initial commit of ebook 32856HEADmain

1 files changed, 13716 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/32856-8.txt b/32856-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8788f17
--- /dev/null
+++ b/32856-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,13716 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Lectures on The Science of Language by Max
+Müller
+
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no
+restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under
+the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or
+online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+
+Title: Lectures on The Science of Language
+
+Author: Max Müller
+
+Release Date: June 17, 2010 [Ebook #32856]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO 8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LECTURES ON THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE***
+
+
+
+
+
+                               Lectures on
+
+                         The Science of Language
+
+                             Delivered At The
+
+                    Royal Institution of Great Britain
+
+                                    In
+
+                       April, May, and June, 1861.
+
+                           By Max Müller, M. A.
+
+Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford; Correspondence Member of the Imperial
+                           Institute of France.
+
+                 From the Second London Edition, Revised.
+
+                                New York:
+
+                   Charles Scribner, 124 Grand Street.
+
+                                   1862
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+Dedication
+Preface.
+Lecture I. The Science Of Language One Of The Physical Sciences.
+Lecture II. The Growth Of Language In Contradistinction To The History Of
+Language.
+Lecture III. The Empirical Stage.
+Lecture IV. The Classificatory Stage.
+Lecture V. Genealogical Classification Of Languages.
+Lecture VI. Comparative Grammar.
+Lecture VII. The Constituent Elements Of Language.
+Lecture VIII. Morphological Classification.
+Lecture IX. The Theoretical Stage, And The Origin Of Language.
+Appendix.
+Index.
+Footnotes
+
+
+
+
+
+
+DEDICATION
+
+
+Dedicated
+
+To
+
+The Members Of The University Of Oxford,
+
+Both Resident And Non-Resident,
+
+To Whom I Am Indebted
+
+For Numerous Proofs Of Sympathy And Kindness
+
+During The Last Twelve Years,
+
+In Grateful Acknowledgment Of Their Generous Support
+
+On The
+
+7th Of December, 1860.
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+My Lectures on the Science of Language are here printed as I had prepared
+them in manuscript for the Royal Institution. When I came to deliver them,
+a considerable portion of what I had written had to be omitted; and, in
+now placing them before the public in a more complete form, I have gladly
+complied with a wish expressed by many of my hearers. As they are, they
+only form a short abstract of several Courses delivered from time to time
+in Oxford, and they do not pretend to be more than an introduction to a
+science far too comprehensive to be treated successfully in so small a
+compass.
+
+My object, however, will have been attained, if I should succeed in
+attracting the attention, not only of the scholar, but of the philosopher,
+the historian, and the theologian, to a science which concerns them all,
+and which, though it professes to treat of words only, teaches us that
+there is more in words than is dreamt of in our philosophy. I quote from
+Bacon: "Men believe that their reason is lord over their words, but it
+happens, too, that words exercise a reciprocal and reactionary power over
+our intellect. Words, as a Tartar's bow, shoot back upon the understanding
+of the wisest, and mightily entangle and pervert the judgment."
+
+MAX MÜLLER.
+
+_Oxford_, June 11, 1861.
+
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE I. THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE ONE OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
+
+
+When I was asked some time ago to deliver a course of lectures on
+Comparative Philology in this Institution, I at once expressed my
+readiness to do so. I had lived long enough in England to know that the
+peculiar difficulties arising from my imperfect knowledge of the language
+would be more than balanced by the forbearance of an English audience, and
+I had such perfect faith in my subject that I thought it might be trusted
+even in the hands of a less skilful expositor. I felt convinced that the
+researches into the history of languages and into the nature of human
+speech which have been carried on for the last fifty years in England,
+France, and Germany, deserved a larger share of public sympathy than they
+had hitherto received; and it seemed to me, as far as I could judge, that
+the discoveries in this newly-opened mine of scientific inquiry were not
+inferior, whether in novelty or importance, to the most brilliant
+discoveries of our age.
+
+It was not till I began to write my lectures that I became aware of the
+difficulties of the task I had undertaken. The dimensions of the science
+of language are so vast that it is impossible in a course of nine lectures
+to give more than a very general survey of it; and as one of the greatest
+charms of this science consists in the minuteness of the analysis by which
+each language, each dialect, each word, each grammatical form is tested, I
+felt that it was almost impossible to do full justice to my subject, or to
+place the achievements of those who founded and fostered the science of
+language in their true light. Another difficulty arises from the dryness
+of many of the problems which I shall have to discuss. Declensions and
+conjugations cannot be made amusing, nor can I avail myself of the
+advantages possessed by most lecturers, who enliven their discussions by
+experiments and diagrams. If, with all these difficulties and drawbacks, I
+do not shrink from opening to-day this course of lectures on mere words,
+on nouns and verbs and particles,--if I venture to address an audience
+accustomed to listen, in this place, to the wonderful tales of the natural
+historian, the chemist, and geologist, and wont to see the novel results
+of inductive reasoning invested by native eloquence, with all the charms
+of poetry and romance,--it is because, though mistrusting myself, I cannot
+mistrust my subject. The study of words may be tedious to the school-boy,
+as breaking of stones is to the wayside laborer; but to the thoughtful eye
+of the geologist these stones are full of interest;--he sees miracles on
+the high-road, and reads chronicles in every ditch. Language, too, has
+marvels of her own, which she unveils to the inquiring glance of the
+patient student. There are chronicles below her surface; there are sermons
+in every word. Language has been called sacred ground, because it is the
+deposit of thought. We cannot tell as yet what language is. It may be a
+production of nature, a work of human art, or a divine gift. But to
+whatever sphere it belongs, it would seem to stand unsurpassed--nay,
+unequalled in it--by anything else. If it be a production of nature, it is
+her last and crowning production which she reserved for man alone. If it
+be a work of human art, it would seem to lift the human artist almost to
+the level of a divine creator. If it be the gift of God, it is God's
+greatest gift; for through it God spake to man and man speaks to God in
+worship, prayer, and meditation.
+
+Although the way which is before us may be long and tedious, the point to
+which it tends would seem to be full of interest; and I believe I may
+promise that the view opened before our eyes from the summit of our
+science, will fully repay the patient travellers, and perhaps secure a
+free pardon to their venturous guide.
+
+                  -------------------------------------
+
+The Science of Language is a science of very modern date. We cannot trace
+its lineage much beyond the beginning of our century, and it is scarcely
+received as yet on a footing of equality by the elder branches of
+learning. Its very name is still unsettled, and the various titles that
+have been given to it in England, France, and Germany are so vague and
+varying that they have led to the most confused ideas among the public at
+large as to the real objects of this new science. We hear it spoken of as
+Comparative Philology, Scientific Etymology, Phonology, and Glossology. In
+France it has received the convenient, but somewhat barbarous, name of
+_Linguistique_. If we must have a Greek title for our science, we might
+derive it either from _mythos_, word, or from _logos_, speech. But the
+title of _Mythology_ is already occupied, and _Logology_ would jar too
+much on classical ears. We need not waste our time in criticising these
+names, as none of them has as yet received that universal sanction which
+belongs to the titles of other modern sciences, such as Geology or
+Comparative Anatomy; nor will there be much difficulty in christening our
+young science after we have once ascertained its birth, its parentage, and
+its character. I myself prefer the simple designation of the Science of
+Language, though in these days of high-sounding titles, this plain name
+will hardly meet with general acceptance.
+
+From the name we now turn to the meaning of our science. But before we
+enter upon a definition of its subject-matter, and determine the method
+which ought to be followed in our researches, it will be useful to cast a
+glance at the history of the other sciences, among which the science of
+language now, for the first time, claims her place; and examine their
+origin, their gradual progress, and definite settlement. The history of a
+science is, as it were, its biography, and as we buy experience cheapest
+in studying the lives of others, we may, perhaps, guard our young science
+from some of the follies and extravagances inherent in youth by learning a
+lesson for which other branches of human knowledge have had to pay more
+dearly.
+
+There is a certain uniformity in the history of most sciences. If we read
+such works as Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences or Humboldt's
+Cosmos, we find that the origin, the progress, the causes of failure and
+success have been the same for almost every branch of human knowledge.
+There are three marked periods or stages in the history of every one of
+them, which we may call the _Empirical_, the _Classificatory_, and the
+_Theoretical_. However humiliating it may sound, every one of our
+sciences, however grand their present titles, can be traced back to the
+most humble and homely occupations of half-savage tribes. It was not the
+true, the good, and the beautiful which spurred the early philosophers to
+deep researches and bold discoveries. The foundation-stone of the most
+glorious structures of human ingenuity in ages to come was supplied by the
+pressing wants of a patriarchal and semi-barbarous society. The names of
+some of the most ancient departments of human knowledge tell their own
+tale. Geometry, which at present declares itself free from all sensuous
+impressions, and treats of its points and lines and planes as purely ideal
+conceptions, not to be confounded with those coarse and imperfect
+representations as they appear on paper to the human eye; geometry, as its
+very name declares, began with measuring a garden or a field. It is
+derived from the Greek _ge_, land, ground, earth, and _metron_, measure.
+Botany, the science of plants, was originally the science of _botane_,
+which in Greek does not mean a plant in general, but fodder, from
+_boskein_, to feed. The science of plants would have been called
+Phytology, from the Greek _phyton_, a plant.(1) The founders of Astronomy
+were not the poet or the philosopher, but the sailor and the farmer. The
+early poet may have admired "the mazy dance of planets," and the
+philosopher may have speculated on the heavenly harmonies; but it was to
+the sailor alone that a knowledge of the glittering guides of heaven
+became a question of life and death. It was he who calculated their
+risings and settings with the accuracy of a merchant and the shrewdness of
+an adventurer; and the names that were given to single stars or
+constellations clearly show that they were invented by the ploughers of
+the sea and of the land. The moon, for instance, the golden hand on the
+dark dial of heaven, was called by them the Measurer,--the measurer of
+time; for time was measured by nights, and moons, and winters, long before
+it was reckoned by days, and suns, and years. Moon(2) is a very old word.
+It was _môna_ in Anglo-Saxon, and was used there, not as a feminine, but
+as a masculine; for the moon was a masculine in all Teutonic languages,
+and it is only through the influence of classical models that in English
+moon has been changed into a feminine, and sun into a masculine. It was a
+most unlucky assertion which Mr. Harris made in his _Hermes_, that all
+nations ascribe to the sun a masculine, and to the moon a feminine
+gender.(3) In Gothic moon is _mena_, which is a masculine. For month we
+have in A.-S. _mónâdh_, in Gothic _menoth_, both masculine. In Greek we
+find _men_, a masculine, for month, and _mene_, a feminine, for moon. In
+Latin we have the derivative _mensis_, month, and in Sanskrit we find
+_mâs_ for moon, and _mâsa_ for month, both masculine.(4) Now this _mâs_ in
+Sanskrit is clearly derived from a root _mâ_, to measure, to mete. In
+Sanskrit, I measure is _mâ-mi_; thou measurest, _mâ-si_; he measures,
+_mâ-ti_ (or _mimî-te_). An instrument of measuring is called in Sanskrit
+_mâ-tram_, the Greek _metron_, our metre. Now if the moon was originally
+called by the farmer the measurer, the ruler of days, and weeks, and
+seasons, the regulator of the tides, the lord of their festivals, and the
+herald of their public assemblies, it is but natural that he should have
+been conceived as a man, and not as the love-sick maiden which our modern
+sentimental poetry has put in his place.
+
+It was the sailor who, before intrusting his life and goods to the winds
+and the waves of the ocean, watched for the rising of those stars which he
+called the Sailing-stars or _Pleiades_, from _plein_, to sail. Navigation
+in the Greek waters was considered safe after the return of the Pleiades;
+and it closed when they disappeared. The Latin name for the _Pleiades_ is
+_Vergiliæ_, from _virga_, a sprout or twig. This name was given to them by
+the Italian husbandman, because in Italy, where they became visible about
+May, they marked the return of summer.(5) Another constellation, the seven
+stars in the head of Taurus, received the name of _Hyades_ or _Pluviæ_ in
+Latin, because at the time when they rose with the sun they were supposed
+to announce rain. The astronomer retains these and many other names; he
+still speaks of the pole of heaven, of wandering and fixed stars,(6) but
+he is apt to forget that these terms were not the result of scientific
+observation and classification, but were borrowed from the language of
+those who themselves were wanderers on the sea or in the desert, and to
+whom the fixed stars were in full reality what their name implies, stars
+driven in and fixed, by which they might hold fast on the deep, as by
+heavenly anchors.
+
+But although historically we are justified in saying that the first
+geometrician was a ploughman, the first botanist a gardener, the first
+mineralogist a miner, it may reasonably be objected that in this early
+stage a science is hardly a science yet: that measuring a field is not
+geometry, that growing cabbages is very far from botany, and that a
+butcher has no claim to the title of comparative anatomist. This is
+perfectly true, yet it is but right that each science should be reminded
+of these its more humble beginnings, and of the practical requirements
+which it was originally intended to answer. A science, as Bacon says,
+should be a rich storehouse for the glory of God, and the relief of man's
+estate. Now, although it may seem as if in the present high state of our
+society students were enabled to devote their time to the investigation of
+the facts and laws of nature, or to the contemplation of the mysteries of
+the world of thought, without any side-glance at the practical result of
+their labors, no science and no art have long prospered and flourished
+among us, unless they were in some way subservient to the practical
+interests of society. It is true that a Lyell collects and arranges, a
+Faraday weighs and analyzes, an Owen dissects and compares, a Herschel
+observes and calculates, without any thought of the immediate marketable
+results of their labors. But there is a general interest which supports
+and enlivens their researches, and that interest depends on the practical
+advantages which society at large derives from their scientific studies.
+Let it be known that the successive strata of the geologist are a
+deception to the miner, that the astronomical tables are useless to the
+navigator, that chemistry is nothing but an expensive amusement, of no use
+to the manufacturer and the farmer--and astronomy, chemistry, and geology
+would soon share the fate of alchemy and astrology. As long as the
+Egyptian science excited the hopes of the invalid by mysterious
+prescriptions (I may observe by the way that the hieroglyphic signs of our
+modern prescriptions have been traced back by Champollion to the real
+hieroglyphics of Egypt(7))--and as long as it instigated the avarice of its
+patrons by the promise of the discovery of gold, it enjoyed a liberal
+support at the courts of princes, and under the roofs of monasteries.
+Though alchemy did not lead to the discovery of gold, it prepared the way
+to discoveries more valuable. The same with astrology. Astrology was not
+such mere imposition as it is generally supposed to have been. It is
+counted as a science by so sound and sober a scholar as Melancthon, and
+even Bacon allows it a place among the sciences, though admitting that "it
+had better intelligence and confederacy with the imagination of man than
+with his reason." In spite of the strong condemnation which Luther
+pronounced against astrology, astrology continued to sway the destinies of
+Europe; and a hundred years after Luther, the astrologer was the
+counsellor of princes and generals, while the founder of modern astronomy
+died in poverty and despair. In our time the very rudiments of astrology
+are lost and forgotten.(8) Even real and useful arts, as soon as they
+cease to be useful, die away, and their secrets are sometimes lost beyond
+the hope of recovery. When after the Reformation our churches and chapels
+were divested of their artistic ornaments, in order to restore, in outward
+appearance also, the simplicity and purity of the Christian church, the
+colors of the painted windows began to fade away, and have never regained
+their former depth and harmony. The invention of printing gave the
+death-blow to the art of ornamental writing and of miniature-painting
+employed in the illumination of manuscripts; and the best artists of the
+present day despair of rivalling the minuteness, softness, and brilliancy
+combined by the humble manufacturer of the mediæval missal.
+
+I speak somewhat feelingly on the necessity that every science should
+answer some practical purpose, because I am aware that the science of
+language has but little to offer to the utilitarian spirit of our age. It
+does not profess to help us in learning languages more expeditiously, nor
+does it hold out any hope of ever realizing the dream of one universal
+language. It simply professes to teach what language is, and this would
+hardly seem sufficient to secure for a new science the sympathy and
+support of the public at large. There are problems, however, which, though
+apparently of an abstruse and merely speculative character, have exercised
+a powerful influence for good or evil in the history of mankind. Men
+before now have fought for an idea, and have laid down their lives for a
+word; and many of these problems which have agitated the world from the
+earliest to our own times, belong properly to the science of language.
+
+Mythology, which was the bane of the ancient world, is in truth a disease
+of language. A myth means a word, but a word which, from being a name or
+an attribute, has been allowed to assume a more substantial existence.
+Most of the Greek, the Roman, the Indian, and other heathen gods are
+nothing but poetical names, which were gradually allowed to assume a
+divine personality never contemplated by their original inventors. _Eos_
+was a name of the dawn before she became a goddess, the wife of
+_Tithonos_, or the dying day. _Fatum_, or fate, meant originally what had
+been spoken; and before Fate became a power, even greater than Jupiter, it
+meant that which had once been spoken by Jupiter, and could never be
+changed,--not even by Jupiter himself. _Zeus_ originally meant the bright
+heaven, in Sanskrit _Dyaus_; and many of the stories told of him as the
+supreme god, had a meaning only as told originally of the bright heaven,
+whose rays, like golden rain, descend on the lap of the earth, the _Danae_
+of old, kept by her father in the dark prison of winter. No one doubts
+that _Luna_ was simply a name of the moon; but so was likewise _Lucina_,
+both derived from _lucere_, to shine. _Hecate_, too, was an old name of
+the moon, the feminine of _Hekatos_ and _Hekatebolos_, the far-darting
+sun; and _Pyrrha_, the Eve of the Greeks, was nothing but a name of the
+red earth, and in particular of Thessaly. This mythological disease,
+though less virulent in modern languages, is by no means extinct.
+
+During the Middle Ages the controversy between Nominalism and Realism,
+which agitated the church for centuries, and finally prepared the way for
+the Reformation, was again, as its very name shows, a controversy on
+names, on the nature of language, and on the relation of words to our
+conceptions on one side, and to the realities of the outer world on the
+other. Men were called heretics for believing that words such as _justice_
+or _truth_ expressed only conceptions of our mind, not real things walking
+about in broad daylight.
+
+In modern times the science of language has been called in to settle some
+of the most perplexing political and social questions. "Nations and
+languages against dynasties and treaties," this is what has remodelled,
+and will remodel still more, the map of Europe; and in America comparative
+philologists have been encouraged to prove the impossibility of a common
+origin of languages and races, in order to justify, by scientific
+arguments, the unhallowed theory of slavery. Never do I remember to have
+seen science more degraded than on the title-page of an American
+publication in which, among the profiles of the different races of man,
+the profile of the ape was made to look more human than that of the negro.
+
+Lastly, the problem of the position of man on the threshold between the
+worlds of matter and spirit has of late assumed a very marked prominence
+among the problems of the physical and mental sciences. It has absorbed
+the thoughts of men who, after a long life spent in collecting, observing,
+and analyzing, have brought to its solution qualifications unrivalled in
+any previous age; and if we may judge from the greater warmth displayed in
+discussions ordinarily conducted with the calmness of judges and not with
+the passion of pleaders, it might seem, after all, as if the great
+problems of our being, of the true nobility of our blood, of our descent
+from heaven or earth, though unconnected with anything that is commonly
+called practical, have still retained a charm of their own--a charm that
+will never lose its power on the mind, and on the heart of man. Now,
+however much the frontiers of the animal kingdom have been pushed forward,
+so that at one time the line of demarcation between animal and man seemed
+to depend on a mere fold in the brain, there is _one_ barrier which no one
+has yet ventured to touch--the barrier of language. Even those philosophers
+with whom _penser c'est sentir_,(9) who reduce all thought to feeling, and
+maintain that we share the faculties which are the productive causes of
+thought in common with beasts, are bound to confess that _as yet_ no race
+of animals has produced a language. Lord Monboddo, for instance, admits
+that as yet no animal has been discovered in the possession of language,
+"not even the beaver, who of all the animals we know, that are not, like
+the orang-outangs, of our own species, comes nearest to us in sagacity."
+
+Locke, who is generally classed together with these materialistic
+philosophers, and who certainly vindicated a large share of what had been
+claimed for the intellect as the property of the senses, recognized most
+fully the barrier which language, as such, placed between man and brutes.
+"This I may be positive in," he writes, "that the power of abstracting is
+not at all in brutes, and that the having of general ideas is that which
+puts a perfect distinction between man and brutes. For it is evident we
+observe no footsteps in these of making use of general signs for universal
+ideas; from which we have reason to imagine that they have not the faculty
+of abstracting or making general ideas, since they have no use of _words_
+or any other general signs."
+
+If, therefore, the science of language gives us an insight into that
+which, by common consent, distinguishes man from all other living beings;
+if it establishes a frontier between man and the brute, which can never be
+removed, it would seem to possess at the present moment peculiar claims on
+the attention of all who, while watching with sincere admiration the
+progress of comparative physiology, yet consider it their duty to enter
+their manly protest against a revival of the shallow theories of Lord
+Monboddo.
+
+But to return to our survey of the history of the physical sciences. We
+had examined the empirical stage through which every science has to pass.
+We saw that, for instance, in botany, a man who has travelled through
+distant countries, who has collected a vast number of plants, who knows
+their names, their peculiarities, and their medicinal qualities, is not
+yet a botanist, but only a herbalist, a lover of plants, or what the
+Italians call a _dilettante_, from _dilettare_, to delight. The real
+science of plants, like every other science, begins with the work of
+classification. An empirical acquaintance with facts rises to a scientific
+knowledge of facts as soon as the mind discovers beneath the multiplicity
+of single productions the unity of an organic system. This discovery is
+made by means of comparison and classification. We cease to study each
+flower for its own sake; and by continually enlarging the sphere of our
+observation, we try to discover what is common to many and offers those
+essential points on which groups or natural classes may be established.
+These classes again, in their more general features, are mutually
+compared; new points of difference, or of similarity of a more general and
+higher character, spring to view, and enable us to discover classes of
+classes, or families. And when the whole kingdom of plants has thus been
+surveyed, and a simple tissue of names been thrown over the garden of
+nature; when we can lift it up, as it were, and view it in our mind as a
+whole, as a system well defined and complete, we then speak of the science
+of plants, or botany. We have entered into altogether a new sphere of
+knowledge where the individual is subject to the general, fact to law; we
+discover thought, order, and purpose pervading the whole realm of nature,
+and we perceive the dark chaos of matter lighted up by the reflection of a
+divine mind. Such views may be right or wrong. Too hasty comparisons, or
+too narrow distinctions, may have prevented the eye of the observer from
+discovering the broad outlines of nature's plan. Yet every system, however
+insufficient it may prove hereafter, is a step in advance. If the mind of
+man is once impressed with the conviction that there must be order and law
+everywhere, it never rests again until all that seems irregular has been
+eliminated, until the full beauty and harmony of nature has been
+perceived, and the eye of man has caught the eye of God beaming out from
+the midst of all His works. The failures of the past prepare the triumphs
+of the future.
+
+Thus, to recur to our former illustration, the systematic arrangement of
+plants which bears the name of Linnæus, and which is founded on the number
+and character of the reproductive organs, failed to bring out the natural
+order which pervades all that grows and blossoms. Broad lines of
+demarcation which unite or divide large tribes and families of plants were
+invisible from his point of view. But in spite of this, his work was not
+in vain. The fact that plants in every part of the world belonged to one
+great system was established once for all; and even in later systems most
+of his classes and divisions have been preserved, because the conformation
+of the reproductive organs of plants happened to run parallel with other
+more characteristic marks of true affinity.(10) It is the same in the
+history of astronomy. Although the Ptolemæan system was a wrong one, yet
+even from its eccentric point of view, laws were discovered determining
+the true movements of the heavenly bodies. The conviction that there
+remains something unexplained is sure to lead to the discovery of our
+error. There can be no error in nature; the error must be with us. This
+conviction lived in the heart of Aristotle when, in spite of his imperfect
+knowledge of nature, he declared "that there is in nature nothing
+interpolated or without connection, as in a bad tragedy;" and from his
+time forward every new fact and every new system have confirmed his faith.
+
+The object of classification is clear. We understand things if we can
+comprehend them; that is to say, if we can grasp and hold together single
+facts, connect isolated impressions, distinguish between what is essential
+and what is merely accidental, and thus predicate the general of the
+individual, and class the individual under the general. This is the secret
+of all scientific knowledge. Many sciences, while passing through this
+second or classificatory stage, assume the title of comparative. When the
+anatomist has finished the dissection of numerous bodies, when he has
+given names to each organ, and discovered the distinctive functions of
+each, he is led to perceive similarity where at first he saw dissimilarity
+only. He discovers in the lower animals rudimentary indications of the
+more perfect organization of the higher; and he becomes impressed with the
+conviction that there is in the animal kingdom the same order and purpose
+which pervades the endless variety of plants or any other realm of nature.
+He learns, if he did not know it before, that things were not created at
+random or in a lump, but that there is a scale which leads, by
+imperceptible degrees, from the lowest infusoria to the crowning work of
+nature,--man; that all is the manifestation of one and the same unbroken
+chain of creative thought, the work of one and the same all-wise Creator.
+
+In this way the second or classificatory leads us naturally to the third
+or final stage--the theoretical, or metaphysical. If the work of
+classification is properly carried out, it teaches us that nothing exists
+in nature by accident; that each individual belongs to a species, each
+species to a genus; and that there are laws which underlie the apparent
+freedom and variety of all created things. These laws indicate to us the
+presence of a purpose in the mind of the Creator; and whereas the material
+world was looked upon by ancient philosophers as a mere illusion, as an
+agglomerate of atoms, or as the work of an evil principle, we now read and
+interpret its pages as the revelation of a divine power, and wisdom, and
+love. This has given to the study of nature a new character. After the
+observer has collected his facts, and after the classifier has placed them
+in order, the student asks what is the origin and what is the meaning of
+all this? and he tries to soar, by means of induction, or sometimes even
+of divination, into regions not accessible to the mere collector. In this
+attempt the mind of man no doubt has frequently met with the fate of
+Phaeton; but, undismayed by failure, he asks again and again for his
+father's steeds. It has been said that this so-called philosophy of nature
+has never achieved anything; that it has done nothing but prove that
+things must be exactly as they had been found to be by the observer and
+collector. Physical science, however, would never have been what it is
+without the impulses which it received from the philosopher, nay even from
+the poet. "At the limits of exact knowledge" (I quote the words of
+Humboldt), "as from a lofty island-shore, the eye loves to glance towards
+distant regions. The images which it sees may be illusive; but, like the
+illusive images which people imagined they had seen from the Canaries or
+the Azores, long before the time of Columbus, they may lead to the
+discovery of a new world."
+
+Copernicus, in the dedication of his work to Pope Paul III. (it was
+commenced in 1517, finished 1530, published 1543), confesses that he was
+brought to the discovery of the sun's central position, and of the diurnal
+motion of the earth, not by observation or analysis, but by what he calls
+the feeling of a want of symmetry in the Ptolemaic system. But who had
+told him that there _must_ be symmetry in all the movements of the
+celestial bodies, or that complication was not more sublime than
+simplicity? Symmetry and simplicity, before they were discovered by the
+observer, were postulated by the philosopher. The first idea of
+revolutionizing the heavens was suggested to Copernicus, as he tells us
+himself, by an ancient Greek philosopher, by Philolaus, the Pythagorean.
+No doubt with Philolaus the motion of the earth was only a guess, or, if
+you like, a happy intuition. Nevertheless, if we may trust the words of
+Copernicus, it is quite possible that without that guess we should never
+have heard of the Copernican system. Truth is not found by addition and
+multiplication only. When speaking of Kepler, whose method of reasoning
+has been considered as unsafe and fantastic by his contemporaries as well
+as by later astronomers, Sir David Brewster remarks very truly, "that, as
+an instrument of research, the influence of imagination has been much
+overlooked by those who have ventured to give laws to philosophy." The
+torch of imagination is as necessary to him who looks for truth, as the
+lamp of study. Kepler held both, and more than that, he had the star of
+faith to guide him in all things from darkness to light.
+
+In the history of the physical sciences, the three stages which we have
+just described as the empirical, the classificatory, and the theoretical,
+appear generally in chronological order. I say, generally, for there have
+been instances, as in the case just quoted of Philolaus, where the results
+properly belonging to the third have been anticipated in the first stage.
+To the quick eye of genius one case may be like a thousand, and one
+experiment, well chosen, may lead to the discovery of an absolute law.
+Besides, there are great chasms in the history of science. The tradition
+of generations is broken by political or ethnic earthquakes, and the work
+that was nearly finished has frequently had to be done again from the
+beginning, when a new surface had been formed for the growth of a new
+civilization. The succession, however, of these three stages is no doubt
+the natural one, and it is very properly observed in the study of every
+science. The student of botany begins as a collector of plants. Taking
+each plant by itself, he observes its peculiar character, its habitat, its
+proper season, its popular or unscientific name. He learns to distinguish
+between the roots, the stem, the leaves, the flower, the calyx, the
+stamina, and pistils. He learns, so to say, the practical grammar of the
+plant before he can begin to compare, to arrange, and classify.
+
+Again, no one can enter with advantage on the third stage of any physical
+science without having passed through the second. No one can study _the_
+plant, no one can understand the bearing of such a work as, for instance,
+Professor Schleiden's "Life of the Plant,"(11) who has not studied the
+life of plants in the wonderful variety, and in the still more wonderful
+order, of nature. These last and highest achievements of inductive
+philosophy are possible only after the way has been cleared by previous
+classification. The philosopher must command his classes like regiments
+which obey the order of their general. Thus alone can the battle be fought
+and truth be conquered.
+
+After this rapid glance at the history of the other physical sciences, we
+now return to our own, the science of language, in order to see whether it
+really is a science, and whether it can be brought back to the standard of
+the inductive sciences. We want to know whether it has passed, or is still
+passing, through the three phases of physical research; whether its
+progress has been systematic or desultory, whether its method has been
+appropriate or not. But before we do this, we shall, I think, have to do
+something else. You may have observed that I always took it for granted
+that the science of language, which is best known in this country by the
+name of comparative philology, is one of the physical sciences, and that
+therefore its method ought to be the same as that which has been followed
+with so much success in botany, geology, anatomy, and other branches of
+the study of nature. In the history of the physical sciences, however, we
+look in vain for a place assigned to comparative philology, and its very
+name would seem to show that it belongs to quite a different sphere of
+human knowledge. There are two great divisions of human knowledge, which,
+according to their subject-matter, are called _physical_ and _historical_.
+Physical science deals with the works of God, historical science with the
+works of man. Now if we were to judge by its name, comparative philology,
+like classical philology, would seem to take rank, not as a physical, but
+as an historical science, and the proper method to be applied to it would
+be that which is followed in the history of art, of law, of politics, and
+religion. However, the title of comparative philology must not be allowed
+to mislead us. It is difficult to say by whom that title was invented; but
+all that can be said in defence of it is, that the founders of the science
+of language were chiefly scholars or philologists, and that they based
+their inquiries into the nature and laws of language on a comparison of as
+many facts as they could collect within their own special spheres of
+study. Neither in Germany, which may well be called the birthplace of this
+science, nor in France, where it has been cultivated with brilliant
+success, has that title been adopted. It will not be difficult to show
+that, although the science of language owes much to the classical scholar,
+and though in return it has proved of great use to him, yet comparative
+philology has really nothing whatever in common with philology in the
+usual meaning of the word. Philology, whether classical or oriental,
+whether treating of ancient or modern, of cultivated or barbarous
+languages, is an historical science. Language is here treated simply as a
+means. The classical scholar uses Greek or Latin, the oriental scholar
+Hebrew or Sanskrit, or any other language, as a key to an understanding of
+the literary monuments which by-gone ages have bequeathed to us, as a
+spell to raise from the tomb of time the thoughts of great men in
+different ages and different countries, and as a means ultimately to trace
+the social, moral, intellectual, and religious progress of the human race.
+In the same manner, if we study living languages, it is not for their own
+sake that we acquire grammars and vocabularies. We do so on account of
+their practical usefulness. We use them as letters of introduction to the
+best society or to the best literature of the leading nations of Europe.
+In comparative philology the case is totally different. In the science of
+language, languages are not treated as a means; language itself becomes
+the sole object of scientific inquiry. Dialects which have never produced
+any literature at all, the jargons of savage tribes, the clicks of the
+Hottentots, and the vocal modulations of the Indo-Chinese are as
+important, nay, for the solution of some of our problems, more important,
+than the poetry of Homer, or the prose of Cicero. We do not want to know
+languages, we want to know language; what language is, how it can form a
+vehicle or an organ of thought; we want to know its origin, its nature,
+its laws; and it is only in order to arrive at that knowledge that we
+collect, arrange, and classify all the facts of language that are within
+our reach.
+
+And here I must protest, at the very outset of these lectures, against the
+supposition that the student of language must necessarily be a great
+linguist. I shall have to speak to you in the course of these lectures of
+hundreds of languages, some of which, perhaps, you may never have heard
+mentioned even by name. Do not suppose that I know these languages as you
+know Greek or Latin, French or German. In that sense I know indeed very
+few languages, and I never aspired to the fame of a Mithridates or a
+Mezzofanti. It is impossible for a student of language to acquire a
+practical knowledge of all tongues with which he has to deal. He does not
+wish to speak the Kachikal language, of which a professorship was lately
+founded in the University of Guatemala,(12) or to acquire the elegancies
+of the idiom of the Tcheremissians; nor is it his ambition to explore the
+literature of the Samoyedes, or the New-Zealanders. It is the grammar and
+the dictionary which form the subject of his inquiries. These he consults
+and subjects to a careful analysis, but he does not encumber his memory
+with paradigms of nouns and verbs, or with long lists of words which have
+never been used in any work of literature. It is true, no doubt, that no
+language will unveil the whole of its wonderful structure except to the
+scholar who has studied it thoroughly and critically in a number of
+literary works representing the various periods of its growth.
+Nevertheless, short lists of vocables, and imperfect sketches of a
+grammar, are in many instances all that the student can expect to obtain,
+or can hope to master and to use for the purposes he has in view. He must
+learn to make the best of this fragmentary information, like the
+comparative anatomist, who frequently learns his lessons from the smallest
+fragments of fossil bones, or the vague pictures of animals brought home
+by unscientific travellers. If it were necessary for the comparative
+philologist to acquire a critical or practical acquaintance with all the
+languages which form the subject of his inquiries, the science of language
+would simply be an impossibility. But we do not expect the botanist to be
+an experienced gardener, or the geologist a miner, or the ichthyologist a
+practical fisherman. Nor would it be reasonable to object in the science
+of language to the same division of labor which is necessary for the
+successful cultivation of subjects much less comprehensive. Though much of
+what we might call the realm of language is lost to us forever, though
+whole periods in the history of language are by necessity withdrawn from
+our observation, yet the mass of human speech that lies before us, whether
+in the petrified strata of ancient literature or in the countless variety
+of living languages and dialects, offers a field as large, if not larger,
+than any other branch of physical research. It is impossible to fix the
+exact number of known languages, but their number can hardly be less than
+nine hundred. That this vast field should never have excited the curiosity
+of the natural philosopher before the beginning of our century may seem
+surprising, more surprising even than the indifference with which former
+generations treated the lessons which even the stones seemed to teach of
+the life still throbbing in the veins and on the very surface of the
+earth. The saying that "familiarity breeds contempt" would seem applicable
+to the subjects of both these sciences. The gravel of our walks hardly
+seemed to deserve a scientific treatment, and the language which every
+plough-boy can speak could not be raised without an effort to the dignity
+of a scientific problem. Man had studied every part of nature, the mineral
+treasures in the bowels of the earth, the flowers of each season, the
+animals of every continent, the laws of storms, and the movements of the
+heavenly bodies; he had analyzed every substance, dissected every
+organism, he knew every bone and muscle, every nerve and fibre of his own
+body to the ultimate elements which compose his flesh and blood; he had
+meditated on the nature of his soul, on the laws of his mind, and tried to
+penetrate into the last causes of all being--and yet language, without the
+aid of which not even the first step in this glorious career could have
+been made, remained unnoticed. Like a veil that hung too close over the
+eye of the human mind, it was hardly perceived. In an age when the study
+of antiquity attracted the most energetic minds, when the ashes of Pompeii
+were sifted for the playthings of Roman life; when parchments were made to
+disclose, by chemical means, the erased thoughts of Grecian thinkers; when
+the tombs of Egypt were ransacked for their sacred contents, and the
+palaces of Babylon and Nineveh forced to surrender the clay diaries of
+Nebuchadnezzar; when everything, in fact, that seemed to contain a vestige
+of the early life of man was anxiously searched for and carefully
+preserved in our libraries and museums,--language, which in itself carries
+us back far beyond the cuneiform literature of Assyria and Babylonia, and
+the hieroglyphic documents of Egypt; which connects ourselves, through an
+unbroken chain of speech, with the very ancestors of our race, and still
+draws its life from the first utterances of the human mind,--language, the
+living and speaking witness of the whole history of our race, was never
+cross-examined by the student of history, was never made to disclose its
+secrets until questioned and, so to say, brought back to itself within the
+last fifty years, by the genius of a Humboldt, Bopp, Grimm, Bunsen, and
+others. If you consider that, whatever view we take of the origin and
+dispersion of language, nothing new has ever been added to the substance
+of language, that all its changes have been changes of form, that no new
+root or radical has ever been invented by later generations, as little as
+one single element has ever been added to the material world in which we
+live; if you bear in mind that in one sense, and in a very just sense, we
+may be said to handle the very words which issued from the mouth of the
+son of God, when he gave names to "all cattle, and to the fowl of the air,
+and to every beast of the field," you will see, I believe, that the
+science of language has claims on your attention, such as few sciences can
+rival or excel.
+
+Having thus explained the manner in which I intend to treat the science of
+language, I hope in my next lecture to examine the objections of those
+philosophers who see in language nothing but a contrivance devised by
+human skill for the more expeditious communication of our thoughts, and
+who would wish to see it treated, not as a production of nature, but as a
+work of human art.
+
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE II. THE GROWTH OF LANGUAGE IN CONTRADISTINCTION TO THE HISTORY OF
+LANGUAGE.
+
+
+In claiming for the science of language a place among the physical
+sciences, I was prepared to meet with many objections. The circle of the
+physical sciences seemed closed, and it was not likely that a new claimant
+should at once be welcomed among the established branches and scions of
+the ancient aristocracy of learning.(13)
+
+The first objection which was sure to be raised on the part of such
+sciences as botany, geology, or physiology is this:--Language is the work
+of man; it was invented by man as a means of communicating his thoughts,
+when mere looks and gestures proved inefficient; and it was gradually, by
+the combined efforts of succeeding generations, brought to that perfection
+which we admire in the idiom of the Bible, the Vedas, the Koran, and in
+the poetry of Homer, Virgil, Dante, and Shakespeare. Now it is perfectly
+true that if language be the work of man, in the same sense in which a
+statue, or a temple, or a poem, or a law are properly called the works of
+man, the science of language would have to be classed as an historical
+science. We should have a history of language as we have a history of art,
+of poetry, and of jurisprudence, but we could not claim for it a place
+side by side with the various branches of Natural History. It is true,
+also, that if you consult the works of the most distinguished modern
+philosophers you will find that whenever they speak of language, they take
+it for granted that language is a human invention, that words are
+artificial signs, and that the varieties of human speech arose from
+different nations agreeing on different sounds as the most appropriate
+signs of their different ideas. This view of the origin of language was so
+powerfully advocated by the leading philosophers of the last century, that
+it has retained an undisputed currency even among those who, on almost
+every other point, are strongly opposed to the teaching of that school. A
+few voices, indeed, have been raised to protest against the theory of
+language being originally invented by man. But they, in their zeal to
+vindicate the divine origin of language, seem to have been carried away so
+far as to run counter to the express statements of the Bible. For in the
+Bible it is not the Creator who gives names to all things, but Adam. "Out
+of the ground," we read, "the Lord God formed every beast of the field,
+and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam to see what he would
+call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the
+name thereof."(14) But with the exception of this small class of
+philosophers, more orthodox even than the Bible,(15) the generally
+received opinion on the origin of language is that which was held by
+_Locke_, which was powerfully advocated by _Adam Smith_ in his Essay on
+the Origin of Language, appended to his Treatise on Moral Sentiments, and
+which was adopted with slight modifications by _Dugald Stewart_. According
+to them, man must have lived for a time in a state of mutism, his only
+means of communication consisting in gestures of the body, and in the
+changes of countenance, till at last, when ideas multiplied that could no
+longer be pointed at with the fingers, "they found it necessary to invent
+artificial signs of which the meaning was fixed by mutual agreement." We
+need not dwell on minor differences of opinion as to the exact process by
+which this artificial language is supposed to have been formed. Adam Smith
+would wish us to believe that the first artificial words were _verbs_.
+Nouns, he thinks, were of less urgent necessity because things could be
+pointed at or imitated, whereas mere actions, such as are expressed by
+verbs, could not. He therefore supposes that when people saw a wolf
+coming, they pointed at him, and simply cried out, "He comes." Dugald
+Stewart, on the contrary, thinks that the first artificial words were
+nouns, and that the verbs were supplied by gesture; that, therefore, when
+people saw a wolf coming, they did not cry "He comes," but "Wolf, Wolf,"
+leaving the rest to be imagined.(16)
+
+But whether the verb or the noun was the first to be invented is of little
+importance; nor is it possible for us, at the very beginning of our
+inquiry into the nature of language, to enter upon a minute examination of
+a theory which represents language as a work of human art, and as
+established by mutual agreement as a medium of communication. While fully
+admitting that if this theory were true, the science of language would not
+come within the pale of the physical sciences, I must content myself for
+the present with pointing out that no one has yet explained how, without
+language, a discussion on the merits of each word, such as must
+necessarily have preceded a mutual agreement, could have been carried on.
+But as it is the object of these lectures to prove that language is not a
+work of human art, in the same sense as painting, or building, or writing,
+or printing, I must ask to be allowed, in this preliminary stage, simply
+to enter my protest against a theory, which, though still taught in the
+schools, is, nevertheless, I believe, without a single fact to support its
+truth.
+
+But there are other objections besides this which would seem to bar the
+admission of the science of language to the circle of the physical
+sciences. Whatever the origin of language may have been, it has been
+remarked with a strong appearance of truth, that language has a history of
+its own, like art, like law, like religion; and that, therefore, the
+science of language belongs to the circle of the _historical_, or, as they
+used to be called, the _moral_, in contradistinction to the _physical_
+sciences. It is a well-known fact, which recent researches have not
+shaken, that nature is incapable of progress or improvement. The flower
+which the botanist observes to-day was as perfect from the beginning.
+Animals, which are endowed with what is called an artistic instinct, have
+never brought that instinct to a higher degree of perfection. The
+hexagonal cells of the bee are not more regular in the nineteenth century
+than at any earlier period, and the gift of song has never, as far as we
+know, been brought to a higher perfection by our nightingale than by the
+Philomelo of the Greeks. "Natural History," to quote Dr. Whewell's
+words,(17) "when systematically treated, excludes all that is historical,
+for it classes objects by their permanent and universal properties, and
+has nothing to do with the narration of particular or casual facts." Now,
+if we consider the large number of tongues spoken in different parts of
+the world with all their dialectic and provincial varieties, if we observe
+the great changes which each of these tongues has undergone in the course
+of centuries, how Latin was changed into Italian, Spanish, Portuguese,
+Provençal, French, Wallachian, and Roumansch; how Latin again, together
+with Greek, and the Celtic, the Teutonic, and Slavonic languages, together
+likewise with the ancient dialects of India and Persia, must have sprung
+from an earlier language, the mother of the whole Indo-European or Aryan
+family of speech; if we see how Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac, with several
+minor dialects, are but different impressions of one and the same common
+type, and must all have flowed from the same source, the original language
+of the Semitic race; and if we add to these two, the Aryan and Semitic, at
+least one more well-established class of languages, the Turanian,
+comprising the dialects of the nomad races scattered over Central and
+Northern Asia, the Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic,(18) Samoyedic, and Finnic,
+all radii from one common centre of speech:--if we watch this stream of
+language rolling on through centuries in these three mighty arms, which,
+before they disappear from our sight in the far distance, clearly show a
+convergence towards one common source: it would seem, indeed, as if there
+were an historical life inherent in language, and as if both the will of
+man and the power of time could tell, if not on its substance, at least on
+its form. And even if the mere local varieties of speech were not
+considered sufficient ground for excluding language from the domain of
+natural science, there would still remain the greater difficulty of
+reconciling with the recognized principles of physical science the
+historical changes affecting every one of these varieties. Every part of
+nature, whether mineral, plant, or animal, is the same in kind from the
+beginning to the end of its existence, whereas few languages could be
+recognized as the same after the lapse of but a thousand years. The
+language of Alfred is so different from the English of the present day
+that we have to study it in the same manner as we study Greek and Latin.
+We can read Milton and Bacon, Shakespeare and Hooker; we can make out
+Wycliffe and Chaucer; but, when we come to the English of the thirteenth
+century, we can but guess its meaning, and we fail even in this with works
+previous to the Ormulum and Layamon. The historical changes of language
+may be more or less rapid, but they take place at all times and in all
+countries. They have reduced the rich and powerful idiom of the poets of
+the Veda to the meagre and impure jargon of the modern Sepoy. They have
+transformed the language of the Zend-Avesta and of the mountain records of
+Behistún into that of Firdusi and the modern Persians; the language of
+Virgil into that of Dante, the language of Ulfilas into that of
+Charlemagne, the language of Charlemagne into that of Goethe. We have
+reason to believe that the same changes take place with even greater
+violence and rapidity in the dialects of savage tribes, although, in the
+absence of a written literature, it is extremely difficult to obtain
+trustworthy information. But in the few instances where careful
+observations have been made on this interesting subject, it has been found
+that among the wild and illiterate tribes of Siberia, Africa, and Siam,
+two or three generations are sufficient to change the whole aspect of
+their dialects. The languages of highly civilized nations, on the
+contrary, become more and more stationary, and seem sometimes almost to
+lose their power of change. Where there is a classical literature, and
+where its language is spread to every town and village, it seems almost
+impossible that any further changes should take place. Nevertheless, the
+language of Rome, for so many centuries the queen of the whole civilized
+world, was deposed by the modern Romance dialects, and the ancient Greek
+was supplanted in the end by the modern Romaic. And though the art of
+printing and the wide diffusion of Bibles, and Prayer-books, and
+newspapers have acted as still more powerful barriers to arrest the
+constant flow of human speech, we may see that the language of the
+authorized version of the Bible, though perfectly intelligible, is no
+longer the spoken language of England. In Booker's Scripture and
+Prayer-book Glossary(19) the number of words or senses of words which have
+become obsolete since 1611, amount to 388, or nearly one fifteenth part of
+the whole number of words used in the Bible. Smaller changes, changes of
+accent and meaning, the reception of new, and the dropping of old words,
+we may watch as taking place under our own eyes. Rogers(20) said that
+"_cóntemplate_ is bad enough, but _bálcony_ makes me sick," whereas at
+present no one is startled by _cóntemplate_ instead of _contémplate_, and
+_bálcony_ has become more usual than _balcóny_. Thus _Roome_ and _chaney_,
+_layloc_ and _goold_, have but lately been driven from the stage by
+_Rome_, _china_, _lilac_, and _gold_, and some courteous gentlemen of the
+old school still continue to be _obleeged_ instead of being _obliged_.
+_Force_,(21) in the sense of a waterfall, and _gill_, in the sense of a
+rocky ravine, were not used in classical English before Wordsworth.
+_Handbook_,(22) though an old Anglo-Saxon word, has but lately taken the
+place of _manual_, and a number of words such as _cab_ for cabriolet,
+_buss_ for omnibus, and even a verb such as _to shunt_ tremble still on
+the boundary line between the vulgar and the literary idioms. Though the
+grammatical changes that have taken place since the publication of the
+authorized version are yet fewer in number, still we may point out some.
+The termination of the third person singular in _th_ is now entirely
+replaced by _s_. No one now says _he liveth_, but only _he lives_. Several
+of the irregular imperfects and participles have assumed a new form. No
+one now uses _he spake_, and _he drave_, instead of _he spoke_, and _he
+drove_; _holpen_ is replaced by _helped_; _holden_ by _held_; _shapen_ by
+_shaped_. The distinction between _ye_ and _you_, the former being
+reserved for the nominative, the latter for all the other cases, is given
+up in modern English; and what is apparently a new grammatical form, the
+possessive pronoun _its_, has sprung into life since the beginning of the
+seventeenth century. It never occurs in the Bible; and though it is used
+three or four times by Shakespeare, Ben Jonson does not recognize it as
+yet in his English Grammar.(23)
+
+It is argued, therefore, that as language, differing thereby from all
+other productions of nature, is liable to historical alterations, it is
+not fit to be treated in the same manner as the subject-matter of all the
+other physical sciences.
+
+There is something very plausible in this objection, but if we examine it
+more carefully, we shall find that it rests entirely on a confusion of
+terms. We must distinguish between historical change and natural growth.
+Art, science, philosophy, and religion all have a history; language, or
+any other production of nature, admits only of growth.
+
+Let us consider, first, that although there is a continuous change in
+language, it is not in the power of man either to produce or to prevent
+it. We might think as well of changing the laws which control the
+circulation of our blood, or of adding an inch to our height, as of
+altering the laws of speech, or inventing new words according to our own
+pleasure. As man is the lord of nature only if he knows her laws and
+submits to them, the poet and the philosopher become the lords of language
+only if they know its laws and obey them.
+
+When the Emperor Tiberius had made a mistake, and was reproved for it by
+Marcellus, another grammarian of the name of Capito, who happened to be
+present, remarked that what the emperor said was good Latin, or, if it
+were not, it would soon be so. Marcellus, more of a grammarian than a
+courtier, replied, "Capito is a liar; for, Cæsar, thou canst give the
+Roman citizenship to men, but not to words." A similar anecdote is told of
+the German Emperor Sigismund. When presiding at the Council of Costnitz,
+he addressed the assembly in a Latin speech, exhorting them to eradicate
+the schism of the Hussites. "Videte Patres," he said, "ut eradicetis
+schismam Hussitarum." He was very unceremoniously called to order by a
+monk, who called out, "Serenissime Rex, schisma est generis neutri."(24)
+The emperor, however, without losing his presence of mind, asked the
+impertinent monk, "How do you know it?" The old Bohemian school-master
+replied, "Alexander Gallus says so." "And who is Alexander Gallus?" the
+emperor rejoined. The monk replied, "He was a monk." "Well," said the
+emperor, "and I am Emperor of Rome; and my word, I trust, will be as good
+as the word of any monk." No doubt the laughers were with the emperor; but
+for all that, _schisma_ remained a neuter, and not even an emperor could
+change its gender or termination.
+
+The idea that language can be changed and improved by man is by no means a
+new one. We know that Protagoras, an ancient Greek philosopher, after
+laying down some laws on gender, actually began to find fault with the
+text of Homer, because it did not agree with his rules. But here, as in
+every other instance, the attempt proved unavailing. Try to alter the
+smallest rule of English, and you will find that it is physically
+impossible. There is apparently a very small difference between _much_ and
+_very_, but you can hardly ever put one in the place of the other. You can
+say, "I am very happy," but not "I am much happy," though you may say "I
+am most happy." On the contrary, you can say "I am much misunderstood,"
+but not "I am very misunderstood." Thus the western Romance dialects,
+Spanish and Portuguese, together with Wallachian, can only employ the
+Latin word _magis_ for forming comparatives:--Sp. _mas dulce_; Port. _mais
+doce_; Wall, _mai dulce_; while French, Provençal, and Italian only allow
+_of plus_ for the same purpose: Ital. _più dolce_; Prov. _plus dous_; Fr.
+_plus doux_. It is by no means impossible, however, that this distinction
+between _very_, which is now used with adjectives only, and _much_, which
+precedes participles, should disappear in time. In fact, "very pleased"
+and "very delighted" are Americanisms which may be heard even in this
+country. But if that change take place, it will not be by the will of any
+individual, nor by the mutual agreement of any large number of men, but
+rather in spite of the exertions of grammarians and academies. And here
+you perceive the first difference between history and growth. An emperor
+may change the laws of society, the forms of religion, the rules of art:
+it is in the power of one generation, or even of one individual, to raise
+an art to the highest pitch of perfection, while the next may allow it to
+lapse, till a new genius takes it up again with renewed ardor. In all this
+we have to deal with the conscious acts of individuals, and we therefore
+move on historical ground. If we compare the creations of Michael Angelo
+or Raphael with the statues and frescoes of ancient Rome, we can speak of
+a history of art. We can connect two periods separated by thousands of
+years through the works of those who handed on the traditions of art from
+century to century; but we shall never meet with that continuous and
+unconscious growth which connects the language of Plautus with that of
+Dante. The process through which language is settled and unsettled
+combines in one the two opposite elements of necessity and free will.
+Though the individual seems to be the prime agent in producing new words
+and new grammatical forms, he is so only after his individuality has been
+merged in the common action of the family, tribe, or nation to which he
+belongs. He can do nothing by himself, and the first impulse to a new
+formation in language, though given by an individual, is mostly, if not
+always, given without premeditation, nay, unconsciously. The individual,
+as such, is powerless, and the results apparently produced by him depend
+on laws beyond his control, and on the co-operation of all those who form
+together with him one class, one body, or one organic whole.
+
+But, though it is easy to show, as we have just done, that language cannot
+be changed or moulded by the taste, the fancy, or genius of man, it is
+very difficult to explain what causes the growth of language. Ever since
+Horace it has been usual to compare the growth of languages with the
+growth of trees. But comparisons are treacherous things. What do we know
+of the real causes of the growth of a tree, and what can we gain by
+comparing things which we do not quite understand with things which we
+understand even less? Many people speak, for instance, of the terminations
+of the verb, as if they sprouted out from the root as from their parent
+stock.(25) But what ideas can they connect with such expressions? If we
+must compare language with a tree, there is one point which may be
+illustrated by this comparison, and this is that neither language nor the
+tree can exist or grow by itself. Without the soil, without air and light,
+the tree could not live; it could not even be conceived to live. It is the
+same with language. Language cannot exist by itself; it requires a soil on
+which to grow, and that soil is the human soul. To speak of language as a
+thing by itself, as living a life of its own, as growing to maturity,
+producing offspring, and dying away, is sheer mythology; and though we
+cannot help using metaphorical expressions, we should always be on our
+guard, when engaged in inquiries like the present, against being carried
+away by the very words which we are using.
+
+Now, what we call the growth of language comprises two processes which
+should be carefully distinguished, though they may be at work
+simultaneously. These two processes I call,
+
+1. _Dialectical Regeneration._
+
+2. _Phonetic Decay._
+
+I begin with the second, as the more obvious, though in reality its
+operations are mostly subsequent to the operations of dialectical
+regeneration. I must ask you at present to take it for granted that
+everything in language had originally a meaning. As language can have no
+other object but to express our meaning, it might seem to follow almost by
+necessity that language should contain neither more nor less than what is
+required for that purpose. It would also seem to follow that if language
+contains no more than what is necessary for conveying a certain meaning,
+it would be impossible to modify any part of it without defeating its very
+purpose. This is really the case in some languages. In Chinese, for
+instance, _ten_ is expressed by _shi_. It would be impossible to change
+_shi_ in the slightest way without making it unfit to express _ten_. If
+instead of _shi_ we pronounced _t'si_, this would mean _seven_, but not
+_ten_. But now, suppose we wished to express double the quantity of ten,
+twice ten, or twenty. We should in Chinese take _eúl_, which is two, put
+it before _shi_, and say _eúl-shi_, twenty. The same caution which applied
+to _shi_, applies again to _eúl-shi_. As soon as you change it, by adding
+or dropping a single letter, it is no longer twenty, but either something
+else or nothing. We find exactly the same in other languages which, like
+Chinese, are called monosyllabic. In Tibetan, _chu_ is ten, _nyi_ two;
+_nyi-chu_, twenty. In Burmese _she_ is ten, _nhit_ two; _nhit-she_,
+twenty.
+
+But how is it in English, or in Gothic, or in Greek and Latin, or in
+Sanskrit? We do not say _two-ten_ in English, nor _duo-decem_ in Latin,
+nor _dvi-da'sa_ in Sanskrit.
+
+We find(26) in Sanskrit _vin'sati_.
+in Greek _eikati_.
+in Latin _viginti_.
+in English _twenty_.
+
+Now here we see, first, that the Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, are only
+local modifications of one and the same original word; whereas the English
+_twenty_ is a new compound, the Gothic _tvai tigjus_ (two decads), the
+Anglo-Saxon _tuêntig_, framed from Teutonic materials; a product, as we
+shall see, of Dialectical Regeneration.
+
+We next observe that the first part of the Latin _viginti_ and of the
+Sanskrit _vin'sati_ contains the same number, which from _dvi_ has been
+reduced to _vi_. This is not very extraordinary; for the Latin _bis_,
+twice, which you still hear at our concerts, likewise stands for an
+original _dvis_, the English _twice_, the Greek _dis_. This _dis_ appears
+again as a Latin preposition, meaning _a-two_; so that, for instance,
+_discussion_ means, originally, striking a-two, different from
+_percussion_, which means striking through and through. _Discussion_ is,
+in fact, the cracking of a nut in order to get at its kernel. Well, the
+same word, _dvi_ or _vi_, we have in the Latin word for twenty, which is
+_vi-ginti_, the Sanskrit _vin-'sati_.
+
+It can likewise be proved that the second part of _viginti_ is a
+corruption of the old word for ten. Ten, in Sanskrit, is _da'san_; from it
+is derived _da'sati_, a decad; and this _da'sati_ was again reduced to
+_'sati_; thus giving us with _vi_ for _dvi_, two, the Sanskrit _vi'sati_
+or _vin'sati_, twenty. The Latin _viginti_, the Greek _eikati_, owe their
+origin to the same process.
+
+Now consider the immense difference--I do not mean in sound, but in
+character--between two such words as the Chinese _eúl-shi_, two-ten, or
+twenty, and those mere cripples of words which we meet with in Sanskrit,
+Greek, and Latin. In Chinese there is neither too much, nor too little.
+The word speaks for itself, and requires no commentary. In Sanskrit, on
+the contrary, the most essential parts of the two component elements are
+gone, and what remains is a kind of metamorphic agglomerate which cannot
+be understood without a most minute microscopic analysis. Here, then, you
+have an instance of what is meant by _phonetic corruption_; and you will
+perceive how, not only the form, but the whole nature of language is
+destroyed by it. As soon as phonetic corruption shows itself in a
+language, that language has lost what we considered to be the most
+essential character of all human speech, namely, that every part of it
+should have a meaning. The people who spoke Sanskrit were as little aware
+that _vin'sati_ meant _twice ten_ as a Frenchman is that _vingt_ contains
+the remains of _deux_ and _dix_. Language, therefore, has entered into a
+new stage as soon as it submits to the attacks of phonetic change. The
+life of language has become benumbed and extinct in those words or
+portions of words which show the first traces of this phonetic mould.
+Henceforth those words or portions of words can be kept up only
+artificially or by tradition; and, what is important, a distinction is
+henceforth established between what is substantial or radical, and what is
+merely formal or grammatical in words.
+
+For let us now take another instance, which will make it clearer, how
+phonetic corruption leads to the first appearance of so-called grammatical
+forms. We are not in the habit of looking on _twenty_ as the plural or
+dual of _ten_. But how was a plural originally formed? In Chinese, which
+from the first has guarded most carefully against the taint of phonetic
+corruption, the plural is formed in the most sensible manner. Thus, man in
+Chinese is _gin_; _kiai_ means the whole or totality. This added to _gin_
+gives _gin-kiai_, which is the plural of man. There are other words which
+are used for the same purpose in Chinese; for instance, _péi_, which means
+a class. Hence, _i_, a stranger, followed by _péi_, class, gives _i-péi_,
+strangers. We have similar plurals in English, but we do not reckon them
+as grammatical forms. Thus, _man-kind_ is formed exactly like _i-péi_,
+stranger-kind; _Christendom_ is the same as all Christians, and _clergy_
+is synonymous with _clerici_. The same process is followed in other
+cognate languages. In Tibetan the plural is formed by the addition of such
+words as _kun_, all, and _t'sogs_, multitude.(27) Even the numerals,
+_nine_ and _hundred_, are used for the same purpose. And here again, as
+long as these words are fully understood and kept alive, they resist
+phonetic corruption; but the moment they lose, so to say, their presence
+of mind, phonetic corruption sets in, and as soon as phonetic corruption
+has commenced its ravages, those portions of a word which it affects
+retain a merely artificial or conventional existence, and dwindle down to
+grammatical terminations.
+
+I am afraid I should tax your patience too much were I to enter here on an
+analysis of the grammatical terminations in Sanskrit, Greek, or Latin, in
+order to show how these terminations arose out of independent words, which
+were slowly reduced to mere dust by the constant wear and tear of speech.
+But in order to explain how the principle of phonetic decay leads to the
+formation of grammatical terminations, let us look to languages with which
+we are more familiar. Let us take the French adverb. We are told by French
+grammarians(28) that in order to form adverbs we have to add the
+termination _ment_. Thus from _bon_, good, we form _bonnement_, from
+_vrai_, true, _vraiment_. This termination does not exist in Latin. But we
+meet in Latin(29) with expressions such as _bonâ mente_, in good faith. We
+read in Ovid, "Insistam forti mente," I shall insist with a strong mind or
+will, I shall insist strongly; in French, "J'insisterai fortement."
+Therefore, what has happened in the growth of Latin, or in the change of
+Latin into French, is simply this: in phrases such as _forti mente_, the
+last word was no longer felt as a distinct word, and it lost at the same
+time its distinct pronunciation. _Mente_, the ablative of _mens_, was
+changed into _ment_, and was preserved as a merely formal element, as the
+termination of adverbs, even in cases where a recollection of the original
+meaning of _mente_ (with a mind), would have rendered its employment
+perfectly impossible. If we say in French that a hammer falls
+_lourdement_, we little suspect that we ascribe to a piece of iron a heavy
+mind. In Italian, though the adverbial termination _mente_ in _claramente_
+is no longer felt as a distinct word, it has not as yet been affected by
+phonetic corruption; and in Spanish it is sometimes used as a distinct
+word, though even then it cannot be said to have retained its distinct
+meaning. Thus, instead of saying, "claramente, concisamente y
+elegantemente," it is more elegant to say in Spanish, "clara, concisa y
+elegante mente."
+
+It is difficult to form any conception of the extent to which the whole
+surface of a language may be altered by what we have just described as
+phonetic change. Think that in the French _vingt_ you have the same
+elements as in _deux_ and _dix_; that the second part of the French
+_douze_, twelve, represents the Latin _decim_ in _duodecim_; that the
+final _te_ of _trente_ was originally the Latin _ginta_ in _triginta_,
+which _ginta_ was again a derivation and abbreviation of the Sanskrit
+_da'sa_ or _da'sati_, ten. Then consider how early this phonetic disease
+must have broken out. For in the same manner as _vingt_ in French,
+_veinte_ in Spanish, and _venti_ in Italian presuppose the more primitive
+_viginti_ which we find in Latin, so this Latin _viginti_, together with
+the Greek _eikati_, and the Sanskrit _vin'sati_ presuppose an earlier
+language from which they are in turn derived, and in which, previous to
+_viginti_, there must have been a more primitive form _dvi-ginti_, and
+previous to this again, another compound as clear and intelligible as the
+Chinese _eúl-shi_, consisting of the ancient Aryan names for two, _dvi_,
+and ten, _da'sati_. Such is the virulence of this phonetic change, that it
+will sometimes eat away the whole body of a word, and leave nothing behind
+but decayed fragments. Thus, _sister_, which in Sanskrit is _svasar_,(30)
+appears in Pehlvi and in Ossetian as _cho_. _Daughter_, which in Sanskrit
+is _duhitar_, has dwindled down in Bohemian to _dci_ (pronounced
+_tsi_).(31) Who would believe that _tear_ and _larme_ are derived from the
+same source; that the French _même_ contains the Latin _semetipsissimus_;
+that in _aujourd'hui_ we have the Latin word _dies_ twice!(32) Who would
+recognize the Latin _pater_ in the Armenian _hayr_? Yet we make no
+difficulty about identifying _père_ and _pater_; and as several initial
+h's in Armenian correspond to an original _p_ (_het_ = _pes_, _pedis_;
+_hing_ = {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}; _hour_ = {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}), it follows that _hayr_ is _pater_.(33)
+
+We are accustomed to call these changes the growth of language, but it
+would be more appropriate to call this process of phonetic change decay,
+and thus to distinguish it from the second or dialectical process which we
+must now examine, and which involves, as you will see, a more real
+principle of growth.
+
+In order to understand the meaning of _dialectical __ regeneration_ we
+must first see clearly what we mean by dialect. We saw before that
+language has no independent substantial existence. Language exists in man,
+it lives in being spoken, it dies with each word that is pronounced, and
+is no longer heard. It is a mere accident that language should ever have
+been reduced to writing, and have been made the vehicle of a written
+literature. Even now the largest number of languages have produced no
+literature. Among the numerous tribes of Central Asia, Africa, America,
+and Polynesia, language still lives in its natural state, in a state of
+continual combustion; and it is there that we must go if we wish to gain
+an insight into the growth of human speech previous to its being arrested
+by any literary interference. What we are accustomed to call languages,
+the literary idioms of Greece, and Rome, and India, of Italy, France, and
+Spain, must be considered as artificial, rather than as natural forms of
+speech. The real and natural life of language is in its dialects, and in
+spite of the tyranny exercised by the classical or literary idioms, the
+day is still very far off which is to see the dialects, even of such
+classical languages as Italian and French, entirely eradicated. About
+twenty of the Italian dialects have been reduced to writing, and made
+known by the press.(34) Champollion-Figeac reckons the most
+distinguishable dialects of France at fourteen.(35) The number of modern
+Greek dialects(36) is carried by some as high as seventy, and though many
+of these are hardly more than local varieties, yet some, like the
+Tzaconic, differ from the literary language as much as Doric differed from
+Attic. In the island of Lesbos, villages distant from each other not more
+than two or three hours have frequently peculiar words of their own, and
+their own peculiar pronunciation.(37) But let us take a language which,
+though not without a literature, has been less under the influence of
+classical writers than Italian or French, and we shall then see at once
+how abundant the growth of dialects! The Friesian, which is spoken on a
+small area on the north-western coast of Germany, between the Scheldt and
+Jutland, and on the islands near the shore, which has been spoken there
+for at least two thousand years,(38) and which possesses literary
+documents as old as the twelfth century, is broken up into endless local
+dialects. I quote from Kohl's Travels. "The commonest things," he writes,
+"which are named almost alike all over Europe, receive quite different
+names in the different Friesian Islands. Thus, in Amrum, _father_ is
+called _aatj_; on the Halligs, _baba_ or _babe_; in Sylt, _foder_ or
+_vaar_; in many districts on the main-land, _täte_; in the eastern part of
+Föhr, _oti_ or _ohitj_. Although these people live within a couple of
+German miles from each other, these words differ more than the Italian
+_padre_ and the English _father_. Even the names of their districts and
+islands are totally different in different dialects. The island of _Sylt_
+is called _Söl_, _Sol_, and _Sal_." Each of these dialects, though it
+might be made out by a Friesian scholar, is unintelligible except to the
+peasants of each narrow district in which it prevails. What is therefore
+generally called the Friesian language, and described as such in Friesian
+grammars, is in reality but one out of many dialects, though, no doubt,
+the most important; and the same holds good with regard to all so-called
+literary languages.
+
+It is a mistake to imagine that dialects are everywhere corruptions of the
+literary language. Even in England,(39) the local patois have many forms
+which are more primitive than the language of Shakespeare, and the
+richness of their vocabulary surpasses, on many points, that of the
+classical writers of any period. Dialects have always been the feeders
+rather than the channels of a literary language; anyhow, they are parallel
+streams which existed long before one of them was raised to that temporary
+eminence which is the result of literary cultivation.
+
+What Grimm says of the origin of dialects in general applies only to such
+as are produced by phonetic corruption. "Dialects," he writes,(40)
+"develop themselves progressively, and the more we look backward in the
+history of language the smaller is their number, and the less definite
+their features. All multiplicity arises gradually from an original unity."
+So it seems, indeed, if we build our theories of language exclusively on
+the materials supplied by literary idioms, such as Sanskrit, Greek, Latin,
+and Gothic. No doubt these are the royal heads in the history of language.
+But as political history ought to be more than a chronicle of royal
+dynasties, so the historian of language ought never to lose sight of those
+lower and popular strata of speech from which these dynasties originally
+sprang, and by which alone they are supported.
+
+Here, however, lies the difficulty. How are we to trace the history of
+dialects? In the ancient history of language, literary dialects alone
+supply us with materials, whereas the very existence of spoken dialects is
+hardly noticed by ancient writers.
+
+We are told, indeed, by Pliny,(41) that in Colchis there were more than
+three hundred tribes speaking different dialects; and that the Romans, in
+order to carry on any intercourse with the natives, had to employ a
+hundred and thirty interpreters. This is probably an exaggeration; but we
+have no reason to doubt the statement of Strabo,(42) who speaks of seventy
+tribes living together in that country, which, even now, is called "the
+mountain of languages." In modern times, again, when missionaries have
+devoted themselves to the study of the languages of savage and illiterate
+tribes, they have seldom been able to do more than to acquire one out of
+many dialects; and, when their exertions have been at all successful, that
+dialect which they had reduced to writing, and made the medium of their
+civilizing influence, soon assumed a kind of literary supremacy, so as to
+leave the rest behind as barbarous jargons. Yet, whatever is known of the
+dialects of savage tribes is chiefly or entirely due to missionaries; and
+it is much to be desired that their attention should again and again be
+directed to this interesting problem of the dialectical life of language
+which they alone have the means of elucidating. Gabriel Sagard, who was
+sent as a missionary to the Hurons in 1626, and published his "Grand
+Voyage du pays des Hurons," at Paris, in 1631, states that among these
+North American tribes hardly one village speaks the same language as
+another; nay, that two families of the same village do not speak exactly
+the same language. And he adds what is important, that their language is
+changing every day, and is already so much changed that the ancient Huron
+language is almost entirely different from the present. During the last
+two hundred years, on the contrary, the languages of the Hurons and
+Iroquois are said not to have changed at all.(43) We read of
+missionaries(44) in Central America who attempted to write down the
+language of savage tribes, and who compiled with great care a dictionary
+of all the words they could lay hold of. Returning to the same tribe after
+the lapse of only ten years, they found that this dictionary had become
+antiquated and useless. Old words had sunk to the ground, and new ones had
+risen to the surface; and to all outward appearance the language was
+completely changed.
+
+Nothing surprised the Jesuit missionaries so much as the immense number of
+languages spoken by the natives of America. But this, far from being a
+proof of a high state of civilization, rather showed that the various
+races of America had never submitted, for any length of time, to a
+powerful political concentration, and that they had never succeeded in
+founding great national empires. Hervas reduces, indeed, all the dialects
+of America to eleven families(45)--four for the south, and seven for the
+north; but this could be done only by the same careful and minute
+comparison which enables us to class the idioms spoken in Iceland and
+Ceylon as cognate dialects. For practical purposes the dialects of America
+are distinct dialects, and the people who speak them are mutually
+unintelligible.
+
+We hear the same observations everywhere where the rank growth of dialects
+has been watched by intelligent observers. If we turn our eyes to Burmah,
+we find that there the Burmese has produced a considerable literature, and
+is the recognized medium of communication not only in Burmah, but likewise
+in Pegu and Arakan. But the intricate mountain ranges of the peninsula of
+the Irawaddy(46) afford a safe refuge to many independent tribes, speaking
+their own independent dialects; and in the neighborhood of Manipura alone
+Captain Gordon collected no less than twelve dialects. "Some of them," he
+says, "are spoken by no more than thirty or forty families, yet so
+different from the rest as to be unintelligible to the nearest
+neighborhood." Brown, the excellent American missionary, who has spent his
+whole life in preaching the Gospel in that part of the world, tells us
+that some tribes who left their native village to settle in another
+valley, became unintelligible to their forefathers in two or three
+generations.(47)
+
+In the north of Asia the Ostiakes, as Messerschmidt informs us, though
+really speaking the same language everywhere, have produced so many words
+and forms peculiar to each tribe, that even within the limits of twelve or
+twenty German miles, communication among them becomes extremely difficult.
+Castren, the heroic explorer of the languages of northern and central
+Asia,(48) assures us that some of the Mongolian dialects are actually
+entering into a new phase of grammatical life; and that while the literary
+language of the Mongolians has no terminations for the persons of the
+verb, that characteristic feature of Turanian speech had lately broken out
+in the spoken dialects of the Buriates and in the Tungusic idioms near
+Njertschinsk in Siberia.
+
+One more observation of the same character from the pen of Robert Moffat,
+in his "Missionary Scenes and Labors in Southern Africa." "The purity and
+harmony of language," he writes, "is kept up by their pitches, or public
+meetings, by their festivals and ceremonies, as well as by their songs and
+their constant intercourse. With the isolated villagers of the desert it
+is far otherwise; they have no such meetings; they are compelled to
+traverse the wilds, often to a great distance from their native village.
+On such occasions fathers and mothers, and all who can bear a burden,
+often set out for weeks at a time, and leave their children to the care of
+two or three infirm old people. The infant progeny, some of whom are
+beginning to lisp, while others can just master a whole sentence, and
+those still further advanced, romping and playing together, the children
+of nature, through their livelong day, _become habituated to a language of
+their own_. The more voluble condescend to the less precocious; and thus,
+from this infant Babel, proceeds a dialect of a host of mongrel words and
+phrases, joined together without rule, and _in the course of one
+generation the entire character of the language is changed_."
+
+Such is the life of language in a state of nature; and in a similar
+manner, we have a right to conclude, languages grew up which we only know
+after the bit and bridle of literature were thrown over their necks. It
+need not be a written or classical literature to give an ascendency to one
+out of many dialects, and to impart to its peculiarities an undisputed
+legitimacy. Speeches at pitches or public meetings, popular ballads,
+national laws, religious oracles, exercise, though to a smaller extent,
+the same influence. They will arrest the natural flow of language in the
+countless rivulets of its dialects, and give a permanency to certain
+formations of speech which, without these external influences, could have
+enjoyed but an ephemeral existence. Though we cannot fully enter, at
+present, on the problem of the origin of language, yet this we can clearly
+see, that, whatever the origin of language was, its first tendency must
+have been towards an unbounded variety. To this there was, however, a
+natural check, which prepared from the very beginning the growth of
+national and literary languages. The language of the father became the
+language of a family; the language of a family that of a clan. In one and
+the same clan different families would preserve among themselves their own
+familiar forms and expressions. They would add new words, some so fanciful
+and quaint as to be hardly intelligible to other members of the same clan.
+Such expressions would naturally be suppressed, as we suppress provincial
+peculiarities and pet words of our own, at large assemblies where all
+clansmen meet and are expected to take part in general discussions. But
+they would be cherished all the more round the fire of each tent, in
+proportion as the general dialect of the clan assumed a more formal
+character. Class dialects, too, would spring up; the dialects of servants,
+grooms, shepherds, and soldiers. Women would have their own household
+words; and the rising generation would not be long without a more racy
+phraseology of their own. Even we, in this literary age, and at a distance
+of thousands of years from those early fathers of language, do not speak
+at home as we speak in public. The same circumstances which give rise to
+the formal language of a clan, as distinguished from the dialects of
+families, produce, on a larger scale, the languages of a confederation of
+clans, of nascent colonies, of rising nationalities. Before there is a
+national language, there have always been hundreds of dialects in
+districts, towns, villages, clans, and families; and though the progress
+of civilization and centralization tends to reduce their number and to
+soften their features, it has not as yet annihilated them, even in our own
+time.
+
+Let us now look again at what is commonly called the history, but what
+ought to be called, the natural growth, of language, and we shall easily
+see that it consists chiefly in the play of the two principles which we
+have just examined, _phonetic decay_ and _dialectical regeneration_ or
+_growth_. Let us take the six Romance languages. It is usual to call these
+the daughters of Latin. I do not object to the names of parent and
+daughter as applied to languages; only we must not allow such apparently
+clear and simple terms to cover obscure and vague conceptions. Now if we
+call Italian the daughter of Latin, we do not mean to ascribe to Italian a
+new vital principle. Not a single radical element was newly created for
+the formation of Italian. Italian is Latin in a new form. Italian is
+modern Latin, or Latin ancient Italian. The names _mother_ and _daughter_
+only mark different periods in the growth of a language substantially the
+same. To speak of Latin dying in giving birth to her offspring is again
+pure mythology, and it would be easy to prove that Latin was a living
+language long after Italian had learnt to run alone. Only let us clearly
+see what we mean by Latin. The classical Latin is one out of many dialects
+spoken by the Aryan inhabitants of Italy. It was the dialect of Latium, in
+Latium the dialect of Rome, at Rome the dialect of the patricians. It was
+fixed by Livius Andronicus, Ennius, Nævius, Cato, and Lucretius, polished
+by the Scipios, Hortensius, and Cicero. It was the language of a
+restricted class, of a political party, of a literary set. Before their
+time, the language of Rome must have changed and fluctuated considerably.
+Polybius tells us (iii. 22), that the best-informed Romans could not make
+out without difficulty the language of the ancient treaties between Rome
+and Carthage. Horace admits (Ep. ii. 1, 86), that he could not understand
+the old Salian poems, and he hints that no one else could. Quintilian (i.
+6, 40) says that the Salian priests could hardly understand their sacred
+hymns. If the plebeians had obtained the upperhand over the patricians,
+Latin would have been very different from what it is in Cicero, and we
+know that even Cicero, having been brought up at Arpinum, had to give up
+some of his provincial peculiarities, such as the dropping of the final
+_s_, when he began to mix in fashionable society, and had to write for his
+new patrician friends.(49) After having been established as the language
+of legislation, religion, literature, and general civilization, the
+classical Latin dialect became stationary and stagnant. It could not grow,
+because it was not allowed to change or to deviate from its classical
+correctness. It was haunted by its own ghost. Literary dialects, or what
+are commonly called classical languages, pay for their temporary greatness
+by inevitable decay. They are like stagnant lakes at the side of great
+rivers. They form reservoirs of what was once living and running speech,
+but they are no longer carried on by the main current. At times it may
+seem as if the whole stream of language was absorbed by these lakes, and
+we can hardly trace the small rivulets which run on in the main bed. But
+if lower down, that is to say, later in history, we meet again with a new
+body of stationary language, forming or formed, we may be sure that its
+tributaries were those very rivulets which for a time were almost lost
+from our sight. Or it may be more accurate to compare a classical or
+literary idiom with the frozen surface of a river, brilliant and smooth,
+but stiff and cold. It is mostly by political commotions that this surface
+of the more polite and cultivated speech is broken and carried away by the
+waters rising underneath. It is during times when the higher classes are
+either crushed in religious and social struggles, or mix again with the
+lower classes to repel foreign invasion; when literary occupations are
+discouraged, palaces burnt, monasteries pillaged, and seats of learning
+destroyed,--it is then that the popular, or, as they are called, the vulgar
+dialects, which had formed a kind of undercurrent, rise beneath the
+crystal surface of the literary language, and sweep away, like the waters
+in spring, the cumbrous formations of a by-gone age. In more peaceful
+times, a new and popular literature springs up in a language which _seems_
+to have been formed by conquests or revolutions, but which, in reality,
+had been growing up long before, and was only brought out, ready made, by
+historical events. From this point of view we can see that no literary
+language can ever be said to have been the mother of another language. As
+soon as a language loses its unbounded capability of change, its
+carelessness about what it throws away, and its readiness in always
+supplying instantaneously the wants of mind and heart, its natural life is
+changed into a merely artificial existence. It may still live on for a
+long time, but while it seems to be the leading shoot, it is in reality
+but a broken and withering branch, slowly falling from the stock from
+which it sprang. The sources of Italian are not to be found in the
+classical literature of Rome, but in the popular dialects of Italy.
