack upon the sacerdotal power of the emperor +by Facundus, bishop of Hermiana in Africa, who declared that not +the emperor but the priests should rule the church. Nevertheless, +this opposition had no immediate effect, and Justinian remained the +successful embodiment <a name="corr389" id="corr389" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">of</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Caesaro-papism.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The growth of the papacy.</span></span> The late empire witnessed a rapid +extension of the authority of the bishopric of Rome, which had even +previously laid claim to the primacy among the episcopal sees. In +the West the title <span class="tei tei-q">“pope”</span> (from the Greek <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pappas</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“father”</span>) became +the exclusive prerogative of the bishop of Rome. The papacy was the +sole western patriarchate, or bishopric, with jurisdiction over the metropolitan +and provincial bishops, and was the sole representative of +the western church in its dealings with the bishops of the East. At +the council of Serdica (343 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>) it was decided that bishops deposed +as a result of the Arian controversy might refer their cases to the +Pope Julius for final decision, and, in the course of the fifth century, +eastern bishops frequently appealed to the decision of the pope on +questions of orthodoxy. However, the eastern church never fully +admitted the religious jurisdiction of the papacy. The ideal of the +papacy became the organization of the church on the model of the +empire, with the pope as its religious head. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The claims of the papacy were pushed with vigor by Innocent I +(402–417 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>) and Leo I (440–461 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). The latter laid particular +stress upon the primacy of Peter among the Apostles and +taught that this had descended to his apostolic successors. It was +Leo also who induced the western emperor Valentinian III in 455 +to order the whole western church to obey the bishop of Rome as the +heir to the primacy of Peter. The Pope Gelasius (492–496 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>) +asserted the power of the priests to be superior to the imperial authority, +but the establishment of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy and +the reconquest of the peninsula by the eastern emperor weakened the +independence of the Roman bishopric. Justinian was able to compel +the popes to submit to his authority in religious matters. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page390">[pg 390]</span><a name="Pg390" id="Pg390" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The patriarchate of Constantinople.</span></span> A rival to the papacy developed +in the patriarchate of Constantinople, which at the Council +of Constantinople in 381 was recognized as taking precedence over +the other eastern bishoprics and ranking next to that of Rome, <span class="tei tei-q">“because +Constantinople is New Rome.”</span> However, the primacy of the +bishop of Constantinople in the eastern church was challenged by the +older patriarchates of Ephesus, Antioch and Alexandria, all of which +had been apostolic foundations, while the claims of Constantinople +to that honor were more than dubious. Between 381 and 451 the +bishops of Alexandria successfully disputed the doctrinal authority +of the see of Constantinople, but at the council of Chalcedon (451 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>) Pulcheria and Marcian reasserted the primacy of the patriarch +of the capital. At this time also the bishopric of Jerusalem was +recognized as a patriarchate. The patriarch of Constantinople was +now placed on an equality with the pope, a recognition against which +the Pope Leo protested in vain. However, the patriarchs of Constantinople +never acquired the power and independence of the popes. +Situated as they were in the shadow of the imperial palace, and +owing their ecclesiastical authority to the support of the throne, they +rarely ventured to oppose the will of the emperor. Under Justinian +the patriarch held the position of a <span class="tei tei-q">“minister of state in the department +of religion.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The temporal power of the clergy.</span></span> When Christianity became +a religion of state it was inevitable that the Christian clergy should +occupy a privileged position. This recognition was accorded them +by Constantine the Great when he exempted them from personal +services (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">munera</span></span>) in 313 and taxation in 319 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Those who +entered the ranks of the clergy were expected to abandon all worldly +pursuits, and an imperial edict of 452 excluded them from all gainful +occupations. In addition to their ecclesiastical authority in matters +of belief and church discipline, the bishops also acquired considerable +power in secular affairs. In the days of persecution the Christians +had regularly submitted legal differences among themselves to the +arbitration of their bishops, rather than resort to the tribunals of +state. Constantine the Great gave legal sanction to this episcopal +arbitration in civil cases; Arcadius, however, restricted its use to +cases in which the litigants voluntarily submitted to the bishop’s +judgment. The bishops enjoyed no direct criminal jurisdiction, +al<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page391">[pg 391]</span><a name="Pg391" id="Pg391" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>though since the right of sanctuary was accorded to the churches, +they were frequently able to intercede with effect for those who sought +asylum with them. In the enforcement of moral and humanitarian +legislation the state called for the coöperation of the bishops. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The influential position of the bishops as the religious heads of the +municipalities led to their being accorded a definite place in the +municipal administration. In protecting the impoverished taxpayers +against the imperial officers they were more effective than the <span class="tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">defensores +plebis</span></span>.”</span> And in the days of the barbarian invasions, when +the representatives of the imperial authority were driven from the +provinces, the bishops became the leaders of the Roman population +in their contact with the barbarian conquerors. +</p> +</div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc289" id="toc289"></a><a name="pdf290" id="pdf290"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">III. Sectarian Strife</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Sectarianism.</span></span> The history of the church from Constantine to +Justinian is largely the history of sectarian strife, which had its origin +in doctrinal controversies. While the western church in general abstained +from acute theological discussions and adhered strictly to the +orthodox or established creed, devoting its energies to the development +of church organization, the church of the East, imbued with +the Greek philosophic spirit, busied itself with attempts to solve the +mysteries of the Christian faith and was a fruitful source of heterodoxy. +Strife between the adherents of the various sects was waged +with extreme bitterness and frequently culminated in riots and bloodshed. +Toleration was unknown and heretics, like pagans, were +classed as criminals and excluded from communion with the orthodox +church. Of the many sects which arose in the fourth and fifth centuries, +two were of outstanding importance. These were the Arians +and the monophysites. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Arianism.</span></span> Arianism had its rise in an attempt to express with +philosophical precision the relation of the three members of the Holy +Trinity; God the Father, the Son, and the Spirit. About 318 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, +Arius, a presbyter of Alexandria, taught that God was from eternity +but that the Son and the Spirit were his creations. Over the teaching +of Arius, a controversy arose which threatened the unity of the +church. Accordingly, Constantine intervened and summoned the +ecumenical council of Nicaea to decide upon the orthodoxy of Arius. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page392">[pg 392]</span><a name="Pg392" id="Pg392" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>The council accepted the formula of Athanasius that the Son was +of the same substance (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">homo-ousion</span></span>) as the Father, which was the +doctrine of the West. Arius was exiled. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The struggle, however, was by no means over, for the Nicene +creed found many opponents among the eastern bishops who did not +wish to exclude the Arians from the church. The leader of this +party was Eusebius of Caesarea. In 335 they brought about the +deposition of Athanasius, who had been bishop of Alexandria since +328. After the death of Constantine, Athanasius was permitted to +return to his see, only to be expelled again in 339 by Constantius, +who was under the influence of Eusebius. He took refuge in the +West, where the Pope Julius gave him his support. At a general +council of the church held at Serdica (Sofia) in 343 there was a sharp +division between East and West, but the supporters of Athanasius +were in the majority, and he and the other orthodox eastern bishops +were reinstated in their sees (345 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When Constantius became sole ruler of the empire (353 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>) +the enemies of Athanasius once more gained the upper hand. The +emperor forced a general council convoked at Milan in 353 to condemn +and depose Athanasius, while the Pope Liberius, who supported +him, was exiled to Macedonia. A new council held at Sirmium in +357 tried to secure religious peace by forbidding the use of the word +<span class="tei tei-q">“substance”</span> in defining the relation of the Father and the Son, and +sanctioned only the term <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">homoios</span></span> (like). The adherents of this +creed were called Homoeans. Although they were not Arians, their +solution was rejected by the conservatives in both East and West. +In 359 a double council was held, the western bishops meeting at +Ariminum, the eastern at Seleucia. The result was the acceptance +of the Sirmian creed, although the western council had to be almost +starved before it yielded. Under Julian and Jovian the Arians enjoyed +full toleration, and while Valentinian I pursued a similar policy, +Valens went further and gave Arianism his support. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the meantime, however, the labors of the three great Cappadocians,—Basil +of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus and Gregory of +Nyssa—had already done much to reconcile the eastern bishops to +the Nicaean confession and, with the accession of <a name="corr392" id="corr392" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Theodosius</span> I, the +fate of Arianism was sealed. A council of the eastern church met +at Constantinople in 381 and accepted the Nicene creed. The Arian +bishops were deposed and assemblies of the heretics forbidden by +im<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page393">[pg 393]</span><a name="Pg393" id="Pg393" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>perial edicts. Among the subjects of the empire Arianism rapidly +died out, although it existed for a century and a half as the faith +of several Germanic peoples. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The monophysite controversy.</span></span> While the point at issue in the +dogmatic controversies of the fourth century was the relation of God +to the Son and the Holy Spirit, the burning question of the fifth +and sixth centuries was the nature of Christ. And, like the former, +the latter dispute arose in the East, having its origin in the divergent +views of the theological schools of Antioch and Alexandria. The former +laid stress upon the two natures in Christ—the divine and the +human; the latter emphasized his divinity to the exclusion of his +humanity, and hence its adherents received the name of monophysites. +The Antiochene position was the orthodox or traditional view of the +church, and was held universally in the West, where the duality of +Christ was accepted without any attempt to determine the relationship +of his divine and human qualities. Beneath the doctrinal controversy +lay the rivalry between the patriarchates of Alexandria and +Constantinople, and the awakening national antagonism of the native +Egyptian and Syrian peoples towards the Greeks. The conflict began +in 429 with an attack of Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria, upon the +teachings of Nestorius, the patriarch of Constantinople. Cyril, taking +the view that the nature of Christ was human made fully divine, +justified the use of the word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theotokos</span></span> (Mother of God), which was +coming to be applied generally to the Virgin Mary. Nestorius criticized +its use, and argued in favor of the term Mother of Christ. In +the controversy which ensued, Cyril won the support of the bishop of +Rome, who desired to weaken the authority of the see of Constantinople, +and Nestorius was condemned at the council of Ephesus +in 431. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The next phase of the struggle opened in 448, when Dioscorus, +the occupant of the Alexandrine see, assailed Flavian, the patriarch +of the capital, for having deposed Eutyches, a monophysite abbot of +Constantinople. At the so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“Robber Council”</span> of Ephesus +(449 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>) Dioscorus succeeded in having Flavian deprived of his +see. But the pope, Leo I. pronounced in favor of the doctrine of +the duality of Christ, and in 451 the new emperor Marcian called +an ecumenical council at Chalcedon which definitely reasserted the +primacy of the see of Constantinople in the East, approved the use of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theotokos</span></span>, and declared that Christ is of two natures. The attempt +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page394">[pg 394]</span><a name="Pg394" id="Pg394" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>to enforce the decisions of this council provoked disturbances in Egypt, +Palestine and the more easterly countries. In Palestine it required +the use of armed force to suppress a usurping monophysite bishop. +In Egypt the enforcement led to a split between the orthodox Greek +and the monophysite Coptic churches. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As the opposition to the decree of Chalcedon still disturbed the +peace of the church, the emperor Zeno in 482, at the instigation of +the patriarchs Acacius of Constantinople and Peter of Alexandria, +sought to settle the dispute by exercise of the imperial authority. He +issued a letter to the church of Egypt called the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Henoticon</span></span>, which, +while acknowledging the councils of Nicaea and Constantinople, condemned +that of Chalcedon, and declared that <span class="tei tei-q">“Christ is one and +not two.”</span> This doctrine was at once condemned by the Pope Silvanus. +The rupture with Rome lasted until 519, when a reconciliation +was effected at the price of complete submission by the East +and the rehabilitation of the council of Chalcedon. This in turn +antagonized the monophysites of Syria and Egypt and caused Justinian +to embark upon his hopeless task of reëstablishing complete religious +unity within the empire by holding the western and winning +back the eastern church. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Justinian hoped to reconcile the monophysites by an interpretation +of the discussions of the council of Chalcedon which would be acceptable +to them. This led him, in 544, to condemn the so-called +Three Chapters, which were the doctrines of the opponents of the +monophysites. And although this step implied a condemnation of +the council of Chalcedon itself, and was consequently opposed in the +West, he forced the fifth ecumenical council of Constantinople in 553 +to sanction it. However, neither this concession nor the still greater +one of the edict of 565 availed to win back the extreme monophysites +of Egypt and Syria, where opposition to the religious jurisdiction of +Constantinople had taken a national form, and the religious disunion +in the East continued until these lands were lost to the empire. +</p> +</div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc291" id="toc291"></a><a name="pdf292" id="pdf292"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">IV. Monasticism</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The origin of monasticism.</span></span> Monasticism (from the Greek +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">monos</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“single”</span>), which became so marked a feature of the religious +life of the Middle Ages, had its origin in the ascetic tendencies of the +early Christian church, which harmonized with the eastern religious +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page395">[pg 395]</span><a name="Pg395" id="Pg395" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>and philosophic ideal of a life of pure contemplation. The chief +characteristics of early Christian asceticism were celibacy, fasting, +prayer, surrender of worldly goods, and the adoption of a hermit’s +life. This renouncement of a worldly life was practised by large +numbers of both men and women, especially in Egypt. It was there +that organized monastic life began early in the fourth century under +the influence of St. Anthony in northern and Pachomius in southern +Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Anthony and Pachomius in Egypt.</span></span> Anthony was the founder +of a monastic colony, which was a direct development from the eremitical +life. He laid down no rule for the guidance of the lives of the +monks, but permitted the maximum of individual freedom. It was +Pachomius who first established a truly cenobitical monastery, in +which the monks lived a common life under the direction of a single +head, the abbot, according to a prescribed rule with fixed religious +exercises and daily labor. The organization of convents for women +accompanied the foundation of the monasteries. However, the Antonian +type of monkhood continued to be the more popular in Egypt, +where monasticism flourished throughout the fourth, but began to +decline in the fifth, century. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Eastern monasticism.</span></span> From Egypt the movement spread to +Palestine, but in Syria and Mesopotamia there was an independent +development from the local eremitical ideals. Characteristic of Syrian +asceticism were the pillar hermits who passed their lives upon the +top of lofty pillars. The founder of the Greek monasticism was +Basil (c. 360 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), who copied Pachomius in organizing a fully +cenobitical life. He discouraged excessive asceticism and emphasized +the value of useful toil. The eastern monks were noted for their +fanaticism and they took a very prominent part in the religious disorders +of the time. The abuses of the early, unregulated monastic +life led to the formulation of monastic rules and the subjection of the +monks to the authority of the bishops. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Monasticism in the west: Benedict.</span></span> Monasticism was introduced +in the West by Athanasius, who came from Egypt to Rome +in 339. From Italy it spread to the rest of western Europe. The +great organizer of western monasticism was Benedict, who lived in +the early sixth century, and founded the monastery at Monte Cassino +about 520 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> His monastic rule definitely abandoned the eremitical +ideal in favor of the cenobitical. In addition to worship and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page396">[pg 396]</span><a name="Pg396" id="Pg396" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>work, the Benedictine rule made reading a monastic duty. This +stimulated the collection of libraries in the monasteries and made the +monks the guardians of literary culture throughout the Middle Ages. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As yet no distinct monastic orders had developed, but each monastery +was autonomous under the direction of its own abbot. +</p> +</div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="toc293" id="toc293"></a><a name="pdf294" id="pdf294"></a> +<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps">V. Literature and Art</span></span></h3> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">General characteristics.</span></span> The period between the accession of +Diocletian and the death of Justinian saw the gradual disappearance +of the ancient Graeco-Roman culture. In spite of Diocletian’s reëstablishment +of the empire, there was a steady lowering of the general +cultural level. This was due chiefly to the progressive barbarization +of the empire and to the decline of paganism which lay at the roots +of ancient civilization. The one creative force of the time was Christianity, +but, save in the fields of religion and ethics, it did little to +stem the ebbing tide of old world culture. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Literature.</span></span> The dying out of this culture is clearly to be seen +in the history of the Greek and Roman literatures of the period, +each of which shows the same general traits. In the fourth century, +under the impulse of the restoration of Diocletian, there is a brief +revival of productivity in pagan literature. But this is characterized +by archaism and lack of creative power. The imitation of the past +produces not only an artificiality of style, but also of language, so +that literature loses touch with contemporary life and the language +of the literary world is that of previous centuries, no longer that +of the people. Rhetorical studies are the sole form of higher education, +and are in part responsible for the archaism and artificiality +of contemporary literature, owing to the emphasis which they laid +upon literary form to the neglect of substance. In the fifth century, +following the complete triumph of Christianity, pagan literature comes +to an end. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The recognition of Christianity as an imperial religion by Constantine, +its subsequent victorious assault upon paganism, and the intensity +of sectarian strife gave to Christian literature a freshness and +vigor lacking in the works of pagan writers, and produced a wealth +of apologetic, dogmatic and theological writings. But the Christian +authors followed the accepted categories of the pagan literature, and +while producing polemic writings, works of translation and of religious +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page397">[pg 397]</span><a name="Pg397" id="Pg397" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>exegesis, they entered the fields of history, biography, oratory and +epistolography. Thus arose a profane, as well as a sacred, Christian +literature. And since Christian writers were themselves men of education +and appealed to educated circles, their works are dominated +by the current rhetorical standards of literary taste. Yet in some +aspects, in particular in sacred poetry and popular religious biography, +they break away from classical traditions and develop new +literary types. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But after the first half of the fifth century originality and productivity +in Christian literature also are on the wane. This is in +part due to the effects of the struggle of the empire with barbarian +peoples; in part to the suppression of freedom of religious thought by +the orthodox church. Even after the extinction of paganism the +classical literatures of Greece and Rome afforded the only material +for a non-religious education. And since they no longer constituted +a menace to Christianity, the church became reconciled to their use +for purposes of instruction, and it was to the church, and especially +to the monasteries, that the pagan literature owes its preservation +throughout the Dark Ages. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A symptom of the general intellectual decline of the later empire +is the dying out of Greek in the western empire. While up to the +middle of the third Christian century the world of letters had been +bi-lingual, from that time onwards, largely as a result of the political +conditions which led to a separation of the eastern and western parts +of the empire, the knowledge of Greek began to disappear in the +West until in the late empire it was the exception for a Latin-speaking +man of letters to be versed in the Greek tongue. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Pagan Latin literature.</span></span> A wide gulf separated the pagan Latin +literature of the fourth century from that of the early principate. +Poetry had degenerated to learned tricks, historical writing had taken +the form of epitomies, while published speeches and letters were but +empty exhibitions of rhetorical skill. The influence of rhetorical +studies made itself felt in legal phraseology, which now lost its former +clarity, directness and simplicity. Still there are a few outstanding +literary figures who deserve mention because they are so expressive +of the tendencies of the time or because they have been able to attain +a higher level. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Ausonius and Symmachus (c. 345–405 A. D.).</span></span> The career of +Ausonius, a professor of grammar and rhetoric at Bordeaux, whose +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page398">[pg 398]</span><a name="Pg398" id="Pg398" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>life covers the fourth century, shows how highly rhetorical instruction +was valued. His ability procured him imperial recognition, +and he became the tutor of Gratian, from whom he received the honor +of the consulate in 379. His poetical works are chiefly clever verbal +plays, but one, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mosella</span></span>, which describes a voyage down the river +Moselle, is noteworthy for its description of contemporary life and +its appreciation of the beauty of nature. Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, +city prefect, and the leader of the pagan party in Rome +under Gratian and Valentinian II, is a typical representative of the +educated society of the time which strove to keep alive a knowledge +of classical literature. He left a collection of orations and letters, +poor in thought, but rich in empty phrase. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Ammianus Marcellinus, fl. 350–400 A. D.</span></span> A man of far different +stamp was Ammianus Marcellinus, by birth a Greek of Antioch, +and an officer of high rank in the imperial army. Taking Tacitus +as his model, he wrote in Latin a history which continued the former’s +work for the period from 96 to 378 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Of this only the part covering +the years 353 to 378 has survived. His history is characterized +by sound judgment and objectivity, but is marred by the introduction +of frequent digressions extraneous to the subject in hand and +by a strained rhetorical style. However, it remains the one considerable +pagan work in Latin prose from the late empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Claudius Claudianus and Rutilius Namatianus (both fl. 400 +A. D.).</span></span> The <span class="tei tei-q">“last eminent man of letters who was a professed +pagan”</span> in the western empire was Claudius Claudianus. Claudian +was by birth an Egyptian Greek who took up his residence in Rome +about 395 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> and attached himself to the military dictator, Stilicho. +He chose to write in Latin, and composed hexameter epics which +celebrated the military exploits of his patron. He also wrote mythological +epics and elegiacs. Claudian found his inspiration in Ovid +and reawakened the charm of Augustan poetry. A contemporary of +Claudian, and, like him a pagan, was Rutilius Namatianus, who +was a native of southern Gaul but a resident of Rome where he attained +the highest senatorial offices. His literary fame rests upon the +elegiac poem in which he described his journey from Rome to Gaul in +416 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, and revealed the hold which the imperial city still continued +to exercise upon men’s minds. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Christian Latin literature: Lactantius (d. about 325 A. D.).</span></span> +It is among the writers of Christian literature that the few great +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page399">[pg 399]</span><a name="Pg399" id="Pg399" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Latin authors of the time are to be found. At the beginning of the +fourth century stood Lactantius, an African, who became a teacher +of rhetoric in Nicomedia, where he was converted to Christianity. +His chief work was the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Divinae Institutiones</span></span>, an introduction to +Christian doctrine, which was an attempt to create a philosophical +Christianity. His purity of style has caused him to be called the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Christian Cicero.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Ambrose, (d. 397 A. D.).</span></span> Ambrose, the powerful bishop of Milan, +who exercised such great influence with Gratian and Theodosius the +Great, also displayed great literary activity. In general, his writings +are developments of his sermons, and display no very great +learning. Their power depended upon the strength of his personality. +More important from a literary standpoint are the hymns which he +composed for use in church services to combat in popular form the +Arian doctrines. In his verses Ambrose adhered to the classic metrical +forms, but in the course of the next two centuries these were abandoned +for the use of the rhymed verse, which itself was a development +of the current rhetorical prose. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Jerome, 335–420 A. D.</span></span> The most learned of the Latin Christian +writers of antiquity was Jerome (Hieronymus), a native of northern +Bosnia, whose retired, studious life was in striking contrast to the +public, official career of Ambrose. A Greek and Hebrew scholar, in +addition to his dogmatic writings he made a Latin translation of the +Old Testament from the Hebrew (the basis of the later <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vulgate</span></span>), and +another of the Greek <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span> of Eusebius. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Augustine, 354–430 A. D.</span></span> The long line of notable literary figures +of the African church is closed by Augustine, the bishop of Hippo +who died during the siege of his city by the Vandals in 430 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> In +his early life a pagan, he found inspiration and guidance in the +philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. But while Jerome was still dominated +by Greek religious thought, Augustine was the first Latin Christian +writer to emancipate himself from this dependence and display +originality of form and ideas in his works. Of these the two most +significant are the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Confessions</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">On the City of God</span></span>. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Confessions</span></span> +reveal the story of his inner life, the struggle of good and evil +in his own soul. The work <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">On the City of God</span></span> was inspired by the +sack of Rome by Alaric in 410 and the accusation of the pagans that +this was a punishment for the abandonment of the ancient deities. +In answer to this charge Augustine develops a philosophical +inter<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page400">[pg 400]</span><a name="Pg400" id="Pg400" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>pretation of history as the conflict of good and evil forces, in which +the Heavenly City is destined to triumph over that of this world. +His work prepared the way for the conception of the Roman Catholic +Church as the city of God. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Boethius (d. 524 A. D.) and Cassiodorus (c. 480–575 A. D.).</span></span> +Between the death of Augustine and the death of Justinian the West +produced no ecclesiastical literary figure worthy of note. However, +under the Ostrogothic régime in Italy, profane literature is represented +by two outstanding personalities—Boethius and Cassiodorus. +The patrician Boethius while in prison awaiting his death sentence +from Theoderic composed his work <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">On the Consolation of Philosophy</span></span>, +a treatise embued with the finest spirit of Greek intellectual life. +Cassiodorus, who held the posts of quaestor and master of the offices +under Theoderic, has left valuable historical material in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Variae</span></span>, +a collection of official letters drawn up by him in the course of his +administrative duties. His chief literary work was a history of the +Goths, of which unfortunately only a few excerpts have remained. +In his later years Cassiodorus retired to a monastery which he founded +and organized according to the Benedictine rule. There he performed +an inestimable service in fostering the preservation of secular as well +as ecclesiastical knowledge among the brethren, thus giving to the +Benedictine monks the impulse to intellectual work for which they +were so distinguished in medieval times. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Greek Christian literature; Religious prose.</span></span> It was in the +fourth century that Greek Christian prose literature reached its height. +Among its leading representatives were Athanasius, the bishop of +Alexandria who fought the Arian heresy; Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, +the founder of church history; Gregory of Nazianzus, church +orator and poet; and Basil, bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, the +organizer of Greek monasticism. Above them all in personality and +literary ability stood John Chrysostom (the Golden-mouth), patriarch +of Constantinople under Arcadius. With the fifth century came a +decline in theological prose; men resorted to excerpts and collections. +But at this time began the development of the popular monastic narratives +and lives of the saints which served as the novels and romances +of the time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Religious poetry.</span></span> It was subsequent to the fourth century also +that Christian religious poetry attained its bloom. Here a break was +made with classical tradition in the adoption of accentual in place of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page401">[pg 401]</span><a name="Pg401" id="Pg401" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>quantitative verse. This was in harmony with the disappearance of +distinctions of syllabic quantity from popular speech. The use of +rhythm in verse was introduced by Gregory of Nazianzus, but the +chief and most productive representative of the new poetry was Romanus, +a converted Syrian Jew whose activity falls in the reign of +Justinian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Greek profane literature.</span></span> Contemporary profane Greek literature +exhibits less originality and interest. Historical writing was +continued in strict imitation of classical models by both Christian +and pagan writers. Of exceptional historical value are the works of +Procopius, the historian of the wars of Justinian, who like Ammianus +Marcellinus shared in an official capacity in the events which he described. +A more popular form of historical writing was the compilation +of chronicles of world history, collections of excerpts put together +for the most part by men who failed to understand their sources. +The profane verse of the time is represented by narrative poems, such +as the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dionysiaca</span></span> and the metrical version of the Gospel of St. John +composed by Nonnus in Egypt (c. 400 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>), and by a rich epigrammatic +literature. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the eastern empire literary productivity continued, although on +the decline, slightly longer than in the West, but by the middle of +the sixth century there also it had come to an end. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Art.</span></span> The art of the late empire exhibits the same general characteristics +as the literature. Not only was there a general lack of +originality and creative capacity, but even the power of imitating the +masterpieces of earlier times was conspicuously lacking. The Arch +of Constantine erected in 312 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> affords a good illustration of the +situation. Its decoration mainly consists of sculptures appropriated +from monuments of the first and second century, beside which the +new work is crude and unskilful. A comparison of the imperial +portraits on the coins of the fourth century with those of the principate +up to the dynasty of the Severi reveals the same decline in taste and +artistic ability. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the realm of art as in literature Christianity supplied a new +creative impulse, which made itself felt in the adaptation of pagan +artistic forms to Christian purposes. The earliest traces of Christian +art are to be found in the mural paintings of the underground +burial vaults and chapels of the Roman catacombs, and in the sculptured +reliefs which adorned the sarcophagi of the wealthy. These +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page402">[pg 402]</span><a name="Pg402" id="Pg402" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>were popular branches of contemporary art and the influence of Christianity +consisted in the artistic <a name="corr402" id="corr402" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">representation</span> of biblical subjects and +the employment of Christian symbolical motives. These forms of +Christian art decayed with the general cultural decline that followed +the third century. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The most important and original contribution of Christianity to +the art of the late empire was in the development of church architecture. +To meet the needs of the Christian church service, which +included the opportunity to address large audiences, there arose the +Christian basilica, which took its name from the earlier profane structures +erected to serve as places for the conduct of public business, but +which differed considerably from them in its construction. In general +the basilica was a long rectangular building, divided by rows of +columns into a central hall or nave and two side halls or aisles. The +walls of the nave rose above the roof of the aisles, and allowed space +for windows. The roof was flat or gabled, and, like the wall spaces, +covered with paintings or mosaics. The rear of the structure was a +semicircular apse which held the seats of the bishop and the lower +clergy. To the original plan there came to be added the transept, a +hall at right angles to the main structure between it and the apse. +This gave the basilica its later customary crosslike form. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While the basilica became the almost universal form of church +architecture in Italy and the West, in the East preference was shown +for round or polygonal structures with a central dome, an outgrowth +of the Roman rotunda, which was first put to Christian uses in tombs +and grave chapels. A rich variety of types, combining the central +dome with other architectural features arose in the cities of Asia and +Egypt. The masterpiece of this style was the church of St. Sophia +erected by Justinian in Constantinople in 537 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span> Another notable +example from the same period is the church of San Vitale at Ravenna. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the mosaics which adorn these and other structures of the time +are to be seen the traces of a Christian Hellenistic school of painting +which gave pictorial expression to the whole biblical narrative. +These mosaics and the miniature paintings employed in the illuminated +manuscripts survived as prominent features of Byzantine art. +</p> +</div></div> +</div> + <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page403">[pg 403]</span><a name="Pg403" id="Pg403" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <a name="toc295" id="toc295"></a><a name="pdf296" id="pdf296"></a> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">EPILOGUE</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Lombard and Slavic invasions.</span></span> In 568 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, three years + after the death of Justinian, the Lombards descended upon Italy from + Pannonia and wrested from the empire the Po valley and part of + central Italy. The Romans were confined to Ravenna, Rome, and + the southern part of the peninsula. Towards the close of the sixth + century (after 581 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>) occurred the migrations of the Bulgars and + Slavs across the Danube which resulted in the Slavic occupation of + Illyricum and the interposition of a barbarous, heathen people between + the eastern empire and western Europe. Early in the seventh + century the Roman possessions in Spain were lost to the Goths. + </p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The papacy and the Holy Roman Empire.</span></span> The weakness of + the imperial authority in the West led to the strengthening of the + papacy and its acquisition of political power in Italy. It was the + papacy also which kept alive in western Europe the ideal of a universal + imperial church, for the whole of western Christendom came + to acknowledge the supremacy of the Roman see. Nor was the conception + of a reëstablished western empire lost to view; and it was + destined to find realization in the Holy Roman empire of Charlemagne + and his successors. Of great importance for the future development + of European civilization was the fact that the western part + of the Roman empire had passed under the control of peoples either + already Christianized or soon to become so, and that the church, + chiefly through the monasteries, was thus enabled to become the + guardian of the remnants of ancient culture. + </p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Byzantine empire.</span></span> The loss of the western provinces and + Illyricum transferred the center of gravity in the empire from the + Latin to the Greek element and accelerated the transformation of the + eastern Roman empire into an essentially Greek state—the Byzantine + empire. The Byzantine empire inherited from the Roman its + organization and the name <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Romaioi</span></span> (Romans) for its citizens, but + before the close of the sixth century Greek had supplanted Latin as + the language of government. This transformation further accentuated + the religious differences between East and West, which led ultimately + to the separation of the Greek and Roman Catholic Churches. + </p> + + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page404">[pg 404]</span><a name="Pg404" id="Pg404" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Mohammedan invasion.</span></span> Before the middle of the seventh + century Egypt and Syria were occupied by the Saracens, whose conquest + was facilitated by the animosity of the monophysite native populations + towards the rule of an orthodox emperor. However, the loss + of these territories gave fresh solidarity to the empire in the East by + restricting its authority to the religiously and linguistically homogeneous, + and thoroughly loyal, population of Asia Minor and the eastern + Balkan peninsula. This solidarity enabled the Byzantine empire + to fulfill its historic mission of forming the eastern bulwark of Christian + Europe against the Turk throughout the Middle Ages. + </p> + + </div> +</div> + <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-back" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page405">[pg 405]</span><a name="Pg405" id="Pg405" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc297" id="toc297"></a><a name="pdf298" id="pdf298"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Note.</span></span> Owing to the uncertainty of the chronological record of early Roman +history it must be admitted that little reliance can be placed upon the accuracy +of most of the traditional dates prior to 281 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> For this period I have followed, +in the main, Diodorus. +</p> +<a name="Pg406" id="Pg406" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg407" id="Pg407" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg408" id="Pg408" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg409" id="Pg409" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg410" id="Pg410" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg411" id="Pg411" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg412" id="Pg412" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg413" id="Pg413" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="3"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell">B. C.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">?</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Paleolithic Age.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">?</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Neolithic Age. Ligurian settlement in Italy.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">2500–2000</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Beginning of the Age of Bronze. Palafitte Lake Villages. Terramare villages.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">1000</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Beginning of the Iron Age.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">IX–VIII cent.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Etruscan settlement in Etruria.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">814 </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Founding of Carthage.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">VIII cent.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Greek colonization of Sicily and South Italy begins.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">VII–VI cent.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Etruscan expansion in the Po Valley, Campania and Latium.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">508</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Overthrow of Etruscan supremacy at Rome. End of the early + monarchy. The first consuls appointed. Dedication of the + Capitoline temple. Commercial treaty with Carthage.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">486 </td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Alliance of Rome and the Latins.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">466</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Four tribunes of the plebs appointed.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">444–2</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">The Decemvirate. Codification of the Law.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">437</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Lex Canuleia.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">436</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Office of military tribune with consular powers established.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">435</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Censorship established.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">392</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Capture of Veii.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">387</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of the Allia. Sack of Rome by the Gauls.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">362</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">The praetorship established.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">339</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Lex Publilia.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">338–6</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">The Latin War.</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">334 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Alliance of Rome and the Campanians.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">325–304 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Samnite War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">318 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">The Caudine Forks.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">309–7 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">War with the Etruscans.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">310 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Appius Claudius Censor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">300 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Lex Ogulnia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">298–290 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">War with Samnites, Etruscans and Gauls.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">295 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of Sentinum.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">290 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Subjugation of Samnium.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">287 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Secession of the Plebs. Lex Hortensia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">285 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Occupation of the Ager Gallicus. Defeat of Gauls and Etruscans at Lake Vadimo.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">281–272 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">War with Tarentum and Pyrrhus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">280 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of Heraclea.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">279 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of Ausculum. Alliance of Rome and Carthage.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">278 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Pyrrhus invades Sicily.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">275 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of Beneventum.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">264–241 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">First Punic War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">263 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Alliance of Rome and Syracuse.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">260 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Naval Victory at Mylae.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">256–5 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Roman invasion of Africa.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">250 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Roman naval disaster at Drepana.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">242 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of the Aegates Is. Office of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">praetor peregrinus</span></span> established.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">241 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Sicily ceded to Rome.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">241–238 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Revolt of the Carthaginian mercenaries. Sardinia and Corsica ceded to Rome.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">237 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Hamilcar in Spain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">232 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Colonization of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ager Gallicus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">229–8 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">First Illyrian War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">229 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Hasdrubal succeeds Hamilcar in Spain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">227 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Provinces of Sicily, and Sardinia and Corsica organized.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">226 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Roman treaty with Hasdrubal.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">225 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Gauls defeated at Telamon.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">224–22 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Conquest of Boii and Insubres.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">221 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Hannibal Carthaginian commander in Spain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">220 ? </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Reform of the Centuriate Assembly.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">220–19 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Second Illyrian War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">219 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Siege of Saguntum.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">218–201 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Second Punic War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">218 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Hannibal’s passage of the Pyrenees and the Alps. Roman invasion of Spain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">217 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of <a name="corr406" id="corr406" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Trasimene</span> Lake. Q. Fabius dictator.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">216 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Cannae. Revolt of Capua.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">215 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Alliance of Hannibal and Philip V of Macedon. First Macedonian War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">214 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Revolt of Syracuse.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">212 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Syracuse recovered. Roman Alliance with the Aetolians.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">211 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Capua reconquered. Roman disasters in Spain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">210 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">P. Cornelius Scipio Roman commander in Spain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">207 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of the Metaurus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">205 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Peace between Philip of Macedon and Rome.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">204 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Scipio invades Africa.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">202 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Zama.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">200–196 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Second Macedonian War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">201 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Annexation of Carthaginian Spain. Provinces of Hither and Farther Spain organized.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">197 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of Cynoscephalae.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">196 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><a name="corr406a" id="corr406a" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Flamininus</span> proclaims the <span class="tei tei-q">“freedom of the Hellenes.”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">192–189 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">War with Antiochus the Great and the Aetolians.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">191 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Antiochus defeated at Thermopylae.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">190 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of Magnesia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">186 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Dissolution of the Bacchanalian societies.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">184 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Cato the Elder censor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">181 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex Villia annalis.</span></span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">171–167 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Third Macedonian War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">168 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of Pydna.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">166 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Achaean political prisoners held in Italy.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">149–146 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Third Punic War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">149 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex Calpurnia.</span></span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">149–148 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Fourth Macedonian War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">148 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Macedonia a Roman province.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">147–139 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">War with Viriathus in Spain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">146 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Revolt of the Achaeans. Sack of Corinth. Dissolution of the + Achaean Confederacy. Destruction of Carthage. Africa a + Roman province.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">143–133 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Numantine War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">136–132 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Slave War in Sicily.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">133 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Kingdom of Pergamon willed to Rome. Tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">129 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Province of Asia organized.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">123–122 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">C. Gracchus tribune.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">121 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Province of Narbonese Gaul organized.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">113 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Siege of Cirta.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">111–105 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Jugurthine War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">105 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Romans defeated by Cimbri and Teutones at Arausio.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">104–100 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Successive consulships of Marius. Slave war in Sicily.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">104 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex Domitia.</span></span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">102 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Teutones defeated at Aquae Sextiae.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">101 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Cimbri defeated at Vercellae.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">100 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Affair of Saturninus and Glaucia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">91 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Tribunate of Livius Drusus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">90–88 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Italian or Marsic War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">90 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex Julia.</span></span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">89 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex Plautia Papiria. Lex Pompeia.</span></span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">89–85 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">First Mithradatic War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">88 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Massacre of Italians in Asia. Mithradates invades Greece.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">87 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Marian revolt at Rome.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">87–6 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Siege of Athens and Peiraeus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">86 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Seventh consulship of Marius. Chaeronea and Orchomenus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">83 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Sulla’s return to Italy.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">82–79 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Sulla dictator.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">77–71 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Pompey’s command in Spain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">75 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Bithynia a Roman province.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">74–63 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Second Mithradatic War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">74–66 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Command of Lucullus in the East.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">73–71 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Revolt of the gladiators.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">70 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">First consulate of Pompey and Crassus. Trial of Verres.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">67 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex Gabinia.</span></span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">66 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex Manilia.</span></span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">63 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Cicero consul. The conspiracy of Cataline. Annexation of + Syria. Death of Mithradates.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">60 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Coalition of Pompey, Caesar and Crassus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">59 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Caesar consul. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex Vatinia.</span></span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">58 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Cicero exiled.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">58–56 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Subjugation of Gaul.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">57 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Cicero recalled. Pompey <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curator annonae</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">56 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Conference at Luca.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">55 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Second consulate of Pompey and Crassus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">55–54 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Caesar’s invasions of Britain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">53 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Death of Crassus at Carrhae.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">52–1 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Revolt of Vercingetorix.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">52 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Pompey sole consul.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">49–46 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">War between Caesar and the Senatorial faction.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">48 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Pharsalus. Death of Pompey.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">48–7 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Alexandrine War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">47 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">War with Pharnaces.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">46 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Thapsus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">45 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Munda. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex Julia municipalis.</span></span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">44 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Assassination of Julius Caesar (15 Mar.).</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">44–3 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">War at Mutina.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">43 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Octavian consul. Antony, Lepidus and Octavian triumvirs.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">42 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battles of Philippi.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">41 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">War at Perusia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">40 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Treaty of Brundisium.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">39 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Treaty of Misenum.