+English did not spring from the Anglo-Saxon of Wessex only, but from the
+dialects spoken in every part of Great Britain, distinguished by local
+peculiarities, and modified at different times by the influence of Latin,
+Danish, Norman, French, and other foreign elements. Some of the local
+dialects of English, as spoken at the present day, are of great importance
+for a critical study of English, and a French prince, now living in this
+country, deserves great credit for collecting what can still be saved of
+English dialects. Hindustani is not the daughter of Sanskrit, as we find
+it in the Vedas, or in the later literature of the Brahmans: it is a
+branch of the living speech of India, springing from the same stem from
+which Sanskrit sprang, when it first assumed its literary independence.
+
+While thus endeavoring to place the character of dialects, as the feeders
+of language, in a clear light, I may appear to some of my hearers to have
+exaggerated their importance. No doubt, if my object had been different, I
+might easily have shown that, without literary cultivation, language would
+never have acquired that settled character which is essential for the
+communication of thought; that it would never have fulfilled its highest
+purpose, but have remained the mere jargon of shy troglodytes. But as the
+importance of literary languages is not likely to be overlooked, whereas
+the importance of dialects, as far as they sustain the growth of language,
+had never been pointed out, I thought it better to dwell on the advantages
+which literary languages derive from dialects, rather than on the benefits
+which dialects owe to literary languages. Besides, our chief object to-day
+was to explain the growth of language, and for that purpose it is
+impossible to exaggerate the importance of the constant undergrowth of
+dialects. Remove a language from its native soil, tear it away from the
+dialects which are its feeders, and you arrest at once its natural growth.
+There will still be the progress of phonetic corruption, but no longer the
+restoring influence of dialectic regeneration. The language which the
+Norwegian refugees brought to Iceland has remained almost the same for
+seven centuries, whereas on its native soil, and surrounded by local
+dialects, it has grown into two distinct languages, the Swedish and
+Danish. In the eleventh century, the languages of Sweden, Denmark, and
+Iceland are supposed(50) to have been identical, nor can we appeal to
+foreign conquest, or to the admixture of foreign with native blood, in
+order to account for the changes which the language underwent in Sweden
+and Denmark, but not in Iceland.(51)
+
+We can hardly form an idea of the unbounded resources of dialects. When
+literary languages have stereotyped one general term, their dialects will
+supply fifty, though each with its own special shade of meaning. If new
+combinations of thought are evolved in the progress of society, dialects
+will readily supply the required names from the store of their so-called
+superfluous words. There are not only local and provincial, but also class
+dialects. There is a dialect of shepherds, of sportsmen, of soldiers, of
+farmers. I suppose there are few persons here present who could tell the
+exact meaning of a horse's poll, crest, withers, dock, hamstring, cannon,
+pastern, coronet, arm, jowl, and muzzle. Where the literary language
+speaks of the young of all sorts of animals, farmers, shepherds, and
+sportsmen would be ashamed to use so general a term.
+
+"The idiom of nomads," as Grimm says, "contains an abundant wealth of
+manifold expressions for sword and weapons, and for the different stages
+in the life of their cattle. In a more highly cultivated language these
+expressions become burthensome and superfluous. But, in a peasant's mouth,
+the bearing, calving, falling, and killing of almost every animal has its
+own peculiar term, as the sportsman delights in calling the gait and
+members of game by different names. The eye of these shepherds, who live
+in the free air, sees further, their ear hears more sharply,--why should
+their speech not have gained that living truth and variety?"
+
+Thus Juliana Berners, lady prioress of the nunnery of Sopwell in the
+fifteenth century, the reputed author of the book of St. Albans, informs
+us that we must not use names of multitudes promiscuously, but we are to
+say, "a congregacyon of people, a hoost of men, a felyshyppynge of yomen,
+and a bevy of ladies; we must speak of a herde of dere, swannys, cranys,
+or wrenys, a sege of herons or bytourys, a muster of pecockes, a watche of
+nyghtyngales, a flyghte of doves, a claterynge of choughes, a pryde of
+lyons, a slewthe of beeres, a gagle of geys, a skulke of foxes, a sculle
+of frerys, a pontificality of prestys, a bomynable syght of monkes, and a
+superfluyte of nonnes," and so of other human and brute assemblages. In
+like manner, in dividing game for the table, the animals were not carved,
+but "a dere was broken, a gose reryd, chekyn frusshed, a cony unlaced, a
+crane dysplayed, a curlewe unioynted, a quayle wynggyd, a swanne lyfte, a
+lambe sholdered, a heron dysmembryd, a pecocke dysfygured, a samon chynyd,
+a hadoke sydyd, a sole loynyd, and a breme splayed."(52)
+
+What, however, I wanted particularly to point out in this lecture is this,
+that neither of the causes which produce the growth, or, according to
+others, constitute the history of language, is under the control of man.
+The phonetic decay of language is not the result of mere accident; it is
+governed by definite laws, as we shall see when we come to consider the
+principles of comparative grammar. But these laws were not made by man; on
+the contrary, man had to obey them without knowing of their existence.
+
+In the growth of the modern Romance languages out of Latin, we can
+perceive not only a general tendency to simplification, not only a natural
+disposition to avoid the exertion which the pronunciation of certain
+consonants, and still more, of groups of consonants, entails on the
+speaker: but we can see distinct laws for each of the Romance dialects,
+which enable us to say, that in French the Latin _patrem_ would naturally
+grow into the modern _père_. The final _m_ is always dropped in the
+Romance dialects, and it was dropped even in Latin. Thus we get _patre_
+instead of _patrem_. Now, a Latin _t_ between two vowels in such words as
+_pater_ is invariably suppressed in French. This is a law, and by means of
+it we can discover at once that _catena_ must become _chaine_; _fata_, a
+later feminine representation of the old neuter _fatum_, _fée_; _pratum_ a
+meadow, _pré_. From _pratum_ we derive _prataria_, which in French becomes
+_prairie_; from _fatum_, _fataria_, the English _fairy_. Thus every Latin
+participle in _atus_, like _amatus_, loved, must end in French in _é_. The
+same law then changed _patre_(pronounced _pa-tere_) into _paere_, or
+_père_; it changed _matrem_ into _mère_, _fratrem_ into _frère_. These
+changes take place gradually but irresistibly, and, what is most
+important, they are completely beyond the reach or control of the free
+will of man.
+
+Dialectical growth again is still more beyond the control of individuals.
+For although a poet may knowingly and intentionally invent a new word, its
+acceptance depends on circumstances which defy individual interference.
+There are some changes in the grammar which at first sight might seem to
+be mainly attributable to the caprice of the speaker. Granted, for
+instance, that the loss of the Latin terminations was the natural result
+of a more careless pronunciation; granted that the modern sign of the
+French genitive _du_ is a natural corruption of the Latin _de illo_,--yet
+the choice of _de_, instead of any other word, to express the genitive,
+the choice of _illo_, instead of any other pronoun, to express the
+article, might seem to prove that man acted as a free agent in the
+formation of language. But it is not so. No single individual could
+deliberately have set to work in order to abolish the old Latin genitive,
+and to replace it by the periphrastic compound _de illo_. It was necessary
+that the inconvenience of having no distinct or distinguishable sign of
+the genitive should have been felt by the people who spoke a vulgar Latin
+dialect. It was necessary that the same people should have used the
+preposition _de_ in such a manner as to lose sight of its original local
+meaning altogether (for instance, _una de multis_, in Horace, _i.e._, one
+out of many). It was necessary, again, that the same people should have
+felt the want of an article, and should have used _illo_ in numerous
+expressions, where it seemed to have lost its original pronominal power.
+It was necessary that all these conditions should be given, before one
+individual and after him another, and after him hundreds and thousands and
+millions, could use _de illo_ as the exponent of the genitive; and change
+it into the Italian _dello_, _del_, and the French _du_.
+
+The attempts of single grammarians and purists to improve language are
+perfectly bootless; and we shall probably hear no more of schemes to prune
+languages of their irregularities. It is very likely, however, that the
+gradual disappearance of irregular declensions and conjugations is due, in
+literary as well as in illiterate languages, to the dialect of children.
+The language of children is more regular than our own. I have heard
+children say _badder_ and _baddest_, instead of _worse_ and _worst_.
+Children will say, _I gaed_, _I coomd_, _I catched_; and it is this sense
+of grammatical justice, this generous feeling of what ought to be, which
+in the course of centuries has eliminated many so-called irregular forms.
+Thus the auxiliary verb in Latin was very irregular. If _sumus_ is _we
+are_, and _sunt_, _they are_, the second person, _you are_, ought to have
+been, at least according to the strict logic of children, _sutis_. This,
+no doubt, sounds very barbarous to a classical ear accustomed to _estis_.
+And we see how French, for instance, has strictly preserved the Latin
+forms in _nous sommes_, _vous êtes_, _ils sont_. But in Spanish we find
+_somos_, _sois_, _son_; and this _sois_ stands for _sutis_. We find
+similar traces of grammatical levelling in the Italian _siamo_, _siete_,
+_sono_, formed in analogy of regular verbs such as _crediamo_, _credete_,
+_credono_. The second person, _sei_, instead of _es_, is likewise
+infantine grammar. So are the Wallachian _súntemu_, we are, _súnteti_, you
+are, which owe their origin to the third person plural _súnt_, they are.
+And what shall we say of such monsters as _essendo_, a gerund derived on
+principles of strict justice from an infinitive _essere_, like _credendo_
+from _credere_!
+
+However, we need not be surprised, for we find similar barbarisms in
+English. Even in Anglo-Saxon, the third person plural, _sind_, has by a
+false analogy been transferred to the first and second persons; and
+instead of the modern English,
+
+                          in Old       in Gothic.
+                          Norse.
+we are                    ër-um        sijum(53)
+you are      we find      ër-udh       sijuth
+they are                  ër-u.        sind.
+
+Dialectically we hear _I be_, instead of _I am_; and if Chartism should
+ever gain the upper hand, we must be prepared for newspapers adopting such
+forms as _I says_, _I knows_.
+
+These various influences and conditions under which language grows and
+changes, are like the waves and winds which carry deposits to the bottom
+of the sea, where they accumulate, and rise, and grow, and at last appear
+on the surface of the earth as a stratum, perfectly intelligible in all
+its component parts, not produced by an inward principle of growth, nor
+regulated by invariable laws of nature; yet, on the other hand, by no
+means the result of mere accident, or the production of lawless and
+uncontrolled agencies. We cannot be careful enough in the use of our
+words. Strictly speaking, neither _history_ nor _growth_ is applicable to
+the changes of the shifting surface of the earth. _History_ applies to the
+actions of free agents; _growth_ to the natural unfolding of organic
+beings. We speak, however, of the growth of the crust of the earth, and we
+know what we mean by it; and it is in this sense, but not in the sense of
+growth as applied to a tree, that we have a right to speak of the growth
+of language. If that modification which takes place in time by continually
+new combinations of given elements, which withdraws itself from the
+control of free agents, and can in the end be recognized as the result of
+natural agencies, may be called growth; and if so defined, we may apply it
+to the growth of the crust of the earth; the same word, in the same sense,
+will be applicable to language, and will justify us in removing the
+science of language from the pale of the historical to that of the
+physical sciences.
+
+There is another objection which we have to consider, and the
+consideration of which will again help us to understand more clearly the
+real character of language. The great periods in the growth of the earth
+which have been established by geological research are brought to their
+close, or very nearly so, when we discover the first vestiges of human
+life, and when the history of man, in the widest sense of the word,
+begins. The periods in the growth of language, on the contrary, begin and
+run parallel with the history of man. It has been said, therefore, that
+although language may not be merely a work of art, it would, nevertheless,
+be impossible to understand the life and growth of any language without an
+historical knowledge of the times in which that language grew up. We ought
+to know, it is said, whether a language which is to be analyzed under the
+microscope of comparative grammar, has been growing up wild, among wild
+tribes, without a literature, oral or written, in poetry or in prose; or
+whether it has received the cultivation of poets, priests, and orators,
+and retained the impress of a classical age. Again, it is only from the
+annals of political history that we can learn whether one language has
+come in contact with another, how long this contact has lasted, which of
+the two nations stood higher in civilization, which was the conquering and
+which the conquered, which of the two established the laws, the religion,
+and the arts of the country, and which produced the greatest number of
+national teachers, popular poets, and successful demagogues. All these
+questions are of a purely historical character, and the science which has
+to borrow so much from historical sources, might well be considered an
+anomaly in the sphere of the physical sciences.
+
+Now, in answer to this, it cannot be denied that among the physical
+sciences none is so intimately connected with the history of man as the
+science of language. But a similar connection, though in a less degree,
+can be shown to exist between other branches of physical research and the
+history of man. In zoölogy, for instance, it is of some importance to know
+at what particular period of history, in what country, and for what
+purposes certain animals were tamed and domesticated. In ethnology, a
+science, we may remark in passing, quite distinct from the science of
+language, it would be difficult to account for the Caucasian stamp
+impressed on the Mongolian race in Hungary, or on the Tatar race in
+Turkey, unless we knew from written documents the migrations and
+settlements of the Mongolic and Tataric tribes in Europe. A botanist,
+again, comparing several specimens of rye, would find it difficult to
+account for their respective peculiarities, unless he knew that in some
+parts of the world this plant has been cultivated for centuries, whereas
+in other regions, as, for instance, in Mount Caucasus, it is still allowed
+to grow wild. Plants have their own countries, like races, and the
+presence of the cucumber in Greece, the orange and cherry in Italy, the
+potatoe in England, and the vine at the Cape, can be fully explained by
+the historian only. The more intimate relation, therefore, between the
+history of language and the history of man is not sufficient to exclude
+the science of language from the circle of the physical sciences.
+
+Nay, it might be shown, that, if strictly defined, the science of language
+can declare itself completely independent of history. If we speak of the
+language of England, we ought, no doubt, to know something of the
+political history of the British Isles, in order to understand the present
+state of that language. Its history begins with the early Britons, who
+spoke a Celtic dialect; it carries us on to the Saxon conquest, to the
+Danish invasions, to the Norman conquest: and we see how each of these
+political events contributed to the formation of the character of the
+language. The language of England may be said to have been in succession
+Celtic, Saxon, Norman, and English. But if we speak of the history of the
+English language, we enter on totally different ground. The English
+language was never Celtic, the Celtic never grew into Saxon, nor the Saxon
+into Norman, nor the Norman into English. The history of the Celtic
+language runs on to the present day. It matters not whether it be spoken
+by all the inhabitants of the British Isles, or only by a small minority
+in Wales, Ireland, and Scotland. A language, as long as it is spoken by
+anybody, lives and has its substantive existence. The last old woman that
+spoke Cornish, and to whose memory it is now intended to raise a monument,
+represented by herself alone the ancient language of Cornwall. A Celt may
+become an Englishman, Celtic and English blood may be mixed; and who could
+tell at the present day the exact proportion of Celtic and Saxon blood in
+the population of England? But languages are never mixed. It is
+indifferent by what name the language spoken in the British Islands be
+called, whether English or British or Saxon; to the student of language
+English is Teutonic, and nothing but Teutonic. The physiologist may
+protest, and point out that in many instances the skull, or the bodily
+habitat of the English language, is of a Celtic type; the genealogist may
+protest and prove that the arms of many an English family are of Norman
+origin; the student of language must follow his own way. Historical
+information as to an early substratum of Celtic inhabitants in Britain, as
+to Saxon, Danish, and Norman invasions may be useful to him. But though
+every record were burned, and every skull mouldered, the English language,
+as spoken by any ploughboy, would reveal its own history, if analyzed
+according to the rules of comparative grammar. Without the help of
+history, we should see that English is Teutonic, that like Dutch and
+Friesian it belongs to the Low-German branch; that this branch, together
+with the High-German, Gothic, and Scandinavian branches, constitute the
+Teutonic class; that this Teutonic class, together with the Celtic,
+Slavonic, the Hellenic, Italic, Iranic, and Indic classes constitute the
+great Indo-European or Aryan family of speech. In the English dictionary
+the student of the science of language can detect, by his own tests,
+Celtic, Norman, Greek, and Latin ingredients, but not a single drop of
+foreign blood has entered into the organic system of the English language.
+The grammar, the blood and soul of the language, is as pure and unmixed in
+English as spoken in the British Isles, as it was when spoken on the
+shores of the German Ocean by the Angles, Saxons, and Juts of the
+continent.
+
+In thus considering and refuting the objections which have been, or might
+be, made against the admission of the science of language into the circle
+of the physical sciences, we have arrived at some results which it may be
+useful to recapitulate before we proceed further. We saw that whereas
+philology treats language only as a means, comparative philology chooses
+language as the object of scientific inquiry. It is not the study of one
+language, but of many, and in the end of all, which forms the aim of this
+new science. Nor is the language of Homer of greater interest, in the
+scientific treatment of human speech, than the dialect of the Hottentots.
+
+We saw, secondly, that after the first practical acquisition and careful
+analysis of the facts and forms of any language, the next and most
+important step is the classification of all the varieties of human speech,
+and that only after this has been accomplished would it be safe to venture
+on the great questions which underlie all physical research, the questions
+as to the what, the whence, and the why of language.
+
+We saw, thirdly, that there is a distinction between what is called
+history and growth. We determined the true meaning of growth, as applied
+to language, and perceived how it was independent of the caprice of man,
+and governed by laws that could be discovered by careful observation, and
+be traced back in the end to higher laws, which govern the organs both of
+human thought, and of the human voice. Though admitting that the science
+of language was more intimately connected than any other physical science
+with what is called the political history of man, we found that, strictly
+speaking, our science might well dispense with this auxiliary, and that
+languages can be analyzed and classified on their own evidence
+particularly on the strength of their grammatical articulation, without
+any reference to the individuals, families, clans, tribes, nations, or
+races by whom they are or have been spoken.
+
+In the course of these considerations, we had to lay down two axioms, to
+which we shall frequently have to appeal in the progress of our
+investigations. The first declares grammar to be the most essential
+element, and therefore the ground of classification in all languages which
+have produced a definite grammatical articulation; the second denies the
+possibility of a mixed language.
+
+These two axioms are, in reality, but one, as we shall see when we examine
+them more closely. There is hardly a language which in one sense may not
+be called a mixed language. No nation or tribe was ever so completely
+isolated as not to admit the importation of a certain number of foreign
+words. In some instances these imported words have changed the whole
+native aspect of the language, and have even acquired a majority over the
+native element. Turkish is a Turanian dialect; its grammar is purely
+Tataric or Turanian. The Turks, however, possessed but a small literature
+and narrow civilization before they were converted to Mohammedanism. Now,
+the language of Mohammed was Arabic, a branch of the Semitic family,
+closely allied to Hebrew and Syriac. Together with the Koran, and their
+law and religion, the Turks learned from the Arabs, their conquerors, many
+of the arts and sciences connected with a more advanced stage of
+civilization. Arabic became to the Turks what Latin was to the Germans
+during the Middle Ages; and there is hardly a word in the higher
+intellectual terminology of Arabic, that might not be used, more or less
+naturally, by a writer in Turkish. But the Arabs, again, at the very
+outset of their career of conquest and conversion, had been, in science,
+art, literature, and polite manners, the pupils of the Persians, whom they
+had conquered; they stood to them in the same relation as the Romans stood
+to the Greeks. Now, the Persians speak a language which is neither
+Semitic, like Arabic, nor Turanian, like Turkish; it is a branch of the
+Indo-European or Aryan family of speech. A large infusion of Persian words
+thus found its way into Arabic, and through Arabic into Turkish; and the
+result is that at the present moment the Turkish language, as spoken by
+the higher ranks at Constantinople, is so entirely overgrown with Persian
+and Arabic words, that a common clod from the country understands but
+little of the so-called Osmanli, though its grammar is exactly the same as
+the grammar which he uses in his Tataric utterance.
+
+There is, perhaps, no language so full of words evidently derived from the
+most distant sources as English. Every country of the globe seems to have
+brought some of its verbal manufactures to the intellectual market of
+England. Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Celtic, Saxon, Danish, French, Spanish,
+Italian, German--nay, even Hindustani, Malay, and Chinese words, lie mixed
+together in the English dictionary. On the evidence of words alone it
+would be impossible to classify English with any other of the established
+stocks and stems of human speech. Leaving out of consideration the smaller
+ingredients, we find, on comparing the Teutonic with the Latin, or
+Neo-Latin or Norman elements in English, that the latter have a decided
+majority over the home-grown Saxon terms. This may seem incredible; and if
+we simply took a page of any English book, and counted therein the words
+of purely Saxon and Latin origin, the majority would be no doubt on the
+Saxon side. The articles, pronouns, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs, all
+of which are of Saxon growth, occur over and over again in one and the
+same page. Thus, Hickes maintained that nine tenths of the English
+dictionary were Saxon, because there were only three words of Latin origin
+in the Lord's prayer. Sharon Turner, who extended his observations over a
+larger field, came to the conclusion that the relation of Norman to Saxon
+was as four to six. Another writer, who estimates the whole number of
+English words at 38,000, assigns 23,000 to a Saxon, and 15,000 to a
+classical source. On taking, however, a more accurate inventory, and
+counting every word in the dictionaries of Robertson and Webster, M.
+Thommerel has established the fact that of the sum total of 43,566 words,
+29,853 came from classical, 13,230 from Teutonic, and the rest from
+miscellaneous sources.(54) On the evidence of its dictionary, therefore,
+and treating English as a mixed language, it would have to be classified
+together with French, Italian, and Spanish, as one of the Romance or
+Neo-Latin dialects. Languages, however, though mixed in their dictionary,
+can never be mixed in their grammar. Hervas was told by missionaries that
+in the middle of the eighteenth century the Araucans used hardly a single
+word which was not Spanish, though they preserved both the grammar and the
+syntax of their own native speech.(55) This is the reason why grammar is
+made the criterion of the relationship and the base of the classification
+in almost all languages; and it follows, therefore, as a matter of course,
+that in the classification and in the science of language, it is
+impossible to admit the existence of a mixed idiom. We may form whole
+sentences in English consisting entirely of Latin or Romance words; yet
+whatever there is left of grammar in English bears unmistakable traces of
+Teutonic workmanship. What may now be called grammar in English is little
+more than the terminations of the genitive singular, and nominative plural
+of nouns, the degrees of comparison, and a few of the persons and tenses
+of the verb. Yet the single _s_, used as the exponent of the third person
+singular of the indicative present, is irrefragable evidence that in a
+scientific classification of languages, English, though it did not retain
+a single word of Saxon origin, would have to be classed as Saxon, and as a
+branch of the great Teutonic stem of the Aryan family of speech. In
+ancient and less matured languages, grammar, or the formal part of human
+speech, is far more abundantly developed than in English; and it is,
+therefore, a much safer guide for discovering a family likeness in
+scattered members of the same family. There are languages in which there
+is no trace of what we are accustomed to call grammar; for instance,
+ancient Chinese; there are others in which we can still watch the growth
+of grammar, or, more correctly, the gradual lapse of material into merely
+formal elements. In these languages new principles of classification will
+have to be applied, such as are suggested by the study of natural history;
+and we shall have to be satisfied with the criteria of a morphological
+affinity, instead of those of a genealogical relationship.
+
+I have thus answered, I hope, some of the objections which threatened to
+deprive the science of language of that place which she claims in the
+circle of the physical sciences. We shall see in our next lecture what the
+history of our science has been from its beginning to the present day, and
+how far it may be said to have passed through the three stages, the
+empirical, the classificatory, and the theoretical, which mark the
+childhood, the youth, and the manhood of every one of the natural
+sciences.
+
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE III. THE EMPIRICAL STAGE.
+
+
+We begin to-day to trace the historical progress of the science of
+language in its three stages, the _Empirical_, the _Classificatory_, and
+the _Theoretical_. As a general rule each physical science begins with
+analysis, proceeds to classification, and ends with theory; but, as I
+pointed out in my first lecture, there are frequent exceptions to this
+rule, and it is by no means uncommon to find that philosophical
+speculations, which properly belong to the last or theoretical stage, were
+attempted in physical sciences long before the necessary evidence had been
+collected or arranged. Thus, we find that the science of language, in the
+only two countries where we can watch its origin and history--in India and
+Greece--rushes at once into theories about the mysterious nature of speech,
+and cares as little for facts as the man who wrote an account of the camel
+without ever having seen the animal or the desert. The Brahmans, in the
+hymns of the Veda, raised language to the rank of a deity, as they did
+with all things of which they knew not what they were. They addressed
+hymns to her in which she is said to have been with the gods from the
+beginning, achieving wondrous things, and never revealed to man except in
+part. In the Bráhmanas, language is called the cow, breath the bull, and
+their young is said to be the mind of man.(56) Brahman, the highest being,
+is said to be known through speech, nay, speech herself is called the
+Supreme Brahman. At a very early period, however, the Brahmans recovered
+from their raptures about language, and set to work with wonderful skill
+dissecting her sacred body. Their achievements in grammatical analysis,
+which date from the sixth century, B. C., are still unsurpassed in the
+grammatical literature of any nation. The idea of reducing a whole
+language to a small number of roots, which in Europe was not attempted
+before the sixteenth century by Henry Estienne,(57) was perfectly familiar
+to the Brahmans, at least 500 B. C.
+
+The Greeks, though they did not raise language to the rank of a deity,
+paid her, nevertheless, the greatest honors in their ancient schools of
+philosophy. There is hardly one of their representative philosophers who
+has not left some saying on the nature of language. The world without, or
+nature, and the world within, or mind, did not excite more wonder and
+elicit deeper oracles of wisdom from the ancient sages of Greece than
+language, the image of both, of nature and of mind. "What is language?"
+was a question asked quite as early as "What am I?" and, "What is all this
+world around me?" The problem of language was in fact a recognized
+battle-field for the different schools of ancient Greek philosophy, and we
+shall have to glance at their early guesses on the nature of human speech,
+when we come to consider the third or theoretical stage in the science of
+language.
+
+At present, we have to look for the early traces of the first or empirical
+stage. And here it might seem doubtful what was the real work to be
+assigned to this stage. What can be meant by the empirical treatment of
+language? Who were the men that did for language what the sailor did for
+his stars, the miner for his minerals, the gardener for his flowers? Who
+was the first to give any thought to language?--to distinguish between its
+component parts, between nouns and verbs, between articles and pronouns,
+between the nominative and accusative, the active and passive? Who
+invented these terms, and for what purpose were they invented?
+
+We must be careful in answering these questions, for, as I said before,
+the merely empirical analysis of language was preceded in Greece by more
+general inquiries into the nature of thought and language; and the result
+has been that many of the technical terms which form the nomenclature of
+empirical grammar, existed in the schools of philosophy long before they
+were handed over, ready made, to the grammarian. The distinction of noun
+and verb, or more correctly, of subject and predicate, was the work of
+philosophers. Even the technical terms of case, of number, and gender,
+were coined at a very early time for the purpose of entering into the
+nature of thought; not for the practical purpose of analyzing the forms of
+language. This, their practical application to the spoken language of
+Greece, was the work of a later generation. It was the teacher of
+languages who first compared the categories of thought with the realities
+of the Greek language. It was he who transferred the terminology of
+Aristotle and the Stoics from thought to speech, from logic to grammar;
+and thus opened the first roads into the impervious wilderness of spoken
+speech. In doing this, the grammarian had to alter the strict acceptation
+of many of the terms which he borrowed from the philosopher, and he had to
+coin others before he could lay hold of all the facts of language even in
+the roughest manner. For, indeed, the distinction between noun and verb,
+between active and passive, between nominative and accusative, does not
+help us much towards a scientific analysis of language. It is no more than
+a first grasp, and it can only be compared with the most elementary
+terminology in other branches of human knowledge. Nevertheless, it was a
+beginning, a very important beginning; and if we preserve in our histories
+of the world the names of those who are said to have discovered the four
+physical elements, the names of a Thales and Anaximenes, we ought not to
+forget the names of the discoverers of the elements of language--the
+founders of one of the most useful and most successful branches of
+philosophy--the first Grammarians.
+
+Grammar then, in the usual sense of the word, or the merely formal and
+empirical analysis of language, owes its origin, like all other sciences,
+to a very natural and practical want. The first practical grammarian was
+the first practical teacher of languages, and if we want to know the
+beginnings of the science of language, we must try to find out at what
+time in the history of the world, and under what circumstances, people
+first thought of learning any language besides their own. At _that_ time
+we shall find the first practical grammar, and not till then. Much may
+have been ready at hand through the less interested researches of
+philosophers, and likewise through the critical studies of the scholars of
+Alexandria on the ancient forms of their language as preserved in the
+Homeric poems. But rules of declension and conjugation, paradigms of
+regular and irregular nouns and verbs, observations on syntax, and the
+like, these are the work of the teachers of languages, and of no one else.
+
+Now, the teaching of languages, though at present so large a profession,
+is comparatively a very modern invention. No ancient Greek ever thought of
+learning a foreign language. Why should he? He divided the whole world
+into Greeks and Barbarians, and he would have felt himself degraded by
+adopting either the dress or the manners or the language of his barbarian
+neighbors. He considered it a privilege to speak Greek, and even dialects
+closely related to his own, were treated by him as mere jargons. It takes
+time before people conceive the idea that it is possible to express
+oneself in any but one's own language. The Poles called their neighbors,
+the Germans, _Niemiec_, _niemy_ meaning _dumb_;(58) just as the Greeks
+called the Barbarians _Aglossoi_, or speechless. The name which the
+Germans gave to their neighbors, the Celts, _Walh_ in old High German,
+_vealh_ in Anglo-Saxon, the modern _Welsh_, is supposed to be the same as
+the Sanskrit _mlechha_, and means a person who talks indistinctly.(59)
+
+Even when the Greeks began to feel the necessity of communicating with
+foreign nations, when they felt a desire of learning their idioms, the
+problem was by no means solved. For how was a foreign language to be
+learnt as long as either party could only speak their own? The problem was
+almost as difficult as when, as we are told by some persons, the first
+men, as yet speechless, came together in order to invent speech, and to
+discuss the most appropriate names that should be given to the perceptions
+of the senses and the abstractions of the mind. At first, it must be
+supposed that the Greek learned foreign languages very much as children
+learn their own. The interpreters mentioned by ancient historians were
+probably children of parents speaking different languages. The son of a
+Scythian and a Greek would naturally learn the utterances both of his
+father and mother, and the lucrative nature of his services would not fail
+to increase the supply. We are told, though on rather mythical authority,
+that the Greeks were astonished at the multiplicity of languages which
+they encountered during the Argonautic expedition, and that they were much
+inconvenienced by the want of skilful interpreters.(60) We need not wonder
+at this, for the English army was hardly better off than the army of
+Jason; and such is the variety of dialects spoken in the Caucasian
+Isthmus, that it is still called by the inhabitants "the Mountain of
+Languages." If we turn our eyes from these mythical ages to the historical
+times of Greece, we find that trade gave the first encouragement to the
+profession of interpreters. Herodotus tells us (iv. 24), that caravans of
+Greek merchants, following the course of the Volga upwards to the Oural
+mountains, were accompanied by seven interpreters, speaking seven
+different languages. These must have comprised Slavonic, Tataric, and
+Finnic dialects, spoken in those countries in the time of Herodotus, as
+they are at the present day. The wars with Persia first familiarized the
+Greeks with the idea that other nations also possessed real languages.
+Themistocles studied Persian, and is said to have spoken it fluently. The
+expedition of Alexander contributed still more powerfully to a knowledge
+of other nations and languages. But when Alexander went to converse with
+the Brahmans, who were even then considered by the Greeks as the guardians
+of a most ancient and mysterious wisdom, their answers had to be
+translated by so many interpreters that one of the Brahmans remarked, they
+must become like water that had passed through many impure channels.(61)
+We hear, indeed, of more ancient Greek travellers, and it is difficult to
+understand how, in those early times, anybody could have travelled without
+a certain knowledge of the language of the people through whose camps and
+villages and towns he had to pass. Many of these travels, however,
+particularly those which are said to have extended as far as India, are
+mere inventions of later writers.(62) Lycurgus may have travelled to Spain
+and Africa, he certainly did not proceed to India, nor is there any
+mention of his intercourse with the Indian Gymnosophists before
+Aristocrates, who lived about 100 B. C. The travels of Pythagoras are
+equally mythical; they are inventions of Alexandrian writers, who believed
+that all wisdom must have flowed from the East. There is better authority
+for believing that Democritus went to Egypt and Babylon, but his more
+distant travels to India are likewise legendary. Herodotus, though he
+travelled in Egypt and Persia, never gives us to understand that he was
+able to converse in any but his own language.
+
+As far as we can tell, the barbarians seem to have possessed a greater
+facility for acquiring languages than either Greeks or Romans. Soon after
+the Macedonian conquest, we find(63) _Berosus_ in Babylon, _Menander_ in
+Tyre, and _Manetho_ in Egypt, compiling, from original sources, the annals
+of their countries.(64) Their works were written in Greek, and for the
+Greeks. The native language of Berosus was Babylonian, of Menander
+Phenician, of Manetho Egyptian. Berosus was able to read the cuneiform
+documents of Babylonia with the same ease with which Manetho read the
+papyri of Egypt. The almost contemporaneous appearance of three such men,
+barbarians by birth and language, who were anxious to save the histories
+of their countries from total oblivion, by entrusting them to the keeping
+of their conquerors, the Greeks, is highly significant. But what is
+likewise significant, and by no means creditable to the Greek or
+Macedonian conquerors, is the small value which they seem to have set on
+these works. They have all been lost, and are known to us by fragments
+only, though there can be little doubt that the work of Berosus would have
+been an invaluable guide to the student of the cuneiform inscriptions and
+of Babylonian history, and that Manetho, if preserved complete, would have
+saved us volumes of controversy on Egyptian chronology. We learn, however,
+from the almost simultaneous appearance of these works, that soon after
+the epoch marked by Alexander's conquests in the East, the Greek language
+was studied and cultivated by literary men of barbarian origin, though we
+should look in vain for any Greek learning or employing any but his own
+tongue for literary purposes. We hear of no intellectual intercourse
+between Greeks and barbarians before the days of Alexander and Alexandria.
+At Alexandria, various nations, speaking different languages, and
+believing in different gods, were brought together. Though primarily
+engaged in mercantile speculations, it was but natural that in their
+moments of leisure they should hold discourse on their native countries,
+their gods, their kings, their law-givers, and poets. Besides, there were
+Greeks at Alexandria who were engaged in the study of antiquity, and who
+knew how to ask questions from men coming from any country of the world.
+The pretension of the Egyptians to a fabulous antiquity, the belief of the
+Jews in the sacred character of their laws, the faith of the Persians in
+the writings of Zoroaster, all these were fit subjects for discussion in
+the halls and libraries of Alexandria. We probably owe the translation of
+the Old Testament, the Septuagint, to this spirit of literary inquiry
+which was patronized at Alexandria by the Ptolemies.(65) The writings of
+Zoroaster also, the Zend-Avesta, would seem to have been rendered into
+Greek about the same time. For Hermippus, who is said by Pliny to have
+translated the writings of Zoroaster, was in all probability
+Hermippus,(66) the Peripatetic philosopher, the pupil of Callimachus, one
+of the most learned scholars at Alexandria.
+
+But although we find at Alexandria these and similar traces of a general
+interest having been excited by the literatures of other nations, there is
+no evidence which would lead us to suppose that their languages also had
+become the subject of scientific inquiry. It was not through the study of
+other languages, but through the study of the ancient dialects of their
+own language, that the Greeks at Alexandria were first led to what we
+should call critical and philological studies. The critical study of Greek
+took its origin at Alexandria, and it was chiefly based on the text of
+Homer. The general outline of grammar existed, as I remarked before, at an
+earlier period. It grew up in the schools of Greek philosophers.(67) Plato
+knew of noun and verb as the two component parts of speech. Aristotle
+added conjunctions and articles. He likewise observed the distinctions of
+number and case. But neither Plato nor Aristotle paid much attention to
+the forms of language which corresponded to these forms of thought, nor
+had they any inducement to reduce them to any practical rules. With
+Aristotle the verb or _rhemha_ is hardly more than predicate, and in
+sentences such as "the snow is white," he would have called _white_ a
+verb. The first who reduced the actual forms of language to something like
+order were the scholars of Alexandria. Their chief occupation was to
+publish correct texts of the Greek classics, and particularly of Homer.
+They were forced, therefore, to pay attention to the exact forms of Greek
+grammar. The MSS. sent to Alexandria and Pergamus from different parts of
+Greece varied considerably, and it could only be determined by careful
+observation which forms were to be tolerated in Homer and which were not.
+Their editions of Homer were not only _ekdoseis_, a Greek word literally
+rendered in Latin by _editio_, _i.e._ issues of books, but _diorthoseis_,
+that is to say, critical editions. There were different schools, opposed
+to each other in their views of the language of Homer. Each reading that
+was adopted by Zenodotus or Aristarchus had to be defended, and this could
+only be done by establishing general rules on the grammar of the Homeric
+poems. Did Homer use the article? Did he use it before proper names? These
+and similar questions had to be settled, and as one or the other view was
+adopted by the editors, the text of these ancient poems was changed by
+more or less violent emendations. New technical terms were required for
+distinguishing, for instance, the article, if once recognized, from the
+demonstrative pronoun. _Article_ is a literal translation of the Greek
+word _arthron_. _Arthron_ (Lat. artus) means the socket of a joint. The
+word was first used by Aristotle, and with him it could only mean words
+which formed, as it were, the sockets in which the members of a sentence
+moved. In such a sentence as: "Whoever did it, he shall suffer for it,"
+Greek grammarians would have called the demonstrative pronoun _he_ the
+first socket, and the relative pronoun _who_, the second socket;(68) and
+before Zenodotus, the first librarian of Alexandria, 250 B. C., all
+pronouns were simply classed as sockets or articles of speech. He was the
+first to introduce a distinction between personal pronouns or
+_antonymiai_, and the mere articles or articulations of speech, which
+henceforth retained the name of _arthra_. This distinction was very
+necessary, and it was, no doubt, suggested to him by his emendations of
+the text of Homer, Zenodotus being the first who restored the article
+before proper names in the Iliad and Odyssey. Who, in speaking now of the
+definite or indefinite article, thinks of the origin and original meaning
+of the word, and of the time which it took before it could become what it
+is now, a technical term familiar to every school-boy?
+
+Again, to take another illustration of the influence which the critical
+study of Homer at Alexandria exercised on the development of grammatical
+terminology,--we see that the first idea of numbers, of a singular and a
+plural, was fixed and defined by the philosopher. But Aristotle had no
+such technical terms as singular and plural; and he does not even allude
+to the dual. He only speaks of the cases which express one or many, though
+with him _case_, or _ptosis_, had a very different meaning from what it
+has in our grammars. The terms singular and plural were not invented till
+they were wanted, and they were first wanted by the grammarians.
+Zenodotus, the editor of Homer, was the first to observe the use of the
+dual in the Homeric poems, and, with the usual zeal of discoverers, he has
+altered many a plural into a dual when there was no necessity for it.
+
+The scholars of Alexandria, therefore, and of the rival academy of
+Pergamus, were the first who studied the Greek language critically, that
+is to say, who analyzed the language, arranged it under general
+categories, distinguished the various parts of speech, invented proper
+technical terms for the various functions of words, observed the more or
+less correct usage of certain poets, marked the difference between
+obsolete and classical forms, and published long and learned treatises on
+all these subjects. Their works mark a great era in the history of the
+science of language. But there was still a step to be made before we can
+expect to meet with a real practical or elementary grammar of the Greek
+language. Now the first real Greek grammar was that of _Dionysius Thrax_.
+It is still in existence, and though its genuineness has been doubted,
+these doubts have been completely disposed of.
+
+But who was Dionysius Thrax? His father, as we learn from his name, was a
+Thracian; but Dionysius himself lived at Alexandria, and was a pupil of
+the famous critic and editor of Homer, Aristarchus.(69) Dionysius
+afterwards went to Rome, where he taught about the time of Pompey. Now
+here we see a new feature in the history of mankind. A Greek, a pupil of
+Aristarchus, settles at Rome, and writes a practical grammar of the Greek
+language--of course, for the benefit of his young Roman pupils. He was not
+the inventor of grammatical science. Nearly all the framework of grammar,
+as we saw, was supplied to him through the labors of his predecessors from
+Plato to Aristarchus. But he was the first who applied the results of
+former philosophers and critics to the practical purpose of teaching
+Greek; and, what is most important, of teaching Greek not to Greeks, who
+knew Greek and only wanted the theory of their language, but to Romans who
+had to be taught the declensions and conjugations, regular and irregular.
+His work thus became one of the principal channels through which the
+grammatical terminology, which had been carried from Athens to Alexandria,
+flowed back to Rome, to spread from thence over the whole civilized world.
+
+Dionysius, however, though the author of the first practical grammar, was
+by no means the first "_professeur de langue_" who settled at Rome. At his
+time Greek was more generally spoken at Rome than French is now spoken in
+London. The children of gentlemen learnt Greek before they learnt Latin,
+and though Quintilian in his work on education does not approve of a boy
+learning nothing but Greek for any length of time, "as is now the
+fashion," he says, "with most people," yet he too recommends that a boy
+should be taught Greek first, and Latin afterwards.(70) This may seem
+strange, but the fact is that as long as we know anything of Italy, the
+Greek language was as much at home there as Latin. Italy owed almost
+everything to Greece, not only in later days when the setting sun of Greek
+civilization mingled its rays with the dawn of Roman greatness; but ever
+since the first Greek colonists started Westward Ho! in search of new
+homes. It was from the Greeks that the Italians received their alphabet
+and were taught to read and to write.(71) The names for balance, for
+measuring-rod, for engines in general, for coined money,(72) many terms
+connected with seafaring,(73) not excepting _nausea_ or sea-sickness, are
+all borrowed from Greek, and show the extent to which the Italians were
+indebted to the Greeks for the very rudiments of civilization. The
+Italians, no doubt, had their own national gods, but they soon became
+converts to the mythology of the Greeks. Some of the Greek gods they
+identified with their own; others they admitted as new deities. Thus
+_Saturnus_, originally an Italian harvest god, was identified with the
+Greek _Kronos_, and as _Kronos_ was the son of _Uranos_, a new deity was
+invented, and _Saturnus_ was fabled to be the son of _Coelus_. Thus the
+Italian _Herculus_, the god of hurdles, enclosures, and walls, was merged
+in the Greek _Heracles_.(74) _Castor_ and _Pollux_, both of purely Greek
+origin, were readily believed in as nautical deities by the Italian
+sailors, and they were the first Greek gods to whom, after the battle on
+the Lake Regillus (485), a temple was erected at Rome.(75) In 431 another
+temple was erected at Rome to Apollo, whose oracle at Delphi had been
+consulted by Italians ever since Greek colonists had settled on their
+soil. The oracles of the famous Sibylla of Cumæ were written in Greek,(76)
+and the priests (duoviri sacris faciundis) were allowed to keep two Greek
+slaves for the purpose of translating these oracles.(77)
+
+When the Romans, in 454 B. C., wanted to establish a code of laws, the
+first thing they did was to send commissioners to Greece to report on the
+laws of Solon at Athens and the laws of other Greek towns.(78) As Rome
+rose in political power, Greek manners, Greek art, Greek language and
+literature found ready admittance.(79) Before the beginning of the Punic
+wars, many of the Roman statesmen were able to understand, and even to
+speak Greek. Boys were not only taught the Roman letters by their masters,
+the _literatores_, but they had to learn at the same time the Greek
+alphabet. Those who taught Greek at Rome were then called _grammatici_,
+and they were mostly Greek slaves or _liberti_.
+
+Among the young men whom Cato saw growing up at Rome, to know Greek was
+the same as to be a gentleman. They read Greek books, they conversed in
+Greek, they even wrote in Greek. Tiberius Gracchus, consul in 177, made a
+speech in Greek at Rhodes, which he afterwards published.(80) Flaminius,
+when addressed by the Greeks in Latin, returned the compliment by writing
+Greek verses in honor of their gods. The first history of Rome was written
+at Rome in Greek, by Fabius Pictor,(81) about 200 B. C.; and it was
+probably in opposition to this work, and to those of Lucius Cincius
+Alimentus, and Publius Scipio, that Cato wrote his own history of Rome in
+Latin. The example of the higher classes was eagerly followed by the
+lowest. The plays of Plautus are the best proof; for the affectation of
+using Greek words is as evident in some of his characters as the foolish
+display of French in the German writers of the eighteenth century. There
+was both loss and gain in the inheritance which Rome received from Greece;
+but what would Rome have been without her Greek masters? The very fathers
+of Roman literature were Greeks, private teachers, men who made a living
+by translating school-books and plays. Livius Andronicus, sent as prisoner
+of war from Tarentum (272 B. C.), established himself at Rome as professor
+of Greek. His translation of the Odyssey into Latin verse, which marks the
+beginning of Roman literature, was evidently written by him for the use of
+his private classes. His style, though clumsy and wooden in the extreme,
+was looked upon as a model of perfection by the rising poets of the
+capital. Nævius and Plautus were his cotemporaries and immediate
+successors. All the plays of Plautus were translations and adaptations of
+Greek originals; and Plautus was not even allowed to transfer the scene
+from Greece to Rome. The Roman public wanted to see Greek life and Greek
+depravity; it would have stoned the poet who had ventured to bring on the
+stage a Roman patrician or a Roman matron. Greek tragedies, also, were
+translated into Latin. Ennius, the cotemporary of Nævius and Plautus,
+though somewhat younger (239-169), was the first to translate Euripides.
+Ennius, like Andronicus, was an Italian Greek, who settled at Rome as a
+teacher of languages and translator of Greek. He was patronized by the
+liberal party, by Publius Scipio, Titus Flaminius, and Marcus Fulvius
+Nobilior.(82) He became a Roman citizen. But Ennius was more than a poet,
+more than a teacher of languages. He has been called a neologian, and to a
+certain extent he deserved that name. Two works written in the most
+hostile spirit against the religion of Greece, and against the very
+existence of the Greek gods, were translated by him into Latin.(83) One
+was the philosophy of _Epicharmus_ (470 B. C., in Megara), who taught that
+Zeus was nothing but the air, and other gods but names of the powers of
+nature; the other the work of _Euhemerus_, of Messene (300 B. C.), who
+proved, in the form of a novel, that the Greek gods had never existed, and
+that those who were believed in as gods had been men. These two works were
+not translated without a purpose; and though themselves shallow in the
+extreme, they proved destructive to the still shallower systems of Roman
+theology. Greek became synonymous with infidel; and Ennius would hardly
+have escaped the punishment inflicted on Nævius for his political satires,
+had he not enjoyed the patronage and esteem of the most influential
+statesmen at Rome. Even Cato, the stubborn enemy of Greek philosophy(84)
+and rhetoric, was a friend of the dangerous Ennius; and such was the
+growing influence of Greek at Rome, that Cato himself had to learn it in
+his old age, in order to teach his boy what he considered, if not useful,
+at least harmless in Greek literature. It has been the custom to laugh at
+Cato for his dogged opposition to everything Greek; but there was much
+truth in his denunciations. We have heard much of young Bengál--young
+Hindus who read Byron and Voltaire, play at billiards, drive tandems,
+laugh at their priests, patronize missionaries, and believe nothing. The
+description which Cato gives of the young idlers at Rome reminds us very
+much of young Bengál.
+
+When Rome took the torch of knowledge from the dying hands of Greece, that
+torch was not burning with its brightest light. Plato and Aristotle had
+been succeeded by Chrysippus and Carneades; Euripides and Menander had
+taken the place of Æschylus and Sophocles. In becoming the guardian of the
+Promethean spark first lighted in Greece, and intended hereafter to
+illuminate not only Italy, but every country of Europe, Rome lost much of
+that native virtue to which she owed her greatness. Roman frugality and
+gravity, Roman citizenship and patriotism, Roman purity and piety, were
+driven away by Greek luxury and levity, Greek intriguing and self-seeking,
+Greek vice and infidelity. Restrictions and anathemas were of no avail;
+and Greek ideas were never so attractive as when they had been reprobated
+by Cato and his friends. Every new generation became more and more
+impregnated with Greek. In 131(85) we hear of a consul (Publius Crassus)
+who, like another Mezzofanti, was able to converse in the various dialects
+of Greek. Sulla allowed foreign ambassadors to speak Greek before the
+Roman senate.(86) The Stoic philosopher Panætius(87) lived in the house of
+the Scipios, which was for a long time the rendezvous of all the literary
+celebrities at Rome. Here the Greek historian Polybius, and the
+philosopher Cleitomachus, Lucilius the satirist, Terence the African poet
+(196-159), and the improvisatore Archias (102 B. C.), were welcome
+guests.(88) In this select circle the master-works of Greek literature
+were read and criticised; the problems of Greek philosophy were discussed;
+and the highest interests of human life became the subject of thoughtful
+conversation. Though no poet of original genius arose from this society,
+it exercised a most powerful influence on the progress of Roman
+literature. It formed a tribunal of good taste; and much of the
+correctness, simplicity, and manliness of the classical Latin is due to
+that "Cosmopolitan Club," which met under the hospitable roof of the
+Scipios.
+
+The religious life of Roman society at the close of the Punic wars was
+more Greek than Roman. All who had learnt to think seriously on religious
+questions were either Stoics or followers of Epicurus; or they embraced
+the doctrines of the New Academy, denying the possibility of any knowledge
+of the Infinite, and putting opinion in the place of truth.(89) Though the
+doctrines of Epicurus and the New Academy were always considered dangerous
+and heretical, the philosophy of the Stoics was tolerated, and a kind of
+compromise effected between philosophy and religion. There was a
+state-philosophy as well as a state-religion. The Roman priesthood, though
+they had succeeded, in 161, in getting all Greek rhetors and philosophers
+expelled from Rome, perceived that a compromise was necessary. It was
+openly avowed that in the enlightened classes(90) philosophy must take the
+place of religion, but that a belief in miracles and oracles was necessary
+for keeping the large masses in order. Even Cato,(91) the leader of the
+orthodox, national, and conservative party, expressed his surprise that a
+haruspex, when meeting a colleague, did not burst out laughing. Men like
+Scipio Æmilianus and Lælius professed to believe in the popular gods; but
+with them Jupiter was the soul of the universe, the statues of the gods
+mere works of art.(92) Their gods, as the people complained, had neither
+body, parts, nor passions. Peace, however, was preserved between the Stoic
+philosopher and the orthodox priest. Both parties professed to believe in
+the same gods, but they claimed the liberty to believe in them in their
+own way.
+
+I have dwelt at some length on the changes in the intellectual atmosphere
+of Rome at the end of the Punic wars, and I have endeavored to show how
+completely it was impregnated with Greek ideas in order to explain, what
+otherwise would seem almost inexplicable, the zeal and earnestness with
+which the study of Greek grammar was taken up at Rome, not only by a few
+scholars and philosophers, but by the leading statesmen of the time. To
+our minds, discussions on nouns and verbs, on cases and gender, on regular
+and irregular conjugation, retain always something of the tedious
+character which these subjects had at school, and we can hardly understand
+how at Rome, grammar--pure and simple grammar--should have formed a subject
+of general interest, and a topic of fashionable conversation. When one of
+the first grammarians of the day, Crates of Pergamus, was sent to Rome as
+ambassador of King Attalus, he was received with the greatest distinction
+by all the literary statesmen of the capital. It so happened that when
+walking one day on the Palatian hill, Crates caught his foot in the
+grating of a sewer, fell and broke his leg. Being thereby detained at Rome
+longer than he intended, he was persuaded to give some public lectures, or
+_akroaseis_, on grammar; and from these lectures, says Suetonius, dates
+the study of grammar at Rome. This took place about 159 B. C., between the
+second and third Punic wars, shortly after the death of Ennius, and two
+years after the famous expulsion of the Greek rhetors and philosophers
+(161). Four years later Carneades, likewise sent to Rome as ambassador,
+was prohibited from lecturing by Cato. After these lectures of Crates,
+grammatical and philological studies became extremely popular at Rome. We
+hear of Lucius Ælius Stilo,(93) who lectured on Latin as Crates had
+lectured on Greek. Among his pupils were Varro, Lucilius, and Cicero.
+Varro composed twenty-four books on the Latin language, four of which were
+dedicated to Cicero. Cicero, himself, is quoted as an authority on
+grammatical questions, though we know of no special work of his on
+grammar. Lucilius devoted the ninth book of his satires to the reform of
+spelling.(94) But nothing shows more clearly the wide interest which
+grammatical studies had then excited in the foremost ranks of Roman
+society than Cæsar's work on Latin grammar. It was composed by him during
+the Gallic war, and dedicated to Cicero, who might well be proud of the
+compliment thus paid him by the great general and statesman. Most of these
+works are lost to us, and we can judge of them only by means of casual
+quotations. Thus we learn from a fragment of Cæsar's work, _De analogia_,
+that he was the inventor of the term _ablative_ in Latin. The word never
+occurs before, and, of course, could not be borrowed, like the names of
+the other cases, from Greek grammarians, as they admitted no ablative in
+Greek. To think of Cæsar fighting the barbarians of Gaul and Germany, and
+watching from a distance the political complications at Rome, ready to
+grasp the sceptre of the world, and at the same time carrying on his
+philological and grammatical studies together with his secretary, the
+Greek Didymus,(95) gives us a new view both of that extraordinary man, and
+of the time in which he lived. After Cæsar had triumphed, one of his
+favorite plans was to found a Greek and Latin library at Rome, and he
+offered the librarianship to the best scholar of the day, to Varro, though
+Varro had fought against him on the side of Pompey.(96)
+
+We have thus arrived at the time when, as we saw in an earlier part of
+this lecture, Dionysius Thrax published the first elementary grammar of
+Greek at Rome. Empirical grammar had thus been transplanted to Rome, the
+Greek grammatical terminology was translated into Latin, and in this new
+Latin garb it has travelled now for nearly two thousand years over the
+whole civilized world. Even in India, where a different terminology had
+grown up in the grammatical schools of the Brahmans, a terminology in some
+respects more perfect than that of Alexandria and Rome, we may now hear
+such words as _case_, and _gender_, and _active_ and _passive_, explained
+by European teachers to their native pupils. The fates of words are
+curious indeed, and when I looked the other day at some of the examination
+papers of the government schools in India, such questions as--"Write the
+genitive case of Siva," seemed to reduce whole volumes of history into a
+single sentence. How did these words, genitive case, come to India? They
+came from England, they had come to England from Rome, to Rome from
+Alexandria, to Alexandria from Athens. At Athens, the term _case_, or
+_ptosis_, had a philosophical meaning; at Rome, _casus_ was merely a
+literal translation; the original meaning of _fall_ was lost, and the word
+dwindled down to a mere technical term. At Athens, the philosophy of
+language was a counterpart of the philosophy of the mind. The terminology
+of formal logic and formal grammar was the same. The logic of the Stoics
+was divided into two parts,(97) called _rhetoric_ and _dialectic_, and the
+latter treated, first, "On that which signifies, or language;" secondly,
+"On that which is signified, or things." In their philosophical language
+_ptosis_, which the Romans translated by _casus_, really meant fall; that
+is to say, the inclination or relation of one idea to another, the falling
+or resting of one word on another. Long and angry discussions were carried
+on as to whether the name of _ptosis_, or fall, was applicable to the
+nominative; and every true Stoic would have scouted the expression of
+_casus rectus_, because the subject or the nominative, as they argued, did
+not fall or rest on anything else, but stood erect, the other words of a
+sentence leaning or depending on it. All this is lost to us when we speak
+of cases.
+
+And how are the dark scholars in the government schools of India to guess
+the meaning of _genitive_? The Latin _genitivus_ is a mere blunder, for
+the Greek word _genike_ could never mean _genitivus_. _Genitivus_, if it
+is meant to express the case of origin or birth, would in Greek have been
+called _gennetike_, not _genike_. Nor does the genitive express the
+relation of son to father. For though we may say, "the son of the father,"
+we may likewise say, "the father of the son." _Genike_, in Greek, had a
+much wider, a much more philosophical meaning.(98) It meant _casus
+generalis_, the general case, or rather the case which expresses the
+gentus or kind. This is the real power of the genitive. If I say, "a bird
+of the water," "of the water" defines the genus to which a certain bird
+belongs; it refers it to the genus of water-birds. "Man of the mountains,"
+means a mountaineer. In phrases such as "son of the father," or "father of
+the son," the genitives have the same effect. They predicate something of
+the son or of the father; and if we distinguished between the sons of the
+father, and the sons of the mother, the genitives would mark the class or
+genus to which the sons respectively belonged. They would answer the same
+purpose as the adjectives, paternal and maternal. It can be proved
+etymologically that the termination of the genitive is, in most cases,
+identical with those derivative suffixes by which substantives are changed
+into adjectives.(99)
+
+It is hardly necessary to trace the history of what I call the empirical
+study, or the grammatical analysis of language, beyond Rome. With
+Dionysius Thrax the framework of grammar was finished. Later writers have
+improved and completed it, but they have added nothing really new and
+original. We can follow the stream of grammatical science from Dionysius
+Thrax to our own time in an almost uninterrupted chain of Greek and Roman
+writers. We find Quintilian in the first century; Scaurus, Apollonius
+Dyscolus, and his son, Herodianus, in the second; Probus and Donatus in
+the fourth. After Constantine had moved the seat of government from Rome,
+grammatical science received a new home in the academy of Constantinople.
+There were no less than twenty Greek and Latin grammarians who held
+professorships at Constantinople. Under Justinian, in the sixth century,
+the name of Priscianus gave a new lustre to grammatical studies, and his
+work remained an authority during the Middle Ages to nearly our own times.
+We ourselves have been taught grammar according to the plan which was
+followed by Dionysius at Rome, by Priscianus at Constantinople, by Alcuin
+at York; and whatever may be said of the improvements introduced into our
+system of education, the Greek and Latin grammars used at our public
+schools are mainly founded on the first empirical analysis of language,
+prepared by the philosophers of Athens, applied by the scholars of
+Alexandria, and transferred to the practical purpose of teaching a foreign
+tongue by the Greek professors at Rome.
+
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE IV. THE CLASSIFICATORY STAGE.
+
+
+We traced, in our last lecture, the origin and progress of the empirical
+study of languages from the time of Plato and Aristotle to our own
+school-boy days. We saw at what time, and under what circumstances, the
+first grammatical analysis of language took place; how its component
+parts, the parts of speech, were named, and how, with the aid of a
+terminology, half philosophical and half empirical, a system of teaching
+languages was established, which, whatever we may think of its intrinsic
+value, has certainly answered that purpose for which it was chiefly
+intended.
+
+Considering the process by which this system of grammatical science was
+elaborated, it could not be expected to give us an insight into the nature
+of language. The division into nouns and verbs, articles and conjunctions,
+the schemes of declension and conjugation, were a merely artificial
+network thrown over the living body of language. We must not look in the
+grammar of Dionysius Thrax for a correct and well-articulated skeleton of
+human speech. It is curious, however, to observe the striking coincidences
+between the grammatical terminology of the Greeks and the Hindús, which
+would seem to prove that there must be some true and natural foundation
+for the much-abused grammatical system of the schools. The Hindús are the
+only nation that cultivated the science of grammar without having received
+any impulse, directly or indirectly, from the Greeks. Yet we find in
+Sanskrit too the same system of cases, called _vibhakti_, or inflections,
+the active, passive, and middle voices, the tenses, moods, and persons,
+divided not exactly, but very nearly, in the same manner as in Greek.(100)
+In Sanskrit, grammar is called _vyâkarana_, which means analysis or taking
+to pieces. As Greek grammar owed its origin to the critical study of
+Homer, Sanskrit grammar arose from the study of the Vedas, the most
+ancient poetry of the Brahmans. The differences between the dialect of
+these sacred hymns and the literary Sanskrit of later ages were noted and
+preserved with a religious care. We still possess the first essays in the
+grammatical science of the Brahmans, the so-called _prâtisâkhyas_. These
+works, though they merely profess to give rules on the proper
+pronunciation of the ancient dialect of the Vedas, furnish us at the same
+time with observations of a grammatical character, and particularly with
+those valuable lists of words, irregular or in any other way remarkable,
+the Ganas. These supplied that solid basis on which successive generations
+of scholars erected the astounding structure that reached its perfection
+in the grammar of Pânini. There is no form, regular or irregular, in the
+whole Sanskrit language, which is not provided for in the grammar of
+Pânini and his commentators. It is the perfection of a merely empirical
+analysis of language, unsurpassed, nay even unapproached, by anything in
+the grammatical literature of other nations. Yet of the real nature, and
+natural growth of language, it teaches us nothing.
+
+What then do we know of language after we have learnt the grammar of Greek
+or Sanskrit, or after we have transferred the network of classical grammar
+to our own tongue?
+
+We know certain forms of language which correspond to certain forms of
+thought. We know that the subject must assume the form of the nominative,
+the object that of the accusative. We know that the more remote object may
+be put in the dative, and that the predicate, in its most general form,
+may be rendered by the genitive. We are taught that whereas in English the
+genitive is marked by a final _s_, or by the preposition _of_, it is in
+Greek expressed by a final {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, in Latin by _is_. But what this {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} and _is_
+represent, why they should have the power of changing a nominative into a
+genitive, a subject into a predicate, remains a riddle. It is self-evident
+that each language, in order to be a language, must be able to distinguish
+the subject from the object, the nominative from the accusative. But how a
+mere change of termination should suffice to convey so material a
+distinction would seem almost incomprehensible. If we look for a moment
+beyond Greek and Latin, we see that there are in reality but few languages
+which have distinct forms for these two categories of thought. Even in
+Greek and Latin there is no outward distinction between the nominative and
+accusative of neuters. The Chinese language, it is commonly said, has no
+grammar at all, that is to say, it has no inflections, no declension and
+conjugation, in our sense of these words; it makes no formal distinction
+of the various parts of speech, noun, verb, adjective, adverb, &c. Yet
+there is no shade of thought that cannot be rendered in Chinese. The
+Chinese have no more difficulty in distinguishing between "James beats
+John," and "John beats James," than the Greeks and Romans or we ourselves.
+They have no termination for the accusative, but they attain the same by
+always placing the subject before, and the object after the verb, or by
+employing words, before or after the noun, which clearly indicate that it
+is to be taken as the object of the verb.(101) There are other languages
+which have more terminations even than Greek and Latin. In Finnish there
+are fifteen cases, expressive of every possible relation between the
+subject and the object; but there is no accusative, no purely objective
+case. In English and French the distinctive terminations of the nominative
+and accusative have been worn off by phonetic corruption, and these
+languages are obliged, like Chinese, to mark the subject and object by the
+collocation of words. What we learn therefore at school in being taught
+that _rex_ in the nominative becomes _regem_ in the accusative, is simply
+a practical rule. We know when to say _rex_, and when to say _regem_. But
+why the king as a subject should be called _rex_, and as an object
+_regem_, remains entirely unexplained. In the same manner we learn that
+_amo_ means I love, _amavi_ I loved; but why that tragical change from
+_love_ to _no love_ should be represented by the simple change of _o_ to
+_avi_, or, in English, by the addition of a mere _d_, is neither asked nor
+answered.
+
+Now if there is a science of language, these are the questions which it
+will have to answer. If they cannot be answered, if we must be content
+with paradigms and rules, if the terminations of nouns and verbs must be
+looked upon either as conventional contrivances or as mysterious
+excrescences, there is no such thing as a science of language, and we must
+be satisfied with what has been called the art ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}) of language, or
+grammar.
+
+Before we either accept or decline the solution of any problem, it is
+right to determine what means there are for solving it. Beginning with
+English we should ask, what means have we for finding out why _I love_
+should mean I am actually loving, whereas _I loved_ indicates that that
+feeling is past and gone? Or, if we look to languages richer in
+inflections than English, by what process can we discover under what
+circumstances _amo_, I love, was changed, through the mere addition of an
+_r_, into _amor_, expressing no longer _I love_, but _I am loved_? Did
+declensions and conjugations bud forth like the blossoms of a tree? Were
+they imparted to man ready made by some mysterious power? Or did some wise
+people invent them, assigning certain letters to certain phases of
+thought, as mathematicians express unknown quantities by freely chosen
+algebraic exponents? We are here brought at once face to face with the
+highest and most difficult problem of our science, the origin of language.
+But it will be well for the present to turn our eyes away from theories,
+and fix our attention at first entirely on facts.
+
+Let us keep to the English perfect, _I loved_, as compared with the
+present, _I love_. We cannot embrace at once the whole English grammar,
+but if we can track one form to its true lair, we shall probably have no
+difficulty in digging out the rest of the brood. Now, if we ask how the
+addition of a final _d_ could express the momentous transition from being
+in love to being indifferent, the first thing we have to do, before
+attempting any explanation, would be to establish the earliest and most
+original form of _I loved_. This is a rule which even Plato recognized in
+his philosophy of language, though, we must confess, he seldom obeyed it.
+We know what havoc phonetic corruption may make both in the dictionary and
+the grammar of a language, and it would be a pity to waste our conjectures
+on formations which a mere reference to the history of language would
+suffice to explain. Now a very slight acquaintance with the history of the
+English language teaches us that the grammar of modern English is not the
+same as the grammar of Wycliffe. Wycliffe's English again may be traced
+back to what, with Sir Frederick Madden, we may call Middle English, from
+1500 to 1330; Middle English to Early English, from 1330 to 1230; Early
+English to Semi-Saxon from 1230 to 1100; and Semi-Saxon to
+Anglo-Saxon.(102) It is evident that if we are to discover the original
+intention of the syllable which changes _I love_ into _I loved_, we must
+consult the original form of that syllable wherever we can find it. We
+should never have known that _priest_ meant originally _an elder_, unless
+we had traced it back to its original form _presbyter_, in which a Greek
+scholar at once recognizes the comparative of _presbys_, old. If left to
+modern English alone, we might attempt to connect _priest_ with _praying_
+or _preaching_, but we should not thus arrive at its true derivation. The
+modern word _Gospel_ conveys no meaning at all. As soon as we trace it
+back to the original _Goddspell_, we see that it is a literal translation
+of _Evangelium_, or good news, good tidings.(103) _Lord_ would be nothing
+but an empty title in English, unless we could discover its original form
+and meaning in the Anglo-Saxon _hlafford_, meaning a giver of bread, from
+_hlaf_, a loaf, and _ford_, to give.
+
+But even after this is done, after we have traced a modern English word
+back to Anglo-Saxon, it follows by no means that we should there find it
+in its original form, or that we should succeed in forcing it to disclose
+its original intention. Anglo-Saxon is not an original or aboriginal
+language. It points by its very name to the Saxons and Angles of the
+continent. We have, therefore, to follow our word from Anglo-Saxon through
+the various Saxon and Low-German dialects, till we arrive at last at the
+earliest stage of German which is within our reach, the Gothic of the
+fourth century after Christ. Even here we cannot rest. For, although we
+cannot trace Gothic back to any earlier Teutonic language, we see at once
+that Gothic, too, is a modern language, and that it must have passed
+through numerous phases of growth before it became what it is in the mouth
+of Bishop Ulfilas.
+
+What then are we to do?--We must try to do what is done when we have to
+deal with the modern Romance languages. If we could not trace a French
+word back to Latin, we should look for its corresponding form in Italian,
+and endeavor to trace the Italian to its Latin source. If, for instance,
+we were doubtful about the origin of the French word for fire, _feu_, we
+have but to look to the Italian _fuoco_, in order to see at once that both
+_fuoco_ and _feu_ are derived from the Latin _focus_. We can do this,
+because we know that French and Italian are cognate dialects, and because
+we have ascertained beforehand the exact degree of relationship in which
+they stand to each other. Had we, instead of looking to Italian, looked to
+German for an explanation of the French _feu_, we should have missed the
+right track; for the German _feuer_, though more like _feu_ than the
+Italian _fuoco_, could never have assumed in French the form _feu_.
+
+Again, in the case of the preposition _hors_, which in French means
+_without_, we can more easily determine its origin after we have found
+that _hors_ corresponds with the Italian _fuora_, the Spanish _fuera_. The
+French _fromage_, cheese, derives no light from Latin. But as soon as we
+compare the Italian _formaggio_,(104) we see that _formaggio_ and
+_fromage_ are derived from _forma_; cheese being made in Italy by keeping
+the milk in small baskets or forms. _Feeble_, the French _faible_, is
+clearly derived from Latin; but it is not till we see the Italian
+_fievole_ that we are reminded of the Latin _flebilis_, tearful. We should
+never have found the etymology, that is to say the origin, of the French
+_payer_, the English _to pay_, if we did not consult the dictionary of the
+cognate dialects, such as Italian and Spanish. Here we find that _to pay_
+is expressed in Italian by _pagare_, in Spanish by _pagar_, whereas in
+Provençal we actually find the two forms _pagar_ and _payar_. Now _pagar_
+clearly points back to Latin _pacare_, which means _to pacify_, _to
+appease_. To appease a creditor meant to pay him; in the same manner as
+_une quittance_, a quittance or receipt, was originally _quietantia_, a
+quieting, from _quietus_, quiet.
+
+If, therefore, we wish to follow up our researches,--if, not satisfied with
+having traced an English word back to Gothic, we want to know what it was
+at a still earlier period of its growth,--we must determine whether there
+are any languages that stand to Gothic in the same relation in which
+Italian and Spanish stand to French;--we must restore, as far as possible,
+the genealogical tree of the various families of human speech. In doing
+this we enter on the second or classificatory stage of our science; for
+genealogy, where it is applicable, is the most perfect form of
+classification.
+
+Before we proceed to examine the results which have been obtained by the
+recent labors of Schlegel, Humboldt, Bopp, Burnouf, Pott, Benfey,
+Prichard, Grimm, Kuhn, Curtius, and others in this branch of the science
+of language, it will be well to glance at what had been achieved before
+their time in the classification of the numberless dialects of mankind.
+
+The Greeks never thought of applying the principle of classification to
+the varieties of human speech. They only distinguished between Greek on
+one side, and all other languages on the other, comprehended under the
+convenient name of "Barbarous." They succeeded, indeed, in classifying
+four of their own dialects with tolerable correctness,(105) but they
+applied the term "barbarous" so promiscuously to the other more distant
+relatives of Greek, (the dialects of the Pelasgians, Carians, Macedonians,
+Thracians, and Illyrians,) that, for the purposes of scientific
+classification, it is almost impossible to make any use of the statements
+of ancient writers about these so-called barbarous idioms.(106)
+
+Plato, indeed, in his Cratylus (c. 36), throws out a hint that the Greeks
+might have received their own words from the barbarians, the barbarians
+being older than the Greeks. But he was not able to see the full bearing
+of this remark. He only points out that some words, such as the names of
+_fire_, _water_, and _dog_, were the same in Phrygian and Greek; and he
+supposes that the Greeks borrowed them from the Phrygians (c. 26). The
+idea that the Greek language and that of the barbarians could have had a
+common source never entered his mind. It is strange that even so
+comprehensive a mind as that of Aristotle should have failed to perceive
+in languages some of that law and order which he tried to discover in
+every realm of nature. As Aristotle, however, did not attempt this, we
+need not wonder that it was not attempted by any one else for the next two
+thousand years. The Romans, in all scientific matters, were merely the
+parrots of the Greeks. Having themselves been called barbarians, they soon
+learnt to apply the same name to all other nations, except, of course, to
+their masters, the Greeks. Now _barbarian_ is one of those lazy
+expressions which seem to say everything but in reality say nothing. It
+was applied as recklessly as the word _heretic_ during the Middle Ages. If
+the Romans had not received this convenient name of barbarian ready made
+for them, they would have treated their neighbors, the Celts and Germans,
+with more respect and sympathy: they would, at all events, have looked at
+them with a more discriminating eye. And, if they had done so, they would
+have discovered, in spite of outward differences, that these barbarians
+were, after all, not very distant cousins. There was as much similarity
+between the language of Cæsar and the barbarians against whom he fought in
+Gaul and Germany as there was between his language and that of Homer. A
+man of Cæsar's sagacity would have seen this, if he had not been blinded
+by traditional phraseology. I am not exaggerating. For let us look at one
+instance only. If we take a verb of such constant occurrence as _to have_,
+we shall find the paradigms almost identical in Latin and Gothic:--
+
+I have in Latin is habeo, in Gothic haba.
+Thou hast in Latin is habes, in Gothic habais.
+He has  in Latin is habet, in Gothic habaiþ.
+We have in Latin is habemus, in Gothic habam.
+You have  in Latin is habetis, in Gothic habaiþ.
+They have in Latin is habent, in Gothic habant.
+
+It surely required a certain amount of blindness, or rather of deafness,
+not to perceive such similarity, and that blindness or deafness arose, I
+believe, entirely from the single word _barbarian_. Not till that word
+barbarian was struck out of the dictionary of mankind, and replaced by
+brother, not till the right of all nations of the world to be classed as
+members of one genus or kind was recognized, can we look even for the
+first beginnings of our science. This change was effected by Christianity.
+To the Hindú, every man not twice-born was a Mlechha; to the Greek, every
+man not speaking Greek was a barbarian; to the Jew, every person not
+circumcised was a Gentile; to the Mohammedan, every man not believing in
+the prophet is a Giaur or Kaffir. It was Christianity which first broke
+down the barriers between Jew and Gentile, between Greek and barbarian,
+between the white and the black. _Humanity_ is a word which you look for
+in vain in Plato or Aristotle; the idea of mankind as one family, as the
+children of one God, is an idea of Christian growth; and the science of
+mankind, and of the languages of mankind, is a science which, without
+Christianity, would never have sprung into life. When people had been
+taught to look upon all men as brethren, then, and then only, did the
+variety of human speech present itself as a problem that called for a
+solution in the eyes of thoughtful observers; and I, therefore, date the
+real beginning of the science of language from the first day of Pentecost.
+After that day of cloven tongues a new light is spreading over the world,
+and objects rise into view which had been hidden from the eyes of the
+nations of antiquity. Old words assume a new meaning, old problems a new
+interest, old sciences a new purpose. The common origin of mankind, the
+differences of race and language, the susceptibility of all nations of the
+highest mental culture, these become, in the new world in which we live,
+problems of scientific, because of more than scientific, interest. It is
+no valid objection that so many centuries should have elapsed before the
+spirit which Christianity infused into every branch of scientific inquiry
+produced visible results. We see in the oaken fleet which rides the ocean
+the small acorn which was buried in the ground hundreds of years ago, and
+we recognize in the philosophy of Albertus Magnus,(107) though nearly 1200
+years after the death of Christ, in the aspirations of Kepler,(108) and in
+the researches of the greatest philosophers of our own age, the sound of
+that key-note of thought which had been struck for the first time by the
+apostle of the Gentiles:(109) "_For the invisible things of Him from the
+creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things
+that are made, even His eternal power and Godhead_."
+
+But we shall see that the science of language owes more than its first
+impulse to Christianity. The pioneers of our science were those very
+apostles who were commanded "to go into all the world, and preach the
+Gospel to every creature," and their true successors, the missionaries of
+the whole Christian Church. Translations of the Lord's Prayer or of the
+Bible into every dialect of the world, form even now the most valuable
+materials for the comparative philologist. As long as the number of known
+languages was small, the idea of classification hardly suggested itself.
+The mind must be bewildered by the multiplicity of facts before it has
+recourse to division. As long as the only languages studied were Greek,
+Latin, and Hebrew, the simple division into sacred and profane, or
+classical and oriental, sufficed. But when theologians extended their
+studies to Arabic, Chaldee, and Syriac, a step, and a very important step,
+was made towards the establishment of a class or family of languages.(110)
+No one could help seeing that these languages were most intimately related
+to each other, and that they differed from Greek and Latin on all points
+on which they agreed among themselves. As early as 1606 we find
+_Guichard_,(111) in his "Harmonie Etymologique," placing Hebrew, Chaldee,
+and Syriac as a class of languages by themselves, and distinguishing
+besides between the Romance and Teutonic dialects.
+
+What prevented, however, for a long time the progress of the science of
+language was the idea that Hebrew was the primitive language of mankind,
+and that, therefore, all languages must be derived from Hebrew. The
+fathers of the Church never expressed any doubt on this point. St. Jerome,
+in one of his epistles to Damasus,(112) writes: "the whole of antiquity
+(universa antiquitas) affirms that Hebrew, in which the Old Testament is
+written, was the beginning of all human speech." Origen, in his eleventh
+Homily on the book of Numbers, expresses his belief that the Hebrew
+language, originally given through Adam, remained in that part of the
+world which was the chosen portion of God, not left like the rest to one
+of His angels.(113) When, therefore, the first attempts at a
+classification of languages were made, the problem, as it presented itself
+to scholars such as Guichard and Thomassin, was this: "As Hebrew is
+undoubtedly the mother of all languages, how are we to explain the process
+by which Hebrew became split into so many dialects, and how can these
+numerous dialects, such as Greek, and Latin, Coptic, Persian, Turkish, be
+traced back to their common source, the Hebrew?"
+
+It is astonishing what an amount of real learning and ingenuity was wasted
+on this question during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It
+finds, perhaps, but one parallel in the laborious calculations and
+constructions of early astronomers, who had to account for the movements
+of the heavenly bodies, always taking it for granted that the earth must
+be the fixed centre of our planetary system. But, although we know now
+that the labors of such scholars as Thomassin were, and could not be
+otherwise than fruitless, it would be a most discouraging view to take of
+the progress of the human race, were we to look upon the exertions of
+eminent men in former ages, though they may have been in a wrong
+direction, as mere vanity and vexation of spirit. We must not forget that
+the very fact of the failure of such men contributed powerfully to a
+general conviction that there must be something wrong in the problem
+itself, till at last a bolder genius inverted the problem and thereby
+solved it. When books after books had been written to show how Greek and
+Latin and all other languages were derived from Hebrew,(114) and when not
+one single system proved satisfactory, people asked at last--"Why then
+_should_ all languages be derived from Hebrew?"--and this very question
+solved the problem. It might have been natural for theologians in the
+fourth and fifth centuries, many of whom knew neither Hebrew nor any
+language except their own, to take it for granted that Hebrew was the
+source of all languages, but there is neither in the Old nor the New
+Testament a single word to necessitate this view. Of the language of Adam
+we know nothing; but if Hebrew, as we know it, was one of the languages
+that sprang from the confusion of tongues at Babel, it could not well have
+been the language of Adam or of the whole earth, "when the whole earth was
+still of one speech."(115)
+
+Although, therefore, a certain advance was made towards a classification
+of languages by the Semitic scholars of the seventeenth century, yet this
+partial advance became in other respects an impediment. The purely
+scientific interest in arranging languages according to their
+characteristic features was lost sight of, and erroneous ideas were
+propagated, the influence of which has even now not quite subsided.
+
+The first who really conquered the prejudice that Hebrew was the source of
+all language was Leibniz, the cotemporary and rival of Newton. "There is
+as much reason," he said, "for supposing Hebrew to have been the primitive
+language of mankind, as there is for adopting the view of Goropius, who
+published a work at Antwerp, in 1580, to prove that Dutch was the language
+spoken in Paradise."(116) In a letter to Tenzel, Leibniz writes: "To call
+Hebrew the primitive language, is like calling branches of a tree
+primitive branches, or like imagining that in some country hewn trunks
+could grow instead of trees. Such ideas may be conceived, but they do not
+agree with the laws of nature, and with the harmony of the universe, that
+is to say with the Divine Wisdom."(117)
+
+But Leibniz did more than remove this one great stumbling-block from the
+threshold of the science of language. He was the first to apply the
+principle of sound inductive reasoning to a subject which before him had
+only been treated at random. He pointed out the necessity of collecting,
+first of all, as large a number of facts as possible.(118) He appealed to
+missionaries, travellers, ambassadors, princes, and emperors, to help him
+in a work which he had so much at heart. The Jesuits in China had to work
+for him. Witsen,(119) the traveller, sent him a most precious present, a
+translation of the Lord's Prayer into the jargon of the Hottentots. "My
+friend," writes Leibniz in thanking him, "remember, I implore you, and
+remind your Muscovite friends, to make researches in order to procure
+specimens of the Scythian languages, the Samoyedes, Siberians, Bashkirs,
+Kalmuks, Tungusians, and others." Having made the acquaintance of Peter
+the Great, Leibniz wrote to him the following letter, dated Vienna,
+October the 26th, 1713:--
+
+"I have suggested that the numerous languages, hitherto almost entirely
+unknown and unstudied, which are current in the empire of your Majesty and
+on its frontiers, should be reduced to writing; also that dictionaries, or
+at least small vocabularies, should be collected, and translations be
+procured in such languages of the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer, the
+Apostolic Symbolum, and other parts of the Catechism, _ut omnis lingua
+laudet Dominum_. This would increase the glory of your Majesty, who reigns
+over so many nations, and is so anxious to improve them; and it would,
+likewise, by means of a comparison of languages, enable us to discover the
+origin of those nations who from Scythia, which is subject to your
+Majesty, advanced into other countries. But principally it would help to
+plant Christianity among the nations speaking those dialects, and I have,
+therefore, addressed the Most Rev. Metropolitan on the same subject."(120)
+
+Leibniz drew up a list of the most simple and necessary terms which should
+be selected for comparison in various languages. At home, while engaged in
+historical researches, he collected whatever could throw light on the
+origin of the German language, and he encouraged others, such as Eccard,
+to do the same. He pointed out the importance of dialects, and even of
+provincial and local terms, for elucidating the etymological structure of
+languages.(121) Leibniz never undertook a systematic classification of the
+whole realm of language, nor was he successful in classing the dialects
+with which he had become acquainted. He distinguished between a Japhetic
+and Aramaic class, the former occupying the north, the latter the south,
+of the continent of Asia and Europe. He believed in a common origin of
+languages, and in a migration of the human race from east to west. But he
+failed to distinguish the exact degrees of relationship in which languages
+stood to each other, and he mixed up some of the Turanian dialects, such
+as Finnish and Tataric, with the Japhetic family of speech. If Leibniz had
+found time to work out all the plans which his fertile and comprehensive
+genius conceived, or if he had been understood and supported by
+cotemporary scholars, the science of language, as one of the inductive
+sciences, might have been established a century earlier. But a man like
+Leibniz, who was equally distinguished as a scholar, a theologian, a
+lawyer, an historian, and a mathematician, could only throw out hints as
+to how language ought to be studied. Leibniz was not only the discoverer
+of the differential calculus. He was one of the first to watch the
+geological stratification of the earth. He was engaged in constructing a
+calculating machine, the idea of which he first conceived as a boy. He
+drew up an elaborate plan of an expedition to Egypt, which he submitted to
+Louis XIV. in order to avert his attention from the frontiers of Germany.
+The same man was engaged in a long correspondence with Bossuet to bring
+about a reconciliation between Protestants and Romanists, and he
+endeavored, in his Theodicée and other works, to defend the cause of truth
+and religion against the inroads of the materialistic philosophy of
+England and France. It has been said, indeed, that the discoveries of
+Leibniz produced but little effect, and that most of them had to be made
+again. This is not the case, however, with regard to the science of
+language. The new interest in languages, which Leibniz had called into
+life, did not die again. After it had once been recognized as a
+desideratum to bring together a complete _Herbarium_ of the languages of
+mankind, missionaries and travellers felt it their duty to collect lists
+of words, and draw up grammars wherever they came in contact with a new
+race. The two great works in which, at the beginning of our century, the
+results of these researches were summed up, I mean the Catalogue of
+Languages by Hervas, and the Mithridates of Adelung, can both be traced
+back directly to the influence of Leibniz. As to Hervas, he had read
+Leibniz carefully, and though he differs from him on some points, he fully
+acknowledges his merits in promoting a truly philosophical study of
+languages. Of Adelung's Mithridates and his obligations to Leibniz we
+shall have to speak presently.
+
+Hervas lived from 1735 to 1809. He was a Spaniard by birth, and a Jesuit
+by profession. While working as a missionary among the Polyglottous tribes
+of America, his attention was drawn to a systematic study of languages.
+After his return, he lived chiefly at Rome in the midst of the numerous
+Jesuit missionaries who had been recalled from all parts of the world, and
+who, by their communications on the dialects of the tribes among whom they
+had been laboring, assisted him greatly in his researches.
+
+Most of his works were written in Italian, and were afterwards translated
+into Spanish. We cannot enter into the general scope of his literary
+labors, which are of the most comprehensive character. They were intended
+to form a kind of Kosmos, for which he chose the title of "_Idea del
+Universo_." What is of interest to us is that portion which treats of man
+and language as part of the universe; and here, again, chiefly his
+Catalogue of Languages, in six volumes, published in Spanish in the year
+1800.
+
+If we compare the work of Hervas with a similar work which excited much
+attention towards the end of the last century, and is even now more widely
+known than Hervas, I mean Court de Gebelin's "Monde Primitif,"(122) we
+shall see at once how far superior the Spanish Jesuit is to the French
+philosopher. Gebelin treats Persian, Armenian, Malay, and Coptic as
+dialects of Hebrew; he speaks of Bask as a dialect of Celtic, and he tries
+to discover Hebrew, Greek, English, and French words in the idioms of
+America. Hervas, on the contrary, though embracing in his catalogue five
+times the number of languages that were known to Gebelin, is most careful
+not to allow himself to be carried away by theories not warranted by the
+evidence before him. It is easy now to point out mistakes and inaccuracies
+in Hervas, but I think that those who have blamed him most are those who
+ought most to have acknowledged their obligations to him. To have
+collected specimens and notices of more than 300 languages is no small
+matter. But Hervas did more. He himself composed grammars of more than
+forty languages.(123) He was the first to point out that the true
+affinities of languages must be determined chiefly by grammatical
+evidence, not by mere similarity of words.(124) He proved, by a
+comparative list of declensions and conjugations, that Hebrew, Chaldee,
+Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic, and Amharic are all but dialects of one original
+language, and constitute one family of speech, the Semitic.(125) He
+scouted the idea of deriving all the languages of mankind from Hebrew. He
+had perceived clear traces of affinity in Hungarian, Lapponian, and
+Finnish, three dialects now classed as members of the Turanian
+family.(126) He had proved that Bask was not, as was commonly supposed, a
+Celtic dialect, but an independent language, spoken by the earliest
+inhabitants of Spain, as proved by the names of the Spanish mountains and
+rivers.(127) Nay, one of the most brilliant discoveries in the history of
+the science of language, the establishment of the Malay and Polynesian
+family of speech, extending from the island of Madagascar east of Africa,
+over 208 degrees of longitude, to the Easter Islands west of America,(128)
+was made by Hervas long before it was announced to the world by Humboldt.
+
+Hervas was likewise aware of the great grammatical similarity between
+Sanskrit and Greek, but the imperfect information which he received from
+his friend, the Carmelite missionary, Fra Paolino de San Bartolomeo, the
+author of the first Sanskrit grammar, published at Rome in 1790, prevented
+him from seeing the full meaning of this grammatical similarity. How near
+Hervas was to the discovery of the truth may be seen from his comparing
+such words as _theos_, God, in Greek, with _Deva_, God, in Sanskrit. He
+identified the Greek auxiliary verb _eimi_, _eis_, _esti_, I am, thou art,
+he is, with the Sanskrit _asmi_, _asi_, _asti_. He even pointed out that
+the terminations of the three genders(129) in Greek, _os_, _e_, _on_, are
+the same as the Sanskrit, _as_, _â_, _am_. But believing, as he did, that
+the Greeks derived their philosophy and mythology from India,(130) he
+supposed that they had likewise borrowed from the Hindus some of their
+words, and even the art of distinguishing the gender of words.
+
+The second work which represents the science of language at the beginning
+of this century, and which is, to a still greater extent, the result of
+the impulse which Leibniz had given, is the Mithridates of Adelung.(131)
+Adelung's work depends partly on Hervas, partly on the collections of
+words which had been made under the auspices of the Russian government.
+Now these collections are clearly due to Leibniz. Although Peter the Great
+had no time or taste for philological studies, the government kept the
+idea of collecting all the languages of the Russian empire steadily in
+view.(132) Still greater luck was in store for the science of language.
+Having been patronized by Cæsar at Rome, it found a still more devoted
+patroness in the great Cesarina of the North, Catherine the Great
+(1762-1796). Even as Grand-duchess Catherine was engrossed with the idea
+of a Universal Dictionary, on the plan suggested by Leibniz. She
+encouraged the chaplain of the British Factory at St. Petersburg, the Rev.
+Daniel Dumaresq, to undertake the work, and he is said to have published,
+at her desire, a "Comparative Vocabulary of Eastern Languages," in quarto;
+a work, however, which, if ever published, is now completely lost. The
+reputed author died in London in 1805, at the advanced age of eighty-four.
+When Catherine came to the throne, her plans of conquest hardly absorbed
+more of her time than her philological studies; and she once shut herself
+up nearly a year, devoting all her time to the compilation of her
+Comparative Dictionary. A letter of hers to Zimmermann, dated the 9th of
+May, 1785, may interest some of my hearers:--
+
+"Your letter," she writes, "has drawn me from the solitude in which I had
+shut myself up for nearly nine months, and from which I found it hard to
+stir. You will not guess what I have been about. I will tell you, for such
+things do not happen every day. I have been making a list of from two to
+three hundred radical words of the Russian language, and I have had them
+translated into as many languages and jargons as I could find. Their
+number exceeds already the second hundred. Every day I took one of these
+words and wrote it out in all the languages which I could collect. This
+has taught me that the Celtic is like the Ostiakian: that what means sky
+in one language means cloud, fog, vault, in others; that the word God in
+certain dialects means Good, the Highest, in others, sun or fire. (Up to
+here her letter is written in French; then follows a line of German.) I
+became tired of my hobby, after I had read your book on Solitude. (Then
+again in French.) But as I should have been sorry to throw such a mass of
+paper in the fire;--besides, the room, six fathoms in length, which I use
+as a boudoir in my hermitage, was pretty well warmed--I asked Professor
+Pallas to come to me, and after making an honest confession of my sin, we
+agreed to publish these collections, and thus make them useful to those
+who like to occupy themselves with the forsaken toys of others. We are
+only waiting for some more dialects of Eastern Siberia. Whether the world
+at large will or will not see in this work bright ideas of different
+kinds, must depend on the disposition of their minds, and does not concern
+me in the least."
+
+If an empress rides a hobby, there are many ready to help her. Not only
+were all Russian ambassadors instructed to collect materials; not only did
+German professors(133) supply grammars and dictionaries, but Washington
+himself, in order to please the empress, sent her list of words to all
+governors and generals of the United States, enjoining them to supply the
+equivalents from the American dialects. The first volume of the Imperial
+Dictionary(134) appeared in 1787, containing a list of 285 words
+translated into fifty-one European, and 149 Asiatic languages. Though full
+credit should be given to the empress for this remarkable undertaking, it
+is but fair to remember that it was the philosopher who, nearly a hundred
+years before, sowed the seed that fell into good ground.
+
+As collections, the works of Hervas, of the Empress Catherine, and of
+Adelung, are highly important, though, such is the progress made in the
+classification of languages during the last fifty years, that few people
+would now consult them. Besides, the principle of classification which is
+followed in these works can hardly claim to be called scientific.
+Languages are arranged geographically, as the languages of Europe, Asia,
+Africa, America, and Polynesia, though, at the same time, natural
+affinities are admitted which would unite dialects spoken at a distance of
+208 degrees. Languages seemed to float about like islands on the ocean of
+human speech; they did not shoot together to form themselves into larger
+continents. This is a most critical period in the history of every
+science, and if it had not been for a happy accident, which, like an
+electric spark, caused the floating elements to crystallize into regular
+forms, it is more than doubtful whether the long list of languages and
+dialects, enumerated and described in the works of Hervas and Adelung,
+could long have sustained the interest of the student of languages. This
+electric spark was the discovery of Sanskrit. Sanskrit is the ancient
+language of the Hindus. It had ceased to be a spoken language at least 300
+B. C. At that time the people of India spoke dialects standing to the
+ancient Vedic Sanskrit in the relation of Italian to Latin. We know some
+of these dialects, for there were more than one in various parts of India,
+from the inscriptions which the famous King Asoka had engraved on the
+rocks of Dhauli, Girnar, and Kapurdigiri, and which have been deciphered
+by Prinsep, Norris, Wilson, and Burnouf. We can watch the further growth
+of these local dialects in the so-called _Pâli_, the sacred language of
+Buddhism in Ceylon, and once the popular dialect of the country where
+Buddhism took its origin, the modern Behár, the ancient Magadha.(135) We
+meet the same local dialects again in what are called the Prâkrit idioms,
+used in the later plays, in the sacred literature of the Jainas, and in a
+few poetical compositions; and we see at last how, through a mixture with
+the languages of the various conquerors of India, the Arabic, Persian,
+Mongolic, and Turkish, and through a concomitant corruption of their
+grammatical system, they were changed into the modern Hindí, Hindustání,
+Mahrattí, and Bengálí. During all this time, however, Sanskrit continued
+as the literary language of the Brahmans. Like Latin, it did not die in
+giving birth to its numerous offspring; and even at the present day, an
+educated Brahman would write with greater fluency in Sanskrit than in
+Bengálí. Sanskrit was what Greek was at Alexandria, what Latin was during
+the Middle Ages. It was the classical and at the same time the sacred
+language of the Brahmans, and in it were written their sacred hymns, the
+Vedas, and the later works, such as the laws of Manu and the Purânas.
+
+The existence of such a language as the ancient idiom of the country, and
+the vehicle of a large literature, was known at all times; and if there
+are still any doubts, like those expressed by Dugald Stewart in his
+"Conjectures concerning the Origin of the Sanskrit,"(136) as to its age
+and authenticity, they will be best removed by a glance at the history of
+India, and at the accounts given by the writers of different nations that
+became successively acquainted with the language and literature of that
+country.
+
+The argument that nearly all the names of persons and places in India
+mentioned by Greek and Roman writers are pure Sanskrit, has been handled
+so fully and ably by others, that nothing more remains to be said.
+
+The next nation after the Greeks that became acquainted with the language
+and literature of India was the Chinese. Though Buddhism was not
+recognized as a third state-religion before the year 65 A. D., under the
+Emperor Ming-ti,(137) Buddhist missionaries reached China from India as
+early as the third century B. C. One Buddhist missionary is mentioned in
+the Chinese annals in the year 217; and about the year 120 B. C., a
+Chinese general, after defeating the barbarous tribes north of the desert
+of Gobi, brought back as a trophy a golden statue, the statue of Buddha.
+The very name of Buddha, changed in Chinese into Fo-t'o and Fo,(138) is
+pure Sanskrit, and so is every word and every thought of that religion.
+The language which the Chinese pilgrims went to India to study, as the key
+to the sacred literature of Buddhism, was Sanskrit. They call it Fan; but
+Fan, as M. Stanislas Julien has shown, is an abbreviation of Fan-lan-mo,
+and this is the only way in which the Sanskrit Brahman could be rendered
+in Chinese.(139) We read of the Emperor Ming-ti, of the dynasty of Han,
+sending Tsaï-in and other high officials to India, in order to study there
+the doctrine of Buddha. They engaged the services of two learned
+Buddhists, Matânga and Tchou-fa-lan, and some of the most important
+Buddhist works were translated by them into Chinese. The intellectual
+intercourse between the Indian peninsula and the northern continent of
+Asia continued uninterrupted for several centuries. Missions were sent
+from China to India to report on the religious, political, social, and
+geographical state of the country; and the chief object of interest, which
+attracted public embassies and private pilgrims across the Himalayan
+mountains, was the religion of Buddha. About 300 years after the public
+recognition of Buddhism by the Emperor Ming-ti, the great stream of
+Buddhist pilgrims began to flow from China to India. The first account
+which we possess of these pilgrimages refers to the travels of Fa-hian,
+who visited India towards the end of the fourth century. His travels were
+translated into French by A. Remusat. After Fa-hian, we have the travels
+of Hoei-seng and Song-yun, who were sent to India, in 518, by command of
+the empress, with the view of collecting sacred books and relics. Then
+followed Hiouen-thsang, whose life and travels, from 629-645, have been
+rendered so popular by the excellent translation of M. Stanislas Julien.
+After Hiouen-thsang the principal works of Chinese pilgrims are the
+Itineraries of the Fifty-six Monks, published in 730, and the travels of
+Khi-nie, who visited India in 964, at the head of 300 pilgrims.
+
+That the language employed for literary purposes in India during all this
+time was Sanskrit, we learn, not only from the numerous names and
+religious and philosophical terms mentioned in the travels of the Chinese
+pilgrims, but from a short paradigm of declension and conjugation in
+Sanskrit which one of them (Hiouen-thsang) has inserted in his diary.
+
+As soon as the Muhammedans entered India, we hear of translations of
+Sanskrit works into Persian and Arabic.(140) Harun-al-Rashid (786-809) had
+two Indians, Manka and Saleh, at his court as physicians. Manka translated
+the classical work on medicine, Susruta, and a treatise on poisons,
+ascribed to Chânakya, from Sanskrit into Persian.(141) During the
+Chalifate of Al Mámúm, a famous treatise on Algebra was translated by
+Muhammed ben Musa from Sanskrit into Arabic (edited by F. Rosen).
+
+About 1000 A. D., Abu Rihan al Birúni (born 970, died 1038) spent forty
+years in India, and composed his excellent work, the Taríkhu-l-Hind, which
+gives a complete account of the literature and sciences of the Hindus at
+that time. Al Birúni had been appointed by the Sultan of Khawarazm to
+accompany an embassy which he sent to Mahmud of Ghazni and Masud of
+Lahore. The learned Avicenna had been invited to join the same embassy,
+but had declined. Al Birúni must have acquired a complete knowledge of
+Sanskrit, for he not only translated one work on the Sânkhya, and another
+on the Yoga philosophy, from Sanskrit into Arabic, but likewise two works
+from Arabic into Sanskrit.(142)
+
+About 1150 we hear of Abu Saleh translating a work on the education of
+kings from Sanskrit into Arabic.(143)
+
+Two hundred years later, we are told that Firoz Shah, after the capture of
+Nagarcote, ordered several Sanskrit works on philosophy to be translated
+from Sanskrit by Maulána Izzu-d-din Khalid Khani. A work on veterinary
+medicine ascribed to Sálotar,(144) said to have been the tutor of Susruta,
+was likewise translated from Sanskrit in the year 1381. A copy of it was
+preserved in the Royal Library of Lucknow.
+
+Two hundred years more bring us to the reign of Akbar (1556-1605). A more
+extraordinary man never sat on the throne of India. Brought up as a
+Muhammedan, he discarded the religion of the Prophet as
+superstitious,(145) and then devoted himself to a search after the true
+religion. He called Brahmans and fire-worshippers to his court, and
+ordered them to discuss in his presence the merits of their religions with
+the Muhammedan doctors. When he heard of the Jesuits at Goa, he invited
+them to his capital, and he was for many years looked upon as a secret
+convert to Christianity. He was, however, a rationalist and deist, and
+never believed anything, as he declared himself, that he could not
+understand. The religion which he founded, the so-called Ilahi religion,
+was pure Deism mixed up with the worship of the sun(146) as the purest and
+highest emblem of the Deity. Though Akbar himself could neither read nor
+write,(147) his court was the home of literary men of all persuasions.
+Whatever book, in any language, promised to throw light on the problems
+nearest to the emperor's heart, he ordered to be translated into Persian.
+The New Testament(148) was thus translated at his command; so were the
+Mahâbhârata, the Râmâyana, the Amarakosha,(149) and other classical works
+of Sanskrit literature. But though the emperor set the greatest value on
+the sacred writings of different nations, he does not seem to have
+succeeded in extorting from the Brahmans a translation of the Veda. A
+translation of the Atharva-veda(150) was made for him by Haji Ibrahim
+Sirhindi; but that Veda never enjoyed the same authority as the other
+three Vedas; and it is doubtful even whether by Atharva-veda is meant more
+than the Upanishads, some of which may have been composed for the special
+benefit of Akbar. There is a story which, though evidently of a legendary
+character, shows how the study of Sanskrit was kept up by the Brahmans
+during the reign of the Mogul emperors.
+
+"Neither the authority (it is said) nor promises of Akbar could prevail
+upon the Brahmans to disclose the tenets of their religion: he was
+therefore obliged to have recourse to artifice. The stratagem he made use
+of was to cause an infant, of the name of _Feizi_, to be committed to the
+care of these priests, as a poor orphan of the sacerdotal line, who alone
+could be initiated into the sacred rites of their theology. Feizi, having
+received the proper instructions for the part he was to act, was conveyed
+privately to Benares, the seat of knowledge in Hindostan; he was received
+into the house of a learned Brahman, who educated him with the same care
+as if he had been his son. After the youth had spent ten years in study,
+Akbar was desirous of recalling him; but he was struck with the charms of
+the daughter of his preceptor. The old Brahman laid no restraint on the
+growing passion of the two lovers. He was fond of Feizi, and offered him
+his daughter in marriage. The young man, divided between love and
+gratitude, resolved to conceal the fraud no longer, and, falling at the
+feet of the Brahman, discovered the imposture, and asked pardon for his
+offences. The priest, without reproaching him, seized a poniard which hung
+at his girdle, and was going to plunge it in his heart, if Feizi had not
+prevented him by taking hold of his arm. The young man used every means to
+pacify him, and declared himself ready to do anything to expiate his
+treachery. The Brahman, bursting into tears, promised to pardon him on
+condition that he should swear never to translate the _Vedas_, or sacred
+volumes, or disclose to any person whatever the symbol of the Brahman
+creed. Feizi readily promised him: how far he kept his word is not known;
+but the sacred books of the Indians have never been translated."(151)
+
+We have thus traced the existence of Sanskrit, as the language of
+literature and religion of India, from the time of Alexander to the reign
+of Akbar. A hundred years after Akbar, the eldest son of Shah Jehan, the
+unfortunate Dárá, manifested the same interest in religious speculations
+which had distinguished his great grandsire. He became a student of
+Sanskrit, and translated the Upanishads, philosophical treatises appended
+to the Vedas, into Persian. This was in the year 1657, a year before he
+was put to death by his younger brother, the bigoted Aurengzebe. This
+prince's translation was translated into French by Anquetil Duperron, in
+the year 1795, the fourth year of the French Republic; and was for a long
+time the principal source from which European scholars derived their
+knowledge of the sacred literature of the Brahmans.
+
+At the time at which we have now arrived, the reign of Aurengzebe
+(1658-1707), the cotemporary and rival of Louis XIV., the existence of
+Sanskrit and Sanskrit literature was known, if not in Europe generally, at
+least to Europeans in India, particularly to missionaries. Who was the
+first European, that knew of Sanskrit, or that acquired a knowledge of
+Sanskrit, is difficult to say. When Vasco de Gama landed at Calicut, on
+the 9th of May, 1498, Padre Pedro began at once to preach to the natives,
+and had suffered a martyr's death before the discoverer of India returned
+to Lisbon. Every new ship that reached India brought new missionaries; but
+for a long time we look in vain in their letters and reports for any
+mention of Sanskrit or Sanskrit literature. Francis, now St. Francis
+Xavier, was the first to organize the great work of preaching the Gospel
+in India (1542); and such were his zeal and devotion, such his success in
+winning the hearts of high and low, that his friends ascribed to him,
+among other miraculous gifts, the gift of tongues(152)--a gift never
+claimed by St. Francis himself. It is not, however, till the year 1559
+that we first hear of the missionaries at Goa studying, with the help of a
+converted Brahman,(153) the theological and philosophical literature of
+the country, and challenging the Brahmans to public disputations.
+
+The first certain instance of a European missionary having mastered the
+difficulties of the Sanskrit language, belongs to a still later period,--to
+what may be called the period of Roberto de Nobili, as distinguished from
+the first period, which is under the presiding spirit of Francis Xavier.
+Roberto de Nobili went to India in 1606. He was himself a man of high
+family, of a refined and cultivated mind, and he perceived the more
+quickly the difficulties which kept the higher castes, and particularly
+the Brahmans, from joining the Christian communities formed at Madura and
+other places. These communities consisted chiefly of men of low rank, of
+no education, and no refinement. He conceived the bold plan of presenting
+himself as a Brahman, and thus obtaining access to the high and noble, the
+wise and learned, in the land. He shut himself up for years, acquiring in
+secret a knowledge, not only of Tamil and Telugu, but of Sanskrit. When,
+after a patient study of the language and literature of the Brahmans, he
+felt himself strong enough to grapple with his antagonists, he showed
+himself in public, dressed in the proper garb of the Brahmans, wearing
+their cord and their frontal mark, observing their diet, and submitting
+even to the complicated rules of caste. He was successful, in spite of the
+persecutions both of the Brahmans, who were afraid of him, and of his own
+fellow-laborers, who could not understand his policy. His life in India,
+where he died as an old blind man, is full of interest to the missionary.
+I can only speak of him here as the first European Sanskrit scholar. A man
+who could quote from Manu, from the Purânas, and even from works such as
+the Âpastamba-sûtras, which are known even at present to only those few
+Sanskrit scholars who can read Sanskrit MSS., must have been far advanced
+in a knowledge of the sacred language and literature of the Brahmans; and
+the very idea that he came, as he said, to preach a new or a fourth
+Veda,(154) which had been lost, shows how well he knew the strong and weak
+points of the theological system which he came to conquer. It is
+surprising that the reports which he sent to Rome, in order to defend
+himself against the charge of idolatry, and in which he drew a faithful
+picture of the religion, the customs, and literature of the Brahmans,
+should not have attracted the attention of scholars. The "Accommodation
+Question," as it was called, occupied cardinals and popes for many years;
+but not one of them seems to have perceived the extraordinary interest
+attaching to the existence of an ancient civilization so perfect and so
+firmly rooted as to require accommodation even from the missionaries of
+Rome. At a time when the discovery of one Greek MS. would have been hailed
+by all the scholars of Europe, the discovery of a complete literature was
+allowed to pass unnoticed. The day of Sanskrit had not yet come.
+
+The first missionaries who succeeded in rousing the attention of European
+scholars to the extraordinary discovery that had been made were the French
+Jesuit missionaries, whom Louis XIV. had sent out to India after the
+treaty of Ryswick, in 1697.(155) Father Pons drew up a comprehensive
+account of the literary treasures of the Brahmans; and his report, dated
+Karikal (dans le Maduré), November 23, 1740, and addressed to Father
+Duhalde, was published in the "Lettres édifiantes."(156) Father Pons gives
+in it a most interesting and, in general, a very accurate description of
+the various branches of Sanskrit literature,--of the four Vedas, the
+grammatical treatises, the six systems of philosophy, and the astronomy of
+the Hindus. He anticipated, on several points, the researches of Sir
+William Jones.
+
+But, although the letter of Father Pons excited a deep interest, that
+interest remained necessarily barren, as long as there were no grammars,
+dictionaries, and Sanskrit texts to enable scholars in Europe to study
+Sanskrit in the same spirit in which they studied Greek and Latin. The
+first who endeavored to supply this want was a Carmelite friar, a German
+of the name of Johann Philip Wesdin, better known as Paulinus a Santo
+Bartholomeo. He was in India from 1776 to 1789; and he published the first
+grammar of Sanskrit at Rome, in 1790. Although this grammar has been
+severely criticised, and is now hardly ever consulted, it is but fair to
+bear in mind that the first grammar of any language is a work of
+infinitely greater difficulty than any later grammar.(157)
+
+We have thus seen how the existence of the Sanskrit language and
+literature was known ever since India had first been discovered by
+Alexander and his companions. But what was not known was, that this
+language, as it was spoken at the time of Alexander, and at the time of
+Solomon, and for centuries before his time, was intimately related to
+Greek and Latin, in fact, stood to them in the same relation as French to
+Italian and Spanish. The history of what may be called European Sanskrit
+philology dates from the foundation of the Asiatic Society at Calcutta, in
+1784.(158) It was through the labors of Sir William Jones, Carey, Wilkins,
+Forster, Colebrooke, and other members of that illustrious Society, that
+the language and literature of the Brahmans became first accessible to
+European scholars; and it would be difficult to say which of the two, the
+language or the literature, excited the deepest and most lasting interest.
+It was impossible to look, even in the most cursory manner, at the
+declensions and conjugations, without being struck by the extraordinary
+similarity, or, in some cases, by the absolute identity of the grammatical
+forms in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. As early as 1778, Halhed remarked, in
+the preface to his Grammar of Bengalí,(159) "I have been astonished to
+find this similitude of Sanskrit words with those of Persian and Arabic,
+and even of Latin and Greek; and these not in technical and metaphorical
+terms, which the mutuation of refined arts and improved manners might have
+occasionally introduced; but in the main groundwork of language, in
+monosyllables, in the names of numbers, and the appellations of such
+things as could be first discriminated on the immediate dawn of
+civilization." Sir William Jones (died 1794), after the first glance at
+Sanskrit, declared that whatever its antiquity, it was a language of most
+wonderful structure, more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the
+Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of
+them a strong affinity. "No philologer," he writes, "could examine the
+Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, without believing them to have sprung from
+some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists. There is a similar
+reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic
+and Celtic had the same origin with the Sanskrit. The old Persian may be
+added to the same family."
+
+But how was that affinity to be explained? People were completely taken by
+surprise. Theologians shook their heads; classical scholars looked
+sceptical; philosophers indulged in the wildest conjectures in order to
+escape from the only possible conclusion which could be drawn from the
+facts placed before them, but which threatened to upset their little
+systems of the history of the world. Lord Monboddo had just finished his
+great work(160) in which he derives all mankind from a couple of apes, and
+all the dialects of the world from a language originally framed by some
+Egyptian gods,(161) when the discovery of Sanskrit came on him like a
+thunder-bolt. It must be said, however, to his credit, that he at once
+perceived the immense importance of the discovery. He could not be
+expected to sacrifice his primæval monkeys or his Egyptian idols; but,
+with that reservation, the conclusions which he drew from the new evidence
+placed before him by his friend Mr. Wilkins, the author of one of our
+first Sanskrit grammars, are highly creditable to the acuteness of the
+Scotch judge. "There is a language," he writes(162) (in 1792), "still
+existing, and preserved among the Bramins of India, which is a richer and
+in every respect a finer language than even the Greek of Homer. All the
+other languages of India have a great resemblance to this language, which
+is called the Shanscrit. But those languages are dialects of it, and
+formed from it, not the Shanscrit from them. Of this, and other
+particulars concerning this language, I have got such certain information
+from India, that if I live to finish my history of man, which I have begun
+in my third volume of 'Antient Metaphysics,' I shall be able clearly to
+prove that the Greek is derived from the Shanscrit, which was the antient
+language of Egypt, and was carried by the Egyptians into India, with their
+other arts, and into Greece by the colonies which they settled there."
+
+A few years later (1795) he had arrived at more definite views on the
+relation of Sanskrit to Greek; and he writes,(163) "Mr. Wilkins has proved
+to my conviction such a resemblance betwixt the Greek and the Shanscrit,
+that the one must be a dialect of the other, or both of some original
+language. Now the Greek is certainly not a dialect of the Shanscrit, any
+more than the Shanscrit is of the Greek. They must, therefore, be both
+dialects of the same language; and that language could be no other than
+the language of Egypt, brought into India by Osiris, of which,
+undoubtedly, the Greek was a dialect, as I think I have proved."
+
+Into these theories of Lord Monboddo's on Egypt and Osiris, we need not
+inquire at present. But it may be of interest to give one other extract,
+in order to show how well, apart from his men with, and his monkeys
+without, tails, Lord Monboddo could sift and handle the evidence that was
+placed before him:--
+
+"To apply these observations to the similarities which Mr. Wilkins has
+discovered betwixt the Shanscrit and the Greek;--I will begin with these
+words, which must have been original words in all languages, as the things
+denoted by them must have been known in the first ages of civility, and
+have got names; so that it is impossible that one language could have
+borrowed them from another, unless it was a derivative or dialect of that
+language. Of this kind are the names of numbers, of the members of the
+human body, and of relations, such as that of father, mother, and brother.
+And first, as to numbers, the use of which must have been coeval with
+civil society. The words in the Shanscrit for the numbers from one to ten
+are, _ek_, _dwee_, _tree_, _chatoor_, _panch_, _shat_, _sapt_, _aght_,
+_nava_, _das_, which certainly have an affinity to the Greek or Latin
+names for those numbers. Then they proceed towards twenty, saying ten and
+one, ten and two, and so forth, till they come to twenty; for their
+arithmetic is decimal as well as ours. Twenty they express by the word
+_veensatee_. Then they go on till they come to thirty, which they express
+by the word _treensat_, of which the word expressing three is part of the
+composition, as well as it is of the Greek and Latin names for those
+numbers. And in like manner they go on expressing forty, fifty, &c., by a
+like composition with the words expressing simple numerals, namely, four,
+five, &c., till they come to the number one hundred, which they express by
+_sat_, a word different from either the Greek or Latin name for that
+number. But, in this numeration, there is a very remarkable conformity
+betwixt the word in Shanscrit expressing twenty or twice ten, and the
+words in Greek and Latin expressing the same number; for in none of the
+three languages has the word any relation to the number two, which, by
+multiplying ten, makes twenty; such as the words expressing the numbers
+thirty, forty, &c., have to the words expressing three or four; for in
+Greek the word is _eikosi_, which expresses no relation to the number two;
+nor does the Latin _viginti_, but which appears to have more resemblance
+to the Shanscrit word _veensatee_. And thus it appears that in the
+anomalies of the two languages of Greek and Latin, there appears to be
+some conformity with the Shanscrit."
+
+Lord Monboddo compares the Sanskrit _pada_ with the Greek _pous_, _podos_;
+the Sanskrit _nâsa_ with the Latin _nasus_; the Sanskrit _deva_, god, with
+the Greek _Theos_ and Latin _deus_; the Sanskrit _ap_, water, with the
+Latin _aqua_; the Sanskrit _vidhavâ_ with the Latin _vidua_, widow.
+Sanskrit words such as _gonia_, for angle, _kentra_, for centre, _hora_,
+for hour, he points out as clearly of Greek origin, and imported into
+Sanskrit. He then proceeds to show the grammatical coincidences between
+Sanskrit and the classical languages. He dwells on compounds such as
+_tripada_, from _tri_, three, and _pada_, foot--a tripod; he remarks on the
+extraordinary fact that Sanskrit, like Greek, changes a positive into a
+negative adjective by the addition of the _a_ privative; and he then
+produces what he seems to consider as the most valuable present that Mr.
+Wilkins could have given him, namely, the Sanskrit forms, _asmi_, I am;
+_asi_, thou art; _asti_, he is; _santi_, they are; forms clearly of the
+same origin as the corresponding forms, _esmi_, _eis_, _esti_, in Greek,
+and _sunt_ in Latin.
+
+Another Scotch philosopher, Dugald Stewart, was much less inclined to
+yield such ready submission. No doubt it must have required a considerable
+effort for a man brought up in the belief that Greek and Latin were either
+aboriginal languages, or modifications of Hebrew, to bring himself to
+acquiesce in the revolutionary doctrine that the classical languages were
+intimately related to a jargon of mere savages; for such all the subjects
+of the Great Mogul were then supposed to be. However, if the facts about
+Sanskrit were true, Dugald Stewart was too wise not to see that the
+conclusions drawn from them were inevitable. He therefore denied the
+reality of such a language as Sanskrit altogether, and wrote his famous
+essay to prove that Sanskrit had been put together, after the model of
+Greek and Latin, by those arch-forgers and liars the Brahmans, and that
+the whole of Sanskrit literature was an imposition. I mention this fact,
+because it shows, better than anything else, how violent a shock was given
+by the discovery of Sanskrit to prejudices most deeply ingrained in the
+mind of every educated man. The most absurd arguments found favor for a
+time, if they could only furnish a loophole by which to escape from the
+unpleasant conclusion that Greek and Latin were of the same kith and kin
+as the language of the black inhabitants of India. The first who dared
+boldly to face both the facts and the conclusions of Sanskrit scholarship
+was the German poet, Frederick Schlegel. He had been in England during the
+peace of Amiens (1801-1802), and had learned a smattering of Sanskrit from
+Mr. Alexander Hamilton. After carrying on his studies for some time at
+Paris, he published, in 1808, his work, "On the Language and Wisdom of the
+Indians." This work became the foundation of the science of language.
+Though published only two years after the first volume of Adelung's
+"Mithridates," it is separated from that work by the same distance which
+separates the Copernican from the Ptolemæan system. Schlegel was not a
+great scholar. Many of his statements have proved erroneous; and nothing
+would be easier than to dissect his essay and hold it up to ridicule. But
+Schlegel was a man of genius; and when a new science is to be created, the
+imagination of the poet is wanted, even more than the accuracy of the
+scholar. It surely required somewhat of poetic vision to embrace with
+_one_ glance the languages of India, Persia, Greece, Italy, and Germany,
+and to rivet them together by the simple name of Indo-Germanic. This was
+Schlegel's work; and in the history of the intellect, it has truly been
+called "the discovery of a new world."
+
+We shall see, in our next lecture, how Schlegel's idea was taken up in
+Germany, and how it led almost immediately to a genealogical
+classification of the principal languages of mankind.
+
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE V. GENEALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES.
+
+
+We traced, in our last Lecture, the history of the various attempts at a
+classification of languages to the year 1808, the year in which Frederick
+Schlegel published his little work on "The Language and Wisdom of the
+Indians." This work was like the wand of a magician. It pointed out the
+place where a mine should be opened; and it was not long before some of
+the most distinguished scholars of the day began to sink their shafts, and
+raise the ore. For a time, everybody who wished to learn Sanskrit had to
+come to England. Bopp, Schlegel, Lassen, Rosen, Burnouf, all spent some
+time in this country, copying manuscripts at the East-India House, and
+receiving assistance from Wilkins, Colebrooke, Wilson, and other
+distinguished members of the old Indian Civil Service. The first minute
+and scholar-like comparison of the grammar of Sanskrit with that of Greek
+and Latin, Persian, and German, was made by Francis Bopp, in 1816.(164)
+Other essays of his followed; and in 1833 appeared the first volume of his
+"Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian,
+Slavonic, Gothic, and German." This work was not finished till nearly
+twenty years later, in 1852;(165) but it will form forever the safe and
+solid foundation of comparative philology. August Wilhelm von Schlegel,
+the brother of Frederick Schlegel, used the influence which he had
+acquired as a German poet, to popularize the study of Sanskrit in Germany.
+His "Indische Bibliothek" was published from 1819 to 1830, and though
+chiefly intended for Sanskrit literature, it likewise contained several
+articles on Comparative Philology. This new science soon found a still
+more powerful patron in William von Humboldt, the worthy brother of
+Alexander von Humboldt, and at that time one of the leading statesmen in
+Prussia. His essays, chiefly on the philosophy of language, attracted
+general attention during his lifetime; and he left a lasting monument of
+his studies in his great work on the Kawi language, which was published
+after his death, in 1836. Another scholar who must be reckoned among the
+founders of Comparative Philology is Professor Pott, whose "Etymological
+Researches" appeared first in 1833 and 1836.(166) More special in its
+purpose, but based on the same general principles, was Grimm's "Teutonic
+Grammar," a work which has truly been called colossal. Its publication
+occupied nearly twenty years, from 1819 to 1837. We ought, likewise, to
+mention here the name of an eminent Dane, Erasmus Rask, who devoted
+himself to the study of the northern languages of Europe. He started, in
+1816, for Persia and India, and was the first to acquire a knowledge of
+Zend, the language of the Zend-Avesta; but he died before he had time to
+publish all the results of his learned researches. He had proved, however,
+that the sacred language of the Parsis was closely connected with the
+sacred language of the Brahmans, and that, like Sanskrit, it had preserved
+some of the earliest formations of Indo-European speech. These researches
+into the ancient Persian language were taken up again by one of the
+greatest scholars that France ever produced, by Eugène Burnouf. Though the
+works of Zoroaster had been translated before by Anquetil Duperron, his
+was only a translation of a modern Persian translation of the original. It
+was Burnouf who, by means of his knowledge of Sanskrit and Comparative
+Grammar, deciphered for the first time the very words of the founder of
+the ancient religion of light. He was, likewise, the first to apply the
+same key with real success to the cuneiform inscriptions of Darius and
+Xerxes; and his premature death will long be mourned, not only by those
+who, like myself, had the privilege of knowing him personally and
+attending his lectures, but by all who have the interest of oriental
+literature and of real oriental scholarship at heart.
+
+I cannot give here a list of all the scholars who followed in the track of
+Bopp, Schlegel, Humboldt, Grimm, and Burnouf. How the science of language
+has flourished and abounded may best be seen in the library of any
+comparative philologist. There has been for the last ten years a special
+journal of Comparative Philology in Germany. The Philological Society in
+London publishes every year a valuable volume of its transactions; and in
+almost every continental university there is a professor of Sanskrit who
+lectures likewise on Comparative Grammar and the science of language.
+
+But why, it may naturally be asked, why should the discovery of Sanskrit
+have wrought so complete a change in the classificatory study of
+languages? If Sanskrit had been the primitive language of mankind, or at
+least the parent of Greek, Latin, and German, we might understand that it
+should have led to quite a new classification of these tongues. But
+Sanskrit does not stand to Greek, Latin, the Teutonic, Celtic, and
+Slavonic languages in the relation of Latin to French, Italian, and
+Spanish. Sanskrit, as we saw before, could not be called their parent, but
+only their elder sister. It occupies with regard to the classical
+languages a position analogous to that which Provençal occupies with
+regard to the modern Romance dialects. This is perfectly true; but it was
+exactly this necessity of determining distinctly and accurately the mutual
+relation of Sanskrit and the other members of the same family of speech,
+which led to such important results, and particularly to the establishment
+of the laws of phonetic change as the only safe means for measuring the
+various degrees of relationship of cognate dialects, and thus restoring
+the genealogical tree of human speech. When Sanskrit had once assumed its
+right position, when people had once become familiarized with the idea
+that there must have existed a language more primitive than Greek, Latin,
+and Sanskrit, and forming the common background of these three, as well as
+of the Teutonic, Celtic, and Slavonic branches of speech, all languages
+seemed to fall by themselves into their right position. The key of the
+puzzle was found, and all the rest was merely a work of patience. The same
+arguments by which Sanskrit and Greek had been proved to hold co-ordinate
+rank were perceived to apply with equal strength to Latin and Greek; and
+after Latin had once been shown to be more primitive on many points than
+Greek, it was easy to see that the Teutonic, the Celtic, and the Slavonic
+languages also, contained each a number of formations which it was
+impossible to derive from Sanskrit, Greek, or Latin. It was perceived that
+all had to be treated as co-ordinate members of one and the same class.
+
+The first great step in advance, therefore, which was made in the
+classification of languages, chiefly through the discovery of Sanskrit,
+was this, that scholars were no longer satisfied with the idea of a
+general relationship, but began to inquire for the different degrees of
+relationship in which each member of a class stood to another. Instead of
+mere _classes_, we hear now for the first time of well regulated
+_families_ of language.
+
+A second step in advance followed naturally from the first. Whereas, for
+establishing in a general way the common origin of certain languages, a
+comparison of numerals, pronouns, prepositions, adverbs, and the most
+essential nouns and verbs, had been sufficient, it was soon found that a
+more accurate standard was required for measuring the more minute degrees
+of relationship. Such a standard was supplied by Comparative Grammar; that
+is to say, by an intercomparison of the grammatical forms of languages
+supposed to be related to each other; such intercomparison being carried
+out according to certain laws which regulate the phonetic changes of
+letters.
+
+A glance at the modern history of language will make this clearer. There
+could never be any doubt that the so-called Romance languages, Italian,
+Wallachian, Provençal, French, Spanish, and Portuguese, were closely
+related to each other. Everybody could see that they were all derived from
+Latin. But one of the most distinguished French scholars, Raynouard, who
+has done more for the history of the Romance languages and literature than
+any one else, maintained that Provençal only was the daughter of Latin;
+whereas French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese were the daughters of
+Provençal. He maintained that Latin passed, from the seventh to the ninth
+century, through an intermediate stage, which he called Langue Romane, and
+which he endeavored to prove was the same as the Provençal of Southern
+France, the language of the Troubadours. According to him, it was only
+after Latin had passed through this uniform metamorphosis, represented by
+the Langue Romane or Provençal, that it became broken up into the various
+Romance dialects of Italy, France, Spain, and Portugal. This theory, which
+was vigorously attacked by August Wilhelm von Schlegel, and afterwards
+minutely criticised by Sir Cornewall Lewis, can only be refuted by a
+comparison of the Provençal grammar with that of the other Romance
+dialects. And here, if you take the auxiliary verb _to be_, and compare
+its forms in Provençal and French, you will see at once that, on several
+points, French has preserved the original Latin forms in a more primitive
+state than Provençal, and that, therefore, it is impossible to classify
+French as the daughter of Provençal, and as the granddaughter of Latin. We
+have in Provençal:--
+
+_sem_, corresponding to the French _nous sommes_,
+_etz_, corresponding to the French _vous êtes_,
+_son_, corresponding to the French _ils sont_,
+
+and it would be a grammatical miracle if crippled forms, such as _sem_,
+_etz_, and _son_, had been changed back again into the more healthy, more
+primitive, more Latin, _sommes_, _êtes_, _sont_; _sumus_, _estis_, _sunt_.
+
+Let us apply the same test to Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin; and we shall see
+how their mutual genealogical position is equally determined by a
+comparison of their grammatical forms. It is as impossible to derive Latin
+from Greek, or Greek from Sanskrit, as it is to treat French as a
+modification of Provençal. Keeping to the auxiliary verb _to be_, we find
+that _I am_ is in
+
+Sanskrit          Greek             Lithuanian
+_asmi_            _esmi_            _esmi_.
+
+The root is _as_, the termination _mi_.
+
+Now, the termination of the second person is _si_, which, together with
+_as_, or _es_, would make,
+
+_as-si_           _es-si_           _es-si_.
+
+But here Sanskrit, as far back as its history can be traced, has reduced
+_assi_ to _asi_; and it would be impossible to suppose that the perfect,
+or, as they are sometimes called, organic, forms in Greek and Lithuanian,
+_es-si_, could first have passed through the mutilated state of the
+Sanskrit _asi_.
+
+The third person is the same in Sanskrit, Greek, and Lithuanian, _as-ti_
+or _es-ti_; and, with the loss of the final _i_, we recognize the Latin
+_est_, Gothic _ist_, and Russian _est'_.
+
+The same auxiliary verb can be made to furnish sufficient proof that Latin
+never could have passed through the Greek, or what used to be called the
+Pelasgic stage, but that both are independent modifications of the same
+original language. In the singular, Latin is less primitive than Greek;
+for _sum_ stands for _es-um_, _es_ for _es-is_, _est_ for _es-ti_. In the
+first person plural, too, _sumus_ stands for _es-umus_, the Greek
+_es-mes_, the Sanskrit _'smas_. The second person _es-tis_, is equal to
+Greek _es-te_, and more primitive than Sanskrit _stha_. But in the third
+person plural Latin is more primitive than Greek. The regular form would
+be _as-anti_; this, in Sanskrit, is changed into _santi_. In Greek, the
+initial _s_ is dropped, and the Æolic _enti_, is finally reduced to
+_eisi_. The Latin, on the contrary, has kept the radical _s_, and it would
+be perfectly impossible to derive the Latin _sunt_ from the Greek _eisi_.
+
+I need hardly say that the modern English, _I am_, _thou art_, _he is_,
+are only secondary modifications of the same primitive verb. We find in
+Gothic--
+
+_im_ for _ism_
+_is_ for _iss_
+_ist_.
+
+The Anglo-Saxon changes the _s_ into _r_, thus giving--
+
+_eom_ for _eorm_,  plural  _sind_ for _isind_.
+_eart_ for _ears_, plural _sind_
+_is_ for _ist_, plural _sind_
+
+By applying this test to all languages, the founders of comparative
+philology soon reduced the principal dialects of Europe and Asia to
+certain families, and they were able in each family to distinguish
+different branches, each consisting again of numerous dialects, both
+ancient and modern.
+
+There are many languages, however, which as yet have not been reduced to
+families, and though there is no reason to doubt that some of them will
+hereafter be comprehended in a system of genealogical classification, it
+is right to guard from the beginning against the common, but altogether
+gratuitous supposition, that the principle of genealogical classification
+must be applicable to all. Genealogical classification is no doubt the
+most perfect of all classifications, but there are but few branches of
+physical science in which it can be carried out, except very partially. In
+the science of language, genealogical classification must rest chiefly on
+the formal or grammatical elements, which, after they have been affected
+by phonetic change, can be kept up only by a continuous tradition. We know
+that French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese must be derived from a
+common source, because they share grammatical forms in common, which none
+of these dialects could have supplied from their own resources, and which
+have no meaning, or, so to say, no life, in any one of them. The
+termination of the imperfect _ba_ in Spanish, _va_ in Italian, by which
+_canto_, I sing, is changed into _cantaba_ and _cantava_, has no separate
+existence, and no independent meaning in either of these modern dialects.
+It could not have been formed with the materials supplied by Spanish and
+Italian. It must have been handed down from an earlier generation in which
+this _ba_ had a meaning. We trace it back to Latin _bam_, in _cantabam_,
+and here it can be proved that _bam_ was originally an independent
+auxiliary verb, the same which exists in Sanskrit _bhavâmi_, and in the
+Anglo-Saxon _beom_, I am. Genealogical classification, therefore, applies
+properly only to decaying languages, to languages in which grammatical
+growth has been arrested, through the influence of literary cultivation;
+in which little new is added, everything old is retained as long as
+possible, and where what we call growth or history is nothing but the
+progress of phonetic corruption. But before languages decay, they have
+passed through a period of growth; and it seems to have been completely
+overlooked, that dialects which diverged during that early period, would
+naturally resist every attempt at genealogical classification. If you
+remember the manner in which, for instance, the plural was formed in
+Chinese and other languages examined by us in a former Lecture, you will
+see that where each dialect may choose its own term expressive of
+plurality, such as _heap_, _class_, _kind_, _flock_, _cloud_, &c., it
+would be unreasonable to expect similarity in grammatical terminations,
+after these terms have been ground down by phonetic corruption to mere
+exponents of plurality. But, on the other hand, it would by no means
+follow that therefore these languages had no common origin. Languages may
+have a common origin, and yet the words which they originally employed for
+marking case, number, person, tense, and mood, having been totally
+different, the grammatical terminations to which these words would
+gradually dwindle down could not possibly yield any results if submitted
+to the analysis of comparative grammar. A genealogical classification of
+such languages is, therefore, from the nature of the case, simply
+impossible, at least, if such classification is chiefly to be based on
+grammatical or formal evidence.
+
+It might be supposed, however, that such languages, though differing in
+their grammatical articulation, would yet evince their common origin by
+the identity of their radicals or roots. No doubt, they will in many
+instances. They will probably have retained their numerals in common, some
+of their pronouns, and some of the commonest words of every-day life. But
+even here we must not expect too much, nor be surprised if we find even
+less than we expected. You remember how the names for father varied in the
+numerous Friesian dialects. Instead of _frater_, the Latin word for
+brother, you find _hermano_ in Spanish. Instead of _ignis_, the Latin word
+for fire, you have in French _feu_, in Italian, _fuoco_. Nobody would
+doubt the common origin of German and English; yet the English numeral
+"the first," though preserved in _Fürst_, _prïnceps_, prince, is quite
+different from the German "Der Erste;" "the second" is quite different
+from "Der Zweite;" and there is no connection between the possessive
+pronoun _its_, and the German _sein_. This dialectical freedom works on a
+much larger scale in ancient and illiterate languages; and those who have
+most carefully watched the natural growth of dialects will be the least
+surprised that dialects which had the same origin should differ, not only
+in their grammatical framework, but likewise in many of those test-words
+which are very properly used for discovering the relationship of literary
+languages. How it is possible to say anything about the relationship of
+such dialects we shall see hereafter. For the present, it is sufficient if
+I have made it clear why the principle of genealogical classification is
+not of necessity applicable to all languages; and secondly, why languages,
+though they cannot be classified genealogically, need not therefore be
+supposed to have been different from the beginning. The assertion so
+frequently repeated that the impossibility of classing all languages
+genealogically proves the impossibility of a common origin of language, is
+nothing but a kind of scientific dogmatism, which, more than anything
+else, has impeded the free progress of independent research.
+
+But let us see now how far the genealogical classification of languages
+has advanced, how many families of human speech have been satisfactorily
+established. Let us remember what suggested to us the necessity of a
+genealogical classification. We wished to know the original intention of
+certain words and grammatical forms in English, and we saw that before we
+could attempt to fathom the origin of such words as "I love," and "I
+loved," we should have to trace them back to their most primitive state.
+We likewise found, by a reference to the history of the Romance dialects,
+that words existing in one dialect had frequently been preserved in a more
+primitive form in another, and that, therefore, it was of the highest
+importance to bring ancient languages into the same genealogical
+connection by which French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese are held
+together as the members of one family.
+
+Beginning, therefore, with the living language of England, we traced it,
+without difficulty, to Anglo-Saxon. This carries us back to the seventh
+century after Christ, for it is to that date that Kemble and Thorpe refer
+the ancient English epic, the Beowulf. Beyond this we cannot go on English
+soil. But we know that the Saxons, the Angles, and Jutes came from the
+continent, and there their descendants, along the northern coast of
+Germany, still speak _Low-German_, or Nieder-Deutsch, which in the harbors
+of Antwerp, Bremen, and Hamburg, has been mistaken by many an English
+sailor for a corrupt English dialect. The Low-German comprehends many
+dialects in the north or the lowlands of Germany; but in Germany proper
+they are hardly ever used for literary purposes. The Friesian dialects are
+Low-German, so are the Dutch and Flemish. The Friesian had a literature of
+its own as early at least as the twelfth century, if not earlier.(167) The
+Dutch, which is still a national and literary language, though confined to
+a small area, can be traced back to literary documents of the sixteenth
+century. The Flemish, too, was at that time the language of the court of
+Flanders and Brabant, but has since been considerably encroached upon,
+though not yet extinguished, by the official languages of the kingdoms of
+Holland and Belgium. The oldest literary document of Low-German on the
+Continent is the Christian epic, the _Heljand_ (Heljand = Heiland, the
+Healer or Saviour), which is preserved to us in two MSS. of the ninth
+century, and was written at that time for the benefit of the newly
+converted Saxons. We have traces of a certain amount of literature in
+Saxon or Low-German from that time onward through the Middle Ages up to
+the seventeenth century. But little only of that literature has been
+preserved; and, after the translation of the Bible by Luther into
+High-German, the fate of Low-German literature was sealed.
+
+The literary language of Germany is, and has been ever since the days of
+Charlemagne, the _High-German_. It is spoken in various dialects all over
+Germany.(168) Its history may be traced through three periods. The
+present, or New High-German period dates from Luther; the Middle
+High-German period extends from Luther backwards to the twelfth century;
+the Old High-German period extends from thence to the seventh century.
+
+Thus we see that we can follow the High-German, as well as the Low-German
+branch of Teutonic speech, back to about the seventh century after Christ.
+We must not suppose that before that time there was _one_ common Teutonic
+language spoken by all German tribes, and that it afterwards diverged into
+two streams,--the High and Low. There never was a common, uniform, Teutonic
+language; nor is there any evidence to show that there existed at any time
+a uniform High-German or Low-German language, from which all High-German
+and Low-German dialects are respectively derived. We cannot derive
+Anglo-Saxon, Friesian, Flemish, Dutch, and Platt-Deutsch from the ancient
+Low-German, which is preserved in the continental Saxon of the ninth
+century. All we can say is this, that these various Low-German dialects in
+England, Holland, Friesia, and Lower Germany, passed at different times
+through the same stages, or, so to say, the same latitudes of grammatical
+growth. We may add that, with every century that we go back, the
+convergence of these dialects becomes more and more decided; but there is
+no evidence to justify us in admitting the historical reality of _one_
+primitive and uniform Low-German language from which they were all
+derived. This is a mere creation of grammarians who cannot understand a
+multiplicity of dialects without a common type. They would likewise demand
+the admission of a primitive High-German language, as the source, not only
+of the literary Old, Middle, and Modern High-German, but likewise of all
+the local dialects of Austria, Bavaria, Swabia, and Franconia. And they
+would wish us to believe that, previous to the separation into High and
+Low German, there existed one complete Teutonic language, as yet neither
+High nor Low, but containing the germs of both. Such a system may be
+convenient for the purposes of grammatical analysis, but it becomes
+mischievous as soon as these grammatical abstractions are invested with an
+historical reality. As there were families, clans, confederacies, and
+tribes, before there was a nation; so there were dialects before there was
+a language. The grammarian who postulates an historical reality for the
+one primitive type of Teutonic speech, is no better than the historian who
+believes in a _Francus_, the grandson of Hector, and the supposed ancestor
+of all the Franks, or in a _Brutus_, the mythical father of all the
+Britons. When the German races descended, one after the other, from the
+Danube and from the Baltic, to take possession of Italy and the Roman
+provinces,--when the Goths, the Lombards, the Vandals, the Franks, the
+Burgundians, each under their own kings, and with their own laws and
+customs, settled in Italy, Gaul, and Spain, to act their several parts in
+the last scene of the Roman tragedy,--we have no reason to suppose that
+they all spoke one and the same dialect. If we possessed any literary
+documents of those ancient German races, we should find them all dialects
+again, some with the peculiarities of High, others with those of Low,
+German. Nor is this mere conjecture: for it so happens that, by some
+fortunate accident, the dialect of one at least of those ancient German
+races has been preserved to us in the Gothic translation of the Bible by
+Bishop Ulfilas.
+
+I must say a few words on this remarkable man. The accounts of
+ecclesiastical historians with regard to the date and the principal events
+in the life of Ulfilas are very contradictory. This is partly owing to the
+fact that Ulfilas was an Arian bishop, and that the accounts which we
+possess of him come from two opposite sides, from Arian and Athanasian
+writers. Although in forming an estimate of his character it would be
+necessary to sift this contradictory evidence, it is but fair to suppose
+that, when dates and simple facts in the life of the Bishop have to be
+settled, his own friends had better means of information than the orthodox
+historians. It is, therefore, from the writings of his own co-religionists
+that the chronology and the historical outline of the Bishop's life should
+be determined.
+
+The principal writers to be consulted are Philostorgius, as preserved by
+Photius, and Auxentius, as preserved by Maximinus in a MS. lately
+discovered by Professor Waitz(169) in the Library at Paris. (Supplement.
+Latin. No. 594.) This MS. contains some writings of Hilarius, the two
+first books of Ambrosius De fide, and the acts of the Council of Aquileja
+(381). On the margin of this MS. Maximinus repeated the beginning of the
+acts of the Council of Aquileja, adding remarks of his own in order to
+show how unfairly Palladius had been treated in that council by Ambrose.
+He jotted down his own views on the Arian controversy, and on fol. 282,
+seq., he copied an account of Ulfilas written by Auxentius, the bishop of
+Dorostorum (Silistria on the Danube), a pupil of Ulfilas. This is followed
+again by some dissertations of Maximinus, and on foll. 314-327, a treatise
+addressed to Ambrose by a Semi-arian, a follower of Eusebius, possibly by
+Prudentius himself, was copied and slightly abbreviated for his own
+purposes by Maximinus.
+
+It is from Auxentius, as copied by Maximinus, that we learn that Ulfilas
+died at Constantinople, where he had been invited by the emperor to a
+disputation. This could not have been later than the year 381, because,
+according to the same Auxentius, Ulfilas had been bishop for forty years,
+and, according to Philostorgius, he had been consecrated by Eusebius. Now
+Eusebius of Nicomedia died 341, and as Philostorgius says that Ulfilas was
+consecrated by "Eusebius and the bishops who were with him," the
+consecration has been referred with great plausibility to the beginning of
+the year 341, when Eusebius presided at the Synod of Antioch. As Ulfilas
+was thirty years old at the time of his consecration, he must have been
+born in 311, and as he was seventy years of age when he died at
+Constantinople, his death must have taken place in 381.
+
+Professor Waitz fixed the death of Ulfilas in 388, because it is stated by
+Auxentius that other Arian bishops had come with Ulfilas on his last
+journey to Constantinople, and had actually obtained the promise of a new
+council from the emperors, but that the heretical party, _i.e._, the
+Athanasians, succeeded in getting a law published, prohibiting all
+disputation on the faith, whether in public or private. Maximinus, to whom
+we owe this notice, has added two laws from the Codex Theodosianus, which
+he supposed to have reference to this controversy, dated respectively 388
+and 386. This shows that Maximinus himself was doubtful as to the exact
+date. Neither of these laws, however, is applicable to the case, as has
+been fully shown by Dr. Bessell. They are quotations from the Codex
+Theodosianus made by Maximinus at his own risk, and made in error. If the
+death of Ulfilas were fixed in 388, the important notice of Philostorgius,
+that Ulfilas was consecrated by Eusebius, would have to be surrendered,
+and we should have to suppose that as late as 388 Theodosius had been in
+treaty with the Arians, whereas after the year 383, when the last attempt
+at a reconciliation bad been made by Theodosius, and had failed, no mercy
+was any longer shown to the party of Ulfilas and his friends.
+
+If, on the contrary, Ulfilas died at Constantinople in 381, he might well
+have been called there by the Emperor Theodosius, not to a council, but to
+a disputation (ad disputationem), as Dr. Bessell ingeniously maintains,
+against the Psathyropolistæ,(170) a new sect of Arians at Constantinople.
+About the same time, in 380, Sozomen(171) refers to efforts made by the
+Arians to gain influence with Theodosius. He mentions, like Auxentius,
+that these efforts were defeated, and a law published to forbid
+disputations on the nature of God. This law exists in the Codex
+Theodosianus, and is dated January 10, 381. But what is most important is,
+that this law actually revokes a rescript that had been obtained
+fraudulently by the Arian heretics, thus confirming the statement of
+Auxentius that the emperor had held out to him and his party a promise of
+a new council.
+
+We now return to Ulfilas. He was born in 311. His parents, as
+Philostorgius tells us, were of Cappadocian origin, and had been carried
+away by the Goths as captives from a place called Sadagolthina, near the
+town of Parnassus. It was under Valerian and Gallienus (about 267) that
+the Goths made this raid from Europe to Asia, Galatia, and Cappadocia, and
+the Christian captives whom they carried back to the Danube were the first
+to spread the light of the Gospel among the Goths. Philostorgius was
+himself a Cappadocian, and there is no reason to doubt this statement of
+his on the parentage of Ulfilas. Ulfilas was born among the Goths; Gothic
+was his native language, though he was able in after-life to speak and
+write both in Latin and Greek. Philostorgius, after speaking of the death
+of Crispus (326), and before proceeding to the last years of Constantine,
+says, that "about that time" Ulfilas led his Goths from beyond the Danube
+into the Roman empire. They had to leave their country, being persecuted
+on account of their Christianity. Ulfilas was the leader of the faithful
+flock, and came to Constantine, (not Constantius,) as ambassador. This
+must have been before 337, the year of Constantine's death. It may have
+been in 328, when Constantine had gained a victory over the Goths; and
+though Ulfilas was then only seventeen years of age, this would be no
+reason for rejecting the testimony of Philostorgius, who says that
+Constantine treated Ulfilas with great respect, and called him the Moses
+of his time. Having led his faithful flock across the Danube into Moesia,
+he might well have been compared by the emperor to Moses leading the
+Israelites from Egypt through the Red Sea. It is true that Auxentius
+institutes the same comparison between Ulfilas and Moses, after stating
+that Ulfilas had been received with great honors by Constantius. But this
+refers to what took place after Ulfilas had been for seven years bishop
+among the Goths, in 348, and does not invalidate the statement of
+Philostorgius as to the earlier intercourse between Ulfilas and
+Constantine. Sozomen (H. E. vi. 3, 7) clearly distinguishes between the
+first crossing of the Danube by the Goths, with Ulfilas as their
+ambassador, and the later attacks of Athanarich on Fridigern or Fritiger,
+which led to the settlement of the Goths in the Roman empire. We must
+suppose that after having crossed the Danube, Ulfilas remained for some
+time with his Goths, or at Constantinople. Auxentius says that he
+officiated as Lector, and it was only when he had reached the requisite
+age of thirty, that he was made bishop by Eusebius in 341. He passed the
+first seven years of his episcopate among the Goths, and the remaining
+thirty-three of his life "in solo Romaniæ," where he had migrated together
+with Fritiger and the Thervingi. There is some confusion as to the exact
+date of the Gothic Exodus, but it is not at all unlikely that Ulfilas
+acted as their leader on more than one occasion.
+
+There is little more to be learnt about Ulfilas from other sources. What
+is said by ecclesiastical historians about the motives of his adopting the
+doctrines of Arius, and his changing from one side to the other, deserves
+no credit. Ulfilas, according to his own confession, was always an Arian
+(semper sic credidi). Socrates says that Ulfilas was present at the Synod
+of Constantinople in 360, which may be true, though neither Auxentius nor
+Philostorgius mentions it. The author of the Acts of Nicetas speaks of
+Ulfilas as present at the Council of Nicæa, in company with Theophilus.
+Theophilus, it is true, signed his name as a Gothic bishop at that
+council, but there is nothing to confirm the statement that Ulfilas, then
+fourteen years of age, was with Theophilus.
+
+Ulfilas translated the whole Bible, except the Books of Kings. For the Old
+Testament he used the Septuagint; for the New, the Greek text; but not
+exactly in that form in which we have it. Unfortunately, the greater part
+of his work has been lost, and we have only considerable portions of the
+Gospels, all the genuine Epistles of St. Paul, though again not complete;
+fragments of a Psalm, of Ezra, and Nehemiah.(172)
+
+Though Ulfilas belonged to the western Goths, his translation was used by
+all Gothic tribes, when they advanced into Spain and Italy. The Gothic
+language died out in the ninth century, and after the extinction of the
+great Gothic empires, the translation of Ulfilas was lost and forgotten.
+But a MS. of the fifth century had been preserved in the Abbey of Werden,
+and towards the end of the sixteenth century, a man of the name of Arnold
+Mercator, who was in the service of William IV., the Landgrave of Hessia,
+drew attention to this old parchment containing large fragments of the
+translation of Ulfilas. The MS., known as the Codex Argenteus, was
+afterwards transferred to Prague, and when Prague was taken in 1648 by
+Count Königsmark, he carried this Codex to Upsala in Sweden, where it is
+still preserved as one of the greatest treasures. The parchment is purple,
+the letters in silver, and the MS. bound in solid silver.
+
+In 1818, Cardinal Mai and Count Castiglione discovered some more fragments
+in the Monastery of Bobbio, where they had probably been preserved ever
+since the Gothic empire of Theodoric the Great in Italy had been
+destroyed.
+
+Ulfilas must have been a man of extraordinary power to conceive, for the
+first time, the idea of translating the Bible into the vulgar language of
+his people. At his time, there existed in Europe but two languages which a
+Christian bishop would have thought himself justified in employing, Greek
+and Latin. All other languages were still considered as barbarous. It
+required a prophetic sight, and a faith in the destinies of these
+half-savage tribes, and a conviction also of the utter effeteness of the
+Roman and Byzantine empires, before a bishop could have brought himself to
+translate the Bible into the vulgar dialect of his barbarous countrymen.
+Soon after the death of Ulfilas, the number of Christian Goths at
+Constantinople had so much increased as to induce Chrysostom, the bishop
+of Constantinople (397-405), to establish a church in the capital, where
+the service was to be read in Gothic.(173)
+
+The language of Ulfilas, the Gothic, belongs, through its phonetic
+structure, to the Low-German class, but in its grammar it is, _with few
+exceptions_, far more primitive than the Anglo-Saxon of the Beowulf, or
+the Old High-German of Charlemagne. These few exceptions, however, are
+very important, for they show that it would be grammatically, and
+therefore historically, impossible to derive either Anglo-Saxon or
+High-German, or both,(174) from Gothic. It would be impossible, for
+instance, to treat the first person plural of the indicative present, the
+Old High-German _nerjamês_, as a corruption of the Gothic _nasjam_; for we
+know, from the Sanskrit _masi_, the Greek _mes_, the Latin _mus_, that
+this was the original termination of the first person plural.
+
+Gothic is but one of the numerous dialects of the German race; some of
+which became the feeders of the literary languages of the British Isles,
+of Holland, Friesia, and of Low and High Germany, while others became
+extinct, and others rolled on from century to century unheeded, and
+without ever producing any literature at all. It is because Gothic is the
+only one of these parallel dialects that can be traced back to the fourth
+century, whereas the others disappear from our sight in the seventh, that
+it has been mistaken by some for the original source of all Teutonic
+speech. The same arguments, however, which we used against Raynouard, to
+show that Provençal could not be considered as the parent of the Six
+Romance dialects, would tell with equal force against the pretensions of
+Gothic to be considered as more than the eldest sister of the Teutonic
+branch of speech.
+
+There is, in fact, a third stream of Teutonic speech, which asserts its
+independence as much as High-German and Low-German, and which it would be
+impossible to place in any but a co-ordinate position with regard to
+Gothic, Low and High German. This is the _Scandinavian_ branch. It
+consists at present of three literary dialects, those of Sweden, Denmark,
+and Iceland, and of various local dialects, particularly in secluded
+valleys and fiords of Norway,(175) where, however, the literary language
+is Danish.
+
+It is commonly supposed(176) that, as late as the eleventh century,
+identically the same language was spoken in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark,
+and that this language was preserved almost intact in Iceland, while in
+Sweden and Denmark it grew into two new national dialects. Nor is there
+any doubt that the Icelandic skald recited his poems in Iceland, Norway,
+Sweden, Denmark, nay, even among his countrymen in England and Gardariki,
+without fear of not being understood, till, as it is said, William
+introduced Welsh, _i.e._ French, into England, and Slavonic tongues grew
+up in the east.(177) But though one and the same language (then called
+Danish or Norrænish) was understood, I doubt whether one and the same
+language was spoken by all Northmen, and whether the first germs of
+Swedish and Danish did not exist long before the eleventh century, in the
+dialects of the numerous clans and tribes of the Scandinavian race. That
+race is clearly divided into two branches, called by Swedish scholars the
+East and West Scandinavian. The former would be represented by the old
+language of Norway and Iceland, the latter by Swedish and Danish. This
+division of the Scandinavian race had taken place before the Northmen
+settled in Sweden and Norway. The western division migrated westward from
+Russia, and crossed over from the continent to the Aland Islands, and from
+thence to the southern coast of the peninsula. The eastern division
+travelled along the Bothnian Gulf, passing the country occupied by the
+Finns and Lapps, and settled in the northern highlands, spreading toward
+the south and west.
+
+The earliest fragments of Scandinavian speech are preserved in the two
+_Eddas_, the elder or poetical Edda, containing old mythic poems, the
+younger or Snorri's Edda giving an account of the ancient mythology in
+prose. Both Eddas were composed, not in Norway, but in Iceland, an island
+about as large as Ireland, and which became first known through some Irish
+monks who settled there in the eighth century.(178) In the ninth century
+voyages of discovery were made to Iceland by Naddodd, Gardar, and Flokki,
+860-870, and soon after the distant island, distant about 750 English
+miles from Norway, became a kind of America to the Puritans and
+Republicans of the Scandinavian peninsula. Harald Haarfagr (850-933) had
+conquered most of the Norwegian kings, and his despotic sway tended to
+reduce the northern freemen to a state of vassalage. Those who could not
+resist, and could not bring themselves to yield to the sceptre of Harald,
+left their country and migrated to France, to England, and to Iceland
+(874). They were mostly nobles and freemen, and they soon established in
+Iceland an aristocratic republic, such as they had had in Norway before
+the days of Harald. This northern republic flourished; it adopted
+Christianity in the year 1000. Schools were founded, two bishoprics were
+established, and classical literature was studied with the same zeal with
+which their own national poems and laws had been collected and interpreted
+by native scholars and historians. The Icelanders were famous travellers,
+and the names of Icelandic students are found not only in the chief cities
+of Europe, but in the holy places of the East. At the beginning of the
+twelfth century Iceland counted 50,000 inhabitants. Their intellectual and
+literary activity lasted to the beginning of the thirteenth century, when
+the island was conquered by Hakon VI., king of Norway. In 1380, Norway,
+together with Iceland, was united with Denmark; and when, in 1814, Norway
+was ceded to Sweden, Iceland remained, as it is still, under Danish sway.
+
+The old poetry which flourished in Norway in the eighth century, and which
+was cultivated by the skalds in the ninth, would have been lost in Norway
+itself had it not been for the jealous care with which it was preserved by
+the emigrants of Iceland. The most important branch of their traditional
+poetry were short songs (hliod or Quida), relating the deeds of their gods
+and heroes. It is impossible to determine their age, but they existed at
+least previous to the migration of the Northmen to Iceland, and probably
+as early as the seventh century, the same century which yields the oldest
+remnants of Anglo-Saxon, Low-German, and High-German. They were collected
+in the middle of the twelfth century by _Saemund Sigfusson_ (died 1133).
+In 1643 a similar collection was discovered in MSS. of the thirteenth
+century, and published under the title of _Edda_, or Great-Grandmother.
+This collection is called the old or poetic Edda, in order to distinguish
+it from a later work ascribed to Snorri Sturluson (died 1241). This, the
+younger or prose Edda, consists of three parts: the mocking of Gylfi, the
+speeches of Bragi, and the Skalda, or _Ars poetica_. Snorri Sturluson has
+been called the Herodotus of Iceland; and his chief work is the
+"Heimskringla," the world-ring, which contains the northern history from
+the mythic times to the time of King Magnus Erlingsson (died 1177). It was
+probably in preparing his history that, like Cassiodorus, Saxo
+Grammaticus, Paulus Diaconus, and other historians of the same class,
+Snorri collected the old songs of the people; for his "Edda," and
+particularly his "Skalda," are full of ancient poetic fragments.
+
+The "Skalda," and the rules which it contains, represent the state of
+poetry in the thirteenth century; and nothing can be more artificial,
+nothing more different from the genuine poetry of the old "Edda" than this
+_Ars poetica_ of Snorri Sturluson. One of the chief features of this
+artificial or skaldic poetry was this, that nothing should be called by
+its proper name. A ship was not to be called a ship, but the beast of the
+sea; blood, not blood, but the dew of pain, or the water of the sword. A
+warrior was not spoken of as a warrior, but as an armed tree, the tree of
+battle. A sword was the flame of wounds. In this poetical language, which
+every skald was bound to speak, there were no less than 115 names for
+Odin; an island could be called by 120 synonymous titles. The specimens of
+ancient poetry which Snorri quotes are taken from the skalds, whose names
+are well known in history, and who lived from the tenth to the thirteenth
+century. But he never quotes from any song contained in the old
+"Edda,"(179) whether it be that those songs were considered by himself as
+belonging to a different and much more ancient period of literature, or
+that they could not be used in illustration of the scholastic rules of
+skaldic poets, these very rules being put to shame by the simple style of
+the national poetry, which expressed what it had to express without effort
+and circumlocution.
+
+We have thus traced the modern Teutonic dialects back to four principal
+channels,--the _High-German_, _Low-German_, _Gothic_, and _Scandinavian_;
+and we have seen that these four, together with several minor dialects,
+must be placed in a co-ordinate position from the beginning, as so many
+varieties of Teutonic speech. This Teutonic speech may, for convenience'
+sake, be spoken of as one,--as one branch of that great family of language
+to which, as we shall see, it belongs; but it should always be borne in
+mind that this primitive and uniform language never had any real
+historical existence, and that, like all other languages, that of the
+Germans began with dialects which gradually formed themselves into several
+distinct national deposits.
+
+We must now advance more rapidly, and, instead of the minuteness of an
+Ordnance-map, we must be satisfied with the broad outlines of Wyld's Great
+Globe in our survey of the languages which, together with the Teutonic,
+form the Indo-European or Aryan family of speech.
+
+And first the Romance, or modern Latin languages. Leaving mere local
+dialects out of sight, we have at present six literary modifications of
+Latin, or more correctly, of ancient Italian,--the languages of Portugal,
+of Spain, of France, of Italy, of Wallachia,(180) and of the Grisons of
+Switzerland, called the Roumansch or Romanese.(181) The Provençal, which,
+in the poetry of the Troubadours, attained at a very early time to a high
+literary excellence, has now sunk down to a mere _patois_. The earliest
+Provençal poem, the Song of Boëthius, is generally referred to the tenth
+century: Le Boeuf referred it to the eleventh. But in the lately discovered
+Song of Eulalia, we have now a specimen of the Langue d'Oil, or the
+ancient Northern French, anterior in date to the earliest poetic specimen
+of the Langue d'Oc, or the ancient Provençal. Nothing can be a better
+preparation for the study of the comparative grammar of the ancient Aryan
+languages than a careful perusal of the "Comparative Grammar of the Six
+Romance Languages" by Professor Diez.
+
+Though in a general way we trace these six Romance languages back to
+Latin, yet it has been pointed out before that the classical Latin would
+fail to supply a complete explanation of their origin. Many of the
+ingredients of the Neo-Latin dialects must be sought for in the ancient
+dialects of Italy and her provinces. More than one dialect of Latin was
+spoken there before the rise of Rome, and some important fragments have
+been preserved to us, in inscriptions, of the Umbrian spoken in the north,
+and of the Oscan spoken to the south of Rome. The Oscan language, spoken
+by the Samnites, now rendered intelligible by the labors of Mommsen, had
+produced a literature before the time of Livius Andronicus; and the tables
+of Iguvio, so elaborately treated by Aufrecht and Kirchhoff, bear witness
+to a priestly literature among the Umbrians at a very early period. Oscan
+was still spoken under the Roman emperors, and so were minor local
+dialects in the south and the north. As soon as the literary language of
+Rome became classical and unchangeable, the first start was made in the
+future career of those dialects which, even at the time of Dante, are
+still called _vulgar_ or _popular_.(182) A great deal, no doubt, of the
+corruption of these modern dialects is due to the fact that, in the form
+in which we know them after the eighth century, they are really Neo-Latin
+dialects as adopted by the Teutonic barbarians; full, not only of Teutonic
+words, but of Teutonic idioms, phrases, and constructions. French is
+provincial Latin as spoken by the Franks, a Teutonic race; and, to a
+smaller extent, the same _barbarizing_ has affected all other Roman
+dialects. But from the very beginning, the stock with which the Neo-Latin
+dialects started was not the classical Latin, but the vulgar, local,
+provincial dialects of the middle, the lower, and the lowest classes of
+the Roman Empire. Many of the words which give to French and Italian their
+classical appearance, are really of much later date, and were imported
+into them by mediæval scholars, lawyers, and divines; thus escaping the
+rough treatment to which the original vulgar dialects were subjected by
+the Teutonic conquerors.
+
+The next branch of the Indo-European family of speech is the _Hellenic_.
+Its history is well known from the time of Homer to the present day. The
+only remark which the comparative philologist has to make is that the idea
+of making Greek the parent of Latin, is more preposterous than deriving
+English from German; the fact being that there are many forms in Latin
+more primitive than their corresponding forms in Greek. The idea of
+Pelasgians as the common ancestors of Greeks and Romans is another of
+those grammatical mythes, but hardly requires at present any serious
+refutation.
+
+The fourth branch of our family is the _Celtic_. The Celts seem to have
+been the first of the Aryans to arrive in Europe; but the pressure of
+subsequent migrations, particularly of Teutonic tribes, has driven them
+towards the westernmost parts, and latterly from Ireland across the
+Atlantic. At present the only remaining dialects are the Kymric and
+Gadhelic. The _Kymric_ comprises the _Welsh_; the _Cornish_, lately
+extinct; and the _Armorican_, of Brittany. The _Gadhelic_ comprises the
+_Irish_; the _Galic_ of the west coast of Scotland; and the dialect of the
+_Isle of Man_. Although these Celtic dialects are still spoken, the Celts
+themselves can no longer be considered an independent nation, like the
+Germans or Slaves. In former times, however, they not only enjoyed
+political autonomy, but asserted it successfully against Germans and
+Romans. Gaul, Belgium, and Britain were Celtic dominions, and the north of
+Italy was chiefly inhabited by them. In the time of Herodotus we find
+Celts in Spain; and Switzerland, the Tyrol, and the country south of the
+Danube have once been the seats of Celtic tribes. But after repeated
+inroads into the regions of civilization, familiarizing Latin and Greek
+writers with the names of their kings, they disappear from the east of
+Europe. Brennus is supposed to mean king, the Welsh _brennin_. A Brennus
+conquered Rome (390), another Brennus threatened Delphi (280). And about
+the same time a Celtic colony settled in Asia, and founded Galatia, where
+the language spoken at the time of St. Jerome was still that of the Gauls.