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">37 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Treaty of Tarentum. The second term of the Triumvirate + begins.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">36 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Defeat of Sextus Pompey. Lepidus deposed. Parthian War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">31 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of Actium.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">30 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Death of Antony and Cleopatra. Annexation of Egypt.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">27 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Octavian princeps and Augustus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">27 B. C.–14 A. D. </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Augustus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">25 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Annexation of Galatia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">23 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Augustus assumes the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tribunicia potestas</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">20 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Agreement with Parthia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">18 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus.</span></span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">16 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Conquest of Noricum.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">15 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Subjugation of the Raeti and Vindelici.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">14–9 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Conquest of Pannonia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">12 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Augustus pontifex maximus. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ara Romae et Augusti</span></span> at Lugdunum. + Invasion of Germany. Death of M. Agrippa.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Death of Drusus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">6 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Subjugation of the Alpine peoples completed.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">A. D.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6–9 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Revolt of Pannonia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">9 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Revolt of Arminius. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex Papia Poppaea.</span></span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">14–37 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Tiberius</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">14–17 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Campaigns of Germanicus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">19 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Death of Germanicus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">26 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Tiberius retires to Capri.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">31 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Fall of Seianus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">37–41 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Caius Caligula</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">40 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Annexation of Mauretania.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">41–54 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Claudius</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">43 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Invasion and annexation of southern Britain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">48 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Aedui receive the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ius honorum</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">54–68 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Nero</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">58–63 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Parthian War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">59–60 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Rebellion of Boudicca.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">64 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Great Fire in Rome.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">65 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Conspiracy of Piso. Death of Seneca.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">66–67 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Nero in Greece.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">66 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Rebellion of the Jews.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">68 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Rebellion of Vindex.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">68 June–69 Jan.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Galba</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">69 Jan.–<a name="corr409" id="corr409" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">March</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Otho</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">69 April–Dec.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vitellius</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">69 Dec.–<a name="corr409a" id="corr409a" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">79</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Vespasianus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">69 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Revolt of Civilis and the Batavi.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">70 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Destruction of Jerusalem. End of the Jewish Rebellion.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">79–81 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Titus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">79 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Eruption of Vesuvius. Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">81–96 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Domitianus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">83 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of Mons Graupius. War with the Chatti.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">84 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Domitian perpetual censor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">85–89 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Dacian Wars.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">88–89 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Revolt of Saturninus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">96–98 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Nerva</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">98–117 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Trajan</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">101–102 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">First Dacian War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">105–106 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Second Dacian War. Annexation of Dacia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">106 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Annexation of Arabia Petrea.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">114–117 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Parthian War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">114 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Occupation of Armenia and Upper Mesopotamia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">115 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Jewish Rebellion in Cyrene.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">116 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Annexation of Assyria and Lower Mesopotamia. Revolt in + Mesopotamia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">117–138 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Hadrianus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">117 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Abandonment of Assyria and Mesopotamia. Armenia a client + kingdom.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">121–126 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Hadrian’s first tour of the provinces.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">129–134 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Second tour of the provinces.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">132–134 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Revolt of the Jews in the East.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">138–161 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Antoninus Pius</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">161–180 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Marcus Aurelius</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">161–169 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Lucius Verus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">161–166 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Parthian War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">166 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Great plague spreads throughout the empire.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">167–75 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">War with Marcomanni, Quadi and Iazyges.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">175 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Revolt of Avidius Cassius.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">177–192 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Commodus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">177–180 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">War with Quadi and Marcomanni.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">180 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Death of Marcus Aurelius, Commodus sole emperor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">193 Jan.–Mar. </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Pertinax</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">193 Mar.–<a name="corr410" id="corr410" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">June</span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Didius Julianus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">193 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Revolts of Septimius Severus, Pescennius Niger, Clodius Albinus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">193–211 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Septimius Severus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">194 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Defeat of Pescennius Niger.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">195–6 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Invasion of Parthia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">197 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Defeat of Albinus at Lugdunum.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">197–99 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Parthian War renewed. Conquest of Upper Mesopotamia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">208 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Caledonians invade Britain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">211–217 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Caracalla</span></span> and</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">211–212 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Geta</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">212 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Constitutio Antoniniana.</span></span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">214 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Parthian War.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">217–218 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Macrinus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">218–222 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Elagabalus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">222–235 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Severus Alexander</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">227 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Establishment of the Persian Sassanid Kingdom.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">230–233 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">War with Persia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">234 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">War on the Rhine frontier.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">235–238 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Maximinus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">238 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Gordianus I</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Gordianus II</span></span>. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Balbinus</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Pupienus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">238–244 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Gordianus III</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">243–249 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Philippus Arabs</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">247–249 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Philippus Junior</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">249–251 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Decius</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">249 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Persecution of the Christians.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">251–253 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><a name="corr410b" id="corr410b" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Gallus</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Volusianus</span></span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">253 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Aemillianus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">253–258 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Valerianus</span></span> and</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">253–268 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Gallienus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">257 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Persecution of the Christians renewed.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">258 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Valerian defeated and captured by the Persians. Postumus establishes + an <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium Galliarum</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">259 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Valerian dies in captivity. Gallienus sole emperor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">267 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Sack of Athens by the Goths.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">268–270 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Claudius Gothicus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">270 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Quintillus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">270–275 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Aurelianus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">271 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Revolt of Palmyra.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">272 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Reconquest of Palmyra and the East.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">274 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Recovery of Gaul and Britain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">275–276 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Tacitus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">276 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Florianus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">276–282 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Probus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">282–283 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Carus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">283–285 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Carinus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">284–305 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Diocletianus</span></span> and</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">286–305 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Maximianus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">286 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Revolt of Carausius in Britain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">293 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Galerius and Constantine Caesars.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">296 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Recovery of Britain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">297 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Persian invasion.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">301 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Edict of Prices.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">302–304 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Edicts against the Christians.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">305 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian. Galerius and Constantius. + Severus and Daia Caesars.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">306 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Galerius</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Severus</span></span>. Constantinus Caesar. Revolt of + Maxentius.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">307 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Galerius</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Licinius</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Constantinus</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Daia</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Maxentius</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">311 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Edict of Toleration.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">312 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of Saxa Rubra.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">313 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Edict of Milan. Fall of Daia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">324 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of Chrysopolis.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">324–337 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Constantinus</span></span> sole Augustus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">325 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Council of Nicaea.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">330 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Constantinople the imperial residence.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">337–340 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Constantinus II</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">337–350 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Constans</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">337–361 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Constantius</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">342 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Council of Serdica.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">350 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Revolt of Magnentius.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">351 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Gallus Caesar. Battle of Mursa.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">354 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Death of Gallus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">355 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Julian Caesar.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">357 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Julian’s victory over the Alemanni at Strassburg.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">359 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">War with Persia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">360–363 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Julianus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">363 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Invasion of Persia. Death of Julian.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">363–364 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Jovianus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">364–375 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Valentinianus I</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">364–378 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Valens</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">367–383 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Gratianus</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">375–392 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Valentinianus II</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">376 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Visigoths cross the Danube.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">378 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of Hadrianople.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">378–395 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Theodosius I</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">380–82 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Settlement of Visigoths as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">foederati</span></span> in Moesia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">381 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Council of Constantinople.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">382 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Altar of Victory removed from the Senate.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">383 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Revolt of Maximus in Britain. Death of Gratian.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">383–408 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Arcadius</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">388 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Maximus defeated and killed.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">390 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Massacre at Thessalonica.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">391 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Edicts against Paganism. Destruction of the Serapaeum.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">392 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Revolt of Arbogast. Murder of Valentinian II. Eugenius proclaimed Augustus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">394 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of Frigidus. Death of Arbogast and Eugenius.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">394–423 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Honorius</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">395 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Death of Theodosius I. Division of the Empire. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Arcadius</span></span> + emperor in the East, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Honorius</span></span> in the West, Revolt of + Alaric and the Visigoths.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">396 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Alaric defeated by Stilicho in Greece.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">406 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Barbarian invasion of Gaul. Roman garrison leaves Britain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">408 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Murder of Stilicho. Alaric invades Italy.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">408–450 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Theodosius II</span></span> eastern emperor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">409 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Vandals, Alans and Sueves invade Spain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">410 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Visigoths capture Rome. Death of Alaric.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">412 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Visigoths enter Gaul.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">415 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Visigoths cross into Spain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">418 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Visigoths settled in Aquitania.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">423–455 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Valentinianus III</span></span> western emperor,</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">427 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Aetius <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">magister militum</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">429 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Vandal invasion of Africa.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">438 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">The Theodosian Code.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">439 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Vandals seize Carthage.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">450 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Marcianus</span></span> eastern emperor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">451 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Battle of the Mauriac Plains. Council of Chalcedon.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">453 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Death of Attila.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">454 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Aetius assassinated. Ostrogoths settled in Pannonia.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">455 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Maximus</span></span> western emperor. Vandals sack Rome.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">455–456 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Avitus</span></span> western emperor. Ricimer <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">magister militum</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">457–474 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Leo I</span></span> eastern emperor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">457–461 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Marjorianus</span></span> western emperor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">461–465 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Severus</span></span> western emperor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">465–467 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">No emperor in the West.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">467–472 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Anthemius</span></span> western emperor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">472 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Olybrius</span></span> western emperor. Death of Ricimer.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">473–474 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Glycerus</span></span> western emperor. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Leo II</span></span> eastern emperor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">474–475 (480) </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Nepos</span></span> western emperor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">474–491 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Zeno</span></span> eastern emperor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">475–476 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Romulus Augustulus</span></span> western emperor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">476 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Odovacar king in Italy.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">477 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Death of Gaiseric.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">486 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Clovis conquers Syagrius and the Romans in Gaul.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">488 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Theoderic and the Ostrogoths invade Italy.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">491–518 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Anastasius</span></span> eastern emperor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">493 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Defeat and death of Odovacar.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">506 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex Romana Visigothorum.</span></span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">507 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Clovis defeats the Visigoths.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">518–527 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Justinus I</span></span> eastern emperor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">526 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Death of Theoderic.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">527–565 </td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Justinianus</span></span> eastern emperor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">532 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">The <span class="tei tei-q">“Nika”</span> riot.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">533–534 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Reconquest of Africa.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">534 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Franks overthrow the Burgundian kingdom.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">529–534 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Publication of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Corpus Iuris Civilis</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">535–554 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Wars for the recovery of Italy.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">554 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Re-occupation of the coast of Spain.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">565 </td><td class="tei tei-cell">Death of Justinian.</td></tr></tbody></table> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page414">[pg 414]</span><a name="Pg414" id="Pg414" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +</div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page415">[pg 415]</span><a name="Pg415" id="Pg415" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc299" id="toc299"></a><a name="pdf300" id="pdf300"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The titles given below are intended to form a group of selected references for +the guidance of students who may desire a more detailed treatment of the +various problems of Roman history than has been given in the text. For the +sources, as well as for a more detailed bibliography, readers may consult B. +Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Grundriss der römischen Geschichte</span></span>, 4th ed., 1910, and G. W. Botsford, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A Syllabus of Roman History</span></span>, 1915. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Introduction</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Leuze, O., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die römische Jahrzählung</span></span>; Lewis, Sir G. C., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Credibility of +Early Roman History</span></span>; Niese, B., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische Geschichte</span></span>, pp. 10–17, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">passim</span></span>; +Schanz, M., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der römischen Litteratur</span></span>; Kornemann, E., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Priestercodex +in der Regia</span></span>; Wachsmuth, C., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Einleitung in das Studium der alten +Geschichte</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter I</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Duruy, V., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire des Romains</span></span>, i, pp. i–xxxiv; Encyclopedia Brittanica, +11th ed., art. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Italy</span></span>; Kiepert, H., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manual of Ancient Geography</span></span>, ch. ix; Nissen, +H., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Italische Landeskunde</span></span>, vol. i. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter II</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The view given in the text follows Jones, H. S., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Companion to Roman History</span></span> +(a brief synopsis); Grenier, A., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bologne villanovienne et étrusque</span></span>; Modestov, +B., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction à l’histoire romain</span></span>; and Peet, T. E., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Stone and +Bronze Ages in Italy and Sicily</span></span>. For different reconstructions, see De Sanctis, +G., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Storia dei Romani</span></span>, i, chs. ii–iii; Pais, E., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Storia Critica di Roma</span></span>, 2nd ed., +i, ch. viii; Ridgeway, W., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Who were the Romans?</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Proc. British Academy</span></span>, 1907. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter III</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I. The Races of Italy. See the references for chapter ii, and De Sanctis, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Storia</span></span>, ii, ch. iii; Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, p. 23 ff.; Pais, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Storia Critica</span></span>, i, ch. viii; +Kretchmer, P., in Gercke und Norden’s <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Einleitung in die Altertumswissenschaft</span></span>, +i, p. 172, for the problem of the Italian dialects. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +II. The Etruscans. Dennis, G., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria</span></span>; Korte +und Skutsch, art. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etrusker</span></span>, Pauly-Wissowa, vi. pp. 730–806; Martha, J., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L’art +étrusque</span></span>; Modestov, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction</span></span>, pt. 2; Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span> pp. 26 ff. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +III. The Greeks. Beloch, J., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Griechische Geschichte</span></span>, i, 2nd ed., pp. 229 ff., +Bury, J. B., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Greece</span></span>, ch. ii; De Sanctis, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Storia</span></span>, i, ch. ix; Freeman, E., +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Sicily</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter IV</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I. The Latins. Beloch, J., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Italische Bund</span></span>; Frank, T., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Economic +His</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page416">[pg 416]</span><a name="Pg416" id="Pg416" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-style: italic">tory of Rome</span></span>, ch. i; Kornemann, E., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Polis und Urbs</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge zur alten +Geschichte</span></span>, 1905; Rosenberg, A., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Staat der alten Italiker</span></span>; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zur Geschichte +des Latines Bundes</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hermes</span></span>, 1919. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +II. Origins of Rome. Carter, J. B., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roma Quadrata and the Septimontium</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Amer. Jour. of Arch.</span></span>, 1908; id., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Evolution of the City of Rome</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Proc. Amer. +Phil. Soc.</span></span>, 1909; Frank, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Economic History</span></span>, ch. ii; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on the Servian Wall</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Am. Jour. Arch.</span></span>, 1918; Jones, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Companion</span></span>, pp. 31 ff.; Kornemann, see I; Meyer, +E., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Ursprung des Tribunats und die Gemeinde der vier Tribus</span></span>, <a name="corr416" id="corr416" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hermes</span></span></span> +xxx; Platner, S. B., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Topography and Monuments of Ancient Rome</span></span>, 2nd ed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +III and IV. Early Monarchy and Early Roman Society. Botsford, G. W., +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Roman Assemblies</span></span>, chs. i, ii and ix; De Sanctis, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Storia</span></span>, i, chs. vi, vii, +viii, x; Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, pp. 18–23, 32 ff.; Pais, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Storia Critica</span></span>, i, 2; Pelham, +H., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Outlines of Roman History</span></span>, bk. i, chs. i and ii. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter V</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Beloch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Italische Bund</span></span>; Cavaignac, E., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire de l’Antiquité</span></span> ii. pp. +378–88, 475–88, iii, pp. 61–92, 173–85; De Sanctis, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Storia</span></span>, ii, chs. xv, xvi, +xviii–xxii; Frank, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Imperialism</span></span>, chs. i–iv; Heitland, W. T., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Roman +Republic</span></span>, i. pp. 75–78, 101–113, 135–74; Meyer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte des Altertums</span></span>, v, +pp. 132 ff.; Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, pp. 44–55, 64–80; Pais, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Storia Critica</span></span>, vols. ii–iii; +Pelham, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Outlines</span></span>, pp. 68–107; Reid, J. S., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Municipalities of the +Roman Empire</span></span>, chs. iii–iv; Rosenberg, A., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zur Geschichte des Latines Bundes</span></span>; +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Entstehung des so-gennanten Foedus Cassianum und des latinischen +Rechts, Hermes</span></span>, 1920. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter VI</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Botsford, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Assemblies</span></span>, chs. iii–xiii; Cavaignac, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire</span></span>, ii, pp. 478–83; +De Sanctis, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Storia</span></span>, ii, chs. xii, xiv, xvii; Frank, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Economic History</span></span>, chs. iii–iv; +Heitland, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Republic</span></span>, ii, chs. viii–xiv, xvi, xx; Kahrstedt, U., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zwei Beiträge +Zur älteren röm. Geschichte</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rh. Museum</span></span>, 1918; Mommsen, Th., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Staatsrecht</span></span> +(see Indices); Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, pp. 81–84; Pais, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Storia Critica</span></span>, as +for Chap. V. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter VII</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I. Early Roman Religion: Bailey, C., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Religion of Ancient Rome</span></span>; Carter, +J. B., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Religion of Numa</span></span>; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Religious Life of Ancient Rome</span></span>, ch. i; +Fowler, W. Warde, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Roman Festivals</span></span>; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Religious Experience of the +Roman People</span></span>, Lectures, i–xii; Mommsen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Rome</span></span>, i, chap. xii; +Wissowa, G., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion und Kultus der Römer</span></span>, pp. 15–54. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +II. Early Roman Society: Heitland, W., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Republic</span></span>, i, chs. vi and xii; +Fowler, W. Warde, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rome</span></span>, ch. iii; Launspach, C. W. L., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">State and Family in +Early Rome</span></span>, ch. xi. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter VIII</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Cavaignac, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire</span></span>, vol. iii, bk. iii, chs. i, iv–vi; De Sanctis, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Storia</span></span>, iii, +1–2; Frank, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Imperialism</span></span>, chs. vi–vii; Ferguson, W. S., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Greek Imperialism</span></span>, +chs. v–vii; Gsell, S., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire ancienne de l’Afrique du nord</span></span>, vols. i, ii, iii; +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page417">[pg 417]</span><a name="Pg417" id="Pg417" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Heitland, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Republic</span></span>, vol. i, chs. xxi–xxvi; Mommsen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History</span></span>, bk. iii, +chs. i–vi; Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, pp. 96–126. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter IX</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Cavaignac, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire</span></span>, vol. iii, bk. iii, chs. vii–viii; Colin, G., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rome et la +Grèce</span></span>; Frank, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Imperialism</span></span>, chs. viii, ix, x; Heitland, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Republic</span></span>, +vol. ii, chs. xxvii–xxxii; Mommsen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History</span></span>, bk. iii, chs. vii–x; Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, +pp. 126–48. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter X</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Cavaignac, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire</span></span>, vol. iii, bk. iv, ch. i; Colin, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rome et la Grèce</span></span>; Frank, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Imperialism</span></span>, chs. x–xi; Heitland, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Republic</span></span>, vol. ii, chap, xxxiii; +<a name="corr417" id="corr417" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Mommsen,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History</span></span>, bk. iv, ch. i; Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, pp. 155–66. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter XI</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +For the Administration: Arnold, W. T., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Roman System of Provincial +Administration</span></span>, 3rd ed., chs. ii–iii, vi, pt. 1; Botsford, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Assemblies</span></span>, chs. +xiii–xv; Cavaignac, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire</span></span>, vol. iii, bk. iii, ch. ix; Frank, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Imperialism</span></span>, +chs. vi, xii; Heitland, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Republic</span></span>, vol. ii, ch. xxxiv; Mommsen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Staatsrecht</span></span>, +and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History</span></span>, bk. iii, ch. xi; Greenidge, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Public Life</span></span>, chs. vi and viii; +Marquardt, J. R., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Staatsverwaltung</span></span>, bk. i; Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, pp. 148–53; +Rostowzew, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studien zur Geschichte des römischen Kolonats</span></span>, ch. iii. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +For the Social and Economic Development: in addition to the works cited +above, see Ferrero, G., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Greatness and Decline of Rome</span></span>, vol. i, ch. ii; Frank, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Economic History</span></span>, chs. vi–vii; Meyer, E., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Wirtschaftliche Entwickelung +des Altertums</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kleine schriften</span></span>, 79 ff.; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Sklaverei im Altertum</span></span>, id., 169 ff.; +Mommsen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History</span></span>, bk. iii, ch. xii. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +For Literature, Art and Religion: Fowler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religious Experience</span></span>, Lecture +xiii; Leo, F., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische Litteratur</span></span>, in Hinneberg’s <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kultur der Gegenwart</span></span>; +Mackail, J. W., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Literature</span></span>, bk. i, chs. i–iii; Mommsen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History</span></span>, bk. iii, +chs. xiii–xiv; Norden, E., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische Litteratur</span></span>, in Gercke und Norden’s <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Einleitung</span></span>; +Schanz, M., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der römischen Litteratur</span></span>, vol. 1, pt. 1; +Wissowa, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion und Kultur</span></span>, pp. 54–65. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter XII</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Cavaignac, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire</span></span>, bk. iv, chs. ii, iv; Drumann-Groebe, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte Roms +in seiner Uebergange von der republicanischen zur monarchischen Verfassung</span></span>, +vol. ii, art. L. Cornelius Sulla; Ferrero, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Greatness and Decline</span></span>, bk. i, chs. iii, +iv, v; Frank, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Imperialism</span></span>, chs. xii–xv; Greenidge, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A History of Rome +from 133 B. C.–69 A. D.</span></span> vol. i, to 104 B. C., Heitland, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Republic</span></span>, vol. ii, ch. +xxxv–xlvii; Mommsen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History</span></span>, bk. iv, chs. i–ix; Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, pp. 166–205; +Oman, Ch., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Seven Roman Statesmen</span></span>, chs. i–v, the Gracchi, Marius and +Sulla. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter XIII</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Boak, A. E. R., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Extraordinary Commands from 80–48 B. C.</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Amer. Hist. +Rev.</span></span>, xxiv, 1918; Botsford, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Assemblies</span></span>, as above; Cowles, F. H., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gaius Verres</span></span>; +Drumann-Groebe, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte Roms</span></span>, articles on L. Lucullus, Cn. Pompeius +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page418">[pg 418]</span><a name="Pg418" id="Pg418" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Magnus, M. Crassus Triumvir, C. Julius Caesar, M. Tullius Cicero; Ferrero, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Greatness and Decline</span></span>, chs. vi–xvi; Frank, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Imperialism</span></span>, chs. xvi; Heitland, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Republic</span></span>, vol. iii, chs. 48–52; Mommsen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History</span></span>, bk. v, chs. i–vi; +Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, pp. 205–27; Oman, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Seven Roman Statesmen</span></span>, chs. vi, viii, +Pompey and Crassus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter XIV</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Botsford, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Assemblies</span></span>, as above; Drumann-Groebe, as above; Ferrero, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Greatness +and Decline</span></span>, vol. <a name="corr418" id="corr418" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">1,</span> chs. xvii–xviii, vol. ii; Frank, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Imperialism</span></span>, +ch. xvii; Fowler, W., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Julius Caesar</span></span>; Heitland, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Republic</span></span>, vol. iii, chs. +liii–lviii; Meyer, Ed., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Caesar’s Monarchie und das Principat des Pompeius</span></span>; +Mommsen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History</span></span>, bk. v, chs. vii–xi; Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, pp. 227–257; Oman, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Seven Roman Statesmen</span></span>, chs. vii, ix, Cato and Caesar; Strachan-Davidson, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cicero</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter XV</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Political History: Botsford, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Assemblies</span></span>, as above; Drumann-Groebe, +as above, and the art. on Octavianus; Gardthausen, V., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Augustus und Seine +Zeit</span></span>, i, chs. i–v; Ferrero, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Greatness and Decline</span></span>, vols. iii and iv; Heitland, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Republic</span></span>, chs. lix–lx; Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, pp. 257–276; Strachan-Davidson, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cicero</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Social and Economic Conditions: Boissier, G., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cicero and His Friends</span></span>; +Frank, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Economic History</span></span>, chs. ix–xvi; Fowler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Social Life at Rome in the Age +of Cicero</span></span>; Louis P., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Travail dans le monde romain</span></span>, pt. ii. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Religion, Literature and Art: Duff, J. W., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A Literary History of Rome</span></span>, +pp. 269–431; Fowler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religious Experience</span></span>, chs. xiv–xvii; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Ideas of +Deity in the last century before the Christian Era</span></span>; Leo, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische Litteratur</span></span>; +Mackail, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Latin Literature</span></span>, bk. i, chs. iv–vii; Mommsen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History</span></span>, bk. v, ch. xii; +Norden, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Röm. Litteratur</span></span>; Schanz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte d. röm. Litteratur</span></span>, i, 2; Wissowa, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion und Kultur</span></span><a name="corr418a" id="corr418a" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">,</span> pp. 54–65. For Art and Architecture see the various +topics discussed in Cagnat, R., and Chapot, V., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manuel d’archéologie romain</span></span>, i; +Platner, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Topography and Monuments</span></span>; Stuart Jones, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Companion to Roman +History</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter XVI</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Arnold, W. T., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studies in Roman Imperialism</span></span>, chs. i–ii; v. Domazewski, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der römischen Kaiser</span></span>, i, pp. 1–250; Ferrero, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Greatness and Decline</span></span>, +vol. v; Gardthausen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Augustus und seine Zeit</span></span>; Greenidge, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Public Life</span></span>, ch. x; +Hirschfeld, O., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Organization der drei Gallien durch Augustus</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beitr. zur +alten Gesch.</span></span>, 1907; McFayden, D., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Princeps and the Senatorial Provinces</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Class. Phil.</span></span>, XVI; Meyer, Ed., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kaiser Augustus</span></span>, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kleine Schriften</span></span>, pp. +441 ff.; Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, pp. 276–304; Pelham, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays on Roman History</span></span>, +iv and v; Schiller, H., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der röm. Kaiserzeit</span></span>, bk. ii, ch. i, §§ 25–31; +Stuart Jones, H., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Roman Empire</span></span>, ch. i; Van Nostrand, J. J., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Reorganization +of Spain by Augustus</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter XVII</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Von Domazewski, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische Kaiser</span></span>, i, pp. 251–305; ii, pp. 1–158; Niese, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page419">[pg 419]</span><a name="Pg419" id="Pg419" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, pp. 304–331; Pelham, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays</span></span>, iii, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Early Roman Emperors</span></span>; +Schiller, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische Kaiserzeit</span></span>, ii, ch. i, §§ 32–44; ch. ii, §§ 53–56; Stuart Jones, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Empire</span></span>, chs. ii–iv. More special: for Caligula, H. Willrich, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge +zur alten Geschichte</span></span>, 1903, pp. 85 ff., 288 ff., 395 ff.; for Nero, Henderson, B., +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Life and Principate of the Emperor Nero</span></span>; for the period 68–69, Hardy, +G. S., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studies in Roman History</span></span>, 2nd ser., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Four Emperors’ Year</span></span>; Henderson, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Civil War and Rebellion in the Roman Empire</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter XVIII</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Von Domazewski, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische Kaiser</span></span>, ii, pp. 168–318; Gibbon, E., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Decline and +Fall of the Roman Empire</span></span>, ed. Bury, i, chs. i–xii; Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, pp. 331–376; +Schiller, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische Kaiserzeit</span></span>, vol. i, ch. ii, §§ 57–59; chs. iii–iv; Stuart +Jones, chs. v–ix. More special: Gregorovius, F., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Emperor Hadrian</span></span>; Platnauer, +M., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Life and Reign of Septimius Severus</span></span>; J. Stuart Hay, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The +Amazing Emperor Heliogabalus</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter XIX</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Imperial Administration: In addition to the general historical works +cited for the preceding chapters, see Boissier, G., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L’opposition sous les Caesars</span></span>; +Bussell, F. W., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Roman Empire, Essays on Constitutional History</span></span>, i, chs. +i–iii; Greenidge, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Public Life</span></span>, ch. x; Hirschfeld, O., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die kaiserliche Verwaltungsbeamten +bis auf Diocletian</span></span> (indispensable); Keyes, C. W., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Rise of +the Equites in the Third Century of the Roman Empire</span></span>; McFayden, D., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History +of the Title Imperator under the Roman Empire; The Princeps and the +Senatorial Provinces</span></span>; Mattlingly, H., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Imperial Civil Service of Rome</span></span>; Mommsen, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Staatsrecht</span></span>, ii, 2, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Principat</span></span>; Schulz, O., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Wesen des römischen Kaisertums +im dritten Jahrhundert</span></span>. On the spirit of Roman imperialism: Bryce, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The +Ancient Roman Empire and the British Empire in India</span></span>; Cromer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ancient and +Modern Imperialism</span></span>; Lucas, E. P., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Greater Rome and Greater Britain</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Army: Cagnat, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L’Armée romain d’Afrique</span></span>, 2nd ed.; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L’Armée d’Occupation +de l’Egypte sous la Domination romaine</span></span>; Chapot, V., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Frontière de +l’Euphrate</span></span>; Cheesman, G. L., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Auxilia of the Roman Imperial Army</span></span>; +Von Domazewski, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Rangordnung des römischen Heeres</span></span>, <a name="corr419" id="corr419" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bonner Jahrbücher</span></span></span>, +117; Hardy, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studies in Roman History</span></span>, 2nd ser., i, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Army and Frontier +Relations of the German Provinces</span></span>; Pelham, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays</span></span>, viii, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Roman Frontier +System</span></span>; ix, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Roman Frontier in Southern Germany</span></span>; Stuart Jones, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Companion +to Roman History</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Provinces: Arnold, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Roman System of Provincial Administration</span></span>, +chs. iv, vi, pt. 2, vii; Bouchier, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Roman Province of Syria</span></span>; Carette, E., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les +Assemblées provinciales de la Gaule romaine</span></span>; Chapot, V., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La province romaine +proconsulaire d’Asie</span></span>; Guiraud, P., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Assemblées provinciales dans l’empire +romain</span></span>; Halgan, C., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L’Administration des provinces sénatoriales sous l’empire +romain</span></span>; Hardy, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studies in Roman History</span></span>, 1st ser., xiii, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Provincial Concilia +from Augustus to Diocletian</span></span>; Haverfield, F. J., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Romanization of Roman +Britain</span></span>, 3rd ed.; Jullian, C., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire de la Gaule</span></span>, vols. iv, v; Mommsen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The +Provinces of the Roman Empire</span></span>; Milne, J. G., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A History of Egypt under</span></span> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page420">[pg 420]</span><a name="Pg420" id="Pg420" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Rule</span></span>: Wilcken, U., for Egypt, in Mitteis und Wilcken, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Grundzüge und +Chrestomatie der Papyruskunde</span></span>, i, 1. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Municipalities: Dill, S., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius</span></span>, +bk. ii, chs. ii, iii; Liebenam, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Städteverwaltung im römischen Reiche</span></span>; Hardy, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Laws and Charters</span></span>; Reid, J. S., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Municipalities of the Roman Empire</span></span>, +chs. vii–xv; Waltzing, J. P., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Corporations professionelles chez les Romains</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Colonate: Pelham, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays</span></span>, xiii, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Imperial Domains and the Colonate</span></span>; +Rostowsew, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studien zur Geschichte des römischen Kolonats</span></span>; art. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">colonus</span></span>, in +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften</span></span>; Wilcken, see Provinces, above. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter XX</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Social Conditions: Dill, S., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius</span></span>; +Frank, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Economic History</span></span>, chs. xi–xvi; Friedländer, L., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Life and Manners +under the Early Empire</span></span>, vols. i–ii; Louis, P., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Travail dans le monde +romain</span></span>; Waltzing, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Corporations professionelles</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Imperial Cult and Paganism: Burlier, E., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Culte imperial</span></span>; Cumont, +F., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism</span></span>; Dill, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Society</span></span>; Ferguson, +W. S., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legalized Absolutism en route from Greece to Rome</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Amer. Hist. Rev.</span></span>, +1912; Friedländer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Life and Manners</span></span>, vol. iii; Geffcken, J., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Ausgang +des griechisch-römischen Heidentums</span></span>, 1920; Glover, T. R., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Conflict of Religions +in the Early Roman Empire</span></span>; Heinen, H., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zur Begründung des römischen +Kaiserkults</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge zur alten Geschichte</span></span>, 1910; Kornemann, E., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zur Geschichte +der antiken Herrscherkulte</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, 1900; Reitzenstein, R., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die hellenisteschen +Mysterienreligionen</span></span>; Wissowa, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion und Kultur</span></span>, pp. 66–83. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Christianity and the Roman State: Guimet, E., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les chrétiens et l’empire +romain</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">la Nouvelle Revue</span></span>, 1909; Hardy, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studies in Roman History</span></span>, 1st ser., +chs. i–x; Harnack, A., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries</span></span>; +Flick, A. C., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Rise of the Medieval Church</span></span>, see contents (excellent +bibliography); Juster, J., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Juifs dans l’empire romain</span></span>; Manaresi, A., +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L’impero romano e il cristianesimo</span></span>; Ramsay, Sir W., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Christian Church +in the Roman Empire before 170 A. D.</span></span>; Walker, W., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A History of the Western +Christian Church</span></span>, pp. 1–108. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Literature and Art: Beloch, J., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Verfall der antiken Kultur</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. +Zeitschr</span></span>. 1900; Cagnat and Chapot, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manuel d’archéologie romaine</span></span>; Friedländer, +L., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Life and Manners</span></span>; Leo, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische Litteratur</span></span>; Mackail, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman +Literature</span></span>, pp. 91–259; Norden, E., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische Litterature</span></span>; Schanz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der +röm. Litteratur</span></span>, pts. ii–iii; Strong, E., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Sculpture</span></span>; Stuart Jones, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Companion +to Roman History</span></span>; Walters, H., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Art of the Romans</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter XXI</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cambridge Medieval History</span></span>, vol. i, chs. i–iii, vii, viii, with exhaustive bibliography; +Gibbon, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Decline and Fall</span></span>, ed. Bury, chs. xiii–xxvii; Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, +pp. 376–402; Schiller, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Röm. Kaiserzeit</span></span>, vol. ii; Seeck, O., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte des +Untergangs der antiken Welt</span></span>; Stuart Jones, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Empire</span></span>, chs. x–xi. Special: +Geffcken, J., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kaiser Julian</span></span>. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page421">[pg 421]</span><a name="Pg421" id="Pg421" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter XXII</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +General: Bury, J. B., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A History of the Later Roman Empire</span></span>, bk. i, ch. iv; +Bussell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Roman Empire</span></span>, bk. ii, chs. i–ii; Reid, J. S., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Camb. Med. Hist.</span></span>, +vol. i, ch. ii; Karlowa, O., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische Rechtsgeschichte</span></span>, i, pp. 822–929; Schiller, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische Kaiserzeit</span></span>, ii, bk. iii, ch. i; Seeck, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, vol. ii, bk. iii. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Special: Bell, N., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Byzantine Servile State in Egypt</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jour. Egypt. Arch.</span></span>, +iv; Boak, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Magistri in the Civil and Military Service of the Empire</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Harvard Studies in Class. Phil.</span></span>, 1915; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Master of the Offices in the Later +Roman and Byzantine Empires</span></span>; Hirschfeld, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Ranktitel der röm. Kaiserzeit</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitzungsbericht der Berliner Akademie</span></span>, 1901; Liebenam, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Städteverwaltung</span></span>; +Rostowzew, see chap, xix, colonate; Waltzing, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Corporations Professionelles</span></span>; +Wilcken, see chap. xix, provinces. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter XXIII</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Bury, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Later Roman Empire</span></span>, i, chs. ii–vi; Bussell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Empire</span></span>, i, bk. ii, +chs. ii–iv; bk. iii, ch. i; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cambridge Medieval History</span></span>, i, chs. ix–xvi; Gelzer, H., +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Abriss der Byzantinischen Geschichte</span></span>, i, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die vorjustinianische Epoche</span></span>; Gibbon, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Decline and Fall</span></span>, chs. xxix–xxxix; Lavisse et Rombaud, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire General</span></span>, +i, chs. ii–iv; Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, pp. 402–21. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter XXIV</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Bury, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Later Roman Empire</span></span>, i, bk. iv, chs. i–x; Bussell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Empire</span></span>, i. +bk. iii, ch. ii; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cambridge Medieval History</span></span>, ii, chs. i, ii, iv, vi; Diehl, Ch., +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Justinien et la civilization byzantine au 6 siècle</span></span>; Gelzer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Abriss</span></span>, ii, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Zeitalter +Justinians</span></span>; Gibbon, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Decline and Fall</span></span>, chs. xl–xliv; Holmes, W. G., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The +Age of Justinian and Theodora</span></span>; Lavisse et Rombaud, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Generale</span></span>, see +chap, xxiii; Niese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, pp. 422 ff. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Chapter XXV</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Religion: Boissier, G., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Fin du paganisme</span></span>; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cambridge Medieval History</span></span>, +i, chs. iv–vi, xvii–xviii; Geffcken, see ch. xx, religion; Flick, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Medieval Church</span></span>, +chs. vii–ix, xiii–xiv; Walker, W., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Western Church</span></span>, period iii; Wissowa, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion +und Kultur</span></span>, pp. 84–90. See also the historical works cited for the preceding +chapters. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Literature and Art: Dalton, O. M., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Byzantine Art and Archaeology</span></span>; Diehl, +Ch., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L’art byzantine</span></span>; Mackail, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Latin Literature</span></span>, pp. 260–286; Norden, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische +Litteratur</span></span>; Krumbacher, K., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Byzantinische Litteraturgeschichte</span></span>; Schanz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte +der röm. Litteratur</span></span>, pt. iv; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Camb. Med. Hist.</span></span>, i, xxi, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Early Christian +Art</span></span>. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page422">[pg 422]</span><a name="Pg422" id="Pg422" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +</div><hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page423">[pg 423]</span><a name="Pg423" id="Pg423" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc301" id="toc301"></a><a name="pdf302" id="pdf302"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">INDEX</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Note: All Romans, except emperors and literary men, are to be found under their +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">gens</span></span> name: <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e. g.</span></span> for Cato see Porcius. All others are indexed under the name most +commonly used in English: <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e. g.</span></span> Trajan, Horace, Alaric. +</p> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">A. = Aulus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A cognitionibus</span></span>, secretary for imperial inquest, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref">269</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A cubiculo</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#chamberlain" class="tei tei-ref">Chamberlain</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A libellis</span></span>, secretary for petitions, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref">269</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A rationibus</span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">secretary of the treasury, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref">269</a>, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref">271</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">title changed, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref">272</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> + </td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A studiis</span></span>, secretary of the records, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref">269</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ab admissione</span></span>, chief usher, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref">294</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ab epistulis</span></span>, secretary for correspondence, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref">269</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">L. Accius, tragic poet, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Achæa, senatorial province of, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref">216</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Achæan Confederacy, <span class="tei tei-corr">the</span>, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">opposed to Macedonia, <a href="#Pg69" class="tei tei-ref">69</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">allied with Macedonia, <a href="#Pg75" class="tei tei-ref">75</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">supports Philip V, <a href="#Pg83" class="tei tei-ref">83</a>, <a href="#Pg85" class="tei tei-ref">85</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">joins Rome, <a href="#Pg91" class="tei tei-ref">91</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">loyal to Rome, <a href="#Pg93" class="tei tei-ref">93</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">friction with Rome, <a href="#Pg95" class="tei tei-ref">95</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">forced to send hostages to Rome, <a href="#Pg96" class="tei tei-ref">96</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">asserts independence, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref">102</a>–<a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref">103</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">dissolved, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref">103</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Acilian law (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Acilia de repetundis</span></span>), <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref">129</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Acilius Glabrio, consul, defeats Antiochus at Thermopylæ, <a href="#Pg93" class="tei tei-ref">93</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Actium, battle of, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref">195</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Adherbal, joint ruler of Numidia, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a>–<a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref">133</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Advocate of the fiscus (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">advocatus fisci</span></span>), <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref">248</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ædileship, the, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">and public games, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a>,</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) the plebeian, <a href="#Pg50" class="tei tei-ref">50</a>, <a href="#Pg54" class="tei tei-ref">54</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">becomes magistracy, <a href="#Pg55" class="tei tei-ref">55</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">becomes magistracy, <a href="#Pg55" class="tei tei-ref">55</a>;</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(2) the curule, <a href="#Pg51" class="tei tei-ref">51</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">opened to plebeians, <a href="#Pg56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under the Principate, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref">294</a>;</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(3) in municipalities, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref">284</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ædui, the, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">allies of Rome, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a>, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref">168</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">desert Rome, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref">171</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">admitted to Roman Senate, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref">231</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ægates Islands, the, battle of, <a href="#Pg74" class="tei tei-ref">74</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">S. Ælius Pætus, consul, juristic writer, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref">122</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="laeliusseianus" id="laeliusseianus" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>L. Ælius Seianus, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">prætorian prefect, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">plot of, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref">228</a>–<a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref">229</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="maemiliuslepidus" id="maemiliuslepidus" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>M. Æmilius Lepidus, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">consul, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref">152</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">proconsul, revolt of, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref">152</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M. Æmilius Lepidus, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">master of the horse, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref">185</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">pontifex maximus, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref">186</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Second Triumvirate, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref">188</a>–<a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref">189</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">deposed, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref">192</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="aemiliuspapinianus" id="aemiliuspapinianus" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Æmilius Papinianus, jurist, prætorian prefect, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref">254</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">L. Æmilius Paullus, consul, at Cannæ, <a href="#Pg82" class="tei tei-ref">82</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">L. Æmilius Paullus, consul, defeats Perseus, <a href="#Pg96" class="tei tei-ref">96</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Æneolithic Age, the, <a href="#Pg9" class="tei tei-ref">9</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Æqui, the, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">wars of, with Rome, <a href="#Pg33" class="tei tei-ref">33</a>–<a href="#Pg34" class="tei tei-ref">34</a>, <a href="#Pg36" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman allies, <a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ærarium militare</span></span>, the, establishment of, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref">212</a>, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref">271</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ærarium Saturni</span></span>, the, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">state treasury, under senatorial authority, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref">209</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">evolution of, under the Principate, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref">265</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Aetius, Flavius, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">master of the soldiers, defeats Burgundians, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref">356</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">made count, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref">358</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">career of, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref">358</a>–<a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref">359</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref">360</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ætolian Confederacy, the, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">hostile to Macedonia, <a href="#Pg69" class="tei tei-ref">69</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">joins Rome against Philip V, <a href="#Pg83" class="tei tei-ref">83</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">concludes peace, <a href="#Pg85" class="tei tei-ref">85</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">supports Rome again, <a href="#Pg90" class="tei tei-ref">90</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">joins Antiochus against Rome, <a href="#Pg92" class="tei tei-ref">92</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">subjugated by Rome, <a href="#Pg94" class="tei tei-ref">94</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Africa, Roman province of, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">organized, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref">102</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">rise of serfdom in, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref">289</a>–<a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref">290</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conquered by Vandals, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref">355</a>–<a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref">356</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reconquered by Justinian, <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref">376</a>–<a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref">377</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Agathocles, King of Syracuse, <a href="#Pg40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>, <a href="#Pg41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Agentes-in-rebus</span></span>, <a href="#Pg340" class="tei tei-ref">340</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ager Gallicus</span></span>, <a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ager publicus</span></span>, <a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ager Romanus</span></span>, <a href="#Pg43" class="tei tei-ref">43</a>, <a href="#Pg44" class="tei tei-ref">44</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="agrarianlaws" id="agrarianlaws" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Agrarian laws, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the Gracchi, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref">126</a>–<a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref">128</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">failure of, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref">131</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Saturninus, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref">138</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">proposed —— of Rullus, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref">163</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Agri Decumates</span></span>, the, annexed, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref">239</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Agriculture, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Italy adapted to, <a href="#Pg4" class="tei tei-ref">4</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">changing conditions of, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref">115</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">development of, under the Principate, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref">297</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Agrippa, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#agrippa" class="tei tei-ref">M. Vipsanius Agrippa</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Agrippina, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">granddaughter of Augustus, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref">224</a>, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">plots for the succession, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref">228</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">condemned to death, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref">229</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Agrippina, niece and wife of Claudius, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">schemes of, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">murdered, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref">233</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Alæ</span></span>, <a href="#Pg45" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Alamanni, the, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref">256</a>, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref">259</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defeated by <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page424">[pg 424]</span><a name="Pg424" id="Pg424" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Gallienus, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref">260</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">by Aurelian, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref">265</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">by Julian, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref">326</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">by Valens, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref">329</a>–<a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref">330</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">by Narses, <a href="#Pg378" class="tei tei-ref">378</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Alans, the, invasions of, with the Vandals, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref">355</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Alaric, prince of the Visigoths, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invasion of Greece, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref">352</a>–<a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref">353</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invasion of Italy, <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref">353</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Alba Longa, <a href="#Pg29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Alban, Count, the, <a href="#Pg26" class="tei tei-ref">26</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Albinus (Decimus Clodius ——), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">saluted Imperator, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref">252</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref">253</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Alexander, king of Epirus, <a href="#Pg40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Alexander Severus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#severusalexander" class="tei tei-ref">Severus Alexander</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Alexandria, capital of Egypt, <a href="#Pg67" class="tei tei-ref">67</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar besieged in, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref">177</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">government of, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref">281</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Alimentary system (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">alimenta</span></span>), the, instituted, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref">244</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Allia, the, battle of, <a href="#Pg35" class="tei tei-ref">35</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Allies, the, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#italianallies" class="tei tei-ref">Italian allies</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Allobroges, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conquered by Rome, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">betray Cataline’s conspiracy, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref">164</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ambrones, the, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref">135</a>, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ambrose, bishop of Milan, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conflict with Theodosius I, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref">330</a>–<a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref">331</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">writings of, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref">399</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Amicitia</span></span>, status of, <a href="#Pg90" class="tei tei-ref">90</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ammianus Marcellinus, historical writer, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref">398</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Anastasius, eastern emperor, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref">365</a>–<a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref">367</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ancyra, Monument of, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref">225</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Andriscus, Macedonian pretender, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref">102</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Animism, of early Roman religion, <a href="#Pg61" class="tei tei-ref">61</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="lannaeusseneca" id="lannaeusseneca" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>L. Annæus Seneca, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">writer, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref">299</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">counsellor of Nero, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a>, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref">233</a>, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref">235</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">T. Annius Milo, tribune, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref">169</a>, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref">172</a>–<a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref">173</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Annona, the, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref">222</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Anthemius, western emperor, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref">360</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Anthenion, leader of slave rebellion, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref">137</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Antinoöpolis, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref">281</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Antioch, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="corr424" id="corr424" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Seleucid</span> capital, <a href="#Pg69" class="tei tei-ref">69</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">depopulated by Persians, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref">379</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Antiochus III, the Great, king of Syria, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">attacks Egypt, <a href="#Pg89" class="tei tei-ref">89</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">war with Rome, <a href="#Pg92" class="tei tei-ref">92</a>–<a href="#Pg93" class="tei tei-ref">93</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Antiochus IV, Epiphanes, king of Syria, forced to evacuate Egypt, <a href="#Pg97" class="tei tei-ref">97</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="antonineconstitution" id="antonineconstitution" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Antonine Constitution, the, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref">255</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Antoninus Pius (Titus Ælius Aurelius ——), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">adopted by Hadrian, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref">249</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">principate of, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref">249</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. Antonius, consul, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref">162</a>, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref">164</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">L. Antonius, brother of Mark Antony, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref">190</a>–<a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref">191</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M. Antonius, prætor, command against pirates in 102 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref">137</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M. Antonius, prætor, extraordinary command against pirates in 74 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref">154</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M. Antonius (Mark Antony), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">master of the horse, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref">176</a>, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref">177</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">consul, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref">185</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">takes charge after Cæsar’s death, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref">185</a>–<a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref">186</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Second Triumvirate, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref">188</a>–<a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref">190</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in the East and Egypt, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref">190</a>, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref">192</a>–<a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref">194</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">projects of Cleopatra and, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref">193</a>–<a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref">194</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">war with Octavian, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref">194</a>–<a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref">195</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">suicide of, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref">195</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Appius Claudius, censor, <a href="#Pg56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Appius Claudius, land commissioner, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref">127</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">L. Appuleius Saturninus, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">tribune, proposed legislation of, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref">138</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">overthrown, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref">139</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">L. Apuleius, writer, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref">300</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Apulia, <a href="#Pg38" class="tei tei-ref">38</a>–<a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Apulians, the, allies of Rome, <a href="#Pg38" class="tei tei-ref">38</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aqua Appia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Aquæ Sextiæ, fortress, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">established, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Teutons annihilated at, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Aquileia, Latin colony, <a href="#Pg97" class="tei tei-ref">97</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="corr424a" id="corr424a" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">M’.</span> Aquillius, consul, subdues rebellious slaves, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref">137</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Aquitania, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">administrative district of Gaul, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman province, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Visigothic kingdom in, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref">354</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Aquitanians, the, conquered by Cæsar, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref">169</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Arabia, Roman attempt to conquer, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref">221</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Arabs, the Nabatæans, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman allies, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref">221</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">kingdom of, made Roman province, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref">246</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Arausio, defeat of Roman armies at, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref">135</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Arbogast, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">general of Theodosius, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref">330</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">revolt of, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref">331</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Arcadius (Flavius ——), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">co-emperor, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref">331</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">rules in East, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref">351</a>, <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref">362</a>–<a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref">363</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Archelaus, general of Mithridates, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref">143</a>, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref">144</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Archidamus, king of Sparta, <a href="#Pg40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Archimedes, physicist and mathematician, at Syracuse, <a href="#Pg82" class="tei tei-ref">82</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Architecture, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref">302</a>–<a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref">303</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Christian, <a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref">402</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Arianism <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref">391</a>–<a href="#Pg393" class="tei tei-ref">393</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Arians, Justinian’s treatment of, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref">383</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Aricia, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">battle at, <a href="#Pg18" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">meetings of Latin League at, <a href="#Pg26" class="tei tei-ref">26</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ariovistus, king of the Suevi, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref">168</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Armenia, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lucullus’s invasion of, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref">154</a>, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref">155</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">occupied by Antony, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref">193</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman protectorate over, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref">221</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">struggle between Rome and the Parthians over, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref">234</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conquered by Trajan, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref">246</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman authority in, re-established, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref">250</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">won from Persians by <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page425">[pg 425]</span><a name="Pg425" id="Pg425" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Diocletian, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref">319</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman claim to, abandoned, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref">328</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Arminius, German chieftain, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref">220</a>, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a>–<a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref">228</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="army" id="army" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Army,</span> Roman, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">primitive, <a href="#Pg58" class="tei tei-ref">58</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">phalanx organization of, <a href="#Pg58" class="tei tei-ref">58</a>–<a href="#Pg59" class="tei tei-ref">59</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">manipular legion in, <a href="#Pg59" class="tei tei-ref">59</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">composition of, <a href="#Pg60" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">discipline of, <a href="#Pg60" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reformed by Marius, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">by Augustus, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref">211</a>–<a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref">212</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">power of in naming princeps, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref">235</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">quartering of auxiliaries under Vespasian, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref">238</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of legions under Domitian, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref">242</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">pay of, increased, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref">243</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reformed by Sept. Severus, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref">254</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">attitude of, <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref">258</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">barbarization of, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref">272</a>, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref">275</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">struggle of under the Principate, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref">274</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">cultural influence of, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref">276</a>–<a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref">277</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reformed by Diocletian, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref">319</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">by Constantine I, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref">323</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the late Empire, <a href="#Pg335" class="tei tei-ref">335</a>–<a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref">339</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the Age of Justinian, <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref">375</a>–<a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref">376</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href="#auxiliaries" class="tei tei-ref">auxiliaries</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">and</span></span> <a href="#legion" class="tei tei-ref">legion</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Arnobius, Christian writer, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref">301</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Art, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref">302</a>–<a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref">303</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the late Empire, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref">401</a>–<a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref">402</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Artabanos V, king of the Parthians, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref">256</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Arverni, the, conquered by Rome, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Asia, Roman province of, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">organized, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref">103</a>–<a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref">104</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">revenue of, auctioned off at Rome, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref">128</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">massacre of Romans in, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref">143</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sulla’s repression of, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref">145</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lucullus’s remedial measures in, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref">154</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">serfdom in, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref">289</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Aspar, master of the soldiers, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref">364</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="assemblies" id="assemblies" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Assemblies, the Roman, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">character of, <a href="#Pg57" class="tei tei-ref">57</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">become antiquated, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref">109</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">dominated by urban proletariat, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref">110</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="assemblycenturies" id="assemblycenturies" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Assembly of the Centuries, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">organization of, <a href="#Pg49" class="tei tei-ref">49</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">powers of, <a href="#Pg49" class="tei tei-ref">49</a>, <a href="#Pg54" class="tei tei-ref">54</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">compared with Assembly of the Tribes, <a href="#Pg57" class="tei tei-ref">57</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">approves alliance with the Mamertini, <a href="#Pg72" class="tei tei-ref">72</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">confers proconsular <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> on Scipio, <a href="#Pg84" class="tei tei-ref">84</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">induced to declare war on Philip V, <a href="#Pg90" class="tei tei-ref">90</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reform of, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref">109</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">loses right to elect magistrates, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">confirms powers of princeps, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref">264</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="assemblycuriae" id="assemblycuriae" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Assembly of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Curiæ</span></span>, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in regal period, <a href="#Pg28" class="tei tei-ref">28</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in early Republic, <a href="#Pg48" class="tei tei-ref">48</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">superseded by Assembly of the Centuries, <a href="#Pg49" class="tei tei-ref">49</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="assemblytribes" id="assemblytribes" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Assembly of the Tribes, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">origin of, <a href="#Pg53" class="tei tei-ref">53</a>, <a href="#Pg54" class="tei tei-ref">54</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">powers increased, <a href="#Pg55" class="tei tei-ref">55</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">effect of Hortensian law on, <a href="#Pg57" class="tei tei-ref">57</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">use of, by Ti. Gracchus, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref">126</a>–<a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref">127</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. Gracchus, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref">128</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">confers command of army upon Marius, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref">134</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">enrollment of Italians in, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref">142</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">creates extraordinary commands, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref">159</a>–<a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref">160</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">loses right to elect magistrates, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Assyria, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">made Roman province, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref">246</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">abandoned, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref">247</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Astrology, fondness of Romans for, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref">307</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Astures, the, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref">217</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ataulf, leader of the Visigoths, <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref">353</a>–<a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref">354</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, <a href="#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref">392</a>, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref">400</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Athens, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">friend of Rome, <a href="#Pg90" class="tei tei-ref">90</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">aids Rome against Philip V, <a href="#Pg91" class="tei tei-ref">91</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">ally of Rome, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref">103</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">joins Mithridates, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref">143</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">siege of, by Sulla, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref">144</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M. Atilius Regulus, consul, invades Africa, <a href="#Pg73" class="tei tei-ref">73</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Atomic theory of Democritus, the, explained by Lucretius, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref">199</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Atrium</span></span>, the, in Roman houses, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref">118</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Attalus I, king of Pergamon, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">joins Rome against Macedonia, <a href="#Pg83" class="tei tei-ref">83</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">appeals to Rome against Philip V, <a href="#Pg89" class="tei tei-ref">89</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Attalus III, king of Pergamon, wills kingdom to Rome, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref">103</a>, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref">127</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Attila, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">king of the Huns, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref">359</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">relations of, with eastern emperor, <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref">363</a>–<a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref">364</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Augurs, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">college of, <a href="#Pg48" class="tei tei-ref">48</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">number increased, <a href="#Pg57" class="tei tei-ref">57</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">functions of, <a href="#Pg62" class="tei tei-ref">62</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">new members chosen by Tribes, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref">138</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Augustales, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref">215</a>, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref">226</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Augustine, bishop of Hippo, writings of, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref">399</a>–<a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref">400</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="augustus" id="augustus" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Augustus (C. Julius Caesar Octavianus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">q. v.</span></span>), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">position of in 27 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref">206</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">receives <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tribunicia potestas</span></span> and other powers, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref">207</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">restores Senate, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref">209</a>–<a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref">210</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">puts equestrian order on definite basis, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref">210</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">attempts moral and religious revival, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref">213</a>–<a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref">215</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">cult of Rome and, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref">214</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">foreign policy of, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref">217</a>, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref">222</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conquests in the north, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref">217</a>–<a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref">220</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in the east, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref">220</a>–<a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref">222</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">administration of Rome under, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref">222</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">policy of, regarding the succession, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref">223</a>–<a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref">224</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death and estimate of, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref">225</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">deified, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref">226</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Augustus, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">title of, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref">206</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">shared by two principes, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref">249</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Aurelian (Lucius Domitius Aurelianus), principate and campaigns of, <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref">261</a>–<a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref">262</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Aurelian law (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Aurelia</span></span>), the, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Aurelius (princeps), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#marcusaurelius" class="tei tei-ref">Marcus Aurelius</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M. Aurelius Cotta, consul, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref">154</a>–<a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref">155</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Aurunci (Ausones), the, <a href="#Pg13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>, <a href="#Pg36" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ausculum, <a href="#Pg41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ausonius, poet, <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref">397</a>–<a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref">398</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Auspicium</span></span>, defined, <a href="#Pg47" class="tei tei-ref">47</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="auxiliaries" id="auxiliaries" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Auxiliaries (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">auxilia</span></span>), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Augustan army, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref">212</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">denationalized, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref">238</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">territorial recruitment of, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref">273</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">strength of, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref">274</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">effect of permanent + forti<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page426">[pg 426]</span><a name="Pg426" id="Pg426" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>fications on, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref">276</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref">336</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Avidius Cassius, general, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Parthian victories of, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref">250</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">revolt of, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref">251</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Avitus (Eparchius ——), western emperor, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref">360</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Bacchanalian association, dissolved, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref">106</a>, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref">122</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Balearic Islands, the, occupied by Rome <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Basil, founds Greek monasticism, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref">395</a>, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref">400</a>, <a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref">402</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Basilica, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref">124</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Christian, <a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref">402</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Basiliscus, proclaimed emperor, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref">365</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Bastarnæ, the, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref">219</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Batavi, the, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref">219</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">revolt of, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref">237</a>, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref">238</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Belgæ, the, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref">168</a>–<a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref">169</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Belgica (Gallia ——)</span></span> + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">administrative district of Gaul, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman province, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Belisarius, campaigns of, <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref">375</a>, <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref">376</a>, <a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref">377</a>, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref">379</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Benedict, monastic rule of, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref">395</a>–<a href="#Pg396" class="tei tei-ref">396</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Beneventum, <a href="#Pg41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Bishops, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of early Christian church, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref">312</a>, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref">313</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">metropolitan, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref">313</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">temporal power of, under late Empire, <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref">390</a>, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref">391</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Bithynia, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">occupied by Mithridates VI of Pontus, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref">143</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">surrendered, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref">145</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">made Roman province, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref">153</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Bocchus, king of Mauretania, aids Jugurtha, then Rome, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref">134</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Bœthius, Christian writer, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref">400</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Boii, the, <a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>, <a href="#Pg77" class="tei tei-ref">77</a>, <a href="#Pg81" class="tei tei-ref">81</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Bonifacius, Count, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">governor of Africa, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref">355</a>–<a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref">356</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">master of the soldiers, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref">358</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Bononia, Latin colony, <a href="#Pg97" class="tei tei-ref">97</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Boudicca, queen of a British tribe, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref">234</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Bribery, laws against, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref">108</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Britain, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar’s invasions of, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref">170</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conquests in, under Claudius, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref">231</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">revolt of, under Boudicca, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref">234</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Agricola in, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref">242</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sept. Severus, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref">255</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">the Saxons invade, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref">357</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Britannicus (Ti. Claudius Britannicus), son of Claudius, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a>, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref">233</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Bronze Age, the, <a href="#Pg9" class="tei tei-ref">9</a>–<a href="#Pg11" class="tei tei-ref">11</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Brundisium, treaty of, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref">191</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Bruttians, the, <a href="#Pg38" class="tei tei-ref">38</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Brutus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#mjuniusbrutus" class="tei tei-ref">M. Junius Brutus</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">and</span></span> <a href="#djuniusbrutus" class="tei tei-ref">D. Junius Brutus</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bucellarii</span></span>, <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref">376</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Bulgars, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invade eastern empire, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref">366</a>, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref">379</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">occupy Illyricum, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref">403</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Bureaucratic system, Egyptian and Roman, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref">268</a>–<a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref">269</a>; <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref">282</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Burgundians, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invade Gaul, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref">356</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">treatment of Roman subjects, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref">371</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">religion of, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref">372</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Burrus, Afranius, prætorian prefect, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Byzantine empire, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref">403</a>, <a href="#Pg404" class="tei tei-ref">404</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Byzantium, punished by Sept. Severus, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref">253</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> + <a name="Pg429" id="Pg429" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. = Caius (Gaius).