+Celtic words may be found in German, Slavonic, and even in Latin, but only
+as foreign terms, and their amount is much smaller than commonly supposed.
+A far larger number of Latin and German words have since found their way
+into the modern Celtic dialects, and these have frequently been mistaken
+by Celtic enthusiasts for original words, from which German and Latin
+might, in their turn, be derived.
+
+The fifth branch, which is commonly called _Slavonic_, I prefer to
+designate by the name of _Windic_, _Winidae_ being one of the most ancient
+and comprehensive names by which these tribes were known to the early
+historians of Europe. We have to divide these tribes into two divisions,
+the _Lettic_ and the _Slavonic_, and we shall have to subdivide the
+Slavonic again into a _South-East Slavonic_ and a _West Slavonic_ branch.
+
+The _Lettic_ division consists of languages hardly known to the student of
+literature, but of great importance to the student of language. _Lettish_
+is the language now spoken in Kurland and Livonia. _Lithuanian_ is the
+name given to a language still spoken by about 200,000 people in Eastern
+Prussia, and by more than a million of people in the coterminous parts of
+Russia. The earliest literary document of Lithuanian is a small catechism
+of 1547.(183) In this, and even in the language as now spoken by the
+Lithuanian peasant, there are some grammatical forms more primitive, and
+more like Sanskrit, than the corresponding forms in Greek and Latin.
+
+The _Old Prussian_, which is nearly related to Lithuanian, became extinct
+in the seventeenth century, and the entire literature which it has left
+behind consists in an old catechism.
+
+_Lettish_ is the language of Kurland and Livonia, more modern in its
+grammar than Lithuanian, yet not immediately derived from it.
+
+We now come to the _Slavonic_ languages, properly so called. The eastern
+branch comprehends the _Russian_ with various local dialects; the
+_Bulgarian_, and the _Illyrian_. The most ancient document of this eastern
+branch is the so-called Ecclesiastical Slavonic, _i.e._ the ancient
+Bulgarian, into which Cyrillus and Methodius translated the Bible, in the
+middle of the ninth century. This is still the authorized version(184) of
+the Bible for the whole Slavonic race; and to the student of the Slavonic
+languages, it is what Gothic is to the student of German. The modern
+Bulgarian, on the contrary, as far as grammatical forms are concerned, is
+the most reduced among the Slavonic dialects.
+
+_Illyrian_ is a convenient or inconvenient name to comprehend the
+_Servian_, _Croatian_, and _Slovinian_ dialects. Literary fragments of
+_Slovinian_ go back as far as the tenth century.(185)
+
+The western branch comprehends the language of _Poland_, _Bohemia_, and
+_Lusatia_. The oldest specimen of Polish belongs to the fourteenth
+century: the Psalter of Margarite. The Bohemian language was, till lately,
+traced back to the ninth century. But most of these old Bohemian poems are
+now considered spurious; and it is doubtful, even, whether an ancient
+interlinear translation of the Gospel of St. John can be ascribed to the
+tenth century.(186)
+
+The language of Lusatia is spoken, probably, by no more than 150,000
+people, known in Germany by the name of _Wends_.
+
+We have examined all the languages of our first or Aryan family, which are
+spoken in Europe, with one exception, the _Albanian_. This language is
+clearly a member of the same family; and as it is sufficiently distinct
+from Greek or any other recognized language, it has been traced back to
+one of the neighboring races of the Greeks, the Illyrians, and is supposed
+to be the only surviving representative of the various so-called barbarous
+tongues which surrounded and interpenetrated the dialects of Greece.
+
+We now pass on from Europe to Asia; and here we begin at once, on the
+extreme south, with the languages of India. As I sketched the history of
+Sanskrit in one of my former Lectures, it must suffice, at present, to
+mark the different periods of that language, beginning, about 1500 B. C.,
+with the dialect of the Vedas, which is followed by the modern Sanskrit;
+the popular dialects of the third century B. C.; the Prakrit dialects of
+the plays; and the spoken dialects, such as Hindí, Hindústání, Mahrattí,
+Bengalí. There are many points of great interest to the student of
+language, in the long history of the speech of India; and it has been
+truly said that Sanskrit is to the science of language what mathematics
+are to astronomy. In an introductory course of lectures, however, like the
+present, it would be out of place to enter on a minute analysis of the
+grammatical organism of this language of languages.
+
+There is one point only on which I may be allowed to say a few words. I
+have frequently been asked, "But how can you prove that Sanskrit
+literature is so old as it is supposed to be? How can you fix any Indian
+dates before the time of Alexander's conquest? What dependence can be
+placed on Sanskrit manuscripts which may have been forged or
+interpolated?" It is easier to ask such questions than to answer them, at
+least to answer them briefly and intelligibly. But, perhaps, the following
+argument will serve as a partial answer, and show that Sanskrit was the
+spoken language of India at least some centuries before the time of
+Solomon. In the hymns of the Veda, which are the oldest literary
+compositions in Sanskrit, the geographical horizon of the poets is, for
+the greater part, limited to the north-west of India. There are very few
+passages in which any allusions to the sea or the sea-coast occur, whereas
+the snowy mountains, and the rivers of the Penjáb, and the scenery of the
+Upper Ganges valley are familiar objects to the ancient bards. There is no
+doubt, in fact, that the people who spoke Sanskrit came into India from
+the north, and gradually extended their sway to the south and east. Now,
+at the time of Solomon, it can be proved that Sanskrit was spoken at least
+as far south as the mouth of the Indus.
+
+You remember the fleet of Tharshish(187) which Solomon had at sea,
+together with the navy of Hiram, and which came once in three years,
+bringing _gold_ and _silver_, _ivory_, _apes_, and _peacocks_. The same
+navy, which was stationed on the shore of the Red Sea, is said to have
+fetched gold from _Ophir_,(188) and to have brought, likewise, great
+plenty of _algum_(189) trees and precious stones from Ophir.
+
+Well, a great deal has been written to find out where this Ophir was; but
+there can be no doubt that it was in India. The names for _apes_,
+_peacocks_, _ivory_ and _algum_-trees are foreign words in Hebrew, as much
+as _gutta-percha_ or _tobacco_ are in English. Now, if we wished to know
+from what part of the world _gutta-percha_ was first imported into
+England, we might safely conclude that it came from that country where the
+name, _gutta-percha_, formed part of the spoken language.(190) If,
+therefore, we can find a language in which the names for peacock, apes,
+ivory, and algum-tree, which are foreign in Hebrew, are indigenous, we may
+be certain that the country in which that language was spoken must have
+been the Ophir of the Bible. That language is no other but Sanskrit.
+
+_Apes_ are called, in Hebrew, _koph_, a word without an etymology in the
+Semitic languages, but nearly identical in sound with the Sanskrit name of
+ape, _kapi_.
+
+_Ivory_ is called either _karnoth-shen_, horns of tooth; or _shen habbim_.
+This _habbim_ is again without a derivation in Hebrew, but it is most
+likely a corruption of the Sanskrit name for elephant, _ibha_, preceded by
+the Semitic article.(191)
+
+_Peacocks_ are called in Hebrew _tukhi-im_, and this finds its explanation
+in the name still used for peacock on the coast of Malabar, _togëi_, which
+in turn has been derived from the Sanskrit _sikhin_, meaning furnished
+with a crest.
+
+All these articles, ivory, gold, apes, peacocks, are indigenous in India,
+though of course they might have been found in other countries likewise.
+Not so the _algum-tree_, at least if interpreters are right in taking
+_algum_ or _almug_ for sandalwood. Sandalwood is found indigenous on the
+coast of Malabar only; and one of its numerous names there, and in
+Sanskrit, is _valguka_. This _valgu_(_ka_) is clearly the name which
+Jewish and Phoenician merchants corrupted into _algum_, and which in Hebrew
+was still further changed into _almug_.
+
+Now, the place where the navy of Solomon and Hiram, coming down the Red
+Sea, would naturally have landed, was the mouth of the Indus. There _gold_
+and _precious stones_ from the north would have been brought down the
+Indus; and _sandalwood_, _peacocks_, and _apes_ would have been brought
+from Central and Southern India. In this very locality Ptolemy (vii. 1)
+gives us the name of _Abiria_, above _Pattalene_. In the same locality
+Hindu geographers place the people called _Abhîra_ or _Âbhîra_; and in the
+same neighborhood MacMurdo, in his account of the province of Cutch, still
+knows a race of _Ahirs_,(192) the descendants, in all probability, of the
+people who sold to Hiram and Solomon their gold and precious stones, their
+apes, peacocks, and sandalwood.(193)
+
+If, then, in the Veda the people who spoke Sanskrit were still settled in
+the north of India, whereas at the time of Solomon their language had
+extended to Cutch and even the Malabar coast, this will show that at all
+events Sanskrit is not of yesterday, and that it is as old, at least, as
+the book of Job, in which the gold of Ophir is mentioned.(194)
+
+Most closely allied to Sanskrit, more particularly to the Sanskrit of the
+Veda, is the ancient language of the Zend-avesta,(195) the so-called
+_Zend_, or sacred language of the Zoroastrians or Fire-worshippers. It
+was, in fact, chiefly through the Sanskrit, and with the help of
+comparative philology, that the ancient dialect of the Parsis or
+Fire-worshippers was deciphered. The MSS. had been preserved by the Parsi
+priests at Bombay, where a colony of fire-worshippers had fled in the
+tenth century,(196) and where it has risen since to considerable wealth
+and influence. Other settlements of Guebres are to be found in Yezd and
+parts of Kerman. A Frenchman, Anquetil Duperron, was the first to
+translate the Zend-avesta, but his translation was not from the original,
+but from a modern Persian translation. The first European who attempted to
+read the original words of Zoroaster was Rask, the Dane; and after his
+premature death, Burnouf, in France, achieved one of the greatest triumphs
+in modern scholarship by deciphering the language of the Zend-avesta, and
+establishing its close relationship with Sanskrit. The same doubts which
+were expressed about the age and the genuineness of the Veda, were
+repeated with regard to the Zend-avesta, by men of high authority as
+oriental scholars, by Sir W. Jones himself, and even by the late Professor
+Wilson. But Burnouf's arguments, based at first on grammatical evidence
+only, were irresistible, and have of late been most signally confirmed by
+the discovery of the cuneiform inscriptions of Darius and Xerxes. That
+there was a Zoroaster, an ancient sage, was known long before Burnouf.
+Plato speaks of a teacher of Zoroaster's Magic ({~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}), and calls
+Zoroaster the son of _Oromazes_.(197)
+
+This name of Oromazes is important; for Oromazes is clearly meant for
+_Ormuzd_, the god of the Zoroastrians. The name of this god, as read in
+the inscriptions of Darius and Xerxes, is _Auramazdâ_, which comes very
+near to Plato's Oromazes.(198) Thus Darius says, in one passage: "Through
+the grace of Auramazda I am king; Auramazda gave me the kingdom." But what
+is the meaning of _Auramazda_? We receive a hint from one passage in the
+Achæmenian inscriptions, where Auramazda is divided into two words, both
+being declined. The genitive of Auramazda occurs there as _Aurahya
+mazdâha_. But even this is unintelligible, and is, in fact, nothing but a
+phonetic corruption of the name of the supreme Deity as it occurs on every
+page of the Zend-avesta, namely, _Ahurô mazdâo_ (nom.). Here, too, both
+words are declined; and instead of _Ahurô mazdâo_, we also find _Mazdâo
+ahurô_.(199) Well, this _Ahurô mazdâo_ is represented in the Zend-avesta
+as the creator and ruler of the world; as good, holy, and true; and as
+doing battle against all that is evil, dark, and false. "The wicked perish
+through the wisdom and holiness of the living wise Spirit." In the oldest
+hymns, the power of darkness, which is opposed to _Ahurô mazdâo_ has not
+yet received its proper name, which is _Angrô mainyus_, the later
+_Ahriman_; but it is spoken of as a power, as _Drukhs_ or deceit; and the
+principal doctrine which Zoroaster came to preach was that we must choose
+between these two powers, that we must be good, and not bad. These are his
+words:--
+
+"In the beginning there was a pair of twins, two spirits, each of a
+peculiar activity. These are the Good and the Base in thought, word, and
+deed. Choose one of these two spirits; Be good, not base!"(200)
+
+Or again:--
+
+"Ahuramazda is holy, true, to be honored through veracity, through holy
+deeds." "You cannot serve both."
+
+Now, if we wanted to prove that Anglo-Saxon was a real language, and more
+ancient than English, a mere comparison of a few words such as _lord_ and
+_hlafford_, _gospel_ and _godspel_ would be sufficient. _Hlafford_ has a
+meaning; _lord_ has none; therefore we may safely say that without such a
+compound as _hlafford_, the word _lord_ could never have arisen. The same,
+if we compare the language of the Zend-avesta with that of the cuneiform
+inscriptions of Darius. _Auramazdâ_ is clearly a corruption of _Ahurô
+mazdâo_, and if the language of the Mountain-records of Behistun is
+genuine, then, _à fortiori_, is the language of the Zend-avesta genuine,
+as deciphered by Burnouf, long before he had deciphered the language of
+Cyrus and Darius. But what is the meaning of _Ahurô mazdâo_? Here Zend
+does not give us an answer; but we must look to Sanskrit, as the more
+primitive language, just as we looked from French to Italian, in order to
+discover the original form and meaning of _feu_. According to the rules
+which govern the changes of words, common to Zend and Sanskrit, _Ahurô
+mazdâo_ corresponds to the Sanskrit _Asuro medhas_; and this would mean
+the "Wise Spirit," neither more nor less.
+
+We have editions, translations, and commentaries of the Zend-avesta by
+Burnouf, Brockhaus, Spiegel, and Westergaard. Yet there still remains much
+to be done. Dr. Haug, now settled at Poona, has lately taken up the work
+which Burnouf left unfinished. He has pointed out that the text of the
+Zend-avesta, as we have it, comprises fragments of very different
+antiquity, and that the most ancient only, the so-called Gâthâs, can be
+ascribed to Zarathustra. "This portion," he writes in a lecture just
+received from India, "compared with the whole bulk of the Zend fragments
+is very small; but by the difference of dialect it is easily recognized.
+The most important pieces written in this peculiar dialect are called
+Gâthâs or songs, arranged in five small collections; they have different
+metres, which mostly agree with those of the Veda; their language is very
+near to the Vedic dialect." It is to be regretted that in the same
+lecture, which holds out the promise of so much that will be extremely
+valuable, Dr. Haug should have lent his authority to the opinion that
+Zoroaster or Zarathustra is mentioned in the Rig-Veda as Jaradashti. The
+meaning of jaradashti in the Rig-Veda may be seen in the Sanskrit
+Dictionary of the Russian Academy, and no Sanskrit scholar would seriously
+think of translating the word by Zoroaster.
+
+At what time Zoroaster lived, is a more difficult question which we cannot
+discuss at present.(201) It must suffice if we have proved that he lived,
+and that his language, the Zend, is a real language, and anterior in time
+to the language of the cuneiform inscriptions.
+
+We trace the subsequent history of the Persian language from Zend to the
+inscriptions of the Achæmenian dynasty; from thence to what is called
+_Pehlevi_ or _Huzvaresh_ (better Huzûresh), the language of the Sassanian
+dynasty (226-651), as it is found in the dialect of the translations of
+the Zend-avesta, and in the official language of the Sassanian coins and
+inscriptions. This is considerably mixed with Semitic elements, probably
+imported from Syria. In a still later form, freed also from the Semitic
+elements which abound in Pehlevi, the language of Persia appears again as
+_Parsi_, which differs but little from the language of _Firdusi_, the
+great epic poet of Persia, the author of the Shahnámeh, about 1000 A. D.
+The later history of Persian consists entirely in the gradual increase of
+Arabic words, which have crept into the language since the conquest of
+Persia and the conversion of the Persians to the religion of Mohammed.
+
+The other languages which evince by their grammar and vocabulary a general
+relationship with Sanskrit and Persian, but which have received too
+distinct and national a character to be classed as mere dialects, are the
+languages _of Afghanistan_ or the _Pushtú_, the language of _Bokhára_, the
+language of the _Kurds_, the _Ossetian_ language in the Caucasus, and the
+_Armenian_. Much might be said on every one of these tongues and their
+claims to be classed as independent members of the Aryan family; but our
+time is limited, nor has any one of them acquired, as yet, that importance
+which belongs to the vernaculars of India, Persia, Greece, Italy, and
+Germany, and to other branches of Aryan speech which have been analyzed
+critically, and may be studied historically in the successive periods of
+their literary existence. There is, however, one more language which we
+have omitted to mention, and which belongs equally to Asia and Europe, the
+language of the _Gipsies_. This language, though most degraded in its
+grammar, and with a dictionary stolen from all the countries through which
+the Zingaris passed, is clearly an exile from Hindústán.
+
+You see, from the diagram before you,(202) that it is possible to divide
+the whole Aryan family into two divisions: the _Southern_, including the
+Indic and Iranic classes, and the _Northern_ or _North-western_,
+comprising all the rest. Sanskrit and Zend share certain words and
+grammatical forms in common which do not exist in any of the other Aryan
+languages; and there can be no doubt that the ancestors of the poets of
+the Veda and of the worshippers of _Ahurô mazdâo_ lived together for some
+time after they had left the original home of the whole Aryan race. For
+let us see this clearly: the genealogical classification of languages, as
+drawn in this diagram, has an historical meaning. As sure as the six
+Romance dialects point to an original home of Italian shepherds on the
+seven hills at Rome, the Aryan languages together point to an earlier
+period of language, when the first ancestors of the Indians, the Persians,
+the Greeks, the Romans, the Slaves, the Celts, and the Germans were living
+together within the same enclosures, nay under the same roof. There was a
+time when out of many possible names for _father_, _mother_, _daughter_,
+_son_, _dog_ and _cow_, _heaven_ and _earth_, those which we find in all
+the Aryan languages were framed, and obtained a mastery _in the struggle
+for life_ which is carried on among synonymous words as much as among
+plants and animals. Look at the comparative table of the auxiliary verb
+AS, to be, in the different Aryan languages. The selection of the root AS
+out of many roots, equally applicable to the idea of being, and the
+joining of this root with one set of personal terminations, all originally
+personal pronouns, were individual acts, or if you like, historical
+events. They took place once, at a certain date and in a certain place;
+and as we find the same forms preserved by all the members of the Aryan
+family, it follows that before the ancestors of the Indians and Persians
+started for the south, and the leaders of the Greek, Roman, Celtic,
+Teutonic, and Slavonic colonies marched towards the shores of Europe,
+there was a small clan of Aryans, settled probably on the highest
+elevation of Central Asia, speaking a language, not yet Sanskrit or Greek
+or German, but containing the dialectical germs of all; a clan that had
+advanced to a state of agricultural civilization; that had recognized the
+bonds of blood, and sanctioned the bonds of marriage; and that invoked the
+Giver of Light and Life in heaven by the same name which you may still
+hear in the temples of Benares, in the basilicas of Rome, and in our own
+churches and cathedrals.
+
+After this clan broke up, the ancestors of the Indians and Zoroastrians
+must have remained together for some time in their migrations or new
+settlements; and I believe that it was the reform of Zoroaster which
+produced at last the split between the worshippers of the Vedic gods and
+the worshippers of Ormuzd. Whether, besides this division into a southern
+and northern branch, it is possible by the same test (the community of
+particular words and forms), to discover the successive periods when the
+Germans separated from the Slaves, the Celts from the Italians, or the
+Italians from the Greeks, seems more than doubtful. The attempts made by
+different scholars have led to different and by no means satisfactory
+results;(203) and it seems best, for the present, to trace each of the
+northern classes back to its own dialect, and to account for the more
+special coincidences between such languages as, for instance, the Slavonic
+and Teutonic, by admitting that the ancestors of these races preserved
+from the beginning certain dialectical peculiarities which existed before,
+as well as after, the separation of the Aryan family.
+
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE VI. COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.
+
+
+The genealogical classification of the Aryan languages was founded, as we
+saw, on a close comparison of the grammatical characteristics of each; and
+it is the object of such works as Bopp's "Comparative Grammar" to show
+that the grammatical articulation of Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, Roman, Celtic,
+Teutonic, and Slavonic, was produced once and for all; and that the
+apparent differences in the terminations of Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin,
+must be explained by laws of phonetic decay, peculiar to each dialect,
+which modified the original common Aryan type, and changed it into so many
+national languages. It might seem, therefore, as if the object of
+comparative grammar was attained as soon as the exact genealogical
+relationship of languages had been settled; and those who only look to the
+higher problems of the science of language have not hesitated to declare
+that "there is no painsworthy difficulty nor dispute about declension,
+number, case, and gender of nouns." But although it is certainly true that
+comparative grammar is only a means, and that it has well nigh taught us
+all that it has to teach,--at least in the Aryan family of speech,--it is to
+be hoped that, in the science of language, it will always retain that
+prominent place which it has obtained through the labors of Bopp, Grimm,
+Pott, Benfey, Curtius, Kuhn, and others. Besides, comparative grammar has
+more to do than simply to compare. It would be easy enough to place side
+by side the paradigms of declension and conjugation in Sanskrit, Greek,
+Latin, and the other Aryan dialects, and to mark both their coincidences
+and their differences. But after we have done this, and after we have
+explained the phonetic laws which cause the primitive Aryan type to assume
+that national variety which we admire in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, new
+problems arise of a more interesting nature. We know that grammatical
+terminations, as they are now called, were originally independent words,
+and had their own purpose and meaning. Is it possible, after comparative
+grammar has established the original forms of the Aryan terminations, to
+trace them back to independent words, and to discover their original
+purpose and meaning? You will remember that this was the point from which
+we started. We wanted to know why the termination _d_ in _I loved_ should
+change a present into a past act. We saw that before answering this
+question we had to discover the most original form of this termination by
+tracing it from English to Gothic, and afterwards, if necessary, from
+Gothic to Sanskrit. We now return to our original question, namely, What
+is language that a mere formal change, such as that of _I love_ into _I
+loved_, should produce so very material a difference?
+
+Let us clearly see what we mean if we make a distinction between the
+radical and formal elements of a language; and by formal elements I mean
+not only the terminations of declension and conjugation, but all
+derivative elements; all, in fact, that is not radical. Our view on the
+origin of language must chiefly depend on the view which we take of these
+formal, as opposed to the radical, elements of speech. Those who consider
+that language is a conventional production, base their arguments
+principally on these formal elements. The inflections of words, they
+maintain, are the best proof that language was made by mutual agreement.
+They look upon them as mere letters or syllables without any meaning by
+themselves; and if they were asked why the mere addition of a _d_ changes
+_I love_ into _I loved_, or why the addition of the syllable _rai_ gave to
+_j'aime_, I love, the power of a future, _j'aimerai_, they would answer,
+that it was so because, at a very early time in the history of the world,
+certain persons, or families, or clans, agreed that it should be so.
+
+This view was opposed by another which represents language as an organic
+and almost a living being, and explains its formal elements as produced by
+a principle of growth inherent in its very nature. "Languages,"(204) it is
+maintained, "are formed by a process, not of crystalline accretion, but of
+germinal development. Every essential part of language existed as
+completely (although only implicitly) in the primitive germ, as the petals
+of a flower exist in the bud before the mingled influences of the sun and
+the air caused it to unfold." This view was first propounded by Frederick
+Schlegel,(205) and it is still held by many with whom poetical phraseology
+takes the place of sound and severe reasoning.
+
+The science of language adopts neither of these views. As to imagining a
+congress for settling the proper exponents of such relations as
+nominative, genitive, singular, plural, active, and passive, it stands to
+reason that if such abstruse problems could have been discussed in a
+language void of inflections, there was no inducement for agreeing on a
+more perfect means of communication. And as to imagining language, that is
+to say nouns and verbs, endowed with an inward principle of growth, all we
+can say is, that such a conception is really inconceivable. Language may
+be conceived as a production, but it cannot be conceived as a substance
+that could itself produce. But the science of language has nothing to do
+with mere theories, whether conceivable or not. It collects facts, and its
+only object is to account for these facts, as far as possible. Instead of
+looking on inflections in general either as conventional signs or natural
+excrescences, it takes each termination by itself, establishes its most
+primitive form by means of comparison, and then treats that primitive
+syllable as it would treat any other part of language,--namely, as
+something which was originally intended to convey a meaning. Whether we
+are still able to discover the original intention of every part of
+language is quite a different question, and it should be admitted at once
+that many grammatical forms, after they have been restored to their most
+primitive type, are still without an explanation. But with every year new
+discoveries are made by means of careful inductive reasoning. We become
+more familiar every day with the secret ways of language, and there is no
+reason to doubt that in the end grammatical analysis will be as successful
+as chemical analysis. Grammar, though sometimes very bewildering to us in
+its later stages, is originally a much less formidable undertaking than is
+commonly supposed. What is grammar after all but declension and
+conjugation? Originally declension could not have been anything but the
+composition of a noun with some other word expressive of number and case.
+How the number was expressed, we saw in a former lecture; and the same
+process led to the formation of cases.
+
+Thus the locative is formed in various ways in Chinese:(206) one is by
+adding such words as _cung_, the middle, or _néi_, inside. Thus,
+_kûo-cung_, in the empire; _i sûí cung_, within a year. The instrumental
+is formed by the preposition _y_, which preposition is an old root,
+meaning _to use_. Thus _y ting_, with a stick, where in Latin we should
+use the ablative, in Greek the dative. Now, however complicated the
+declensions, regular and irregular, may be in Greek and Latin, we may be
+certain that originally they were formed by this simple method of
+composition.
+
+There was originally in all the Aryan languages a case expressive of
+locality, which grammarians call the _locative_. In Sanskrit every
+substantive has its locative, as well as its genitive, dative, and
+accusative. Thus, _heart_ in Sanskrit is _hrid_; in the heart, is _hridi_.
+Here, therefore, the termination of the locative is simply short _i_. This
+short _i_ is a demonstrative root, and in all probability the same root
+which in Latin produced the preposition _in_. The Sanskrit _hridi_
+represents, therefore, an original compound, as it were, _heart-within_,
+which gradually became settled as one of the recognized cases of nouns
+ending in consonants. If we look to Chinese,(207) we find that the
+locative is expressed there in the same manner, but with a greater freedom
+in the choice of the words expressive of locality. "In the empire," is
+expressed by _kûo cung_; "within a year," is expressed by _i sûí cung_.
+Instead of _cung_, however, we might have employed other terms also, such
+as, for instance, _néi_, inside. It might be said that the formation of so
+primitive a case as the locative offers little difficulty, but that this
+process of composition fails to account for the origin of the more
+abstract cases, the accusative, the dative, and genitive. If we derive our
+notions of the cases from philosophical grammar, it is true, no doubt,
+that it would be difficult to convey by a simple composition the abstract
+relations supposed to be expressed by the terminations of the genitive,
+dative, and accusative. But remember that these are only general
+categories under which philosophers and grammarians endeavored to arrange
+the facts of language. The people with whom language grew up knew nothing
+of datives and accusatives. Everything that is abstract in language was
+originally concrete. If people wanted to say the King of Rome, they meant
+really the King at Rome, and they would readily have used what I have just
+described as the locative; whereas the more abstract idea of the genitive
+would never enter into their system of thought. But more than this, it can
+be proved that the locative has actually taken, in some cases, the place
+of the genitive. In Latin, for instance, the old genitive of nouns in _a_
+was _as_. This we find still in _pater familiâs_, instead of _pater
+familiæ_. The Umbrian and Oscan dialects retained the _s_ throughout as
+the sign of the genitive after nouns in _a_. The _æ_ of the genitive was
+originally _ai_, that is to say, the old locative in _i_. "King of Rome,"
+if rendered by _Rex Romæ_, meant really "King at Rome." And here you will
+see how grammar, which ought to be the most logical of all sciences, is
+frequently the most illogical. A boy is taught at school, that if he wants
+to say "I am staying at Rome," he must use the genitive to express the
+locative. How a logician or grammarian can so twist and turn the meaning
+of the genitive as to make it express rest in a place, is not for us to
+inquire; but, if he succeeded, his pupil would at once use the genitive of
+Carthage (Carthaginis) or of Athens (Athenarum) for the same purpose, and
+he would then have to be told that these genitives could not be used in
+the same manner as the genitive of nouns in _a._ How all this is achieved
+by what is called philosophical grammar, we know not; but comparative
+grammar at once removes all difficulty. It is only in the first declension
+that the locative has supplanted the genitive, whereas _Carthaginis_ and
+_Athenarum_, being real genitives, could never be employed to express a
+locative. A special case, such as the locative, may be generalized into
+the more general genitive, but not _vice versâ_.
+
+You see thus by one instance how what grammarians call a genitive was
+formed by the same process of composition which we can watch in Chinese,
+and which we can prove to have taken place in the original language of the
+Aryans. And the same applies to the dative. If a boy is told that the
+dative expresses a relation of one object to another, less direct than
+that of the accusative, he may well wonder how such a flying arch could
+ever have been built up with the scanty materials which language has at
+her disposal; but he will be still more surprised if, after having
+realized this grammatical abstraction, he is told that in Greek, in order
+to convey the very definite idea of being in a place, he has to use after
+certain nouns the termination of the dative. "I am staying at Salamis,"
+must be expressed by the dative _Salamîni_. If you ask why? Comparative
+grammar again can alone give an answer. The termination of the Greek
+dative in _i_, was originally the termination of the locative. The
+locative may well convey the meaning of the dative, but the faded features
+of the dative can never express the fresh distinctness of the locative.
+The dative _Salamîni_ was first a locative. "I live at Salamis," never
+conveyed the meaning, "I live to Salamis." On the contrary, the dative, in
+such phrases as "I give it to the father," was originally a locative; and
+after expressing at first the palpable relation of "I give it unto the
+father," or "I place it on or in the father," it gradually assumed the
+more general, the less local, less colored aspect which logicians and
+grammarians ascribe to their datives.(208)
+
+If the explanation just given of some of the cases in Greek and Latin
+should seem too artificial or too forced, we have only to think of French
+in order to see exactly the same process repeated under our eyes. The most
+abstract relations of the genitive, as, for instance, "The immortality of
+the soul" (_l'immortalité de l'âme_); or of the dative, as, for instance,
+"I trust myself to God" (_je me fie à Dieu_), are expressed by
+prepositions, such as _de_ and _ad_, which in Latin had the distinct local
+meanings of "down from," and "towards." Nay, the English _of_ and _to_,
+which have taken the place of the German terminations _s_ and _m_, are
+likewise prepositions of an originally local character. The only
+difference between our cases and those of the ancient languages consists
+in this,--that the determining element is now placed before the word,
+whereas, in the original language of the Aryans, it was placed at the end.
+
+What applies to the cases of nouns, applies with equal truth to the
+terminations of verbs. It may seem difficult to discover in the personal
+terminations of Greek and Latin the exact pronouns which were added to a
+verbal base in order to express, _I_ love, _thou_ lovest, _he_ loves; but
+it stands to reason that originally these terminations must have been the
+same in all languages,--namely, personal pronouns. We may be puzzled by the
+terminations of _thou lovest_ and _he loves_, where _st_ and _s_ can
+hardly be identified with the modern _thou_ and _he_; but we have only to
+place all the Aryan dialects together, and we shall see at once that they
+point back to an original set of terminations which can easily be brought
+to tell their own story.
+
+Let us begin with modern formations, because we have here more daylight
+for watching the intricate and sometimes wayward movements of language;
+or, better still, let us begin with an imaginary case, or with what may be
+called the language of the future, in order to see quite clearly how, what
+we should call grammatical forms, may arise. Let us suppose that the
+slaves in America were to rise against their masters, and, after gaining
+some victories, were to sail back in large numbers to some part of Central
+Africa, beyond the reach of their white enemies or friends. Let us suppose
+these men availing themselves of the lessons they had learnt in their
+captivity, and gradually working out a civilization of their own. It is
+quite possible that some centuries hence, a new Livingstone might find
+among the descendants of the American slaves, a language, a literature,
+laws, and manners, bearing a striking similitude to those of his own
+country. What an interesting problem for any future historian and
+ethnologist! Yet there are problems in the past history of the world of
+equal interest, which have been and are still to be solved by the student
+of language. Now I believe that a careful examination of the language of
+the descendants of those escaped slaves would suffice to determine with
+perfect certainty their past history, even though no documents and no
+tradition had preserved the story of their captivity and liberation. At
+first, no doubt, the threads might seem hopelessly entangled. A missionary
+might surprise the scholars of Europe by an account of that new African
+language. He might describe it at first as very imperfect--as a language,
+for instance, so poor that the same word had to be used to express the
+most heterogeneous ideas. He might point out how the same sound, without
+any change of accent, meant _true_, a _ceremony_, a _workman_, and was
+used also as a verb in the sense of literary composition. All these, he
+might say, are expressed in that strange dialect by the sound _rait_
+(right, rite, wright, write). He might likewise observe that this dialect,
+as poor almost as Chinese, had hardly any grammatical inflections, and
+that it had no genders, except in a few words such as man-of-war, and a
+railway-engine, which were both conceived as feminine beings, and spoken
+of as _she_. He might then mention an even more extraordinary feature,
+namely, that although this language had no terminations for the masculine
+and feminine genders of nouns, it employed a masculine and feminine
+termination after the affirmative particle, according as it was addressed
+to a lady or a gentleman. Their affirmative particle being the same as the
+English, _Yes_, they added a final _r_ to it if addressed to a man, and a
+final _m_ if addressed to a lady: that is to say, instead of simply
+saying, _Yes_, these descendants of the escaped American slaves said
+_Yesr_ to a man, and _Yesm_ to a lady.
+
+Absurd as this may sound, I can assure you that the descriptions which are
+given of the dialects of savage tribes, as explained for the first time by
+travellers or missionaries, are even more extraordinary. But let us
+consider now what the student of language would have to do, if such forms
+as _Yesr_ and _Yesm_ were, for the first time, brought under his notice.
+He would first have to trace them back historically, as far as possible to
+their more original types, and if he discovered their connection with _Yes
+Sir_ and _Yes Ma'm_, he would point out how such contractions were most
+likely to spring up in a vulgar dialect. After having traced back the
+_Yesr_ and _Yesm of_ the free African negroes to the idiom of their former
+American masters, the etymologist would next inquire how such phrases as
+_Yes Sir_ and _Yes Madam_, came to be used on the American continent.
+
+Finding nothing analogous in the dialects of the aboriginal inhabitants of
+America, he would be led, by a mere comparison of words, to the languages
+of Europe, and here again, first to the language of England. Even if no
+historical documents had been preserved, the documents of language would
+show that the white masters, whose language the ancestors of the free
+Africans adopted during their servitude, came originally from England,
+and, within certain limits, it would even be possible to fix the time when
+the English language was first transplanted to America. That language must
+have passed, at least, the age of Chaucer before it migrated to the New
+World. For Chaucer has two affirmative particles, _Yea_ and _Yes_, and he
+distinguishes between the two. He uses _Yes_ only in answer to negative
+questions. For instance, in answer to "Does he not go?" he would say,
+_Yes_. In all other cases Chaucer uses _Yea_. To a question, "Does he go?"
+he would answer _Yea_. He observes the same distinction between _No_ and
+_Nay_, the former being used after negative, the latter after all other
+questions. This distinction became obsolete soon after Sir Thomas
+More,(209) and it must have become obsolete before phrases such as _Yes
+Sir_ and _Yes Madam_ could have assumed their stereotyped character.
+
+But there is still more historical information to be gained from these
+phrases. The word _Yes_ is Anglo-Saxon, the same as the German _Ja_, and
+it therefore reveals the fact that the white masters of the American
+slaves who crossed the Atlantic after the time of Chaucer, had crossed the
+Channel at an earlier period after leaving the continental fatherland of
+the Angles and Saxons. The words _Sir_ and _Madam_ tell us still more.
+They are Norman words, and they could only have been imposed on the
+Anglo-Saxons of Britain by Norman conquerors. They tell us more than this.
+For these Normans or Northmen spoke originally a Teutonic dialect, closely
+allied to Anglo-Saxon, and in that dialect words such as _Sir_ and _Madam_
+could never have sprung up. We may conclude therefore that, previous to
+the Norman conquest, the Teutonic Northmen must have made a sufficiently
+long stay in one of the Roman provinces to forget their own and adopt the
+language of the Roman Provincials.
+
+We may now trace back the Norman _Madam_ to the French _Madame_, and we
+recognize in this a corruption of the Latin _Mea domina_, my mistress.
+_Domina_ was changed into _domna_, _donna_, and _dame_, and the same word
+_Dame_ was also used as a masculine in the sense of lord, as a corruption
+of _Domino_, _Domno_ and _Donno_. The temporal lord ruling as
+ecclesiastical seigneur under the bishop, was called a _vidame_, as the
+Vidame of Chartres, &c. The French interjection _Dame!_ has no connection
+with a similar exclamation in English, but it simply means Lord!
+_Dame-Dieu_ in old French is Lord God. A derivative of _Domina_, mistress,
+was _dominicella_, which became _Demoiselle_ and _Damsel_. The masculine
+_Dame_ for _Domino_, Lord, was afterwards replaced by the Latin _Senior_,
+a translation of the German _elder_. This word _elder_ was a title of
+honor, and we have it still both in _alderman_, and in what is originally
+the same, the English _Earl_, the Norse _Jarl_, a corruption of the A.-S.
+_ealdor_. This title _Senior_, meaning originally _older_, was but
+rarely(210) applied to ladies as a title of honor. _Senior_ was changed
+into _Seigneur_, _Seigneur_ into _Sieur_, and _Sieur_ soon dwindled down
+to _Sir_.
+
+Thus we see how in two short phrases, such as _Yesr_ and _Yesm_, long
+chapters of history might be read. If a general destruction of books, such
+as took place in China under the Emperor Thsin-chi-hoang-ti (213 B. C.),
+should sweep away all historical documents, language, even in its most
+depraved state, would preserve the secrets of the past, and would tell
+future generations of the home and migrations of their ancestors from the
+East to the West Indies.
+
+It may seem startling at first to find the same name, _the East Indies_
+and _the West Indies_, at the two extremities of the Aryan migrations; but
+these very names are full of historical meaning. They tell us how the
+Teutonic race, the most vigorous and enterprising of all the members of
+the Aryan family, gave the name of _West Indies_ to the country which in
+their world-compassing migrations they imagined to be India itself; how
+they discovered their mistake and then distinguished between the East
+Indies and West Indies; how they planted new states in the west, and
+regenerated the effete kingdoms in the east; how they preached
+Christianity, and at last practised it by abolishing slavery of body and
+mind among the slaves of West-Indian landholders, and the slaves of
+Brahmanical soulholders, till they greeted at last the very homes from
+which the Aryan family had started when setting out on their discovery of
+the world. All this, and even more, may be read in the vast archives of
+language. The very name of India has a story to tell, for India is not a
+native name. We have it from the Romans, the Romans from the Greeks, the
+Greeks from the Persians. And why from the Persians? Because it is only in
+Persian that an initial s is changed into _h_, which initial _h_ was as
+usual dropped in Greek. It is only in Persian that the country of the
+_Sindhu_ (_sindhu_ is the Sanskrit name for _river_), or of the _seven
+sindhus_, could have been called _Hindia_ or _India_ instead of _Sindia_.
+Unless the followers of Zoroaster had pronounced every _s_ like _h_, we
+should never have heard of the West Indies!
+
+We have thus seen by an imaginary instance what we must be prepared for in
+the growth of language, and we shall now better understand why it must be
+laid down as a fundamental principle in Comparative Grammar to look upon
+nothing in language as merely formal, till every attempt has been made to
+trace the formal elements of language back to their original and
+substantial prototypes. We are accustomed to the idea of grammatical
+terminations modifying the meaning of words. But words can be modified by
+words only; and though in the present state of our science it would be too
+much to say that all grammatical terminations have been traced back to
+original independent words, so many of them have, even in cases where only
+a single letter was left, that we may well lay it down as a rule that all
+formal elements of language were originally substantial. Suppose English
+had never been written down before the time of Piers Ploughman. What
+should we make of such a form as _nadistou_,(211) instead of _ne hadst
+thou_? _Ne rechi_ instead of _I reck not_? _Al ô'm_ in Dorsetshire is _all
+of them_. _I midden_ is _I may not_; _I cooden_, _I could not_. Yet the
+changes which Sanskrit had undergone before it was reduced to writing,
+must have been more considerable by far than what we see in these
+dialects.
+
+Let us now look to modern classical languages such as French and Italian.
+Most of the grammatical terminations are the same as in Latin, only
+changed by phonetic corruption. Thus _j'aime_ is _ego amo_, _tu aimes_,
+_tu amas_, _il aime_, _ille amat_. There was originally a final _t_ in
+French _il aime_, and it comes out again in such phrases as _aime-t-il?_
+Thus the French imperfect corresponds to the Latin imperfect, the Parfait
+défini to the Latin perfect. But what about the French future? There is no
+similarity between _amabo_ and _j'aimerai_. Here then we have a new
+grammatical form, sprung up, as it were, within the recollection of men;
+or, at least, in the broad daylight of history. Now, did the termination
+_rai_ bud forth like a blossom in spring? or did some wise people meet
+together to invent this new termination, and pledge themselves to use it
+instead of the old termination _bo_? Certainly not. We see first of all
+that in all the Romance languages the terminations of the future are
+identical with the auxiliary verb _to have_.(212) In French you find--
+
+j'ai  and je chanter-ai   nous avons   and   nous chanterons.
+tu as and tu chanter-as   vous avez    and   vous chanterez.
+il a  and il chanter-a    ils ont      and   ils chanteront.
+
+But besides this, we actually find in Spanish and Provençal the apparent
+termination of the future used as an independent word and not yet joined
+to the infinitive. We find in Spanish, instead of "_lo hare_," I shall do
+it, the more primitive form _hacer lo he_; _i.e._, _facere id habeo_. We
+find in Provençal, _dir vos ai_ instead of _je vous dirai_; _dir vos em_
+instead of _nous vous dirons_. There can be no doubt, therefore, that the
+Romance future was originally a compound of the auxiliary verb _to have_
+with an infinitive; and _I have to say_, easily took the meaning of _I
+shall say_.
+
+Here, then, we see clearly how grammatical forms arise. A Frenchman looks
+upon his futures as merely grammatical forms. He has no idea, unless he is
+a scholar, that the terminations of his futures are identical with the
+auxiliary verb _avoir_. The Roman had no suspicion that _amabo_ was a
+compound; but it can be proved to contain an auxiliary verb as clearly as
+the French future. The Latin future was destroyed by means of phonetic
+corruption. When the final letters lost their distinct pronunciation it
+became impossible to keep the imperfect _amabam_ separate from the future
+_amabo_. The future was then replaced by dialectical regeneration, for the
+use of _habeo_ with an infinitive is found in Latin, in such expressions
+as _habeo dicere_, I have to say, which would imperceptibly glide into I
+shall say.(213) In fact, wherever we look we see that, the future is
+expressed by means of composition. We have in English _I shall_ and _thou
+wilt_, which mean originally _I am bound_ and _thou intendest_. In German
+we use _werden_, the Gothic _vairthan_, which means originally to go, to
+turn towards. In modern Greek we find thelo, I will, in thelo dosei, I
+shall give. In Roumansch we meet with _vegnir_, to come, forming the
+future _veng a vegnir_, I shall come; whereas in French _je viens de
+dire_, I come from saying, is equivalent to "I have just said." The French
+_je vais dire_ is almost a future, though originally it is _vado dicere_,
+I go to say. The Dorsetshire, "I be gwâin to goo a-pickèn stuones," is
+another case in point. Nor is there any doubt that in the Latin _bo_ of
+_amabo_ we have the old auxiliary _bhû_, to be, and in the Greek future in
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}, the old auxiliary _as_, to be.(214)
+
+We now go back another step, and ask the question which we asked many
+times before, How can a mere _d_ produce so momentous a change as that
+from _I love_ to _I loved_? As we have learnt in the meantime that English
+goes back to Anglo-Saxon, and is closely related to continental Saxon and
+Gothic, we look at once to the Gothic imperfect in order to see whether it
+has preserved any traces of the original compound; for, after what we have
+seen in the previous cases, we are no doubt prepared to find here, too,
+grammatical terminations mere remnants of independent words.
+
+In Gothic there is a verb _nasjan_, to nourish. Its preterite is as
+follows:--
+
+Singular.         Dual.             Plural.
+nas-i-da          nas-i-dêdu        nas-i-dêdum.
+nas-i-dês         nas-i-dêtuts      nas-i-dêduþ.
+nas-i-da          ----                nas-i-dedun.
+
+The subjunctive of the preterite:
+
+Singular.         Dual.             Plural.
+nas-i-dêdjau      nas-i-dêdeiva     nas-i-dêdeima.
+nas-i-dêdeis      nas-i-dêdeits     nas-i-dêdeiþ.
+nas-i-dêdi        ----                nas-i-dêdeina.
+
+This is reduced in Anglo-Saxon to:
+
+Singular.         Plural.
+ner-ë-de          ner-ë-don.
+ner-ë-dest        ner-ë-don.
+ner-ë-de          ner-ë-don.
+
+Subjunctive:
+
+ner-ë-de          ner-ë-don.
+ner-ë-de          ner-ë-don.
+ner-ë-de          ner-ë-don.
+
+Let us now look to the auxiliary verb _to do_, in Anglo-Saxon:
+
+Singular.         Plural.
+dide              didon.
+didest            didon.
+dide              didon.
+
+If we had only the Anglo-Saxon preterite _nerëde_ and the Anglo-Saxon
+_dide_, the identity of the _de_ in _nerëde_ with _dide_ would not be very
+apparent. But here you will perceive the advantage which Gothic has over
+all other Teutonic dialects for the purposes of grammatical comparison and
+analysis. It is in Gothic, and in Gothic in the plural only, that the full
+auxiliary _dêdum_, _dêduþ_, _dêdun_ has been preserved. In the Gothic
+singular _nasida_, _nasidês_, _nasida_ stand for _nasideda_, _nasidedês_,
+_nasideda_. The same contraction has taken place in Anglo-Saxon, not only
+in the singular but in the plural also. Yet, such is the similarity
+between Gothic and Anglo-Saxon that we cannot doubt their preterites
+having been formed on the same last. If there be any truth in inductive
+reasoning, there must have been an original Anglo-Saxon preterite,(215)
+
+Singular.         Plural.
+ner-ë-dide        ner-ë-didon.
+ner-ë-didest      ner-ë-didon.
+ner-ë-dide        ner-ë-didon.
+
+And as _ner-ë-dide_ dwindled down to _nerëde_, so _nerëde_ would, in
+modern English, become _nered_. The _d_ of the preterite, therefore, which
+changes _I love_ into _I loved_ is originally the auxiliary verb _to do_,
+and _I loved_ is the same as _I love did_, or _I did love_. In English
+dialects, as, for instance, in the Dorset dialect, every preterite, if it
+expresses a lasting or repeated action, is formed by _I did_,(216) and a
+distinction is thus established between "'e died eesterdae," and "the
+vo'ke did die by scores;" though originally _died_ is the same as _die
+did_.
+
+It might be asked, however, very properly, how _did_ itself, or the
+Anglo-Saxon _dide_, was formed, and how it received the meaning of a
+preterite. In _dide_ the final _de_ is not termination, but it is the
+root, and the first syllable _di_ is a reduplication of the root, the fact
+being that all preterites of old, or, as they are called, strong verbs,
+were formed as in Greek and Sanskrit by means of reduplication,
+reduplication being one of the principal means by which roots were
+invested with a verbal character.(217) The root _do_ in Anglo-Saxon is the
+same as the root _the_ in _tithemi_ in Greek, and the Sanskrit root _dhâ_
+in _dadâdmi_. Anglo-Saxon _dide_ would therefore correspond to Sanskrit
+_dadhau_, I placed.
+
+Now, in this manner, the whole, or nearly the whole, grammatical framework
+of the Aryan or Indo-European languages has been traced back to original
+independent words, and even the slightest changes which at first sight
+seem so mysterious, such as _foot_ into _feet_, or _I find_ into _I
+found_, have been fully accounted for. This is what is called comparative
+grammar, or a scientific analysis of all the formal elements of a language
+preceded by a comparison of all the varieties which one and the same form
+has assumed in the numerous dialects of the Aryan family. The most
+important dialects for this purpose are Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and
+Gothic; but in many cases Zend, or Celtic, or Slavonic dialects come in to
+throw an unexpected light on forms unintelligible in any of the four
+principal dialects. The result of such a work as Bopp's "Comparative
+Grammar" of the Aryan languages may be summed up in a few words. The whole
+framework of grammar--the elements of derivation, declension, and
+conjugation--had become settled before the separation of the Aryan family.
+Hence the broad outlines of grammar, in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic,
+and the rest, are in reality the same; and the apparent differences can be
+explained by phonetic corruption, which is determined by the phonetic
+peculiarities of each nation. On the whole, the history of all the Aryan
+languages is nothing but a gradual process of decay. After the grammatical
+terminations of all these languages have been traced back to their most
+primitive form, it is possible, in many instances, to determine their
+original meaning. This, however, can be done by means of induction only;
+and the period during which, as in the Provençal _dir vos ai_, the
+component elements of the old Aryan grammar maintained a separate
+existence in the language and the mind of the Aryans had closed, before
+Sanskrit was Sanskrit or Greek Greek. That there was such a period we can
+doubt as little as we can doubt the real existence of fern forests
+previous to the formation of our coal fields. We can do even more. Suppose
+we had no remnants of Latin; suppose the very existence of Rome and of
+Latin were unknown to us; we might still prove, on the evidence of the six
+Romance dialects, that there must have been a time when these dialects
+formed the language of a small settlement; nay, by collecting the words
+which all these dialects share in common, we might, to a certain extent,
+reconstruct the original language, and draw a sketch of the state of
+civilization, as reflected by these common words. The same can be done if
+we compare Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, Celtic, and Slavonic. The words
+which have as nearly as possible the same form and meaning in all the
+languages must have existed before the people, who afterwards formed the
+prominent nationalities of the Aryan family, separated; and, if carefully
+interpreted, they, too, will serve as evidence as to the state of
+civilization attained by the Aryans before they left their common home. It
+can be proved, by the evidence of language, that before their separation
+the Aryans led the life of agricultural nomads,--a life such as Tacitus
+describes that of the ancient Germans. They knew the arts of ploughing, of
+making roads, of building ships, of weaving and sewing, of erecting
+houses; they had counted at least as far as one hundred. They had
+domesticated the most important animals, the cow, the horse, the sheep,
+the dog; they were acquainted with the most useful metals, and armed with
+iron hatchets, whether for peaceful or warlike purposes. They had
+recognized the bonds of blood and the bonds of marriage; they followed
+their leaders and kings, and the distinction between right and wrong was
+fixed by laws and customs. They were impressed with the idea of a divine
+Being, and they invoked it by various names. All this, as I said, can be
+proved by the evidence of language. For if you find that languages like
+Greek, Latin, Gothic, Celtic, or Slavonic, which, after their first
+separation, have had but little contact with Sanskrit, have the same word,
+for instance, for _iron_ which exists in Sanskrit, this is proof absolute
+that iron was known previous to the Aryan separation. Now, _iron_ is _ais_
+in Gothic, and _ayas_ in Sanskrit, a word which, as it could not have been
+borrowed by the Indians from the Germans or by the Germans from the
+Indians, must have existed previous to their separation. We could not find
+the same name for house in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Slavonic, and
+Celtic,(218) unless houses had been known before the separation of these
+dialects. In this manner a history of Aryan civilization has been written
+from the archives of language, stretching back to times far beyond the
+reach of any documentary history.(219)
+
+The very name of _Arya_ belongs to this history, and I shall devote the
+rest of this lecture to tracing the origin and gradual spreading of this
+old word. I had intended to include, in to-day's lecture, a short account
+of _comparative mythology_, a branch of our science which restores the
+original form and meaning of decayed words by the same means by which
+comparative grammar recovers the original form and meaning of
+terminations. But my time is too limited; and, as I have been asked
+repeatedly why I applied the name of _Aryan_ to that family of language
+which we have just examined, I feel that I am bound to give an answer.
+
+_Ârya_ is a Sanskrit word, and in the later Sanskrit it means _noble_, _of
+a good family_. It was, however, originally a national name, and we see
+traces of it as late as the Law-book of the Mânavas, where India is still
+called _Ârya-âvarta_, the abode of the _Âryas_.(220) In the old Sanskrit,
+in the hymns of the Veda, _ârya_ occurs frequently as a national name and
+as a name of honor, comprising the worshippers of the gods of the
+Brahmans, as opposed to their enemies, who are called in the Veda
+_Dasyus_. Thus one of the gods, _Indra_, who, in some respects, answers to
+the Greek Zeus, is invoked in the following words (Rigveda, i. 57, 8):
+"Know thou the Âryas, O Indra, and they who are Dasyus; punish the
+lawless, and deliver them unto thy servant! Be thou the mighty helper of
+the worshippers, and I will praise all these thy deeds at the festivals."
+
+In the later dogmatic literature of the Vedic age, the name of Ârya is
+distinctly appropriated to the three first castes--the Brahmans,
+Kshatriyas, Vaisyas--as opposed to the fourth, or the Sûdras. In the
+Satapatha-Brâhmana it is laid down distinctly: "Âryas are only the
+Brahmans, the Kshatriyas, and Vaisyas, for they are admitted to the
+sacrifices. They shall not speak with everybody, but only with the
+Brahman, the Kshatriya, and the Vaisya. If they should fall into a
+conversation with a Sûdra, let them say to another man, 'Tell this Sûdra
+so.' This is the law."
+
+In the Atharva-veda (iv. 20, 4; xix. 62, 1) expressions occur such as,
+"seeing all things, whether Sûdra or Ârya," where Sûdra and Ârya are meant
+to express the whole of mankind.
+
+This word _ârya_ with a long _â_ is derived from _arya_ with a short _a_,
+and this name _arya_ is applied in the later Sanskrit to a Vaisya, or a
+member of the third caste.(221) What is called the third class must
+originally have constituted the large majority of the Brahmanic society,
+for all who were not soldiers or priests, were Vaisyas. We may well
+understand, therefore, how a name, originally applied to the cultivators
+of the soil and householders, should in time have become a general name
+for all Aryans.(222) Why the householders were called _arya_ is a question
+which would carry us too far at present. I can only state that the
+etymological signification of Arya seems to be "one who ploughs or tills,"
+and that it is connected with the root of _arare_. The Aryans would seem
+to have chosen this name for themselves as opposed to the nomadic races,
+_the Turanians_, whose original name _Tura_ implies the swiftness of the
+horseman.
+
+In India, as we saw, the name of Ârya, as a national name, fell into
+oblivion in later times, and was preserved only in the term Âryâvarta, the
+abode of the Aryans. But it was more faithfully preserved by the
+Zoroastrians who migrated from India to the north-west, and whose religion
+has been preserved to us in the Zend-avesta, though in fragments only. Now
+_Airya_ in Zend means venerable, and is at the same time the name of the
+people.(223) In the first chapter of the Vendidád, where Ahuramazda
+explains to Zarathustra the order in which he created the earth, sixteen
+countries are mentioned, each, when created by Ahuramazda, being pure and
+perfect; but each being tainted in turn by Angro mainyus or Ahriman. Now
+the first of these countries is called _Airyanem vaêjô_, _Arianum semen_,
+the Aryan seed, and its position must have been as far east as the western
+slopes of the Belurtag and Mustag, near the sources of the Oxus and
+Yaxartes, the highest elevation of Central Asia.(224) From this country,
+which is called their seed, the Aryans advanced towards the south and
+west, and in the Zend-avesta the whole extent of country occupied by the
+Aryans is likewise called _Airyâ_. A line drawn from India along the
+Paropamisus and Caucasus Indicus in the east, following in the north the
+direction between the Oxus and Yaxartes,(225) then running along the
+Caspian Sea, so as to include Hyrcania and Râgha, then turning south-east
+on the borders of Nisaea, Aria (_i.e._ Haria), and the countries washed by
+the Etymandrus and Arachotus, would indicate the general horizon of the
+Zoroastrian world. It would be what is called in the fourth cardé of the
+Yasht of Mithra, "the whole space of Aria," _vîspem airyô-sayanem_ (totum
+Ariæ situm).(226) Opposed to the Aryan we find in the Zend-avesta the
+non-Aryan countries (anairyâo dainhâvô),(227) and traces of this name are
+found in the {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, a people and town on the frontiers of
+Hyrcania.(228) Greek geographers use the name of Ariana in a wider sense
+even than the Zend-avesta. All the country between the Indian Ocean in the
+south and the Indus in the east, the Hindu-kush and Paropamisus in the
+north, the Caspian gates, Karamania, and the mouth of the Persian gulf in
+the west, is included by Strabo (xv. 2) under the name of Ariana; and
+Bactria is thus called(229) by him "the ornament of the whole of Ariana."
+As the Zoroastrian religion spread westward, Persia, Elymais, and Media
+all claimed for themselves the Aryan title. Hellanicus, who wrote before
+Herodotus, knows of Aria as a name of Persia.(230) Herodotus (vii. 62)
+attests that the Medians called themselves Arii; and even for Atropatene,
+the northernmost part of Media, the name of Ariania (not Aria) has been
+preserved by Stephanus Byzantinus. As to Elymais its name has been derived
+from _Ailama_, a supposed corruption of _Airyama_.(231) The Persians,
+Medians, Bactrians, and Sogdians all spoke, as late as the time of
+Strabo,(232) nearly the same language, and we may well understand,
+therefore, that they should have claimed for themselves one common name,
+in opposition to the hostile tribes of Turan.
+
+That _Aryan_ was used as a title of honor in the Persian empire is clearly
+shown by the cuneiform inscriptions of Darius. He calls himself _Ariya_
+and _Ariya-chitra_, an Aryan and of Aryan descent; and Ahuramazda, or, as
+he is called by Darius, Auramazda, is rendered in the Turanian translation
+of the inscription of Behistun, "the god of the Aryans." Many historical
+names of the Persians contain the same element. The great-grandfather of
+Darius is called in the inscriptions Ariyârâmna, the Greek _Ariaramnes_
+(Herod, vii. 90). Ariobarzanes (_i.e._ Euergetes), Ariomanes (_i.e._
+Eumenes), Ariomardos, all show the same origin.(233)
+
+About the same time as these inscriptions, Eudemos, a pupil of Aristotle,
+as quoted by Damascius, speaks of "the Magi and the whole Aryan
+race,"(234) evidently using Aryan in the same sense in which the
+Zend-avesta spoke of "the whole country of Aria."
+
+And when, after years of foreign invasion and occupation, Persia rose
+again under the sceptre of the Sassanians to be a national kingdom, we
+find the new national kings the worshippers of Masdanes, calling
+themselves, in the inscriptions deciphered by De Sacy,(235) "Kings of the
+Aryan and un-Aryan races;" in Pehlevi, _Irân va Anirân_; in Greek, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.
+
+The modern name of Irán for Persia still keeps up the memory of this
+ancient title.
+
+In the name of _Armenia_ the same element of _Arya_ has been supposed to
+exist.(236) The name of Armenia, however, does not occur in Zend, and the
+name _Armina_, which is used for Armenia in the cuneiform inscriptions, is
+of doubtful etymology.(237) In the language of Armenia, _ari_ is used in
+the widest sense for Aryan or Iranian; it means also brave, and is applied
+more especially to the Medians.(238) The word _arya_, therefore, though
+not contained in the name of Armenia, can be proved to have existed in the
+Armenian language as a national and honorable name.
+
+West of Armenia, on the borders of the Caspian Sea, we find the ancient
+name of _Albania_. The Armenians call the Albanians _Aghovan_, and as _gh_
+in Armenian stands for _r_ or _l_, it has been conjectured by Boré, that
+in _Aghovan_ also the name of Aria is contained. This seems doubtful. But
+in the valleys of the Caucasus we meet with an Aryan race speaking an
+Aryan language, the _Os_ of _Ossethi_, and they call themselves
+_Iron_.(239)
+
+Along the Caspian, and in the country washed by the Oxus and Yaxartes,
+Aryan and non-Aryan tribes were mingled together for centuries. Though the
+relation between Aryans and Turanians is hostile, and though there were
+continual wars between them, as we learn from the great Persian epic, the
+Shahnámeh, it does not follow that all the nomad races who infested the
+settlements of the Aryans, were of Tatar blood and speech. Turvasa and his
+descendants, who represent the Turanians, are described in the later epic
+poems of India as cursed and deprived of their inheritance in India. But
+in the Vedas Turvasa is represented as worshipping Aryan gods. Even in the
+Shahnámeh, Persian heroes go over to the Turanians and lead them against
+Iran, very much as Coriolanus led the Samnites against Rome. We may thus
+understand why so many Turanian or Scythian names, mentioned by Greek
+writers, should show evident traces of Aryan origin. _Aspa_ was the
+Persian name for _horse_, and in the Scythian names _Aspabota_,
+_Aspakara_, and _Asparatha_,(240) we can hardly fail to recognize the same
+element. Even the name of the Aspasian mountains, placed by Ptolemy in
+Scythia, indicates a similar origin. Nor is the word Arya unknown beyond
+the Oxus. There is a people called _Ariacoe_,(241) another called
+_Antariani_.(242) A king of the Scythians, at the time of Darius, was
+called _Ariantes_. A cotemporary of Xerxes is known by the name of
+_Aripithes_ (_i.e._ Sanskrit, _aryapati_; Zend, _airyapaiti_); and
+_Spargapithes_ seems to have some connection with the Sanskrit
+_svargapati_, lord of heaven.
+
+We have thus traced the name of _Ârya_ from India to the west, from
+Âryâvarta to Ariana, Persia, Media, more doubtfully to Armenia and
+Albania, to the Iron in the Caucasus, and to some of the nomad tribes in
+Transoxiana. As we approach Europe the traces of this name grow fainter,
+yet they are not altogether lost.
+
+Two roads were open to the Aryans of Asia in their westward migrations.
+One through Chorasan(243) to the north, through what is now called Russia,
+and thence to the shores of the Black Sea and Thrace. Another from
+Armenia, across the Caucasus or across the Black Sea to Northern Greece,
+and along the Danube to Germany. Now on the former road the Aryans left a
+trace of their migration in the old name of Thrace which was _Aria_;(244)
+on the latter we meet in the eastern part of Germany, near the Vistula,
+with a German tribe called _Arii_. And as in Persia we found many proper
+names in which _Arya_ formed an important ingredient, so we find again in
+German history names such as _Ariovistus_.(245)
+
+Though we look in vain for any traces of this old national name among the
+Greeks and Romans, late researches have rendered it at least plausible
+that it has been preserved in the extreme west of the Aryan migrations, in
+the very name of _Ireland_. The common etymology of _Erin_ is that it
+means "island of the west," _iar-innis_, or land of the west, _iar-in_.
+But this is clearly wrong.(246) The old name is _Ériu_ in the nominative,
+more recently _Éire_. It is only in the oblique cases that the final _n_
+appears, as in _regio_, _regionis_. _Erin_ therefore has been explained as
+a derivative of _Er_ or _Eri_, said to be the ancient name of the Irish
+Celts as preserved in the Anglo-Saxon name of their country,
+_Íraland_.(247) It is maintained by O'Reilly, though denied by others,
+that _er_ is used in Irish in the sense of noble, like the Sanskrit
+_ârya_.(248)
+
+Some of the evidence here collected in tracing the ancient name of the
+Aryan family, may seem doubtful, and I have pointed out myself some links
+of the chain uniting the earliest name of India with the modern name of
+Ireland, as weaker than the rest. But the principal links are safe. Names
+of countries, peoples, rivers, and mountains, have an extraordinary
+vitality, and they will remain while cities, kingdoms, and nations pass
+away. _Rome_ has the same name to-day, and will probably have it forever,
+which was given to it by the earliest Latin and Sabine settlers, and
+wherever we find the name of Rome, whether in Wallachia, which by the
+inhabitants is called Rumania, or in the dialects of the Grisons, the
+Romansch, or in the title of the Romance languages, we know that some
+threads would lead us back to the Rome of Romulus and Remus, the
+stronghold of the earliest warriors of Latium. The ruined city near the
+mouth of the Upper Zab, now usually known by the name of Nimrud, is called
+_Athur_ by the Arabic geographers, and in Athur we recognize the old name
+of Assyria, which Dio Cassius writes Atyria, remarking that the barbarians
+changed the Sigma into Tau. Assyria is called Athurâ, in the inscriptions
+of Darius.(249) We hear of battles fought on the _Sutledge_, and we hardly
+think that the battle field of the Sikhs was nearly the same where
+Alexander fought the kings of the Penjáb. But the name of the _Sutledge_
+is the name of the same river as the _Hesudrus_ of Alexander, the
+_Satadru_ of the Indians, and among the oldest hymns of the Veda, about
+1500 B. C., we find a war-song referring to a battle fought on the two
+banks of the same river.
+
+No doubt there is danger in trusting to mere similarity of names. Grimm
+may be right that the Arii of Tacitus were originally Harii, and that
+their name is not connected with Ârya. But the evidence on either side
+being merely conjectural, this must remain an open question. In most
+cases, however, a strict observation of the phonetic laws peculiar to each
+language will remove all uncertainty. Grimm, in his "History of the German
+Language" (p. 228), imagined that _Hariva_, the name of _Herat_ in the
+cuneiform inscriptions, is connected with Arii, the name which, as we saw,
+Herodotus gives to the Medes. This cannot be, for the initial aspiration
+in _Hariva_ points to a word which in Sanskrit begins with _s_, and not
+with a vowel, like _ârya_. The following remarks will make this clearer.
+
+Herat is called _Herat_ and _Heri_,(250) and the river on which it stands
+is called _Heri-rud_. This river _Heri_ is called by Ptolemy {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~},(251)
+by other writers _Arius_; and _Aria_ is the name given to the country
+between Parthia (Parthuwa) in the west, Margiana (Marghush) in the north,
+Bactria (Bakhtrish) and Arachosia (Harauwatish) in the east, and Drangiana
+(Zaraka) in the south. This, however, though without the initial _h_, is
+not Ariana, as described by Strabo, but an independent country, forming
+part of it. It is supposed to be the same as the _Haraiva_ (Hariva) of the
+cuneiform inscriptions, though this is doubtful. But it is mentioned in
+the Zend-avesta, under the name of _Harôyu_,(252) as the sixth country
+created by Ormuzd. We can trace this name with the initial _h_ even beyond
+the time of Zoroaster. The Zoroastrians were a colony from northern India.
+They had been together for a time with the people whose sacred songs have
+been preserved to us in the Veda. A schism took place, and the
+Zoroastrians migrated westward to Arachosia and Persia. In their
+migrations they did what the Greeks did when they founded new colonies,
+what the Americans did in founding new cities. They gave to the new cities
+and to the rivers along which they settled, the names of cities and rivers
+familiar to them, and reminding them of the localities which they had
+left. Now, as a Persian _h_ points to a Sanskrit _s_, _Harôyu_ would be in
+Sanskrit _Saroyu_. One of the sacred rivers of India, a river mentioned in
+the Veda, and famous in the epic poems as the river of Ayodhyâ, one of the
+earliest capitals of India, the modern Oude, has the name of _Sarayu_, the
+modern _Sardju_.(253)
+
+As Comparative Philology has thus traced the ancient name of Ârya from
+India to Europe, as the original title assumed by the Aryans before they
+left their common home, it is but natural that it should have been chosen
+as the technical term for the family of languages which was formerly
+designated as Indo-Germanic, Indo-European, Caucasian, or Japhetic.
+
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE VII. THE CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE.
+
+
+Our analysis of some of the nominal and verbal formations in the Aryan or
+Indo-European family of speech has taught us that, however mysterious and
+complicated these grammatical forms appear at first sight, they are in
+reality the result of a very simple process. It seems at first almost
+hopeless to ask such questions as why the addition of a mere _d_ should
+change love present into love past, or why the termination _ai_ in French,
+if added to _aimer_, should convey the idea of love to come. But, once
+placed under the microscope of comparative grammar, these and all other
+grammatical forms assume a very different and much more intelligible
+aspect. We saw how what we now call terminations were originally
+independent words. After coalescing with the words which they were
+intended to modify, they were gradually reduced to mere syllables and
+letters, unmeaning in themselves, yet manifesting their former power and
+independence by the modification which they continue to produce in the
+meaning of the words to which they are appended. The true nature of
+grammatical terminations was first pointed out by a philosopher, who,
+however wild some of his speculations may be, had certainly caught many a
+glimpse of the real life and growth of language, I mean _Horne Tooke_.
+This is what he writes of terminations:(254)--
+
+"For though I think I have good reasons to believe that all terminations
+may likewise be traced to their respective origin; and that, however
+artificial they may now appear to us, they were not originally the effect
+of premeditated and deliberate _art_, but separate words by length of time
+corrupted and coalescing with the words of which they are now considered
+as the terminations. Yet this was less likely to be suspected by others.
+And if it had been suspected, they would have had much further to travel
+to their journey's end, and through a road much more embarrassed; as the
+corruption in those languages is of much longer standing than in ours, and
+more complex."
+
+Horne Tooke, however, though he saw rightly what road should be followed
+to track the origin of grammatical terminations, was himself without the
+means to reach his journey's end. Most of his explanations are quite
+untenable, and it is curious to observe in reading his book, the
+Diversions of Purley, how a man of a clear, sharp, and powerful mind, and
+reasoning according to sound and correct principles, may yet, owing to his
+defective knowledge of facts, arrive at conclusions directly opposed to
+truth.
+
+When we have once seen how grammatical terminations are to be traced back
+in the beginning to independent words, we have learnt at the same time
+that the component elements of language, which remain in our crucible at
+the end of a complete grammatical analysis, are of two kinds, namely,
+_Roots predicative_ and _Roots demonstrative_.
+
+We call _root_ or _radical_, whatever, in the words of any language or
+family of languages, cannot be reduced to a simpler or more original form.
+It may be well to illustrate this by a few examples. But, instead of
+taking a number of words in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, and tracing them
+back to their common centre, it will be more instructive if we begin with
+a root which has been discovered, and follow it through its wanderings
+from language to language. I take the root AR, to which I alluded in our
+last Lecture as the source of the word _Arya_, and we shall thus, while
+examining its ramification, learn at the same time why that name was
+chosen by the agricultural nomads, the ancestors of the Aryan race.
+
+This root AR(255) means _to plough_, to open the soil. From it we have the
+Latin _ar-are_, the Greek _ar-oun_, the Irish _ar_, the Lithuanian
+_ar-ti_, the Russian _ora-ti_, the Gothic _ar-jan_, the Anglo-Saxon
+_er-jan_, the modern English _to ear_. Shakespeare says (Richard II. III.
+2), "to ear the land that has some hope to grow."
+
+From this we have the name of the plough, or the instrument of earing: in
+Latin, _ara-trum_; in Greek, _aro-tron_; in Bohemian, _oradto_; in
+Lithuanian, _arklas_; in Cornish, _aradar_; in Welsh, _arad_;(256) in Old
+Norse, _ardhr_. In Old Norse, however, _ardhr_, meaning originally the
+plough, came to mean earnings or wealth; the plough being, in early times,
+the most essential possession of the peasant. In the same manner the Latin
+name for money, _pecunia_, was derived from _pecus_, cattle; the word
+_fee_, which is now restricted to the payment made to a doctor or lawyer,
+was in Old English _feh_, and in Anglo-Saxon _feoh_, meaning cattle and
+wealth; for _feoh_, and Gothic _faihu_, are really the same word as the
+Latin _pecus_, the modern German _vieh_.
+
+The act of ploughing is called _aratio_ in Latin; _arosis_ in Greek: and I
+believe that _arôma_, in the sense of perfume, had the same origin; for
+what is sweeter or more aromatic than the smell of a ploughed field? In
+Genesis, xxviii. 27, Jacob says "the smell of my son is as the smell of a
+field which the Lord has blessed."
+
+A more primitive formation of the root _ar_ seems to be the Greek _era_,
+earth, the Sanskrit _irâ_, the Old High-German _ëro_, the Gaelic _ire_,
+_irionn_. It meant originally the ploughed land, afterwards earth in
+general. Even the word _earth_, the Gothic _airtha_,(257) the Anglo-Saxon
+_eorthe_, must have been taken originally in the sense of ploughed or
+cultivated land. The derivative _ar-mentum_, formed like _ju-mentum_,
+would naturally have been applied to any animal fit for ploughing and
+other labor in the field, whether ox or horse.
+
+As agriculture was the principal labor in that early state of society when
+we must suppose most of our Aryan words to have been formed and applied to
+their definite meanings, we may well understand how a word which
+originally meant this special kind of labor, was afterwards used to
+signify labor in general. The general tendency in the growth of words and
+their meanings is from the special to the more general: thus _gubernare_,
+which originally meant to steer a ship, took the general sense of
+governing. _To equip_, which originally was to furnish a ship (French
+_équiper_ and _esquif_, from _schifo_, ship), came to mean furnishing in
+general. Now in modern German, _arbeit_ means simply _labor_; _arbeitsam_
+means industrious. In Gothic, too, _arbaiþs_ is only used to express labor
+and trouble in general. But in Old Norse, _erfidhi_ means chiefly
+_ploughing_, and afterwards labor in general; and the same word in
+Anglo-Saxon, _earfodh_ or _earfedhe_, is labor. Of course we might equally
+suppose that, as laborer, from meaning one who labors in general, came to
+take the special sense of an agricultural laborer, so _arbeit_, from
+meaning work in general, came to be applied, in Old Norse, to the work of
+ploughing. But as the root of _erfidhi_ seems to be _ar_, our first
+explanation is the more plausible. Besides, the simple _ar_ in Old Norse
+means ploughing and labor, and the Old High-German _art_ has likewise the
+sense of ploughing.(258)
+
+{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} and _arvum_, a field, would certainly have to be referred to the
+root _ar_, to plough. And as ploughing was not only one of the earliest
+kinds of labor, but also one of the most primitive arts, I have no doubt
+that the Latin _ars_, _artis_, and our own word _art_, meant originally
+the art of all arts, first taught to mortals by the goddess of all wisdom,
+the art of cultivating the land. In Old High-German _arunti_, in
+Anglo-Saxon _ærend_, mean simply work; but they too must originally have
+meant the special work of agriculture; and in the English _errand_, and
+_errand-boy_, the same word is still in existence.
+
+But _ar_ did not only mean to plough, or to cut open the land; it was
+transferred at a very early time to the ploughing of the sea, or rowing.
+Thus Shakspeare says:--
+
+
+    "Make the sea serve them; which they _ear_ and wound
+    With keels."
+
+
+In a similar manner, we find that Sanskrit derives from _ar_ the
+substantive _aritra_, not in the sense of a plough, but in the sense of a
+rudder. In Anglo-Saxon we find the simple form _âr_, the English _oar_, as
+it were the plough-share of the water. The Greek also had used the root
+_ar_ in the sense of rowing; for {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}(259) in Greek is a rower, and
+their word {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}-{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}-{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, meant originally a ship with three oars, or with
+three rows of oars,(260) a trireme.
+
+This comparison of ploughing and rowing is of frequent occurrence in
+ancient languages. The English word _plough_, the Slavonic _ploug_, has
+been identified with the Sanskrit _plava_,(261) a ship, and with the Greek
+_ploion_, ship. As the Aryans spoke of a ship ploughing the sea, they also
+spoke of a plough sailing across the field; and thus it was that the same
+names were applied to both.(262) In English dialects, _plough_ or _plow_
+is still used in the general sense of waggon or conveyance.(263)
+
+We might follow the offshoots of this root _ar_ still further, but the
+number of words which we have examined in various languages will suffice
+to show what is meant by a predicative root. In all these words _ar_ is
+the radical element, all the rest is merely formative. The root _ar_ is
+called a predicative root, because in whatever composition it enters, it
+predicates one and the same conception, whether of the plough, or the
+rudder, or the ox, or the field. Even in such a word as _artistic_, the
+predicative power of the root _ar_ may still be perceived, though, of
+course, as it were by means of a powerful telescope only. The Brahmans who
+called themselves _ârya_ in India, were no more aware of the real origin
+of this name and its connection with agricultural labor, than the artist
+who now speaks of _his art_ as a divine inspiration suspects that the word
+which he uses was originally applicable only to so primitive an art as
+that of ploughing.
+
+We shall now examine another family of words, in order to see by what
+process the radical elements of words were first discovered.
+
+Let us take the word _respectable_. It is a word of Latin not of Saxon,
+origin, as we see by the termination _able_. In _respectabilis_ we easily
+distinguish the verb _respectare_ and the termination _bilis_. We then
+separate the prefix _re_, which leaves _spectare_, and we trace _spectare_
+as a participial formation back to the Latin verb _spicere_ or _specere_,
+meaning to see, to look. In _specere_, again, we distinguish between the
+changeable termination _ere_ and the unchangeable remnant _spec_, which we
+call the root. This root we expect to find in Sanskrit and the other Aryan
+languages; and so we do. In Sanskrit the more usual form is _pas_, to see,
+without the _s_; but _spas_ also is found in _spasa_, a spy, in _spashta_
+(in _vi-spashta_), clear, manifest, and in the Vedic _spas_, a guardian.
+In the Teutonic family we find _spëhôn_ in Old High-German meaning to
+look, to spy, to contemplate; and _spëha_, the English spy.(264) In Greek,
+the root _spek_ has been changed into _skep_, which exists in _skeptomai_,
+I look, I examine; from whence _skeptikos_, an examiner or inquirer, in
+theological language, a sceptic; and _episkopos_, an overseer, a bishop.
+Let us now examine the various ramifications of this root. Beginning with
+_respectable_, we found that it originally meant a person who deserves
+_respect_, _respect_ meaning _looking back_. We pass by common objects or
+persons without noticing them, whereas we turn back to look again at those
+which deserve our admiration, our regard, our respect. This was the
+original meaning of _respect_ and _respectable_, nor need we be surprised
+at this if we consider that _noble_, _nobilis_ in Latin, conveyed
+originally no more than the idea of a person that deserves to be known;
+for _nobilis_ stands for _gnobilis_, just as _nomen_ stands for _gnomen_,
+or _natus_ for _gnatus_.
+
+"With respect to" has now become almost a mere preposition. For if we say,
+"With respect to this point I have no more to say," this is the same as "I
+have no more to say on this point."
+
+Again, as in looking back we single out a person, the adjective
+_respective_, and the adverb _respectively_, are used almost in the same
+sense as special, or singly.
+
+The English _respite_ is the Norman modification of _respectus_, the
+French _répit_. _Répit_ meant originally looking back, reviewing the whole
+evidence. A criminal received so many days _ad respectum_, to re-examine
+the case. Afterwards it was said that the prisoner had received a respit,
+that is to say, had obtained a re-examination; and at last a verb was
+formed, and it was said that a person had been respited.
+
+As _specere_, to see, with the preposition _re_, came to mean respect, so
+with the preposition _de_, down, it forms the Latin _despicere_, meaning
+to look down, the English _despise_. The French _dépit_ (Old French
+_despit_) means no longer contempt, though it is the Latin _despectus_,
+but rather _anger_, _vexation_. _Se dépiter_ is to be vexed, to fret. "_En
+dépit de lui_" is originally "angry with him," then "in spite of him;" and
+the English _spite_, _in spite of_, _spiteful_, are mere abbreviations of
+_despite_, _in despite of_, _despiteful_, and have nothing whatever to do
+with the spitting of cats.
+
+As _de_ means down from above, so _sub_ means up from below, and this
+added to _specere_, to look, gives us _suspicere_, _suspicari_, to look
+up, in the sense of to suspect.(265) From it _suspicion_, _suspicious_;
+and likewise the French _soupçon_, even in such phrases as "there is a
+soupçon of chicory in this coffee," meaning just a touch, just the
+smallest atom of chicory.
+
+As _circum_ means round about, so _circumspect_ means, of course,
+cautious, careful.
+
+With _in_, meaning into, _specere_ forms _inspicere_, to inspect; hence
+_inspector_, _inspection_.
+
+With _ad_, towards, _specere_ becomes _adspicere_, to look at a thing.