</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Q. Cæcilius Metellus Macedonicus, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">prætor, defeats Andriscus, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref">102</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">subdues central Greece, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref">103</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="qcaeciliusmetellus" id="qcaeciliusmetellus" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Q. Cæcilius Metellus Numidicus, consul, commands against Jugurtha, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref">134</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#cjuliuscaesar" class="tei tei-ref">C. Julius Cæsar</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">imperial title, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref">237</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">title of imperial assistants, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref">318</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="caiuscaesar" id="caiuscaesar" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Caius Cæsar (Caligula), principate of, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref">229</a>–<a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref">231</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Calendar, the, Cæsar’s reform of, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref">180</a>–<a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Caligula, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#caiuscaesar" class="tei tei-ref">Caius Cæsar</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Callæci, the, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref">217</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Callistus, freedman of Claudius, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Calpurnian Law (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Calpurnia</span></span>), the, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref">114</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M. Calpurnius Bibulus, consul, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref">165</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="ccalpurniuspiso" id="ccalpurniuspiso" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>C. Calpurnius Piso, senator, conspiracy of, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref">235</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Camp, camps, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman military, <a href="#Pg60" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">on frontiers, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref">274</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Campania, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">fertility of, <a href="#Pg5" class="tei tei-ref">5</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">alliance of, with Rome, <a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cannæ, battle of, <a href="#Pg81" class="tei tei-ref">81</a>–<a href="#Pg82" class="tei tei-ref">82</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cantabri, the, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref">217</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cappadocia, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Mithridates, king of northern, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref">142</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">greater coveted by Mithridates, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref">142</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">surrendered, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref">145</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conquered by Tigranes, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref">153</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Capua, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">founded, <a href="#Pg18" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman ally, <a href="#Pg37" class="tei tei-ref">37</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">deserts to Hannibal, <a href="#Pg81" class="tei tei-ref">81</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">recovered by Rome, <a href="#Pg82" class="tei tei-ref">82</a>–<a href="#Pg83" class="tei tei-ref">83</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Caracalla (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus = Bassianus), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">principate of, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref">255</a>, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref">256</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Edict of, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref">255</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Carausius, proclaimed Augustus, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref">318</a>, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref">319</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Carbo, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#cnpapiriuscarbo" class="tei tei-ref">Cn. Papirius Carbo</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Carinus (Marcus Aurelius ——), co-ruler, in West, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref">263</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Carnuntum, legionary camp, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref">239</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="carthaginians" id="carthaginians" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Carthage, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">gains foothold in Sicily and Sardinia, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">attacks Sicilian Greeks, <a href="#Pg20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>, <a href="#Pg41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">allied with Rome against Pyrrhus, <a href="#Pg41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">founding of, <a href="#Pg70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">government of, <a href="#Pg70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>–<a href="#Pg71" class="tei tei-ref">71</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">commercial policy of, <a href="#Pg71" class="tei tei-ref">71</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">resources of, <a href="#Pg71" class="tei tei-ref">71</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">treaties with Rome, <a href="#Pg70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>, <a href="#Pg71" class="tei tei-ref">71</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">wars with Rome, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#punicwars" class="tei tei-ref">Punic Wars</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">cedes Sicily to Rome, <a href="#Pg74" class="tei tei-ref">74</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">loss of sea power of, <a href="#Pg74" class="tei tei-ref">74</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">war with mercenaries, <a href="#Pg74" class="tei tei-ref">74</a>, <a href="#Pg75" class="tei tei-ref">75</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">cedes Sardinia and Corsica to Rome, <a href="#Pg75" class="tei tei-ref">75</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">cedes Spain and + Afri<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page427">[pg 427]</span><a name="Pg427" id="Pg427" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>can possessions to Rome, <a href="#Pg86" class="tei tei-ref">86</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reasons for defeat of, in Second Punic War, <a href="#Pg86" class="tei tei-ref">86</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">last struggle with Rome and destruction of, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref">100</a>–<a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref">102</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Carus (Marcus Aurelius ——), princeps, campaign against Persians, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref">263</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cassian Law (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Cassia tabellaria</span></span>), the, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref">108</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cassiodorus, Christian writer, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref">400</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. Cassius, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">ex-prætor, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref">182</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref">185</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">war with Antony and Octavian, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref">189</a>–<a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref">190</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cassivellaunus, British chief, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref">170</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Castra Vetera, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cataphracti, in late Roman army, <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref">376</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cato, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#mporciuscato" class="tei tei-ref">M. Porcius Cato</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Catullus, (Caius Valerius ——), poet, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref">199</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Caudine Pass, battle of the, <a href="#Pg38" class="tei tei-ref">38</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Celtiberians, the, revolts of, <a href="#Pg99" class="tei tei-ref">99</a>–<a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref">100</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cenomani the, Roman allies, <a href="#Pg78" class="tei tei-ref">78</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-corr">Censorship,</span> the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">origin and powers of, <a href="#Pg50" class="tei tei-ref">50</a>, <a href="#Pg59" class="tei tei-ref">59</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">plebeians eligible to, <a href="#Pg56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Appius Claudius, <a href="#Pg56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">rendered unnecessary by Sullan reform of Senate, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref">149</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">assumed by Claudius, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref">231</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">by Vespasian, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref">240</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">by Domitian, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref">241</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Census, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">instituted in Rome, <a href="#Pg49" class="tei tei-ref">49</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">taken by censors, <a href="#Pg50" class="tei tei-ref">50</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">basis of army organization, <a href="#Pg59" class="tei tei-ref">59</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">lists of, in Second Punic War, <a href="#Pg88" class="tei tei-ref">88</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">increase of, between 136 and 125 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref">131</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the empire under Augustus, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref">216</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of 14 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref">224</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of 47 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref">231</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of 74 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref">240</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Centenarii</span></span>, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref">270</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Centurions, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref">217</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">disappearance of, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref">337</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Chæronea, victory of Sulla at, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref">144</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Chaldean astrologers, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">banished from Italy, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">great vogue of, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref">307</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="chamberlain" id="chamberlain" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Chamberlain, the, of imperial court, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref">294</a>, <a href="#Pg335" class="tei tei-ref">335</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Chatti, the, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref">220</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cherusci, the, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref">220</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Childeric, king of the Salian Franks, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref">357</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Chosroes, king of the Parthians, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref">246</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Chosroes I, king of the Persians, conflicts with Eastern Empire, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref">379</a>, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref">381</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Christianity, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">rise of, and connection with Judaism, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref">309</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">comes into conflict with Roman state, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref">310</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">effect of paganism on, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref">387</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">contribution of, to art, <a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref">402</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Christians, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">first persecution of, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref">233</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">lose privileges of Jews, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref">310</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">accusations against, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref">310</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">imperial policy toward, in second century, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref">310</a>–<a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref">311</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in third century, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref">311</a>–<a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref">312</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">persecutions of, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref">312</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under Diocletian, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref">320</a>, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref">322</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">treatment of, by Constantine I, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref">324</a>–<a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref">325</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">by Julian, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref">327</a>–<a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref">328</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Chrysopolis, battle at, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref">323</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Church, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">the early Christian, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref">311</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">organization <span class="tei tei-corr">of,</span> <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref">312</a>–<a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref">313</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">movement for primacy of Rome in, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref">313</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Justinian’s reconciliation with western, <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref">375</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">relation of, to the emperor, <a href="#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref">388</a>–<a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref">389</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">councils of, <a href="#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref">388</a>–<a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref">389</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">growth of the Papacy, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref">389</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the Patriarchate, <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref">390</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">sectarian strife in, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref">391</a>–<a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref">394</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">architecture, <a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref">402</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cicero, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#mtulliuscicero" class="tei tei-ref">M. Tullius Cicero</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cilicia, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">pirate stronghold, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref">137</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">made Roman province, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref">137</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">an imperial province, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref">216</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="cimbri" id="cimbri" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Cimbri and Teutons, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invade Gaul and Spain, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref">135</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invade Italy, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136</a>–<a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref">137</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">L. Cincius Alimentus, historical writer, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Circus Flaminius, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref">129</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cirta, siege of, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref">133</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="cisalpinegaul" id="cisalpinegaul" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Cisalpine Gaul, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">settled by Gauls, <a href="#Pg34" class="tei tei-ref">34</a>–<a href="#Pg35" class="tei tei-ref">35</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">occupied by Romans, <a href="#Pg77" class="tei tei-ref">77</a>–<a href="#Pg78" class="tei tei-ref">78</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">lost, <a href="#Pg80" class="tei tei-ref">80</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reconquered, <a href="#Pg97" class="tei tei-ref">97</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">organized as province, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref">148</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Citizenship, Roman, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">granted to <span class="tei tei-corr">Italians,</span> <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref">141</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">obtained by service in army, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref">211</a>–<a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref">212</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">extended by Caracalla, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref">255</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">given to barbarian officers, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref">337</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="cityprefect" id="cityprefect" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>City Prefect, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref">228</a>, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref">341</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">judicial functions of, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref">267</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cives optimo iure</span></span>, <a href="#Pg46" class="tei tei-ref">46</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cives sine suffragio</span></span>, <a href="#Pg44" class="tei tei-ref">44</a>, <a href="#Pg45" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Civil service, the imperial, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">first step in creation of, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref">149</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">growth of, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref">268</a>–<a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref">272</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under Hadrian, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref">248</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg340" class="tei tei-ref">340</a>–<a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref">342</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Civil War, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref">174</a>–<a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref">178</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Civilis, Julius, Batavian chieftain, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref">237</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-style: italic">Civitates</span></span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in provinces, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref">111</a>, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref">280</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Gaul, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref">281</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Clarissimi</span></span>, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref">268</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under late Empire, <a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref">343</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Classes</span></span>, in Roman army, <a href="#Pg59" class="tei tei-ref">59</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Classis</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#levy" class="tei tei-ref">levy</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Claudian (Claudius Claudianus), poet, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref">398</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Germanicus), principate of, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref">231</a>, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. Claudius, consul, at Metaurus, <a href="#Pg85" class="tei tei-ref">85</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Claudius Gothicus (Marcus Aurelius), principate of, <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref">261</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cleonymus, of Sparta, <a href="#Pg40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Clergy, the, power of, under late Empire, <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref">390</a>–<a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref">391</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Clients, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">early status of, <a href="#Pg30" class="tei tei-ref">30</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in the Principate, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref">295</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">P. Clodius, tribune, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref">167</a>, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref">169</a>, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref">172</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cleopatra, + <a name="Pg428" id="Pg428" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">and Cæsar, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref">176</a>, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref">177</a>, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref">180</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">and Antony, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref">190</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref">193</a>, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref">195</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">at Actium, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref">195</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref">195</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Clovis, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">king of the Salian Franks, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref">357</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conversion of, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref">372</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conquests of, <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref">375</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Clusium, <a href="#Pg33" class="tei tei-ref">33</a>, <a href="#Pg35" class="tei tei-ref">35</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cn. = Cnæus (Gnæus).</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Codification of Roman law by decemvirs under Justinian, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref">382</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cohorts (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cohortes</span></span>), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) of regular army, <a href="#Pg45" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="cohortes" id="cohortes" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>(2) urban, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref">222</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">command of, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref">228</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Coinage, debasement of, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref">298</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="colleges" id="colleges" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Colleges (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">collegia</span></span>), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">character and types of, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref">285</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">regulation of, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref">286</a>, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref">287</a>–<a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref">288</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">burdens of, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref">292</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">made hereditary, <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref">347</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref">347</a>–<a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref">348</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Colonate, the, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#serfdom" class="tei tei-ref">serfdom</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Coloni, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">free laborers, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref">289</a>, <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref">290</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">obligations of, in Africa, <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref">290</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Italy, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref">291</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under the late Empire, <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref">348</a>–<a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref">349</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Colonies, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="colonieslatin" id="colonieslatin" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>(1) Latin, <a href="#Pg33" class="tei tei-ref">33</a>, <a href="#Pg37" class="tei tei-ref">37</a>, <a href="#Pg44" class="tei tei-ref">44</a>, <a href="#Pg45" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">loyal to Rome in Second Punic War, <a href="#Pg82" class="tei tei-ref">82</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">grievances of, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref">110</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">loyal in Marsic War, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref">140</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in provinces, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref">280</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(2) Roman, <a href="#Pg44" class="tei tei-ref">44</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">established by C. Gracchus, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref">130</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in provinces, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref">280</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Comitatenses</span></span>, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref">319</a>, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref">336</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Comites, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) associates of provincial governors, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref">112</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Augusti, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref">295</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(<span class="tei tei-corr">2</span>) titles of officials of late Empire, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#counts" class="tei tei-ref">Counts</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Comitia, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) of Rome, under Augustus, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref">211</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">loses right to elect magistrates, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">loses legislative powers, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref">266</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(2) of municipalities, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref">285</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href="#assemblies" class="tei tei-ref">Assemblies</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Comitia centuriata</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#assemblycenturies" class="tei tei-ref">Assembly of the Centuries</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Comitia curiata</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#assemblycuriae" class="tei tei-ref">Assembly of the Curiæ</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Comitia tributa</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#assemblytribes" class="tei tei-ref">Assembly of the Tribes</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Commagene, kingdom of, annexed, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref">240</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Commerce, development of, under Principate, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref">297</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Commercium</span></span>, <a href="#Pg37" class="tei tei-ref">37</a>, <a href="#Pg45" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Commodus (Lucius Ælius Aurelius ——), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">becomes co-ruler, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref">251</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">principate of, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref">251</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref">252</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Connubium</span></span>, <a href="#Pg37" class="tei tei-ref">37</a>, <a href="#Pg45" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Conscripti</span></span>, <a href="#Pg56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Consistory, the imperial, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref">341</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Constans (Flavius Julius ——), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref">324</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">co-emperor, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref">325</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Constantine I, the Great (Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref">321</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">co-emperor, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref">322</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">sole emperor, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref">323</a>–<a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref">325</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">founds Constantinople, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref">323</a>–<a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref">324</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">—— and Christianity, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref">324</a>–<a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref">325</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">policy of, toward the Church, <a href="#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref">388</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Constantine II (Flavius Claudius Constantinus), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref">323</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">co-emperor, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref">325</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Constantinople, founding of, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref">323</a>–<a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref">324</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Constantius I (Caius Flavius Valerius ——), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref">318</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">emperor, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref">321</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Constantius II (Flavius Julius ——), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref">324</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">co-emperor, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref">325</a>–<a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref">326</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">sole emperor, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref">325</a>–<a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref">327</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Constantius, master of the soldiers, made co-emperor with Honorius, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref">358</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Constitutio Antoniniana</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#antonineconstitution" class="tei tei-ref">Antonine Constitution</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Constitutiones principis</span></span>, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref">266</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="consularesiuridici" id="consularesiuridici" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Consulares iuridici</span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Hadrian, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref">248</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">removal by Antoninus, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref">249</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">restored, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref">250</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Consulate, consulship, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">established, <a href="#Pg47" class="tei tei-ref">47</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">powers, <a href="#Pg47" class="tei tei-ref">47</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">limited to patricians, <a href="#Pg48" class="tei tei-ref">48</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">military duties of, <a href="#Pg60" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Senatorial control over, weakened, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref">129</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">held successively by Marius, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref">134</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under the principate, <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref">261</a>, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref">294</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref">341</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">abolished, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref">383</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Contiones</span></span>, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref">117</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Contractors (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">conductores</span></span>), <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref">289</a>–<a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref">290</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Corfinium, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref">140</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Corinth, destroyed, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref">103</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Corn doles, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref">197</a>, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref">294</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Corn Law, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of C. Gracchus, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref">128</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">proposed —— of Saturninus, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref">138</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Drusus, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref">139</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cornelia, <span class="tei tei-q">“mother of the Gracchi,”</span> <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref">126</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">L. Cornelius Cinna, consul, opposes Sulla and Senatorial party, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref">146</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cn. Cornelius Scipio, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">ex-consul, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">legatus</span></span> in Spain, <a href="#Pg83" class="tei tei-ref">83</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">killed, <a href="#Pg83" class="tei tei-ref">83</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">L. Cornelius Scipio, brother of Africanus, consul in war with Antiochus, <a href="#Pg93" class="tei tei-ref">93</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">P. Cornelius Scipio, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">consul, sets out for Spain, <a href="#Pg79" class="tei tei-ref">79</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defeated at Ticinus, <a href="#Pg81" class="tei tei-ref">81</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">at Trebia, <a href="#Pg81" class="tei tei-ref">81</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">killed in Spain, <a href="#Pg83" class="tei tei-ref">83</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">P. Cornelius Scipio Æmilianus, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">consul, takes Numantia, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref">100</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">destroys Carthage, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref">102</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">patron of letters, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref">120</a>, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">aids Senate against Gracchus, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref">127</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref">127</a>, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref">128</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="pcorneliusscipio" id="pcorneliusscipio" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">ex-aedile, given pro-consular <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">imperium</span></span> in Spain, <a href="#Pg84" class="tei tei-ref">84</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">takes New Carthage, <a href="#Pg84" class="tei tei-ref">84</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conquers Carthaginian Spain, <a href="#Pg85" class="tei tei-ref">85</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">consul, invades Africa, <a href="#Pg85" class="tei tei-ref">85</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defeats Hannibal, surnamed Africanus, <a href="#Pg86" class="tei tei-ref">86</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">extraordinary pro-consul in Asia, <a href="#Pg93" class="tei tei-ref">93</a>, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref">126</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="lcorneliussulla" id="lcorneliussulla" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>L. Cornelius Sulla, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">quæstor under Marius, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref">134</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">legatus</span></span> in Marsic war, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref">141</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">consul, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref">144</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">wages war against Mithridates, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref">144</a>, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref">145</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">return to Italy and dictatorship of, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref">146</a>–<a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref">149</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reforms of, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref">148</a>, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref">149</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">retirement and death of, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref">149</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref">150</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">character and achievements of, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref">150</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Corporati</span></span>, of late Empire, <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref">347</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Corporations, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#colleges" class="tei tei-ref">colleges</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Corpus juris civilis</span></span>, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref">382</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Corruption, of officials in late Empire, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref">342</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Corsica, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">geography of, <a href="#Pg4" class="tei tei-ref">4</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">inhabitants of, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">ceded to Rome, <a href="#Pg75" class="tei tei-ref">75</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">a province, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref">111</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="counts" id="counts" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Count, counts, (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comites</span></span>), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref">338</a>, <a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref">343</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the sacred largesses, <a href="#Pg340" class="tei tei-ref">340</a>, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref">341</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the private purse, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref">341</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the consistory, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref">341</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Court, the imperial, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">growth of, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref">294</a>–<a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref">295</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg335" class="tei tei-ref">335</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="courtofextortion" id="courtofextortion" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Court of extortion, the, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref">114</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reorganized by Acilian law, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref">129</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">use of, in interest of financiers, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref">139</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Crassus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#mliciniuscrassus" class="tei tei-ref">M. Licinius Crassus</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cremona, <a href="#Pg78" class="tei tei-ref">78</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">battles at, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref">236</a>, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref">237</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Crete, made Roman province, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref">159</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Crispus (Flavius Julius ——), Cæsar, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref">323</a>, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref">324</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Crixus, leader of slaves, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref">155</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ctesiphon, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">captured by Trajan, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref">246</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">by Avidius Cassius, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref">250</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">sacked by Sept. Severus, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref">253</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">captured by Carus, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref">263</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cult, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">household, <a href="#Pg62" class="tei tei-ref">62</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the fields, <a href="#Pg63" class="tei tei-ref">63</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">state, <a href="#Pg63" class="tei tei-ref">63</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Bacchus, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the Great Mother, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">decline of state, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref">198</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the Lares and Genius Augusti, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref">214</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Rome and Augustus (imperial), <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref">214</a>, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref">215</a>, <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref">304</a>, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref">305</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">oriental cults (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">q. v.</span></span>).</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Culture, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Greek influences on Italian, <a href="#Pg21" class="tei tei-ref">21</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">on Roman, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref">119</a>, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref">120</a>, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref">198</a>–<a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref">199</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">decline of Roman, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref">303</a>, <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref">304</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Curatorship, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in senatorial career, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref">209</a>, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref">265</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">for reorganizing finances, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref">286</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Curia</span></span>, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">municipal council, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref">284</a>, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref">285</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">obligations of, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref">287</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Curiæ</span></span>, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) in Rome, <a href="#Pg28" class="tei tei-ref">28</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(2) in municipalities, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref">284</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Curiales</span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref">346</a>–<a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref">347</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">relieved from collections of taxes, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref">366</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cursus honorum</span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of senatorial order, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref">209</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of equestrian order, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref">210</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cyme, Greek colony of, <a href="#Pg18" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>, <a href="#Pg19" class="tei tei-ref">19</a>, <a href="#Pg21" class="tei tei-ref">21</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cynoscephalæ, battle of, <a href="#Pg91" class="tei tei-ref">91</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cyprian (Thascius Cæcilius Cyprianus), Christian writer, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref">301</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria, <a href="#Pg393" class="tei tei-ref">393</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cyzicus, siege of, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref">154</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">D. = Decimus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Dacia, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">made Roman province, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref">246</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">abandoned, and new province formed, <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref">261</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Dacians, the, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref">242</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">war with Domitian, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref">243</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">with Trajan, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref">245</a>–<a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref">246</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Deacons, of early Christian church, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref">312</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Decebalus, king of the Dacians, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref">243</a>, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref">245</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Decemvirs, the, for codifying laws, <a href="#Pg54" class="tei tei-ref">54</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Decius (Caius Messius Trajanus ——), princeps, persecution of the Christians under, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref">311</a>–<a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref">312</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Decuma</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#taxes" class="tei tei-ref">Taxes</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Decuriones</span></span>, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref">285</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">obligations of, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref">287</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Defensores civitatium</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">plebis</span></span>, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref">346</a>–<a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref">347</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Deification, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of ruler, significance of, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref">180</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Julius Cæsar, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref">189</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Augustus, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref">226</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Delos, Italian colony at, exterminated, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref">143</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Dictator, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">appointment and powers of, <a href="#Pg47" class="tei tei-ref">47</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">plebeians eligible to office of, <a href="#Pg56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar permanent dictator, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref">178</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Didius Julianus, principate of, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref">252</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Dignities (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dignitates</span></span>), of late Empire, <a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref">343</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Dioceses, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref">320</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">distribution of under late Empire, <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref">339</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">and note 1</span></span>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Diocletian (Caius Valerius Aurelius Diocletianus), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">assumes imperial title, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref">263</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reign of, <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref">317</a>, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref">321</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">division of empire by, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref">318</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reforms army, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref">319</a>, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref">320</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">abdicates, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref">321</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Dionysius I, tyrant of Syracuse, <a href="#Pg20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>, <a href="#Pg40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>, <a href="#Pg41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Divus Julius, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref">189</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dominus</span></span>, title, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref">334</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dominus et deus</span></span>, title, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref">242</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dominus et deus natus</span></span>, title of Aurelian, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref">262</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Domitian (Titus Flavius Domitianus), principate of, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref">241</a>, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref">243</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Domitian law (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Domitia</span></span>), the, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref">138</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">abrogated, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref">148</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reënacted, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref">163</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cn. Domitius Corbulo, general, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">campaign of, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref">234</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death of, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref">235</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Drama, the Roman or Latin, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of third and second centuries <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref">120</a>–<a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of last century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref">199</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Drepana, naval battle at, <a href="#Pg74" class="tei tei-ref">74</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Drusus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#mliviusdrusus" class="tei tei-ref">M. Livius Drusus</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="drususneroclaudius" id="drususneroclaudius" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Drusus, Nero Claudius, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">step-son of Augustus, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref">217</a>, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref">219</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">surname Germanicus, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref">219</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ducenarii</span></span>, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref">270</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Duces</span></span>, of late Empire, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref">338</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. Duilius, consul, <a href="#Pg73" class="tei tei-ref">73</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Duovirate</span></span>, the, in municipalities, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref">284</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Dyarchy, the, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref">216</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><a name="Pg430" id="Pg430" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Eburones, the, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref">171</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-corr">Edict,</span> + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) of the prætor, in Roman law, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref">122</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">final form of, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref">248</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(2) of the princeps, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref">266</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Edict, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Caracalla, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref">255</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Milan, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref">322</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Prices, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref">320</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Education, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in early Rome, <a href="#Pg65" class="tei tei-ref">65</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">after the Punic Wars, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref">120</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Egypt, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">the <a name="corr430" id="corr430" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Ptolemaic</span> monarchy in, <a href="#Pg67" class="tei tei-ref">67</a>, <a href="#Pg69" class="tei tei-ref">69</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">loss of sea power of, <a href="#Pg89" class="tei tei-ref">89</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">friendship of, with Rome, <a href="#Pg90" class="tei tei-ref">90</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar’s conquest of, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref">176</a>, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref">177</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">added to Roman empire, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref">195</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">status of, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref">206</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">bureaucratic system of, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref">269</a>, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref">282</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">late municipalization of, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref">281</a>–<a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref">283</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">serfdom in, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref">288</a>, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref">289</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Elagabalus (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus-Bassianus), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">selected Imperator, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref">256</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">principate of, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref">256</a>, <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref">257</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Emperor, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) early Roman, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#princeps" class="tei tei-ref">princeps</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(2) late Roman, powers and titles of, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref">333</a>, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref">334</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">regalia of, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref">334</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">elections and coöptation of, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref">334</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">court of, <a href="#Pg335" class="tei tei-ref">335</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Empire, the Roman, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">division of, under Diocletian, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref">318</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">partition of, after Theodosius I, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref">351</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">condition of, at death of Justinian, <a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref">384</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Q. Ennius, poet, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Epictetus, philosopher, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref">302</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Epicureanism, in Rome, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref">198</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Epirus, sacked by Romans, <a href="#Pg96" class="tei tei-ref">96</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="equestrianorder" id="equestrianorder" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Equestrian order, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">growth of, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref">117</a>, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref">118</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">secures right to act as judges in courts, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref">129</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">effect on, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref">129</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">deserts Saturninus and Glaucia, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref">138</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">suffers from Sullan proscriptions, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref">147</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">debarred from juries by Sulla, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref">148</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">character of, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref">196</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">position and characteristics of, under Augustus, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref">210</a>, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref">211</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">importance increased by Hadrian, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref">248</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">titles of, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref">271</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">merged with senatorial order, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref">342</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Equites, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) cavalry in Roman army, <a href="#Pg59" class="tei tei-ref">59</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(2) in Assembly of the Centuries, <a href="#Pg49" class="tei tei-ref">49</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(3) a propertied class, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#equestrianorder" class="tei tei-ref">Equestrian order</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ergastula</span></span>, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref">116</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Etruria, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Iron age in, <a href="#Pg11" class="tei tei-ref">11</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">location of, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Etruscans, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">location of, <a href="#Pg13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>, <a href="#Pg16" class="tei tei-ref">16</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">name of <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">origin of, <a href="#Pg16" class="tei tei-ref">16</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">culture of, <a href="#Pg16" class="tei tei-ref">16</a>–<a href="#Pg17" class="tei tei-ref">17</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Latium and Campania, <a href="#Pg18" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Po valley, <a href="#Pg18" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">decline of power of, <a href="#Pg18" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>–<a href="#Pg19" class="tei tei-ref">19</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">historical significance of, <a href="#Pg19" class="tei tei-ref">19</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">wars of, with Rome, <a href="#Pg36" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>, <a href="#Pg38" class="tei tei-ref">38</a>–<a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman allies, <a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Eudocia, empress, <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref">363</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Eudoxia, empress, <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref">362</a>–<a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref">363</a>,</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Euganei, the, <a href="#Pg13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Eugenius, revolt of, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref">331</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Euhemerus, philosopher, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a>, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref">180</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Eumenes II, king of Pergamon, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">aids Rome against Antiochus, <a href="#Pg93" class="tei tei-ref">93</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">enemy of Perseus, <a href="#Pg95" class="tei tei-ref">95</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">suspected by Romans, <a href="#Pg96" class="tei tei-ref">96</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Euric, king of the Visigoths, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref">354</a>, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref">369</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Eusebius, historical writer, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref">400</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Eutropius, grand chamberlain, <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref">362</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Extraordinary commands, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">origin and definition of, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref">151</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">created by Assembly, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref">159</a>–<a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref">160</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr></tbody></table><a name="Pg431" id="Pg431" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Q. Fabius Maximus, dictator, strategy of, <a href="#Pg81" class="tei tei-ref">81</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Q. Fabius Maximus, consul, defeats Gallic tribes, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Q. Fabius Pictor, historical writer, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Festivals, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">public, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Secular Games, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref">216</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">increase of, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref">294</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fetiales</span></span>, <a href="#Pg43" class="tei tei-ref">43</a>, <a href="#Pg90" class="tei tei-ref">90</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Finances, administration of, under the principate, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref">271</a>–<a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref">272</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Fire, great, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Nero, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref">233</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of 80 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref">241</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fiscus</span></span>, establishment of, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref">271</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Flaccus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#lvaleriusflaccus" class="tei tei-ref">L. Valerius Flaccus</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">T. Flamininus, consul, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defeats Philip V, <a href="#Pg91" class="tei tei-ref">91</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">proclaims freedom of the Hellenes, <a href="#Pg91" class="tei tei-ref">91</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. Flaminius, tribune, censor, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">killed at Trasimene Lake, <a href="#Pg81" class="tei tei-ref">81</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defies the Senate, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref">106</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">and the reform of the Centuries, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref">109</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Flaviales</span></span>, college of, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref">242</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. Flavius Fimbria, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">legatus</span></span>, in Mithridatic war, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref">145</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Fleet, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#navy" class="tei tei-ref">navy</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fœderati</span></span>, of late Empire, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref">337</a>–<a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref">338</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fœdus</span></span>, perpetual treaty, used by Romans in Italy, <a href="#Pg45" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>, <a href="#Pg90" class="tei tei-ref">90</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fonde di capanne</span></span>, <a href="#Pg8" class="tei tei-ref">8</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Franks, the, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref">259</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invade Roman empire, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref">260</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salian, allowed to settle, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref">326</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">kingdom of, in Gaul, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref">356</a>–<a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref">357</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman subjects of, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref">371</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">religion of, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref">372</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conquests of, <a href="#Pg373" class="tei tei-ref">373</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">incursion of, into Italy, <a href="#Pg378" class="tei tei-ref">378</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Freedmen, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Sulla, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref">147</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">augment Roman plebs, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref">197</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">become Augustales, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref">215</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">rights of, restricted by Augustus, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref">215</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">influence of, under Claudius, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a>, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref">269</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">influence of, in civil service, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref">269</a>, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref">270</a>, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref">272</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">increase of, under principate, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref">266</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">laws restricting increase of, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref">266</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">occupations of, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref">266</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Frontier defense, system of, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref">274</a>–<a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref">276</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Fulvia, wife of Mark Antony, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref">190</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cn. Fulvius, consul, killed, <a href="#Pg84" class="tei tei-ref">84</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">P. Fulvius Plautianus, prætorian prefect, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref">254</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gabii, <a href="#Pg44" class="tei tei-ref">44</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gabinian Law (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Gabinia</span></span>), the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) on use of the ballot, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref">108</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(2) on command against pirates, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref">159</a>–<a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref">160</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">A. Gabinius, tribune, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref">159</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gailimer (Gelimer), king of the Vandals, <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref">375</a>, <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref">376</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gaïnas, master of the soldiers, <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref">362</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gaiseric, king of the Vandals, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref">355</a>–<a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref">356</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gaius, the jurist, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref">301</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gaius and Lucius Cæsar, grandsons of Augustus, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref">224</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Galatia, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Celts of, defeated by Romans, <a href="#Pg94" class="tei tei-ref">94</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">independence recognized, <a href="#Pg96" class="tei tei-ref">96</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">made Roman province, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref">231</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Galba (Servius Sulpicius ——), <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref">235</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">principate of, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref">236</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Galen (Claudius Galenus), student of medicine, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref">302</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Galerius (Caius Galerius Valerius Maximianus), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref">318</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">emperor, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref">321</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref">322</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gallia Cisalpina</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-corr"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span></span> <a href="#cisalpinegaul" class="tei tei-ref">Cisalpine Gaul</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gallia comata</span></span>, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref">168</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">divided, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gallia Narbonensis</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#narbonesegaul" class="tei tei-ref">Narbonese Gaul</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gallienus (Publius Licinius Egnatius ——), principate and campaigns of, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref">259</a>, <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref">261</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gallus (Flavius Claudius <a name="corr431" id="corr431" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Constantius</span> ——), Cæsar, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref">326</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gasatæ, the, invade Italy, <a href="#Pg77" class="tei tei-ref">77</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gaul, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">peoples of <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref">168</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar’s campaigns in, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref">168</a>–<a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref">172</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">an imperial province, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref">206</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">administration of, under Augustus, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">empire of Postumus in, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref">260</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reconquered by Aurelian, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref">262</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">late municipalization of, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref">281</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">kingdom of Visigoths in, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref">354</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Burgundian invasion of, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref">356</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">kingdom of Salian Franks in, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref">357</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invaded by Attila and the Huns, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref">359</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gauls, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invade Italy, <a href="#Pg34" class="tei tei-ref">34</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">character of, <a href="#Pg34" class="tei tei-ref">34</a>–<a href="#Pg35" class="tei tei-ref">35</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">sack Rome, <a href="#Pg35" class="tei tei-ref">35</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">wars with Rome, <a href="#Pg35" class="tei tei-ref">35</a>, <a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">renew invasions of peninsula, <a href="#Pg76" class="tei tei-ref">76</a>–<a href="#Pg77" class="tei tei-ref">77</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">empire of the, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref">237</a>, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref">260</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gelasius, Pope, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref">389</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gentes</span></span>, <a href="#Pg29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>–<a href="#Pg30" class="tei tei-ref">30</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Germanicus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#drususneroclaudius" class="tei tei-ref">Drusus, Nero Claudius</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Germanicus Cæsar, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">son of Drusus, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref">224</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">campaigns of, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a>–<a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref">228</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref">228</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Germany, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman invasion of, 12 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">revolt of, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref">220</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">administrative districts created in, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">campaigns of Germanicus in, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Domitian in, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref">242</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">lost to Rome, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref">260</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Geta (Publius Septimius ——), co-ruler, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref">255</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Getæ, the, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref">219</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invade eastern empire, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref">366</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gladiatorial combats, preferred by Roman public, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gladiators, revolt of the, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref">155</a>–<a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Glycerius, proclaimed emperor, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref">360</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gods, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">primitive Roman, <a href="#Pg61" class="tei tei-ref">61</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">identified with Greek divinities, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref">122</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Goths, the, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref">259</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invade Roman empire, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref">259</a>, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref">260</a>, <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref">261</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invasion of, in 376 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref">329</a>–<a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref">330</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">relations between Romans and, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref">369</a>, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref">370</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href="#visigoths" class="tei tei-ref">Visigoths</a>, <a href="#ostrogoths" class="tei tei-ref">Ostrogoths</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gracchi, the, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#tisemproniusgracchus" class="tei tei-ref">Ti. Sempronius Gracchus, tribune</a>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">and</span></span> <a href="#csemproniusgracchus" class="tei tei-ref">C. Sempronius Gracchus</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gratian (Gratianus), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">co-emperor, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref">329</a>, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref">330</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">attitude toward paganism, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref">386</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Great Mother, cult <span class="tei tei-corr">of</span> the, introduced in Rome, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Greece, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">devastated by Mithridatic war, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref">145</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Southern, becomes province of Achæa, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref">216</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Greeks, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">location of, in the West, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">colonization of, <a href="#Pg19" class="tei tei-ref">19</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">lack of unity among, <a href="#Pg20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">decline of power of, <a href="#Pg20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>–<a href="#Pg21" class="tei tei-ref">21</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">rôle of, <a href="#Pg21" class="tei tei-ref">21</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">southern —— join Mithridates, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref">143</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">status of, in Rome and the empire, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref">301</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">See also the individual states.</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gregory of Nazianzus, Christian writer, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref">400</a>, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref">401</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Guilds, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#colleges" class="tei tei-ref">colleges</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Gundobad, king of the Burgundians, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref">356</a>, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref">371</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><a name="Pg432" id="Pg432" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Hadrian (Publius Ælius Hadrianus), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">principate of, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref">247</a>–<a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref">249</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Hellenism of, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref">247</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reforms of civil service, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref">270</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reforms army, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref">273</a>, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref">274</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">improvement of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limes</span></span> and frontier defense, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref">275</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Hamilcar Barca, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Sicily, <a href="#Pg74" class="tei tei-ref">74</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conquers mercenaries, <a href="#Pg75" class="tei tei-ref">75</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Spain, <a href="#Pg78" class="tei tei-ref">78</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Hannibal, son of Hamilcar Barca, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Carthaginian commander in Spain, <a href="#Pg79" class="tei tei-ref">79</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">takes Saguntum, <a href="#Pg79" class="tei tei-ref">79</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invades Italy, <a href="#Pg80" class="tei tei-ref">80</a>–<a href="#Pg81" class="tei tei-ref">81</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">withdraws from Italy, <a href="#Pg86" class="tei tei-ref">86</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defeated at Zama, <a href="#Pg86" class="tei tei-ref">86</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">at court of Antiochus, <a href="#Pg92" class="tei tei-ref">92</a>, <a href="#Pg93" class="tei tei-ref">93</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">exiled from Carthage, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref">101</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Hasdrubal, son-in-law of Hamilcar <span class="tei tei-corr">Barca,</span> + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Spain, <a href="#Pg78" class="tei tei-ref">78</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">treaty with Rome, <a href="#Pg79" class="tei tei-ref">79</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">commander in Spain, <a href="#Pg80" class="tei tei-ref">80</a>, <a href="#Pg83" class="tei tei-ref">83</a>–<a href="#Pg84" class="tei tei-ref">84</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">marches to Italy, <a href="#Pg84" class="tei tei-ref">84</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">killed at Metaurus, <a href="#Pg85" class="tei tei-ref">85</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Helvetii, the, defeated by Cæsar, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref">168</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Helvidius Priscus, senator, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref">240</a>–<a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref">241</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Heraclea, <a href="#Pg40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Hernici, the, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>, <a href="#Pg33" class="tei tei-ref">33</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Heruli, the, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref">259</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Hiempsal, joint ruler of Numidia, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a>–<a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref">133</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Hiero, king of Syracuse, <a href="#Pg72" class="tei tei-ref">72</a>–<a href="#Pg73" class="tei tei-ref">73</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Honestiores</span></span>, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref">344</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Honorius (Flavius ——), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">co-emperor, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref">331</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">rules in West, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref">351</a>–<a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref">356</a>, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref">357</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Horace (Q. Horatius Flaccus), poet, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref">215</a>, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref">216</a>, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref">299</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Q. Hortensius, dictator, <a href="#Pg57" class="tei tei-ref">57</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Q. Hortensius Hortalus, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">consul, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref">157</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">orator, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref">200</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Household, the Roman, <a href="#Pg64" class="tei tei-ref">64</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Humiliores</span></span>, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref">344</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Huns, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invade Gaul and Italy, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref">359</a>–<a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref">360</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">relations of Theodosius II with, <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref">363</a>–<a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref">364</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr></tbody></table><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Iapygians, the, <a href="#Pg13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Iazyges, the, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref">242</a>; + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defeat Domitian, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref">243</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defeated by M. Aurelius, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref">251</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Iberians, the, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Idia</span></span>, of Egyptian peasants, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref">288</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Illus, master of the soldiers, revolt of, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref">365</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Illyrians, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">allies of Macedonia, <a href="#Pg75" class="tei tei-ref">75</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">pirates, <a href="#Pg75" class="tei tei-ref">75</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">first war with Rome, <a href="#Pg75" class="tei tei-ref">75</a>, <a href="#Pg76" class="tei tei-ref">76</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">second war with Rome, <a href="#Pg76" class="tei tei-ref">76</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Illyricum, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">an imperial province, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref">216</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">revolt of, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref">219</a>–<a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref">220</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Imperator</span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Julius Cæsar assumes title of, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref">179</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">title of Augustus, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref">206</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">change in use of title, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref">206</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">revived by Vespasian, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref">240</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">title of late emperors, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref">333</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Imperium</span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of consuls, <a href="#Pg47" class="tei tei-ref">47</a>, <a href="#Pg60" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref">149</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conferred by Assembly of the Curiæ, <a href="#Pg49" class="tei tei-ref">49</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">proconsular, given to private citizen, <a href="#Pg84" class="tei tei-ref">84</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">unlimited, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref">154</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">proconsular within and without Italy, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref">169</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Octavian, in 27 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref">206</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">valid within <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pomerium</span></span>, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref">207</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">renewed successively, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref">208</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conferred for life, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref">226</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">how bestowed, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref">264</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref">333</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Indiction (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">indictio</span></span>), <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref">345</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Industry, under the Principate, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref">297</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Infra classem</span></span>, <a href="#Pg59" class="tei tei-ref">59</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Insubres, the, <a href="#Pg77" class="tei tei-ref">77</a>, <a href="#Pg81" class="tei tei-ref">81</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Iron Age, the, <a href="#Pg11" class="tei tei-ref">11</a>, <a href="#Pg12" class="tei tei-ref">12</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Isaurians, the, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref">364</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">rebellion of, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref">366</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Isis and Serapis, cult of, in Rome, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref">306</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Itali</span></span>, <a href="#Pg6" class="tei tei-ref">6</a>, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>, <a href="#Pg20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Italia</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#italy" class="tei tei-ref">Italy</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="italianallies" id="italianallies" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Italian allies, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">status of, <a href="#Pg45" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>, <a href="#Pg46" class="tei tei-ref">46</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">loyal to Rome after Cannæ, <a href="#Pg82" class="tei tei-ref">82</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">grievances of, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref">110</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">championed by C. Gracchus, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref">130</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">by Drusus, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref">139</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">revolt, war, and enfranchisement of, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref">140</a>–<a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref">142</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Italian war, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#marsicwar" class="tei tei-ref">Marsic War</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Italians, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">relations with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">palafitte</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">terramare</span></span> peoples, <a href="#Pg11" class="tei tei-ref">11</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">location and peoples, <a href="#Pg13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Italici</span></span>, name of Italians, <a href="#Pg46" class="tei tei-ref">46</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="italy" id="italy" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Italy, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">location of, <a href="#Pg3" class="tei tei-ref">3</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">continental, <a href="#Pg3" class="tei tei-ref">3</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">peninsula, <a href="#Pg3" class="tei tei-ref">3</a>–<a href="#Pg4" class="tei tei-ref">4</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">coastline of, <a href="#Pg4" class="tei tei-ref">4</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">climate of, <a href="#Pg4" class="tei tei-ref">4</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">forests of, <a href="#Pg4" class="tei tei-ref">4</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">minerals of, <a href="#Pg5" class="tei tei-ref">5</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">effect of physical features, <a href="#Pg5" class="tei tei-ref">5</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">name of, <a href="#Pg5" class="tei tei-ref">5</a>, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>, <a href="#Pg46" class="tei tei-ref">46</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">external influences upon, <a href="#Pg7" class="tei tei-ref">7</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">peoples of, <a href="#Pg13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>–<a href="#Pg21" class="tei tei-ref">21</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">effect of Second Punic War on, <a href="#Pg86" class="tei tei-ref">86</a>–<a href="#Pg88" class="tei tei-ref">88</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reduced to level of a province, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref">253</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conquered by Ostrogoths, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref">361</a>–<a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref">362</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reconquered, <a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref">377</a>–<a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref">379</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lombard invasion of, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref">403</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Iugum</span></span>, unit of taxation, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref">345</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Iuridici</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><a href="#consularesiuridici" class="tei tei-ref"><span style="font-style: italic">consulares iuridici</span></a></span>.</td></tr></tbody></table><a name="Pg433" id="Pg433" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Janiculum, secession of plebs to, <a href="#Pg57" class="tei tei-ref">57</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Jerome (Hieronymus), Christian writer, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref">399</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Jerusalem, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">siege and destruction of, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref">239</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman colony on site of, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref">248</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Jews, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conflict of <a name="corr432" id="corr432" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Caligula</span> with, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref">230</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">revolt of, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref">238</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">war with Rome, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref">239</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">rising of, in 115 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref">246</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in 152 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref">248</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">status of, in Roman empire, <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref">308</a>–<a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref">309</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">John Chrysostom, bishop of Constantinople, <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref">362</a>, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref">400</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Jovian (Flavius Claudius Jovianus), emperor, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref">328</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Juba I, king of Numidia, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref">177</a>, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref">178</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Juba II, king of Numidia, transferred to Mauretania, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref">221</a>–<a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref">222</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Judæa, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">annexed to province of Syria, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref">161</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">made Roman province, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref">221</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under imperial legate, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref">239</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Judiciary law, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of C. Gracchus, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref">129</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Drusus, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref">139</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Sulla, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref">149</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Pompey and Crassus, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Jugurtha, prince, later king of Numidia, intrigues and war with Rome, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a>–<a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref">135</a>. +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Jugurthine War, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a>–<a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref">135</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Julia, daughter of Julius Cæsar, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref">167</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref">172</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Julia, daughter of Augustus, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref">223</a>, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref">224</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Julia Mæsa, grandmother of <a name="corr432a" id="corr432a" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Elagabalus</span>, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref">256</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Julia Mamæa, mother of Severus Alexander, <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref">257</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Julian (Flavius Claudius Julianus), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref">326</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">campaigns of, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref">326</a>–<a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref">328</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">emperor, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref">327</a>–<a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref">328</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">—— and Christianity, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref">327</a>–<a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref">328</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Julian, (Salvius Julianus), jurist, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref">301</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Julian law (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Julia</span></span>), the, granting citizenship to the Italians, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref">141</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Julian laws, of 19 and 18 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref">215</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Julian Municipal law (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Julia Municipalis</span></span>), the, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="cjuliuscaesar" id="cjuliuscaesar" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>C. Julius Cæsar, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">early life, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref">162</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">joins forces with Crassus, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref">162</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">pontifex maximus, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref">163</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in First Triumvirate, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref">165</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">consul, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref">165</a>–<a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref">167</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">command in Gaul, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref">167</a>–<a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref">172</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">strife with Pompey, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref">173</a>–<a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref">176</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conquers Italy and Spain, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref">175</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">dictator, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref">175</a>, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref">177</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Egypt and Syria, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref">176</a>–<a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref">177</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Africa, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref">177</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">dictatorship for life, and other powers and honors, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref">178</a>–<a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref">179</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reforms of, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref">180</a>–<a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">aims at monarchy, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref">179</a>–<a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref">180</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">assassinated, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref">182</a>–<a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref">183</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">estimate of career of, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref">183</a>–<a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref">184</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">oratory and writings of, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref">200</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="cjuliuscaesaroctavianus" id="cjuliuscaesaroctavianus" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>C. Julius Cæsar Octavianus, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">heir of Julius Cæsar, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref">185</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">return to Rome, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref">186</a>–<a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref">188</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Triumvirate of 43 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref">188</a>–<a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref">190</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">strife with Antony, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref">190</a>, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref">192</a>–<a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref">195</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invasion of Egypt, and triumph, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref">195</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">restores the commonwealth, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref">205</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">granted titles of Augustus and Imperator, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref">206</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(For subsequent acts, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#augustus" class="tei tei-ref">Augustus</a>.)</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Julius Nepos, western emperor, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref">360</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="cjuliusvindex" id="cjuliusvindex" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>C. Julius Vindex, legate, rebellion of, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref">235</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Junian law (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Junia</span></span>), <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref">266</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="djuniusbrutus" id="djuniusbrutus" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>D. Junius Brutus, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conspirator against Cæsar, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref">183</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref">185</a>, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref">186</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">killed, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref">188</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="mjuniusbrutus" id="mjuniusbrutus" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>M. Junius Brutus, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conspirator against Cæsar, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref">182</a>–<a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref">183</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref">185</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">war with Antony and Octavian, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref">189</a>–<a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref">190</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">exactions of, in Cyprus, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref">196</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Junonia, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman colony, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref">130</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">abandoned, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref">131</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Jupiter, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Latiaris, <a href="#Pg26" class="tei tei-ref">26</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Capitolinus, <a href="#Pg63" class="tei tei-ref">63</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Jurisprudence, Roman, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in third and second centuries <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>–<a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref">122</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in last century of Republic, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref">201</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under the Principate, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref">301</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Jurists, the Roman, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref">301</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Jury courts, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">for trial of bribery, etc., established by Sulla, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref">149</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">composition of, reorganized 70 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tribuni ærarii</span></span> removed from, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href="#courtofextortion" class="tei tei-ref">court of extortion</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Justice, administration of, under the Principate, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref">266</a>–<a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref">267</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Justin I (Justinus), eastern emperor, <a href="#Pg374" class="tei tei-ref">374</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Justinian (Justinianus), eastern emperor, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">character and policy of, <a href="#Pg374" class="tei tei-ref">374</a>–<a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref">375</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reign of, <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref">375</a>–<a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref">384</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Code of, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref">382</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-corr">Juvenal</span> (Decimus Junius Juvenalis), satirist, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref">300</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">L. = Lucius.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lactantius, Christian writer, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref">399</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Land commission, the Gracchan, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref">126</a>, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref">127</a>–<a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref">128</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Land laws, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#agrarianlaws" class="tei tei-ref">agrarian laws</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lares</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Genius Augusti</span></span>, cult of the, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref">214</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Latifundia</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#plantationsystem" class="tei tei-ref">plantation system</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="latinleague" id="latinleague" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Latin league, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">origin of, <a href="#Pg25" class="tei tei-ref">25</a>–<a href="#Pg26" class="tei tei-ref">26</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">alliance of, with Rome, <a href="#Pg33" class="tei tei-ref">33</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">dissolution of, <a href="#Pg36" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>–<a href="#Pg37" class="tei tei-ref">37</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Latins, the, <a href="#Pg13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>, <a href="#Pg25" class="tei tei-ref">25</a>–<a href="#Pg26" class="tei tei-ref">26</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">wars with Rome, <a href="#Pg36" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href="#latinleague" class="tei tei-ref">Latin league</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">and</span></span> <a href="#colonieslatin" class="tei tei-ref">Colonies, Latin</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Latium, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">the Iron Age in, <a href="#Pg11" class="tei tei-ref">11</a>–<a href="#Pg12" class="tei tei-ref">12</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">location of, <a href="#Pg25" class="tei tei-ref">25</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lautulæ, <a href="#Pg36" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Law, Roman, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">codification of, <a href="#Pg54" class="tei tei-ref">54</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">extension through edict of prætor, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref">122</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">study of, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref">122</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">codification planned by Julius Cæsar, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">introduction of equity and systematic form into, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref">249</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">forms of legislation, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref">266</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">writers on, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref">301</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">development of, under the Principate, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref">301</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">the Theodosian code, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref">364</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Justinian’s codification of, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref">382</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Laws, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><a href="#lex" class="tei tei-ref"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex</span></a></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legati</span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">provincial officials, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref">112</a>, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref">278</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">—— <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Augusti</span></span>, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref">278</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="legion" id="legion" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Legion, legions, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">manipular, <a href="#Pg59" class="tei tei-ref">59</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">men of no property admitted to, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">probable increase in size of, by Marius, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Augustus, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref">211</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">number increased, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref">212</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">quartering of, under Domitian, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref">242</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Wars of the Legions (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">q. v.