+Hence _adspectus_, the aspect, the look or appearance of things.
+
+So with _pro_, forward, _specere_ became _prospicere_; and gave rise to
+such words as _prospectus_, as it were a look out, _prospective_, &c. With
+_con_, with, _spicere_ forms _conspicere_, to see together, _conspectus_,
+_conspicuous_. We saw before in _respectable_, that a new word _spectare_
+is formed from the participle of _spicere_. This, with the preposition
+_ex_, out, gives us the Latin _expectare_, the English _to expect_, to
+look out; with its derivatives.
+
+_Auspicious_ is another word which contains our root as the second of its
+component elements. The Latin _auspicium_ stands for _avispicium_, and
+meant the looking out for certain birds which were considered to be of
+good or bad omen to the success of any public or private act. Hence
+_auspicious_, in the sense of lucky. _Haru-spex_ was the name given to a
+person who foretold the future from the inspection of the entrails of
+animals.
+
+Again, from _specere_, _speculum_ was formed, in the sense of
+looking-glass, or any other means of looking at oneself; and from it
+_speculari_, the English _to speculate_, _speculative_, &c.
+
+But there are many more offshoots of this one root. Thus, the Latin
+_speculum_, looking-glass, became _specchio_ in Italian; and the same
+word, though in a roundabout way, came into French as the adjective
+_espiègle_, waggish. The origin of this French word is curious. There
+exists in German a famous cycle of stories, mostly tricks, played by a
+half-historical, half-mythical character of the name of _Eulenspiegel_, or
+_Owl-glass_. These stories were translated into French, and the hero was
+known at first by the name of _Ulespiègle_, which name, contracted
+afterwards into _Espiègle_, became a general name for every wag.
+
+As the French borrowed not only from Latin, but likewise from the Teutonic
+languages, we meet there side by side with the derivatives of the Latin
+_specere_, the old High-German, _spëhôn_, slightly disguised as _épier_,
+to spy, the Italian _spiare_. The German word for a spy was _spëha_, and
+this appears in old French as _espie_, in modern French as _espion_.
+
+One of the most prolific branches of the same root is the Latin _species_.
+Whether we take _species_ in the sense of a perennial succession of
+similar individuals in continual generations (_Jussieu_), or look upon it
+as existing only as a category of thought (_Agassiz_), _species_ was
+intended originally as the literal translation of the Greek _eidos_ as
+opposed to _genos_, or _genus_. The Greeks classified things originally
+according to _kind_ and _form_, and though these terms were afterwards
+technically defined by Aristotle, their etymological meaning is in reality
+the most appropriate. Things may be classified either because they are of
+the same _genus_ or _kind_, that is to say, because they had the same
+origin; this gives us a genealogical classification: or they can be
+classified because they have the same appearance, _eidos_, or _form_,
+without claiming for them a common origin; and this gives us a
+morphological classification. It was, however, in the Aristotelian, and
+not in its etymological sense, that the Greek _eidos_ was rendered in
+Latin by _species_, meaning the subdivision of a genus, the class of a
+family. Hence the French _espèce_, a kind; the English _special_, in the
+sense of particular as opposed to general. There is little of the root
+_spas_, to see, left in a _special train_, or a _special messenger_; yet
+the connection, though not apparent, can be restored with perfect
+certainty. We frequently hear the expression _to specify_. A man specifies
+his grievances. What does it mean? The mediæval Latin _specificus_ is a
+literal translation of the Greek _eidopoios_. This means what makes or
+constitutes an _eidos_ or species. Now, in classification, what
+constitutes a species is that particular quality which, superadded to
+other qualities, shared in common by all the members of a genus,
+distinguishes one class from all other classes. Thus the specific
+character which distinguishes man from all other animals, is reason or
+language. Specific, therefore, assumed the sense of _distinguishing_ or
+_distinct_, and the verb _to specify_ conveyed the meaning of enumerating
+distinctly, or one by one. I finish with the French _épicier_, a
+respectable grocer, but originally a man who sold drugs. The different
+kinds of drugs which the apothecary had to sell, were spoken of, with a
+certain learned air, as _species_, not as drugs in general, but as
+peculiar drugs and special medicines. Hence the chymist or apothecary is
+still called _Speziale_ in Italian, his shop _spezieria_.(266) In French
+_species_, which regularly became _espèce_, assumed a new form to express
+drugs, namely _épices_; the English _spices_, the German _spezereien_.
+Hence the famous _pain d'épices_, gingerbread nuts, and _épicier_, a
+grocer. If you try for a moment to trace _spicy_, or _a well-spiced_
+article, back to the simple root _specere_, to look, you will understand
+that marvellous power of language which out of a few simple elements has
+created a variety of names hardly surpassed by the unbounded variety of
+nature herself.(267)
+
+I say "out of a few simple elements," for the number of what we call full
+predicative roots, such as _ar_, to plough, or _spas_, to look, is indeed
+small.
+
+A root is necessarily monosyllabic. Roots consisting of more than one
+syllable can always be proved to be derivative roots, and even among
+monosyllabic roots it is necessary to distinguish between primitive,
+secondary, and tertiary roots.
+
+A. Primitive roots are those which consist--
+
+
+    (1) of one vowel; for instance, _i_, to go;
+
+    (2) of one vowel and one consonant; for instance, _ad_, to eat;
+
+    (3) of one consonant and one vowel; for instance, _dâ_, to give.
+
+
+B. Secondary roots are those which consist--
+
+
+    (1) of one consonant, vowel, and consonant; for instance, _tud_,
+    to strike.
+
+
+In these roots either the first or the last consonant is modificatory.
+
+C. Tertiary roots are those which consist--
+
+
+    (1) of consonant, consonant, and vowel; for instance, _plu_, to
+    flow;
+
+    (2) of vowel, consonant, and consonant; for instance, _ard_, to
+    hurt;
+
+    (3) of consonant, consonant, vowel, and consonant; for instance,
+    _spas_, to see;
+
+    (4) of consonant, consonant, vowel, consonant, and consonant; for
+    instance, _spand_, to tremble.
+
+
+The primary roots are the most important in the early history of language;
+but their predicative power being generally of too indefinite a character
+to answer the purposes of advancing thought, they were soon encroached
+upon and almost supplanted by secondary and tertiary radicals.
+
+In the secondary roots we can frequently observe that one of the
+consonants, in the Aryan languages, generally the final, is liable to
+modification. The root retains its general meaning, which is slightly
+modified and determined by the changes of the final consonants. Thus,
+besides _tud_ (_tudati_), we have in Sanskrit _tup_ (_topati_, _tupati_,
+and _tumpati_), meaning to strike; Greek, _typ-to_. We meet likewise with
+_tubh_ (_tubhnâti_, _tubhyati_, _tobhate_), to strike; and, according to
+Sanskrit grammarians, with _tuph_ (_tophati_, _tuphati_, _tumphati_). Then
+there is a root _tuj_ (_tunjati_, _tojati_), to strike, to excite; another
+root, _tur_ (_tutorti_), to which the same meaning is ascribed; another,
+_tûr_ (_tûryate_), to hurt. Then there is the further derivative _turv_
+(_tûrvati_), to strike, to conquer; there is _tuh_ (_tohati_), to pain, to
+vex; and there is _tus_ (_tosate_), to which Sanskrit grammarians
+attribute the sense of striking.
+
+Although we may call all these verbal bases roots, they stand to the first
+class in about the same relation as the triliteral Semitic roots to the
+more primitive biliteral.(268)
+
+In the third class we shall find that one of the two consonants is always
+a semivowel, nasal, or sibilant, these being more variable than the other
+consonants; and we can almost always point to one consonant as of later
+origin, and added to a biconsonantal root in order to render its meaning
+more special. Thus we have, besides _spas_, the root _pas_, and even this
+root has been traced back by Pott to a more primitive _as_. Thus _vand_,
+again, is a mere strengthening of the root _vad_, like _mand_ of _mad_,
+like _yu-na-j_ and _yu-n-j_ of _yuj_. The root _yuj_, to join, and _yudh_,
+to fight, both point back to a root _yu_, to mingle, and this simple root
+has been preserved in Sanskrit. We may well understand that a root, having
+the general meaning of mingling or being together, should be employed to
+express both the friendly joining of hands and the engaging in hostile
+combat; but we may equally understand that language, in its progress to
+clearness and definiteness, should have desired a distinction between
+these two meanings, and should gladly have availed herself of the two
+derivatives, _yuj_ and _yudh_, to mark this distinction.
+
+Sanskrit grammarians have reduced the whole growth of their language to
+1706 roots,(269) that is to say, they have admitted so many radicals in
+order to derive from them, according to their system of grammatical
+derivation, all nouns, verbs, adjectives, pronouns, prepositions, adverbs,
+and conjunctions, which occur in Sanskrit. According to our explanation of
+a root, however, this number of 1706 would have to be reduced
+considerably, and though a few new roots would likewise have to be added
+which Sanskrit grammarians failed to discover, yet the number of primitive
+sounds, expressive of definite meanings, requisite for the etymological
+analysis of the whole Sanskrit dictionary would not amount to even one
+third of that number. Hebrew has been reduced to about 500 roots,(270) and
+I doubt whether we want a larger number for Sanskrit. This shows a wise
+spirit of economy on the part of primitive language, for the possibility
+of forming new roots for every new impression was almost unlimited. Even
+if we put the number of letters only at twenty-four, the possible number
+of biliteral and triliteral roots would amount together to 14,400; whereas
+Chinese, though abstaining from composition and derivation, and therefore
+requiring a larger number of radicals than any other language, was
+satisfied with about 450. With these 450 sounds raised to 1263 by various
+accents and intonations, the Chinese have produced a dictionary of from
+40,000 to 50,000 words.(271)
+
+It is clear, however, that in addition to these predicative roots, we want
+another class of radical elements to enable us to account for the full
+growth of language. With the 400 or 500 predicative roots at her disposal,
+language would not have been at a loss to coin names for all things that
+come under our cognizance. Language is a thrifty housewife. Consider the
+variety of ideas that were expressed by the one root _spas_, and you will
+see that with 500 such roots she might form a dictionary sufficient to
+satisfy the wants, however extravagant, of her husband--the human mind. If
+each root yielded fifty derivatives, we should have 25,000 words. Now, we
+are told, on good authority, by a country clergyman, that some of the
+laborers in his parish had not 300 words in their vocabulary.(272) The
+vocabulary of the ancient sages of Egypt, at least as far as it is known
+to us from the hieroglyphic inscriptions, amounts to about 685 words.(273)
+The _libretto_ of an Italian opera seldom displays a greater variety of
+words.(274) A well-educated person in England, who has been at a public
+school and at the university, who reads his Bible, his Shakespeare, the
+"Times," and all the books of Mudie's Library, seldom uses more than about
+3000 or 4000 words in actual conversation. Accurate thinkers and close
+reasoners, who avoid vague and general expressions, and wait till they
+find the word that exactly fits their meaning, employ a larger stock; and
+eloquent speakers may rise to a command of 10,000. Shakespeare, who
+displayed a greater variety of expression than probably any writer in any
+language, produced all his plays with about 15,000 words. Milton's works
+are built up with 8000; and the Old Testament says all that it has to say
+with 5,642 words.(275)
+
+Five hundred roots, therefore, considering their fertility and pliancy,
+was more than was wanted for the dictionary of our primitive ancestors.
+And yet they wanted something more. If they had a root expressive of light
+and splendor, that root might have formed the predicate in the names of
+sun, and moon, and stars, and heaven, day, morning, dawn, spring,
+gladness, joy, beauty, majesty, love, friend, gold, riches, &c. But if
+they wanted to express _here_ and _there_, _who_, _what_, _this_, _that_,
+_thou_, _he_, they would have found it impossible to find any predicative
+root that could be applied to this purpose. Attempts have indeed been made
+to trace these words back to predicative roots; but if we are told that
+the demonstrative root _ta_, this or there, may be derived from a
+predicative root _tan_, to extend, we find that even in our modern
+languages, the demonstrative pronouns and particles are of too primitive
+and independent a nature to allow of so artificial an interpretation. The
+sound _ta_ or _sa_, for this or there, is as involuntary, as natural, as
+independent an expression as any of the predicative roots, and although
+some of these demonstrative, or pronominal, or local roots, for all these
+names have been applied to them, may be traced back to a predicative
+source, we must admit a small class of independent radicals, not
+predicative in the usual sense of the word, but simply pointing, simply
+expressive of existence under certain more or less definite, local or
+temporal prescriptions.
+
+It will be best to give one illustration at least of a pronominal root and
+its influence in the formation of words.
+
+In some languages, and particularly in Chinese, a predicative root may by
+itself be used as a noun, or a verb, or an adjective or adverb. Thus the
+Chinese sound _ta_ means, without any change of form, great, greatness,
+and to be great.(276) If _ta_ stands before a substantive, it has the
+meaning of an adjective. Thus _ta jin_ means a great man. If _ta_ stands
+after a substantive, it is a predicate, or, as we should say, a verb. Thus
+_jin ta_ (or jin ta ye) would mean the man is great.(277) Or again,
+
+gin ngo, li pu ngo,
+would mean,  man    bad,  law  not   bad.
+
+Here we see that there is no outward distinction whatever between a root
+and a word, and that a noun is distinguished from a verb merely by its
+collocation in a sentence.
+
+In other languages, however, and particularly in the Aryan languages, no
+predicative root can by itself form a word. Thus in Latin there is a root
+_luc_, to shine. In order to have a substantive, such as light, it was
+necessary to add a pronominal or demonstrative root, this forming the
+general subject of which the meaning contained in the root is to be
+predicated. Thus by the addition of the pronominal element _s_ we have the
+Latin noun, _luc-s_, the light, or literally, shining-there. Let us add a
+personal pronoun, and we have the verb _luc-e-s_, shining-thou, thou
+shinest. Let us add other pronominal derivatives, and we get the
+adjectives, _lucidus_, _luculentus_, &c.
+
+It would be a totally mistaken view, however, were we to suppose that all
+derivative elements, all that remains of a word after the predicative root
+has been removed, must be traced back to pronominal roots. We have only to
+look at some of our own modern derivatives in order to be convinced that
+many of them were originally predicative, that they entered into
+composition with the principal predicative root, and then dwindled down to
+mere suffixes. Thus _scape_ in _landscape_, and the more modern _ship_ in
+_hardship_ are both derived from the same root which we have in
+Gothic,(278) _skapa_, _skôp_, _skôpum_, to create; in Anglo-Saxon,
+_scape_, _scôp_, _scôpon_. It is the same as the German derivative,
+_schaft_, in _Gesellschaft_, &c. So again _dom_ in _wisdom_ or
+_christendom_ is derived from the same root which we have in _to do_. It
+is the same as the German _thum_ in _Christenthum_, the Anglo-Saxon _dôm_
+in _cyning-dom_, _Königthum_. Sometimes it may seem doubtful whether a
+derivative element was originally merely demonstrative or predicative.
+Thus the termination of the comparative in Sanskrit is _tara_, the Greek
+_teros_. This might, at first sight, be taken for a demonstrative element,
+but it is in reality the root _tar_, which means _to go beyond_, which we
+have likewise in the Latin _trans_. This _trans_ in its French form _très_
+is prefixed to adjectives in order to express a higher or transcendent
+degree, and the same root was well adapted to form the comparative in the
+ancient Aryan tongues. This root must likewise be admitted in one of the
+terminations of the locative which is _tra_ in Sanskrit; for instance from
+_ta_, a demonstrative root, we form _ta-tra_, there, originally this way;
+we form _anyatra_, in another way; the same as in Latin we say _ali-ter_,
+from _aliud_; compounds no more surprising than the French _autrement_
+(see p. 55) and the English _otherwise_.
+
+Most of the terminations of declension and conjugation are demonstrative
+roots, and the _s_, for instance, of the third person singular, he loves,
+can be proved to have been originally the demonstrative pronoun of the
+third person. It was originally not _s_ but _t_. This will require some
+explanation. The termination of the third person singular of the present
+is _ti_ in Sanskrit. Thus _dâ_, to give, becomes _dadâti_, he gives;
+_dhâ_, to place, _dadhâti_, he places.
+
+In Greek this _ti_ is changed into _si_; just as the Sanskrit _tvam_, the
+Latin _tu_, thou, appears in Greek as _sy_. Thus Greek _didosi_
+corresponds to Sanskrit _dadâti_; _tithesi_ to _dadhâti_. In the course of
+time, however, every Greek _s_ between two vowels, in a termination, was
+elided. Thus _genos_ does not form the genitive _genesos_, like the Latin
+_genus_, _genesis_ or _generis_, but _geneos_ = _genous_. The dative is
+not _genesi_ (the Latin _generi_), but _geneï_ = _genei_. In the same
+manner all the regular verbs have _ei_ for the termination of the third
+person singular. But this _ei_ stands for _esi_. Thus _typtei_ stands for
+_typtesi_, and this for _typteti_.
+
+The Latin drops the final _i_, and instead of _ti_ has _t_. Thus we get
+_amat_, _dicit_.
+
+Now there is a law to which I alluded before, which is called Grimm's Law.
+According to it every tenuis in Latin is in Gothic represented by its
+corresponding aspirate. Hence, instead of _t_, we should expect in Gothic
+_th_; and so we find indeed in Gothic _habaiþ_, instead of Latin _habet_.
+This aspirate likewise appears in Anglo-Saxon, where _he loves_ is
+_lufað_. It is preserved in the Biblical _he loveth_, and it is only in
+modern English that it gradually sank to _s_. In the _s_ of _he loves_,
+therefore, we have a demonstrative root, added to the predicative root
+_love_, and this _s_ is originally the same as the Sanskrit _ti_. This
+_ti_ again must be traced back to the demonstrative root _ta_, this or
+there; which exists in the Sanskrit demonstrative pronoun _tad_, the Greek
+_to_, the Gothic _thata_, the English _that_; and which in Latin we can
+trace in _talis_, _tantus_, _tunc_, _tam_, and even in _tamen_, an old
+locative in _men_. We have thus seen that what we call the third person
+singular of the present is in reality a simple compound of a predicative
+root with a demonstrative root. It is a compound like any other, only that
+the second part is not predicative, but simply demonstrative. As in
+pay-master we predicate pay of master, meaning a person whose office it is
+to pay, so in _dadâ-ti_, _give-he_, the ancient framers of language simply
+predicated giving of some third person, and this synthetic proposition,
+_give-he_, is the same as what we now call the third person singular in
+the indicative mood, of the present tense, in the active voice.(279)
+
+We have necessarily confined ourselves in our analysis of language to that
+family of languages to which our own tongue, and those with which we are
+best acquainted, belong; but what applies to Sanskrit and the Aryan family
+applies to the whole realm of human speech. Every language, without a
+single exception, that has as yet been cast into the crucible of
+comparative grammar, has been found to contain these two substantial
+elements, predicative and demonstrative roots. In the Semitic family these
+two constituent elements are even more palpable than in Sanskrit and
+Greek. Even before the discovery of Sanskrit, and the rise of comparative
+philology, Semitic scholars had successfully traced back the whole
+dictionary of Hebrew and Arabic to a small number of roots, and as every
+root in these languages consists of three consonants, the Semitic
+languages have sometimes been called by the name of triliteral.
+
+To a still higher degree the constituent elements are, as it were, on the
+very surface in the Turanian family of speech. It is one of the
+characteristic features of that family, that, whatever the number of
+prefixes and suffixes, the root must always stand out in full relief, and
+must never be allowed to suffer by its contact with derivative elements.
+
+There is one language, the Chinese, in which no analysis of any kind is
+required for the discovery of its component parts. It is a language in
+which no coalescence of roots has taken place: every word is a root, and
+every root is a word. It is, in fact, the most primitive stage in which we
+can imagine human language to have existed. It is language _comme il
+faut_; it is what we should naturally have expected all languages to be.
+
+There are, no doubt, numerous dialects in Asia, Africa, America, and
+Polynesia, which have not yet been dissected by the knife of the
+grammarian; but we may be satisfied at least with this negative evidence,
+that, as yet, no language which has passed through the ordeal of
+grammatical analysis has ever disclosed any but these two constituent
+elements.
+
+The problem, therefore, of the origin of language, which seemed so
+perplexing and mysterious to the ancient philosophers, assumes a much
+simpler aspect with us. We have learnt what language is made of; we have
+found that everything in language, except the roots, is intelligible, and
+can be accounted for. There is nothing to surprise us in the combination
+of the predicative and demonstrative roots which led to the building up of
+all the languages with which we are acquainted, from Chinese to English.
+It is not only conceivable, as Professor Pott remarks, "that the formation
+of the Sanskrit language, as it is handed down to us, may have been
+preceded by a state of the greatest simplicity and entire absence of
+inflections, such as is exhibited to the present day by the Chinese and
+other monosyllabic languages." It is absolutely impossible that it should
+have been otherwise. After we have seen that all languages must have
+started from this Chinese or monosyllabic stage, the only portion of the
+problem of the origin of language that remains to be solved is this: How
+can we account for the origin of those predicative and demonstrative roots
+which form the constituent elements of all human speech, and which have
+hitherto resisted all attempts at further analysis? This problem will form
+the subject of our two next Lectures.
+
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE VIII. MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION.
+
+
+We finished in our last Lecture our analysis of language, and we arrived
+at the result that _predicative_ and _demonstrative_ roots are the sole
+constituent elements of human speech.
+
+We now turn back in order to discover how many possible forms of language
+may be produced by the free combination of these constituent elements; and
+we shall then endeavor to find out whether each of these possible forms
+has its real counterpart in some or other of the dialects of mankind. We
+are attempting in fact to carry out a _morphological classification_ of
+speech, which is based entirely on the form or manner in which roots are
+put together, and therefore quite independent of the genealogical
+classification which, according to its very nature, is based on the
+formations of language handed down ready made from generation to
+generation.
+
+Before, however, we enter on this, the principal subject of our present
+Lecture, we have still to examine, as briefly as possible, a second family
+of speech, which, like the Aryan, is established on the strictest
+principles of genealogical classification, namely, the _Semitic_.
+
+The Semitic family is divided into three branches, the _Aramaic_, the
+_Hebraic_, and the _Arabic_.(280)
+
+The _Aramaic_ occupies the north, including Syria, Mesopotamia, and part
+of the ancient kingdoms of Babylonia and Assyria. It is known to us
+chiefly in two dialects, the _Syriac_ and _Chaldee_. The former name is
+given to the language which has been preserved to us in a translation of
+the Bible (the Peshito(281)) ascribed to the second century, and in the
+rich Christian literature dating from the fourth. It is still spoken,
+though in a very corrupt form, by the Nestorians of Kurdistan, near the
+lakes of Van and Urmia, and by some Christian tribes in Mesopotamia; and
+an attempt has been made by the American missionaries,(282) stationed at
+Urmia, to restore this dialect to some grammatical correctness by
+publishing translations and a grammar of what they call the Neo-Syriac
+language.
+
+The name of _Chaldee_ has been given to the language adopted by the Jews
+during the Babylonian captivity. Though the Jews always retained a
+knowledge of their sacred language, they soon began to adopt the dialect
+of their conquerors, not for conversation only, but also for literary
+composition.(283) The book of Ezra contains fragments in Chaldee,
+contemporaneous with the cuneiform inscriptions of Darius and Xerxes, and
+several of the apocryphal books, though preserved to us in Greek only,
+were most likely composed originally in Chaldee, and not in Hebrew. The
+so-called _Targums_(284) again, or translations and paraphrases of the Old
+Testament, written during the centuries immediately preceding and
+following the Christian era,(285) give us another specimen of the Aramaic,
+or the language of Babylonia, as transplanted to Palestine. This Aramaic
+was the dialect spoken by Christ and his disciples. The few authentic
+words preserved in the New Testament as spoken by our Lord in His own
+language, such as _Talitha kumi_, _Ephphatha_, _Abba_, are not in Hebrew,
+but in the Chaldee, or Aramaic, as then spoken by the Jews.(286)
+
+After the destruction of Jerusalem the literature of the Jews continued to
+be written in the same dialect. The Talmud(287) of Jerusalem of the
+fourth, and that of Babylon of the fifth, century exhibit the Aramean, as
+spoken by the educated Jews settled in these two localities, though
+greatly depraved and spoiled by an admixture of strange elements. This
+language remained the literary idiom of the Jews to the tenth century. The
+_Masora_,(288) and the traditional commentary of the Old Testament, was
+written in it about that time. Soon after the Jews adopted Arabic as their
+literary language, and retained it to the thirteenth century. They then
+returned to a kind of modernized Hebrew, which they still continue to
+employ for learned discussions.
+
+It is curious that the Aramaic branch of the Semitic family, though
+originally the language of the great kingdoms of Babylon and Nineveh,
+should have been preserved to us only in the literature of the Jews, and
+of the Christians of Syria. There must have been a Babylonian literature,
+for the wisdom of the Chaldeans had acquired a reputation which could
+hardly have been sustained without a literature. Abraham must have spoken
+Aramaic before he emigrated to Canaan. Laban spoke the same dialect, and
+the name which he gave to the heap of stones that was to be a witness
+between him and Jacob, (Jegar-sahadutha) is Syriac, whereas Galeed, the
+name by which Jacob called it, is Hebrew.(289) If we are ever to recover a
+knowledge of that ancient Babylonian literature, it must be from the
+cuneiform inscriptions lately brought home from Babylon and Nineveh. They
+are clearly written in a Semitic language. About this there can be no
+longer any doubt. And though the progress in deciphering them has been
+slow, and slower than was at one time expected, yet there is no reason to
+despair. In a letter, dated April, 1853, Sir Henry Rawlinson wrote:--
+
+"On the clay tablets which we have found at Nineveh, and which now are to
+be counted by thousands, there are explanatory treatises on almost every
+subject under the sun: the art of writing, grammars, and dictionaries,
+notation, weights and measures, divisions of time, chronology, astronomy,
+geography, history, mythology, geology, botany, &c. In fact we have now at
+our disposal a perfect cyclopædia of Assyrian science." Considering what
+has been achieved in deciphering one class of cuneiform inscriptions, the
+Persian, there is no reason to doubt that the whole of that cyclopædia
+will some day be read with the same ease with which we read the mountain
+records of Darius.
+
+There is, however, another miserable remnant of what was once the
+literature of the Chaldeans or Babylonians, namely, the "Book of Adam,"
+and similar works preserved by the _Mendaïtes_ or _Nasoreans_, a curious
+sect settled near Bassora. Though the composition of these works is as
+late as the tenth century after Christ, it has been supposed that under a
+modern crust of wild and senseless hallucinations, they contain some
+grains of genuine ancient Babylonian thought. These _Mendaïtes_ have in
+fact been identified with the _Nabateans_, who are mentioned as late as
+the tenth century(290) of our era, as a race purely pagan, and distinct
+from Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans. In Arabic the name Nabatean(291)
+is used for Babylonians,--nay, all the people of Aramaic origin, settled in
+the earliest times between the Euphrates and Tigris are referred to by
+that name.(292) It is supposed that the Nabateans, who are mentioned about
+the beginning of the Christian era as a race distinguished for their
+astronomical and general scientific knowledge, were the ancestors of the
+mediæval Nabateans, and the descendants of the ancient Babylonians and
+Chaldeans. You may have lately seen in some literary journals an account
+of a work called "The Nabatean Agriculture." It exists only in an Arabic
+translation by Ibn-Wahshiyyah, the Chaldean,(293) who lived about 900
+years after Christ, but the original, which was written by Kuthami in
+Aramean, has lately been referred to the beginning of the thirteenth
+century B. C. The evidence is not yet fully before us, but from what is
+known it seems more likely that this work was the compilation of a
+Nabatean, who lived about the fourth century after Christ;(294) and though
+it contains ancient traditions, which may go back to the days of the great
+Babylonian monarchs, these traditions can hardly be taken as a fair
+representation of the ancient civilization of the Aramean race.
+
+The second branch of the Semitic family is the _Hebraic_, chiefly
+represented by the ancient language of Palestine, where Hebrew was spoken
+and written from the days of Moses to the times of Nehemiah and the
+Maccabees, though of course with considerable modifications, and with a
+strong admixture of Aramean forms, particularly since the Babylonian
+captivity, and the rise of a powerful civilization in the neighboring
+country of Syria. The ancient language of Phoenicia, to judge from
+inscriptions, was most closely allied to Hebrew, and the language of the
+Carthaginians too must be referred to the same branch.
+
+Hebrew was first encroached upon by Aramaic dialects, through the
+political ascendency of Babylon, and still more of Syria; and was at last
+swept away by Arabic, which, since the conquest of Palestine and Syria in
+the year 636, has monopolized nearly the whole area formerly occupied by
+the two older branches of the Semitic stock, the Aramaic and Hebrew.
+
+This third, or Arabic, branch sprang from the Arabian peninsula, where it
+is still spoken by a compact mass of aboriginal inhabitants. Its most
+ancient documents are the _Himyaritic_ inscriptions. In very early times
+this Arabic branch was transplanted to Africa, where, south of Egypt and
+Nubia, on the coast opposite Yemen, an ancient Semitic dialect has
+maintained itself to the present day. This is the _Ethiopic_ or
+_Abyssinian_, or, as it is called by the people themselves, the _Gees_
+language. Though no longer spoken in its purity by the people of Habesh,
+it is still preserved in their sacred writings, translations of the Bible,
+and similar works, which date from the third and fourth centuries. The
+modern language of Abyssinia is called _Amharic_.
+
+The earliest literary documents of Arabic go back beyond Mohammed. They
+are called _Moallakat_, literally, suspended poems, because they are said
+to have been thus publicly exhibited at Mecca. They are old popular poems,
+descriptive of desert life. With Mohammed Arabic became the language of a
+victorious religion, and established its sway over Asia, Africa, and
+Europe.
+
+These three branches, the Aramaic, the Hebraic, and Arabic, are so closely
+related to each other, that it was impossible not to recognize their
+common origin. Every root in these languages, as far back as we know them,
+must consist of three consonants, and numerous words are derived from
+these roots by a simple change of vowels, leaving the consonantal skeleton
+as much as possible intact. It is impossible to mistake a Semitic
+language; and what is most important--it is impossible to imagine an Aryan
+language derived from a Semitic, or a Semitic from an Aryan language. The
+grammatical framework is totally distinct in these two families of speech.
+This does not exclude, however, the possibility that both are diverging
+streams of the same source; and the comparisons that have been instituted
+between the Semitic roots, reduced to their simplest form, and the roots
+of the Aryan languages, have made it more than probable that the material
+elements with which they both started were originally the same.
+
+Other languages which are supposed to belong to the Semitic family are the
+_Berber_ dialects of Northern Africa, spoken on the coast from Egypt to
+the Atlantic Ocean before the invasion of the Arabs, and now pushed back
+towards the interior. Some other African languages, too, such as the
+_Haussa_ and _Galla_, have been classed as Semitic; and the language of
+Egypt, from the earliest hieroglyphic inscriptions to the Coptic, which
+ceased to be spoken after the seventeenth century, has equally been
+referred to this class. The Semitic character of these dialects, however,
+is much less clearly defined, and the exact degree of relationship in
+which they stand to the Semitic languages, properly so-called, has still
+to be determined.
+
+Strictly speaking the Aryan and Semitic are the only _families_ of speech
+which fully deserve that title. They both presuppose the existence of a
+finished system of grammar, previous to the first divergence of their
+dialects. Their history is from the beginning a history of decay rather
+than of growth, and hence the unmistakable family-likeness which pervades
+every one even of their latest descendants. The language of the Sepoy and
+that of the English soldier are, strictly speaking, one and the same
+language. They are both built up of materials which were definitely shaped
+before the Teutonic and Indic branches separated. No new root has been
+added to either since their first separation; and the grammatical forms
+which are of more modern growth in English or Hindustání, are, if closely
+examined, new combinations only of elements which existed from the
+beginning in all the Aryan dialects. In the termination of the English _he
+is_, and in the inaudible termination of the French _il est_, we recognize
+the result of an act performed before the first separation of the Aryan
+family, the combination of the predicative root _as_ with the
+demonstrative root _ti_; an act performed once for all, and continuing to
+be felt to the present day.
+
+It was the custom of Nebuchadnezzar to have his name stamped on every
+brick that was used during his reign in erecting his colossal palaces.
+Those palaces fell to ruins, but from the ruins the ancient materials were
+carried away for building new cities; and on examining the bricks in the
+walls of the modern city of Baghdad on the borders of the Tigris, Sir
+Henry Rawlinson discovered on each the clear traces of that royal
+signature. It is the same if we examine the structure of modern languages.
+They too were built up with the materials taken from the ruins of the
+ancient languages, and every word, if properly examined, displays the
+visible stamp impressed upon it from the first by the founders of the
+Aryan and the Semitic empires of speech.
+
+The relationship of languages, however, is not always so close. Languages
+may diverge before their grammatical system has become fixed and hardened;
+and in that case they cannot be expected to show the same marked features
+of a common descent as, for instance, the Neo-Latin dialects, French,
+Italian, and Spanish. They may have much in common, but they will likewise
+display an after-growth in words and grammatical forms peculiar to each
+dialect. With regard to words we see that even languages so intimately
+related to each other as the six Romance dialects, diverged in some of the
+commonest expressions. Instead of the Latin _frater_, the French _frère_,
+we find in Spanish _hermano_. There was a very good reason for this
+change. The Latin word _frater_, changed into _fray_ and _frayle_, had
+been applied to express a brother or a friar. It was felt inconvenient
+that the same word should express two ideas which it was sometimes
+necessary to distinguish, and therefore, by a kind of natural elimination,
+_frater_ was given up as the name of brother in Spanish, and replaced from
+the dialectical stores of Latin, by _germanus_. In the same manner the
+Latin word for shepherd, _pastor_, was so constantly applied to the
+shepherd of the people or the clergyman, _le pasteur_, that a new word was
+wanted for the real shepherd. Thus _berbicarius_ from _berbex_ or
+_vervex_, a wether, was used instead of _pastor_, and changed into the
+French _berger_. Instead of the Spanish _enfermo_, ill, we find in French
+_malade_, in Italian _malato_. Languages so intimately related as Greek
+and Latin have fixed on different expressions for son, daughter, brother,
+woman, man, sky, earth, moon, hand, mouth, tree, bird, &c.(295) That is to
+say, out of a large number of synonymes which were supplied by the
+numerous dialects of the Aryan family, the Greeks perpetuated one, the
+Romans another. It is clear that when the working of this principle of
+natural selection is allowed to extend more widely, languages, though
+proceeding from the same source, may in time acquire a totally different
+nomenclature for the commonest objects. The number of real synonymes is
+frequently exaggerated, and if we are told that in Icelandic there are 120
+names for island, or in Arabic 500 names for lion,(296) and 1,000 names
+for sword,(297) many of these are no doubt purely poetical. But even where
+there are in a language only four or five names for the same objects, it
+is clear that four languages might be derived from it, each in appearance
+quite distinct from the rest.
+
+The same applies to grammar. When the Romance languages, for instance,
+formed their new future by placing the auxiliary verb _habere_, to have,
+after the infinitive, it was quite open to any one of them to fix upon
+some other expedient for expressing the future. The French might have
+chosen _je vais dire_ or _je dirvais_ (I wade to say) instead of _je
+dirai_, and in this case the future in French would have been totally
+distinct from the future in Italian. If such changes are possible in
+literary languages of such long standing as French and Italian, we must be
+prepared for a great deal more in languages which, as I said, diverged
+before any definite settlement had taken place either in their grammar or
+their dictionary. If we were to expect in them the definite criteria of a
+genealogical relationship which unites the members of the Aryan and
+Semitic families of speech, we should necessarily be disappointed. Such
+criteria could not possibly exist in these languages. But there are
+criteria for determining even these more distant degrees of relationship
+in the vast realm of speech; and they are sufficient at least to arrest
+the hasty conclusions of those who would deny the possibility of a common
+origin of any languages more removed from each other than French and
+Italian, Sanskrit and Greek, Hebrew and Arabic. You will see this more
+clearly after we have examined the principles of what I call the
+_morphological classification_ of human speech.
+
+As all languages, so far as we can judge at present, can be reduced in the
+end to roots, predicative and demonstrative, it is clear that, according
+to the manner in which roots are put together, we may expect to find three
+kinds of languages, or three stages in the gradual formation of speech.
+
+1. Roots may be used as words, each root preserving its full independence.
+
+2. Two roots may be joined together to form words, and in these compounds
+one root may lose its independence.
+
+3. Two roots may be joined together to form words, and in these compounds
+both roots may lose their independence.
+
+What applies to two roots, applies to three or four or more. The principle
+is the same, though it would lead to a more varied subdivision.
+
+The first stage, in which each root preserves its independence, and in
+which there is no formal distinction between a root and a word, I call the
+_Radical Stage_. This stage is best represented by ancient Chinese.
+Languages belonging to this first or Radical Stage, have sometimes been
+called _Monosyllabic_ or _Isolating_. The second stage, in which two or
+more roots coalesce to form a word, the one retaining its radical
+independence, the other sinking down to a mere termination, I call the
+_Terminational Stage_. This stage is best represented by the Turanian
+family of speech, and the languages belonging to it have generally been
+called _agglutinative_, from _gluten_, glue. The third stage, in which
+roots coalesce so that neither the one nor the other retains its
+substantive independence, I call the _Inflectional Stage_. This stage is
+best represented by the Aryan and Semitic families, and the languages
+belonging to it have sometimes been distinguished by the name of _organic_
+or _amalgamating_.
+
+The first stage excludes phonetic corruption altogether.
+
+The second stage excludes phonetic corruption in the principal root, but
+allows it in the secondary or determinative elements.
+
+The third stage allows phonetic corruption both in the principal root and
+in the terminations.
+
+A few instances will make this classification clearer.
+
+In the first stage, which is represented by Chinese, every word is a root,
+and has its own substantial meaning. Thus, where we say in Latin _baculo_,
+with a stick, we say in Chinese _y cáng_.(298) Here _y_ might be taken for
+a mere preposition, like the English _with_. But in Chinese this _y_ is a
+root; it is the same word which, if used as a verb, would mean "to
+employ." Therefore in Chinese _y cáng_ means literally "employ stick." Or
+again, where we say in English _at home_, or in Latin _domi_, the Chinese
+say _uo-li, uo_ meaning _house_, and _li_ originally _inside_.(299) The
+name for _day_ in Chinese is _gi-tse_, which means originally _son of the
+sun_.(300)
+
+There is in Chinese, as we saw before, no formal distinction between a
+noun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb, a preposition. The same root,
+according to its position in a sentence, may be employed to convey the
+meaning of great, greatness, greatly, and to be great. Everything in fact
+depends in Chinese on the proper collocation of words in a sentence. Thus
+_ngò tà ni_ means "I beat thee;" but _ni tà ngò_ would mean "Thou beatest
+me." Thus _ngo gin_ means "a bad man;" _gin ngo_ would mean "the man is
+bad."
+
+As long as every word, or part of a word, is felt to express its own
+radical meaning, a language belongs to the first or radical stage. As soon
+as such words as _tse_ in _gi-tse_, day, _li_ in _uo-li_, at home, or _y_
+in _y-cáng_, with the stick, lose their etymological meaning and become
+mere signs of derivation or of case, language enters into the second or
+_Terminational_ stage.
+
+By far the largest number of languages belong to this stage. The whole of
+what is called the _Turanian_ family of speech consists of Terminational
+or Agglutinative languages, and this Turanian family comprises in reality
+all languages spoken in Asia and Europe, and not included under the Aryan
+and Semitic families, with the exception of Chinese and its cognate
+dialects. In the great continent of the Old World the Semitic and Aryan
+languages occupy only what may be called the four western peninsulas,
+namely, India with Persia, Arabia, Asia Minor, and Europe; and we have
+reason to suppose that even these countries were held by Turanian tribes
+previous to the arrival of the Aryan and Semitic nations.
+
+This Turanian family is of great importance in the science of languages.
+Some scholars would deny it the name of a family; and if family is only
+applicable to dialects so closely connected among themselves as the Aryan
+or Semitic, it would no doubt be preferable to speak of the Turanian as a
+class or group, and not as a family of languages. But this concession must
+not be understood as an admission that the members of this class start
+from different sources, and that they are held together, not by
+genealogical affinity, but by morphological similarity only.
+
+These languages share elements in common which they must have borrowed
+from the same source, and their formal coincidences, though of a different
+character from those of the Aryan and Semitic families, are such that it
+would be impossible to ascribe them to mere accident.
+
+The name Turanian is used in opposition to Aryan, and is applied to the
+nomadic races of Asia as opposed to the agricultural or Aryan races.
+
+The Turanian family or class consists of two great divisions, the
+_Northern_ and the _Southern_.
+
+The Northern is sometimes called the _Ural-Altaic_ or _Ugro-Tataric_, and
+it is divided into five sections, the _Tungusic_, _Mongolic_, _Turkic_,
+_Finnic_, and _Samoyedic_.
+
+The Southern, which occupies the south of Asia, is divided into four
+classes, the _Tamulic_, or the languages of the Dekhan; the _Bhotîya_, or
+the dialects of Tibet and Bhotan; the _Taïc_, or the dialects of Siam, and
+the _Malaic_, or the Malay and Polynesian dialects.
+
+No doubt if we expected to find in this immense number of languages the
+same family likeness which holds the Semitic or Aryan languages together,
+we should be disappointed. But the very absence of that family likeness
+constitutes one of the distinguishing features of the Turanian dialects.
+They are _Nomad_ languages, as contrasted with the Aryan, and Semitic
+languages.(301) In the latter most words and grammatical forms were thrown
+out but once by the creative power of one generation, and they were not
+lightly parted with, even though their original distinctness had been
+blurred by phonetic corruption. To hand down a language in this manner is
+possible only among people whose history runs on in one main stream; and
+where religion, law, and poetry supply well-defined borders which hem in
+on every side the current of language. Among the Turanian nomads no such
+nucleus of a political, social, or literary character has ever been
+formed. Empires were no sooner founded than they were scattered again like
+the sand-clouds of the desert; no laws, no songs, no stories outlived the
+age of their authors. How quickly language can change, if thus left to
+itself without any literary standard, we saw in a former Lecture, when
+treating of the growth of dialects. The most necessary substantives, such
+as father, mother, daughter, son, have frequently been lost and replaced
+by synonymes in the different dialects of Turanian speech, and the
+grammatical terminations have been treated with the same freedom.
+Nevertheless, some of the Turanian numerals and pronouns, and many
+Turanian roots, point to a single original source; and the common words
+and common roots, which have been discovered in the most distant branches
+of the Turanian stock, warrant the admission of a real, though very
+distant, genealogical relationship of all Turanian speech.
+
+The most characteristic feature of the Turanian languages is what has been
+called _Agglutination_, or "gluing together."(302) This means not only
+that, in their grammar, pronouns are _glued_ to the verbs in order to form
+the conjugation, or prepositions to substantives in order to form
+declension. _That_ would not be a distinguishing characteristic of the
+Turanian or nomad languages; for in Hebrew as well as in Sanskrit,
+conjugation and declension were originally formed on the same principle.
+What distinguishes the Turanian languages is, that in them the conjugation
+and declension can still be taken to pieces; and although the terminations
+have by no means always retained their significative power as independent
+words, they are felt as modificatory syllables, and as distinct from the
+roots to which they are appended.
+
+In the Aryan languages the modifications of words, comprised under
+declension and conjugation, were likewise originally expressed by
+agglutination. But the component parts began soon to coalesce, so as to
+form one integral word, liable in its turn to phonetic corruption to such
+an extent that it became impossible after a time to decide which was the
+root and which the modificatory element. The difference between an Aryan
+and a Turanian language is somewhat the same as between good and bad
+mosaic. The Aryan words seem made of one piece, the Turanian words clearly
+show the sutures and fissures where the small stones are cemented
+together.
+
+There was a very good reason why the Turanian languages should have
+remained in this second or agglutinative stage. It was felt essential that
+the radical portion of each word should stand out in distinct relief, and
+never be obscured or absorbed, as happens in the third or inflectional
+stage.
+
+The French _âge_, for instance, has lost its whole material body, and is
+nothing but termination. _Age_ in old French was _eage_ and _edage_.
+_Edage_ is a corruption of the Latin _oetaticum_; _oetaticum_ is a
+derivative of _oetas_; _oetas_ an abbreviation of _oevitas_; _oevitas_ is
+derived from _oevum_, and in _oevum_, _oe_ only is the radical or predicative
+element, the Sanskrit _ây_ in _ây-us_, life, which contains the germ from
+which these various words derive their life and meaning. From _oevum_ the
+Romans derived _oeviternus_, contracted into _oeternus_, so that _age_ and
+_eternity_ flow from the same source. What trace of _oe_ or _oevum_, or even
+_oevitas_ and _oetas_, remains in _âge_? Turanian languages cannot afford
+such words as _âge_ in their dictionaries. It is an indispensable
+requirement in a nomadic language that it should be intelligible to many,
+though their intercourse be but scanty. It requires tradition, society,
+and literature, to maintain words and forms which can no longer be
+analyzed at once. Such words would seldom spring up in nomadic languages,
+or if they did, they would die away with each generation.
+
+The Aryan verb contains many forms in which the personal pronoun is no
+longer felt distinctly. And yet tradition, custom, and law preserve the
+life of these veterans, and make us feel unwilling to part with them. But
+in the ever-shifting state of a nomadic society no debased coin can be
+tolerated in language, no obscure legend accepted on trust. The metal must
+be pure, and the legend distinct; that the one may be weighed, and the
+other, if not deciphered, at least recognized as a well-known guarantee.
+Hence the small proportion of irregular forms in all agglutinative
+languages.(303)
+
+A Turanian might tolerate the Sanskrit,
+
+as-mi,  a-si,      as-ti,   's-mas,   's-tha,    's-anti,
+I am,   thou art,  he is,   we are,   you are,   they are;
+
+or even the Latin,
+
+'s-um,  e-s,       es-t,   'su-mus,   es-tis,    'sunt.
+
+In these instances, with a few exceptions, root and affix are as
+distinguishable as, for instance, in Turkish:
+
+bakar-im,     bakar-sin,         bakar,
+I regard,     thou regardest,    he regards.
+
+bakar-iz,     bakar-siniz,       bakar-lar
+we regard,    you regard,        they regard.
+
+But a conjugation like the Hindustání, which is a modern Aryan dialect,
+
+hun, hai, hai, hain, ho, hain,
+
+would not be compatible with the genius of the Turanian languages, because
+it would not answer the requirements of a nomadic life. Turanian dialects
+exhibit either no terminational distinctions at all, as in Mandshu, which
+is a Tungusic dialect; or a complete and intelligible system of affixes,
+as in the spoken dialect of Nyertchinsk, equally of Tungusic descent. But
+a state of conjugation in which, through phonetic corruption, the suffix
+of the first person singular and plural, and of the third person plural
+are the same, where there is no distinction between the second and third
+persons singular, and between the first and third persons plural, would
+necessarily lead, in a Turanian dialect, to the adoption of new and more
+expressive forms. New pronouns would have to be used to mark the persons,
+or some other expedient be resorted to for the same purpose.
+
+And this will make it still more clear why the Turanian languages, or in
+fact all languages in this second or agglutinative stage, though protected
+against phonetic corruption more than the Aryan and Semitic languages, are
+so much exposed to the changes produced by dialectical regeneration. A
+Turanian retains, as it were, the consciousness of his language and
+grammar. The idea, for instance, which he connects with a plural is that
+of a noun followed by a syllable indicative of plurality; a passive with
+him is a verb followed by a syllable expressive of suffering, or eating,
+or going.(304) Now these determinative ideas may be expressed in various
+ways, and though in one and the same clan, and during one period of time,
+a certain number of terminations would become stationary, and be assigned
+to the expression of certain grammatical categories, such as the plural,
+the passive, the genitive, different hordes, as they separated, would
+still feel themselves at liberty to repeat the process of grammatical
+composition, and defy the comparative grammarian to prove the identity of
+the terminations, even in dialects so closely allied as Finnish and
+Hungarian, or Tamil and Telugu.
+
+It must not be supposed, however, that Turanian or agglutinative languages
+are forever passing through this process of grammatical regeneration.
+Where nomadic tribes approach to a political organization, their language,
+though Turanian, may approach to the system of political or traditional
+languages, such as Sanskrit or Hebrew. This is indeed the case with the
+most advanced members of the Turanian family, the Hungarian, the Finnish,
+the Tamil, Telugu, &c. Many of their grammatical terminations have
+suffered by phonetic corruption, but they have not been replaced by new
+and more expressive words. The termination of the plural is _lu_ in
+Telugu, and this is probably a mere corruption of _gal._, the termination
+of the plural in Tamil. The only characteristic Turanian feature which
+always remains is this: the root is never obscured. Besides this, the
+determining or modifying syllables are generally placed at the end, and
+the vowels do not become so absolutely fixed for each syllable as in
+Sanskrit or Hebrew. On the contrary, there is what is called the Law of
+Harmony, according to which the vowels of each word may be changed and
+modulated so as to harmonize with the key-note struck by its chief vowel.
+The vowels in Turkish, for instance, are divided into two classes, _sharp_
+and _flat_. If a verb contains a sharp vowel in its radical portion, the
+vowels of the terminations are all sharp, while the same terminations, if
+following a root with a flat vowel, modulate their own vowels into the
+flat key. Thus we have _sev-mek_, to love, but _bak-mak_, to regard, _mek_
+or _mak_ being the termination of the infinitive. Thus we say, _ev-ler_,
+the houses, but _at-lar_, the horses, _ler_ or _lar_ being the termination
+of the plural.
+
+No Aryan or Semitic language has preserved a similar freedom in the
+harmonic arrangement of its vowels, while traces of it have been found
+among the most distant members of the Turanian family, as in Hungarian,
+Mongolian, Turkish, the Yakut, spoken in the north of Siberia, and in
+dialects spoken on the eastern frontiers of India.
+
+For completeness' sake I add a short account of the Turanian family,
+chiefly taken from my Survey of Languages, published 1855:--
+
+_Tungusic Class._
+
+The _Tungusic_ branch extends from China northward to Siberia and westward
+to 113°, where the river Tunguska partly marks its frontier. The Tungusic
+tribes in Siberia are under Russian sway. Other Tungusic tribes belong to
+the Chinese empire, and are known by the name of Mandshu, a name taken
+after they had conquered China in 1644, and founded the present imperial
+dynasty.
+
+_Mongolic Class._
+
+The original seats of the people who speak Mongolic dialects lie near the
+Lake Baikal and in the eastern parts of Siberia, where we find them as
+early as the ninth century after Christ. They were divided into three
+classes, the _Mongols_ proper, the _Buriäts_, and the _Ölöts_ or
+_Kalmüks_. Chingis-khán (1227) united them into a nation and founded the
+Mongolian empire, which included, however, not only Mongolic, but Tungusic
+and Turkic, commonly called Tataric, tribes.
+
+The name of Tatar soon became the terror of Asia and Europe, and it was
+applied promiscuously to all the nomadic warriors whom Asia then poured
+forth over Europe. Originally Tatar was a name of the Mongolic races, but
+through their political ascendency in Asia after Chingis-khán, it became
+usual to call all the tribes which were under Mongolian sway by the name
+of Tatar. In linguistic works Tataric is now used in two several senses.
+Following the example of writers of the Middle Ages, Tataric, like
+Scythian in Greek, has been fixed upon as the general term comprising
+_all_ languages spoken by the nomadic tribes of Asia. Hence it is used
+sometimes in the same sense in which we use Turanian. Secondly, Tataric
+has become the name of that class of Turanian languages of which the
+Turkish is the most prominent member. While the Mongolic class--that which
+in fact has the greatest claims to the name of Tataric--is never so called,
+it has become an almost universal custom to apply this name to the third
+or Turkic branch of the Ural-Altaic division; and the races belonging to
+this branch have in many instances themselves adopted the name. These
+Turkish, or as they are more commonly called, Tataric races, were settled
+on the northern side of the Caspian Sea, and on the Black Sea, and were
+known as Komanes, Pechenegs, and Bulgars, when conquered by the Mongolic
+army of the son of Chingis-khán, who founded the Kapchakian empire,
+extending from the Dniestr to the Yemba and the Kirgisian steppes. Russia
+for two centuries was under the sway of these Kháns, known as the Khans of
+the Golden Horde. This empire was dissolved towards the end of the
+fifteenth century, and several smaller kingdoms rose out of its ruins.
+Among these Krim, Kasan, and Astrachan, were the most important. The
+princes of these kingdoms still gloried in their descent from
+Chingis-khán, and had hence a right to the name of Mongols or Tatars. But
+their armies and subjects also, who were of Turkish blood, received the
+name of their princes; and their languages continued to be called Tataric,
+even after the tribes by whom they were spoken had been brought under the
+Russian sceptre, and were no longer governed by khans of Mongolic or
+Tataric origin. It would perhaps be desirable to use Turkic instead of
+Tataric, when speaking of the third branch of the northern division of the
+Turanian family, did not a change of terminology generally produce as much
+confusion as it remedies. The recollection of their non-Tataric, _i.e._
+non-Mongolic origin, remains, it appears, among the so-called Tatars of
+Kasan and Astrachan. If asked whether they are Tatars, they reply no; and
+they call their language Turki or Turuk, but not Tatari. Nay, they
+consider Tatar as a term of abuse, synonymous with robber, evidently from
+a recollection that their ancestors had once been conquered and enslaved
+by Mongolic, that is, Tataric, tribes. All this rests on the authority of
+Klaproth, who during his stay in Russia had great opportunities of
+studying the languages spoken on the frontiers of this half-Asiatic
+empire.
+
+The conquests of the Mongols or the descendants of Chingis-khán were not
+confined, however, to these Turkish tribes. They conquered China in the
+east, where they founded the Mongolic dynasty of Yuan, and in the west,
+after subduing the khalifs of Bagdad, and the Sultans of Iconium, they
+conquered Moscow, and devastated the greater part of Russia. In 1240 they
+invaded Poland, in 1241 Silesia. Here they recoiled before the united
+armies of Germany, Poland, and Silesia. They retired into Moravia, and
+having exhausted that country, occupied Hungary. At that time they had to
+choose a new khan, which could only be done at Karakorum, the old capital
+of their empire. Thither they withdrew to elect an emperor to govern an
+empire which then extended from China to Poland, from India to Siberia.
+But a realm of such vast proportions could not be long held together, and
+towards the end of the thirteenth century it broke up into several
+independent states, all under Mongolian princes, but no longer under one
+khan of khans. Thus new independent Mongolic empires arose in China,
+Turkestan, Siberia, Southern Russia, and Persia. In 1360, the Mongolian
+dynasty was driven out of China; in the fifteenth century they lost their
+hold on Russia. In Central Asia they rallied once more under Timur (1369),
+whose sway was again acknowledged from Karakorum to Persia and Anatolia.
+But in 1468, this empire also fell by its own weight, and for want of
+powerful rulers like Chingis-khán or Timur. In Jagatai alone, the country
+extending from the Aral Lake to the Hindu-kush, between the rivers Oxus
+and Yaxartes (Jihon and Sihon), and once governed by Jagatai, the son of
+Chingis-khán--the Mongolian dynasty maintained itself, and thence it was
+that Baber, a descendant of Timur, conquered India, and founded there a
+Mongolian dynasty, surviving up to our own times in the Great Moguls of
+Delhi. Most Mongolic tribes are now under the sway of the nations whom
+they once had conquered, the Tungusic sovereigns of China, the Russian
+czars, and the Turkish sultans.
+
+The Mongolic language, although spoken (but not continuously) from China
+as far as the Volga, has given rise to but few dialects. Next to Tungusic,
+the Mongolic is the poorest language of the Turanian family, and the
+scantiness of grammatical terminations accounts for the fact that, as a
+language, it has remained very much unchanged. There is, however, a
+distinction between the language as spoken by the Eastern, Western, and
+Northern tribes, and incipient traces of grammatical life have lately been
+discovered by Castrén, the great Swedish traveller and Turanian
+philologist, in the spoken dialect of the Buriäts. In it the persons of
+the verb are distinguished by affixes, while, according to the rules of
+Mongolic grammar, no other dialect distinguishes in the verb between
+am_o_, am_as_, am_at_.
+
+The Mongols who live in Europe have fixed their tents on each side of the
+Volga and along the coast of the Caspian Sea near Astrachan. Another
+colony is found south-east of Sembirsk. They belong to the Western branch,
+and are Ölöts or Kalmüks, who left their seats on the Koko-nur, and
+entered Europe in 1662. They proceeded from the clans Dürbet and Torgod,
+but most of the Torgods returned again in 1770, and their descendants are
+now scattered over the Kirgisian steppes.
+
+_Turkic Class_.
+
+Much more important are the languages belonging to the third branch of the
+Turanian family, most prominent among which is the Turkish or Osmanli of
+Constantinople. The number of the Turkish inhabitants of European Turkey
+is indeed small. It is generally stated at 2,000,000; but Shafarik
+estimates the number of genuine Turks at not more than 700,000, who rule
+over fifteen millions of people. The different Turkic dialects of which
+the Osmanli is one, occupy one of the largest linguistic areas, extending
+from the Lena and the Polar Sea, down to the Adriatic.
+
+The most ancient name by which the Turkic tribes of Central Asia were
+known to the Chinese was Hiung-nu. These Hiung-nu founded an empire (206
+B. C.) comprising a large portion of Asia, west of China. Engaged in
+frequent wars with the Chinese, they were defeated at last in the middle
+of the first century after Christ. Thereupon they divided into a northern
+and southern empire; and, after the southern Hiung-nu had become subjects
+of China, they attacked the northern Hiung-nu, together with the Chinese,
+and, driving them out of their seats between the rivers Amur and Selenga,
+and the Altai mountains, westward, they are supposed to have given the
+first impulse to the inroads of the barbarians into Europe. In the
+beginning of the third century, the Mongolic and Tungusic tribes, who had
+filled the seats of the northern Hiung-nu, had grown so powerful as to
+attack the southern Hiung-nu and drive them from their territories. This
+occasioned a second migration of Asiatic tribes towards the west.
+
+Another name by which the Chinese designate these Hiung-nu or Turkish
+tribes is Tu-kiu. This Tu-kiu is supposed to be identical with Turk, and,
+although the tribe to which this name was given was originally but small,
+it began to spread in the sixth century from the Altai to the Caspian, and
+it was probably to them that in 569 the Emperor Justinian sent an
+ambassador in the person of Semarchos. The empire of the Tu-kiu was
+destroyed in the eighth century, by the 'Hui-'he (Chinese Kao-che). This
+tribe, equally of Turkish origin, maintained itself for about a century,
+and was then conquered by the Chinese and driven back from the northern
+borders of China. Part of the 'Hui-'he occupied Tangut, and, after a
+second defeat by the Mongolians in 1257, the remnant proceeded still
+further west, and joined the Uigurs, whose tents were pitched near the
+towns of Turfan, 'Kashgar, 'Hamil, and Aksu.
+
+These facts, gleaned chiefly from Chinese historians, show from the very
+earliest times the westward tendency of the Turkish nations. In 568
+Turkish tribes occupied the country between the Volga and the sea of Azov,
+and numerous reinforcements have since strengthened their position in
+those parts.
+
+The northern part of Persia, west of the Caspian Sea, Armenia, the south
+of Georgia, Shirwan, and Dagestan, harbor a Turkic population, known by
+the general name of Turkman or Kisil-bash (Red-caps). They are nomadic
+robbers, and their arrival in these countries dates from the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries.
+
+East of the Caspian Sea the Turkman tribes are under command of the
+Usbek-Khans of Khiva, Fergana, and Bukhára. They call themselves, however,
+not subjects but guests of these Khans. Still more to the east the
+Turkmans are under Chinese sovereignty, and in the south-west they reach
+as far as Khorasan and other provinces of Persia.
+
+The Usbeks, descendants of the 'Huy-'he and Uigurs, and originally settled
+in the neighborhood of the towns of 'Hoten, Kashgar, Turfan, and 'Hamil,
+crossed the Yaxartes in the sixteenth century, and after several
+successful campaigns gained possession of Balkh, Kharism (Khiva), Bukhára,
+and Ferganah. In the latter country and in Balkh they have become
+agricultural; but generally their life is nomadic, and too warlike to be
+called pastoral.
+
+Another Turkish tribe are the Nogái, west of the Caspian, and also north
+of the Black Sea. To the beginning of the seventeenth century they lived
+north-east of the Caspian, and the steppes on the left of the Irtish bore
+their name. Pressed by the Kalmüks, a Mongolic tribe, the Nogáis advanced
+westward as far as Astrachan. Peter I. transferred them thence to the
+north of the Caucasian mountains, where they still graze their flocks on
+the shores of the Kuban and the Kuma. One horde, that of Kundur, remained
+on the Volga, subject to the Kalmüks.
+
+Another tribe of Turkish origin in the Caucasus are the Bazianes. They now
+live near the sources of the Kuban, but before the fifteenth century
+within the town Majari, on the Kuma.
+
+A third Turkish tribe in the Caucasus are the Kumüks on the rivers Sunja,
+Aksai, and Koisu: now subjects of Russia, though under native princes.
+
+The southern portion of the Altaic mountains has long been inhabited by
+the Bashkirs, a race considerably mixed with Mongolic blood, savage and
+ignorant, subjects of Russia, and Mohammedans by faith. Their land is
+divided into four Roads, called the Roads of Siberia, of Kasan, of Nogai,
+and of Osa, a place on the Kama. Among the Bashkirs, and in villages near
+Ufa, is now settled a Turkish tribe, the Mescheräks who formerly lived
+near the Volga.
+
+The tribes near the Lake of Aral are called Kara-Kalpak. They are subject
+partly to Russia, partly to the Khans of Khiva.
+
+The Turks of Siberia, commonly called Tatars, are partly original
+settlers, who crossed the Ural, and founded the Khanat of Sibir, partly
+later colonists. Their chief towns are Tobolsk, Yeniseisk, and Tomsk.
+Separate tribes are the Uran'hat on the Chulym, and the Barabas in the
+steppes between the Irtish and the Ob.
+
+The dialects of these Siberian Turks are considerably intermingled with
+foreign words, taken from Mongolic, Samoyedic, or Russian sources. Still
+they resemble one another closely in all that belongs to the original
+stock of the language.
+
+In the north-east of Asia, on both sides of the river Lena, the _Yakuts_
+form the most remote link in the Turkic chain of languages. Their male
+population has lately risen to 100,000, while in 1795 it amounted only to
+50,066. The Russians became first acquainted with them in 1620. They call
+themselves Sakha, and are mostly heathen, though Christianity is gaining
+ground among them. According to their traditions, their ancestors lived
+for a long time in company with Mongolic tribes, and traces of this can
+still be discovered in their language. Attacked by their neighbors, they
+built rafts and floated down the river Lena, where they settled in the
+neighborhood of what is now Yakutzk. Their original seats seem to have
+been north-west of Lake Baikal. Their language has preserved the Turkic
+type more completely than any other Turco-Tataric dialect. Separated from
+the common stock at an early time, and removed from the disturbing
+influences to which the other dialects were exposed, whether in war or in
+peace, the Yakutian has preserved so many primitive features of Tataric
+grammar, that even now it may be used as a key to the grammatical forms of
+the Osmanli and other more cultivated Turkic dialects.
+
+Southern Siberia is the mother country of the Kirgis, one of the most
+numerous tribes of Turco-Tataric origin. The Kirgis lived originally
+between the Ob and Yenisei, where Mongolic tribes settled among them. At
+the beginning of the seventeenth century the Russians became acquainted
+with the Eastern Kirgis, then living along the Yenisei. In 1606 they had
+become tributary to Russia, and after several wars with two neighboring
+tribes, they were driven more and more south-westward, till they left
+Siberia altogether at the beginning of the eighteenth century. They now
+live at Burut, in Chinese Turkestan, together with the Kirgis of the
+"Great Horde," near the town of Kashgar, north as far as the Irtish.
+
+Another tribe is that of the Western Kirgis, or Kirgis-Kasak, who are
+partly independent, partly tributary to Russia and China.
+
+Of what are called the three Kirgis Hordes, from the Caspian Sea east as
+far as Lake Tenghiz, the Small Horde is fixed in the west, between the
+rivers Yemba and Ural; the Great Horde in the east; while the most
+powerful occupies the centre between the Sarasu and Yemba, and is called
+the Middle Horde. Since 1819, the Great Horde has been subject to Russia.
+Other Kirgis tribes, though nominally subject to Russia, are really her
+most dangerous enemies.
+
+The Turks of Asia Minor and Syria came from Khorasan and Eastern Persia,
+and are Turkmans, or remnants of the Seljuks, the rulers of Persia during
+the Middle Ages. The Osmanli, whom we are accustomed to call Turks _par
+excellence_, and who form the ruling portion of the Turkish empire, must
+be traced to the same source. They are now scattered over the whole
+Turkish empire in Europe, Asia, and Africa, and their number amounts to
+between 11,000,000 and 12,000,000. They form the landed gentry, the
+aristocracy, and bureaucracy of Turkey; and their language, the Osmanli,
+is spoken by persons of rank and education, and by all government
+authorities in Syria, in Egypt, at Tunis, and at Tripoli. In the southern
+provinces of Asiatic Russia, along the borders of the Caspian, and through
+the whole of Turkestan, it is the language of the people. It is heard even
+at the court of Teheran, and is understood by official personages in
+Persia.
+
+The rise of this powerful tribe of Osman, and the spreading of that
+Turkish dialect which is now emphatically called the Turkish, are matters
+of historical notoriety. We need not search for evidence in Chinese
+annals, or try to discover analogies between names that a Greek or an
+Arabic writer may by chance have heard and handed down to us, and which
+some of these tribes have preserved to the present day. The ancestors of
+the Osman Turks are men as well known to European historians as
+Charlemagne or Alfred. It was in the year 1224 that Soliman-shah and his
+tribe, pressed by Mongolians, left Khorasan and pushed westward into
+Syria, Armenia, and Asia Minor. Soliman's son, Ertoghrul, took service
+under Aladdin, the Seljuk Sultan of Iconium (Nicæa), and after several
+successful campaigns against Greeks and Mongolians, received part of
+Phrygia as his own, and there founded what was afterwards to become the
+basis of the Osmanic empire. During the last years of the thirteenth
+century the Sultans of Iconium lost their power, and their former vassals
+became independent sovereigns. Osman, after taking his share of the spoil
+in Asia, advanced through the Olympic passes into Bithynia and was
+successful against the armies of the Emperors of Byzantium. Osman became
+henceforth the national name of his people. His son, Orkhan, whose capital
+was Prusa (Bursa), after conquering Nicomedia (1327) and Nicæa (1330),
+threatened the Hellespont. He took the title of Padishah, and his court
+was called the "High Porte." His son, Soliman, crossed the Hellespont
+(1357), and took possession of Gallipoli and Sestos. He thus became master
+of the Dardanelles. Murad I. took Adrianople (1362), made it his capital,
+conquered Macedonia, and, after a severe struggle, overthrew the united
+forces of the Slavonic races south of the Danube, the Bulgarians,
+Servians, and Kroatians, in the battle of Kossova-polye (1389). He fell
+himself, but his successor Bayazeth, followed his course, took Thessaly,
+passed Thermopylæ, and devastated the Peloponnesus. The Emperor of
+Germany, Sigismund, who advanced at the head of an army composed of
+French, German, and Slavonic soldiers, was defeated by Bayazeth on the
+Danube in the battle of Nicopolis, 1399. Bayazeth took Bosnia, and would
+have taken Constantinople, had not the same Mongolians, who in 1244 drove
+the first Turkish tribes westward into Persia, threatened again their
+newly acquired possessions. Timur had grasped the reins fallen from the
+hands of Chingis-khán: Bayazeth was compelled to meet him, and suffered
+defeat (1402) in the battle of Angora (Ankyra) in Galatia.
+
+Europe now had respite, but not long; Timur died, and with him his empire
+fell to pieces, while the Osmanic army rallied again under Mahomet I.
+(1413), and re-attained its former power under Murad II. (1421).
+Successful in Asia, Murad sent his armies back to the Danube, and after
+long-continued campaigns, and powerful resistance from the Hungarians and
+Slaves under Hunyad, he at last gained two decisive victories; Varna in
+1444, and Kossova in 1448. Constantinople could no longer be held, and the
+Pope endeavored in vain to rouse the chivalry of Western Europe to a
+crusade against the Turks. Mahomet II. succeeded in 1451, and on the 26th
+of May, 1453, Constantinople, after a valiant resistance, fell, and became
+the capital of the Turkish empire.
+
+It is a real pleasure to read a Turkish grammar, even though one may have
+no wish to acquire it practically. The ingenious manner in which the
+numerous grammatical forms are brought out, the regularity which pervades
+the system of declension and conjugation, the transparency and
+intelligibility of the whole structure, must strike all who have a sense
+of that wonderful power of the human mind which has displayed itself in
+language. Given so small a number of graphic and demonstrative roots as
+would hardly suffice to express the commonest wants of human beings, to
+produce an instrument that shall render the faintest shades of feeling and
+thought;--given a vague infinitive or a stern imperative, to derive from it
+such moods as an optative or subjunctive, and tenses as an aorist or
+paulo-post future;--given incoherent utterances, to arrange them into a
+system where all is uniform and regular, all combined and harmonious;--such
+is the work of the human mind which we see realized in "language." But in
+most languages nothing of this early process remains visible. They stand
+before us like solid rocks, and the microscope of the philologist alone
+can reveal the remains of organic life with which they are built up.
+
+In the grammar of the Turkic languages, on the contrary, we have before us
+a language of perfectly transparent structure, and a grammar the inner
+workings of which we can study, as if watching the building of cells in a
+crystal bee-hive. An eminent orientalist remarked "we might imagine
+Turkish to be the result of the deliberations of some eminent society of
+learned men;" but no such society could have devised what the mind of man
+produced, left to itself in the steppes of Tatary, and guided only by its
+innate laws, or by an instinctive power as wonderful as any within the
+realm of nature.
+
+Let us examine a few forms. "To love," in the most general sense of the
+word, or love, as a root, is in Turkish _sev_. This does not yet mean "to
+love," which is _sevmek_, or "love" as a substantive, which is _sevgu_ or
+_sevi_; but it only expresses the general idea of loving in the abstract.
+This root, as we remarked before, can never be touched. Whatever syllables
+may be added for the modification of its meaning, the root itself must
+stand out in full prominence like a pearl set in diamonds. It must never
+be changed or broken, assimilated or modified, as in the English I fall, I
+fell, I take, I took, I think, I thought, and similar forms. With this one
+restriction, however, we are free to treat it at pleasure.
+
+Let us suppose we possessed nothing like our conjugation, but had to
+express such ideas as I love, thou lovest, and the rest, for the first
+time. Nothing would seem more natural now than to form an adjective or a
+participle, meaning "loving," and then add the different pronouns, as I
+loving, thou loving, &c. Exactly this the Turks have done. We need not
+inquire at present how they produced what we call a participle. It was a
+task, however, by no means so facile as we now conceive it. In Turkish,
+one participle is formed by _er_. _Sev_+_er_ would, therefore, mean lov+er
+or lov+ing. Thou, in Turkish, is _sen_, and as all modificatory syllables
+are placed at the end of the root, we get _sev-er-sen_, thou lovest. You
+in Turkish is _siz_; hence _sev-er-siz_, you love. In these cases the
+pronouns and the terminations of the verb coincide exactly. In other
+persons the coincidences are less complete, because the pronominal
+terminations have sometimes been modified, or, as in the third person
+singular, _sever_, dropped altogether as unnecessary. A reference to other
+cognate languages, however, where either the terminations or the pronouns
+themselves have maintained a more primitive form, enables us to say that
+in the original Turkish verb, all persons of the present were formed by
+means of pronouns appended to this participle _sever_. Instead of "I love,
+thou lovest, he loves," the Turkish grammarian says, "lover-I, lover-thou,
+lover."
+
+But these personal terminations are not the same in the imperfect as in
+the present.
+
+PRESENT.                    IMPERFECT.
+Sever-im, I love,           sever-di-m, I loved.
+Sever-sen,                  sever-di-ñ.
+Sever,                      sever-di.
+Sever-iz,                   sever-di-k (miz).
+Sever-siz,                  sever-di-ñiz.
+Sever-ler,                  sever-di-ler.
+
+We need not inquire as yet into the origin of the _di_, added to form the
+imperfect; but it should be stated that in the first person plural of the
+imperfect a various reading occurs in other Tataric dialects, and that
+_miz_ is used there instead of _k_. Now, looking at these terminations
+_m_, _ñ_, _i_, _miz_, _ñiz_, and _ler_, we find that they are exactly the
+same as the possessive pronouns used after nouns. As the Italian says
+_fratelmo_, my brother, and as in Hebrew we say, _El-i_, God (of) I,
+_i.e._ my God, the Tataric languages form the phrases "my house, thy
+house, his house," by possessive pronouns appended to substantives. A Turk
+says,--
+
+Bâbâ,          father,        bâbâ-m,        my father.
+Aghâ,          lord,          aghâ-ñ,        thy lord.
+El,            hand,          el-i,          his hand.
+Oghlu,         son,           oghlu-muz,     our son.
+Anâ,           mother,        anâ-ñiz,       your mother.
+Kitâb,         book,          kitâb-leri,    their book.
+
+We may hence infer that in the imperfect these pronominal terminations
+were originally taken in a possessive sense, and that, therefore, what
+remains after the personal terminations are removed, _sever-di_, was never
+an adjective or a participle, but must have been originally a substantive
+capable of receiving terminal possessive pronouns; that is, the idea
+originally expressed by the imperfect could not have been "loving-I," but
+"love of me."
+
+How then, could this convey the idea of a past tense as contrasted with
+the present? Let us look to our own language. If desirous to express the
+perfect, we say, I have loved, _j'ai aimé_. This "I have," meant
+originally, I possess, and in Latin "amicus quem amatum habeo," signified
+in fact a friend whom I hold dear,--not as yet, whom I _have_ loved. In the
+course of time, however, these phrases, "I have said, I have loved," took
+the sense of the perfect, and of time past--and not unnaturally, inasmuch
+as what I _hold_, or _have_ done, _is_ done;--done, as we say, and past. In
+place of an auxiliary possessive verb, the Turkish language uses an
+auxiliary possessive pronoun to the same effect. "Paying belonging to me,"
+equals "I have paid;" in either case a phrase originally possessive, took
+a temporal signification, and became a past or perfect tense. This,
+however, is the very anatomy of grammar, and when a Turk says "severdim"
+he is, of course, as unconscious of its literal force, "loving belonging
+to me," as of the circulation of his blood.
+
+The most ingenious part of Turkish is undoubtedly the verb. Like Greek and
+Sanskrit, it exhibits a variety of moods and tenses, sufficient to express
+the nicest shades of doubt, of surmise, of hope, and supposition. In all
+these forms the root remains intact, and sounds like a key-note through
+all the various modulations produced by the changes of person, number,
+mood, and time. But there is one feature so peculiar to the Turkish verb,
+that no analogy can be found in any of the Aryan languages--the power of
+producing new verbal bases by the mere addition of certain letters, which
+give to every verb a negative, or causative, or reflexive, or reciprocal
+meaning.
+
+_Sev-mek_, for instance, as a simple root, means to love. By adding _in_,
+we obtain a reflexive verb, _sev-in-mek_, which means to love oneself, or
+rather, to rejoice, to be happy. This may now be conjugated through all
+moods and tenses, _sevin_ being in every respect equal to a new root. By
+adding _ish_ we form a reciprocal verb, _sev-ish-mek_, to love one
+another.
+
+To each of these three forms a causative sense may be imparted by the
+addition of the syllable _dir_. Thus,
+
+
+    I. _sev-mek_, to love, becomes IV. _sev-dir-mek_, to cause to
+    love.
+
+    II. _sev-in-mek_, to rejoice, becomes V. _sev-in-dir-mek_, to
+    cause to rejoice.
+
+    III. _sev-ish-mek_, to love one another, becomes VI.
+    _sev-ish-dir-mek_, to cause one to love one another.
+
+
+Each of these six forms may again be turned into a passive by the addition
+of _il_. Thus,
+
+
+    I. _sev-mek_, to love, becomes VII. _sev-il-mek_, to be loved.
+
+    II. _sev-in-mek_, to rejoice, becomes VIII. _sev-in-il-mek_, to be
+    rejoiced at.
+
+    III. _sev-ish-mek_, to love one another, becomes IX.
+    _sev-ish-il-mek_, not translatable.
+
+    IV. _sev-dir-mek_, to cause one to love, becomes X.
+    _sev-dir-il-mek_, to be brought to love.
+
+    V. _sev-in-dir-mek_, to cause to rejoice, becomes XI.
+    _sev-in-dir-il-mek_, to be made to rejoice.
+
+    VI. _sev-ish-dir-mek_, to cause them to love one another, becomes
+    XII. _sev-ish-dir-il-mek_, to be brought to love one another.
+
+
+This, however, is by no means the whole verbal contingent at the command
+of a Turkish grammarian. Every one of these twelve secondary or tertiary
+roots may again be turned into a negative by the mere addition of _me_.
+Thus, _sev-mek_, to love, becomes _sev-me-mek_, not to love. And if it is
+necessary to express the impossibility of loving, the Turk has a new root
+at hand to convey even that idea. Thus while _sev-me-mek_ denies only the
+fact of loving, _sev-eme-mek_, denies its possibility, and means not to be
+able to love. By the addition of these two modificatory syllables, the
+numbers of derivative roots is at once raised to thirty-six. Thus,
+
+
+    I. _sev-mek_, to love, becomes XIII. _sev-me-mek_, not to love.
+
+    II. _sev-in-mek_, to rejoice, becomes XIV. _sev-in-me-mek_, not to
+    rejoice.
+
+    III. _sev-ish-mek_, to love one another, becomes XV.
+    _sev-ish-me-mek_, not to love one another.
+
+    IV. _sev-dir-mek_, to cause to love, becomes XVI.
+    _sev-dir-me-mek_, not to cause one to love.
+
+    V. _sev-in-dir-mek_, to cause to rejoice, becomes XVII.
+    _sev-in-dir-me-mek_, not to cause one to rejoice.
+
+    VI. _sev-ish-dir-mek_, to cause them to love one another, becomes
+    XVIII. _sev-ish-dir-me-mek_, not to cause them to love one
+    another.
+
+    VII. _sev-il-mek_, to be loved, becomes XIX. _sev-il-me-mek_, not
+    to be loved.
+
+    VIII. _sev-in-il-mek_, to be rejoiced at, becomes XX.
+    _sev-in-il-me-mek_, not to be the object of rejoicing.
+
+    IX. _sev-ish-il-mek_, if it was used, would become XXI.
+    _sev-ish-il-me-mek_; neither form being translatable.
+
+    X. _sev-dir-il-mek_, to be brought to love, becomes XXII.
+    _sev-dir-il-me-mek_, not to be brought to love.
+
+    XI. _sev-in-dir-il-mek_, to be made to rejoice, becomes XXIII.
+    _sev-in-dir-il-me-mek_, not to be made to rejoice.
+
+    XII. _sev-ish-dir-il-mek_, to be brought to love one another,
+    becomes XXIV. _sev-ish-dir-il-me-mek_, not to be brought to love
+    one another.
+
+
+Some of these forms are of course of rare occurrence, and with many verbs
+these derivative roots, though possible grammatically, would be logically
+impossible. Even a verb like "to love," perhaps the most pliant of all,
+resists some of the modifications to which a Turkish grammarian is fain to
+subject it. It is clear, however, that wherever a negation can be formed,
+the idea of impossibility also can be superadded, so that by substituting
+_eme_ for _me_, we should raise the number of derivative roots to
+thirty-six. The very last of these, XXXVI. _sev-ish-dir-il-eme-mek_ would
+be perfectly intelligible, and might be used, for instance, if, in
+speaking of the Sultan and the Czar, we wished to say, that it was
+impossible that they should be brought to love one another.