</span></span>);</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">territorial recruitment of, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref">273</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">number of, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref">274</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">change in, under late Empire, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref">336</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Legionaries, of Augustus, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref">211</a>, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref">212</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Leo I, Pope, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref">389</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Leo I, eastern emperor, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref">360</a>, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref">364</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Leo II, eastern emperor, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref">364</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lepidus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#maemiliuslepidus" class="tei tei-ref">M. Æmilius Lepidus</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Leucopetra, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref">103</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="levy" id="levy" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Levy, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">for the Roman army, <a href="#Pg59" class="tei tei-ref">59</a>, <a href="#Pg60" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">tribunes interfere with, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref">100</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="lex" id="lex" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex</span></span>, + <a name="Pg434" id="Pg434" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Acilia de repetundis</span></span>, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref">129</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ælia Sentia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref">266</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aurelia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Calpurnia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref">114</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Canuleia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg55" class="tei tei-ref">55</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cassia tabellaria</span></span>, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref">108</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Domitia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref">138</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">abrogated, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref">148</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">re-enacted, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref">163</a>;</td></tr></tbody></table> + </td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fufia Caninia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref">266</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gabinia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref">108</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gabinia</span></span>, conferring command against pirates, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref">159</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hortensia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg57" class="tei tei-ref">57</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Julia</span></span>, granting citizenship, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref">141</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Julia municipalis</span></span>, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">leges Juliæ</span></span>, of 19 and 18 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref">215</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Junia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref">266</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mænia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg50" class="tei tei-ref">50</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manilia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref">160</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ogulnia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>, <a href="#Pg57" class="tei tei-ref">57</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oppia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref">119</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Papia Poppæa</span></span>, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref">215</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Plautia Papiria</span></span>, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref">141</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pompeia</span></span>, granting citizenship, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref">141</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Publilia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg50" class="tei tei-ref">50</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Titia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref">189</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Trebonia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref">170</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vatinia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref">166</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Villia annalis</span></span>, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref">108</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex Romana Burgundionum</span></span>, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref">371</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lex Romana Visigothorum</span></span>, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref">369</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Libyans, the, subjects of Carthage, <a href="#Pg70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Licinianus Licinius, Cæsar, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref">323</a>, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref">324</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Licinius (Valerius Licinianus ——), +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref">321</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Augustus, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref">321</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">co-emperor with Constantine I, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref">322</a>, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref">323</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="mliciniuscrassus" id="mliciniuscrassus" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>M. Licinius Crassus, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">prætor, command against Spartacus, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref">155</a>, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">consul, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">creditor of Julius Cæsar, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref">162</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in First Triumvirate, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref">165</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">campaign against the Parthians, and death, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref">172</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="lliciniuslucullus" id="lliciniuslucullus" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>L. Licinius Lucullus, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">quæstor of Sulla, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref">145</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">consul, commands against Mithridates, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref">154</a>, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref">155</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ligurians, the, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">a neolithic people, <a href="#Pg9" class="tei tei-ref">9</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">location of, <a href="#Pg13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conquered by Rome, <a href="#Pg97" class="tei tei-ref">97</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lilybæum, <a href="#Pg41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>, <a href="#Pg74" class="tei tei-ref">74</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Limes</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">limites</span></span>, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref">274</a>; + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">fortification of, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref">274</a>–<a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref">275</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Limitanei</span></span>, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref">276</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">organized, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref">319</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg335" class="tei tei-ref">335</a>–<a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref">336</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Literature, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">rise of Roman, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref">120</a>–<a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of last century of the Republic, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref">199</a>–<a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref">201</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the Principate, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref">298</a>–<a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref">302</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the late Empire, <a href="#Pg396" class="tei tei-ref">396</a>–<a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref">402</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-corr">Christian,</span> <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref">300</a>–<a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref">301</a>, <a href="#Pg396" class="tei tei-ref">396</a>–<a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref">397</a><span class="tei tei-corr">,</span> <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref">398</a>–<a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref">401</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M. Livius, consul, at Metaurus, <a href="#Pg85" class="tei tei-ref">85</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Livius Andronicus, author, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref">120</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="mliviusdrusus" id="mliviusdrusus" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>M. Livius Drusus, tribune, opposes C. Gracchus, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref">130</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M. Livius Drusus, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">tribune, legislative program of, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref">139</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref">140</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Livy (Titus Livius), historical writer, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref">299</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lombards, the, invade Italy, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref">403</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lower Germany, administrative district, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Luca, conference at, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref">169</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lucan (M. Annæus Lucanus), poet, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref">299</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lucanians, the, <a href="#Pg38" class="tei tei-ref">38</a>–<a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lucian (Lucianus), Greek writer, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref">302</a>, <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref">308</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. Lucilius, satirist, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">T. Lucretius Carus, poet, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref">199</a>–<a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref">200</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lucullus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#lliciniuslucullus" class="tei tei-ref">L. Licinius Lucullus</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lugdunensis (Gallia ——), +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">administrative district of Gaul, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman province, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lugdunum, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">victory of Sept. Severus at, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref">253</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lusitanians, the, Roman war with, <a href="#Pg99" class="tei tei-ref">99</a>–<a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref">100</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Q. Lutatius Catulus, consul, campaigns against the Cimbri, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Luxury, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Rome, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref">118</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">legislation against, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref">119</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr></tbody></table><a name="Pg435" id="Pg435" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg436" id="Pg436" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M. = Marcus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M’. = Manius.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Macedonia (Macedon), +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Antigonid kingdom, <a href="#Pg69" class="tei tei-ref">69</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">hostile to Roman influence in Greece, <a href="#Pg76" class="tei tei-ref">76</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">divided into four republics, <a href="#Pg96" class="tei tei-ref">96</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman province, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref">102</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Macedonian Wars, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">first, <a href="#Pg83" class="tei tei-ref">83</a>–<a href="#Pg85" class="tei tei-ref">85</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">second, <a href="#Pg90" class="tei tei-ref">90</a>–<a href="#Pg91" class="tei tei-ref">91</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">third, <a href="#Pg95" class="tei tei-ref">95</a>–<a href="#Pg96" class="tei tei-ref">96</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">fourth, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref">102</a>–<a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref">103</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href="#philipv" class="tei tei-ref">Philip V</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">and</span></span> <a href="#perseus" class="tei tei-ref">Perseus</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Macrinus (Marcus Opellius ——), principate of, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref">256</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Magister</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#master" class="tei tei-ref">master</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Magistracy, the, +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">expansion of Roman, <a href="#Pg50" class="tei tei-ref">50</a>, <a href="#Pg51" class="tei tei-ref">51</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">characteristics of, <a href="#Pg51" class="tei tei-ref">51</a>, <a href="#Pg52" class="tei tei-ref">52</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">controlled by Senate, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref">105</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">enhanced value of higher magistracies, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref">107</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">order regulated, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref">108</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">age limit set for each, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref">148</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">interval between tenures, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref">148</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in senatorial career, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref">209</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under the principate, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref">266</a>, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref">267</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">changed character of, in municipalities, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref">286</a>, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref">287</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Magistrates, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of early republic, <a href="#Pg47" class="tei tei-ref">47</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">order of rank, <a href="#Pg52" class="tei tei-ref">52</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">veto of, <a href="#Pg52" class="tei tei-ref">52</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">tribunes gain practical status of, <a href="#Pg58" class="tei tei-ref">58</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">committees of senators, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref">105</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Magnentius (Magnus ——), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">proclaimed Augustus, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref">325</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">killed, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref">326</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Magnesia, <a href="#Pg93" class="tei tei-ref">93</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Mago, Carthaginian writer, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Maior potestas</span></span>, <a href="#Pg52" class="tei tei-ref">52</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Majorian (Flavius Julianus <a name="corr435" id="corr435" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Majorianus</span>), western emperor, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref">360</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Malaria, in Italy, <a href="#Pg4" class="tei tei-ref">4</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Mamertini, the, <a href="#Pg41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defeated by Syracuse, <a href="#Pg72" class="tei tei-ref">72</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">appeal to Rome, <a href="#Pg72" class="tei tei-ref">72</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Mancinus, consul, surrender to <a name="corr435a" id="corr435a" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Numantines</span>, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref">100</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Manilian law (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Manilia</span></span>), <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref">160</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. Manilius, tribune, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref">160</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Maniple, unit of Roman army, <a href="#Pg59" class="tei tei-ref">59</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Manufactures, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref">297</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M. Marcellus, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">consul, takes Syracuse, <a href="#Pg82" class="tei tei-ref">82</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">killed, <a href="#Pg84" class="tei tei-ref">84</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M. Marcellus, ex-consul, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M. Marcellus, nephew of Augustus, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref">223</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Marcian (Marcianus), eastern emperor, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref">364</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Marcomanni, the, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref">219</a>, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref">228</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defeat <span class="tei tei-corr">Domitian,</span> <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref">243</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defeated by M. Aurelius, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref">250</a>, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref">251</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="marcusaurelius" id="marcusaurelius" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Marcus Aurelius (M. Aurelius Antoninus = M. Annius Verus), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">adopted by Antoninus, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref">249</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">principate of, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref">249</a>–<a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref">251</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. Marius, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">consul, commands against Jugurtha, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref">134</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">re-elected consul, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref">134</a>, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reforms army, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">annihilates Cimbri and Teutons, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136</a>, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref">137</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">sixth consulship of, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref">138</a>, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref">139</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">legatus</span></span>, in Marsic war, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref">141</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">struggle with Sulla, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref">144</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref">146</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. Marius, the younger, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">consul, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref">147</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">suicide, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref">147</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Marsi, the, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>, <a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Italian War, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref">140</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="marsicwar" id="marsicwar" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Marsic War, the, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref">140</a>–<a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref">142</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Martial (Marcus Valerius Martialis), satirist, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref">299</a>–<a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref">300</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Massinissa, Numidian chief, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman ally, <a href="#Pg85" class="tei tei-ref">85</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">made king of Numidia, <a href="#Pg86" class="tei tei-ref">86</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">attacks of, on Carthage, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref">100</a>, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref">101</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Massalia, Greek colony, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">ally of Rome, <a href="#Pg79" class="tei tei-ref">79</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">appeals for aid, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">siege of, by Cæsar, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref">175</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="master" id="master" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Master (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">magister</span></span>), title of, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref">270</a>. +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">—— of the foot (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">peditum</span></span>), <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref">338</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">—— of the horse (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">equitum</span></span>), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) of the Republic, <a href="#Pg47" class="tei tei-ref">47</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">—— (2) of the late Empire, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref">338</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> + </td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">—— of the offices (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">officiorum</span></span>), <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref">338</a>–<a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref">339</a>, <a href="#Pg340" class="tei tei-ref">340</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">—— of the privy purse (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rei privatæ</span></span>), <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref">272</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">—— of the soldiers (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">militum</span></span>), <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref">338</a>, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref">352</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Mauretania, made Roman province, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref">230</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Maxentius (Marcus Aurelius ——), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar, Augustus, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref">321</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref">322</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Maximian (M. Aurelius Valerius Maximianus), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">co-emperor, <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref">317</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">campaigns of, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref">319</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">abdication, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref">321</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Maximinus (C. Julius Verus ——), proclaimed Augustus, <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref">258</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Maximinus Daia (Galerius Valerius ——), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref">321</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">filius Augusti</span></span>, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref">321</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">emperor, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref">322</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Maximus (Magnus Clemens ——), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">revolt of, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref">330</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">co-emperor, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref">330</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Maximus (Petronius ——), western emperor, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref">360</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Mesopotamia, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Trajan’s conquest of, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref">246</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">abandoned, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref">247</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Romans regain upper, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref">250</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">made Roman province, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref">253</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Persian invasion of, <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref">257</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Diocletian regains, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref">319</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Messalina, wife of Claudius, plot of, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Messapians, the, <a href="#Pg40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Metaurus, battle of the, <a href="#Pg85" class="tei tei-ref">85</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Metellus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#qcaeciliusmetellus" class="tei tei-ref">Q. Cæcilius Metellus</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Micipsa, king of Numidia, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Milan, becomes seat of government for West, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref">319</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Military service, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">universal, <a href="#Pg58" class="tei tei-ref">58</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">lower limit of, <a href="#Pg60" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">length of, <a href="#Pg60" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under Augustus, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref">212</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">changes of Sept. Severus <span class="tei tei-corr">in,</span> <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref">254</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under late Empire, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref">336</a>–<a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref">337</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Military system, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#army" class="tei tei-ref">Army, Roman</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Militia, Roman, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#levy" class="tei tei-ref">levy</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M. Minucius, master of the horse, <a href="#Pg81" class="tei tei-ref">81</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Minucius Felix, Christian writer, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref">301</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Misenum, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">treaty of, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref">191</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">naval <span class="tei tei-corr">station,</span> <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref">212</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Mithridates VI, Eupator, King of Pontus, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">war with Rome, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref">143</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">comes to terms, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref">145</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">alliance with Sartorius, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref">153</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">renews war with Rome, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref">153</a>–<a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref">155</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">attacked by Pompey, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref">161</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref">161</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Mithraism, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">nature of, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref">306</a>–<a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref">307</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Rome, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref">307</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Modestine, jurist, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref">301</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Mœsi, the, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref">219</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Mœsia, provinces of, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref">243</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Mogontiacum, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Monasticism, rise and growth of, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref">394</a>–<a href="#Pg396" class="tei tei-ref">396</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Monophysite controversy, <a href="#Pg393" class="tei tei-ref">393</a>–<a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref">394</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Monophysites, Justinian’s treatment of, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref">383</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Moors, the, revolts of, <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref">376</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mos maiorum</span></span>, influence of, <a href="#Pg65" class="tei tei-ref">65</a>–<a href="#Pg66" class="tei tei-ref">66</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="qmuciusscaevola" id="qmuciusscaevola" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Q. Mucius Scævola, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">proconsul of Asia, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref">139</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">legal writings of, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref">201</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">L. Mummius, consul, defeats Achæans, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref">103</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Munda, battle of, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref">182</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Munera</span></span>, of late Empire, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref">345</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Municipalities (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">municipia</span></span>), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman, <a href="#Pg44" class="tei tei-ref">44</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Italian towns organized into, after Marsic war, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref">142</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Julian law regulating, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under the Principate, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref">280</a>, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref">288</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Gaul and Egypt, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref">281</a>–<a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref">283</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Hellenic type, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref">283</a>, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref">284</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Latin type, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref">284</a>, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref">285</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">decline of, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref">286</a>–<a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref">288</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">burden of curiales in, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref">346</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Mutina, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman colony, <a href="#Pg97" class="tei tei-ref">97</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">battle at, <a href="#Pg187" class="tei tei-ref">187</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Mutiny, of army in Illyricum and on Rhine, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Mylæ, naval battle at, <a href="#Pg73" class="tei tei-ref">73</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cn. Nævius, author, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref">120</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Naples, <a href="#Pg20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>, <a href="#Pg51" class="tei tei-ref">51</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Narbo, established, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="narbonesegaul" id="narbonesegaul" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Narbonese Gaul, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">made a province, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">extent of, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref">167</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">a senatorial province, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref">216</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Narcissus, freedman of Claudius, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Narses, general, campaigns of, <a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref">377</a>–<a href="#Pg378" class="tei tei-ref">378</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Naucratis, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref">281</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="navy" id="navy" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Navy, Roman, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in first Punic War, <a href="#Pg73" class="tei tei-ref">73</a>, <a href="#Pg74" class="tei tei-ref">74</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of <span class="tei tei-corr">Augustus,</span> <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref">212</a>–<a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref">213</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Neoplatonism, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref">307</a>, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref">385</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Neopythagoreanism, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref">307</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Nepete, founded, <a href="#Pg36" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Nero (Nero Claudius Cæsar), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">parentage of, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">principate of, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a>–<a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref">235</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Nerva (Marcus Cocceius Nerva), principate of, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref">244</a>, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref">245</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople, <a href="#Pg393" class="tei tei-ref">393</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">New Carthage <span class="tei tei-corr">(Carthagena),</span> + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">founded, <a href="#Pg78" class="tei tei-ref">78</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">taken by Romans, <a href="#Pg84" class="tei tei-ref">84</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Nicomedes III, king of Bithynia, wills kingdom to Rome, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref">153</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Niger (C. Pescinnius ——), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">saluted Imperator, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref">252</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref">252</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-q">“Nika”</span> riot, the, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref">381</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Nisibis, Roman colony and fortress, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref">253</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nobilitas</span></span>, Senatorial aristocracy, <a href="#Pg56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref">196</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Nola, <a href="#Pg18" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nomen Latinum</span></span>, <a href="#Pg45" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Nomes (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">nomoi</span></span>), in Egypt, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref">282</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Norba, <a href="#Pg35" class="tei tei-ref">35</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Noricum, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman province of, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">abandoned, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref">361</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Numantia, siege of, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref">100</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Numeri</span></span>, the, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref">273</a>, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref">274</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Numidia, added to province of Africa, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref">221</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Oath of allegiance, exacted by Octavian, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref">194</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Octavia, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">wife of Antony, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref">191</a>, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref">192</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref">193</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-corr">divorced,</span> <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref">194</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Octavia, daughter of Claudius, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a>, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref">233</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Octavianus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#cjuliuscaesaroctavianus" class="tei tei-ref">C. Julius Cæsar Octavianus</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. Octavius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#cjuliuscaesaroctavianus" class="tei tei-ref">C. Julius Cæsar Octavianus</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M. Octavius, tribune, deposed by Assembly of Tribes, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref">127</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Odænathus, king of Palmyra, relations with Rome, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref">260</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Odovacar, patrician and imperial regent, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref">361</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Œnotrians, the, <a href="#Pg13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>, <a href="#Pg20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Officiales</span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the Principate, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref">272</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the late Empire, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref">341</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Officials, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">equestrian, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref">270</a>, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref">271</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">provincial, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref">278</a>–<a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref">280</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of imperial household, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref">294</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg340" class="tei tei-ref">340</a>–<a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref">342</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">L. Opimius, consul, leads attack on C. Gracchus, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref">130</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Oppian Law (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Oppia</span></span>), the, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref">119</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oppida</span></span>, <a href="#Pg25" class="tei tei-ref">25</a>, <a href="#Pg26" class="tei tei-ref">26</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Optimates, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">struggle with the Populares, <span class="tei tei-corr"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">chap.</span></span></span> XII, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref">125</a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">f</span></span>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under Gracchan ascendancy, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref">126</a>–<a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref">130</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under Marian ascendancy, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref">134</a>, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136</a>, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref">139</a>, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref">146</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under Sullan ascendancy, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref">147</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref">150</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">strengthened by overthrow of Cataline, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref">164</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">led by Cato the younger, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref">169</a>, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref">170</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">side with Pompey against Cæsar, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref">173</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Orationes principis</span></span>, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref">266</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Oratory, in Rome, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref">200</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Orchomenus, victory of Sulla, at, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref">144</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Orestes, master of the soldiers, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref">360</a>–<a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref">361</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="orientalcults" id="orientalcults" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Oriental cults, rise and progress of, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref">305</a>–<a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref">307</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Oscans (Opici), the, <a href="#Pg13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>, <a href="#Pg20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ostia, founded, <a href="#Pg29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="ostrogoths" id="ostrogoths" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Ostrogoths, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conquer Italy, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref">361</a>–<a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref">362</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Romans under régime of, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref">371</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reconquest of Italy from, <a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref">377</a>–<a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref">379</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Otho (Marcus Salvius ——), principate of, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref">236</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ovid (P. Ovidius Naso), poet, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref">299</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><a name="Pg437" id="Pg437" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg439" id="Pg439" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">P. = Publius.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pachomius, founds first monastery, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref">395</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pagan, origin of term, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref">387</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pagan cults, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#orientalcults" class="tei tei-ref">oriental cults</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Paganism, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in the late Empire, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref">385</a>–<a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref">386</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">persecution of, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref">386</a>–<a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref">387</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pagus</span></span>, <a href="#Pg25" class="tei tei-ref">25</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Palafitta</span></span>, <a href="#Pg9" class="tei tei-ref">9</a>–<a href="#Pg10" class="tei tei-ref">10</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Palatini, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref">336</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pallas, freedman of Claudius, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Palmyra, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">kingdom of, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref">260</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">overthrown, <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref">261</a>–<a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref">262</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Panætius of <span class="tei tei-corr">Rhodes,</span> philosopher, in Rome, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pannonia, a Roman province, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref">220</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pannonians, the, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref">219</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Panormus, captured by the Romans, <a href="#Pg74" class="tei tei-ref">74</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Papacy, growth of the, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref">389</a>, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref">403</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Papinian, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#aemiliuspapinianus" class="tei tei-ref">Æmilius Papinianus</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="cnpapiriuscarbo" id="cnpapiriuscarbo" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Cn. Papirius Carbo, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">consul, opposes Sulla, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref">146</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="corr437" id="corr437" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">executed</span>, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref">149</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Parma, Roman colony, <a href="#Pg97" class="tei tei-ref">97</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Parthians, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">campaign of Crassus against, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref">172</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Antony’s campaign against, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref">192</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref">193</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Augustus and, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref">221</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">struggle with Rome over Armenia, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref">234</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Trajan’s campaign against, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref">246</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">war with, 161–165 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref">250</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">campaign of Sept. Severus against, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref">253</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Caracalla and, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref">256</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pater patriæ</span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">title of Julius Cæsar, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref">179</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">title of Augustus, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref">208</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Patres</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#patricians" class="tei tei-ref">Patricians</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Patria potestas</span></span>, <a href="#Pg64" class="tei tei-ref">64</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Patriarchate of Constantinople, the, growth of, <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref">390</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="patricians" id="patricians" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Patricians, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">definition <span class="tei tei-corr">of,</span> <a href="#Pg29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in regal period, <a href="#Pg29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>–<a href="#Pg30" class="tei tei-ref">30</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">new families of, created, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref">213</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">title under late Empire, <a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref">343</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> + </td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Patricii</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#patricians" class="tei tei-ref">Patricians</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Patrimonium</span></span>, evolution of the, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref">271</a>–<a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref">272</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Patrons, in early Rome, <a href="#Pg30" class="tei tei-ref">30</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Patrum auctoritas</span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">exercised by patrician senators, <a href="#Pg49" class="tei tei-ref">49</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">restricted for the Assembly of the Centuries, <a href="#Pg49" class="tei tei-ref">49</a>–<a href="#Pg50" class="tei tei-ref">50</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Paul (Julius Paulus), jurist, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref">301</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Peasantry, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">decline of, in Italy, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref">116</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">increase of, due to Gracchan laws, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref">131</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reduced to serfdom, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref">288</a>–<a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref">292</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Perfectissimate, the, <a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref">343</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pergamon, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">kingdom of, <a href="#Pg70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">enlarged by Romans, <a href="#Pg94" class="tei tei-ref">94</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">willed to Rome, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref">103</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M. Perperna, leader of Marian faction, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref">152</a>, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref">153</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="perseus" id="perseus" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Perseus, son of Philip V, and king of Macedonia, war with Rome, <a href="#Pg95" class="tei tei-ref">95</a>, <a href="#Pg96" class="tei tei-ref">96</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Persians, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">campaign of Severus Alexander against, <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref">257</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Valerian, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref">259</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Carus, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref">263</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Diocletian, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref">319</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Constantius II and Julian, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref">326</a>–<a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref">328</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Valens, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref">329</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">wars with Eastern Empire, <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref">363</a>, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref">366</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Justinian’s war with, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref">379</a>, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref">381</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pertinax (Publius Helvius ——), principate of, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref">252</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Perusia, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref">191</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. Petronius, writer, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref">299</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Phalanx, the, in Roman army, <a href="#Pg58" class="tei tei-ref">58</a>–<a href="#Pg59" class="tei tei-ref">59</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pharisees, the, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref">238</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pharnaces, son of Mithridates, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">makes peace with Pompey, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref">161</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defeated by Cæsar, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref">177</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pharsalus, battle of, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref">176</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="philipv" id="philipv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Philip V, king of Macedonia, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">at war with Ætolians, <a href="#Pg76" class="tei tei-ref">76</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">becomes an ally of Carthage, <a href="#Pg82" class="tei tei-ref">82</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">at war with Rome, Ætolians, and Pergamon, <a href="#Pg83" class="tei tei-ref">83</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">concludes peace, <a href="#Pg85" class="tei tei-ref">85</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">alliance with Antiochus III against Egypt, <a href="#Pg89" class="tei tei-ref">89</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">second war with Rome, <a href="#Pg90" class="tei tei-ref">90</a>, <a href="#Pg91" class="tei tei-ref">91</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">cedes Greek possession to Rome, <a href="#Pg91" class="tei tei-ref">91</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">supports Rome against Antiochus, <a href="#Pg93" class="tei tei-ref">93</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">later hostility to Rome, <a href="#Pg95" class="tei tei-ref">95</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Philippi, battle of, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref">190</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Philosophy, under the Principate, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref">302</a>, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref">307</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Phœnicians, the, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#carthaginians" class="tei tei-ref">Carthaginians</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Phraates IV, king of the Parthians, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref">221</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Picentes, the, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>, <a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>, <a href="#Pg44" class="tei tei-ref">44</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pietas</span></span>, Roman conception of, <a href="#Pg65" class="tei tei-ref">65</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pilum, javelin, adopted in Roman army, <a href="#Pg59" class="tei tei-ref">59</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Piræus, Athens and, besieged by Sulla, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref">144</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pirates, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">depredations of, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref">137</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-corr">Roman,</span> <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref">137</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">command of Marcus <a name="corr437a" id="corr437a" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Antonius</span> against, in 74 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref">154</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">command of Pompey against, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref">159</a>, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref">160</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Piso, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#ccalpurniuspiso" class="tei tei-ref">C. Calpurnius Piso</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Placidia, Roman princess, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref">354</a>, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref">358</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Placentia, <a href="#Pg78" class="tei tei-ref">78</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Plague, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of 166 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref">250</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of 252 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref">259</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="plantationsystem" id="plantationsystem" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Plantation system, the, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref">115</a>, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref">197</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">transformation of, under Principate, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref">291</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">growth of, under late Empire, <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref">348</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Plautus (Titus Maccius ——), dramatist, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref">120</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="plebeians" id="plebeians" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Plebeians, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">definition of, and status in early Rome, <a href="#Pg30" class="tei tei-ref">30</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">struggle for equality with patricians, <a href="#Pg52" class="tei tei-ref">52</a>–<a href="#Pg58" class="tei tei-ref">58</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">admitted to consulship, <a href="#Pg55" class="tei tei-ref">55</a>, <a href="#Pg56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Senate, <a href="#Pg56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">secession to Janiculum, <a href="#Pg57" class="tei tei-ref">57</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Plebiscites (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">plebi scita</span></span>), <a href="#Pg55" class="tei tei-ref">55</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">binding without Senate’s previous sanction, <a href="#Pg57" class="tei tei-ref">57</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Plebs, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#plebeians" class="tei tei-ref">Plebeians</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(2) of later Republic, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref">197</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under Augustus, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref">211</a>, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref">222</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">colleges of, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref">285</a>, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref">286</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pliny, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) the elder (Caius Plinius Secundus), writer, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref">299</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(2) the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page438">[pg 438]</span><a name="Pg438" id="Pg438" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>younger (C. Plinius Cæcilius Secundus), letters of, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref">300</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Plotinus, philosopher, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref">302</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Plutarch, Greek writer, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref">302</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Poetry, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) Roman, or Latin,<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of third and second centuries, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref">120</a>–<a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of last century of the Republic, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref">199</a>–<a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref">200</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the Principate, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref">298</a>–<a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref">300</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref">397</a>–<a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref">398</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> + </td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">—— (2) Greek, of late Empire, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref">401</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">—— (3) Christian, <a href="#Pg396" class="tei tei-ref">396</a>–<a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref">397</a>; <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref">399</a>–<a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref">401</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Police, of Rome, the, under Augustus, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref">222</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Polybius, Greek historian, view of Roman constitution, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref">106</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pomerium</span></span>, the, of Rome, <a href="#Pg27" class="tei tei-ref">27</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pompeian law (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Pompeia</span></span>), granting citizenship and Latin rights, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref">141</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pompeii, <span class="tei tei-corr"><a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref">241</a>.</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cn. Pompeius (Pompey), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">raises army for Sulla, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref">146</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">receives honors from Sulla, and triumph, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref">149</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">command against Sertorius, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref">152</a>, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref">153</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">consul, 70 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">command against pirates, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref">159</a>, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref">160</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">command against Mithridates, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref">160</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref">161</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in First Triumvirate, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref">165</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">curator annonæ, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref">169</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">sole consul, and height of power, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref">173</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">strife with Cæsar, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref">173</a>–<a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref">176</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defeat and death, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref">176</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cn. Pompeius (Pompey), son of Pompey the Great, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>–<a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref">182</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">S. Pompeius (Pompey), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">son of Pompey the Great, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>–<a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref">182</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">opposition to Antony and Octavian, <a href="#Pg187" class="tei tei-ref">187</a>–<a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref">190</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">makes terms, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref">191</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defeated, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref">192</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pontifex Maximus</span></span>, office of, <a href="#Pg48" class="tei tei-ref">48</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pontiffs, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">number increased, <a href="#Pg57" class="tei tei-ref">57</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">new members chosen by Tribes, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref">138</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pontus, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">kingdom of Mithridates VI, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref">142</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">subjugated and made a Roman province, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref">161</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Popilius (Lænas), Roman ambassador, <a href="#Pg96" class="tei tei-ref">96</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Populares, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">struggle with the Optimates, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">chap.</span></span> XII, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref">125</a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">f</span></span>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under Gracchan ascendancy, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref">126</a>–<a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref">130</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under Marian ascendancy, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref">134</a>, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136</a>–<a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref">139</a>, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref">146</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">led by Saturninus and Glaucia, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref">138</a>–<a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref">139</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">led by Sulpicius Rufus, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref">144</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">support Pompey and Crassus, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Populus</span></span>, <a href="#Pg25" class="tei tei-ref">25</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Populus Romanus</span></span>, <a href="#Pg29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="mporciuscato" id="mporciuscato" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>M. Porcius Cato, the Elder, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">hostility to Carthage, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref">101</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">opposes luxury, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref">119</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">writer of Latin prose, <span class="tei tei-corr"><a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>.</span></td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">M. Porcius Cato, the younger, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref">164</a>, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref">165</a>, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref">169</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref">177</a>–<a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref">179</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Portoria</span></span>, customs dues, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref">113</a>, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref">279</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Posidonius, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref">198</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Postumus, M. Cassius Latinius, general, forms empire in Gaul, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref">260</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref">262</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Potestas, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">maior</span></span>, <a href="#Pg52" class="tei tei-ref">52</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(2) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tribunicia</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><a href="#tribuniciapotestas" class="tei tei-ref"><span style="font-style: italic">tribunicia potestas</span></a></span>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Præfectus annonæ</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span></span> <a href="#prefectofthegrainsupply" class="tei tei-ref">prefect of the grain supply</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Præfectus morum</span></span>, Julius Cæsar appointed, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref">179</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Præfectus urbi</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#cityprefect" class="tei tei-ref">city prefect</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Præfectus vigilum</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#prefectofthewatch" class="tei tei-ref">prefect of the watch</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Præneste, <a href="#Pg37" class="tei tei-ref">37</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Præses</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">præsides</span></span>, title of, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref">278</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prætor </span><a name="corr438" id="corr438" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><span style="font-style: italic">peregrinus</span></span><span style="font-style: italic">,</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#praetorship" class="tei tei-ref">Prætorship</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Prætorian prefect, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref">211</a>, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref">212</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">increase in power of, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref">254</a>, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref">255</a>, <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref">257</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of senatorial rank, <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref">257</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">court of, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref">267</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">title, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref">271</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">deprived of military authority, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref">323</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under late Empire, <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref">339</a>, <a href="#Pg340" class="tei tei-ref">340</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Prætorians, prætorian guard, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under Augustus, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref">212</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">concentrated at Rome, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref">228</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">nominate Claudius princeps, <a href="#Pg23" class="tei tei-ref">23</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reconstituted, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref">240</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">disbanded and reconstituted by Sept. Severus, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref">254</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="praetorship" id="praetorship" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Prætorship, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">city, <a href="#Pg51" class="tei tei-ref">51</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">plebeians eligible to, <a href="#Pg56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">prætor <a name="corr438a" id="corr438a" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">peregrinus</span>, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref">109</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">increased in number, for provinces, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref">109</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">effect of prætorian edict on Roman law, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref">122</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">increased in number by Sulla, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref">148</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">by Julius Cæsar, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">decline of, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref">267</a>, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref">294</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref">341</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="prefects" id="prefects" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Prefect of Egypt, the, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref">278</a>, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref">282</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="prefectofthegrainsupply" id="prefectofthegrainsupply" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Prefect of the grain supply, the, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref">222</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">functions limited, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref">255</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="prefectofthewatch" id="prefectofthewatch" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Prefect of the watch, the, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref">222</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Prefectures, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) of auxiliary corps, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref">210</a>, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref">278</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(2) the great, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref">222</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">titles of occupants of, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref">271</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see also</span></span> <a href="#prefects" class="tei tei-ref">Prefects</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Priesthoods, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">general characteristics of, <a href="#Pg48" class="tei tei-ref">48</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">opened to plebeians, <a href="#Pg56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">enlarged by Julius Cæsar, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">decline of, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref">198</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reëstablishment of, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref">213</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="princeps" id="princeps" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Princeps, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pompey considered as, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref">173</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">definition of, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref">208</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">powers of, increase at expense of Senate, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref">264</a>–<a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref">267</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">friction with Senate, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref">267</a>–<a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref">268</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">title of, in Egypt, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref">281</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Principate, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">foreshadowed by Pompey’s position, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref">173</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">establishment of, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">chap.</span></span> XVI, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref">205</a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">f</span></span>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defined and explained, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref">208</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">weakness of, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref">225</a>, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref">226</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">constitutional development of, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">chap.</span></span> XIX, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref">264</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Principes</span></span>, officials of late Empire, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref">338</a>, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref">342</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Probus (Marcus Aurelius ——), principate and campaigns of, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref">262</a>–<a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref">263</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Proconsulship, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">instituted, <a href="#Pg51" class="tei tei-ref">51</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">frequent in Second Punic War, <a href="#Pg87" class="tei tei-ref">87</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">evolution of, under the Principate, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref">265</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Procopius, historical writer, <span class="tei tei-corr"><a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref">401</a>.</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Procuratorships, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">equestrians eligible to, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref">210</a>, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref">265</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">freedmen admitted to, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref">270</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">increased, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref">270</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">classification, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref">270</a>, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref">271</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">replace <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">publicani</span></span>, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref">279</a>, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref">280</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Proletariat, the urban, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref">117</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="promagistracy" id="promagistracy" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Promagistracy, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">instituted, <a href="#Pg51" class="tei tei-ref">51</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reorganized by Sulla, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref">148</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">law of Pompey regulating, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref">174</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in senatorial career, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref">209</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Propertius, poet, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref">299</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="corr439" id="corr439" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Propraetorship</span>, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">use of, in second Punic War, <a href="#Pg87" class="tei tei-ref">87</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">given to Pompey, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref">149</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see also</span></span> <a href="#promagistracy" class="tei tei-ref">Promagistracy</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Proscriptions, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Sulla, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref">147</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Second Triumvirate, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref">189</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Prose, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) Roman or Latin, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of third and second centuries <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of last century of Republic, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref">200</a>, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref">201</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the Principate, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref">299</a>–<a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref">301</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref">397</a>, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref">398</a>;</td></tr></tbody></table> + </td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(2) Greek, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the Principate, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref">302</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref">401</a>;</td></tr></tbody></table> + </td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(3) Christian, of late Empire, <a href="#Pg396" class="tei tei-ref">396</a>–<a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref">398</a>, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref">400</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Provinces, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">organization and government of, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref">110</a>–<a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref">114</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">governors of, appointed on new basis, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref">148</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">imperial and senatorial, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref">216</a>, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref">278</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">condition of, under the Principate, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref">277</a>–<a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref">285</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">officials of, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref">278</a>–<a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref">280</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">subdivision of, by Diocletian, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref">319</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">government of, under late Empire, <a href="#Pg340" class="tei tei-ref">340</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Provincial governors, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under the Republic, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref">112</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under the Principate, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref">278</a>–<a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref">279</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under late Empire, <a href="#Pg340" class="tei tei-ref">340</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ptolemais, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref">281</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ptolemy IV, Philopater, king of Egypt, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">supplies Rome with grain, <a href="#Pg88" class="tei tei-ref">88</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death of, <a href="#Pg89" class="tei tei-ref">89</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ptolemy XIV, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref">176</a>, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref">177</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemæus), astronomer, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref">302</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Publicani</span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">tax-farmers, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref">113</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">equestrians, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref">117</a>, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref">118</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under the Principate, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref">279</a>, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref">280</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pulcheria, regent for Theodosius II, <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref">363</a>, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref">364</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="punicwars" id="punicwars" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Punic Wars, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">first, <a href="#Pg72" class="tei tei-ref">72</a>–<a href="#Pg73" class="tei tei-ref">73</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">second, <a href="#Pg78" class="tei tei-ref">78</a>–<a href="#Pg88" class="tei tei-ref">88</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">effect of, on Italy, <a href="#Pg86" class="tei tei-ref">86</a>–<a href="#Pg88" class="tei tei-ref">88</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">third, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref">100</a>–<a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref">102</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, <a href="#Pg40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>–<a href="#Pg42" class="tei tei-ref">42</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Q. = Quintus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Quadi, the, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref">242</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defeated by M. Aurelius, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref">250</a>, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref">251</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quæstio rerum repetundarum</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#courtofextortion" class="tei tei-ref">Court of Extortion</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Quæstorship, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) Roman magistracy, <a href="#Pg50" class="tei tei-ref">50</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">plebeians eligible to, <a href="#Pg55" class="tei tei-ref">55</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in provinces, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref">112</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">number increased by Sulla, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref">148</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">by Julius Cæsar, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in senatorial career, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref">209</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref">341</a>;</td></tr></tbody></table> + </td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(2) in the provinces, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref">278</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(3) in municipalities, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref">284</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(4) at court of later Emperors, <a href="#Pg340" class="tei tei-ref">340</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">P. Quinctilius Varus, defeat of, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref">220</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quinquennales</span></span>, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref">284</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quinquennium Neronis</span></span>, the, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Quintilian (Marcus Fabius Quintillianus), writer, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref">299</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quirites</span></span>, <a href="#Pg29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ræti, the, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref">217</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Rætia, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman province of, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">abandoned, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref">361</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rationalis</span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">secretary of the treasury, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref">272</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">superseded by count of the sacred largesses, <a href="#Pg340" class="tei tei-ref">340</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ravenna, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">naval station, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref">212</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ostrogothic capital, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref">371</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">capture of, by Belisarius, <a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref">377</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Recruitment, of legions, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">territorial, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref">272</a>, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref">273</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of army under late Empire, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref">336</a>, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref">337</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Religion, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of early Rome, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">chap.</span></span> VII, <a href="#Pg61" class="tei tei-ref">61</a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">f</span></span>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">importance of ritual in, <a href="#Pg61" class="tei tei-ref">61</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">foreign influences in, <a href="#Pg63" class="tei tei-ref">63</a>, <a href="#Pg64" class="tei tei-ref">64</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">and morality, <a href="#Pg64" class="tei tei-ref">64</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">adoption of Greek mythology by Rome, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref">122</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">increasing skepticism in, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in last century of Republic, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref">197</a>, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref">198</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">revival under Augustus, <a name="corr439a" id="corr439a" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr"><a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref">213</a></span>–<a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref">215</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under the Principate, <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref">304</a>–<a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref">313</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">oriental cults, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref">305</a>–<a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref">307</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Judaism and Christianity, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref">303</a>, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref">313</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the Germanic tribes, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref">371</a>, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref">372</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Res privata</span></span>, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref">272</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref">341</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Rhegium, <a href="#Pg20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Rhodes, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">island republic, <a href="#Pg70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">appeals to Rome against Philip V, <a href="#Pg90" class="tei tei-ref">90</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">joins Rome against Antiochus, <a href="#Pg93" class="tei tei-ref">93</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">territory enlarged, <a href="#Pg94" class="tei tei-ref">94</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">punished by Rome, <a href="#Pg96" class="tei tei-ref">96</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ricimer, master of the soldiers, career of, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref">360</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="roadsystem" id="roadsystem" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Road system, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Italy, improved under C. Gracchus, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref">128</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><a href="#via" class="tei tei-ref"><span style="font-style: italic">Via Appia</span></a></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">etc.</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roma, worship of, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref">214</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman confederacy in Italy, the, <a href="#Pg42" class="tei tei-ref">42</a>–<a href="#Pg46" class="tei tei-ref">46</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">military strength of, <a href="#Pg77" class="tei tei-ref">77</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman foreign policy, <a href="#Pg42" class="tei tei-ref">42</a>, <a href="#Pg43" class="tei tei-ref">43</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">new field for, <a href="#Pg67" class="tei tei-ref">67</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">towards the Greek states, <a href="#Pg94" class="tei tei-ref">94</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">toward Macedonia, <a href="#Pg95" class="tei tei-ref">95</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in east<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page440">[pg 440]</span><a name="Pg440" id="Pg440" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>ern Mediterranean, <a href="#Pg96" class="tei tei-ref">96</a>, <a href="#Pg97" class="tei tei-ref">97</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">from 167–133 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg99" class="tei tei-ref">99</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Romans, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">a Latin people, <a href="#Pg27" class="tei tei-ref">27</a>, <a href="#Pg29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">name of, <a href="#Pg29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under the Visigoths, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref">369</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under the Vandals, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref">370</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under the Ostrogoths, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref">370</a>, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref">371</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under the Burgundians and the Franks, <span class="tei tei-corr"><a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref">371</a>.</span></td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Romanus, poet, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref">401</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Rome, the city of, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">site, <a href="#Pg26" class="tei tei-ref">26</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">growth of, <a href="#Pg26" class="tei tei-ref">26</a>, <a href="#Pg27" class="tei tei-ref">27</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Etruscan influences, <a href="#Pg28" class="tei tei-ref">28</a>, <a href="#Pg29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the Four Regions, <a href="#Pg26" class="tei tei-ref">26</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">sacked by Gauls, <a href="#Pg35" class="tei tei-ref">35</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Servian wall of, <a href="#Pg35" class="tei tei-ref">35</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">change in appearance of, in third and second centuries <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a>, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref">124</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">administration of, under Augustus, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">devastated by fire, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref">233</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">receives title of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sacra</span></span>, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref">253</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">similarity to provincial city, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref">283</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under the Principate, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref">293</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">ceases to be capital, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref">319</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">plundered by Alaric, <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref">353</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">by Vandals, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref">356</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Belisarius besieged in, <a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref">377</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Romulus Augustulus, western emperor, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref">361</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rorarii</span></span>, light troops, <a href="#Pg59" class="tei tei-ref">59</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Rufinus, master of the soldiers, <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref">362</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Rutilius Namatianus, poet, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref">398</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">P. Rutilius Rufus, ex-quæstor, trial of, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref">139</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><a name="Pg442" id="Pg442" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">S. = Sextus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">St. Anthony, founds monastic colony, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref">395</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">St. Sophia, building of, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref">383</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sabellians, the, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sabines, the, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>, <a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sacrosanctitas</span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of tribune, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref">179</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">granted to Octavian, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref">193</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Saducees, the, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref">238</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Saguntum, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">allied with Rome, <a href="#Pg79" class="tei tei-ref">79</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">taken by Hannibal, <a href="#Pg79" class="tei tei-ref">79</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">by Romans, <a href="#Pg83" class="tei tei-ref">83</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salassi, the, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref">217</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. Sallustius Crispus, historical writer, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref">200</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salvius, leader of slave rebellion, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref">137</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salvius Julianus, jurist, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref">248</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Salyes, the, tribe of Liguria, conquered by Rome, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Samnites, the, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">wars of, with Rome, <a href="#Pg37" class="tei tei-ref">37</a>–<a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman allies, <a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">join Tarentum, <a href="#Pg40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reconquered, <a href="#Pg41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sapor I, king of the Persians, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref">259</a>, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref">260</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sapor II, king of Persia, war with Constantius II and Julian, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref">326</a>–<a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref">328</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Saracens, the, invasion of, <a href="#Pg404" class="tei tei-ref">404</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sardinia, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">geography of, <a href="#Pg4" class="tei tei-ref">4</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">inhabitants of, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">ceded to Rome by Carthage, <a href="#Pg75" class="tei tei-ref">75</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">a Roman province, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref">111</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">placed under imperial procurator, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref">216</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Satire, origin of name and form, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Satricum, <a href="#Pg34" class="tei tei-ref">34</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Saturninus and Glaucia, leaders of the Populares, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref">138</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Saxons, the, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref">259</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invade Britain, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref">357</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Scævola, <span class="tei tei-corr">see</span> <a href="#qmuciusscaevola" class="tei tei-ref">Q. Mucius Scævola</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Scholarians, the, <a href="#Pg335" class="tei tei-ref">335</a>, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref">336</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Scipio, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#pcorneliusscipio" class="tei tei-ref">P. Cornelius Scipio</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Scipionic circle, the, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref">120</a>, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Scribonia, wife of Octavian, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref">191</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Scutum</span></span>, shield, <a href="#Pg59" class="tei tei-ref">59</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Secretaryships, the Imperial, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref">269</a>–<a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref">270</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sectarianism, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the eastern church, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref">391</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">sectarian strife, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref">391</a>–<a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref">394</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Secular Games, the, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref">216</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Seianus (Sejanus), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#laeliusseianus" class="tei tei-ref">L. Ælius Seianus</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Seleucia, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref">246</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref">250</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">sacked, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref">253</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sempronia, wife of Scipio Æmilianus, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref">127</a>, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref">128</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ti. Sempronius, consul, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Sicily, <a href="#Pg79" class="tei tei-ref">79</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defeated at Trebia, <a href="#Pg81" class="tei tei-ref">81</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="csemproniusgracchus" id="csemproniusgracchus" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>C. Sempronius Gracchus, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">land commissioner, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref">127</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">tribunate and legislation of, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref">128</a>–<a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref">130</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">overthrow, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref">130</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">oratory of, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref">200</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ti. Sempronius Gracchus, consul, killed by Hannibal, <a href="#Pg82" class="tei tei-ref">82</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="tisemproniusgracchus" id="tisemproniusgracchus" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Ti. Sempronius Gracchus, tribune, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref">126</a>, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref">127</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Senate, the Roman, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in regal period, <a href="#Pg28" class="tei tei-ref">28</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">limited to patricians, <a href="#Pg29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">directs foreign policy, <a href="#Pg43" class="tei tei-ref">43</a>, <a href="#Pg45" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">represents wealthy proprietors, <a href="#Pg45" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">supports propertied elements in Italy, <a href="#Pg45" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of early Republic, <a href="#Pg47" class="tei tei-ref">47</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">appoints promagistrates, <a href="#Pg51" class="tei tei-ref">51</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">plebeians admitted to, <a href="#Pg56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">revised by Appius Claudius, <a href="#Pg56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">supports Greeks against Philip V, <a href="#Pg90" class="tei tei-ref">90</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">supports Greek aristocracies, <a href="#Pg95" class="tei tei-ref">95</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">control of public policy, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref">105</a>–<a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref">107</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">dissolves Bacchanalian associations, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref">106</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">failure of foreign policy of, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref">108</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">and provincial government, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref">110</a>–<a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref">114</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">prerogatives attacked by Gracchi, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref">127</a>–<a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref">131</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">control over consuls restricted, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref">129</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">weakened as result of Gracchan disorders, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref">133</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">intrigues with Jugurtha, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref">133</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">alteration proposed by Drusus, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref">139</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">veto revived, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref">144</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">restoration of power of, by Sulla, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref">148</a>, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref">149</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">membership increased, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref">149</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">and extraordinary commands, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref">151</a>, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref">160</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">passes <span class="tei tei-q">“last decree”</span> against Cæsar, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref">174</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">membership and composition of, altered by Julius Cæsar, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">treatment of, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page441">[pg 441]</span><a name="Pg441" id="Pg441" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>by Cæsar, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref">182</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">purged and restored by Augustus, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref">209</a>, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref">210</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">takes over election of magistrates, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">opposes Vespasian, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref">240</a>, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref">241</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">strained relations with Domitian, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref">243</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">era of amiable relations with princeps begins, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref">244</a>, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref">245</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">restored to influence by Severus Alexander, <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref">257</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">loss of powers under Principate, résumé, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref">264</a>–<a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref">267</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">friction with Princeps, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref">267</a>, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref">268</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">chief services, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref">268</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref">344</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">influence of under Theodoric, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref">371</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Senatorial order, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) an office-holding aristocracy, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref">107</a>, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref">196</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under Augustus, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref">209</a>–<a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref">210</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">expansion of, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref">268</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">burden of public spectacles on, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref">294</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> + </td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">—— (2) new, of late Empire, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref">342</a>–<a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref">343</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">power and exemptions of, <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref">349</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> + </td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href="#senators" class="tei tei-ref">Senators</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="senators" id="senators" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Senators, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">appointed by consul, <a href="#Pg47" class="tei tei-ref">47</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">by censors, <a href="#Pg50" class="tei tei-ref">50</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">largely ex-magistrates and magistrates, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref">105</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">deprived of right to act as judges in courts, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref">129</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">right restored, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref">148</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">property qualifications of, under Augustus, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref">209</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">freedom from imperial jurisdiction, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref">244</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">exclusion of, from military commands, etc., <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref">267</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">exemption from municipal control, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref">344</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">taxes on, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref">345</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Senatus consultum ultimum</span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">defined, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref">106</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">passed against Cataline, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref">163</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">against Cæsar, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref">174</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Seneca, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#lannaeusseneca" class="tei tei-ref">L. Annæus Seneca</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Senones, the, <a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>, <a href="#Pg44" class="tei tei-ref">44</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sentinum, <a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">L. Septimius Severus, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">saluted Imperator, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref">252</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">wars with rivals, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref">252</a>, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref">253</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">principate of, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref">253</a>–<a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref">255</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reforms civil service, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref">270</a>, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref">272</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">fortification of frontiers by, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref">275</a>, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref">276</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Septimontium, festival of, <a href="#Pg26" class="tei tei-ref">26</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="serfdom" id="serfdom" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Serfdom, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">rise of, in Egypt and Asia Minor, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref">288</a>, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref">289</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Africa, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref">289</a>, <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref">290</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Italy, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref">291</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">causes and results of, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref">291</a>, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref">292</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">under late Empire, <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref">348</a>, <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref">349</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">L. Sergius Catilina, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref">162</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conspiracy of, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref">163</a>, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref">164</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Q. Sertorius, governor of Spain, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref">152</a>–<a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref">153</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Q. Servilius Cæpio, consul, recovers Tolosa, tried by Senate, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref">135</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. Servilius Glaucia, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">prætor, leads populares, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref">138</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">overthrown, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref">139</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Q. Servilius Rullus, tribune, proposes land bill, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref">163</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Severus (Flavius Valerius ——), Cæsar, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref">321</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Severus (Libius ——), western emperor, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref">360</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="severusalexander" id="severusalexander" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Severus Alexander (Marcus Aurelius ——), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">adopted by Elagabalus, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref">256</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">principate of, <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref">257</a>, <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref">258</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">grants lands to frontier forces, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref">276</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sexagenarii, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref">270</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sibylline Books, the, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref">122</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sicans, the, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sicels, the, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sicily, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">geography of, <a href="#Pg4" class="tei tei-ref">4</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">peoples of, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman possession, <a href="#Pg74" class="tei tei-ref">74</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">province, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref">111</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">rebellion of slaves in, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref">137</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">misgovernment of Verres in, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref">157</a>, <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref">158</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Signia, <a href="#Pg34" class="tei tei-ref">34</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Silkworms, introduction of, into west, <a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref">384</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Slaves, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">enrolled in Roman army, <a href="#Pg87" class="tei tei-ref">87</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">rebellion of, in Sicily, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref">137</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">many freed by Sulla, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref">147</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">revolt of, under Spartacus, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref">155</a>, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">decrease of, under the Principate, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref">295</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">admitted to army, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref">336</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Society, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of early Rome, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">chap.</span></span> VII, <a href="#Pg61" class="tei tei-ref">61</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the third and second centuries <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref">114</a>–<a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref">119</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the last century of the Republic, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref">196</a>, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref">197</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">at beginning of <span class="tei tei-corr">Principate,</span> <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref">208</a>–<a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref">211</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the Principate, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">chap.</span></span> XX, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref">293</a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">f</span></span>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of the late Empire, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref">341</a>–<a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref">350</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Socii</span></span>, federate allies, <a href="#Pg45" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>, <a href="#Pg90" class="tei tei-ref">90</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Socii Italici</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#italianallies" class="tei tei-ref">Italian allies</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Socii navales</span></span>, <a href="#Pg45" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sosigenes, astronomer, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref">180</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Spain, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">coast of, controlled by Carthage, <a href="#Pg72" class="tei tei-ref">72</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Carthaginian expansion, <a href="#Pg78" class="tei tei-ref">78</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invaded by Romans, <a href="#Pg80" class="tei tei-ref">80</a>, <a href="#Pg83" class="tei tei-ref">83</a>, <a href="#Pg84" class="tei tei-ref">84</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Romans conquer Carthaginian territory in, <a href="#Pg85" class="tei tei-ref">85</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">divided into provinces of Hither and Farther, <a href="#Pg97" class="tei tei-ref">97</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">revolts in, <a href="#Pg98" class="tei tei-ref">98</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Latin colonies in, <a href="#Pg98" class="tei tei-ref">98</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">further wars in, <a href="#Pg99" class="tei tei-ref">99</a>, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref">100</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">revolts in, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref">137</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sertorian rebellion, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref">152</a>, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref">153</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cæsar reduces Pompeians in, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref">174</a>, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref">182</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Hither, an imperial province, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref">206</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Latin right extended to communities of, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref">240</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">occupied by Vandals, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref">355</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Justinian’s intervention in, <a href="#Pg378" class="tei tei-ref">378</a>, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref">379</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sparta, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">appeals to Rome against <a name="corr441" id="corr441" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">Achæans</span>, <a href="#Pg95" class="tei tei-ref">95</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">hostilities with Achæans, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref">103</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman ally, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref">103</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Spartacus, rebellion of, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref">155</a>–<a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Spectacles, lavishness of, under the Principate, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref">294</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Stilicho, master of the soldiers, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref">351</a>, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref">352</a>–<a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref">353</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Stipendium</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#taxes" class="tei tei-ref">Taxes</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Stoicism, in Rome, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a>, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref">198</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Stone Age, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">the new, <a href="#Pg8" class="tei tei-ref">8</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">the old, <a href="#Pg7" class="tei tei-ref">7</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Suetonius (C. Suetonius Tranquillius), historical writer and biographer, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref">300</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Suevi, the, invade Spain with Vandals, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref">355</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sugambri, the, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sulla, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#lcorneliussulla" class="tei tei-ref">L. Cornelius Sulla</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sulpician laws, the, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref">144</a>, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref">146</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="corr442" id="corr442" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">P.