+
+_Finnic Class._
+
+It is generally supposed that the original seat of the Finnic tribes was
+in the Ural mountains, and their languages have been therefore called
+_Uralic_. From this centre they spread east and west; and southward in
+ancient times, even to the Black Sea, where Finnic tribes, together with
+Mongolic and Turkic, were probably known to the Greeks under the
+comprehensive and convenient name of Scythians. As we possess no literary
+documents of any of these nomadic nations, it is impossible to say, even
+where Greek writers have preserved their barbarous names, to what branch
+of the vast Turanian family they belonged. Their habits were probably
+identical before the Christian era, during the Middle Ages, and at the
+present day. One tribe takes possession of a tract and retains it perhaps
+for several generations, and gives its name to the meadows where it tends
+its flocks, and to the rivers where the horses are watered. If the country
+be fertile, it will attract the eye of other tribes; wars begin, and if
+resistance be hopeless, hundreds of families fly from their paternal
+pastures, to migrate perhaps for generations,--for migration they find a
+more natural life than permanent habitation,--and after a time we may
+rediscover their names a thousand miles distant. Or two tribes will carry
+on their warfare for ages, till with reduced numbers both have perhaps to
+make common cause against some new enemy.
+
+During these continued struggles their languages lose as many words as men
+are killed on the field of battle. Some words (we might say) go over,
+others are made prisoners, and exchanged again during times of peace.
+Besides, there are parleys and challenges, and at last a dialect is
+produced which may very properly be called a language of the camp,
+(Urdu-zebán, camp-language, is the proper name of Hindustání, formed in
+the armies of the Mogul emperors,) but where it is difficult for the
+philologist to arrange the living and to number the slain, unless some
+salient points of grammar have been preserved throughout the medley. We
+saw how a number of tribes may be at times suddenly gathered by the
+command of a Chingis-khán or Timur, like billows heaving and swelling at
+the call of a thunder-storm. One such wave rolling on from Karakorum to
+Liegnitz may sweep away all the sheepfolds and landmarks of centuries, and
+when the storm is over, a thin crust will, as after a flood, remain,
+concealing the underlying stratum of people and languages.
+
+On the evidence of language, the Finnic stock is divided into four
+branches,
+
+The Chudic,
+The Bulgaric,
+The Permic,
+The Ugric.
+
+The Chudic branch comprises the Finnic of the Baltic coasts. The name is
+derived from Chud (Tchud) originally applied by the Russians to the Finnic
+nations in the north-west of Russia. Afterwards it took a more general
+sense, and was used almost synonymously with Scythian for all the tribes
+of Central and Northern Asia. The Finns, properly so called, or as they
+call themselves Suomalainen, _i.e._ inhabitants of fens, are settled in
+the provinces of Finland (formerly belonging to Sweden, but since 1809
+annexed to Russia), and in parts of the governments of Archangel and
+Olonetz. Their number is stated at 1,521,515. The Finns are the most
+advanced of their whole family, and are, the Magyars excepted, the only
+Finnic race that can claim a station among the civilized and civilizing
+nations of the world. Their literature and, above all, their popular
+poetry bear witness to a high intellectual development in times which we
+may call mythical, and in places more favorable to the glow of poetical
+feelings than their present abode, the last refuge Europe could afford
+them. The epic songs still live among the poorest, recorded by oral
+tradition alone, and preserving all the features of a perfect metre and of
+a more ancient language. A national feeling has lately arisen amongst the
+Finns, despite of Russian supremacy, and the labors of Sjögern, Lönnrot,
+Castrén, and Kellgren, receiving hence a powerful impulse, have produced
+results truly surprising. From the mouths of the aged an epic poem has
+been collected equalling the Iliad in length and completeness, nay, if we
+can forget for a moment all that _we_ in our youth learned to call
+beautiful, not less beautiful. A Finn is not a Greek, and Wainamoinen was
+not a Homer. But if the poet may take his colors from that nature by which
+he is surrounded, if he may depict the men with whom he lives, "Kalewala"
+possesses merits not dissimilar from those of the Iliad, and will claim
+its place as the fifth national epic of the world, side by side with the
+Ionian songs, with the Mahábhárata, the Shahnámeh, and the Nibelunge. This
+early literary cultivation has not been without a powerful influence on
+the language. It has imparted permanency to its forms and a traditional
+character to its words, so that at first sight we might almost doubt
+whether the grammar of this language had not left the agglutinative stage,
+and entered into the current of inflection with Greek or Sanskrit. The
+agglutinative type, however, yet remains, and its grammar shows a
+luxuriance of grammatical combination second only to Turkish and
+Hungarian. Like Turkish it observes the "harmony of vowels," a feature
+peculiar to Turanian languages, as explained before.
+
+Karelian and Tavastian are dialectical varieties of Finnish.
+
+The Esths or Esthonians, neighbors to the Finns, speak a language closely
+allied to the Finnish. It is divided into the dialects of Dorpat (in
+Livonia) and Reval. Except some popular songs it is almost without
+literature. Esthonia, together with Livonia and Kurland, forms the three
+Baltic provinces of Russia. The population on the islands of the Gulf of
+Finland is mostly Esthonian. In the higher ranks of society Esthonian is
+hardly understood, and never spoken.
+
+Besides the Finns and Esthonians, the Livonians and the Lapps must be
+reckoned also amongst the same family. Their number, however, is small.
+The population of Livonia consists chiefly of Esths, Letts, Russians, and
+Germans. The number of Livonians speaking their own dialect is not more
+than 5000.
+
+The Lapps, or Laplanders, inhabit the most northern part of Europe. They
+belong to Sweden and Russia. Their number is estimated at 28,000. Their
+language has lately attracted much attention, and Castrén's travels give a
+description of their manners most interesting from its simplicity and
+faithfulness.
+
+The Bulgaria branch comprises the Tcheremissians and Mordvinians,
+scattered in disconnected colonies along the Volga, and surrounded by
+Russian and Tataric dialects. Both languages are extremely artificial in
+their grammar, and allow an accumulation of pronominal affixes at the end
+of verbs, surpassed only by the Bask, the Caucasian, and those American
+dialects that have been called Polysynthetic.
+
+The general name given to these tribes, Bulgaric, is not borrowed from
+Bulgaria, on the Danube; Bulgaria, on the contrary, received its name
+(replacing Moesia) from the Finnic armies by whom it was conquered in the
+seventh century. Bulgarian tribes advanced from the Volga to the Don, and
+after remaining for a time under the sovereignty of the Avars on the Don
+and Dnieper, they advanced to the Danube in 635, and founded the Bulgarian
+kingdom. This has retained its name to the present day, though the Finnic
+Bulgarians have long been absorbed by Slavonic inhabitants, and both
+brought under Turkish sway since 1392.
+
+The third, or Permic branch, comprises the idioms of the Votiakes, the
+Sirianes, and the Permians, three dialects of one language. _Perm_ was the
+ancient name for the country between 61°-76° E. lon. and 55°-65° N. lat.
+The Permic tribes were driven westward by their eastern neighbors, the
+Voguls, and thus pressed upon their western neighbors, the Bulgars of the
+Volga. The Votiakes are found between the rivers Vyatka and Kama.
+Northwards follow the Sirianes, inhabiting the country on the Upper Kâma,
+while the eastern portion is held by the Permians. These are surrounded on
+the south by the Tatars of Orenburg and the Bashkirs; on the north by the
+Samoyedes, and on the east by Voguls, who pressed on them from the Ural.
+
+These Voguls, together with Hungarians and Ostiakes, form the fourth and
+last branch of the Finnic family, the Ugric. It was in 462, after the
+dismemberment of Attila's Hunnic empire that these Ugric tribes approached
+Europe. They were then called Onagurs, Saragurs, and Urogs; and in later
+times they occur in Russian chronicles as Ugry. They are the ancestors of
+the Hungarians, and should not be confounded with the Uigurs, an ancient
+Turkic tribe mentioned before.
+
+The similarity between the Hungarian language and dialects of Finnic
+origin, spoken east of the Volga, is not a new discovery. In 1253, Wilhelm
+Ruysbroeck, a priest who travelled beyond the Volga, remarked that a race
+called Pascatir, who live on the Yaïk, spoke the same language as the
+Hungarians. They were then settled east of the old Bulgarian kingdom, the
+capital of which, the ancient Bolgari, on the left of the Volga, may still
+be traced in the ruins of Spask. If these Pascatir--the portion of the
+Ugric tribes that remained east of the Volga--are identical with the
+Bashkir, as Klaproth supposes, it would follow that, in later times, they
+gave up their language, for the present Bashkir no longer speak a
+Hungarian, but a Turkic, dialect. The affinity of the Hungarian and the
+Ugro-Finnic dialects was first proved philologically by Gyarmathi in 1799.
+
+A few instances may suffice to show this connection:--
+
+Hungarian.        Tcheremissian.    English.
+Atya-m            atya-m            my father.
+Atya-d            atya-t            thy father.
+Atya              atya-se           his father.
+Atya-nk           atya-ne           our father.
+Atya-tok          atya-da           your father.
+Aty-ok            atya-st           their father.
+
+DECLENSION.
+
+             Hungarian.        Esthonian.        English.
+Nom.         vér               werri             blood.
+Gen.         véré              werre             of blood.
+Dat          vérnek            werrele           to blood.
+Acc.         vért              werd              blood.
+Abl.         vérestöl          werrist           from blood.
+
+CONJUGATION.
+
+Hungarian.        Esthonian.        English.
+Lelem             leian             I find.
+Leled             leiad             thou findest.
+Leli              leiab             he finds.
+Leljük            leiame            we find.
+Lelitek           leiate            you find.
+Lelik             leiawad           they find.
+
+A Comparative Table of the NUMERALS of each of the Four Branches of the
+FINNIC CLASS, showing the degree of their relationship.
+
+                            1          2          3          4
+Chudic, Finnish             yksi       kaksi      kolme      neljä
+Chudic, Esthonian           iits       kats       kolm       nelli
+Bulgaric, Tcheremissian     ik         kok        kum        nil
+Bulgaric, Mordvinian        vaike      kavto      kolmo      nile
+Permic, Sirianian           ötik       kyk        kujim      ujoli
+Ugric, Ostiakian            it         kat        chudem     njeda
+Ugric, Hungarian            egy        ket        harom      negy
+
+                            5          6          7
+Chudic, Finnish             viisi      kuusi      seitsemän
+Chudic, Esthonian           wiis       kuas       seitse
+Bulgaric, Tcheremissian     vis        kut        sim
+Bulgaric, Mordvinian        väte       kóto       sisem
+Permic, Sirianian           vit        kvait      sizim
+Ugric, Ostiakian            vet        chut       tabet
+Ugric, Hungarian            öt         hat        het
+
+                            8           9          10
+Chudic, Finnish             kahdeksan   yhdeksan   kymmenen
+Chudic, Esthonian           kattesa     üttesa     kümme
+Bulgaric, Tcheremissian     kändäxe     endexe     lu
+Bulgaric, Mordvinian        kavsko      väikse     kämen
+Permic, Sirianian           kökjâmys    ökmys      das
+Ugric, Ostiakian            nida        arjong     jong
+Ugric, Hungarian            njolcz      kilencz    tiz
+
+We have thus examined the four chief classes of the Turanian family, the
+Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic, and Finnic. The Tungusic branch stands lowest;
+its grammar is not much richer than Chinese, and in its structure there is
+an absence of that architectonic order which in Chinese makes the
+Cyclopean stones of language hold together without cement. This applies,
+however, principally to the Mandshu; other Tungusic dialects spoken, not
+in China, but in the original seats of the Mandshus, are even now
+beginning to develop grammatical forms.
+
+The Mongolic dialects excel the Tungusic, but in their grammar can hardly
+distinguish between the different parts of speech. The spoken idioms of
+the Mongolians, as of the Tungusians, are evidently struggling towards a
+more organic life, and Castrén has brought home evidence of incipient
+verbal growth in the language of the Buriäts and a Tungusic dialect spoken
+near Nyertchinsk.
+
+This is, however, only a small beginning, if compared with the profusion
+of grammatical resources displayed by the Turkic languages. In their
+system of conjugation, the Turkic dialects can hardly be surpassed. Their
+verbs are like branches which break down under the heavy burden of fruits
+and blossoms. The excellence of the Finnic languages consists rather in a
+diminution than increase of verbal forms; but in declension Finnish is
+even richer than Turkish.
+
+These four classes, together with the Samoyedic, constitute the northern
+or Ural-Altaic division of the Turanian family.
+
+The southern division consists of the Tamulic, the Gangetic
+(Trans-Himalayan and Sub-Himalayan), the Lohitic, the Taïc, and the Malaïc
+classes.(305) These two divisions comprehend very nearly all the languages
+of Asia, with the exception of Chinese, which, together with its
+neighboring dialects, forms the only representative of radical or
+monosyllabic speech. A few, such as Japanese,(306) the language of Korea,
+of the Koriakes, the Kamchadales, and the numerous dialects of the
+Caucasus, &c., remain unclassed; but in them also some traces of a common
+origin with the Turanian languages have, it is probable, survived, and
+await the discovery of philological research.
+
+Of the third, or inflectional, stage, I need not say much, as we have
+examined its structure when analyzing in our former Lectures a number of
+words in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, or any other of the Aryan languages. The
+chief distinction between an inflectional and an agglutinative language
+consists in the fact that agglutinative languages preserve the
+consciousness of their roots, and therefore do not allow them to be
+affected by phonetic corruption; and, though they have lost the
+consciousness of the original meaning of their terminations, they feel
+distinctly the difference between the significative root, and the
+modifying elements. Not so in the inflectional languages. There the
+various elements which enter into the composition of words, may become so
+welded together, and suffer so much from phonetic corruption, that none
+but the educated would be aware of an original distinction between root
+and termination, and none but the comparative grammarian able to discover
+the seams that separate the component parts.
+
+If you consider the character of our morphological classification, you
+will see that this classification, differing thereby from the
+genealogical, must be applicable to all languages. Our classification
+exhausts all possibilities. If the component elements of language are
+roots, predicative and demonstrative, we cannot have more than three
+combinations. Roots may either remain roots without any modification; or
+secondly, they may be joined so that one determines the other and loses
+its independent existence; or thirdly, they may be joined and be allowed
+to coalesce, so that both lose their independent existence. The number of
+roots which enter into the composition of a word makes no difference, and
+it is unnecessary, therefore, to admit a fourth class, sometimes called
+_polysynthetic_, or _incorporating_, including most of the American
+languages. As long as in these sesquipedalian compounds, the significative
+root remains distinct, they belong to the agglutinative stage; as soon as
+it is absorbed by the terminations, they belong to the inflectional stage.
+Nor is it necessary to distinguish between _synthetic_ and _analytical_
+languages, including under the former name the ancient, and under the
+latter the modern, languages of the inflectional class. The formation of
+such phrases as the French _j'aimerai_, for _j'ai à aimer_, or the
+English, _I shall do_, _thou wilt do_, may be called _analytical_ or
+_metaphrastic_. But in their morphological nature these phrases are still
+inflectional. If we analyze such a phrase as _je vivrai_, we find it was
+originally _ego_ (Sanskrit _aham_) _vivere_ (Sanskrit _jîv-as-e_, dat.
+neut.) _habeo_ (Sanskrit _bhâ-vayâ-mi_); that is to say, we have a number
+of words in which grammatical articulation has been almost entirely
+destroyed, but has not been cast off; whereas in Turanian languages
+grammatical forms are produced by the combination of integral roots, and
+the old and useless terminations are first discarded before any new
+combination takes place.(307)
+
+At the end of our morphological classification a problem presents itself,
+which we might have declined to enter upon if we had confined ourselves to
+a genealogical classification. At the end of our genealogical
+classification we had to confess that only a certain number of languages
+had as yet been arranged genealogically, and that therefore the time for
+approaching the problem of the common origin of all languages had not yet
+come. Now, however, although we have not specified all languages which
+belong to the radical, the terminational, and inflectional classes, we
+have clearly laid it down as a principle, that all languages must fall
+under one or the other of these three categories of human speech. It would
+not be consistent, therefore, to shrink from the consideration of a
+problem, which, though beset with many difficulties, cannot be excluded
+from the science of language.
+
+Let us first see our problem clearly and distinctly. The problem of the
+common origin of languages has no necessary connection with the problem of
+the common origin of mankind. If it could be proved that languages had had
+different beginnings, this would in nowise necessitate the admission of
+different beginnings of the human race. For if we look upon language as
+natural to man, it might have broken out at different times and in
+different countries among the scattered descendants of one original pair;
+if, on the contrary, language is to be treated as an artificial invention,
+there is still less reason why each succeeding generation should not have
+invented its own idiom.
+
+Nor would it follow, if it could be proved that all the dialects of
+mankind point to one common source, that therefore the human race must
+descend from one pair. For language might have been the property of one
+favored race, and have been communicated to the other races in the
+progress of history.
+
+The science of language and the science of ethnology have both suffered
+most seriously from being mixed up together. The classification of races
+and languages should be quite independent of each other. Races may change
+their languages, and history supplies us with several instances where one
+race adopted the language of another. Different languages, therefore, may
+be spoken by one race, or the same language may be spoken by different
+races; so that any attempt at squaring the classification of races and
+tongues must necessarily fail.
+
+Secondly, the problem of the common origin of languages has no connection
+with the statements contained in the Old Testament regarding the creation
+of man, and the genealogies of the patriarchs. If our researches led us to
+the admission of different beginnings for the languages of mankind, there
+is nothing in the Old Testament opposed to this view. For although the
+Jews believed that for a time the whole earth was of one language and of
+one speech, it has long been pointed out by eminent divines, with
+particular reference to the dialects of America, that new languages might
+have arisen at later times. If, on the contrary, we arrive at the
+conviction that all languages can be traced back to one common source, we
+could never think of transferring the genealogies of the Old Testament to
+the genealogical classification of language. The genealogies of the Old
+Testament refer to blood, not to language, and as we know that people,
+without changing their name, did frequently change their language, it is
+clearly impossible that the genealogies of the Old Testament should
+coincide with the genealogical classification of languages. In order to
+avoid a confusion of ideas, it would be preferable to abstain altogether
+from using the same names to express relationship of language which in the
+Bible are used to express relationship of blood. It was usual formerly to
+speak of _Japhetic_, _Hamitic_ and _Semitic_ languages. The first name has
+now been replaced by _Aryan_, the second by _African_; and though the
+third is still retained, it has received a scientific definition quite
+different from the meaning which it would have in the Bible. It is well to
+bear this in mind, in order to prevent not only those who are forever
+attacking the Bible with arrows that cannot reach it, but likewise those
+who defend it with weapons they know not how to wield, from disturbing in
+any way the quiet progress of the science of language.
+
+Let us now look dispassionately at our problem. The problem of the
+possibility of a common origin of all languages naturally divides itself
+into two parts, the _formal_ and the _material_. We are to-day concerned
+with the formal part only. We have examined all possible forms which
+language can assume, and we have now to ask, can we reconcile with these
+three distinct forms, the radical, the terminational, and the
+inflectional, the admission of one common origin of human speech? I answer
+decidedly, Yes.
+
+The chief argument that has been brought forward against the common origin
+of language is this, that no monosyllabic or radical language has ever
+entered into an agglutinative or terminational stage, and that no
+agglutinative or terminational language has ever risen to the inflectional
+stage. Chinese, it is said, is still what it has been from the beginning;
+it has never produced agglutinative or inflectional forms; nor has any
+Turanian language ever given up the distinctive feature of the
+terminational stage, namely, the integrity of its roots.
+
+In answer to this it should be pointed out that though each language, as
+soon as it once becomes settled, retains that morphological character
+which it had when it first assumed its individual or national existence,
+it does not lose altogether the power of producing grammatical forms that
+belong to a higher stage. In Chinese, and particularly in Chinese
+dialects, we find rudimentary traces of agglutination. The _li_ which I
+mentioned before as the sign of the locative, has dwindled down to a mere
+postposition, and a modern Chinese is no more aware that _li_ meant
+originally interior, than the Turanian is of the origin of his
+case-terminations.(308) In the spoken dialects of Chinese, agglutinative
+forms are of more frequent occurrence. Thus, in the Shanghai dialect, _wo_
+is to speak, as a verb; _woda_, a word. Of _woda_ a genitive is formed,
+_woda-ka_, a dative _pela woda_, an accusative _tang woda_.(309) In
+agglutinative languages again, we meet with rudimentary traces of
+inflection. Thus in Tamil the root _tûngu_, to sleep, has not retained its
+full integrity in the derivative _tûkkam_, sleep.
+
+I mention these instances, which might be greatly multiplied, in order to
+show that there is nothing mysterious in the tenacity with which each
+language clings in general to that stage of grammar which it had attained
+at the time of its first settlement. If a family, or a tribe, or a nation,
+has once accustomed itself to express its ideas according to one system of
+grammar, that first mould remains and becomes stronger with each
+generation. But, while Chinese was arrested and became traditional in this
+very early stage the radical, other dialects passed on through that stage,
+retaining their pliancy. They were not arrested, and did not become
+traditional or national, before those who spoke them had learnt to
+appreciate the advantage of agglutination. That advantage being once
+perceived, a few single forms in which agglutination first showed itself
+would soon, by that sense of analogy which is inherent in language, extend
+their influence irresistibly. Languages arrested in that stage would cling
+with equal tenacity to the system of agglutination. A Chinese can hardly
+understand how language is possible, unless every syllable is
+significative; a Turanian despises every idiom in which each word does not
+display distinctly its radical and significative element; whereas, we who
+are accustomed to the use of inflectional languages, are proud of the very
+grammar which a Chinese and Turanian would treat with contempt.
+
+The fact, therefore, that languages, if once settled, do not change their
+grammatical constitution, is no argument against our theory, that every
+inflectional language was once agglutinative, and every agglutinative
+language was once monosyllabic. I call it a theory, but it is more than a
+theory, for it is the only possible way in which the realities of Sanskrit
+or any other inflectional language can be explained. As far as the formal
+part of language is concerned, we cannot resist the conclusion that what
+is now _inflectional_ was formerly _agglutinative_, and what is now
+_agglutinative_ was at first _radical_. The great stream of language
+rolled on in numberless dialects, and changed its grammatical coloring as
+it passed from time to time through new deposits of thought. The different
+channels which left the main current and became stationary and stagnant,
+or, if you like, literary and traditional, retained forever that coloring
+which the main current displayed at the stage of their separation. If we
+call the radical stage _white_, the agglutinative _red_, and the
+inflectional _blue_, then we may well understand why the white channels
+should show hardly a drop of red or blue, or why the red channels should
+hardly betray a shadow of blue; and we shall be prepared to find what we
+do find, namely, white tints in the red, and white and red tints in the
+blue channels of speech.
+
+You will have perceived that in what I have said I only argue for the
+possibility, not for the necessity, of a common origin of language.
+
+I look upon the problem of the common origin of language, which I have
+shown to be quite independent of the problem of the common origin of
+mankind, as a question which ought to be kept open as long as possible. It
+is not, I believe, a problem quite as hopeless as that of the plurality of
+worlds, on which so much has been written of late, but it should be
+treated very much in the same manner. As it is impossible to demonstrate
+by the evidence of the senses that the planets are inhabited, the only way
+to prove that they are, is to prove that it is impossible that they should
+not be. Thus on the other hand, in order to prove that the planets are not
+inhabited, you must prove that it is impossible that they should be. As
+soon as the one or the other has been proved, the question will be set at
+rest: till then it must remain an open question, whatever our own
+predilections on the subject may be.
+
+I do not take quite as desponding a view of the problem of the common
+origin of language, but I insist on this, that we ought not to allow this
+problem to be in any way prejudged. Now it has been the tendency of the
+most distinguished writers on comparative philology to take it almost for
+granted, that after the discovery of the two families of language, the
+Aryan and Semitic, and after the establishment of the close ties of
+relationship which unite the members of each, it would be impossible to
+admit any longer a common origin of language. It was natural, after the
+criteria by which the unity of the Aryan as well as the Semitic dialects
+can be proved had been so successfully defined, that the absence of
+similar coincidences between any Semitic and Aryan language, or between
+these and any other branch of speech, should have led to a belief that no
+connection was admissible between them. A Linnæan botanist, who has his
+definite marks by which to recognize an Anemone, would reject with equal
+confidence any connection between the species Anemone and other flowers
+which have since been classed under the same head though deficient in the
+Linnæan marks of the Anemone.
+
+But there are surely different degrees of affinity in languages as well as
+in all other productions of nature, and the different families of speech,
+though they cannot show the same signs of relationship by which their
+members are held together, need not of necessity have been perfect
+strangers to each other from the beginning.
+
+Now I confess that when I found the argument used over and over again,
+that it is impossible any longer to speak of a common origin of language,
+because comparative philology had proved that there existed various
+families of language, I felt that this was not true, that at all events it
+was an exaggeration.
+
+The problem, if properly viewed, bears the following aspect:--"_If you wish
+to assert that language had various beginnings, you must prove it
+impossible that language could have had a common origin._"
+
+No such impossibility has ever been established with regard to a common
+origin of the Aryan and Semitic dialects; while on the contrary the
+analysis of the grammatical forms in either family has removed many
+difficulties, and made it at least intelligible how, with materials
+identical or very similar, two individuals, or two families, or two
+nations, could in the course of time have produced languages so different
+in form as Hebrew and Sanskrit.
+
+But still greater light was thrown on the formative and metamorphic
+process of language by the study of other dialects unconnected with
+Sanskrit or Hebrew, and exhibiting before our eyes the growth of those
+grammatical forms (grammatical in the widest sense of the word) which in
+the Aryan and Semitic families we know only as formed, not as forming; as
+decaying, not as living; as traditional, not as understood and
+intentional: I mean the Turanian languages. The traces by which these
+languages attest their original relationship are much fainter than in the
+Semitic and Aryan families, but they are so of necessity. In the Aryan and
+Semitic families, the agglutinative process, by which alone grammatical
+forms can be obtained, has been arrested at some time, and this could only
+have been through religious or political influences. By the same power
+through which an advancing civilization absorbs the manifold dialects in
+which every spoken idiom naturally represents itself, the first political
+or religious centralization must necessarily have put a check on the
+exuberance of an agglutinative speech. Out of many possible forms one
+became popular, fixed, and technical for each word, for each grammatical
+category; and by means of poetry, law, and religion, a literary or
+political language was produced to which thenceforth nothing had to be
+added; which in a short time, after becoming unintelligible in its formal
+elements, was liable to phonetic corruption only, but incapable of
+internal resuscitation. It is necessary to admit a primitive concentration
+of this kind for the Aryan and Semitic families, for it is thus only that
+we can account for coincidences between Sanskrit and Greek terminations,
+which were formed neither from Greek nor from Sanskrit materials, but
+which are still identically the same in both. It is in this sense that I
+call these languages political or state languages, and it has been truly
+said that languages belonging to these families must be able to prove
+their relationship by sharing in common not only what is regular and
+intelligible, but what is anomalous, unintelligible, and dead.
+
+If no such concentration takes place, languages, though formed of the same
+materials and originally identical, must necessarily diverge in what we
+may call dialects, but in a very different sense from the dialects such as
+we find in the later periods of political languages. The process of
+agglutination will continue in each clan, and forms becoming
+unintelligible will be easily replaced by new and more intelligible
+compounds. If the cases are formed by postpositions, new postpositions can
+be used as soon as the old ones become obsolete. If the conjugation is
+formed by pronouns, new pronouns can be used if the old ones are no longer
+sufficiently distinct.
+
+Let us ask then, what coincidences we are likely to find in agglutinative
+dialects which have become separated, and which gradually approach to a
+more settled state? It seems to me that we can only expect to find in them
+such coincidences as Castrén and Schott have succeeded in discovering in
+the Finnic, Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, and Samoyedic languages; and such
+as Hodgson, Caldwell, Logan, and myself have pointed out in the Tamulic,
+Gangetic, Lohitic, Taïc, and Malaïc languages. They must refer chiefly to
+the radical materials of language, or to those parts of speech which it is
+most difficult to reproduce, I mean pronouns, numerals, and prepositions.
+These languages will hardly ever agree in what is anomalous or inorganic,
+because their organism repels continually what begins to be formal and
+unintelligible. It is astonishing rather, that any words of a conventional
+meaning should have been discovered as the common property of the Turanian
+languages, than that most of their words and forms should be peculiar to
+each. These coincidences must, however, be accounted for by those who deny
+the common origin of the Turanian languages; they must be accounted for,
+either as the result of accident, or of an imitative instinct which led
+the human mind everywhere to the same onomatopoëtic formations. This has
+never been done, and it will require great efforts to achieve it.
+
+To myself the study of the Turanian family was interesting particularly
+because it offered an opportunity of learning how far languages, supposed
+to be of a common origin, might diverge and become dissimilar by the
+unrestrained operation of dialectic regeneration.
+
+In a letter which I addressed to my friend, the late Baron Bunsen, and
+which was published by him in his "Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal
+History"(310) (vol. i. pp. 263-521), it had been my object to trace, as
+far as I was able, the principles which guided the formation of
+agglutinative languages, and to show how far languages may become
+dissimilar in their grammar and dictionary, and yet allow us to treat them
+as cognate dialects. In answer to the assertion that it was impossible, I
+tried, in the fourth, fifth, and sixth sections of that Essay, to show
+_how_ it was possible, that, starting from a common ground, languages as
+different as Mandshu and Finnish, Malay and Siamese, should have arrived
+at their present state, and might still be treated as cognate tongues. And
+as I look upon this process of agglutination as the only intelligible
+means by which language can acquire a grammatical organization, and clear
+the barrier which has arrested the growth of the Chinese idiom, I felt
+justified in applying the principles derived from the formation of the
+Turanian languages to the Aryan and Semitic families. They also must have
+passed through an agglutinative stage, and it is during that period alone
+that we can account for the gradual divergence and individualization of
+what we afterwards call the Aryan and Semitic forms of speech. If we can
+account for the different appearance of Mandshu and Finnish, we can also
+account for the distance between Hebrew and Sanskrit. It is true that we
+do not know the Aryan speech during its agglutinative period, but we can
+infer what it was when we see languages like Finnish and Turkish
+approaching more and more to an Aryan type. Such has been the advance
+which Turkish has made towards inflectional forms, that Professor Ewald
+claims for it the title of a synthetic language, a title which he gives to
+the Aryan and Semitic dialects after they have left the agglutinative
+stage, and entered into a process of phonetic corruption and dissolution.
+"Many of its component parts," he says, "though they were no doubt
+originally, as in every language, independent words, have been reduced to
+mere vowels, or have been lost altogether, so that we must infer their
+former presence by the changes which they have wrought in the body of the
+word. _Göz_ means eye, and _gör_, to see; _ish_, deed, and _ir_, to do;
+_îtsh_, the interior, _gîr_, to enter."(311) Nay, he goes so far as to
+admit some formal elements which Turkish shares in common with the Aryan
+family, and which therefore could only date from a period when both were
+still in their agglutinative infancy. For instance, _di_, as exponent of a
+past action; _ta_, as the sign of the past participle of the passive;
+_lu_, as a suffix to form adjectives, &c.(312) This is more than I should
+venture to assert.
+
+Taking this view of the gradual formation of language by agglutination, as
+opposed to intussusception, it is hardly necessary to say that, if I speak
+of a Turanian family of speech, I use the word family in a different sense
+from that which it has with regard to the Aryan and Semitic languages. In
+my Letter on the Turanian languages, which has been the subject of such
+fierce attacks from those who believe in different beginnings of language
+and mankind, I had explained this repeatedly, and I had preferred the term
+of _group_ for the Turanian languages, in order to express as clearly as
+possible that the relation between Turkish and Mandshu, between Tamil and
+Finnish, was a different one, not in degree only, but in kind, from that
+between Sanskrit and Greek. "These Turanian languages," I said (p. 216),
+"cannot be considered as standing to each other in the same relation as
+Hebrew and Arabic, Sanskrit and Greek." "They are radii diverging from a
+common centre, not children of a common parent." And still they are not so
+widely distant as Hebrew and Sanskrit, because none of them has entered
+into that new phase of growth or decay (p. 218) through which the Semitic
+and Aryan languages passed after they had been settled, individualized,
+and nationalized.
+
+The real object of my Essay was therefore a defensive one. It was to show
+how rash it was to speak of different independent beginnings in the
+history of human speech, before a single argument had been brought forward
+to establish the necessity of such an admission. The impossibility of a
+common origin of language has never been proved, but, in order to remove
+what were considered difficulties affecting the theory of a common origin,
+I felt it my duty to show practically, and by the very history of the
+Turanian languages, how such a theory was possible, or as I say in one
+instance only, probable. I endeavored to show how even the most distant
+members of the Turanian family, the one spoken in the north, the other in
+the south of Asia, the _Finnic_ and the _Tamulic_, have preserved in their
+grammatical organization traces of a former unity; and, if my opponents
+admit that I have proved the ante-Brahmanic or Tamulic inhabitants of
+India to belong to the Turanian family, they can hardly have been aware
+that if this, the most extreme point of my argument be conceded,
+everything else is involved, and must follow by necessity.
+
+Yet I did not call the last chapter of my Essay, "On the Necessity of a
+common origin of Language," but "On the Possibility;" and, in answer to
+the opinions advanced by the opposite party, I summed up my defence in
+these two paragraphs:--
+
+
+    I.
+
+    "Nothing necessitates the admission of different independent
+    beginnings for the _material_ elements of the Turanian, Semitic,
+    and Aryan branches of speech;--nay, it is possible even now to
+    point out radicals which, under various changes and disguises,
+    have been current in these three branches ever since their first
+    separation."
+
+    II.
+
+    "Nothing necessitates the admission of different beginnings for
+    the formal elements of the Turanian, Semitic, and Aryan branches
+    of speech;--and though it is impossible to derive the Aryan system
+    of grammar from the Semitic, or the Semitic from the Aryan, we can
+    perfectly understand how, either through individual influences, or
+    by the wear and tear of speech in its own continuous working, the
+    different systems of grammar of Asia and Europe may have been
+    produced."
+
+
+It will be seen, from the very wording of these two paragraphs, that my
+object was to deny the necessity of independent beginnings, and to assert
+the possibility of a common origin of language. I have been accused of
+having been biassed in my researches by an implicit belief in the common
+origin of mankind. I do not deny that I hold this belief, and, if it
+wanted confirmation, that confirmation has been supplied by Darwin's book
+"On the Origin of Species."(313) But I defy my adversaries to point out
+one single passage where I have mixed up scientific with theological
+arguments. Only if I am told that no "quiet observer would ever have
+conceived the idea of deriving all mankind from one pair, unless the
+Mosaic records had taught it," I must be allowed to say in reply, that
+this idea on the contrary is so natural, so consistent with all human laws
+of reasoning, that, as far as I know, there has been no nation on earth
+which, if it possessed any traditions on the origin of mankind, did not
+derive the human race from one pair, if not from one person. The author of
+the Mosaic records, therefore, though stripped, before the tribunal of
+Physical Science, of his claims as an inspired writer, may at least claim
+the modest title of a quiet observer, and if his conception of the
+physical unity of the human race can be proved to be an error, it is an
+error which he shares in common with other quiet observers, such as
+Humboldt, Bunsen, Prichard, and Owen.(314)
+
+The only question which remains to be answered is this, Was it one and the
+same volume of water which supplied all the lateral channels of speech?
+or, to drop all metaphor, are the roots which were joined together
+according to the radical, the terminational, and inflectional systems,
+identically the same? The only way to answer, or at least to dispose of,
+this question is to consider the nature and origin of roots; and we shall
+then have reached the extreme limits to which inductive reasoning can
+carry us in our researches into the mysteries of human speech.
+
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE IX. THE THEORETICAL STAGE, AND THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE.
+
+
+"In examining the history of mankind, as well as in examining the
+phenomena of the material world, when we cannot trace the process by which
+an event _has been_ produced, it is often of importance to be able to show
+how it _may have been_ produced by natural causes. Thus, although it is
+impossible to determine with certainty what the steps were by which any
+particular language was formed, yet if we can show, from the known
+principles of human nature, how all its various parts _might_ gradually
+have arisen, the mind is not only to a certain degree satisfied, but a
+check is given to that indolent philosophy which refers to a miracle
+whatever appearances, both in the natural and moral worlds, it is unable
+to explain."(315)
+
+This quotation from an eminent Scotch philosopher contains the best advice
+that could be given to the student of the science of language, when he
+approaches the problem which we have to examine to-day, namely, the origin
+of language. Though we have stripped that problem of the perplexing and
+mysterious aspect which it presented to the philosophers of old, yet, even
+in its simplest form, it seems to be almost beyond the reach of the human
+understanding.
+
+If we were asked the riddle how images of the eye and all the sensations
+of our senses could be represented by sounds, nay, could be so embodied in
+sounds as to express thought and excite thought, we should probably give
+it up as the question of a madman, who, mixing up the most heterogeneous
+subjects, attempted to change color into sound and sound into
+thought.(316) Yet this is the riddle which we have now to solve.
+
+It is quite clear that we have no means of solving the problem of the
+origin of language _historically_, or of explaining it as a matter of fact
+which happened once in a certain locality and at a certain time. History
+does not begin till long after mankind had acquired the power of language,
+and even the most ancient traditions are silent as to the manner in which
+man came in possession of his earliest thoughts and words. Nothing, no
+doubt, would be more interesting than to know from historical documents
+the exact process by which the first man began to lisp his first words,
+and thus to be rid forever of all the theories on the origin of speech.
+But this knowledge is denied us; and, if it had been otherwise, we should
+probably be quite unable to understand those primitive events in the
+history of the human mind.(317) We are told that the first man was the son
+of God, that God created him in His own image, formed him of the dust of
+the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life. These are
+simple facts, and to be accepted as such; if we begin to reason on them,
+the edge of the human understanding glances off. Our mind is so
+constituted that it cannot apprehend the absolute beginning or the
+absolute end of anything. If we tried to conceive the first man created as
+a child, and gradually unfolding his physical and mental powers, we could
+not understand his living for _one_ day without supernatural aid. If, on
+the contrary, we tried to conceive the first man created full-grown in
+body and mind, the conception of an effect without a cause, of a
+full-grown mind without a previous growth, would equally transcend our
+reasoning powers. It is the same with the first beginnings of language.
+Theologians who claim for language a divine origin drift into the most
+dangerous anthropomorphism, when they enter into any details as to the
+manner in which they suppose the Deity to have compiled a dictionary and
+grammar in order to teach them to the first man, as a schoolmaster teaches
+the deaf and dumb. And they do not see that, even if all their premises
+were granted, they would have explained no more than how the first man
+might have learnt a language, if there was a language ready made for him.
+How that language was made would remain as great a mystery as ever.
+Philosophers, on the contrary, who imagine that the first man, though left
+to himself, would gradually have emerged from a state of mutism and have
+invented words for every new conception that arose in his mind, forget
+that man could not by his own power have acquired _the faculty_ of speech
+which is the distinctive character of mankind,(318) unattained and
+unattainable by the mute creation. It shows a want of appreciation as to
+the real bearings of our problem, if philosophers appeal to the fact that
+children are born without language, and gradually emerge from mutism to
+the full command of articulate speech. We want no explanation how birds
+learn to fly, created as they are with organs adapted to that purpose. Nor
+do we wish to inquire how children learn to use the various faculties with
+which the human body and soul are endowed. We want to gain, if possible,
+an insight into the original faculty of speech; and for that purpose I
+fear it is as useless to watch the first stammerings of children, as it
+would be to repeat the experiment of the Egyptian king who intrusted two
+new-born infants to a shepherd, with the injunction to let them suck a
+goat's milk, and to speak no word in their presence, but to observe what
+word they would first utter.(319) The same experiment is said to have been
+repeated by the Swabian emperor, Frederic II., by James IV. of Scotland,
+and by one of the Mogul emperors of India. But, whether for the purpose of
+finding out which was the primitive language of mankind, or of discovering
+how far language was natural to man, the experiments failed to throw any
+light on the problem before us. Children, in learning to speak, do not
+invent language. Language is there ready made for them. It has been there
+for thousands of years. They acquire the use of a language, and, as they
+grow up, they may acquire the use of a second and a third. It is useless
+to inquire whether infants, left to themselves, would invent a language.
+It would be impossible, unnatural, and illegal to try the experiment, and,
+without repeated experiments, the assertions of those who believe and
+those who disbelieve the possibility of children inventing a language of
+their own, are equally valueless. All we know for certain is, that an
+English child, if left to itself, would never begin to speak English, and
+that history supplies no instance of any language having thus been
+invented.
+
+If we want to gain an insight into the faculty of flying, which is a
+characteristic feature of birds, all we can do is, first, to compare the
+structure of birds with that of other animals which are devoid of that
+faculty, and secondly, to examine the conditions under which the act of
+flying becomes possible. It is the same with speech. Speech is a specific
+faculty of man. It distinguishes man from all other creatures; and if we
+wish to acquire more definite ideas as to the real nature of human speech,
+all we can do is to compare man with those animals that seem to come
+nearest to him, and thus to try to discover what he shares in common with
+these animals, and what is peculiar to him and to him alone. After we have
+discovered this, we may proceed to inquire into the conditions under which
+speech becomes possible, and we shall then have done all that we can do,
+considering that the instruments of our knowledge, wonderful as they are,
+are yet far too weak to carry us into all the regions to which we may soar
+on the wings of our imagination.
+
+In comparing man with the other animals, we need not enter here into the
+physiological questions whether the difference between the body of an ape
+and the body of a man is one of degree or of kind. However that question
+is settled by physiologists we need not be afraid. If the structure of a
+mere worm is such as to fill the human mind with awe, if a single glimpse
+which we catch of the infinite wisdom displayed in the organs of the
+lowest creature gives us an intimation of the wisdom of its Divine Creator
+far transcending the powers of our conception, how are we to criticise and
+disparage the most highly organized creatures of His creation, creatures
+as wonderfully made as we ourselves? Are there not many creatures on many
+points more perfect even than man? Do we not envy the lion's strength, the
+eagle's eye, the wings of every bird? If there existed animals altogether
+as perfect as man in their physical structure, nay, even more perfect, no
+thoughtful man would ever be uneasy. His true superiority rests on
+different grounds. "I confess," Sydney Smith writes, "I feel myself so
+much at ease about the superiority of mankind--I have such a marked and
+decided contempt for the understanding of every baboon I have ever seen--I
+feel so sure that the blue ape without a tail will never rival us in
+poetry, painting, and music, that I see no reason whatever that justice
+may not be done to the few fragments of soul and tatters of understanding
+which they may really possess." The playfulness of Sydney Smith in
+handling serious and sacred subjects has of late been found fault with by
+many: but humor is a safer sign of strong convictions and perfect safety
+than guarded solemnity.
+
+With regard to our own problem, no one can doubt that certain animals
+possess all the physical requirements for articulate speech. There is no
+letter of the alphabet which a parrot will not learn to pronounce.(320)
+The fact, therefore, that the parrot is without a language of his own,
+must be explained by a difference between the _mental_, not between the
+_physical_, faculties of the animal and man; and it is by a comparison of
+the mental faculties alone, such as we find them in man and brutes, that
+we may hope to discover what constitutes the indispensable qualification
+for language, a qualification to be found in man alone, and in no other
+creature on earth.
+
+I say _mental faculties_, and I mean to claim a large share of what we
+call our mental faculties for the higher animals. These animals have
+_sensation_, _perception_, _memory_, _will_, and _intellect_, only we must
+restrict intellect to the comparing or interlacing of single perceptions.
+All these points can be proved by irrefragable evidence, and that evidence
+has never, I believe, been summed up with greater lucidity and power than
+in one of the last publications of M. P. Flourens, "De la Raison, du
+Génie, et de la Folie:" Paris, 1861. There are no doubt many people who
+are as much frightened at the idea that brutes have souls and are able to
+think, as by "the blue ape without a tail." But their fright is entirely
+of their own making. If people will use such words as soul or thought
+without making it clear to themselves and others what they mean by them,
+these words will slip away under their feet, and the result must be
+painful. If we once ask the question, Have brutes a soul? we shall never
+arrive at any conclusion; for _soul_ has been so many times defined by
+philosophers from Aristotle down to Hegel, that it means everything and
+nothing. Such has been the confusion caused by the promiscuous employment
+of the ill-defined terms of mental philosophy that we find Descartes
+representing brutes as living machines, whereas Leibniz claims for them
+not only souls, but immortal souls. "Next to the error of those who deny
+the existence of God," says Descartes, "there is none so apt to lead weak
+minds from the right path of virtue, as to think that the soul of brutes
+is of the same nature as our own; and, consequently, that we have nothing
+to fear or to hope after this life, any more than flies or ants; whereas,
+if we know how much they differ, we understand much better that _our_ soul
+is quite independent of the body, and consequently not subject to die with
+the body."
+
+The spirit of these remarks is excellent, but the argument is extremely
+weak. It does not follow that brutes have no souls because they have no
+human souls. It does not follow that the souls of men are not immortal,
+because the souls of brutes are not immortal; nor has the _major premiss_
+ever been proved by any philosopher, namely, that the souls of brutes must
+necessarily be destroyed and annihilated by death. Leibniz, who has
+defended the immortality of the human soul with stronger arguments than
+even Descartes, writes:--"I found at last how the souls of brutes and their
+sensations do not at all interfere with the immortality of human souls; on
+the contrary, nothing serves better to establish our natural immortality
+than to believe that all souls are imperishable."
+
+Instead of entering into these perplexities, which are chiefly due to the
+loose employment of ill-defined terms, let us simply look at the facts.
+Every unprejudiced observer will admit that--
+
+1. Brutes see, hear, taste, smell, and feel; that is to say, they have
+five senses, just like ourselves, neither more nor less. They have both
+sensation and perception, a point which has been illustrated by M.
+Flourens by the most interesting experiments. If the roots of the optic
+nerve are removed, the retina in the eye of a bird ceases to be excitable,
+the iris is no longer movable; the animal is blind, because it has lost
+the organ of _sensation_. If, on the contrary, the cerebral lobes are
+removed, the eye remains pure and sound, the retina excitable, the iris
+movable. The eye is preserved, yet the animal cannot see, because it has
+lost the organs of _perception_.
+
+2. Brutes have sensations of pleasure and pain. A dog that is beaten
+behaves exactly like a child that is chastised, and a dog that is fed and
+fondled exhibits the same signs of satisfaction as a boy under the same
+circumstances. We can only judge from signs, and if they are to be trusted
+in the case of children, they must be trusted likewise in the case of
+brutes.
+
+3. Brutes do not forget, or as philosophers would say, brutes have memory.
+They know their masters, they know their home; they evince joy on
+recognizing those who have been kind to them, and they bear malice for
+years to those by whom they have been insulted or ill-treated. Who does
+not recollect the dog Argos in the Odyssey, who, after so many years'
+absence, was the first to recognize Ulysses?(321)
+
+4. Brutes are able to compare and to distinguish. A parrot will take up a
+nut, and throw it down again, without attempting to crack it. He has found
+that it is light; this he could discover only by comparing the weight of
+the good nuts with that of the bad: and he has found that it has no
+kernel; this he could discover only by what philosophers would dignify
+with the grand title of syllogism, namely, "all light nuts are hollow;
+this is a light nut, therefore this nut is hollow."
+
+5. Brutes have a will of their own. I appeal to any one who has ever
+ridden a restive horse.
+
+6. Brutes show signs of shame and pride. Here again any one who has to
+deal with dogs, who has watched a retriever with sparkling eyes placing a
+partridge at his master's feet, or a hound slinking away with his tail
+between his legs from the huntsman's call, will agree that these signs
+admit of but one interpretation. The difficulty begins when we use
+philosophical language, when we claim for brutes a moral sense, a
+conscience, a power of distinguishing good and evil; and, as we gain
+nothing by these scholastic terms, it is better to avoid them altogether.
+
+7. Brutes show signs of love and hatred. There are well-authenticated
+stories of dogs following their masters to the grave, and refusing food
+from any one. Nor is there any doubt that brutes will watch their
+opportunity till they revenge themselves on those whom they dislike.
+
+If, with all these facts before us, we deny that brutes have sensation,
+perception, memory, will, and intellect, we ought to bring forward
+powerful arguments for interpreting the signs which we observe in brutes
+so differently from those which we observe in men.
+
+Some philosophers imagine they have explained everything, if they ascribe
+to brutes _instinct_ instead of _intellect_. But, if we take these two
+words in their usual acceptations, they surely do not exclude each
+other.(322) There are instincts in man as well as in brutes. A child takes
+his mother's breast by instinct; the spider weaves its net by instinct;
+the bee builds her cell by instinct. No one would ascribe to the child a
+knowledge of physiology because it employs the exact muscles which are
+required for sucking; nor shall we claim for the spider a knowledge of
+mechanics, or for the bee an acquaintance with geometry, because _we_
+could not do what they do without a study of these sciences. But what if
+we tear a spider's web, and see the spider examining the mischief that is
+done, and either giving up his work in despair, or endeavoring to mend it
+as well as may be?(323) Surely here we have the instinct of weaving
+controlled by observation, by comparison, by reflection, by judgment.
+Instinct, whether mechanical or moral, is more prominent in brutes than in
+man; but it exists in both, as much as intellect is shared by both.
+
+Where, then, is the difference between brute and man?(324) What is it that
+man can do, and of which we find no signs, no rudiments, in the whole
+brute world? I answer without hesitation: the one great barrier between
+the brute and man is _Language_. Man speaks, and no brute has ever uttered
+a word. Language is our Rubicon, and no brute will dare to cross it. This
+is our matter of fact answer to those who speak of development, who think
+they discover the rudiments at least of all human faculties in apes, and
+who would fain keep open the possibility that man is only a more favored
+beast, the triumphant conqueror in the primeval struggle for life.
+Language is something more palpable than a fold of the brain, or an angle
+of the skull. It admits of no cavilling, and no process of natural
+selection will ever distill significant words out of the notes of birds or
+the cries of beasts.
+
+Language, however, is only the outward sign. We may point to it in our
+arguments, we may challenge our opponent to produce anything approaching
+to it from the whole brute world. But if this were all, if the art of
+employing articulate sounds for the purpose of communicating our
+impressions were the only thing by which we could assert our superiority
+over the brute creation, we might not unreasonably feel somewhat uneasy at
+having the gorilla so close on our heels.
+
+It cannot be denied that brutes, though they do not use articulate sounds
+for that purpose, have nevertheless means of their own for communicating
+with each other. When a whale is struck, the whole shoal, though widely
+dispersed, are instantly made aware of the presence of an enemy; and when
+the grave-digger beetle finds the carcass of a mole, he hastens to
+communicate the discovery to his fellows, and soon returns with his _four_
+confederates.(325) It is evident, too, that dogs, though they do not
+speak, possess the power of understanding much that is said to them, their
+names and the calls of their master; and other animals, such as the
+parrot, can pronounce every articulate sound. Hence, although for the
+purpose of philosophical warfare, articulate language would still form an
+impregnable position, yet it is but natural that for our own satisfaction
+we should try to find out in what the strength of our position really
+consists; or, in other words, that we should try to discover that inward
+power of which language is the outward sign and manifestation.
+
+For this purpose it will be best to examine the opinions of those who
+approached our problem from another point; who, instead of looking for
+outward and palpable signs of difference between brute and man, inquired
+into the inward mental faculties, and tried to determine the point where
+man transcends the barriers of the brute intellect. That point, if truly
+determined, ought to coincide with the starting-point of language: and, if
+so, that coincidence ought to explain the problem which occupies us at
+present.
+
+I shall read an extract from Locke's Essay concerning Human Understanding.
+
+After having explained how universal ideas are made, how the mind, having
+observed the same color in chalk, and snow, and milk, comprehends these
+single perceptions under the general conception of whiteness, Locke
+continues:(326) "If it may be doubted, whether beasts compound and enlarge
+their ideas that way to any degree: this, I think, I may be positive in,
+that the power of abstracting is not at all in them; and that the having
+of general ideas is that which puts a perfect distinction betwixt man and
+brutes, and is an excellency which the faculties of brutes do by no means
+attain to."
+
+If Locke is right in considering the having general ideas as the
+distinguishing feature between man and brutes, and, if we ourselves are
+right in pointing to language as the one palpable distinction between the
+two, it would seem to follow that language is the outward sign and
+realization of that inward faculty which is called the faculty of
+abstraction, but which is better known to us by the homely name of Reason.
+
+Let us now look back to the result of our former Lectures. It was this.
+After we had explained everything in the growth of language that can be
+explained, there remained in the end, as the only inexplicable residuum,
+what we called _roots_. These roots formed the constituent elements of all
+languages. This discovery has simplified the problem of the origin of
+language immensely. It has taken away all excuse for those rapturous
+descriptions of language which invariably preceded the argument that
+language must have a divine origin. We shall hear no more of that
+wonderful instrument which can express all we see, and hear, and taste,
+and touch, and smell; which is the breathing image of the whole world;
+which gives form to the airy feelings of our souls, and body to the
+loftiest dreams of our imagination; which can arrange in accurate
+perspective the past, the present, and the future, and throw over
+everything the varying hues of certainty, of doubt, of contingency. All
+this is perfectly true, but it is no longer wonderful, at least not in the
+Arabian Nights sense of that word. "The speculative mind," as Dr. Ferguson
+says, "in comparing the first and last steps of the progress of language,
+feels the same sort of amazement with a traveller, who, after rising
+insensibly on the slope of a hill, comes to look from a precipice of an
+almost unfathomable depth to the summit of which he scarcely believes
+himself to have ascended without supernatural aid." To certain minds it is
+a disappointment to be led down again by the hand of history from that
+high summit. They prefer the unintelligible which they can admire, to the
+intelligible which they can only understand. But to a mature mind reality
+is more attractive than fiction, and simplicity more wonderful than
+complication. Roots may seem dry things as compared with the poetry of
+Goethe. Yet there is something more truly wonderful in a root than in all
+the lyrics of the world.
+
+What, then, are these roots? In our modern languages roots can only be
+discovered by scientific analysis, and, even as far back as Sanskrit, we
+may say that no root was ever used as a noun or as a verb. But originally
+roots were thus used, and in Chinese we have fortunately preserved to us a
+representative of that primitive radical stage which, like the granite,
+underlies all other strata of human speech. The Aryan root _DÂ_, to give,
+appears in Sanskrit _dâ-nam_, _donum_, gift, as a substantive; in _do_,
+Sanskrit _dadâmi_, Greek _di-do-mi_, I give, as a verb; but the root DÂ
+can never be used by itself. In Chinese, on the contrary, the root TA, as
+such, is used in the sense of a noun, greatness; of a verb, to be great;
+of an adverb, greatly or much. Roots therefore are not, as is commonly
+maintained, merely scientific abstractions, but they were used originally
+as real words. What we want to find out is this, What inward mental phase
+is it that corresponds to these roots, as the germs of human speech?
+
+Two theories have been started to solve this problem, which, for
+shortness' sake, I shall call the _Bow-wow theory_ and the _Pooh-pooh
+theory_.(327)
+
+According to the first, roots are imitations of sounds, according to the
+second, they are involuntary interjections. The first theory was very
+popular among the philosophers of the eighteenth century, and, as it is
+still held by many distinguished scholars and philosophers, we must
+examine it more carefully. It is supposed then that man, being as yet
+mute, heard the voices of birds and dogs and cows, the thunder of the
+clouds, the roaring of the sea, the rustling of the forest, the murmurs of
+the brook, and the whisper of the breeze. He tried to imitate these
+sounds, and finding his mimicking cries useful as signs of the objects
+from which they proceeded, he followed up the idea and elaborated
+language. This view was most ably defended by Herder.(328) "Man," he says,
+"shows conscious reflection when his soul acts so freely that it may
+separate, in the ocean of sensations which rush into it through the
+senses, one single wave, arrest it, regard it, being conscious all the
+time of regarding this one single wave. Man proves his conscious
+reflection when, out of the dream of images that float past his senses, he
+can gather himself up and wake for a moment, dwelling intently on one
+image, fixing it with a bright and tranquil glance, and discovering for
+himself those signs by which he knows that _this_ is _this_ image and no
+other. Man proves his conscious reflection when he not only perceives
+vividly and distinctly all the features of an object, but is able to
+separate and recognize one or more of them as its distinguishing
+features." For instance, "Man sees a lamb. He does not see it like the
+ravenous wolf. He is not disturbed by any uncontrollable instinct. He
+wants to know it, but he is neither drawn towards it nor repelled from it
+by his senses. The lamb stands before him, as represented by his senses,
+white, soft, woolly. The conscious and reflecting soul of man looks for a
+distinguishing mark;--the lamb bleats!--the mark is found. The bleating
+which made the strongest impression, which stood apart from all other
+impressions of sight or touch, remains in the soul. The lamb
+returns--white, soft, woolly. The soul sees, touches, reflects, looks for a
+mark. The lamb bleats, and now the soul has recognized it. 'Ah, thou art
+the bleating animal,' the soul says within herself; and the sound of
+bleating, perceived as the distinguishing mark of the lamb, becomes the
+name of the lamb. It was the comprehended mark, the word. And what is the
+whole of our language but a collection of such words?"
+
+Our answer is, that though there are names in every language formed by
+mere imitation of sound, yet these constitute a very small proportion of
+our dictionary. They are the playthings, not the tools, of language, and
+any attempt to reduce the most common and necessary words to imitative
+roots ends in complete failure. Herder himself, after having most
+strenuously defended this theory of Onomatopoieia, as it is called, and
+having gained a prize which the Berlin Academy had offered for the best
+essay on the origin of language, renounced it openly towards the latter
+years of his life, and threw himself in despair into the arms of those who
+looked upon languages as miraculously revealed. We cannot deny the
+possibility that _a_ language might have been formed on the principle of
+imitation; all we say is, that as yet no language has been discovered that
+was so formed. An Englishman in China,(329) seeing a dish placed before
+him about which he felt suspicious, and wishing to know whether it was a
+duck, said, with an interrogative accent,
+
+_Quack quack?_
+
+He received the clear and straightforward answer,
+
+_Bow-wow!_
+
+This, no doubt, was as good as the most eloquent conversation on the same
+subject between an Englishman and a French waiter. But I doubt whether it
+deserves the name of language. We do not speak of a _bow-wow_, but of a
+dog. We speak of a cow, not of a _moo_. Of a lamb, not of a _baa_. It is
+the same in more ancient languages, such as Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit. If
+this principle of Onomatopoieia is applicable anywhere, it would be in the
+formation of the names of animals. Yet we listen in vain for any
+similarity between goose and cackling, hen and clucking, duck and
+quacking, sparrow and chirping, dove and cooing, hog and grunting, cat and
+mewing, between dog and barking, yelping, snarling, or growling.
+
+There are of course some names, such as _cuckoo_, which are clearly formed
+by an imitation of sound. But words of this kind are, like artificial
+flowers, without a root. They are sterile, and are unfit to express
+anything beyond the one object which they imitate. If you remember the
+variety of derivatives that could be formed from the root _spac_, to see,
+you will at once perceive the difference between the fabrication of such a
+word as _cuckoo_, and the true natural growth of words.
+
+Let us compare two words such as _cuckoo_ and _raven_. _Cuckoo_ in English
+is clearly a mere imitation of the cry of that bird, even more so than the
+corresponding terms in Greek, Sanskrit, and Latin. In these languages the
+imitative element has received the support of a derivative suffix; we have
+_kokila_ in Sanskrit, and _kokkyx_ in Greek, _cuculus_ in Latin.(330)
+_Cuckoo_ is, in fact, a modern word, which has taken the place of the
+Anglo-Saxon _geac_, the German _Gauch_, and, being purely onomatopoëtic,
+it is of course not liable to the changes of Grimm's Law. As the word
+_cuckoo_ predicates nothing but the sound of a particular bird, it could
+never be applied for expressing any general quality in which other animals
+might share; and the only derivatives to which it might give rise are
+words expressive of a metaphorical likeness with the bird. The same
+applies to _cock_, the Sanskrit _kukkuta_. Here, too, Grimm's Law does not
+apply, for both words were intended to convey merely the cackling sound of
+the bird; and, as this intention continued to be felt, phonetic change was
+less likely to set in. The Sanskrit _kukkuta_ is not derived from any
+root, it simply repeats the cry of the bird, and the only derivatives to
+which it gives rise are metaphorical expressions, such as the French
+_coquet_, originally strutting about like a cock; _coquetterie_; _cocart_,
+conceited; _cocarde_, a cockade; _coquelicot_, originally a cock's comb,
+then the wild red poppy, likewise so called from its similarity with a
+cock's comb.
+
+Let us now examine the word _raven_. It might seem at first, as if this
+also was merely onomatopoëtic. Some people imagine they perceive a kind of
+similarity between the word _raven_ and the cry of that bird. This seems
+still more so if we compare the Anglo-Saxon _hrafn_, the German _Rabe_,
+Old High-German _hraban_. The Sanskrit _kârava_ also, the Latin _corvus_,
+and the Greek _korone_, all are supposed to show some similarity with the
+unmelodious sound of _Maître Corbeau_. But as soon as we analyze the word
+we find that it is of a different structure from _cuckoo_ or _cock_. It is
+derived from a root which has a general predicative power. The root _ru_
+or _kru_ is not a mere imitation of the cry of the raven; it embraces many
+cries, from the harshest to the softest, and it might have been applied to
+the nightingale as well as to the raven. In Sanskrit this root exists as
+_ru_, a verb which is applied to the murmuring sound of rivers as well as
+to the barking of dogs and the mooing of cows. From it are derived
+numerous words in Sanskrit. In Latin we find _raucus_, hoarse; _rumor_, a
+whisper; in German _rûnen_, to speak low, and _runa_, mystery. The Latin
+_lamentum_ stands for an original _ravimentum_ or _cravimentum_. This root
+_ru_ has several secondary forms, such as the Sanskrit _rud_, to cry; the
+Latin _rug_ in _rugire_, to howl; the Greek _kru_ or _klu_, in _klaio_,
+_klausomai_; the Sanskrit _krus_, to shout; the Gothic _hrukjan_, to crow,
+and _hropjan_, to cry; the German _rufen_. Even the common Aryan word for
+hearing is closely allied to this root. It is _sru_ in Sanskrit, _klyo_ in
+Greek, _cluo_ in Latin; and before it took the recognized meaning of
+hearing, it meant to sound, to ring. When a noise was to be heard in a far
+distance, the man who first perceived it might well have said I ring, for
+his ears were sounding and ringing; and the same verb, if once used as a
+transitive, expressed exactly what we mean by I hear a noise.
+
+You will have perceived thus that the process which led to the formation
+of the word _kârava_ in Sanskrit is quite distinct from that which
+produced _cuckoo_. _Kârava_(331) means a shouter, a caller, a crier. It
+might have been applied to many birds; but it became the traditional and
+recognized name for the crow. Cuckoo could never mean anything but the
+cuckoo, and while a word like _raven_ has ever so many relations from a
+_rumor_ down to _a row_, cuckoo stands by itself like a stick in a living
+hedge.
+
+It is curious to observe how apt we are to deceive ourselves when we once
+adopt this system of Onomatopoieia. Who does not imagine that he hears in
+the word "thunder" an imitation of the rolling and rumbling noise which
+the old Germans ascribed to their God Thor playing at nine-pins? Yet
+_thunder_ is clearly the same word as the Latin _tonitru_. The root is
+_tan_, to stretch. From this root _tan_, we have in Greek _tonos_, our
+tone, _tone_ being produced by the stretching and vibrating of cords. In
+Sanskrit the sound thunder is expressed by the same root _tan_, but in the
+derivatives _tanyu_, _tanyatu_, and _tanayitnu_, thundering, we perceive
+no trace of the rumbling noise which we imagined we perceived in the Latin
+_tonitru_ and the English _thunder_. The very same root _tan_, to stretch,
+yields some derivatives which are anything but rough and noisy. The
+English _tender_, the French _tendre_, the Latin _tener_, are derived from
+it. Like _tenuis_, the Sanskrit _tanu_, the English _thin_, _tener_ meant
+originally what was extended over a larger surface, then _thin_, then
+_delicate_. The relationship betwixt _tender_, _thin_, and _thunder_ would
+be hard to establish if the original conception of thunder had really been
+its rumbling noise.
+
+Who does not imagine that he hears something sweet in the French _sucre_,
+_sucré_? Yet sugar came from India, and it is there called _sarkhara_,
+which is anything but sweet sounding. This _sarkhara_ is the same word as
+_sugar_; it was called in Latin _saccharum_, and we still speak of
+_saccharine_ juice, which is sugar juice.
+
+In _squirrel_ again some people imagine they hear something of the
+rustling and whirling of the little animal. But we have only to trace the
+name back to Greek, and there we find that _skiouros_ is composed of two
+distinct words, the one meaning shade, the other tail; the animal being
+called shade-tail by the Greeks.
+
+Thus the word _cat_, the German _katze_, is supposed to be an imitation of
+the sound made by a cat spitting. But if the spitting were expressed by
+the sibilant, that sibilant does not exist in the Latin _catus_, nor in
+_cat_, or _kitten_, nor in the German _kater_.(332) The Sanskrit
+_mârjâra_, cat, might seem to imitate the purring of the cat; but it is
+derived from the root _mrij_, to clean, _mârjâra_, meaning the animal that
+always cleans itself.
+
+Many more instances might be given to show how easily we are deceived by
+the constant connection of certain sounds and certain meanings in the
+words of our own language, and how readily we imagine that there is
+something in the sound to tell us the meaning of the words. "The sound
+must seem an echo to the sense."
+
+Most of these Onomatopoieias vanish as soon as we trace our own names back
+to Anglo-Saxon and Gothic, or compare them with their cognates in Greek,
+Latin, or Sanskrit. The number of names which are really formed by an
+imitation of sound dwindle down to a very small quotum if cross-examined
+by the comparative philologist, and we are left in the end with the
+conviction that though _a_ language might have been made out of the
+roaring, fizzing, hissing, gobbling, twittering, cracking, banging,
+slamming, and rattling sounds of nature, the tongues with which _we_ are
+acquainted point to a different origin.(333)
+
+And so we find many philosophers, and among them Condillac, protesting
+against a theory which would place man even below the animal. Why should
+man be supposed, they say, to have taken a lesson from birds and beasts?
+Does he not utter cries, and sobs, and shouts himself, according as he is
+affected by fear, pain, or joy? These cries or interjections were
+represented as the natural and real beginnings of human speech. Everything
+else was supposed to have been elaborated after their model. This is what
+I call the Interjectional, or Pooh-pooh, Theory.
+
+Our answer to this theory is the same as to the former. There are no doubt
+in every language interjections, and some of them may become traditional,
+and enter into the composition of words. But these interjections are only
+the outskirts of real language. Language begins where interjections end.
+There is as much difference between a real word, such as "to laugh," and
+the interjection ha, ha! between "I suffer," and oh! as there is between
+the involuntary act and noise of sneezing, and the verb "to sneeze." We
+sneeze, and cough, and scream, and laugh in the same manner as animals,
+but if Epicurus tells us that we speak in the same manner as dogs bark,
+moved by nature,(334) our own experience will tell us that this is not the
+case.
+
+An excellent answer to the interjectional theory has been given by Horne
+Tooke.
+
+"The dominion of speech," he says,(335) "is erected upon the downfall of
+interjections. Without the artful contrivances of language, mankind would
+have had nothing but interjections with which to communicate, orally, any
+of their feelings. The neighing of a horse, the lowing of a cow, the
+barking of a dog, the purring of a cat, sneezing, coughing, groaning,
+shrieking, and every other involuntary convulsion with oral sound, have
+almost as good a title to be called parts of speech, as interjections
+have. Voluntary interjections are only employed where the suddenness and
+vehemence of some affection or passion returns men to their natural state;
+and makes them for a moment forget the use of speech; or when, from some
+circumstance, the shortness of time will not permit them to exercise it."
+
+As in the case of Onomatopoieia, it cannot be denied that with
+interjections, too, some kind of language might have been formed; but not
+a language like that which we find in numerous varieties among all the
+races of men. One short interjection may be more powerful, more to the
+point, more eloquent than a long speech. In fact, interjections, together
+with gestures, the movements of the muscles of the mouth, and the eye,
+would be quite sufficient for all purposes which language answers with the
+majority of mankind. Lucian, in his treatise on dancing, mentions a king
+whose dominions bordered on the Euxine. He happened to be at Rome in the
+reign of Nero, and, having seen a pantomime perform, begged him of the
+emperor as a present, in order that he might employ him as an interpreter
+among the nations in his neighborhood with whom he could hold no
+intercourse on account of the diversity of language. A pantomime meant a
+person who could mimic everything, and there is hardly anything which
+cannot be thus expressed. We, having language at our command, have
+neglected the art of speaking without words; but in the south of Europe
+that art is still preserved. If it be true that one look may speak
+volumes, it is clear that we might save ourselves much of the trouble
+entailed by the use of discursive speech. Yet we must not forget that
+_hum!_ _ugh!_ _tut!_ _pooh!_ are as little to be called words as the
+expressive gestures which usually accompany these exclamations.
+
+As to the attempts at deriving some of our words etymologically from mere
+interjections, they are apt to fail from the same kind of misconception
+which leads us to imagine that there is something expressive in the sounds
+of words. Thus it is said "that the idea of disgust takes its rise in the
+senses of smell and taste, in the first instance probably in smell alone;
+that in defending ourselves from a bad smell we are instinctively impelled
+to screw up the nose, and to expire strongly through the compressed and
+protruded lips, giving rise to a sound represented by the interjections
+faugh! foh! fie! From this interjection it is proposed to derive, not only
+such words as _foul_ and _filth_, but, by transferring it from natural to
+moral aversion, the English _fiend_, the German _Feind_." If this were
+true, we should suppose that the expression of contempt was chiefly
+conveyed by the aspirate f, by the strong emission of the breathing with
+half-opened lips. But _fiend_ is a participle from a root _fian_, to hate;
+in Gothic _fijan_; and as a Gothic aspirate always corresponds to a tenuis
+in Sanskrit, the same root in Sanskrit would at once lose its expressive
+power. It exists in fact in Sanskrit as _pîy_, to hate, to destroy; just
+as _friend_ is derived from a root which in Sanskrit is _prî_, to
+delight.(336)
+
+There is one more remark which I have to make about the Interjectional and
+the Onomatopoëtic theories, namely this: If the constituent elements of
+human speech were either mere cries, or the mimicking of the cries of
+nature, it would be difficult to understand why brutes should be without
+language. There is not only the parrot, but the mocking-bird and others,
+which can imitate most successfully both articulate and inarticulate
+sounds; and there is hardly an animal without the faculty of uttering
+interjections, such as huff, hiss, baa, &c. It is clear also that if what
+puts a perfect distinction betwixt man and brutes is the having of general
+ideas, language which arises from interjections and from the imitation of
+the cries of animals could not claim to be the outward sign of that
+distinctive faculty of man. All words, in the beginning at least (and this
+is the only point which interests us), would have been the signs of
+individual impressions and individual perceptions, and would only
+gradually have been adapted to the expression of general ideas.
+
+The theory which is suggested to us by an analysis of language carried out
+according to the principles of comparative philology is the very opposite.
+We arrive in the end at roots, and every one of these expresses a general,
+not an individual, idea. Every name, if we analyze it, contains a
+predicate by which the object to which the name applies was known.
+
+There is an old controversy among philosophers, whether language
+originated in general appellations, or in proper names.(337) It is the
+question of the _primum cognitum_, and its consideration will help us
+perhaps in discovering the true nature of the root, or the _primum
+appellatum_.
+
+Some philosophers, among whom I may mention Locke, Condillac, Adam Smith,
+Dr. Brown, and with some qualification Dugald Stewart, maintain that all
+terms, as at first employed, are expressive of individual objects. I quote
+from Adam Smith. "The assignation," he says, "of particular names to
+denote particular objects, that is, the institution of nouns substantive,
+would probably be one of the first steps towards the formation of
+language. Two savages who had never been taught to speak, but had been
+bred up remote from the societies of men, would naturally begin to form
+that language by which they would endeavor to make their mutual wants
+intelligible to each other by uttering certain sounds whenever they meant
+to denote certain objects. Those objects only which were most familiar to
+them, and which they had most frequent occasion to mention, would have
+particular names assigned to them. The particular cave whose covering
+sheltered them from the weather, the particular tree whose fruit relieved
+their hunger, the particular fountain whose water allayed their thirst,
+would first be denominated by the words _cave_, _tree_, _fountain_, or by
+whatever other appellations they might think proper, in that primitive
+jargon, to mark them. Afterwards, when the more enlarged experience of
+these savages had led them to observe, and their necessary occasions
+obliged them to make mention of, other caves, and other trees, and other
+fountains, they would naturally bestow upon each of those new objects the
+same name by which they had been accustomed to express the similar object
+they were first acquainted with. The new objects had none of them any name
+of its own, but each of them exactly resembled another object which had
+such an appellation. It was impossible that those savages could behold the
+new objects without recollecting the old ones; and the name of the old
+ones, to which the new bore so close a resemblance. When they had
+occasion, therefore, to mention or to point out to each other any of the
+new objects, they would naturally utter the name of the correspondent old
+one, of which the idea could not fail, at that instant, to present itself
+to their memory in the strongest and liveliest manner. And thus those
+words, which were originally the proper names of individuals, became the
+common name of a multitude. A child that is just learning to speak calls
+every person who comes to the house its papa or its mamma; and thus
+bestows upon the whole species those names which it had been taught to
+apply to two individuals. I have known a clown who did not know the proper
+name of the river which ran by his own door. It was _the river_, he said,
+and he never heard any other name for it. His experience, it seems, had
+not led him to observe any other river. The general word _river_ therefore
+was, it is evident, in his acceptance of it, a proper name signifying an
+individual object. If this person had been carried to another river, would
+he not readily have called it _a river_? Could we suppose any person
+living on the banks of the Thames so ignorant as not to know the general
+word _river_, but to be acquainted only with the particular word _Thames_,
+if he were brought to any other river, would he not readily call it a
+_Thames_? This, in reality, is no more than what they who are well
+acquainted with the general word are very apt to do. An Englishman,
+describing any great river which he may have seen in some foreign country,
+naturally says that it is another Thames.... It is this application of the
+name of an individual to a great multitude of objects, whose resemblance
+naturally recalls the idea of that individual, and of the name which
+expresses it, that seems originally to have given occasion to the
+formation of those classes and assortments which, in the schools, are
+called _genera_ and _species_."
+
+This extract from Adam Smith will give a clear idea of one view of the
+formation of thought and language. I shall now read another extract,
+representing the diametrically opposite view. It is taken from
+Leibniz,(338) who maintains that general terms are necessary for the
+essential constitution of languages. He likewise appeals to children.
+"Children," he says, "and those who know but little of the language which
+they attempt to speak, or little of the subject on which they would employ
+it, make use of general terms, as _thing_, _plant_, _animal_, instead of
+using proper names, of which they are destitute. And it is certain that
+all proper or individual names have been originally appellative or
+general." And again: "Thus I would make bold to affirm that almost all
+words have been originally general terms, because it would happen very
+rarely that man would invent a name, expressly and without a reason, to
+denote this or that individual. We may, therefore, assert that the names
+of individual things were names of species, which were given _par
+excellence_, or otherwise, to some individual; as the name _Great Head_ to
+him of the whole town who had the largest, or who was the man of the most
+consideration of the great heads known."
+
+It might seem presumptuous to attempt to arbitrate between such men as
+Leibniz and Adam Smith, particularly when both speak so positively as they
+do on this subject. But there are two ways of judging of former
+philosophers. One is to put aside their opinions as simply erroneous where
+they differ from our own. This is the least satisfactory way of studying
+ancient philosophy. Another way is to try to enter fully into the opinions
+of those from whom we differ, to make them, for a time at least, our own,
+till at last we discover the point of view from which each philosopher
+looked at the facts before him, and catch the light in which he regarded
+them. We shall then find that there is much less of downright error in the
+history of philosophy than is commonly supposed; nay, we shall find
+nothing so conducive to a right appreciation of truth as a right
+appreciation of the error by which it is surrounded.
+
+Now, in the case before us, Adam Smith is no doubt right, when he says
+that the first individual cave which is called cave gave the name to all
+other caves. In the same manner, the first _town_, though a mere
+enclosure, gave the name to all other towns; the first imperial residence
+on the Palatine hill gave the name to all palaces. Slight differences
+between caves, towns, or palaces are readily passed by, and the first name
+becomes more and more general with every new individual to which it is
+applied. So far Adam Smith is right, and the history of almost every
+substantive might be cited in support of his view. But Leibniz is equally
+right when, in looking beyond the first emergence of such names as cave or
+town or palace, he asks how such names could have arisen. Let us take the
+Latin names of cave. A cave in Latin is called _antrum_, _cavea_,
+_spelunca_. Now _antrum_ means really the same as _internum_. _Antar_ in
+Sanskrit means _between_ and _within_.(339) _Antrum_, therefore, meant
+originally what is within or inside the earth or anything else. It is
+clear, therefore, that such a name could not have been given to any
+individual cave, unless the general idea of being within, or inwardness,
+had been present in the mind. This general idea once formed, and once
+expressed by the pronominal root _an_ or _antar_, the process of naming is
+clear and intelligible. The place where the savage could live safe from
+rain and from the sudden attacks of wild beasts, a natural hollow in the
+rock, he would call his _within_, his _antrum_; and afterwards similar
+places, whether dug in the earth or cut in a tree, would be designated by
+the same name. The same general idea, however, would likewise supply other
+names, and thus we find that the _entrails_ were called _antra_ (neuter)
+in Sanskrit, _enteron_ in Greek, originally things within.
+
+Let us take another word for cave, which is _cavea_ or _caverna_. Here
+again Adam Smith would be perfectly right in maintaining that this name,
+when first given, was applied to one particular cave, and was afterwards
+extended to other caves. But Leibniz would be equally right in maintaining
+that in order to call even the first hollow _cavea_, it was necessary that
+the general idea of _hollow_ should have been formed in the mind, and
+should have received its vocal expression _cav_. Nay we may go a step
+beyond, for _cavus_, or hollow, is a secondary, not a primary, idea.
+Before a cave was called _cavea_, a hollow thing, many things hollow had
+passed before the eyes of men. Why then was a hollow thing, or a hole,
+called by the root _cav_? Because what had been hollowed out was intended
+at first as a place of safety and protection, as a cover; and it was
+called therefore by the root _ku_ or _sku_, which conveyed the idea of to
+cover.(340) Hence the general idea of covering existed in the mind before
+it was applied to hiding-places in rocks or trees, and it was not till an
+expression had thus been framed for things hollow or safe in general, that
+caves in particular could be designated by the name of _cavea_ or hollows.
+
+Another form for _cavus_ was _koilos_, hollow. The conception was
+originally the same; a hole was called _koilon_ because it served as a
+cover. But once so used _koilon_ came to mean a cave, a vaulted cave, a
+vault, and thus the heaven was called _coelum_, the modern _ciel_, because
+it was looked upon as a vault or cover for the earth.
+
+It is the same with all nouns. They all express originally one out of the
+many attributes of a thing, and that attribute, whether it be a quality or
+an action, is necessarily a general idea. The word thus formed was in the
+first instance intended for one object only, though of course it was
+almost immediately extended to the whole class to which this object seemed
+to belong. When a word such as _rivus_, river, was first formed, no doubt
+it was intended for a certain river, and that river was called _rivus_,
+from a root _ru_ or _sru_, to run, because of its running water. In many
+instances a word meaning river or runner remained the proper name of one
+river, without ever rising to the dignity of an appellative. Thus
+_Rhenus_, the Rhine, means river or runner, but it clung to one river, and
+could not be used as an appellative for others. The Ganges is the Sanskrit
+_Gangâ_, literally the Go-go; a word very well adapted for any majestic
+river, but in Sanskrit restricted to the one sacred stream. The Indus
+again is the Sanskrit _Sindhu_, and means the irrigator, from _syand_, to
+sprinkle. In this case, however, the proper name was not checked in its
+growth, but was used likewise as an appelative for any great stream.
+
+We have thus seen how the controversy about the _primum cognitum_ assumes
+a new and perfectly clear aspect. The first thing really known is the
+general. It is through it that we know and name afterwards individual
+objects of which any general idea can be predicated, and it is only in the
+third stage that these individual objects, thus known and named, become
+again the representatives of whole classes, and their names or proper
+names are raised into appellatives.(341)
+
+There is a petrified philosophy in language, and if we examine the most
+ancient word for name we find it is _nâman_ in Sanskrit, _nomen_ in Latin,
+_namo_ in Gothic. This _nâman_ stands for _gnâman_, which is preserved in
+the Latin _co-gnomen_. The _g_ is dropped as in _natus_, son, for
+_gnatus_. _Nâman_, therefore, and name are derived from the root gnâ, to
+know, and meant originally that by which we know a thing.