</span> Sulpicius Rufus, tribune, legislation and reign of terror, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref">143</a>, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref">144</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">S. Sulpicius Rufus, legal writer, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref">201</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sun worship, introduced into Rome, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref">256</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref">262</a>, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref">306</a>, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref">307</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Survey of empire, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref">216</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Sutrium, <a href="#Pg36" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Symmachus (Quintus Aurelius ——), writings of, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref">398</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Syphax, Numidian chief, <a href="#Pg85" class="tei tei-ref">85</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Syracuse, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">tyrants of, <a href="#Pg18" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>, <a href="#Pg19" class="tei tei-ref">19</a>, <a href="#Pg20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">kingdom <span class="tei tei-corr">of,</span> <a href="#Pg70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">wars with Mamertini, <a href="#Pg72" class="tei tei-ref">72</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">alliance with <span class="tei tei-corr">Rome,</span> <a href="#Pg73" class="tei tei-ref">73</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">goes over to Carthage, <a href="#Pg82" class="tei tei-ref">82</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">taken by Romans, <a href="#Pg82" class="tei tei-ref">82</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Syria, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Seleucid kingdom of, <a href="#Pg69" class="tei tei-ref">69</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conquered by Tigranes, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref">153</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">made Roman province, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref">161</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Crassus in, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref">172</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">an imperial province, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref">206</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Syrians, traders, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref">297</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><a name="Pg443" id="Pg443" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">T. = Titus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tacitus (Marcus Claudius ——), princeps, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref">262</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tacitus (P. Cornelius ——), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">historical writer, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref">243</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">works of, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref">300</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tarentum, <a href="#Pg20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>, <a href="#Pg37" class="tei tei-ref">37</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">wars with Italians, <a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>–<a href="#Pg40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">with Rome, <a href="#Pg40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>, <a href="#Pg41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman ally, <a href="#Pg42" class="tei tei-ref">42</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">occupied by Hannibal, <a href="#Pg82" class="tei tei-ref">82</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">treaty of, between Antony and Octavian, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref">192</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Taxation, system of, under late Empire, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref">344</a>–<a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref">346</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="taxes" id="taxes" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Taxes, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) affecting Roman citizens,<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">tax of 5% on emancipated slaves, <a href="#Pg87" class="tei tei-ref">87</a>, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref">279</a>, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref">280</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">inheritance tax, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref">212</a>, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref">279</a>, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref">280</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">tax on sales, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref">212</a>, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref">279</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">land tax of late Empire, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref">345</a>;</td></tr></tbody></table> + </td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(2) provincial, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">decuma</span></span>, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref">113</a>, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref">239</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">stipendium</span></span>, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref">112</a>, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref">279</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">direct collection of, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref">270</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tributa</span></span>, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref">279</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vectigalia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref">279</a>;</td></tr></tbody></table> + </td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(3) special, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of Second Triumvirate, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref">189</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">head-tax on Jews, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref">239</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of late Empire, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref">345</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> + </td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Telamon, <a href="#Pg77" class="tei tei-ref">77</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tercenarii</span></span>, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref">270</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Terence (P. Terentius), dramatic poet, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="cterentiusvarro" id="cterentiusvarro" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>C. Terentius Varro, consul, at Cannæ, <a href="#Pg82" class="tei tei-ref">82</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="mterentiusvarro" id="mterentiusvarro" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>M. Terentius Varro, writer and antiquarian, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref">200</a>–<a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref">201</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Terramare</span></span>, <a href="#Pg10" class="tei tei-ref">10</a>–<a href="#Pg11" class="tei tei-ref">11</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tertullian (Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus), Christian writer, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref">301</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Teutoberg Forest, Roman disaster in the, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref">220</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Teutons, the, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#cimbri" class="tei tei-ref">Cimbri and Teutons</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Thapsus, battle of, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref">177</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Theodora, empress, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref">381</a>, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref">382</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invades Italy, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref">361</a>, <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref">362</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">receives imperial symbols, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref">370</a>, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref">371</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conflict with Arianism, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref">372</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">foreign alliances of, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref">372</a>, <a href="#Pg373" class="tei tei-ref">373</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref">354</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Theodoric, the Amal, conflict with Zeno, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref">365</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Theodosian code, the, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref">364</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Theodosius I, the Great, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">co-emperor, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref">330</a>, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref">331</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conflict with Ambrose, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref">330</a>, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref">331</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">sole emperor, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref">381</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">suppression of paganism by, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref">387</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Theodosius II, eastern emperor, <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref">363</a>–<a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref">364</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Theodosius, general of Valentinian I, campaign of, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref">328</a>, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref">329</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Thrace, made Roman province, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref">231</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Thurii, <a href="#Pg20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>, <a href="#Pg40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>, <a href="#Pg82" class="tei tei-ref">82</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ti. = Tiberius.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiberius (Tiberius Claudius Nero), stepson of Augustus, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">campaigns of, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref">217</a>, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref">219</a>, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref">220</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">designated successor of Augustus, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref">223</a>, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref">224</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">principate of, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref">226</a>, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref">229</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">estimate of, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref">226</a>, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref">228</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiberius Gemellus, grandson of Tiberius Cæsar, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref">229</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tibullus (Albius ——), poet, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref">299</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tibur, <a href="#Pg37" class="tei tei-ref">37</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ticinus, battle of the, <a href="#Pg81" class="tei tei-ref">81</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tigellinus Ofonius, prætorian prefect, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref">233</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tigranes, king of Armenia, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref">153</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">ally of Rome, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref">161</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tigurini, the, Gallic tribe, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref">135</a>, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tiridates, king of Armenia, Roman vassal, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref">234</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Titus (Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">besieges and destroys Jerusalem, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref">239</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">principate of, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref">241</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Totila, leader of the Ostrogoths, <a href="#Pg378" class="tei tei-ref">378</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Toulouse, Gothic capital at, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref">370</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Traianus), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">adopted by Nerva, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref">244</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">principate of, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref">245</a>–<a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref">247</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">column of, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref">246</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">attitude toward the Christians, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref">310</a>, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref">311</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Trasimene Lake, <a href="#Pg81" class="tei tei-ref">81</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Trebia, <a href="#Pg81" class="tei tei-ref">81</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Trebonian, jurist, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref">382</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Trebonian law (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Trebonia</span></span>), the, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref">170</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. Trebonius, tribune, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref">170</a>, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref">183</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Treviri, the, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref">171</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">rebellion of, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref">237</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tribes, the Roman, <a href="#Pg36" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>, <a href="#Pg43" class="tei tei-ref">43</a>, <a href="#Pg44" class="tei tei-ref">44</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">voting units in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comitia tributa</span></span>, <a href="#Pg53" class="tei tei-ref">53</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">final number of, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref">109</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">enrollment of Italians in, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref">141</a>, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref">142</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tribunate, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) military, with consular powers, <a href="#Pg50" class="tei tei-ref">50</a>, <a href="#Pg51" class="tei tei-ref">51</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">first plebeian elected to, <a href="#Pg55" class="tei tei-ref">55</a>; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">and note</span></span>;</td></tr></tbody></table> + </td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(2) military, in legions, <a href="#Pg60" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in senatorial career, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref">209</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in equestrian career, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref">210</a>;</td></tr></tbody></table> + </td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(3) plebeian, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">origin and character of, <a href="#Pg53" class="tei tei-ref">53</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">increased to ten members, <a href="#Pg54" class="tei tei-ref">54</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">effect of Hortensian law on, <a href="#Pg57" class="tei tei-ref">57</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">powers of, increased, <a href="#Pg57" class="tei tei-ref">57</a>, <a href="#Pg58" class="tei tei-ref">58</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">interference of, with levy, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref">100</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">controlled by Senate, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref">105</a>, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref">106</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ti. Gracchus attempts reëlection to, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref">127</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">reëlection to, legalized, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref">127</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">of C. Gracchus, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref">128</a>, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref">130</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">weakened by reforms of Sulla, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref">148</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">privileges restored, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tribuni ærarii</span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">share in jury service, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">removed, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="tribuniciapotestas" id="tribuniciapotestas" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tribunicia potestas</span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">granted to Julius Cæsar, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref">178</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref">179</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">to Augustus, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref">207</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tributum</span></span>, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman citizens, <a href="#Pg50" class="tei tei-ref">50</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">burden of, on <span class="tei tei-corr">plebeians,</span> <a href="#Pg53" class="tei tei-ref">53</a>, <a href="#Pg54" class="tei tei-ref">54</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">ceases to be levied, <a href="#Pg97" class="tei tei-ref">97</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">capitis</span></span>, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref">279</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">soli</span></span>, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref">279</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Triumvirate, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) the First, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref">165</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="triumvirate" id="triumvirate" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>—— (2) the Second (43 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span>), <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref">188</a>–<a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref">192</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">renewed, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref">192</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">terminated, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref">194</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Triumviri agris iudicandis assignandis</span></span>, the Gracchan land commission, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref">126</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Triumviri rei publicæ constituendæ</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#triumvirate" class="tei tei-ref">Triumvirate, (2) the Second</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="mtulliuscicero" id="mtulliuscicero" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>M. Tullius Cicero, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">ædile, prosecution of Verres, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a>–<a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref">159</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">prætor, supports Manilian law, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref">160</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">consul, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref">162</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">thwarts Cataline’s conspiracy, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref">163</a>, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref">164</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">banished, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref">167</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">returns, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref">169</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">hostility to Antony, <a href="#Pg187" class="tei tei-ref">187</a>, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref">188</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">death, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref">189</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">oratory and writings of, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref">200</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tusculum, <a href="#Pg34" class="tei tei-ref">34</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Twelve Tables, Law of the, <a href="#Pg54" class="tei tei-ref">54</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Ulpian (Domitius Ulpianus), jurist, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref">301</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Umbrians, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">location of, <a href="#Pg13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">migration of, <a href="#Pg11" class="tei tei-ref">11</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman allies, <a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Upper Germany, administration district, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Urban cohorts, the, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><a href="#cohortes" class="tei tei-ref"><span style="font-style: italic">cohortes</span></a></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Urbs</span></span>, Rome, an, <a href="#Pg27" class="tei tei-ref">27</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vaballathus, king of Palmyra, <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref">261</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vadimonian Lake, battle at the, <a href="#Pg39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Valens (Flavius ——), co-emperor, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref">328</a>–<a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref">329</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Valentinian I (Flavius Valentinianus), emperor, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref">328</a>, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref">329</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Valentinian II (Flavius Valentinianus), co-emperor, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref">329</a>–<a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref">331</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Valentinian III (Flavius Valentinianus), western emperor, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref">358</a>–<a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref">360</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Valerian (Publius Licinius Valerianus), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">principate and campaigns of, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref">259</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">persecution of the Christians, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref">312</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="lvaleriusflaccus" id="lvaleriusflaccus" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="corr443" id="corr443" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-corr">L.</span> Valerius Flaccus, consul, in Mithridatic war, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref">144</a>, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref">145</a>, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref">146</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vandals, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invade Gaul and Spain, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref">354</a>, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref">355</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">kingdom of, in Africa, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref">355</a>, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref">356</a>, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref">370</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">relations between Romans and, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref">370</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conquered by Eastern Empire, <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref">375</a>–<a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref">377</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Varro, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#cterentiusvarro" class="tei tei-ref">C. Terentius Varro</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">and</span></span> <a href="#mterentiusvarro" class="tei tei-ref">M. Terentius Varro</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vatinian law (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Vatinia</span></span>), the, <span class="tei tei-corr"><a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref">166</a>.</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Veii, capture of, <a href="#Pg34" class="tei tei-ref">34</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Veneti, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) of Italy, <a href="#Pg13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>, <a href="#Pg35" class="tei tei-ref">35</a>; +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Roman allies, <a href="#Pg77" class="tei tei-ref">77</a>;</td></tr></tbody></table> + </td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(2) of Gaul, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref">173</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vercellæ, Marius destroys the Cimbri near, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vercingetorix, Gallic leader, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref">171</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">C. Verres, ex-proprætor of Sicily, trial of, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a>, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref">159</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Verus (Lucius Aurelius ——), principate of, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref">249</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref">250</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vespasian (Titus Flavius Vespasianus), + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">proclaimed Imperator, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref">236</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">principate of, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref">237</a>–<a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref">241</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">campaign against the Jews, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref">239</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vesuvius, eruption of, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref">241</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="via" id="via" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Via Æmilia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg97" class="tei tei-ref">97</a>; + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Appia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg38" class="tei tei-ref">38</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">constructed, <a href="#Pg56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cassia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg97" class="tei tei-ref">97</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Domitia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Flaminia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg97" class="tei tei-ref">97</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see also</span></span>, <a href="#roadsystem" class="tei tei-ref">Road system</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vicars (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vicarii</span></span>), governors of dioceses, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref">320</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vigiles</span></span>, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref">222</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Viginti-virate</span></span>, in senatorial career, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref">209</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Villa, change in meaning of word, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref">196</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Villanova, <a href="#Pg11" class="tei tei-ref">11</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Villian Law (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex Villia annalis</span></span>), the, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref">108</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vindelici, the, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref">217</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vindex, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#cjuliusvindex" class="tei tei-ref">C. Julius Vindex</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vindobona, legionary camp, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref">239</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vindonissa, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="agrippa" id="agrippa" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>M. Vipsanius Agrippa, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">general of Octavian, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref">192</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">conducts survey of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page444">[pg 444]</span><a name="Pg444" id="Pg444" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>empire, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref">216</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in Spain, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref">217</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">as successor to Augustus, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref">223</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Virgil (P. Virgilius Maro), poet, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref">190</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref">298</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Viriathus, Spanish chief, at war with Rome, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref">100</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a name="visigoths" id="visigoths" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Visigoths, the, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">invasions of, under Alaric and Ataulf, <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref">353</a>–<a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref">354</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">kingdom of, in Gaul, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref">354</a>, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref">369</a>, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref">370</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">treatment of Roman subjects, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref">369</a>, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref">370</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">religion of, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref">371</a>, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref">372</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vitalian, master of the soldiers, <a href="#Pg374" class="tei tei-ref">374</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vitellius (Aulus ——), principate of, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref">236</a>–<a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref">237</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vologases I, king of the Parthians, war with Rome, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref">234</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vologases IV, king of the Parthians, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref">253</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Vologases V, king of the Parthians, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref">256</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Volsci, the, <a href="#Pg15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>; + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">wars with Rome, <a href="#Pg33" class="tei tei-ref">33</a>–<a href="#Pg34" class="tei tei-ref">34</a>, <a href="#Pg36" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> + + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Wallia, leader of the Visigoths, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref">354</a>, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref">355</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">War of the Legions, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(1) First, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref">235</a>–<a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref">237</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">—— (2) Second, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref">252</a>–<a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref">253</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Women, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">position of, in Rome, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref">196</a>, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref">197</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">collegia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref">286</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr></tbody></table><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Zama, <a href="#Pg86" class="tei tei-ref">86</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Zealots, the, in Judæa, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref">238</a>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Zeno, + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">master of the soldiers, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref">364</a>;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">eastern <span class="tei tei-corr">emperor,</span> <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref">361</a>, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref">364</a>, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref">365</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref">261</a>–<a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref">262</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> +</div> + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + + + + <hr class="doublepage" /><div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1> + <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href="#noteref_1">1.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The several elements in the Roman military federation may be seen at a glance from +the following scheme: +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">I. Roman citizens— + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(a) with full civic rights (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">optimo iure</span></span>).</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(b) with private rights only (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sine suffragio</span></span>).</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">II. Roman allies— + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(a) Latins.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">(b) Federate peoples of Italy.</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href="#noteref_2">2.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Another, but apparently later, Roman tradition placed the establishment of the +tribunate in 494, when two tribunes were elected, and merely attributes an increase in +their number to 466.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href="#noteref_3">3.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">One explanation of the origin of this tribunate offered in antiquity and still held in +some quarters is that it was created to take the place of the consulship as an office to +which plebeians might be admitted while they were still excluded from the regular +presidency. Against this view, besides the existence of another explanation equally old +which has been adopted above, it may be urged that although the military tribunate first +appeared in 436 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span> it was not until 40 years later that plebeians were elected to it. +And further, plebeians only appear in six of the fifty-one colleges of military tribunes +elected between 436 and 362.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href="#noteref_4">4.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">To the Romans the Carthaginians were known as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Poeni</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, Phoenicians, whence +comes the adjective <span class="tei tei-q">“Punic,”</span> used in such phrases as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Punic Wars.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href="#noteref_5">5.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This alliance was renewed in 248 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href="#noteref_6">6.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See W. W. Tarn, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Fleets of the First Punic War,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of Hellenic Studies</span></span>, +1907, p. 51, n. 19.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href="#noteref_7">7.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Authorities differ as to the pass which Hannibal used in crossing the Alps, arguing +variously for the Little St. Bernard, Mont Genèvre or Mont Cenis. Polybius, our best +authority, seems to indicate the Little St. Bernard. A recent discussion of the problem +is Spencer Wilkinson’s <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hannibal’s March across the Alps</span></span>, London, 1917.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href="#noteref_8">8.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Kromeyer und Veith, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike Schlachtfelder</span></span>, iii. 2.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href="#noteref_9">9.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The details of this re-organization are uncertain. From our sources it is clear that +each of the first two classes had 70 centuries, one of seniors and one of juniors from each +of the 35 tribes. But we are left in the dark with regard to the other classes. Botsford, +in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Assemblies</span></span>, would assign 70 centuries to each class; making a total of +350, plus the 18 equestrian and 5 supernumerary centuries, in all 373. Cavaignac, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire dé l’Antiquité</span></span>, vol. III, gives 10 centuries to each of the three lower classes, +thus keeping the old number of 193 centuries in all.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href="#noteref_10">10.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Seymour, P. A., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">English Historical Review</span></span>, 1914, pp. 417 ff.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href="#noteref_11">11.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The details of this arrangement have not been preserved; for a suggestion see +Heitland, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roman Republic</span></span>, II, pp. 447 ff.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href="#noteref_12">12.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the much disputed date of the end of Caesar’s second term, see Hardy, E. G., +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of Philology</span></span>, 1918, pp. 161 ff.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href="#noteref_13">13.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">After the adoption his full name was Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus. Although he +was known as Caesar by his contemporaries, it is more convenient to refer to him +henceforth as Octavian, to distinguish him from his adoptive father.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href="#noteref_14">14.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Laudandum adulescentem, ornandum, tolendum</span></span>, Cicero, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fam.</span></span>, xi, 20, 1.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href="#noteref_15">15.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In this I follow Dio. xlix, 15, 6; li, 19, 6 and liii, 32, 5 and 6.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href="#noteref_16">16.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Provinces of the Roman Empire</span></span>, I, 5, trans. Dickson, Scribner’s, 1906.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href="#noteref_17">17.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The distribution of the dioceses among the prefectures was as follows: + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Prefecture of Gaul—dioceses of Britain, Gaul, Spain;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Prefecture of Italy—suburban diocese of the city of Rome, and the dioceses of Italy, Africa, Illyricum;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Prefecture of Illyricum—dioceses of Eastern Illyricum, Thrace, Macedonia;</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Prefecture of the Orient—dioceses of Asia, Pontus, the Orient and Egypt.</td></tr></tbody></table></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href="#noteref_18">18.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style="font-style: normal">ἀρχίερευς βασιλεύς</span></span>. The title Basileus (King) was in common use in the eastern + part of the empire from the fourth century, but was not assumed officially by the emperors + till 629 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span></dd></dl> + </div> + + + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="boxed tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="pdf303" id="pdf303"></a><a name="toc304" id="toc304"></a> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Transcriber’s Note</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The following changes have been made to the text:</p> + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr009" class="tei tei-ref">page 9</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“terramara”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“terramare”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr021" class="tei tei-ref">page 21</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“ascendency”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“ascendancy”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr049" class="tei tei-ref">page 49</a>, period added after <span class="tei tei-q">“units”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr054" class="tei tei-ref">page 54</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“plebians”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“plebeians”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr055" class="tei tei-ref">page 55</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“wthout”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“without”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr060" class="tei tei-ref">page 60</a>, comma added after <span class="tei tei-q">“attacks”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr071" class="tei tei-ref">page 71</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“militry”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“military”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr085" class="tei tei-ref">page 85</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Cathaginians”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Carthaginians”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr089" class="tei tei-ref">page 89</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“sieze”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“seize”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr094" class="tei tei-ref">page 94</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“forcd”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“forced”</span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“<a href="#corr094a" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">B. C.</span></span></a>”</span> added in heading</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr097" class="tei tei-ref">page 97</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Perma”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Parma”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr104" class="tei tei-ref">page 104</a>, period added after <span class="tei tei-q">“129”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr114" class="tei tei-ref">page 114</a>, comma changed to period after <span class="tei tei-q">“plantations”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr131" class="tei tei-ref">page 131</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Balaeric”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Balearic”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr134" class="tei tei-ref">page 134</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Arpimum”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Arpinum”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr137" class="tei tei-ref">page 137</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Aequilius”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Aquillius”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr138" class="tei tei-ref">page 138</a>, period removed after heading <span class="tei tei-q">“V. Saturninus and Glaucia”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr163" class="tei tei-ref">page 163</a>, period changed to comma after <span class="tei tei-q">“Optimates”</span>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Pontifix”</span> chanted to <a href="#corr163a" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-q">“Pontifex”</span></a> (twice)</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr167" class="tei tei-ref">page 167</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Narbonesis”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Narbonensis”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr169" class="tei tei-ref">page 169</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“preconsular”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“proconsular”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr176" class="tei tei-ref">page 176</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“beseiged”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“besieged”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr177" class="tei tei-ref">page 177</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Pharanaces”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Pharnaces”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr188" class="tei tei-ref">page 188</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“constituandae”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“constituendae”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr213" class="tei tei-ref">page 213</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“dieties”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“deities”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr215" class="tei tei-ref">page 215</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“freedom”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“freedmen”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr217" class="tei tei-ref">page 217</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“harrassed”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“harassed”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr228" class="tei tei-ref">page 228</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Marcomani”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Marcomanni”</span>, comma removed after <span class="tei tei-q">“<a href="#corr228a" class="tei tei-ref">now</a>”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr231" class="tei tei-ref">page 231</a>, comma added after <span class="tei tei-q">“Plautius”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr234" class="tei tei-ref">page 234</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Seutonius”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Suetonius”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr237" class="tei tei-ref">page 237</a>, period added after <span class="tei tei-q">“princeps”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr242" class="tei tei-ref">page 242</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“dominius”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“dominus”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr253" class="tei tei-ref">page 253</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“victorius”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“victorious”</span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“beleagured”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“<a href="#corr253a" class="tei tei-ref">beleaguered</a>”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr256" class="tei tei-ref">page 256</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Carcalla”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Caracalla”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr263" class="tei tei-ref">page 263</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“advancd”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“advanced”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr266" class="tei tei-ref">page 266</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“superceded”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“superseded”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr269" class="tei tei-ref">page 269</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“cognitionibius”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“cognitionibus”</span> (<a href="#corr269a" class="tei tei-ref">twice</a>)</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr289" class="tei tei-ref">page 289</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“argricultural”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“agricultural”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr299" class="tei tei-ref">page 299</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“elegaic”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“elegiac”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr302" class="tei tei-ref">page 302</a>, period added after heading <span class="tei tei-q">“Plutarch (c. 50–120 A. D.) and Lucian (c. 125–200 A. D.)”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr325" class="tei tei-ref">page 325</a>, period added after <span class="tei tei-q">“(350 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 75%">A. D.</span></span>)”</span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“th”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“<a href="#corr325a" class="tei tei-ref">the</a>”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr329" class="tei tei-ref">page 329</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“o”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“or”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr330" class="tei tei-ref">page 330</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Aequileia”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Aquileia”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr343" class="tei tei-ref">page 343</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“prefectissimate”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“perfectissimate”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr344" class="tei tei-ref">page 344</a>, period changed to comma after <span class="tei tei-q">“coin”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr346" class="tei tei-ref">page 346</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“civatatium”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“civitatium”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr360" class="tei tei-ref">page 360</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Valetinian”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Valentinian”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr366" class="tei tei-ref">page 366</a>, comma changed to period after <span class="tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">status quo ante</span></span>”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr376" class="tei tei-ref">page 376</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Tignitana”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Tingitana”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr387" class="tei tei-ref">page 387</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Chistianity”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Christianity”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr389" class="tei tei-ref">page 389</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“of”</span> added after <span class="tei tei-q">“embodiment”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr392" class="tei tei-ref">page 392</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Theododius”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Theodosius”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr402" class="tei tei-ref">page 402</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“represenation”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“representation”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr406" class="tei tei-ref">page 406</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Trasemene”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Trasimene”</span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Flaminius”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“<a href="#corr406a" class="tei tei-ref">Flamininus</a>”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr409" class="tei tei-ref">page 409</a>, period removed after <span class="tei tei-q">“March”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“<a href="#corr409a" class="tei tei-ref">79</a>”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr410" class="tei tei-ref">page 410</a>, period removed after <span class="tei tei-q">“June”</span>, smallcaps added to <span class="tei tei-q">“<a href="#corr410b" class="tei tei-ref">Gallus</a>”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“Volusianus”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr416" class="tei tei-ref">page 416</a>, italics added to <span class="tei tei-q">“Hermes”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr417" class="tei tei-ref">page 417</a>, comma added after <span class="tei tei-q">“Mommsen”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr418" class="tei tei-ref">page 418</a>, comma added after <span class="tei tei-q">“1”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“<a href="#corr418a" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion und Kultur</span></span></a>”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr419" class="tei tei-ref">page 419</a>, italics added to <span class="tei tei-q">“Bonner Jahrbücher”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr424" class="tei tei-ref">page 424</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Selucid”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Seleucid”</span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“M.”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“<a href="#corr424a" class="tei tei-ref">M’.</a>”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr430" class="tei tei-ref">page 430</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Ptolemic”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Ptolemaic”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr431" class="tei tei-ref">page 431</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Contantius”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Constantius”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr432" class="tei tei-ref">page 432</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Catigula”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Caligula”</span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Elogabalus”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“<a href="#corr432a" class="tei tei-ref">Elagabalus</a>”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr435" class="tei tei-ref">page 435</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Majoriamus”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Majorianus”</span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Numentines”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“<a href="#corr435a" class="tei tei-ref">Numantines</a>”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr437" class="tei tei-ref">page 437</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“excuted”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“executed”</span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Antoninus”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“<a href="#corr437a" class="tei tei-ref">Antonius</a>”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr438" class="tei tei-ref">page 438</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“peregrinius”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“peregrinus”</span> (<a href="#corr438a" class="tei tei-ref">twice</a>)</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr439" class="tei tei-ref">page 439</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Proprietorship”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Propraetorship”</span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“231”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“<a href="#corr439a" class="tei tei-ref">213</a>”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr441" class="tei tei-ref">page 441</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Achæns”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Achæans”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr442" class="tei tei-ref">page 442</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“P”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“P.”</span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><a href="#corr443" class="tei tei-ref">page 443</a>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Q.”</span> changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“L.”</span></td></tr></tbody></table> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The capitalization of headings has been normalized on page <a href="#corr004" class="tei tei-ref">4</a>, <a href="#corr005" class="tei tei-ref">5</a>, + <a href="#corr057" class="tei tei-ref">57</a>, <a href="#corr129" class="tei tei-ref">129</a>, <a href="#corr138a" class="tei tei-ref">138</a>, + <a href="#corr139" class="tei tei-ref">139</a> (<a href="#corr139a" class="tei tei-ref">twice</a>), <a href="#corr142" class="tei tei-ref">142</a>, + <a href="#corr182" class="tei tei-ref">182</a>, <a href="#corr192" class="tei tei-ref">192</a>, <a href="#corr245" class="tei tei-ref">245</a>, + <a href="#corr251" class="tei tei-ref">251</a>, <a href="#corr252" class="tei tei-ref">252</a>, <a href="#corr253b" class="tei tei-ref">253</a>, + <a href="#corr384" class="tei tei-ref">384</a>. The formatting of the index has been normalized in several places.</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Variations in hyphenation (e. g. <span class="tei tei-q">“body-guard”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“bodyguard”</span>; + <span class="tei tei-q">“taxgatherers”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“tax gatherers”</span>; + <span class="tei tei-q">“re-establish”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“reëstablish”</span>), + capitalization (<span class="tei tei-q">“Senate”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“senate”</span>) + and the spelling of names (<span class="tei tei-q">“Cataline”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“Catiline”</span>: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Gaius”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“Caius”</span>; + <span class="tei tei-q">“Mithridates”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“Mithradates”</span>; + <span class="tei tei-q">“Perpena”</span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Perperna”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“Perpenna”</span>; + <span class="tei tei-q">“Theoderic”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“Theodoric”</span>) + and some other words (e. g. <span class="tei tei-q">“centurion”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“centurian”</span>; + <span class="tei tei-q">“dispatch”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“despatch”</span>; + <span class="tei tei-q">“manœuver”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“maneuver”</span>; + <span class="tei tei-q">“praetor(ian)”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“pretorian”</span>) have not been changed. + Both <span class="tei tei-q">“ae”</span> (predominantly in the main text) + and the ligature <span class="tei tei-q">“æ”</span> (mostly in the index) are used. + Errors in quotations from foreign languages and names have not been corrected.</p> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ROME TO 565 A. D.*** +</pre><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader305" id="rightpageheader305"></a><a name="pgtoc306" id="pgtoc306"></a><a name="pdf307" id="pdf307"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr><th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">May 31, 2010 </th></tr><tr><td class="tei tei-item tei-item-gloss"><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-respStmt"> + <span class="tei tei-resp">Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net</span> + </span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader308" id="rightpageheader308"></a><a name="pgtoc309" id="pgtoc309"></a><a name="pdf310" id="pdf310"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">A Word from Project Gutenberg</span></h1><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This file should be named + 32624-h.html or + 32624-h.zip.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This and all associated files of various formats will be found + in: + + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/2/6/2/32624/" class="block tei tei-xref" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%">http://www.gutenberg.org</span><span style="font-size: 90%">/dirs/3/2/6/2/32624/</span></a></p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Updated editions will replace the previous one — the old + editions will be renamed.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Creating the works from public domain print editions means that + no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the + Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United + States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. + Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this + license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works + to protect the Project Gutenberg™ concept and trademark. 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