+
+And how do we know things? We perceive things by our senses, but our
+senses convey to us information about single things only. But to _know_ is
+more than to feel, than to perceive, more than to remember, more than to
+compare. No doubt words are much abused. We speak of a dog _knowing_ his
+master, of an infant _knowing_ his mother. In such expressions, to know
+means to recognize. But to know a thing, means more than to recognize it.
+We know a thing if we are able to bring it, and any part of it, under more
+general ideas. We then say, not that we have a perception, but a
+conception, or that we have a general idea of a thing. The facts of nature
+are perceived by our senses; the thoughts of nature, to borrow an
+expression of Oersted's, can be conceived by our reason only.(342) Now the
+first step towards this real knowledge, a step which, however small in
+appearance, separates man forever from all other animals, is the _naming
+of a thing_, or the making a thing knowable. All naming is classification,
+bringing the individual under the general; and whatever we know, whether
+empirically or scientifically, we know it only by means of our general
+ideas. Other animals have sensation, perception, memory, and, in a certain
+sense, intellect; but all these, in the animal, are conversant with single
+objects only. Man has sensation, perception, memory, intellect, and
+reason, and it is his reason only that is conversant with general
+ideas.(343)
+
+Through reason we not only stand a step above the brute creation: we
+belong to a different world. We look down on our merely animal experience,
+on our sensations, perceptions, our memory, and our intellect, as
+something belonging to us, but not as constituting our most inward and
+eternal self. Our senses, our memory, our intellect, are like the lenses
+of a telescope. But there is an eye that looks through them at the
+realities of the outer world, our own rational and self-conscious soul; a
+power as distinct from our perceptive faculties as the sun is from the
+earth which it fills with light, and warmth, and life.
+
+At the very point where man parts company with the brute world, at the
+first flash of reason as the manifestation of the light within us, there
+we see the true genesis of language. Analyze any word you like, and you
+will find that it expresses a general idea peculiar to the individual to
+which the name belongs. What is the meaning of moon?--the measurer. What is
+the meaning of sun?--the begetter. What is the meaning of earth?--the
+ploughed. The old name given to animals, such as cows and sheep, was
+_pasú_, the Latin _pecus_, which means _feeders_. _Animal_ itself is a
+later name, and derived from _anima_, soul. This _anima_ again meant
+originally blowing or breathing, like spirit from _spirare_, and was
+derived from a root, _an_, to blow, which gives us _anila_, wind, in
+Sanskrit, and _anemos_, wind, in Greek. _Ghost_, the German _Geist_, is
+based on the same conception. It is connected with _gust_, with _yeast_,
+and even with the hissing and boiling _geysers_ of Iceland. _Soul_ is the
+Gothic _saivala_, and this is clearly related to another Gothic word,
+_saivs_,(344) which means the sea. The sea was called _saivs_ from a root
+_si_ or _siv_, the Greek _seio_, to shake; it meant the tossed-about
+water, in contradistinction to stagnant or running water. The soul being
+called _saivala_, we see that it was originally conceived by the Teutonic
+nations as a sea within, heaving up and down with every breath, and
+reflecting heaven and earth on the mirror of the deep.
+
+The Sanskrit name for love is _smara_; it is derived from _smar_, to
+recollect; and the same root has supplied the German _schmerz_, pain, and
+the English _smart_.
+
+If the serpent is called in Sanskrit _sarpa_, it is because it was
+conceived under the general idea of creeping, an idea expressed by the
+word _srip_. But the serpent was also called _ahi_ in Sanskrit, in Greek
+_echis_ or _echidna_, in Latin _anguis_. This name is derived from quite a
+different root and idea. The root is _ah_ in Sanskrit, or _anh_, which
+means to press together, to choke, to throttle. Here the distinguishing
+mark from which the serpent was named was his throttling, and _ahi_ meant
+serpent, as expressing the general idea of throttler. It is a curious root
+this _anh_, and it still lives in several modern words. In Latin it
+appears as _ango_, _anxi_, _anctum_, to strangle, in _angina_,
+quinsy,(345) in _angor_, suffocation. But _angor_ meant not only quinsy or
+compression of the neck; it assumed a moral import and signifies anguish
+or anxiety. The two adjectives _angustus_, narrow, and _anxius_, uneasy,
+both come from the same source. In Greek the root retained its natural and
+material meaning; in _eggys_, near, and _echis_, serpent, throttler. But
+in Sanskrit it was chosen with great truth as the proper name of sin. Evil
+no doubt presented itself under various aspects to the human mind, and its
+names are many; but none so expressive as those derived from our root,
+_anh_, to throttle. _Anhas_ in Sanskrit means sin, but it does so only
+because it meant originally throttling,--the consciousness of sin being
+like the grasp of the assassin on the throat of his victim. All who have
+seen and contemplated the statue of Laokoon and his sons, with the serpent
+coiled round them from head to foot, may realize what those ancients felt
+and saw when they called sin _anhas_, or the throttler. This _anhas_ is
+the same word as the Greek _agos_, sin. In Gothic the same root has
+produced _agis_, in the sense of _fear_, and from the same source we have
+_awe_, in awful, _i.e._ fearful, and _ug_, in _ugly_. The English
+_anguish_ is from the French _angoisse_, the Italian _angoscia_, a
+corruption of the Latin _angustiæ_, a strait.
+
+And how did those early thinkers and framers of language distinguish
+between man and the other animals? What general idea did they connect with
+the first conception of themselves? The Latin word _homo_, the French
+_l'homme_, which has been reduced to _on_ in _on dit_, is derived from the
+same root which we have in _humus_, the soil, _humilis_, humble. _Homo_,
+therefore, would express the idea of a being made of the dust of the
+earth.(346)
+
+Another ancient word for man was the Sanskrit _marta_,(347) the Greek
+_brotos_, the Latin _mortalis_ (a secondary derivative), our own _mortal_.
+_Marta_ means "he who dies," and it is remarkable that where everything
+else was changing, fading, and dying, this should have been chosen as the
+distinguishing name for man. Those early poets would hardly have called
+themselves mortals unless they had believed in other beings as immortal.
+
+There is a third name for man which means simply the thinker, and this,
+the true title of our race, still lives in the name of _man_. _Mâ_ in
+Sanskrit means to measure, from which you remember we had the name of
+moon. _Man_, a derivative root, means to think. From this we have the
+Sanskrit _manu_, originally thinker, then man. In the later Sanskrit we
+find derivatives, such as _mânava_, _mânusha_, _manushya_, all expressing
+man. In Gothic we find both _man_, and _mannisks_, the modern German
+_mann_ and _mensch_.
+
+There were many more names for man, as there were many names for all
+things in ancient languages. Any feature that struck the observing mind as
+peculiarly characteristic could be made to furnish a new name. The sun
+might be called the bright, the warm, the golden, the preserver, the
+destroyer, the wolf, the lion, the heavenly eye, the father of light and
+life. Hence that superabundance of synonymes in ancient dialects, and
+hence that _struggle for life_ carried on among these words, which led to
+the destruction of the less strong, the less happy, the less fertile
+words, and ended in the triumph of _one_, as the recognized and proper
+name for every object in every language. On a very small scale this
+process of _natural selection_, or, as it would better be called,
+_elimination_, may still be watched even in modern languages, that is to
+say, even in languages so old and full of years as English and French.
+What it was at the first burst of dialects we can only gather from such
+isolated cases as when Vón Hammer counts 5744 words relating to the
+camel.(348)
+
+The fact that every word is originally a predicate, that names, though
+signs of individual conceptions, are all, without exception, derived from
+general ideas, is one of the most important discoveries in the science of
+language. It was known before that language is the distinguishing
+characteristic of man; it was known also that the having of general ideas
+is that which puts a perfect distinction betwixt man and brutes; but that
+these two were only different expressions of the same fact was not known
+till the theory of roots had been established as preferable to the
+theories both of Onomatopoieia and of Interjections. But, though our
+modern philosophy did not know it, the ancient poets and framers of
+language must have known it. For in Greek language is _logos_, but _logos_
+means also reason, and _alogon_ was chosen as the name, and the most
+proper name, for brute. No animal thinks, and no animal speaks, except
+man. Language and thought are inseparable. Words without thought are dead
+sounds; thoughts without words are nothing. To think is to speak low; to
+speak is to think aloud. The word is the thought incarnate.
+
+And now I am afraid I have but a few minutes left to explain the last
+question of all in our science, namely--How can sound express thought? How
+did roots become the signs of general ideas? How was the abstract idea of
+measuring expressed by _mâ_, the idea of thinking by _man_? How did _gâ_
+come to mean going, _sthâ_ standing, _sad_ sitting, _dâ_ giving, _mar_
+dying, _char_ walking, _kar_ doing?
+
+I shall try to answer as briefly as possible. The 400 or 500 roots which
+remain as the constituent elements in different families of language are
+not interjections, nor are they imitations. They are _phonetic types_
+produced by a power inherent in human nature. They exist, as Plato would
+say, by nature; though with Plato we should add that, when we say by
+nature, we mean by the hand of God.(349) There is a law which runs through
+nearly the whole of nature, that everything which is struck rings. Each
+substance has its peculiar ring. We can tell the more or less perfect
+structure of metals by their vibrations, by the answer which they give.
+Gold rings differently from tin, wood rings differently from stone; and
+different sounds are produced according to the nature of each percussion.
+It was the same with man, the most highly organized of nature's
+works.(350) Man, in his primitive and perfect state, was not only endowed,
+like the brute, with the power of expressing his sensations by
+interjections, and his perceptions by onomatopoieia. He possessed likewise
+the faculty of giving more articulate expression to the rational
+conceptions of his mind. That faculty was not of his own making. It was an
+instinct, an instinct of the mind as irresistible as any other instinct.
+So far as language is the production of that instinct, it belongs to the
+realm of nature. Man loses his instincts as he ceases to want them. His
+senses become fainter when, as in the case of scent, they become useless.
+Thus the creative faculty which gave to each conception, as it thrilled
+for the first time through the brain, a phonetic expression, became
+extinct when its object was fulfilled. The number of these _phonetic
+types_ must have been almost infinite in the beginning, and it was only
+through the same process of _natural elimination_ which we observed in the
+early history of words, that clusters of roots, more or less synonymous,
+were gradually reduced to one definite type. Instead of deriving language
+from nine roots, like Dr. Murray,(351) or from _one_ root, a feat actually
+accomplished by a Dr. Schmidt,(352) we must suppose that the first
+settlement of the radical elements of language was preceded by a period of
+unrestrained growth,--the spring of speech--to be followed by many an
+autumn.
+
+With the process of elimination, or natural selection, the historical
+element enters into the science of language. However primitive the Chinese
+may be as compared with terminational and inflectional languages, its
+roots or words have clearly passed through a long process of mutual
+attrition. There are many things of a merely traditional character even in
+Chinese. The rule that in a simple sentence the first word is the subject,
+the second the verb, the third the object, is a traditional rule. It is by
+tradition only that _ngo gin_, in Chinese, means a bad man, whereas _gin
+ngo_ signifies man is bad. The Chinese themselves distinguish between
+_full_ and _empty_ roots,(353) the former being predicative, the latter
+corresponding to our particles which modify the meaning of full roots and
+determine their relation to each other. It is only by tradition that roots
+become empty. All roots were originally full whether predicative or
+demonstrative, and the fact that empty roots in Chinese cannot always be
+traced back to their full prototypes shows that even the most ancient
+Chinese had passed through successive periods of growth. Chinese
+commentators admit that all empty words were originally full words, just
+as Sanskrit grammarians maintain that all that is found in grammar was
+originally substantial. But we must be satisfied with but partial proofs
+of this general principle, and must be prepared to find as many fanciful
+derivations in Chinese as in Sanskrit. The fact, again, that all roots in
+Chinese are no longer capable of being employed at pleasure, either as
+substantives, or verbs, or adjectives, is another proof that, even in this
+most primitive stage, language points back to a previous growth. _Fu_ is
+father, _mu_ is mother; _fu mu_ parents; but neither _fu_ nor _mu_ is used
+as a root in its original predicative sense. The amplest proof, however,
+of the various stages through which even so simple a language as Chinese
+must have passed is to be found in the comparatively small number of
+roots, and in the definite meanings attached to each; a result which could
+only have been obtained by that constant struggle which has been so well
+described in natural history as the struggle for life.
+
+But although this sifting of roots, and still more the subsequent
+combination of roots, cannot be ascribed to the mere working of nature or
+natural instincts, it is still less, as we saw in a former Lecture, the
+effect of deliberate or premeditated art, in the sense in which, for
+instance, a picture of Raphael or a symphony of Beethoven is. Given a root
+to express flying, or bird, and another to express heap, then the joining
+together of the two to express many birds, or birds in the plural, is the
+natural effect of the synthetic power of the human mind, or, to use more
+homely language, of the power of putting two and two together. Some
+philosophers maintain indeed that this explains nothing, and that the real
+mystery to be solved is how the mind can form a synthesis, or conceive
+many things as one. Into those depths we cannot follow. Other philosophers
+imagine that the combination of roots to form agglutinative and
+inflectional language is, like the first formation of roots, the result of
+a natural instinct. Thus Professor Heyse(354) maintained that "the various
+forms of development in language must be explained by the philosophers as
+_necessary_ evolutions, founded in the very essence of human speech." This
+is not the case. We can watch the growth of language, and we can
+understand and explain all that is the result of that growth. But we
+cannot undertake to prove that all that is in language is so by necessity,
+and could not have been otherwise. When we have, as in Chinese, two such
+words as _kiai_ and _tu_, both expressing a heap, an assembly, a quantity,
+then we may perfectly understand why either the one or the other should
+have been used to form the plural. But if one of the two becomes fixed and
+traditional, while the other becomes obsolete, then we can register the
+fact as historical, but no philosophy on earth will explain its absolute
+necessity. We can perfectly understand how, with two such roots as _kûo_,
+empire, and _cung_, middle, the Chinese should have formed what we call a
+locative, _kuo cung_, in the empire. But to say that this was the only way
+to express this conception is an assertion contradicted both by fact and
+reason. We saw the various ways in which the future can be formed. They
+are all equally intelligible and equally possible, but not one of them is
+inevitable. In Chinese _yaó_ means to will, _ngò_ is I; hence _ngò yaó_, I
+will. The same root _yaó_, added to _kiú_, to go, gives us _ngò yaó kiú_,
+I will go, the first germ of our futures. To say that _ngò yaó kiú_ was
+the necessary form of the future in Chinese would introduce a fatalism
+into language which rests on no authority whatever. The building up of
+language is not like the building of the cells in a beehive, nor is it
+like the building of St. Peter's by Michael Angelo. It is the result of
+innumerable agencies, working each according to certain laws, and leaving
+in the end the result of their combined efforts freed from all that proved
+superfluous or useless. From the first combination of two such words as
+_gin_, man, _kiai_, many, to form the plural _gin kiai_, to the perfect
+grammar of Sanskrit and Greek, everything is intelligible as the result of
+the two principles of growth which we considered in our second Lecture.
+What is antecedent to the production of roots is the work of nature; what
+follows after is the work of man, not in his individual and free, but in
+his collective and moderating, capacity.
+
+I do not say that every form in Greek or Sanskrit has as yet been analyzed
+and explained. There are formations in Greek and Latin and English which
+have hitherto baffled all tests; and there are certain contrivances, such
+as the augment in Greek, the change of vowels in Hebrew, the Umlaut and
+Ablaut in the Teutonic dialects, where we might feel inclined to suppose
+that language admitted distinctions purely musical or phonetic,
+corresponding to very palpable and material distinctions of thought. Such
+a supposition, however, is not founded on any safe induction. It may seem
+inexplicable to us why _bruder_ in German should form its plural as
+_brüder_; or _brother_, _brethren_. But what is inexplicable and
+apparently artificial in our modern languages becomes intelligible in
+their more ancient phases. The change of _u_ into _ü_, as in _bruder_,
+_brüder_, was not intentional; least of all was it introduced to expressed
+plurality. The change is phonetic, and due to the influence of an _i_ or
+_j_,(355) which existed originally in the last syllable and which reacted
+regularly on the vowel of the preceding syllable; nay, which leaves its
+effect behind, even after it has itself disappeared. By a false analogy
+such a change, perfectly justifiable in a certain class of words, may be
+applied to other words where no such change was called for; and it may
+then appear as if an arbitrary change of vowels was intended to convey a
+grammatical change. But even into these recesses the comparative
+philologist can follow language, thus discovering a reason even for what
+in reality was irrational and wrong. It seems difficult to believe that
+the augment in Greek should originally have had an independent substantial
+existence, yet all analogy is in favor of such a view. Suppose English had
+never been written down before Wycliffe's time, we should then find that
+in some instances the perfect was formed by the mere addition of a short
+_a_. Wycliffe spoke and wrote:(356) _I knowlech to a felid and seid þus_;
+_i.e._ I acknowledge to have felt and said thus. In a similar way we read:
+_it should a fallen_; instead of "it should have fallen;" and in some
+parts of England common people still say very much the same: _I should a
+done it_. Now in some old English books this _a_ actually coalesces with
+the verb, at least they are printed together; so that a grammar founded on
+them would give us "to fall" as the infinitive of the present, _to
+afallen_ as the infinitive of the past. I do not wish for a moment to be
+understood as if there was any connection between this _a_, a contraction
+of _have_ in English, and the Greek augment which is placed before past
+tenses. All I mean is, that, if the origin of the augment has not yet been
+satisfactorily explained, we are not therefore to despair, or to admit an
+arbitrary addition of a consonant or vowel, used as it were algebraically
+or by mutual agreement, to distinguish a past from a present tense.
+
+If inductive reasoning is worth anything, we are justified in believing
+that what has been proved to be true on so large a scale, and in cases
+where it was least expected, is true with regard to language in general.
+We require no supernatural interference, nor any conclave of ancient
+sages, to explain the realities of human speech. All that is formal in
+language is the result of rational combination; all that is material, the
+result of a mental instinct. The first natural and instinctive utterances,
+if sifted differently by different clans, would fully account both for the
+first origin and for the first divergence of human speech. We can
+understand not only the origin of language, but likewise the necessary
+breaking up of one language into many; and we perceive that no amount of
+variety in the material or the formal elements of speech is incompatible
+with the admission of one common source.
+
+The Science of Language thus leads us up to that highest summit from
+whence we see into the very dawn of man's life on earth; and where the
+words which we have heard so often from the days of our childhood--"And the
+whole earth was of one language and of one speech"--assume a meaning more
+natural, more intelligible, more convincing, than they ever had before.
+
+                  -------------------------------------
+
+And now in concluding this course of Lectures, I have only to express my
+regret that the sketch of the Science of Language which I endeavored to
+place before you, was necessarily so very slight and imperfect. There are
+many points which I could not touch at all, many which I could only allude
+to: there is hardly one to which I could do full justice. Still I feel
+grateful to the President and the Council of this Institution for having
+given me an opportunity of claiming some share of public sympathy for a
+science which I believe has a great future in store; and I shall be
+pleased, if, among those who have done me the honor of attending these
+Lectures, I have excited, though I could not have satisfied, some
+curiosity as to the strata which underlie the language on which we stand
+and walk; and as to the elements which enter into the composition of the
+very granite of our thoughts.
+
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note: The Appendix contains genealogical tables of the
+language families. In the original, they were displayed as wide landscape
+pages, which could not be rendered effectively in e-book format.  The
+information in them has been reproduced here in textual paragraphs.]
+
+No. 1. Genealogical Table of the Aryan Family of Languages.
+
+The Aryan Family consists of two Divisions: The Southern Division, and the
+Norther Division.
+
+The Southern Division consists of two Classes: the Indic and Iranic.
+
+The Indic Class consists of the dead languages Prakrit and Pali, Modern
+Sanskrit, and Vedic Sanskrit, and the modern Dialects of India, and the
+Dialects of the Gipsies.
+
+The Iranic Class consists of the dead languages Parsi, Pehlevi, Cuneiform
+Inscriptions, Zend, and Old Armenian; the the living languages of Persia,
+Afghanistan, Kurdistan, Bokhara, Armenia, and Ossethi.
+
+The Northern Division consists of six Classes: Celtic, Italic, Illyric,
+Hellenic, Windic, and Teutonic.
+
+The Celtic Class consists of two Branches: Cymric and Gadhelic.
+
+The Cymric Branch consists of the dead language Cornish, and the living
+languages of Wales and Brittany.
+
+The Gadhelic Branch consists of the living languages of Scotland, Ireland,
+and Man.
+
+The Italic Class consists of the dead languages Oscan, Latin, and Umbrian,
+together called Lingua Vulgaris, or Langue d'oc and Langue d'oil, and the
+living languages of Portugal, Spain, Provençe, France, and Italy.
+
+The Illyric Class consists of the living languages of Wallachia, the
+Grisons, and Albania.
+
+The Hellenic Class consists of the dead {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~} languages, Doric, Æolic,
+Attic, and Ionic, and the living language of Greece.
+
+The Windic Class consists of three Branches: Lettic, South-East Slavonic,
+and West Slavonic.
+
+The Lettic Branch consists of the dead language Old Prussian, and the
+living languages of Lithuania, Kurland and Livonia (Lettish).
+
+The South-East Slavonic Branch consists of the dead language
+Ecclesiastical Slavonic, and the living languages of Bulgaria, Russia
+(Great, Little, White Russian), Illyria (Slovenian, Croatian, Servian).
+
+The West Slavonic Branch consists of the dead languages Old Bohemian and
+Pelabian, and the living languages of Poland, Bohemian (Slovakian), and
+Lusatia.
+
+The Teutonic Class consists of three branches: High-German, Low-German,
+and Scandinavian.
+
+The High-German Branch consists of the dead languages Middle High-German
+Old High-German, and the living language of Germany.
+
+The Low-German Branch consists of the dead languages Gothic, Anglo-Saxon,
+Old Dutch, Old Friesian, and Old Saxon, and the living languages of
+England, Holland, Friesland, and North of Germany (Platt-Deutsch).
+
+The Scandinavian Branch consists of the dead language Old Norse, and the
+living languages of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Iceland.
+
+No. 2. Genealogical Table of the Semitic Family of Languages.
+
+The Semitic Family Family consists of three Classes: the Arabic or
+Southern, the Hebraic or Middle, and the Aramaic or Northern.
+
+The Arabic or Southern Class consists of the dead languages Ethiopic and
+the Himyaritic Inscriptions, and the living languages of Arabic and
+Amharic.
+
+The Hebraic or Middle Class consists of the dead languages Biblical
+Hebrew, the Samaritan Pentateuch (third century, A. D.), the Carthaginian,
+Phoenician Inscriptions, and the living language of the Jews.
+
+The Aramaic or Northern Class consists of the dead languages Chaldee
+(Masora, Talmud, Targum, Biblical Chaldee), Syriac (Peshito, second cent.
+A. D.), Cuneiform Inscriptions of Babylon and Nineveh, and the living
+language Neo-Syriac.
+
+No. 3. Genealogical Table of the Turanian Family of Languages, Northern
+Division.
+
+The Northern Division of the Turanian Family consists of five Classes: the
+Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic, Samoyedic, and Finnic (Uralic).
+
+The Tungusic Class consists of two Branches: Western and Eastern.
+
+The Western Branch consists of the languages of the Chapogires (Upper
+Tunguska), Orotongs (Lower Tunguska), and the People of Nyertchinsk.
+
+The Eastern Branch consists of the languages of the Lamutes (Coast of
+O'hotsk) and Mandshu (China).
+
+The Mongolic Class consists of three Branches: Eastern or Mongols Proper,
+Western Mongols, and Northern Mongols.
+
+The Eastern or Mongols Proper Class consists of the languages of the
+Sharra-Mongols (South of Gobi), Khalkhas (North of Gobi), and Sharaigol
+(Tibet and Tangut).
+
+The Western Mongols Class consists of the languages of the Chosot
+(Kokonúr), Dsungur, Torgod, Dürbet, Aimaks (tribes of Persia), and Sokpas
+(Tibet).
+
+The Northern Mongols Class consists of the language of the Buritäs (Lake
+Baikal).
+
+The Turkic Class consists of three Branches: Chagatic, S. E., Turkic, N.,
+and Turkic, W.
+
+The Chagatic Branch consists of the languages of the Uigurs, Komans,
+Chagatais, Usbeks, Turkomans, and People of Kasan.
+
+The N. Turkic Branch consists of the languages of the Kirgis, Bashkirs,
+Nogais, Kumians, Karachais, Karakalpaks, Meshcheryäks, People of Siberia,
+and Yakuts.
+
+The W. Turkic Branch consists of the languages of the People of Derbend,
+Aderbijan, Krimea, Anatolia, and Rumelia.
+
+The Samoyedic Class consists of two Branches: Northern and Eastern.
+
+The Northern Branch consists of the languages of the Yurazes, Tawgi, and
+Yenisei.
+
+The Eastern Branch consists of the languages of the Ostiako-Samoyedes, and
+the Kamas.
+
+The Finnic (Uralic) Class consists of four Branches: Ugric, Bulgaric,
+Permic, and Chudic.
+
+The Ugric Branch consists of the languages of the Hungarians, Voguls, and
+Ugro-Ostiakes.
+
+The Bulgaric Branch consists of the languages of the Tcheremissians and
+Mordvins.
+
+The Permic Branch consists of the languages of the Permians, Sirianes, and
+Votiaks.
+
+The Chudic Branch consists of the languages of the Lapps, Finns, and
+Esths.
+
+No. 4. Genealogical Table of the Turanian Family of Languages, Southern
+Division.
+
+The Southern Division of the Turanian Family consists of six Classes: the
+Taïc, Malaic, Gangetic, Lohitic, Munda (See Turanian Languages, p. 175),
+and Tamulic.
+
+The Taïc Class consists of the languages of Ahom, Laos, Khamti, and Shan
+(Tenasserim).
+
+The Malaic Class consists of the languages of the Malay and Polynesian
+Islands. (See Humboldt, Kavi Sprache.)
+
+The Gangetic Class consists of two Branches: the Trans-Himalayan, and the
+Sub-Himalayan.
+
+The Trans-Himalayan Branch consists of the languages Tibetan, Horpa (N.W.
+Tibet, Bucharia), Thochu-Sifan (N.E. Tibet, China), Gyarung-Sifan (N.E.
+Tibet, China), Manyak-Sifan (N.E. Tibet, China), and Takpa (West of
+Kwombo).
+
+The Sub-Himalayan Branch consists of the languages Kenaveri (Setlej
+basin), Sarpa (West of Gandakéan basin), Sunwár (Gandakéan basin), Gurung
+(Gandakéan basin), Magar (Gandakéan basin), Newár (between Gandakéan and
+Koséan basins), Murmi (between Gandakéan and Koséan basins), Limbú (Koséan
+basin), Kiranti (Koséan basin), Lepcha (Tishtéan basin), Bhutanese
+(Manaséan basin), and  Chepang (Nepal-Terai).
+
+The Lohitic Class consists of the languages of Burmese (Burmah and
+Arakan), Dhimâl (between Konki and Dhorla), Kachari-Bodo (Migrat. 80° to
+93-1/2°, and 25° to 27°), Garo (90°-91° E. long.; 25°-26° N. lat.),
+Changlo (91°-92° E. long.), Mikir (Nowgong), Dophla (92° 50'-97° N. lat.),
+Miri (94°-97° E. long.?), Abor-Miri, Abor (97°-99° E. long.),
+Sibsagor-Miri, Singpho (27°-28° N. lat.), Naga tribes (93°-97° E. long.;
+23° N. lat.) (Mithan) E. of Sibsagor, Naga tribes (Namsang), Naga tribes
+(Nowgong), Naga tribes (Tengsa), Naga tribes (Tablung N. of Sibsagor),
+Naga tribes (Khaü, Jorhat), Naga tribes (Angami, South), Kuki (N.E. of
+Chittagong), Khyeng (Shyu) (19°-21° N. lat. Arakan), Kami (Kuladan R.
+Arakan), Kumi (Kuladan R. Arakan), Shendus (22°-23° and 93-94°), Mru
+(Arakan, Chittagong), Sak (Nauf River, East), and Tungihu (Tenasserim).
+
+The Munda Class consists of the languages Ho (Kolehan), Sinhbhum Kol
+(Chyebossa), Sontal (Chyebossa), Bhumij (Chyebossa), Mundala (Chota
+Nagpur), and Canarese.
+
+The Tamulic Class consists of the languages Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam,
+Gond, Brahvi, Tuluva, Toduva, and Uraon-kol.
+
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+Abdu-l-Kadir Maluk, Mulla, Shah of Badáún, his general history of India,
+            and other works, 151 _note_.
+
+Abhîra, or Âbhîra, at the mouth of the Indus, 204.
+
+Abiria, the, of Ptolemy, 204.
+
+Ablative, the, in Chinese, 119 _note_.
+
+Abraham, the language of, 278.
+
+Abu Saleh, his translation from Sanskrit into Arabic, 150.
+
+Abyssinian language, ancient and modern, 281.
+
+Academy, New, doctrines of the, embraced in Rome, 107.
+
+Accusative, formation of the, in Chinese, 118 _note_.
+
+Achæmenian dynasty, inscriptions of the, 210.
+
+Adelung, his Mithridates, 142.
+
+Adjectives, formation of, in Tibetan, 113 _note_.
+  in Chinese, 119 _note_.
+
+Ælius Stilo, Lucius, his lectures in Rome, on Latin grammar, 109.
+
+Affinity, indications of true, in the animal and vegetable world, 26, 27.
+
+Afghanistan, the language of, 210.
+
+Africa, South, dialects of, 64.
+
+African language, an imaginary, 223.
+
+_Âge_, history of the French word, 292.
+
+Agglutination in the Turanian family of languages, 291.
+
+Aglossoi, the, of the Greeks, 92.
+
+Agriculture of the Chaldeans, work on the, 279.
+  Punic work of Mago on, 94 _note_.
+
+Ahirs, the, of Cutch, 204.
+
+Akbar, the Emperor, his search after the true religion, 151.
+
+Akbar, his foundation of the so-called Ilahi religion, 151.
+  works translated into Persian for him, 151.
+  not able to obtain a translation of the Veda, 152.
+
+_Albania_, origin of the name, 242.
+
+Albanian language, origin of the, 201.
+
+Albertus Magnus, on the humanizing influence of Christianity, quoted, 129
+            _note_.
+
+Alchemy, causes of the extinction of the science, 19.
+
+Alexander the Great, influence of his expedition in giving the Greeks a
+            knowledge of other nations and languages, 93.
+  his difficulty in conversing with the Brahmans, 93.
+
+Alexandria, influence of, on the study of foreign languages, 96.
+  critical study of ancient Greek at, 97.
+
+Algebra, translation of the famous Indian work on, into Arabic, 149.
+
+Algonquins, the one case of the, 221 _note_.
+
+America, Central, rapid changes which take place in the language of the
+            savage tribes of, 62.
+  great number of languages spoken by the natives of, 62.
+  Hervas's reduction of them to eleven families, 63.
+
+Amharic, or modern Abyssinian, 281.
+
+Anatomy, comparative, science of, 27.
+
+Anglo-Saxon, the most ancient epic in, 177.
+
+Angora, in Galatia, battle of, 308.
+
+Anquetil Duperron, his translation of the Persian translation of the
+            Upanishads into French, 154.
+  his translation of the works of Zoroaster, 168, 206.
+
+Apollo, temple of, at Rome, 102.
+
+AR, the root, various ramifications of, 252.
+
+Arabic, influence of, over the Turkish language, 83.
+  ascendency of, in Palestine and Syria, 281.
+  original seat of Arabic, 281.
+  ancient Himyaritic inscriptions, 281.
+  earliest literary documents in Arabic, 281.
+  relation of Arabic to Hebrew, 281.
+
+Aramaic division of Semitic languages, 276.
+  two dialects of, 276.
+
+Ariana, the, of Greek geographers, 240.
+
+_Ariaramnes_, father of Darius, origin of the name, 241.
+
+Aristotle on grammatical categories, 97, 126.
+
+_Armenia_, origin of the name, 242.
+
+Arpinum, provincial Latin of, 67.
+
+_Article_, the, original meaning of the word, 98.
+  the Greek, restored by Zenodotus, 99.
+
+Ârya. _See_ Aryan.
+
+Ârya-âvarta, India so called, 237.
+
+Aryan, an Indo-European family of languages, 43, 80, 177.
+  mode of tracing back the grammatical fragments of the Aryan languages to
+              original independent words, 231-233.
+  Aryan grammar, 234.
+  northern and southern divisions of the, 211.
+  the original Aryan clan of Central Asia, 212.
+  period when this clan broke up, 212.
+  formation of the locative in all the Aryan languages, 219.
+  Aryan civilization proved by the evidence of language, 235.
+  origin and gradual spreading of the word _Arya_, 236.
+  original seat of the Aryans, 238.
+  the Aryan and Semitic the only _families_ of speech deserving that
+              title, 282.
+  genealogical table, 394, 395.
+
+Asia Minor, origin of the Turks of, 306.
+
+Asiatic Society, foundation of the, at Calcutta, 158.
+
+Asoka, King, his rock inscriptions, 146.
+
+_Assyria_, various forms of the name, 247.
+
+Astrology, causes of the extinction of the science, 19.
+
+_Astronomy_, origin of the word, 16.
+  the Ptolemæan system, although wrong, important to science, 26.
+
+Auramazda, of the cuneiform inscriptions, 207. _See_ Ormuzd.
+
+Auxentius on Ulfilas, 181-186 _note_.
+
+Baber, his Indian empire, 299.
+
+Babylonia, literature of, 278.
+  probability of the recovery of, from the cuneiform inscriptions, 278.
+
+Barabas tribe, in the steppes between the Irtish and the Ob, 304.
+
+Barbarians, the, of the Greeks, 91.
+  seemed to have possessed greater facility for acquiring languages than
+              either Greeks or Romans, 94.
+  the term Barbarian as used by the Greeks and Romans, 127.
+  unfortunate influence of the term, 127.
+
+Bashkirs, race of the, in the Altaic mountains, 303.
+
+Basil, St., his denial that God had created the names of all things, 40
+            _note_.
+
+Baziane tribe, in the Caucasus, 303.
+
+Beaver, the, sagacity of, 24.
+
+Behar, Pâli once the popular dialect of, 146.
+
+Beowolf, the ancient English epic of, 177.
+
+Berber, dialects of Northern Africa, origin of the, 282.
+
+Berners, Juliana, on the expressions proper for certain things, 72.
+
+Berosus, his study and cultivation of the Greek language, 94.
+  his history of Babylon, 95.
+  his knowledge of the cuneiform inscriptions, 95.
+
+Bible, number of obsolete words and senses in the English translation of
+            1611, 45.
+
+Bibliandro, his work on language, 131 _note_.
+
+Birúni, Abu Rihan al, 150.
+  his "Taríkhu-l-Hind," 150.
+
+Bishop and sceptic derived from the same root, 257.
+
+Boëthius, Song of, age of the, 196.
+
+Bohemian, oldest specimens of, 201.
+
+Bonaparte, Prince L., his collection of English dialects, 70.
+
+Booker's "Scripture and Prayer-Book Glossary" referred to, 45.
+
+Books, general destruction of, in China in 213, B. C. 227.
+
+Bopp, Francis, his great work, 166.
+  results of his "Comparative Grammar," 234.
+
+_Botany_, origin of the word, 15.
+  the Linnæan system, although imperfect, important to science, 26.
+
+Brahman, the highest being, known through speech, 88.
+
+Brahmans, their deification of language, 87.
+  their early achievements in grammatical analysis, 88.
+  difficulties of Alexander in conversing with them, 93.
+
+Brâhmanas, the, on language, 87.
+
+Brennus, 199.
+
+Brown, Rev. Mr. on the dialects of the Burmese, 63.
+
+Brutes, faculties of, 351.
+  instinct and intellect, 353.
+  language the difference between man and brute, 354.
+  the old name given to brutes, 379.
+
+Buddhism, date of its introduction into China, 147.
+
+Bulgarian Kingdom on the Danube, 319.
+  language and literature, 200.
+
+Bulgaric branch of the Finnic class of languages, 319.
+
+Bulgarian tribes and dialects, 319.
+
+Buriates, dialects of the, new phase of grammatical life of the, 64.
+
+Burmese language and literature, 63.
+  dialects, 63.
+
+Burnouf, Eugène, his studies of Zend, 168, 206.
+  and of cuneiform inscriptions, 168.
+
+Cæsar, Julius, publication of his work "De analogia," 110.
+  invented the term _ablative_, 110.
+
+Carneades forbidden by Cato to lecture  at Rome, 109.
+
+Carthaginian language, closely allied to Hebrew, 280.
+
+_Case_, history of the word, 111.
+
+Cases, formation of, in the Aryan languages, 218.
+
+Cassius, Dionysius, of Utica, his translation of the agricultural work of
+            Mago, 95 _note_.
+
+Castor and Pollux, worship of, in Italy, 102.
+
+Castren on the Mongolian dialects, 64.
+
+_Cat_, origin of the word, 365.
+
+Catherine the Great of Russia, her "Comparative Dictionary," 143.
+
+Cato, his history of Rome in Latin, 104.
+  his acquisition of the Greek language in his old age, 106.
+  reasons for his opposition to everything Greek, 106.
+
+Caucasus, tribes of the, 303.
+
+Celtic language, substantive existence of, 79.
+
+Celtic, a branch of the Indo-European family of languages, 198.
+
+Celts, their former political autonomy, 198.
+
+Chaldee, in what it consisted, 276.
+  fragments in Ezra, 276.
+  language of the Targums, 277.
+  literature of Babylon and Nineveh, 278.
+  the modern Mendaïtes or Nasoreans,  279.
+
+Changes, historical, affecting every variety of language. 44.
+  rapid changes in the languages of savage tribes, 44.
+  words or senses obsolete in English since 1611, 45.
+  smaller changes, 45.
+  grammatical changes, 46.
+  laws of, in language, 73.
+
+Children, probable influence of the language of, on the gradual
+            disappearance of irregular conjugations and declensions, 75.
+
+Chili, language of, 293 _note_.
+
+China, date of the introduction of Buddhism into, 147.
+  Chinese Buddhist pilgrims to India, 149.
+  conquered by the Mongols, 299.
+
+Chinese language, ancient, no trace of grammar in, 86, 117.
+  notes by M. Stanislas Julien, on Chinese substantives and adjectives,
+              118 _note_.
+  formation of the locative in Chinese, 218.
+  and of the instrumental, 218.
+  number of roots in Chinese, 265.
+  number of words in the Chinese dictionary, obsolete, rare, and in use,
+              265 _note_.
+  no analysis required to discover its component parts, 272.
+  mode of using a predicative root in, 268.
+  roots in Chinese, 287.
+  the parts of speech determined in Chinese by the position of the word in
+              a sentence, 288.
+  rudimentary traces of agglutination in Chinese, 329.
+  imitative sounds in, 366 _note_.
+  list of Chinese interjections, 369 _note_.
+  natural selection of roots in, 386.
+
+Chingis-Khán, founds the Mongolian empire, 296.
+
+Christianity, humanizing influence of, 128.
+
+Chudic branch of the Finnic languages, 317.
+
+Chudic, the national epic of the Finns, 317.
+
+Cicero, his provincial Latin, 67.
+  quoted as an authority on grammatical questions, 109.
+  Cæsar's _De analogia_ dedicated to Cicero, 110.
+
+Class dialects, 66.
+
+Classical, or literary languages, origin of, 65.
+  stagnation and inevitable decay of, 68.
+
+Classification, in the physical sciences, 24.
+  object of classification, 27.
+
+Colchis, dialects of, according to Pliny, 61.
+
+Conjugation, most of the terminations of, demonstrative roots, 270.
+
+Constantinople, taking of, 308.
+
+Copernicus, causes which led to the discovery of his system, 29.
+
+Cornish, last person who spoke, 80.
+
+Cosmopolitan Club, 107.
+
+Crates of Pergamus, his visit to Rome, 109.
+  his public lectures, there on grammar, 109.
+
+_Cuckoo_, the word, 361.
+
+Cuneiform inscriptions, the, deciphered by Burnouf, 168.
+  importance of the discovery of the inscriptions of Darius and Xerxes,
+              206.
+  progress in deciphering, 278.
+  letter from Sir H. Rawlinson quoted, 278.
+
+D, origin of the letter, in forming English preterites, 231.
+
+Dacian language, the ancient, 126 _note_, 195 _note_.
+
+_Dame_, origin of the word, 226.
+
+Danish language, growth of the, 71, 191.
+
+Darius, claimed for himself an Aryan descent, 241.
+
+Dative, case in Greek, 221.
+  in Chinese, 118 _note_.
+
+_Daughter_, origin of the word, 57.
+
+Decay, phonetic, one of the processes which comprise the growth of
+            language, 51.
+  instances of phonetic decay, 52-54.
+
+Declension, most of the terminations of, demonstrative roots, 270.
+
+_Dello_, _dell_, origins of the Italian, 75.
+
+Democritus, his travels, 94.
+
+Dialect, what is meant by, 58.
+
+Dialects, Italian, 58, 69.
+  French, 59.
+  Modern Greek, 58.
+  Friesian, 59.
+  English, 60.
+  the feeders rather than the channels of a literary language, 60, 70.
+  Grimm on the origin of dialects in general, 60.
+  difficulty in tracing the history of dialects, 61.
+  American dialects, 63.
+  Burmese, 63.
+  of the Ostiakes, 63.
+  Mongolian, 64.
+  Southern Africa, 64.
+  class dialects, 66.
+  unbounded resources of dialects, 71.
+  dialectical growth beyond the control of individuals, 74.
+
+Dictionary, Comparative, of Catherine the Great of Russia, 143.
+
+_Did_, origin of, as a preterite, 233.
+
+Diez, Professor, his "Comparative Grammar of the Six Romance Dialects,"
+            196.
+
+Dionysius Thrax, the author of the first practical Greek grammar, 100.
+
+Dionysius of Halicarnassus, on the Pelasgi, 125 _note_.
+
+_Discussion_, etymology of, 52.
+
+Dorpat dialect of Esthonian, 318.
+
+_Du_, origin of the French, 74.
+
+Dual, the, first recognized by Zenodotus, 99.
+
+Dumaresq, Rev. Daniel, his "Comparative Vocabulary of Eastern Languages,"
+            143.
+
+Duret, Claude, his work on language, 132 _note_.
+
+Dutch language, work of Goropius written to prove that it was the language
+            spoken in Paradise, 135.
+  age of Dutch, 178.
+
+Earl, origin of the title, 226.
+
+Earth, guess of Philolaus as to its motion round the sun, 29.
+
+Eddas, the two, 191.
+  the name Edda, 194 _note_.
+
+Egypt, number of words in the ancient vocabulary of, 266.
+
+Egyptian language, family to which it is referable, 282.
+
+Elder, origin of the word, 226.
+
+Elements, constituent, of language, 250.
+
+English language, changes in the, since the translation of the Bible in
+            1611, 46.
+  richness of the vocabulary of the dialects of, 60.
+  real sources of the English language, 69.
+  Prince L. Bonaparte's collection of English dialects, 70.
+  the English language Teutonic, 80.
+  full of words derived from the most distant sources, 84.
+  proportion of Saxon to Norman words, 84.
+  tests proving the Teutonic origin of the English language, 85.
+  genitives in English, 117.
+  nominatives and accusatives, 119.
+  origin of grammatical forms in the English language, 120.
+  number of words in the English language, 266 _note_.
+  number of words in Milton, Shakspeare, and the Old Testament, 267.
+
+Ennius, 105.
+  his translations from Greek into Latin, 105.
+
+Eos, original meaning of the name, 21.
+
+Ephraem Syrus, 276 _note_.
+
+Epicharmus, his philosophy translated into Latin by Ennius, 105.
+
+Epicurus, doctrines of, embraced, in Rome, 107.
+
+_Erin_, Pictet's derivation of the name, 245.
+  Mr. Whitley Stokes's remarks on the word Erin, 245 _note_.
+
+_Espiègle_, origin of the word, 260.
+
+Esths, or Esthonians, their language, 318.
+  dialects of, 318.
+
+Estienne, Henry, his grammatical labors anticipated by the Brahmans, 500
+            B. C. 88.
+  his work on language, 131 _note_.
+
+Ethiopic, or Abyssinian, origin of the, 281.
+
+Eudemos, on the Aryan race, 241.
+
+Euhemerus, of Messene, his neologian work translated into Latin, by
+            Ennius, 105.
+
+Eulalia, Song of, age of the, 196.
+
+Euripides, first translated into Latin, by Ennius, 105.
+
+Ewald, on the relation of the Turanian to the Aryan languages, 338.
+
+Ezour-Veda, the, 156 _note_.
+
+Ezra, Chaldee fragments in the Book of, 276.
+
+Fabius Pictor, his history of Rome in Greek, 104.
+
+Fa-hian, the Chinese pilgrim to India, his travels, 149.
+
+Families of languages, tests for reducing the principal dialects of Europe
+            and Asia to certain, 172.
+
+_Fatum_, original meaning of the name, 21.
+
+_Feeble_, origin of the word, 123.
+
+Feizi and the Brahman, story of, 152.
+
+_Feu_, origin of the French word, 123.
+
+Finnic class of languages, 315.
+  branches of Finnic, 316.
+  the "Kalewala," the "Iliad" of the Finns, 318.
+  tribes, original seat of the, 315.
+  their language and literature, 317.
+  national feeling lately arisen, 317.
+
+Finnish, peculiarity of its grammar, 119.
+
+Firdusi, language in which he wrote his "Shahnameh," 210.
+
+Fire-worshippers. _See_ Parsis.
+
+Firoz Shah, translations from Sanskrit into Persian, made by order of,
+            150.
+
+Flaminius, his knowledge of Greek, 103.
+
+Flemish language and literature, 178.
+
+French dialects, number of, 58.
+  laws of change in the French language, 73.
+  nominatives and accusatives, 119.
+
+French, origin of grammatical terminations in French, 229.
+  origin of the French future in _rai_, 229.
+
+Friesian, multitude of the dialects of, 59.
+  language and literature, 178.
+
+_Fromage_, origin of the French word, 123.
+
+Future, the, in French, 229.
+  in Latin, 230.
+  in Greek, 230.
+  in Chinese, 388.
+  in other languages, 231.
+
+Galatia, foundation and language of, 199.
+
+Galla language of Africa, family to which it belongs, 282.
+
+Ganas, the, or lists of remarkable words in Sanskrit, 116.
+
+Garo, formation of adjectives in, 113 _note_.
+
+Gâthâs, or songs of Zoroaster, 209.
+
+Gebelin, Court de, his "Monde Primitif," 140.
+  compared with Hervas, 140.
+
+Gees language, 281.
+
+Genitive case, the term used in India, 111.
+  terminations of the genitive in most cases, identical with the
+              derivative suffixes by which substantives are changed into
+              adjectives, 112.
+  mode of forming the genitive in Chinese, 118 _note_.
+  formation of genitives in Latin, 220.
+
+_Geometry_, origin of the word, 15.
+
+German language, history of the, 179.
+
+Gipsies, language of the, 211.
+
+Glass, painted, before and since the Reformation, 20.
+
+Gordon, Captain, on the dialects of Burmese, 63.
+
+Goropius, his work written to prove that Dutch was the language spoken in
+            Paradise, 135.
+
+_Gospel_, origin of the word, 122.
+
+Gothic, a modern language, 122.
+  similarity between Gothic and Latin, 127.
+  class of languages to which Gothic belongs, 189.
+  number of roots in it, 265 _note_.
+
+Goths, the, and Bishop Ulfilas, 187.
+
+Grammar, the criterion of relationship in almost all languages, 85.
+  English grammar unmistakably of Teutonic origin, 85.
+  no trace of grammar in ancient Chinese, 86.
+  early achievements of the Brahmans  in grammar, 88.
+  and the Greeks, 89.
+  origin of grammar, 90.
+  causes of the earnestness with which Greek grammar was taken up at Rome,
+              108.
+  the Hindú science of grammar, 116.
+  origin and history of Sanskrit grammar, 116.
+  origin of grammatical forms, 120.
+  historical evidence, 121.
+  collateral evidence, 122.
+  genealogical classification, 124.
+  comparative value of grammar in the classification of languages, 170.
+  comparative grammar, 214.
+  Bopp's "Comparative Grammar," 214.
+  origin of grammatical forms, 215.
+  mode of tracing back the grammatical framework of the Aryan languages to
+              original independent words, 231-234.
+  result of Bopp's "Comparative Grammar," 234.
+  Aryan grammar, 234.
+  Turkish grammar, 308.
+  Turkic grammar, 309.
+
+Grammatici, the, at Rome, 103.
+
+Greek language, the, studied and cultivated by the barbarians, Berosus,
+            Menander, and Manetho, 94, 95.
+  critical study of ancient Greek at Alexandria, 97.
+  the first practical Greek grammar, 100.
+  generally spoken at Rome, 101.
+
+Greek, earnestness with which Greek grammar was taken up at Rome, 108,
+            110.
+  principles which governed the formation of adjectives and genitives, 113
+              _note_.
+  spread of the Greek grammar, 114.
+  genitives in Greek, 117.
+  the principle of classification, never applied to speech by the Greeks,
+              124.
+  Greeks and Barbarians, 125.
+  Plato's notion of the origin of the Greek language, 126.
+  similarity between Greek and Sanskrit, 142.
+  affinity between Sanskrit and Greek, 159.
+  formation of the dative in Greek, 221.
+  the future in Greek, 230.
+  number of forms each verb in Greek yields, if conjugated through all its
+              voices, tenses &c., 272 _note_.
+  modern, number of the dialects of, 58.
+
+Greeks, their speculations on languages, 89.
+  the Grammarians, 90.
+  reasons why the ancient Greeks never thought of learning a foreign
+              language, 92.
+  first encouragement given by trade to interpreters, 93.
+  imaginary travels of Greek philosophers, 94 _note_.
+  the Greek use of the term Barbarian, 127.
+
+Gregory of Nyssa, St., his defence of St. Basil, 40 _note_.
+
+Grimm, on the origin of dialects in general, quoted, 60.
+  on the idiom of nomads, quoted, 71.
+  his "Teutonic Grammar," 167.
+
+Growth of language, 47, 66.
+  examination of the idea that man can change or improve language, 48.
+  causes of the growth of language,  50.
+
+Guichard, Estienne, his work on language, 132 _note_.
+
+Guebres. _See_ Parsis.
+
+Halhead, his remarks on the affinity between Greek and Sanskrit, quoted,
+            159.
+  his "Code of Gentoo Laws," 159 _note_.
+
+Hamilton, Sir W., on the origin of the general and particular in language,
+            377 _note_.
+
+Harald Ilaarfagr, King of Norway, his despotic rule and its consequences,
+            192.
+
+Haru-spex, origin of the name, 259.
+
+Harun-al-Rashid, translations made from Sanskrit works at his court, 149.
+
+Haug, his labors in Zend, 209.
+
+Haussa language of Africa, family to which it belongs, 282.
+
+Hebrew, idea of the fathers of the church that it was the primitive
+            language of mankind, 132.
+  amount of learning and ingenuity wasted on this question, 133.
+  Leibniz, the first who really conquered this prejudice, 135.
+  number of roots in, 265.
+  ancient form of the, 280.
+  Aramean modifications of, 280.
+  swept away by Arabic, 281.
+
+Hekate, an old name of the moon, 22.
+
+"Heljand," the, of the Low Germans, 178.
+
+Hellenic branch of the Indo-European family of languages, 198.
+
+Herat, origin of the name, 247.
+
+Hermippus, his translation of the works of Zoroaster into Greek, 96.
+
+Herodotus, his travels, 94.
+  on the Pelasgi, 125 _note_.
+
+Hervas, his reduction of the multitude of American dialects to eleven
+            families, 63.
+  his list of works published during the 16th century, on the science of
+              language, 131 _note_.
+  account of him and of his labors, 139.
+  compared with Gebelin, 140.
+  his discovery of the Malay and Polynesian family of speech, 141.
+
+Hickes, on the proportion of Saxon to Norman words in the English
+            language, 84.
+
+Himyaritic, inscriptions in, 281.
+
+Hindústání, real origin of, 70.
+  the genitive and adjective in, 113 _note_.
+  Urdu-zeban, the proper name of Hindústání, 316.
+
+Hiouen-thsang, the Chinese pilgrim, his travels into India, 149.
+
+Hiram, fleet of, 202.
+
+History and language, connection between, 76.
+
+Hliod, or quida, of Norway, 193.
+  Saemund's collection of, 193.
+
+Hoei-seng, the Chinese pilgrim to India, his travels, 149.
+
+Homer, critical study of, at Alexandria, 97.
+  influence of the critical study of, on the development of grammatical
+              terminology, 98.
+
+Horace, on the changes Latin had undergone in his time, 67.
+
+_Hors_, origin of the French word, 123.
+
+_House_, name for in Sanskrit, and other Aryan languages, 236, and _note_.
+
+Humanity, the word not to be found in Plato or Aristotle, 128.
+
+Humboldt, Alex. von, on the limits of exact knowledge, quoted, 29.
+
+Humboldt, William von, his patronage of Comparative Philology, 167.
+
+Hungarians, ancestors of the, 320.
+  language of the, 320, 321.
+  its affinity to the Ugro-Finnic dialects, 321.
+
+Huron Indians, rapid changes in the dialects of the, 62.
+
+Hyades, origin of the word, 17.
+
+Ibn-Wahshiyyah, the Chaldean, his Arabic translation of "the Nabatean
+            Agriculture," 279.
+  account of him and his works, 279 _note_.
+
+Iceland, foundation of an aristocratic republic in, 192.
+  intellectual and literary activity of the people of, 192.
+  later history of, 193.
+
+Icelandic language, 190.
+
+Iconium, Turkish, sultans of, 307.
+
+Illumination of Manuscripts, lost art of, 20.
+
+Illyrians, Greek and Roman writers on the race and language of the, 126
+            _note_.
+
+Illyrian language, the ancient, 196 _note_.
+
+Illyrian languages, 200.
+
+India, the Mulla Abdu-l-Kádir Maluk's general history of, 151 _note_.
+  origin of the name of _India_, 228.
+
+Indian Philosophers, difficulty of admitting the influence of, on Greek
+            philosophers, 94 _note_.
+
+_Indies, East_ and _West_, historical meaning of the names, 227.
+
+Indo-European family of languages. _See_ Aryan.
+
+Inflectional stage of language, 324.
+
+Instrumental, formation of the, in Chinese, 119 _note_, 218.
+
+Interjectional theory of roots, 367.
+
+Interpreters, first encouragement given to, by trade, 93.
+
+Irán, modern name of Persia, origin of the, 242.
+
+Iranic class of languages, 205.
+
+_Iron_, name for, in Sanskrit and Gothic, 236.
+
+Iron, the Os of the Caucasus calling themselves, 243.
+
+Italian dialects, number of, 58, 197.
+  natural growth of, 67.
+  real sources of, 69.
+
+Italians, the, indebted to the Greeks for the very rudiments of
+            civilization, 101.
+
+Italic class of languages, 196.
+
+Italy, dialects spoken in, before the rise of Rome, 197.
+
+_Its_, as a possessive pronoun, introduction of, 46.
+
+Jerome, St., his opinion that Hebrew was the primitive language of
+            mankind, 132.
+
+Jews, literary idiom of the, in the century preceding and following the
+            Christian era, 277.
+  and from the fourth to the tenth centuries, 277.
+  their adoption of Arabic, 277.
+  their return to a kind of modernized Hebrew, 277.
+
+Jones, Sir William, his remarks on the affinity between Sanskrit and
+            Greek, 159.
+
+Julien, M. Stanislas, his notes on the Chinese language, 118 _note_.
+
+Justinian, the Emperor, sends an embassy to the Turks, 302.
+
+"Kalewala," the, the "Iliad" of the Finns, 318.
+
+Kalmüks, the, 296, 300.
+
+Kapchakian empire, the, 297.
+
+Kara-Kalpak tribes near Aral-Lake, 304.
+
+Karelian dialect of Finnic, 318.
+
+Karians, Greek authors on the, 125 _note_.
+
+Kempe, André, his notion of the languages spoken in Paradise, 135 _note_.
+
+Kepler, quoted, 129 _note_.
+
+Khi-nie, the Chinese pilgrim, his travels into India, 149.
+
+Kirgis tribe, the, 305.
+
+Kirgis Hordes, the three, 305.
+
+Kirgis-Kasak, tribe of the, 305.
+
+Kumüks, tribe of the, in the Caucasus, 303.
+
+Kuthami, the Nabatean, his work on "Nabatean Agriculture," 280.
+  period in which he lived, 280 _note_.
+
+Laban, language of, 278.
+
+Language, science of, one of the physical sciences, 11, 31.
+  modern date of the science of, 13.
+  names of the science of, 14.
+  meaning of the science of, 14.
+  little it offers to the utilitarian spirit of our age, 20.
+  modern importance of the science of, in political and social questions,
+              22.
+  the barrier between man and beast, 23.
+  importance of the science of, 33.
+  realm of, 35.
+  the growth of, in contradistinction to the history of, 38.
+  Dr. Whewell on the classification of, 38 _note_.
+  examination of objections against the science of, as a physical science,
+              39.
+  considered as an invention of man, 39.
+  the science of, considered as a historical science, 42.
+  historical changes of, 44.
+  almost stationary amongst highly civilized nations, 45.
+  growth of, 47.
+  the idea that man can change or improve language examined, 48.
+  causes of the growth of, 50.
+  processes of the growth of:--
+  1. phonetic decay, 51.
+  2. dialectical regeneration, 58.
+  laws of change in, 73.
+  futile attempts of single grammarians and purists to improve, 75.
+  connection between language and history, 77.
+  independent of historical events, 79.
+  no possibility of a mixed, 82.
+  the Empirical Stage in the historical progress of the science of, 87.
+  speculations of the Brahmans and Greeks, 87.
+  the classificatory stage of, 115.
+  empirical or formal grammar, 117.
+  genealogical classification of, 124.
+  Hervas's catalogue of works published during the 16th century on the
+              science of language, 131 _note_.
+  Leibniz, 135 _et seq_.
+  Hervas, 139.
+  Adelung, 142.
+  Catherine the Great, 143.
+  importance of the discovery of Sanskrit, 146, 170.
+  value of comparative grammar, 170.
+  glance at the modern history of language, 173.
+  distinction between the radical and formal elements of, 215.
+  constituent elements of, 250.
+  morphological classification, 275, 286.
+  the inflectional stage of, 324.
+  consideration of the problem of a common origin of languages, 326 _et
+              seq_.
+  former theories, 345.
+  proper method of inquiry, 347.
+  man and brutes, faculties of, 350.
+  the difference between man and brute, 354.
+  the inward power of which language is the outward sign and
+              manifestation, 355.
+  universal ideas, 356.
+  general ideas and roots, 356.
+  the primum cognitum and primum  appellatum, 370.
+  knowing and naming, 378.
+  language and reason, 383.
+  sound and thought, 384.
+  natural selection of roots, 386.
+  nothing arbitrary in language, 389.
+  origin and confusion of tongues, 391.
+  the radical stage of language, 285, 286.
+  the terminational stage, 285, 288.
+  the inflectional stage, 285.
+
+Languages, number of known, 35.
+  teaching of foreign languages comparatively a modern invention, 91.
+  reason why the ancient Greeks never learned foreign languages, 91.
+  "The Mountain of Languages," 93.
+  genealogical classification of, 166.
+  tests for reducing the principal dialects in Europe and Asia to certain
+              families of languages, 174.
+  genealogical classification not applicable to all languages, 174.
+  radical relationship, 176.
+  comparative grammar, 214.
+
+Languages, formal and radical elements of, 216.
+  all formal elements of language originally substantial, 228.
+  degrees of relationship of, 284.
+  all languages reducible in the end to roots, 286.
+
+Langue d'Oil, ancient song in the, 198.
+
+Laps, or Laplanders, 319.
+  their habitat, 319.
+  their language, 319.
+
+Latin, what is meant by, 67.
+  changes in, according to Polybius, 67.
+  the old Salian poems, 67.
+  provincialisms of Cicero, 67.
+  stagnation of Latin when it became the language of civilization, 68.
+  Latin genitives, 117.
+  similarity between Gothic and Latin, 127.
+  genealogical relation of Latin to Greek, 172.
+  the future in Latin, 230.
+
+Leibniz, the first to conquer the prejudice that Hebrew was the primitive
+            language of mankind, 135.
+  and the first to apply the principle of inductive reasoning to the
+              subject of language, 135.
+  his letter to Peter the Great, quoted, 136.
+  his labors in the science of language, 137.
+  his various studies, 138.
+  on the formation of thought and language, quoted, 373.
+
+Lesbos, dialects of the island of, 59.
+
+Lettic language, the, 199.
+
+Lewis, Sir Cornewall, his criticisms on the theory of Raynouard, 171.
+
+Linnæus, his system, although imperfect, important to science, 26.
+
+Literary languages, origin of, 65.
+  inevitable decay of, 68.
+
+Lithuanian language, the, 199.
+  the oldest document in, 199.
+
+Livius Andronicus, 104.
+  his translation of the Odyssey into Latin verse, 104.
+
+Livonians, dialect of the, 318.
+
+Locative, formation of the, in all the Aryan languages, 219.
+  in Chinese, 119 _note_, 218.
+  in Latin, 220.
+
+Locke, John, on language as the barrier between man and brutes, quoted,
+            24.
+  on universal ideas, quoted, 356.
+  his opinion on the origin of language, 40.
+
+_Lord_, origin of the word, 122.
+
+Lord's Prayer, number of languages in which it was published by various
+            authors in the 16th century, 131 _note_.
+
+Lucilius, his book on the reform of Latin orthography, 109.
+
+Lucina, a name of the moon, 21.
+
+Luna, origin of the name, 21.
+
+Lusatia, language of, 200.
+
+Lycurgus, his travels mythical, 94.
+
+Macedonians, ancient authors on the, 125 _note_.
+
+_Madam_, origin of word, 226.
+
+Mago, the Carthaginian, his book on agriculture in Punic, 94 _note_.
+
+_Man_, ancient words for, 381.
+
+Man and brutes, faculties of, 349.
+  difference between man and brutes, 354.
+
+Mandshu tribes, speaking a Tungusic language, 296.
+  grammar of, 323.
+  imitative sounds in, 366 _note_.
+
+Manetho, his study and cultivation of the Greek language, 95.
+  his work on Egypt, 95.
+  his knowledge of hieroglyphics, 95.
+
+Manka, the Indian, his translations from Sanskrit into Persian, 149.
+
+Masora, idiom in which it was written, 277.
+
+Maulána Izzu-d-din Khalid Khani, his translations from Sanskrit into
+            Persian, 150.
+
+_Même_, origin of the French word, 57.
+
+Menander, his study and cultivation of the Greek language, 95.
+  his work on Phenicia, 95.
+
+Mendaïtes, or Nasoreans, the "Book of Adam" of the, 279.
+
+_Ment_, origin of the termination in French adverbs, 55.
+
+Mescheräks, tribe of the, their present settlements, 304.
+
+Milton, John, number of words used by, in his works, 267.
+
+Ming-ti, the Emperor of China, allows the introduction of Buddhism into
+            his empire, 147.
+  sends officials to India to study the doctrines of Buddha, 148.
+
+Missionaries, their importance in elucidating the problem of the
+            dialectical life of language, 62.
+
+Moallakat, or "suspended poems," of the Arabs, 281.
+
+Moffat, Rev. Robert, on the dialects of Southern Africa, 64.
+
+Monboddo, Lord, on language as the barrier between man and brutes, quoted,
+            24.
+  his "Ancient Metaphysics" quoted, 160 and _note_.
+
+Mongolian dialects, entering a new phase of grammatical life, 64.
+
+Mongolian class of languages, 296.
+  grammar of, 323.
+
+Mongols, their original seat, 296.
+  three classes of them, 296.
+  their conquests, 297.
+  dissolution of the empire, 299.
+  their present state, 300.
+  their language, 300.
+
+_Moon_, antiquity of the word, 16.
+
+Moravia, devastated by the Mongols, 299.
+
+_Mortal_, origin of the word, 382.
+
+_Much_ and _Very_, distinction between, 48.
+
+Muhammed ben Musa, his translation of the Indian treatise on algebra into
+            Arabic, 149.
+
+Mythology, real nature of, 21, 237.
+
+Nabateans, the, supposed to have been descendants of the Babylonians and
+            Chaldeans, 279.
+  the work of Kuthami on "Nabatean  Agriculture," 280.
+
+National languages, origin of, 64.
+
+Nature, immutability of, in all her works, 42.
+  Dr. Whewell quoted, 42.
+
+Nebuchadnezzar, his name stamped on all the bricks made during his reign,
+            283.
+
+Neo-Latin dialects, 196.
+
+{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, the, of Constantinus Porphyrogeneta, 91 _note_.
+
+Nestorians of Syria, forms and present condition of their language, 276,
+            _note_.
+
+Nicopolis, battle of, 307.
+
+_No_ and _nay_, as used by Chaucer, 225.
+
+Nobili, Roberto de, 155.
+  his study of Sanskrit, 155.
+
+Nogái tribes, history of the, 303.
+
+Nomad languages, 290.
+  indispensable requirements of a nomad language, 292.
+  wealth of, 71.
+  nomadic tribes and their wars, 315.
+  their languages, 316.
+
+Nominalism and Realism, controversy between, in the Middle Ages, 22.
+
+Norman words in the English language, proportion of, to Saxon words, 84.
+
+Norway, poetry of, 192.
+  the _hliod_ or _quida_,193.
+  the two Eddas, 191-194.
+
+Norwegian language, stagnation of the, 70.
+
+Number of known languages, 35.
+
+Obsolete words and senses since the translation of the Bible in 1611, 45.
+
+Onomatopoieia, theory of, 358.
+
+Ophir of the Bible, 203.
+
+Origen, his opinion that Hebrew was the primitive language of mankind,
+            132.
+
+Origin of language, consideration of the problem of the common, 326 _et
+            seq._
+
+Ormuzd, the god of the Zoroastrians, mentioned by Plato, 207.
+  discovery of the name Auramazda  in the cuneiform inscriptions, 207.
+  origin of the name Auramazda or Ormuzd, 207.
+
+Os, the, of Ossethi, calling themselves Iron, 243.
+
+Oscan language and literature, the 196.
+
+Osmanli language, the, 301, 306.
+
+Ostiakes, dialects of the, 63.
+
+Owl-glass, stories of, 260.
+
+Pâli, once the popular dialect of Behar, 146.
+
+Panætius, the Stoic philosopher at Rome, 107.
+
+Pânini, Sanskrit grammar of, 116.
+
+Pantomime, the, and the King, story of, 368.
+
+Paolino de San Bartolomeo, Fra, first Sanskrit grammar published by, 142,
+            158.
+
+Paradise, languages supposed by various authors to have been spoken in,
+            135, 136.
+
+Parsi, period when it was spoken in Persia, 210.
+
+Parsis, or fire-worshippers, the ancient, 205.
+  their prosperous colony in Bombay, 205.
+  their various emigrations, 205 _note_.
+  their ancient language, 205, 210.
+
+Pascatir race, the, 320.
+
+_Pater_, origin of the Latin word, 57.
+
+_Pay, to_, origin of the word, 124,
+
+Pedro, Padre, the missionary at Calicut, 154.
+
+Pehlevi, or Huzvaresh language, 210.
+
+Pelasgi, Herodotus on the, 125 _note_.
+  Dionysius of Halicarnassus on the, 125 _note_.
+
+_Percussion_, etymology of, 53.
+
+Perion, his work on language, 131 _note_.
+
+Permian tribes and language, 320.
+
+Permic branch of the Finnic class of languages, 319.
+  the name of Perm, 319.
+  the Permic tribes, 320.
+
+Persia, origin of the Turkman, or Kisilbash of, 302.
+
+Persian language, 83.
+  influence of the, over the Turkish language, 83.
+  the ancient Persian language. _See_ Zend, Zend-avesta.
+
+Persian, subsequent history of Persian, 210.
+
+_Peshito_, meaning of the word, 276 _note_.
+
+Philolaus, the Pythagorean, his guess on the motion of the earth round the
+            sun, 29.
+
+Philology, comparative, science of, 31.
+  a historical science, 32.
+  aim of the science, 81.
+
+Phoenician, closely allied to Hebrew, 280.
+
+Plato, his notion of the origin of the Greek language, 126.
+  on Zoroaster, quoted, 206 _note_.
+
+Plautus, Greek words in the plays of, 104.
+  all his plays mere adaptations of Greek originals, 104.
+
+_Pleiades_, the, origin of the word, 17.
+
+Poland invaded by the Mongols, 299.
+
+Polish, oldest specimens of, 200.
+
+Polybius, on the changes Latin had undergone in his time, 67.
+
+Pons, Father, his report of the literary treasures of the Brahmans, 157.
+
+Pott, Professor, his "Etymological Researches," 167.
+  his advocacy of the polygenetic theory, 342 _note_.
+
+Prâkrit idioms, the, 146.
+
+Prâtisâkhyas, the, of the Brahmans, 116.
+
+_Priest_, origin of the word, 122.
+
+Priscianus, influence of his grammatical work on later ages, 114.
+
+Protagoras, his attempt to change and improve the language of Homer, 48.
+
+Provençal, the daughter of Latin, 171.
+  not the mother of French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, 171.
+  the earliest Provençal poem, 196.
+
+Prussian, the old, language and literature of, 200.
+
+Ptolemy, his system of astronomy, although wrong, important to science,
+            26.
+
+Ptolemy Philadelphus and the Septuagint, 96 _note_.
+
+Ptosis, meaning of the word in the language of the Stoics, 111.
+
+Publius Crassus, his knowledge of the Greek dialects, 106.
+
+Pushtú, the language of Afghanistan, 210.
+
+Pythagoras, his travels mythical, 94.
+
+Pyrrha, original meaning of the name, 22.
+
+Quatremère on the Ophir of the Bible, 204 _note_.
+
+_Quinsy_, origin of the word, 380 _note_.
+
+Quintilian, on the changes Latin had undergone in his time, 67.
+  on the omission of the final _s_ in Latin, 68 _note_.
+
+Radical relationship of languages, 176.
+
+Radicals. _See_ Roots.
+
+Rask, Erasmus, his studies of Zend, 167, 206.
+
+_Raven_, the word, 362.
+
+Raynouard, his labors in comparative grammar, 171.
+  criticisms of his theory of the Langue Romane, 171.
+
+Realism and Nominalism, controversy between, in the Middle Ages, 22.
+
+Regeneration, dialectical, one of the processes which comprise the growth
+            of language, 58.
+
+_Respectable_, origin of the word, 256.
+
+Reval dialect of Esthonian, 318.
+
+Rig-Veda, the, quoted, 88 _note_.
+
+Romance languages, their Latin origin, 170.
+  modifications of, 195.
+  their origin in the ancient Italic languages, 196.
+
+Romane, the Langue, 171.
+
+Romanese language of the Grisons, 196.
+  translation of the Bible into, 196 _note_.
+  lower, or Enghadine, 196 _note_.
+
+Romans, their use of the term Barbarian, 127.
+
+Rome, Greek generally spoken at, 101
+  influence of Greece on Rome 102.
+  changes in the intellectual atmosphere of, caused by Greek civilization,
+              106.
+  the religious life of Rome more Greek than Roman, 107.
+  expulsion of the Greek grammarians and philosophers from Rome, 108.
+  compromise between religion and philosophy, 108.
+  wide interest excited by grammatical studies in Roman society, 109.
+
+Roots or radicals, 252.
+  classes of roots, primary, secondary, and tertiary, 262-264.
+  demonstrative and predicative roots, 267.
+  how many forms of speech may be produced by the free combination of
+              these constituent elements, 275.
+  all languages reducible in the end to roots, 286.
+  the radical stage of language, 287.
+  general ideas and roots, 356.
+  origin of roots, 357.
+  the bow-wow theory, 358.
+  the pooh-pooh theory, 366.
+  natural selection of roots, 386.
+
+Russia devastated by the Mongols, 299.
+
+Sabius, a word not found in classical Latin, 103 _note_.
+
+Sænund, Sigfusson, his collection of songs in Iceland, 193.
+
+Sagard Gabriel, on the languages of the Hurons, quoted, 62.
+
+Salian poems, the, and later Latin, 67.
+
+Sálotar, translation of his work on veterinary medicine from Sanskrit into
+            Persian, 150.
+
+Sanskrit, formation of adjectives in, 113 _note_.
+  grammar, 116.
+  similarity between Greek and, 142.
+  importance of the discovery of, 146.
+  history of the language, 146.
+  doubts as to its age and authenticity examined, 147.
+  accounts given by writers of various nations who became acquainted with
+              the language and literature of India, 148.
+  the Muhammedans in India, and their translations of Sanskrit  works into
+              Arabic and Persian, 149.
+  European Missionaries, 155.
+  studies and work of Frederick Schlegel, 164.
+  importance of the discovery of, in the classification of languages, 172.
+  its genealogical relation to Greek and Latin, 172.
+  antiquity of, 202.
+  Iranic languages, relation to, 205.
+  formation of the locative in, 219.
+  number of roots in, 265.
+
+Sassanian dynasty, Persian language of the, 210.
+
+Saxon language, proportion of Saxon to Norman words in the English
+            language, 84.
+
+Savage tribes, rapid changes which take place in the languages of, 44, 62.
+
+Scaliger, I. I., his "Diatribe de Europæorum Linguis," 132 _note_.
+
+Scandinavian branch of the Teutonic class of languages, 190.
+  the East and West Scandinavian races, 191.
+
+Schlegel, Frederick, his Sanskrit studies, 164.
+  his work "On the Language and Wisdom of the Indians," 164.
+  how his work was taken up in Germany, 166.
+  his view of the origin of language, 216.
+  August W. von, his "Indische Bibliothek," 167.
+  his criticism of the theory of Raynouard, 171.
+
+Sciences, uniformity in the history of most, 14.
+  the empirical stage, 15.
+
+Sciences, the necessity that science should answer some practical purpose,
+            19.
+  the classificatory stage, 25.
+  the theoretical or metaphysical stage, 28.
+  impulses received by the physical sciences from the philosopher and
+              poet, 29.
+  difference between physical and historical science, 32.
+
+Scipios, influence of the "Cosmopolitan Club" at the house of the, 107.
+
+Scythian words mentioned by Greek writers, 243.
+
+Semitic family of languages, 43.
+  study of, 131.
+  constituent elements of the, 272.
+  divisions of the Semitic family of speech, 275.
+  Aramaic class, 276.
+  Hebraic class, 280.
+  Arabic class, 281.
+  intimate relations of the three classes to each other, 281.
+  Berber dialects, 282.
+  the Semitic and Aryan, the only _families_ of speech deserving that
+              title, 282.
+  genealogical table, 396.
+
+_Senior_, the title, 226.
+
+Septuagint, the, and Ptolemy Philadelphus,  96 _note_.
+
+_Serpent_, origin of the word, 380.
+
+Shakespeare, William, total number of words used by, in his plays, 267.
+
+Siberia, Tungusic tribes of, 296.
+  Turkic tribes settled there, in, 304.
+  dialects, 304.
+
+_Sibulla_, meaning of the word, 103 _note_.
+
+Sibylla of Cumæ, oracles of the, written in Greek, 103.
+
+Sigfusson. _See _ Sænund.
+
+Sigismund, the Emperor, and the Bohemian schoolmaster, anecdote of, 47.
+
+Silesia invaded by the Mongols, 299.
+
+_Sir_, origin of the word, 226, 227.
+
+Siriane tribes, their habitat, 320.
+  their language, 319.
+
+_Sister_, origin of, 57.
+
+"Skalda," the, of Snorri Sturluson, 193.
+
+Slavonic tribes, their settlement in Moesia, 196 _note_.
+  languages, properly so called, 200.
+
+Slovinian language, the, 200.
+
+Smith, Adam, his opinion on the origin of language, 40.
+  on the formation of thought and language, quoted, 371.
+  Sydney, on the superiority of mankind over brutes, quoted,  348.
+
+Snorri Sturluson, his prose Edda, 193.
+  his "Heimskringla," 193.
+  his "Skalda," 193.
+
+Solomon's fleet of Tharshish, 202.
+
+Song-yun, the Chinese pilgrim to India, his travels, 149.
+
+Sound, small number of names formed by the imitation of, 365.
+
+_Spec_, offshoots of the root, 257.
+
+_Species_, origin of the Latin, 260.
+
+_Squirrel_, origin of the name, 365.
+
+Stewart, Dugald, his opinion on the origin of language, 41.
+  his doubts as to the age and authenticity of Sanskrit, 147.
+  his view of the affinity of Greek and Sanskrit, 164.
+  on the origin of language, quoted, 343.
+
+Stoics, philosophy of the, in Rome, 107.
+
+Strabo on the Barbarians, 125 _note_.
+
+Sturluson. _See_ Snorri.
+
+_Sugar_, origin of the word, 364.
+
+Swedish language, growth of the, 71, 191.
+
+Syria, origin of the Turks of, 306.
+
+Syriac language, date of the translation of the Bible into the, 276.
+  meaning of Peshito, 276 _note_.
+  decline and present position of the language, 276.
+
+Talmud of Jerusalem, and that of Babylon, literary idiom of the Jews in
+            the, 277.
+
+Targums, language in which they were written, 277.
+
+Targums, most celebrated of them, 277 _note_.
+
+"Tarikhu-l-Hind," the, of Al Birúni, 150.
+
+Tatar tribes, 297.
+  terror caused by the name, 297.
+  the Golden Horde, 298.
+
+Tataric language, 297.
+  sometimes used in the same sense as Turanian, 297.
+
+Tavastian dialect of Finnic, 318.
+
+Terminations, grammatical, Horne Tooke's remarks on, quoted, 251.
+
+Terminology, grammatical of the Greeks and Hindus, coincidences between
+            the, 115.
+
+Testament, the New, translated into Persian, 151.
+  Old, number of words in the, 267.
+
+Teutonic class of languages, 177.
+  the English language, a branch of, 80.
+
+Tharshish, Solomon's fleet of, 202.
+
+Themistocles, his acquaintance with the Persian language, 93.
+
+Thommerel, M., on the proportion Saxon words bear to Norman in the English
+            language, 84.
+
+Thracians, ancient authors on the, 126 _note_.
+
+_Thunder_, origin of the word, 364.
+
+Tiberius Gracchus, his knowledge of Greek, 103.
+
+Tiberius the Emperor, and the grammarians, anecdote of, 47.
+
+Tibetan language, how adjectives are formed in the, 113 _note_.
+
+Timur, Mongolian empire of, 299.
+
+Tooke, Horne, on grammatical terminations, quoted, 251.
+  his answer to the interjectional theory of roots, 367.
+
+Torgod Mongols, the, 300.
+
+Trade first encouraged the profession of interpreters, 93.
+
+Turanian family of languages, 43.
+  origin of term Turanian, 238.
+  Turanian races, 243.
+
+Turanian names mentioned by Greek writers, 243.
+  component parts of Turanian speech, 272.
+
+Tungusic idioms, new phase of grammatical life of the, 64.
+
+Tungusic class of languages, 296.
+  geographical limits of the, 296.
+  grammar of, 323.
+
+Turanian family of languages, 288.
+  a terminational or agglutinative family of languages, 288, 291.
+  divisions of the Turanian family, 289.
+  the name Turanian, 289.
+  characteristic features of the Turanian languages, 290, 291.
+  account of the languages of the Turanian family, 296.
+  genealogical table, 397.
+
+Turkic class of languages, 300.
+  grammar, 309.
+  profuse system of conjugation, 323.
+
+Turkish language, influence of imported words over the whole native aspect
+            of the, 83.
+  two classes of vowels in, 295.
+  ingenuity of Turkish grammar, 308.
+  its advance towards inflectional forms, 337.
+
+Turkman, or Kisil-bash, origin of the, of Persia, 302.
+
+Turks, history of the, 301.
+  origin of the Turks of Asia Minor and Syria, 306.
+  origin and progress of the Osmanlis, 306.
+  spread of the Osmanli dialect, 306.
+
+Turner, Sharon, on the proportion of Norman to Saxon words in the English
+            language, 84.
+
+Turvasa, the Turanian, 243.
+
+Twenty, origin of the word, 52.
+
+Ugric branch of the Finnic class of languages, 320.
+
+Ulfilas, Bishop, notice of him and of his Gothic translation of the Bible,
+            181.
+
+Umbrian language and literature, 197.
+
+Upanishads, the, translated from Sanskrit into Persian by Dárá, 154.
+  translated into French by Anquetil Duperron, 154.
+
+Uralic languages, 315.
+
+Uran'hat tribes, on the Chulym, 304.
+
+Urdu-zeban, the proper name of Hindustání, 316.
+
+Usbeks, history of the, 302.
+
+Vâch, the goddess of speech, her verses quoted from the Rig-Veda, 88
+            _note_.
+
+Varro, de Re Rust, on Mago's Carthaginian agricultural work, quoted, 95
+            _note_.
+  his work on the Latin language, 109.
+  appointed by Cæsar librarian to the Greek and Latin library in Rome,
+              110.
+
+Vasco da Gama, takes a missionary to Calicut, 154.
+
+Vedas, the, 116.
+  differences between the dialect of the Vedas and later Sanskrit, 116.
+  objections of the Brahmans to allow the Vedas to be translated, 152.
+  story of Feizi, 152.
+
+Verbs, formation of the terminations  of, in the Aryan dialects, 222.
+  modern formations, 222.
+
+_Very_ and _much_, distinction between, 48.
+
+Vibhakti, in Sanskrit grammar, 116.
+
+Voguls, the, 320.
+
+Votiakes, idiom of the, 319.
+  habitat of the, 320.
+
+Vyâkarana, Sanskrit name for grammar, 116.
+
+Wallachian language, the, 195 _note_.
+
+Wends, language of the, 201.
+
+Whewell, Dr., on the science of language, 38 _note_.
+
+Wilkins, Mr., on the affinity between Sanskrit and Greek, 160.
+
+Windic, or Slavonic languages, 199.
+  divisions and subdivisions of, 199.
+
+Witsen, Nicholas, the Dutch traveller, his collection of words, 136
+            _note_.
+
+Xavier, Francis, his organization of the preaching of the Gospel in India,
+            154.
+  his gift of tongues, 154.
+
+Yakuts, tribe of the, 304.
+  dialect of the, 305.
+
+_Yea_ and _Yes_, as used by Chaucer, 225.
+
+Zend, Rask's studies of, 167.
+  Burnouf's, 168.
+
+Zend-avesta, the, 167.
+  antiquity of, 205, 206.
+  the words _Zend_ and _Zend-avesta_, 205 _note_.
+  Anquetil's translation of, 206.
+  Rask and Burnouf's labors, 206.
+
+Zend-avesta, authority of the Zend-avesta for the antiquity of the word
+            Arya, 239.
+
+Zenodotus, his restoration of the article before proper names in Homer,
+            99.
+  the first to recognize the dual, 99.
+
+Zeus, original meaning of the word, 21.
+
+Zoroaster, or Zarathustra, his writings (the Zend-avesta) translated  into
+            Greek, 96.
+  translated by Anquetil Duperron,  168.
+  his Gâthâs, or songs, 209.
+  age in which he lived, 209.
+  not the same as Jaradashti in the Veda, 209.
+
+Zoroastrians. _See_ Parsis.
+  original seat of the, 248.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+    1 See Jessen, Was heisst Botanik? 1861.
+
+    2 Kuhn's Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Sprachforschung, b. ix. s. 104.
+
+    3 Horne Tooke, p. 27, _note_.
+
+    4 See Curtius, Griechische Etymologie, s. 297.
+
+    5 Ideler, Handbuch der Chronologie, b. i. s. 241, 242.
+
+    6 As early as the times of Anaximenes of the Ionic, and Alcmæon of the
+      Pythagorean, schools, the stars had been divided into travelling
+      ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} or {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}), and non-travelling stars ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, or {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}). Aristotle first used {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, or
+      fixed stars. (See Humboldt, Cosmos, vol. iii. p. 28.) {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, the
+      pivot, hinge, or the pole of the heaven.
+
+    7 Bunsen's Egypt, vol. iv. p. 108.
+
+    8 According to a writer in "Notes and Queries" (2d Series, vol. x. p.
+      500,) astrology is not so entirely extinct as we suppose. "One of
+      our principal writers," he states, "one of our leading barristers,
+      and several members of the various antiquarian societies, are
+      practised astrologers at this hour. But no one cares to let his
+      studies be known, so great is the prejudice that confounds an art
+      requiring the highest education with the jargon of the gypsy
+      fortune-teller."
+
+    9 "Man has two faculties, or two passive powers, the existence of
+      which is generally acknowledged; 1, the faculty of receiving the
+      different impressions caused by external objects, physical
+      sensibility; and 2, the faculty of preserving the impressions caused
+      by these objects, called memory, or weakened sensation. These
+      faculties, the productive causes of thought, we have in common with
+      beasts.... Everything is reducible to feeling."--_Helvetius_.
+
+   10 "The generative organs being those which are most remotely related
+      to the habits and food of an animal, I have always regarded as
+      affording very clear indications of its true affinities."--_Owen, as
+      quoted by Darwin, Origin of Species_, p. 414.
+
+   11 Die Pflanze und ihr Leben, von M. T. Schleiden. Leipzig, 1858.
+
+   12 Sir J. Stoddart, Glossology, p. 22.
+
+   13 Dr. Whewell classes the science of language as one of the
+      palaitiological sciences; but he makes a distinction between
+      palaitiological sciences treating of material things, for instance,
+      geology, and others respecting the products which result from man's
+      imaginative and social endowments, for instance, comparative
+      philology. He excludes the latter from the circle of the physical
+      sciences, properly so called, but he adds: "We began our inquiry
+      with the trust that any sound views which we should be able to
+      obtain respecting the nature of truth in the physical sciences, and
+      the mode of discovering it, must also tend to throw light upon the
+      nature and prospects of knowledge of all other kinds;--must be useful
+      to us in moral, political, and philological researches. We stated
+      this as a confident anticipation; and the evidence of the justice of
+      our belief already begins to appear. We have seen that biology leads
+      us to psychology, if we choose to follow the path; and thus the
+      passage from the material to the immaterial has already unfolded
+      itself at one point; and we now perceive that there are several
+      large provinces of speculation which concern subjects belonging to
+      man's immaterial nature, and which are governed by the same laws as
+      sciences altogether physical. It is not our business to dwell on the
+      prospects which our philosophy thus opens to our contemplation; but
+      we may allow ourselves, in this last stage of our pilgrimage among
+      the foundations of the physical sciences, to be cheered and animated
+      by the ray that thus beams upon us, however dimly, from a higher and
+      brighter region."--_Indications of the Creator_, p. 146.
+
+   14 Gen. ii. 19.
+
+   15 St. Basil was accused by Eunomius of denying Divine Providence,
+      because he would not admit that God had created the names of all
+      things, but ascribed the invention of language to the faculties
+      which God had implanted in man. St. Gregory, bishop of Nyssa in
+      Cappadocia (331-396), defended St. Basil. "Though God has given to
+      human nature its faculties," he writes, "it does not follow that
+      therefore He produces all the actions which we perform. He has given
+      us the faculty of building a house and doing any other work; but we
+      surely are the builders, and not He. In the same manner our faculty
+      of speaking is the work of Him who has so framed our nature; but the
+      invention of words for naming each object is the work of our mind."
+      See Ladevi-Roche, De l'Origine du Langage: Bordeaux, 1860, p. 14.
+      Also, Horne Tooke, Diversions of Purley, p. 19.
+
+   16 D. Stewart, Works, vol. iii. p. 27.
+
+   17 History of Inductive Sciences, vol. iii. p. 531.
+
+   18 Names ending in _ic_, are names of classes as distinct from the
+      names of single languages.
+
+   19 Lectures on the English Language, by G. P. Marsh: New York, 1860, p.
+      263 and 630. These lectures embody the result of much careful
+      research, and are full of valuable observations.
+
+   20 Marsh, p. 532, _note_.
+
+   21 Marsh, p. 589.
+
+   22 Sir J. Stoddart, Glossology, p. 60.
+
+   23 Trench, English Past and Present, p. 114; Marsh, p. 397.
+
+   24 As several of my reviewers have found fault with the monk for using
+      the genitive _neutri_, instead of _neutrius_, I beg to refer to
+      Priscianus, 1. vi. c. i. and c. vii. The expression _generis
+      neutrius_, though frequently used by modern editors, has no
+      authority, I believe, in ancient Latin.
+
+   25 Castelvetro, in Horne Tooke, p. 629, _note_.
+
+   26 Bopp, Comparative Grammar, § 320. Schleicher, Deutsche Sprache, s.
+      233.
+
+   27 Foucaux, Grammaire Tibetaine, p. 27, and Preface, p. x.
+
+   28 Fuchs, Romanische Sprachen, s. 355.
+
+   29 Quint., v. 10, 52. Bonâ mente factum, ideo palam; malâ, ideo ex
+      insidiis.
+
+   30 Sanskrit _s_ = Persian _h_; therefore _svasar_ = _hvahar_. This
+      becomes _chohar_, _chor_, and _cho_. Zend, _qanha_, acc. _qanharem_,
+      Persian, _kháher_. Bopp, Comp. Gram. § 35.
+
+   31 Schleicher, Beiträge, b. ii. s. 392: _dci_ = _dugti_; gen. _dcere_ =
+      _dugtere_.
+
+_   32 Hui_ = _hodie_, Ital. _oggi_ and _oggidi_; _jour_ = _diurnum_, from
+      _dies_.
+
+   33 See M. M.'s Letter to Chevalier Bunsen, On the Turanian Languages,
+      p. 67.
+
+   34 See Marsh, p. 678; Sir John Stoddart's Glossology, s. 31.
+
+   35 Glossology, p. 33.
+
+   36 Ibid., p. 29.
+
+   37 Nea Pandora, 1859, Nos. 227, 229. Zeitschrift für Vergleichende
+      Sprachforschung, x. s. 190.
+
+   38 Grimm, Geschichte der Deutschen Sprache, p. 668: Marsh, p. 379.
+
+   39 "Some people, who may have been taught to consider the Dorset
+      dialect as having originated from corruption of the written English,
+      may not be prepared to hear that it is not only a separate offspring
+      from the Anglo-Saxon tongue, but purer, and in some cases richer,
+      than the dialect which is chosen as the national speech."--Barnes,
+      _Poems in Dorset Dialect_, Preface, p. xiv.
+
+   40 Geschichte der Deutschen Sprache, s. 833.
+
+   41 Pliny, vi. 5; Hervas, Catalogo, i. 118.
+
+   42 Pliny depends on Timosthenes, whom Strabo declares untrustworthy
+      (ii. p. 93, ed. Casaub.) Strabo himself says of Dioscurias,
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} (x. p. 498). The last words refer probably to
+      Timosthenes.
+
+   43 Du Ponceau, p. 110.
+
+   44 S. F. Waldeck, Lettre à M. Jomard des environs de Palenqué, Amérique
+      Centrale. ("Il ne pouvait se servir, en 1833, d'un vocabulaire
+      composé avec beaucoup de soin dix ans auparavant.")
+
+   45 Catalogo, i. 393.
+
+   46 Turanian Languages, p. 114.
+
+   47 Ibid., p. 233.
+
+   48 Turanian Languages, p. 30.
+
+   49 Quintilian, ix. 4. "Nam neque Lucilium putant uti eadem (s) ultima,
+      cum dicit Serenu fuit, et Dignu loco. Quin etiam Cicero in Oratore
+      plures antiquorum tradit sic locutos." In some phrases the final _s_
+      was omitted in conversation; _e.g._ _abin_ for abisne, _viden_ for
+      videsne, _opu'st_ for opus est, _conabere_ for conaberis.
+
+   50 Marsh, Lectures, pp. 133, 368.
+
+   51 "There are fewer local peculiarities of form and articulation in our
+      vast extent of territory (U. S.), than on the comparatively narrow
+      soil of Great Britain."--_Marsh_, p. 667.
+
+   52 Marsh, Lectures, pp. 181, 590.
+
+   53 The Gothic forms _sijum_, _sijuth_, are not organic. They are either
+      derived by false analogy from the third person plural _sind_, or a
+      new base _sij_ was derived from the subjunctive _sijau_, Sanskrit
+      _syâm_.
+
+   54 Some excellent statistics on the exact proportion of Saxon and Latin
+      in various English writers, are to be found in Marsh's Lectures on
+      the English Language, p. 120, _seq._ and 181, _seq._
+
+   55 "En este estado, que es el primer paso que las naciones dan para
+      mudar de lengua, estaba quarenta años ha la araucana en las islas de
+      Chiloue (como he oido á los jesuitas sus misioneros), en donde los
+      araucanos apénas proferian palabra que no fuese española; mas la
+      proferian con el artificio y órden de su lengua nativa, llamada
+      araucana."--_Hervas, Catalogo_, t. i. p. 16. "Este artificio ha sido
+      en mi observacion el principal medio de que me he valido para
+      conocer la afinidad ó diferencia de las lenguas conocidas, y
+      reducirlas á determinadas classes."--_Ibid._, p. 23.
+
+   56 Colebrooke, Miscellaneous Essays, i. 32. The following verses are
+      pronounced by Vâch, the goddess of speech, in the 125th hymn of the
+      10th book of the Rig-Veda: "Even I myself say this (what is) welcome
+      to Gods and to men: 'Whom I love, him I make strong, him I make a
+      Brahman, him a great prophet, him I make wise. For Rudra (the god of
+      thunder) I bend the bow, to slay the enemy, the hater of the
+      Brahmans. For the people I make war; I pervade heaven and earth. I
+      bear the father on the summit of this world; my origin is in the
+      water in the sea; from thence I go forth among all beings, and touch
+      this heaven with my height. I myself breathe forth like the wind,
+      embracing all beings; above this heaven, beyond this earth, such am
+      I in greatness.' " See also Atharva-Veda, iv. 30; xix. 9, 3. Muir,
+      Sanskrit Texts, part iii. pp. 108, 150.
+
+   57 Sir John Stoddart, Glossology, p. 276.
+
+   58 The Turks applied the Polish name _Niemiec_ to the Austrians. As
+      early as Constantinus Porphyrogeneta, cap. 30, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} was used
+      for the German race of the Bavarians. (Pott, Indo-Germ. Sp. s. 44.
+      Leo, Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Sprachforschung, b. ii. s. 258.)
+      Russian, _njemez'_; Slovenian, _nemec_; Bulgarian, _némec_; Polish,
+      _niemiec_; Lusatian, _njemc_, mean German. Russian, _njemo_,
+      indistinct; _njemyi_, dumb; Slovenian, _nem_, dumb; Bulgarian,
+      _nêm_, dumb; Polish, _njemy_, dumb; Lusatian, _njemy_, dumb.
+
+   59 Leo, Zeitschrift für Vergl. Sprachf. b. ii. s. 252.
+
+   60 Humboldt's Cosmos, vol. ii. p. 141.
+
+   61 This shows how difficult it would be to admit that any influence was
+      exercised by Indian on Greek philosophers. Pyrrhon, if we may
+      believe Alexander Polyhistor, seems indeed to have accompanied
+      Alexander on his expedition to India, and one feels tempted to
+      connect the scepticism of Pyrrhon with the system of Buddhist
+      philosophy then current in India. But the ignorance of the language
+      on both sides must have been an insurmountable barrier between the
+      Greek and the Indian thinkers. (Fragmenta Histor. Græc., ed. Müller,
+      t. iii. p. 243, _b._; Lasson, Indische Alterthumskande, b. iii. s.
+      380.)
+
+   62 On the supposed travels of Greek philosophers to India, see Lassen,
+      Indische Alterthumskunde, b. iii. s. 379; Brandis, Handbuch der
+      Geschichte der Philosophie, b. i. s. 425. The opinion of D. Stewart
+      and Niebuhr that the Indian philosophers borrowed from the Greeks,
+      and that of Görres and others that the Greeks borrowed from the
+      Brahmans, are examined in my Essay on Indian Logic, in Thomson's
+      Laws of Thought.
+
+   63 See Niebuhr, Vorlesungen über Alte Geschichte, b. i. s. 17.
+
+   64 The translation of Mago's work on agriculture belongs to a later
+      time. There is no proof that Mago, who wrote twenty-eight books on
+      agriculture in the Punic language, lived, as Humboldt supposes
+      (Cosmos, vol. ii. p. 184), 500 B. C. Varro de R. R. i. 1, says: "Hos
+      nobilitate Mago Carthaginiensis præteriit Poenica lingua, quod res
+      dispersas comprehendit libris xxix., quos Cassius Dionysius
+      Uticensis vertit libris xx., Græca lingua, ac Sextilio prætori
+      misit: in quæ volumina de Græcis libris eorum quos dixi adjecit non
+      pauca, et de Magonis dempsit instar librorum viii. Hosce ipsos
+      utiliter ad vi. libros redegit Diophanes in Bithynia, et misit
+      Dejotaro regi." This Cassius Dionysius Uticencis lived about 40 B.
+      C. The translation into Latin was made at the command of the Senate,
+      shortly after the third Punic war.
+
+   65 Ptolemæus Philadelphus (287-246 B. C.), on the recommendation of his
+      chief librarian (Demetrius Philaretes), is said to have sent a Jew
+      of the name of Aristeas, to Jerusalem, to ask the high priest for a
+      MS. of the Bible, and for seventy interpreters. Others maintain that
+      the Hellenistic Jews who lived at Alexandria, and who had almost
+      forgotten their native language, had this translation made for their
+      own benefit. Certain it is, that about the beginning of the third
+      century B. C. (285), we find the Hebrew Bible translated into Greek.
+
+   66 Plin. xxx. 2. "Sine dubio illa orta in Perside a Zoroastre, ut inter
+      auctores convenit. Sed unus hic fuerit, an postea et alius, non
+      satis constat. Eudoxus qui inter sapientiæ sectas clarissimam
+      utilissimamque eam intelligi voluit, Zoroastrem hunc sex millibus
+      annorum ante Platonis mortem fuisse prodidit. Sic et Aristoteles.
+      Hermippus qui de tota ea arte diligentissime scripsit, et vicies
+      centum millia versuum a Zoroastre condita, indicibus quoque
+      voluminum ejus positis explanavit, præceptorem a quo institutum
+      disceret, tradidit Azonacem, ipsum vero quinque millibus annorum
+      ante Trojanum bellum fuisse."--"Diogenes Laertius Aristotelem
+      auctorem facit libri {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. Suidas librum cognovit, dubitat
+      vero a quo scriptus sit." See Bunsen's Egypten, Va, 101.
+
+   67 M. M.'s History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 163.
+
+   68 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.
+
+   69 Suidas, s. v. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}
+      {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}.
+
+   70 Quintilian, i. 1, 12.
+
+   71 See Mommsen, Römische Geschichte, b. i. s. 197. "The Latin alphabet
+      is the same as the modern alphabet of Sicily; the Etruscan is the
+      same as the old Attic alphabet. _Epistola_, letter, _charta_, paper,
+      and _stilus_, are words borrowed from Greek."--_Mommsen_, b. i. s.
+      184.
+
+   72 Mommsen, Römische Geschichte, b. i. s. 186. _Statera_, the balance,
+      the Greek {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}; _machina_, an engine, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}; _númus_, a silver
+      coin, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, the Sicilian {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; _groma_, measuring-rod, the Greek
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} or {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}: _clathri_, a trellis, a grate, the Greek {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~},
+      the native Italian word for lock being _claustra_.
+
+_   73 Gubernare_, to steer, from {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; _anchora_, anchor, from
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}; _prora_, the forepart, from {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. _Navis_, _remus_,
+      _velum_, &c., are common Aryan words, not borrowed by the Romans
+      from the Greeks, and show that the Italians were acquainted with
+      navigation before the discovery of Italy by the Phocæans.
+
+   74 Mommsen, i. 154.
+
+   75 Ibid. i. 408.
+
+   76 Mommsen, i. 165.
+
+_   77 Sibylla_, or _sibulla_, is a diminutive of an Italian _sabus_ or
+      _sabius_, wise; a word which, though not found in classical writers,
+      must have existed in the Italian dialects. The French _sage_
+      presupposes an Italian _sabius_, for it cannot be derived either
+      from _sapiens_ or from _sapius_.--_Diez, Lexicon Etymologicum_, p.
+      300. _Sapius_ has been preserved in _nesapius_, foolish. _Sibulla_
+      therefore meant a wise old woman.
+
+   78 Mommsen, i. 256.
+
+   79 Ibid. i. 425, 444.
+
+   80 Ibid. i. 857.
+
+   81 Mommsen, i. 902.
+
+   82 Mommsen, i. 892.
+
+   83 Ibid. i. 843, 194.
+
+   84 Ibid. i. 911.
+
+   85 Mommsen, ii. 407.
+
+   86 Mommsen, ii. 410.
+
+   87 Ibid. ii. 408.
+
+   88 Ibid. ii. 437, _note_; ii. 430.
+
+   89 Zeno died 263; Epicurus died 270; Arcesilaus died 241; Carneades
+      died 129.
+
+   90 Mommsen, ii. 417, 418.
+
+   91 Ibid. i. 845.
+
+   92 Ibid. ii. 415, 417.
+
+   93 Mommsen, ii. 413, 426, 445, 457. Lucius Ælius Stilo wrote a work on
+      etymology, and an index to Plautus.--_Lersch_, _Die Sprachphilosophie
+      der Alten_, ii. 111.
+
+   94 Lersch, ii. 113, 114, 143.
+
+   95 Lersch, iii. 144.
+
+   96 Mommsen, iii. 557. 48 B. C.
+
+   97 Lersch, ii. 25. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, or {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, or {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.
+
+   98 Beiträge zur Geschichte der Grammatik, von Dr. K. E. A. Schmidt.
+      Halle, 1859. Uber den Begriff der {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, s. 320.
+
+   99 In the Tibetan languages the rule is, "Adjectives are formed from
+      substantives by the addition of the genitive sign," which might be
+      inverted into, "The genitive is formed from the nominative by the
+      addition of the adjective sign." For instance, _shing_, wood; _shing
+      gi_, of wood, or wooden: _ser_, gold; _ser-gyi_, of gold, or golden:
+      _mi_, man; _mi-yi_, of man, or human. The same in Garo, where the
+      sign of the genitive is _ni_, we have; _mánde-ní jak_, the hand of
+      man, or the human hand; _ambal-ní ketháli_, a wooden knife, or a
+      knife of wood. In Hindustání the genitive is so clearly an
+      adjective, that it actually takes the marks of gender according to
+      the words to which it refers. But how is it in Sanskrit and Greek?
+      In Sanskrit we may form adjectives by the addition of _tya_.
+      (Turanian Languages, p. 41, _seq._; Essay on Bengálí, p. 333.) For
+      instance, _dakshinâ_, south; _dakshinâ-tya_, southern. This _tya_ is
+      clearly a demonstrative pronoun, the same as the Sanskrit _syas_,
+      _syâ_, _tyad_, this or that. _Tya_ is a pronominal base, and
+      therefore such adjectives as _dakshinâ-tya_, southern, or _âp-tya_,
+      aquatic, from _âp_, water, must have been conceived originally as
+      "water-there," or "south-there." Followed by the terminations of the
+      nominative singular, which was again an original pronoun, _âptyas_
+      would mean _âp-tya-s_, _i.e._, water-there-he. Now, it makes little
+      difference whether I say an aquatic bird or a bird of the water. In
+      Sanskrit the genitive of water would be, if we take _udaka_,
+      _udaka-sya_. This _sya_ is the same pronominal base as the adjective
+      termination _tya_, only that the former takes no sign for the
+      gender, like the adjective. The genitive _udakasya_ is therefore the
+      same as an adjective without gender. Now let us look to Greek. We
+      there form adjectives by {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, which is the same as the Sanskrit
+      _tya_ or _sya_. For instance, from {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, people, the Greeks formed
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, belonging to the people. Here {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, mark the gender.
+      Leave the gender out, and you get {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}. Now, there is a rule in
+      Greek that an {~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} between two vowels, in grammatical terminations, is
+      elided. Thus the genitive of {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} is not {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, but {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, or
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; hence {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} would necessarily become {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}. And what is
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} but the regular Homeric genitive of {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, which in later
+      Greek was replaced by {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}? Thus we see that the same principles
+      which governed the formation of adjectives and genitives in Tibetan,
+      in Garo, and Hindustání, were at work in the primitive stages of
+      Sanskrit and Greek; and we perceive how accurately the real power of
+      the genitive was determined by the ancient Greek grammarians, who
+      called it the general or predicative case, whereas the Romans
+      spoiled the term by wrongly translating it into _genitivus_.
+
+  100 See M. M.'s History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 158.
+
+  101 The following and some other notes were kindly sent to me by the
+      first Chinese scholar in Europe, M. Stanislas Julien, Membre de
+      l'Institut.
+
+      The Chinese do not decline their substantives, but they indicate the
+      cases distinctly--
+
+      A. By means of particles.
+      B. By means of position.
+
+      1. The nominative or the subject of a sentence is always placed at
+      the beginning.
+
+      2. The genitive may be marked--
+
+      (_a_) By the particle _tchi_ placed between the two nouns, of which
+      the first is in the genitive, the second in the nominative. Example,
+      _jin tchi kiun_ (hominum princeps, literally, man, sign of the
+      genitive, prince.)
+
+      (_b_) By position, placing the word which is in the genitive first,
+      and the word which is in the nominative second. Ex. _koue_ (kingdom)
+      _jin_ (man) _i.e._, a man of the kingdom.
+
+      3. The dative may be expressed--
+
+      (_a_) By the preposition _yu_, to. Ex. _sse_ (to give) _yen_ (money)
+      _yu_ (to) _jin_ (man).
+
+      (_b_) By position, placing first the verb, then the word which
+      stands in the dative, lastly, the word which stands in the
+      accusative. Ex. _yu_ (to give) _jin_ (to a man) _pe_ (white) _yu_
+      (jade), _hoang_ (yellow) _kin_ (metal), _i.e._, gold.
+
+      4. The accusative is either left without any mark, for instance,
+      _pao_ (to protect) _min_ (the people), or it is preceded by certain
+      words which had originally a more tangible meaning, but gradually
+      dwindled away into mere signs of the accusative. [These were first
+      discovered and correctly explained by M. Stanislas Julien in his
+      Vindiciæ Philologicæ in Linguam Sinicam, Paris, 1830.] The particles
+      most frequently used for this purpose by modern writers are _pa_ and
+      _tsiang_, to grasp, to take. Ex. _pa_ (taking) _tchoung-jin_ (crowd
+      of men) _t'eou_ (secretly) _k'an_ (he looked) _i.e._, he looked
+      secretly at the crowd of men (hominum turbam furtim aspiciebat). In
+      the more ancient Chinese (_Kouwen_) the words used for the same
+      purpose are _i_ (to employ, etc.), _iu_, _iu_, _hou_. Ex. _i_
+      (employing) _jin_ (mankind) _t'sun_ (he preserves) _sin_ (in the
+      heart), _i.e._, humanitatem conservat corde. _I_ (taking) _tchi_
+      (right) _wêï_ (to make) _k'io_ (crooked), _i.e._, rectum facere
+      curvum. _Pao_ (to protect) _hou_ (sign of accus.) _min_ (the
+      people).
+
+      5. The ablative is expressed--
+
+      (_a_) By means of prepositions, such as _thsong_, _yeou_, _tsen_,
+      _hou_. Ex. _thsong_ (ex) _thien_ (coelo) _laï_ (venire); _te_
+      (obtinere) _hou_ (ab) _thien_ (coelo).
+
+      (_b_) By means of position, so that the word in the ablative is
+      placed before the verb. Ex. _thien_ (heaven) _hiang-tchi_
+      (descended, _tchi_ being the relative particle or sign of the
+      genitive) _tsaï_ (calamities), _i.e._, the calamities which Heaven
+      sends to men.
+
+      6. The instrumental is expressed--
+
+      (_a_) By the preposition _yu_, with. Ex. _yu_ (with) _kien_ (the
+      sword) _cha_ (to kill) _jin_ (a man).
+
+      (_b_) By position, the substantive which stands in the instrumental
+      case being placed before the verb, which is followed again by the
+      noun in the accusative. Ex. _i_ (by hanging) _cha_ (he killed)
+      _tchi_ (him).
+
+      7. The locative may be expressed by simply placing the noun before
+      the verb. Ex. _si_ (in the East or East) _yeou_ (there is)
+      _suo-tou-po_ (a sthúpa); or by prepositions as described in the
+      text.
+
+      The adjective is always placed before the substantive to which it
+      belongs. Ex. _meï jin_, a beautiful woman.
+
+      The adverb is generally followed by a particle which produces the
+      same effect as _e_ in bene, or _ter_ in celeriter. Ex. _cho-jen_, in
+      silence, silently; _ngeou-jen_, perchance; _kiu-jen_, with fear.
+
+      Sometimes an adjective becomes an adverb through position. Ex.
+      _chen_, good; but _chen ko_, to sing well.
+
+  102 See some criticisms on this division in Marsh's Lectures on the
+      English Language, p. 48.
+
+  103 "Goddspell onn Ennglissh nemmnedd iss
+      God word, annd god tiþennde,
+      God errnde," &c.--_Ormulum_, pref. 157.
+
+      "And beode þer godes godd-spel."--_Layamon_, iii. 182, v. 29, 507.
+
+  104 Diez, Lexicon Comparativum. Columella, vii. 8.
+
+  105 Strabo, viii. p. 833. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~},
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}.
+
+  106 Herodotus (vii. 94, 509) gives Pelasgi as the old name of the
+      Æolians and of the Ionians in the Peloponnesus and the islands.
+      Nevertheless he argues (i. 57), from the dialect spoken in his time
+      by the Pelasgi of the towns of Kreston, Plakia, and Skylake, that
+      the old Pelasgi spoke a barbarous tongue ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}). He has, therefore, to admit that the Attic race, being
+      originally Pelasgic, unlearnt its language ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}
+      {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}). See Diefenbach, Origines Europææ, p. 59. Dionysius of
+      Halicarnassus (i. 17) avoids this difficulty by declaring the
+      Pelasgi to have been from the beginning a Hellenic race. This
+      however, is merely his own theory. The _Karians_ are called
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} by Homer (II. v. 867); but Strabo (xiv. 662) takes
+      particular care to show that they are not therefore to be considered
+      as {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. He distinguishes between {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, _i.e._, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, and {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. But the
+      same Strabo says that the Karians were formerly called {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}s (xii.
+      p. 572); and these, together with Pelasgians and Kaukones, are
+      reckoned by him (vii. p. 321) as the earlier _barbarous_ inhabitants
+      of Hellas. Again he (vii. p. 321), as well as Aristotle and
+      Dionysius of Halicarnassus (i. 17), considers the Locrians as
+      descendants of the Leleges, though they would hardly call the
+      Locrians barbarians.
+
+      The _Macedonians_ are mentioned by Strabo (x. p. 460) together with
+      "the other Hellenes." Demosthenes speaks of Alexander as a
+      barbarian; Isokrates as a Heraclide. To judge from a few extant
+      words, Macedonian might have been a Greek dialect. (Diefenbach,
+      Orig. Europ. p. 62.) Justine (vii. 1) says of the Macedonians,
+      "Populus Pelasgi, regio Pæonia dicebatur." There was a tradition
+      that the country occupied by the Macedonians belonged formerly to
+      Thracians or Pierians (Thuc. ii. 99; Strabo, vii. p. 321); part of
+      it to Thessalians (ibid.).
+
+      The _Thracians_ are called by Herodotus (v. 3) the greatest people
+      after the Indians. They are distinguished by Strabo from Illyrians
+      (Diefenbach, p. 65), from Celts (ibid.), and from Scythians (Thuc.
+      ii. 96). What we know of their language rests on a statement of
+      Strabo (vii. 303, 305), that the Thracians spoke the same language
+      as the Getæ, and the Getæ the same as the Dacians. We possess
+      fragments of Dacian speech in the botanical names collected by
+      Dioskorides, and these, as interpreted by Grimm, are clearly Aryan,
+      though not Greek. The Dacians are called barbarians by Strabo,
+      together with Illyrians and Epirotes. (Strabo, vii. p. 321.)
+
+      The _Illyrians_ were barbarians in the eyes of the Greeks. They are
+      now considered as an independent branch of the Aryan family.
+      Herodotus refers the Veneti to the Illyrians (i. 196); and the
+      Veneti, according to Polybius (ii. 17), who knew them, spoke a
+      language different from that of the Celts. He adds that they were an
+      old race, and in their manner and dress like the Celts. Hence many
+      writers have mistaken them for Celts, neglecting the criterion of
+      language, on which Polybius lays such proper stress. The Illyrians
+      were a widely extended race; the Pannonians, the Dalmatians, and the
+      Dardanians (from whom the Dardanelles were called), are all spoken
+      of as Illyrians. (Diefenbach, Origines Europææ, pp. 74, 75.) It is
+      lost labor to try to extract anything positive from the statements
+      of the Greeks and Romans on the race and the language of their
+      barbarian neighbors.
+
+  107 Albert, Count of Bollstädten, or, as he is more generally called,
+      Albertus Magnus, the pioneer of modern physical science, wrote: "God
+      has given to man His spirit, and with it also intellect, that man
+      might use it for to know God. And God is known through the soul and
+      by faith from the Bible, through the intellect from nature." And
+      again: "It is to the praise and glory of God, and for the benefit of
+      our brethren, that we study the nature of created things. In all of
+      them, not only in the harmonious formation of every single creature,
+      but likewise in the variety of different forms, we can and we ought
+      to admire the majesty and wisdom of God."
+
+  108 These are the last words in Kepler's "Harmony of the World," "Thou
+      who by the light of nature hast kindled in us the longing after the
+      light of Thy grace, in order to raise us to the light of Thy glory,
+      thanks to Thee, Creator and Lord, that Thou lettest me rejoice in
+      Thy works. Lo, I have done the work of my life with that power of
+      intellect which Thou hast given. I have recorded to men the glory of
+      Thy works, as far as my mind could comprehend their infinite
+      majesty. My senses were awake to search as far as I could, with
+      purity and faithfulness. If I, a worm before thine eyes, and born in
+      the bonds of sin, have brought forth anything that is unworthy of
+      Thy counsels, inspire me with Thy spirit, that I may correct it. If,
+      by the wonderful beauty of Thy works, I have been led into boldness,
+      if I have sought my own honor among men as I advanced in the work
+      which was destined to Thine honor, pardon me in kindness and
+      charity, and by Thy grace grant that my teaching may be to Thy
+      glory, and the welfare of all men. Praise ye the Lord, ye heavenly
+      Harmonies, and ye that understand the new harmonies, praise the
+      Lord. Praise God, O my soul, as long as I live. From Him, through
+      Him, and in Him is all, the material as well as the spiritual--all
+      that we know and all that we know not yet--for there is much to do
+      that is yet undone."
+
+      These words are all the more remarkable, because written by a man
+      who was persecuted by theologians as a heretic, but who nevertheless
+      was not ashamed to profess himself a Christian.
+
+      I end with an extract from one of the most distinguished of living
+      naturalists:--"The antiquarian recognizes at once the workings of
+      intelligence in the remains of an ancient civilization. He may fail
+      to ascertain their age correctly, he may remain doubtful as to the
+      order in which they were successively constructed, but the character
+      of the whole tells him they are works of art, and that men like
+      himself originated these relics of by-gone ages. So shall the
+      intelligent naturalist read at once in the pictures which nature
+      presents to him, the works of a higher Intelligence; he shall
+      recognize in the minute perforated cells of the coniferæ, which
+      differ so wonderfully from those of other plants, the hieroglyphics
+      of a peculiar age; in their needle-like leaves, the escutcheon of a
+      peculiar dynasty; in their repeated appearance under most
+      diversified circumstances, a thoughtful and thought-eliciting
+      adaptation. He beholds, indeed, the works of a being _thinking_ like
+      himself, but he feels, at the same time, that he stands as much
+      below the Supreme Intelligence, in wisdom, power, and goodness, as
+      the works of art are inferior to the wonders of nature. Let
+      naturalists look at the world under such impressions, and evidence
+      will pour in upon us that all creatures are expressions of the
+      thoughts of Him whom we know, love, and adore unseen."
+
+  109 Rom. i. 20.
+
+  110 Hervas (Catalogo, i. 37) mentions the following works, published
+      during the sixteenth century, bearing on the science of
+      language:--"Introductio in Chaldaicam Linguam, Siriacam, atque
+      Armenicam, et decem alias Linguas," a Theseo Ambrosio. Papiæ, 1539,
+      4to. "De Ratione communi omnium Linguarum et Litterarum
+      Commentarius," a Theodoro Bibliandro. Tiguri, 1548, 4to. It contains
+      the Lord's Prayer in fourteen languages. Bibliander derives Welsh
+      and Cornish from Greek, Greek having been carried there from
+      Marseilles, through France. He states that Armenian differs little
+      from Chaldee, and cites Postel, who derived the Turks from the
+      Armenians, because Turkish was spoken in Armenia. He treats the
+      Persians as descendants of Shem, and connects their language with
+      Syriac and Hebrew. Servian and Georgian are, according to him,
+      dialects of Greek.
+
+      Other works on language published during the sixteenth century
+      are:--"Perion. Dialogorum de Linguæ Gallicæ origine ejusque cum Græca
+      cognatione, libri quatuor." Parisiis, 1554. He says that as French
+      is not mentioned among the seventy-two languages which sprang from
+      the Tower of Babel, it must be derived from Greek. He quotes Cæsar
+      (de Bello Gallico, vi. 14) to prove that the Druids spoke Greek, and
+      then derives from it the modern French language!
+
+      The works of Henri Estienne (1528-1598) stand on a much sounder
+      basis. He has been unjustly accused of having derived French from
+      Greek. See his "Traicté de la Conformité du Langage français avec le
+      grec;" about 1566. It contains chiefly syntactical and grammatical
+      remarks, and its object is to show that modes of expression in
+      Greek, which sound anomalous and difficult, can be rendered easy by
+      a comparison of analogous expressions in French.
+
+      The Lord's Prayer was published in 1548 in fourteen languages, by
+      Bibliander; in 1591 in twenty-six languages, by Roccha ("Bibliotheca
+      Apostolica Vaticana," a fratre Angelo Roccha: Romæ, 1591, 4to.); in
+      1592 in forty languages, by Megiserus ("Specimen XL. Linguarum et
+      Dialectorum ab Hieronymo Megisero à diversis auctoribus collectarum
+      quibus Oratio Dominica est expressa:" Francofurti, 1592); in 1593,
+      in fifty languages, by the same author ("Oratio Dominica L. diversis
+      linguis," cura H. Megiseri: Francofurti, 1593, 8vo.).
+
+  111 At the beginning of the seventeenth century was published "Trésor de
+      l'Histoire des Langues de cet Univers," par Claude Duret; seconde
+      edition: Iverdon, 1619, 4to. Hervas says that Duret repeats the
+      mistakes of Postel, Bibliander, and other writers of the sixteenth
+      century.
+
+      Before Duret came Estienne Guichard, "l'Harmonie Etymologique des
+      Langues Hebraique, Chaldaique, Syriaque--Greque--Latine, Françoise,
+      Italienne, Espagnole--Allemande, Flamende, Anglaise, &c.:" Paris,
+      1606.
+
+      Hervas only knows the second edition, Paris, 1618, and thinks the
+      first was published in 1608. The title of his book shows that
+      Guichard distinguished between four classes of languages, which we
+      should now call the Semitic, the Hellenic, Italic, and Teutonic: he
+      derives, however, Greek from Hebrew.
+
+      I. I. Scaliger, in his "Diatriba de Europæorum Linguis" (Opuscula
+      varia: Parisiis, 1610), p. 119, distinguishes eleven classes: Latin,
+      Greek, Teutonic, Slavonic, Epirotic or Albanian, Tartaric,
+      Hungarian, Finnic, Irish, British in Wales and Brittany, and Bask or
+      Cantabrian.
+
+  112 "Initium oris et communis eloquii, et hoc omne quod loquimur,
+      Hebræam esse linguam qua vetus Testamentum scriptum est, universa
+      antiquitas tradidit." In another place (Isaia, c. 7) he writes,
+      "Omnium enim fere linguarum verbis utuntur Hebræi."
+
+  113 "Mansit lingua per Adam primitus data, ut putamus, Hebræa, in ea
+      parte hominum, quæ non pars alicujus angeli, sed quæ Dei portio
+      permansit."
+
+  114 Guichard went so far as to maintain that as Hebrew was written from
+      right to left, and Greek from left to right, Greek words might be
+      traced back to Hebrew by being simply read from right to left.
+
+  115 Among the different systems of Rabbinical exegesis, there is one
+      according to which every letter in Hebrew is reduced to its
+      numerical value, and the word is explained by another of the same
+      quantity; thus, from the passage, "And all the inhabitants of the
+      earth were of one language." (Gen. xi. 1), is deduced that they all
+      spoke Hebrew, {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} being changed for its synonym {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, and {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}, (5 +
+      100 + 4 + 300 = 409) is substituted for its equivalent {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} (1 + 8 +
+      400 = 409). _Coheleth_, ed. Ginsburg, p. 31.
+
+  116 Hermathena Joannis Goropii Becani: Antuerpiæ, 1580. Origines
+      Antverpianæ, 1569. André Kempe, in his work on the language of
+      Paradise, maintains that God spoke to Adam in Swedish, Adam answered
+      in Danish, and the serpent spoke to Eve in French.
+
+      Chardin relates that the Persians believe three languages to have
+      been spoken in Paradise; Arabic by the serpent, Persian by Adam and
+      Eve, and Turkish by Gabriel.
+
+      J. B. Erro, in his "El mundo primitivo," Madrid, 1814, claims Bask
+      as the language spoken by Adam.
+
+      A curious discussion took place about two hundred years ago in the
+      Metropolitan Chapter of Pampeluna. The decision, as entered in the
+      minutes of the chapter, is as follows:--1. Was Bask the primitive
+      language of mankind? The learned members confess that, in spite of
+      their strong conviction on the subject, they dare not give an
+      affirmative answer. 2. Was Bask the only language spoken by Adam and
+      Eve in Paradise? On this point the chapter declares that no doubt
+      can exist in their minds, and that "it is impossible to bring
+      forward any serious or rational objection." See Hennequin, "Essai
+      sur l'Analogie des Langues," Bordeaux, 1838. p. 60.
+
+  117 Guhrauer's Life of Leibniz, ii. p. 129.
+
+  118 Guhrauer, vol. ii. p. 127. In his "Dissertation on the Origin of
+      Nations," 1710, Leibniz says:--"The study of languages must not be
+      conducted according to any other principles but those of the exact
+      sciences. Why begin with the unknown instead of the known? It stands
+      to reason that we ought to begin with studying the modern languages
+      which are within our reach, in order to compare them with one
+      another, to discover their differences and affinities, and then to
+      proceed to those which have preceded them in former ages, in order
+      to show their filiation and their origin, and then to ascend step by
+      step to the most ancient tongues, the analysis of which must lead us
+      to the only trustworthy conclusions."
+
+  119 Nicolaes Witsen, Burgomaster of Amsterdam, travelled in Russia,
+      1666-1677; published his travels in 1672, dedicated to Peter the
+      Great. Second edition, 1705. It contains many collections of words.
+
+  120 Catherinens der Grossen Verdienste um die Vergleichende Sprachkunde,
+      von F. Adelung. Petersburg, 1815. Another letter of his to the
+      Vice-Chancellor, Baron Schaffiroff, is dated Pirmont, June 22, 1716.
+
+  121 Collectanea Etymologica, ii. 255. "Malim sine discrimine Dialectorum
+      corrogari Germanicas voces. Puto quasdam origines ex superioribus
+      Dialectis melius apparituras; ut ex Ulfilæ Pontogothicis, Otfridi
+      Franciscis."
+
+  122 Monde primitif analysé et comparé avec le monde moderne: Paris,
+      1773.
+
+  123 Catalogo, i. 63.
+
+  124 "Mas se deben consultar gramaticas para conocer su caracter proprio
+      por medio de su artificio gramatical."--_Catalogo_, i. 65. The same
+      principle was expressed by Lord Monboddo, about 1795, in his Ancient
+      Metaphysics, vol. iv. p. 326. "My last observation is, that, as the
+      art of a language is less arbitrary and more determined by rule than
+      either the sound or sense of words, it is one of the principal
+      things by which the connection of languages with one another is to
+      be discovered. And, therefore, when we find that two languages
+      practise these great arts of language,--derivation, composition, and
+      flexion,--in the same way, we may conclude, I think, with great
+      certainty, that the one language is the original of the other, or
+      that they are both dialects of the same language."
+
+  125 Catalogo, ii. 468.
+
+  126 Ibid. i. 49. Witsen, too, in a letter to Leibniz, dated Mai 22,
+      1698, alludes to the affinity between the Tataric and Mongolic
+      languages. "On m'a dit que ces deux langues (la langue Moegale et
+      Tartare) sont différentes à peu près comme l'Allemand l'est du
+      Flamand, et qu'il est de même des Kalmucs et Moegals."--_Collectanea
+      Etymologica_, ii. p. 363.
+
+  127 Leibniz held the same opinion (see Hervas, Catalogo, i. 50), though
+      he considered the Celts in Spain as descendants of the Iberians.
+
+  128 Catalogo, i. 30. "Verá que la lengua llamada _malaya_, la qual se
+      habla en la península de Malaca, es matriz de inumerables dialectos
+      de naciones isleñas, que desde dicha península se extienden por mas
+      de doscientos grados de longitud en los mares oriental y pacífico."
+
+      Ibid. ii. 10. "De esta península de Malaca han salido enjambres de
+      pobladores de las islas del mar Indiano y Pacífico, en las que,
+      aunque parece haber otra nacion, que es de negros, la _malaya_ es
+      generalmente la mas dominante y extendida. La lengua malaya se habla
+      en dicha península, continente del Asia, en las islas Maldivas, en
+      la de Madagascar (perteneciente al Africa), en las de Sonda, en las
+      Molucas, en las Filipinas, en las del archipiélago de San Lázaro, y
+      en muchísimas del mar del Sur desde dicho archipiélago hasta islas,
+      que por su poca distancia de América se creian pobladas por
+      americanos. La isla de Madagascar se pone á 60 grados de longitud, y
+      á los 268 se pone la isla de Pasqua ó de Davis, en la que se habla
+      otro dialecto malayo; por lo que la extension de los dialectos
+      malayos es de 208 grados de longitud."
+
+  129 Catalogo, ii. 134.
+
+  130 Ibid. ii. 135.
+
+  131 The first volume appeared in 1806. He died before the second volume
+      was published, which was brought out by Vater in 1809. The third and
+      fourth volumes followed in 1816 and 1817, edited by Vater and the
+      younger Adelung.
+
+  132 Evidence of this is to be found in Strahlenberg's work on the "North
+      and East of Europe and Asia," 1730; with tabula polyglotta, &c.; in
+      Messerschmidt's "Travels in Siberia," from 1729-1739; in
+      Bachmeister, "Idea et desideria de colligendis linguarum
+      speciminibus:" Petropoli, 1773; in Güldenstädt's "Travels in the
+      Caucasus," &c.
+
+  133 The empress wrote to Nicolai at Berlin to ask him to draw up a
+      catalogue of grammars and dictionaries. The work was sent to her in
+      manuscript from Berlin, in 1785.
+
+  134 "Glossarium comparativum Linguarum totius Orbis:" Petersburg, 1787.
+      A second edition, in which the words are arranged alphabetically,
+      appeared in 1790-91, in 4 vols., edited by Jankiewitsch de Miriewo.
+      It contains 279 (272) languages, _i.e._ 171 for Asia, 55 for Europe,
+      30 for Africa, and 23 for America. According to Pott,
+      "Ungleichheit," p. 230, it contains 277 languages, 185 for Asia, 22
+      for Europe, 28 for Africa, 15 for America. This would make 280. It
+      is a very scarce book.
+
+  135 The Singhalese call Pali, Mungata; the Burmese, Magadabâsâ.
+
+  136 Works, vol. iii. p. 72.
+
+  137 M. M.'s Buddhism and Buddhist Pilgrims, p. 23.
+
+  138 Méthode pour déchiffrer et transcrire les noms Sanscrits qui se
+      rencontrent dans les livres chinois, inventée et démontrée par M.
+      Stanislas Julien: Paris, 1861, p. 103.
+
+  139 "Fan-chou (brahmâkshara), les caractères de l'écriture indienne,
+      inventée par Fan, c'est-à-dire Fan-lan-mo (brahmâ)."--_Stanislas
+      Julien, Voyages des Pèlerins Bouddhistes_, vol. ii. p. 505.
+
+  140 Sir Henry Elliot's Historians of India, p. 259.
+
+  141 See Professor Flügel, in Zeitschrift der D. M. G., xi., s. 148 and
+      325.
+
+  142 Elliot's Historians of India, p. 96. Al Birúni knew the Harivansa,
+      and fixes the date of the five Siddhântas. The great value of Al
+      Birúni's work was first pointed out by M. Reinaud, in his excellent
+      "Mémoire sur l'Inde," Paris, 1849.
+
+  143 In the Persian work Mujmalu-t-Tawárikh, there are chapters
+      translated from the Arabic of Abu Saleh ben Shib ben Jawa, who had
+      himself abridged them, a hundred years before, from a Sanskrit work,
+      called "Instruction of Kings" (Râjanîti?). The Persian translator
+      lived about 1150. See Elliot, l. c.
+
+  144 Sâlotar is not known as the author of such a work. Sâlotarîya occurs
+      instead of Sâlâturîya, in Rája Rádhakant; but Sâlâturîya is a name
+      of Pânini, and the teacher of Susruta is said to have been Divodâsa.
+      An Arabic translation of a Sanskrit work on veterinary medicine by
+      Chânakya is mentioned by Háji Chalfa, v. p. 59. A translation of the
+      Charaka from Sanskrit into Persian, and from Persian into Arabic, is
+      mentioned in the Fihrist, finished 987 A. D.
+
+  145 See Vans Kennedy, "Notice respecting the Religion introduced by
+      Akbar:" Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay: London,
+      1820, vol. ii. pp. 242-270.
+
+  146 Elliot, Historians of India, p. 249.
+
+  147 Müllbauer, Geschichte der Katholischen Missionen Ostindiens, p. 134.
+
+  148 Elliot, Historians of India, p. 248.
+
+  149 Ibid. pp. 259, 260. The Tarikh-i-Badauni, or Muntakhabu-t-Tawárikh,
+      written by Mulla Abdu-l-Kádir Maluk, Shah of Badáún, and finished in
+      1595, is a general history of India from the time of the Ghaznevides
+      to the 40th year of Akbar. The author is a bigoted Muhammedan and
+      judges Akbar severely, though he was himself under great obligations
+      to him. He was employed by Akbar to translate from Arabic and
+      Sanskrit into Persian: he translated the Râmâyana, two out of the
+      eighteen sections of the Mahâbhârata, and abridged a history of
+      Cashmir. These translations were made under the superintendence of
+      Faizi, the brother of the minister Abu-l-Fazl. "Abulfacel, ministro
+      de Akbar, sevalió del Amarasinha y del Mahabhárata, que traduxo en
+      persiano el año de 1586."--_Hervas_, ii. 136.
+
+  150 See M. M.'s History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 327.
+
+  151 History of the Settlements of the Europeans in the East and West
+      Indies, translated from the French of the Abbé Bernal by J.
+      Justamond: Dublin, 1776, vol. i. p. 34.
+
+  152 Müllbauer, p. 67.
+
+  153 Ibid. p. 80. These Brahmans, according to Robert de Nobili, were of
+      a lower class, not initiated in the sacred literature. They were
+      ignorant, he says, "of the books Smarta, Apostamba, and
+      Sutra."--_Müllbauer_, p. 188. Robert himself quotes from the
+      Âpastamba-Sûtra, in his defence, ibid. p. 192. He also quotes Scanda
+      Purâna, p. 193; Kadambari, p. 193.
+
+_  154 The Ezour-Veda_ is not the work of Robert de Nobili. It was
+      probably written by one of his converts. It is in Sanskrit verse, in
+      the style of the Pûranas, and contains a wild mixture of Hindu and
+      Christian doctrine. The French translation was sent to Voltaire and
+      printed by him in 1778, "L'Ezour Vedam traduit du Sanscritam par un
+      Brame." Voltaire expressed his belief that the original was four
+      centuries older than Alexander, and that it was the most precious
+      gift for which the West had been ever indebted to the East. Mr.
+      Ellis discovered the Sanskrit original at Pondichery. (Asiatic
+      Researches, vol. xiv.) There is no evidence for ascribing the work
+      to Robert, and it is not mentioned in the list of his works.
+      (Bertrand, la Mission du Maduré, Paris, 1847-50, t. iii. p. 116;
+      Müllbauer, p. 205, _note_.)
+
+  155 In 1677 a Mr. Marshall is said to have been a proficient in
+      Sanskrit. Elliot's Historians of India, p. 265.
+
+  156 See an excellent account of this letter in an article of M. Biot in
+      the "Journal des Savants," 1861.
+
+  157 Sidharubam seu Grammatica Samscrdamica, cui accedit dissertatio
+      historico-critica in linguam Samscrdamicam, vulgo Samscret dictam,
+      in qua hujus linguæ existentia, origo, præstantia, antiquitas,
+      extensio, maternitas ostenditur, libri aliqui in ea exarati critice
+      recensentur, et simul aliquæ antiquissimæ gentilium orationes
+      liturgicæ paucis attinguntur et explicantur autore Paulino a S.
+      Bartholomæo. Romæ, 1790.
+
+  158 The earliest publications were the "Bhagavadgîta," translated by
+      Wilkins, 1785; the "Hitopadesa," translated by Wilkins, 1787; and
+      the "Sakuntalâ," translated by W. Jones, 1789. Original grammars,
+      without mentioning mere compilations, were published by Colebrooke,
+      1805; by Carey, 1806; by Wilkins, 1808; by Forster, 1810; by Yates,
+      1820; by Wilson, 1841. In Germany, Bopp published his grammars in
+      1827, 1832, 1834; Benfey, in 1852 and 1855.
+
+  159 Halhed had published in 1776 the "Code of Gentoo Laws," a digest of
+      the most important Sanskrit law-books made by eleven Brahmans, by
+      the order of Warren Hastings.
+
+  160 "On the Origin and Progress of Language," second edition, Edinburgh,
+      1774. 6 vols.
+
+  161 "I have supposed that language could not be invented without
+      supernatural assistance, and, accordingly, I have maintained that it
+      was the invention of the Dæmon kings of Egypt, who, being more than
+      men, first taught themselves to articulate, and then taught others.
+      But, even among them, I am persuaded there was a progress in the
+      art, and that such a language as the Shanskrit was not at once
+      invented."--_Monboddo, Antient Metaphysics_, vol. iv. p. 357.
+
+  162 Origin and Progress of Language, vol. vi. p. 97.
+
+  163 Antient Metaphysics, vol. iv. p. 322.
+
+  164 Conjugationssystem: Frankfurt, 1816.
+
+  165 New edition in 1856, much improved.
+
+  166 Second edition, 1859 and 1861. Pott's work on the Language of the
+      Gipsies, 1846; his work on Proper Names, 1856.
+
+  167 "Although the Old Friesian documents rank, according to their dates,
+      with Middle rather than with Old German, the Friesian language
+      appears there in a much more ancient stage, which very nearly
+      approaches the Old High-German. The political isolation of the
+      Friesians, and their noble attachment to their traditional manners
+      and rights, have imparted to their language also a more conservative
+      spirit. After the fourteenth century the old inflections of the
+      Friesian decay most rapidly, whereas in the twelfth and thirteenth
+      centuries they rival the Anglo-Saxon of the ninth and tenth
+      centuries."--_Grimm_, _German Grammar_ (1st ed.), vol. i p. lxviii.
+
+  168 The dialects of Swabia (the Allemannish), of Bavaria and Austria, of
+      Franconia along the Main, and of Saxony, &c.
+
+  169 Über das Leben und die Lehre des Ulfila, Hannover, 1840. Über das
+      Leben des Ulfila von Dr. Bessell, Göttingen, 1860.
+
+  170 Bessell, l. c. p. 38.
+
+  171 Sozomenus, H. E. vii. 6.
+
+  172 Auxentius thus speaks of Ulfilas, (Waitz, p. 19:) "Et [ita
+      prædic]-ante et per Cristum cum dilectione Deo Patri gratias agente,
+      hæc et his similia exsequente, quadraginta annis in episcopatu
+      gloriose florens, apostolica gratia Græcam et Latinam et Goticam
+      linguam sine intermissione in una et sola eclesia Cristi
+      predicavit.... Qui et ipsis tribus linguis plures tractatus et
+      multas interpretationes volentibus ad utilitatem et ad
+      ædificationem, sibi ad æternam memoriam et mercedem post se
+      dereliquid. Quem condigne laudare non sufficio et penitus tacere non
+      audeo; cui plus omnium ego sum debitor, quantum et amplius in me
+      laboravit, qui me a prima etate mea a parentibus meis discipulum
+      suscepit et sacras litteras docuit et veritatem manifestavit et per
+      misericordiam Dei et gratiam Cristi et carnaliter et spiritaliter ut
+      filium suum in fide educavit.
+
+      "Hic Dei providentia et Cristi misericordia propter multorum salutem
+      in gente Gothorum de lectore triginta annorum episkopus est
+      ordinatus, ut non solum esset heres Dei et coheres Cristi, sed et in
+      hoc per gratiam Cristi imitator Cristi et sanctorum ejus, ut
+      quemadmodum sanctus David triginta annorum rex et profeta est
+      constitutus, ut regeret et doceret populum Dei et filios Hisdrael,
+      ita et iste beatus tamquam profeta est manifestatus et sacerdos
+      Cristi ordinatus, ut regeret et corrigeret et doceret et ædificaret
+      gentem Gothorum; quod et Deo volente et Cristo aucsiliante per
+      ministerium ipsius admirabiliter est adinpletum, et sicuti Josef in
+      Ægypto triginta annorum est manifes[tatus et] quemadmodum Dominus et
+      Deus noster Jhesus Cristus Filius Dei triginta annorum secundum
+      carnem constitutus et baptizatus, coepit evangelium predicare et
+      animas hominum pascere: ita et iste sanctus, ipsius Cristi
+      dispositione et ordinatione, et in fame et penuria predicationis
+      indifferenter agentem ipsam gentem Gothorum secundum evangelicam et
+      apostolicam et profeticam regulam emendavit et vibere [Deo] docuit,
+      et Cristianos, vere Cristianos esse, manifestavit et multiplicavit.
+
+      "Ubi et ex invidia et operatione inimici thunc ab inreligioso et
+      sacrilego indice Gothorum tyrannico terrore in varbarico
+      Cristianorum persecutio est excitata, ut Satanas, qui male facere
+      cupiebat, nolens faceret bene, ut quos desiderabat prevaricatores
+      facere et desertores, Cristo opitulante et propugnante, fierent
+      martyres et confessores, ut persecutor confunderetur, et qui
+      persecutionem patiebantur, coronarentur, ut hic, qui temtabat
+      vincere, victus erubesceret, et qui temtabantur, victores gauderent.
+      Ubi et post multorum servorum et ancillarum Cristi gloriosum
+      martyrium, imminente vehementer ipsa persecutione, conpletis septem
+      annis tantummodo in episkopatum, supradictus sanctissimus vir beatus
+      Ulfila cum grandi populo confessorum de varbarico pulsus, in solo
+      Romanie a thu[n]c beate memorie Constantio principe honorifice est
+      susceptus, ut sicuti Deus per Moysem de potentia et violentia
+      Faraonis et Egyptorum po[pulum s]uum l[iberav]it [et Rubrum] Mare
+      transire fecit et sibi servire providit, ita et per sepe dictum Deus
+      confessores sancti Filii sui unigeniti de varbarico liberavit et per
+      Danubium transire fecit, et in montibus secundum sanctorum
+      imitationem sibi servire de[crevit] ..... eo populo in solo Romaniæ,
+      ubi sine illis septem annis, triginta et tribus annis veritatem
+      predicavit, ut et in hoc quorum sanctorum imitator erat [similis
+      esset], quod quadraginta annorum spatium et tempus ut multos .....
+      re et .... a[nn]orum ..... e vita." .. "Qu[i] c[um] precepto
+      imperiali, conpletis quadraginta annis, ad Constantinopolitanam
+      urbem ad disputationem ..... contra p ... ie ... p. t. stas
+      perrexit, et eundo in .... nn .. ne. p ... ecias sibi ax ..... to
+      docerent et contestarent[ur] .... abat, et inge . e .... supradictam
+      [ci]vitatem, recogitato ei im .... de statu concilii, ne arguerentur
+      miseris miserabiliores, proprio judicio damnati et perpetuo
+      supplicio plectendi, statim coepit infirmari; qua in infirmitate
+      susceptus est ad similitudine Elisei prophete. Considerare modo
+      oportet meritum viri, qui ad hoc duce Domino obit Constantinopolim,
+      immo vero Cristianopolim, ut sanctus et immaculatus sacerdos Cristi
+      a sanctis et consacerdotibus, a dignis dignus digne [per] tantum
+      multitudinem Cristianorum pro meritis [suis] mire et gloriose
+      honoraretur."
+
+      "Unde et cum sancto Hulfila ceterisque consortibus ad alium
+      comitatum Constantinopolim venissent, ibique etiam et imperatores
+      adissent, adque eis promissum fuisset conci[li]um, ut sanctus
+      Aux[en]tius exposuit, [a]gnita promiss[io]ne prefati pr[e]positi
+      heretic[i] omnibus viribu[s] institerunt u[t] lex daretur, qu[æ]
+      concilium pro[hi]beret, sed nec p[ri]vatim in domo [nec] in publico,
+      vel i[n] quolibet loco di[s]putatio de fide haberetur, sic[ut]
+      textus indicat [le]gis, etc."
+
+  173 Theodoret. H. E. V., 30.
+
+  174 For instances where Old High-German is more primitive than Gothic,
+      see Schleicher, Zeitschrift für V. S., b. iv. s. 266. Bugge, ibid.,
+      b. v. s. 59.
+
+  175 See Schleicher, Deutsche Sprache, p. 94.
+
+  176 Ibid. s. 60.
+
+  177 Weinhold, Altnordisches Leben, p. 27; Gunnlaugssaga, c. 7.
+
+  178 See Dasent's Burnt Njal, Introduction.
+
+  179 The name Edda is not found before the fourteenth century. Snorri
+      Sturluson does not know the word Edda, nor any collection of ancient
+      poems attributed to Saemund; and though Saemund may have made the
+      first collection of national poetry, it is doubtful whether the work
+      which we possess under his name is his.
+
+  180 The people whom we call Wallachians, call themselves Romàni, and
+      their language Romània.
+
+      This Romance language is spoken in Wallachia and Moldavia, and in
+      parts of Hungary, Transylvania, and Bessarabia. On the right bank of
+      the Danube it occupies some parts of the old Thracia, Macedonia, and
+      even Thessaly.
+
+      It is divided by the Danube into two branches: the Northern or
+      Daco-romanic, and the Southern or Macedo-romanic. The former is less
+      mixed, and has received a certain literary culture; the latter has
+      borrowed a larger number of Albanian and Greek words, and has never
+      been fixed grammatically.
+
+      The modern Wallachian is the daughter of the language spoken in the
+      Roman province of Dacia.
+
+      The original inhabitants of Dacia were called Thracians, and their
+      language Illyrian. We have hardly any remains of the ancient
+      Illyrian language to enable us to form an opinion as to its
+      relationship with Greek or any other family of speech.
+
+      219 B. C., the Romans conquered Illyria; 30 B. C., they took Moesia;
+      and 107 A. D., the Emperor Trajan made Dacia a Roman province. At
+      that time the Thracian population had been displaced by the advance
+      of Sarmatian tribes, particularly the Yazyges. Roman colonists
+      introduced the Latin language; and Dacia was maintained as a colony
+      up to 272, when the Emperor Aurelian had to cede it to the Goths.
+      Part of the Roman inhabitants then emigrated and settled south of
+      the Danube.
+
+      In 489 the Slavonic tribes began their advance into Moesia and
+      Thracia. They were settled in Moesia by 678, and eighty years later a
+      province was founded in Macedonia, under the name of Slavinia.
+
+  181 The entire Bible has been published by the Bible Society in
+      Romanese, for the Grisons in Switzerland; and in Lower Romanese, or
+      Enghadine, as spoken on the borders of the Tyrol.
+
+  182 "Ed il primo, così Dante, che cominciò a dire come poeta volgare, si
+      mosse, perocchè volle far intendere le sue parole a donna alla quale
+      era malagevole ad intendere versi Latini."--_Vita Nuova_.
+
+  183 Schleicher, Beiträge, i. 19.
+
+  184 Oldest dated MS. of 1056, written for Prince Ostromir. Some older
+      written with Glagolitic letters. Schleicher, Beiträge, b. i. s. 20.
+
+  185 Schleicher, s. 22.
+
+  186 Schleicher, Deutsche Sprache, s. 77.
+
+  187 1 Kings viii. 21.
+
+  188 1 Kings ix. 26.
+
+  189 1 Kings x. 11.
+
+_  190 Gutta_ in Malay means _gum_, _percha_ is the name of the tree
+      (Isonandra gutta), or of an island from which the tree was first
+      imported (Pulo-percha).
+
+  191 See Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde, b. i. s. 537.
+
+  192 See also Sir Henry Elliot's Supplementary Glossary, s. v. Aheer.
+
+  193 The arguments brought forward by Quatremère in his "Mémoire sur le
+      Pays d'Ophir" against fixing Ophir on the Indian coast are not
+      conclusive. The arguments derived from the names of the articles
+      exported from Ophir were unknown to him. It is necessary to mention
+      this, because Quatremère's name carries great weight, and his essay
+      on Ophir has lately been republished in the Bibliothèque Classique
+      des Célébrités Contemporaines. 1861.
+
+  194 Job xxii. 24.
+
+_  195 Zend-avesta_ is the name used by Chaqâni and other Muhammedan
+      writers. The Parsis use the name "_Avesta_ and _Zend_," taking
+      _Avesta_ in the sense of text, and _Zend_ as the title of the
+      Pehlevi commentary. I doubt, however, whether this was the original
+      meaning of the word _Zend_. _Zend_ was more likely the same word as
+      the Sanskrit _chhandas_ (scandere) a name given to the Vedic hymns,
+      and _avesta_, the Sanskrit _avasthâna_, a word which, though it does
+      not occur in Sanskrit, would mean settled text. _Avasthita_, in
+      Sanskrit, means laid down, settled. The Zend-avesta now consists of
+      four books, Yasna, Vispered, Yashts, and Vendidad (Vendidad =
+      vidaeva dâta; in Pehlevi, Juddivdad). Dr. Haug, in his interesting
+      lecture on the "Origin of the Parsee Religion," Bombay, 1861, takes
+      _Avesta_ in the sense of the most ancient texts, _Zend_ as
+      commentary, and _Pazend_ as explanatory notes, all equally written
+      in what we shall continue to call the Zend language.
+
+  196 "According to the Kissah-i-Sanján, a tract almost worthless as a
+      record of the early history of the Parsis, the fire-worshippers took
+      refuge in Khorassan forty-nine years before the era of Yezdegerd
+      (632 A. D.), or about 583. Here they stayed 100 years, to 683, then
+      departed to the city of Hormaz (Ormus, in the Persian Gulf), and
+      after staying fifteen years, proceeded in 698 to Diu, an island on
+      the south-west coast of Katiawar. Here they remained nineteen years,
+      to 717, and then proceeded to Sanján, a town about twenty-four miles
+      south of Damaun. After 300 years they spread to the neighboring
+      towns of Guzerat, and established the sacred fire successively at
+      Barsadah, Nausari, near Surat, and Bombay."--_Bombay Quarterly
+      Review_, 1856, No. viii. p. 67.
+
+  197 Alc. i. p. 122, _a_. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}
+      {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}.
+
+  198 In the inscriptions we find, nom. _Auramazdâ_, gen. _Auramazdâha_,
+      acc. _Auramazdam_.
+
+  199 Gen. _Ahurahe mazdâo_, dat. _mazdâi_, acc. _mazdam_.
+
+  200 Haug, Lecture, p. 11; and in Bunsen's Egypt.
+
+  201 Berosus, as preserved in the Armenian translation of Eusebius,
+      mentions a Median dynasty of Babylon, beginning with a king
+      Zoroaster, long before Ninus; his date would be 2234 B. C.
+
+      Xanthus, the Lydian (470 B. C.), as quoted by Diogenes Laertius,
+      places Zoroaster, the prophet, 600 before the Trojan war (1800 B.
+      C.).
+
+      Aristotle and Eudoxus, according to Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxx. 1),
+      placed Zoroaster 6000 before Plato; Hermippus 5000 before the Trojan
+      war (Diog. Laert. prooem.).
+
+      Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxx. 2) places Zoroaster several thousand years
+      before Moses the Judæan, who founded another kind of Mageia.
+
+  202 Printed at the end of these Lectures.
+
+  203 See Schleicher, Deutsche Sprache, s. 81.
+
+  204 Farrar, Origin of Languages, p. 35.
+
+  205 "It has been common among grammarians to regard those terminational
+      changes as evolved by some unknown process from the body of the
+      noun, as the branches of a tree spring from the stem--or as elements,
+      unmeaning in themselves, but employed arbitrarily or conventionally
+      to modify the meanings of words. This latter view is countenanced by
+      Schlegel. 'Languages with inflexions,' says Schlegel, 'are organic
+      languages, because they include a living principle of development
+      and increase, and alone possess, if I may so express myself, a
+      fruitful and abundant vegetation. The wonderful mechanism of these
+      languages consists in forming an immense variety of words, and in
+      marking the connection of ideas expressed by these words by the help
+      of an inconsiderable number of syllables, _which, viewed separately,
+      have no signification_, but which determine with precision the sense
+      of the words to which they are attached. By modifying radical
+      letters and by adding derivative syllables to the roots, derivative
+      words of various sorts are formed, and derivatives from those
+      derivatives. Words are compounded from several roots to express
+      complex ideas. Finally, substantives, adjectives, and pronouns are
+      declined, with gender, number, and case; verbs are conjugated
+      throughout voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, by
+      employing, in like manner, terminations and sometimes augments,
+      which by themselves signify nothing. This method is attended with
+      the advantage of enunciating in a single word the principal idea,
+      frequently greatly modified, and extremely complex already, with its
+      whole array of accessory ideas and mutable
+      relations.' "--_Transactions of the Philological Society_, vol. ii.
+      p. 39.
+
+  206 Endlicher, Chinesische Grammatik, p. 172.
+
+  207 Endlicher, Chinesische Grammatik, s. 172.
+
+  208 "The Algonquins have but one case which may be called locative." Du
+      Ponceau, p. 158.
+
+  209 Marsh, p. 579.
+
+  210 In Old Portuguese, Diez mentions _senhor rainha, mia sennor
+      formosa_, my beautiful mistress.
+
+  211 Marsh, p. 387. Barnes, Poems in Dorsetshire Dialect.
+
+  212 Survey of Languages, p. 21.
+
+  213 Fuchs, Romanische Sprachen, s. 344.
+
+  214 The Greek term for the future is {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} is used as an
+      auxiliary verb to form certain futures in Greek. It has various
+      meanings, but they can all be traced back to the Sanskrit _man_
+      (_manyate_), to think. As _anya_, other, is changed to {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, so
+      _manye_, I think, to {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}. Il. ii. 39: {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}ch{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, "he still thought to lay
+      sufferings on Trojans and Greeks." Il. xxiii. 544: {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, "thou thinkest thou wouldst have stripped me of
+      the prize." Od. xiii. 293: {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; "did you not
+      think of stopping?" _i.e._ were you not going to stop? Or again in
+      such phrases as Il. ii. 36, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, "these things
+      were not meant to be accomplished," literally, these things did not
+      mean to be accomplished. Thus {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} was used of things that were
+      likely to be, as if these things themselves meant or intended to be
+      or not to be; and, the original meaning being forgotten, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} came
+      to be a mere auxiliary expressing probability. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~},
+      in the sense of "to hesitate," are equally explained by the Sanskrit
+      _man_, to think or consider. In Old Norse the future is likewise
+      formed by _mun_, to mean.
+
+  215 Bopp, Comp. Grammar, § 620. Grimm, German Grammar, ii. 845.
+
+  216 Barnes, Dorsetshire Dialect, p. 39.
+
+  217 See M. M.'s Letter on the Turanian Languages, pp. 44, 46.
+
+  218 Sk. _dama_; Gr. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; L. _domus_; Slav. _domü_; Celt. _daimh_.
+
+  219 See M. M.'s Essay on Comparative Mythology, Oxford Essays, 1856.
+
+  220 Ârya-bhûmi, and Ârya-desa are used in the same sense.
+
+  221 Pân. iii. 1, 103.
+
+  222 In one of the Vedas, _arya_ with a short _a_ is used like _ârya_, as
+      opposed to Sûdra. For we read (Vâj-San. xx. 17): "Whatever sin we
+      have committed in the village, in the forest, in the home, in the
+      open air, against a Sûdra, against an Arya,--thou art our
+      deliverance."
+
+  223 Lassen, Ind. Alt. b. i. s. 6.
+
+  224 Ibid. b. i. s. 526.
+
+  225 Ptolemy knows {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, near the mouth of the Yaxartes. Ptol. vi. 14;
+      Lassen, loc. cit. i. 6.
+
+  226 Burnouf, Yasna, notes, 61. In the same sense the Zend-avesta uses
+      the expression, Aryan provinces, "airyanâm daqyunâm" gen. plur., or
+      "airyâo dainhâvô," provincias Arianas. Burnouf, Yasna, 442; and
+      Notes, p. 70
+
+  227 Burnouf, Notes, p. 62.
+
+  228 Strabo, xi. 7, 11. Plin. Hist. Nat. vi. 19. Ptol. vi. 2. De Sacy,
+      Mémoires sur diverses antiquités de la Perse, p. 48. Lassen,
+      Indische Alterthumskunde, i. 6.
+
+  229 Strabo. xi. 11; Burnouf, Notes, p. 110. "In another place
+      Eratosthenes is cited as describing the western boundary to be a
+      line separating Parthiene from Media, and Karmania from Parætakene
+      and Persia, thus taking in Yezd and Kerman, but excluding
+      Fars."--_Wilson, Ariana antiqua_, p. 120.
+
+  230 Hellanicus, fragm. 166, ed. Müller. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}.
+
+  231 Joseph Müller, Journal Asiatique, 1839, p. 298. Lassen, loc. cit. i.
+      6. From this the Elam of Genesis. Mélanges Asiatiques, i. p. 623.
+
+  232 Heeren, Ideen, i. p. 337: {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. Strabo, p. 1054.
+
+  233 One of the Median classes is called {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}, which may be
+      _âryajantu_. Herod, i. 101.
+
+  234 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.--Damascius,
+      quæstiones de primis principiis, ed. Kopp, 1826, cap. 125, p. 384.
+
+  235 De Sacy, Mémoire, p. 47; Lassen, Ind. Alt. i. 8.
+
+  236 Burnouf, Notes, 107. Spiegel, Beiträge zur Vergl. Sprachf. i. 131.
+      Anquetil had no authority for taking the Zend _airyaman_ for
+      Armenia.
+
+  237 Bochart shows (Phaleg, l. 1, c. 3, col. 20) that the Chaldee
+      paraphrast renders the Minî of Jeremiah by Har Minî, and as the same
+      country is called Minyas by Nicolaus Damascenus, he infers that the
+      first syllable is the Semitic Har, a mountain. (See Rawlinson's
+      Glossary, s. v.)
+
+  238 Lassen, Ind. Alt. i. 8, note. _Arikh_ also is used in Armenian as
+      the name of the Medians, and has been referred by Jos. Müller to
+      Aryaka, as a name of Media. Journ. As. 1839, p. 298. If, as
+      Quatremère says, _ari_ and _anari_ are used in Armenian for Medians
+      and Persians, this can only be ascribed to a misunderstanding, and
+      must be a phrase of later date.
+
+  239 Sjögren, Ossetic Grammar, p. 396. Scylax and Apollodorus mention
+      {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} and {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, south of the Caucasus. Pictet, Origines, 67;
+      Scylax Perip. p. 213, ed. Klausen; Apollodori Biblioth. p. 433, ed.
+      Heyne.
+
+  240 Burnouf, Notes, p. 105.
+
+  241 Ptol. vi. 2, and vi. 14. There are {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} on the frontiers of
+      Hyrcania. Strabo, xi. 7; Pliny, Hist. Nat. vi. 19.
+
+  242 On Arimaspi and Aramæi, see Burnouf, Notes, p. 105; Plin. vi. 9.
+
+_  243 Qairizam_ in the Zend-avesta, _Uvârazmis_ in the inscriptions of
+      Darius.
+
+  244 Stephanus Byzantinus.
+
+  245 Grimm, Rechts alterthümer, p. 292, traces Arii and Ariovistus back
+      to the Gothic _harji_, army. If this is right, this part of our
+      argument must be given up.
+
+  246 Pictet, Les Origines Indo-Européennes, p. 31. "_Iar_, l'ouest, ne
+      s'écrit jamais _er_ ou _eir_, et la forme _Iarin_ ne se rencontre
+      nulle part pour Erin." Zeuss gives _iar-rend_, insula occidentalis.
+      But _rend_ (recte _rind_) makes _rendo_ in the gen. sing.
+
+  247 Old Norse _írar_, Irishmen, Anglo-Saxon _ira_, Irishman.
+
+  248 Though I state these views on the authority of M. Pictet, I think it
+      right to add the following note which an eminent Irish scholar has
+      had the kindness to send me:--"The ordinary name of Ireland, in the
+      oldest Irish MSS., is (_h_)_ériu_, gen. (_h_)_érenn_, dat.
+      (_h_)_érinn_. The initial _h_, is often omitted. Before
+      etymologizing on the word, we must try to fix its Old Celtic form.
+      Of the ancient names of Ireland which are found in Greek and Latin
+      writers, the only one which _hériu_ can formally represent is
+      _Hiberio_. The abl. sing. of this form--_Hiberione_--is found in the
+      Book of Armagh, a Latin MS. of the early part of the ninth century.
+      From the same MS. we also learn that a name of the Irish people was
+      _Hyberionaces_, which is obviously a derivative from the stem of
+      _Hiberio_. Now if we remember that the Old Irish scribes often
+      prefixed _h_ to words beginning with a vowel (_e.g._ _h-abunde_,
+      _h-arundo_, _h-erimus_, _h-ostium_), and that they also often wrote
+      _b_ for the _v_ consonant (_e.g._ _bobes_, _fribulas_, _corbus_,
+      _fabonius_); if, moreover, we observe that the Welsh and Breton
+      names for Ireland--_Ywerddon_, _Iverdon_--point to an Old Celtic name
+      beginning with _iver_--, we shall have little difficulty in giving
+      _Hiberio_ a correctly latinized form, viz. _Iverio_. This in Old
+      Celtic would be _Iveriu_, gen. _Iverionos_. So the Old Celtic form
+      of _Fronto_ was _Frontû_, as we see from the Gaulish inscription at
+      Vieux Poitiers. As _v_ when flanked by vowels is always lost in
+      Irish, _Iveriû_ would become _ieriu_, and then, the first two vowels
+      running together, _ériu_. As regards the double _n_ in the oblique
+      cases of _ériu_, the genitive _érenn_ (_e.g._) is to _Iverionos_ as
+      the Old Irish _anmann_ 'names' is to the Skr. _nâmâni_, Lat.
+      _nomina_. The doubling of the _n_ may perhaps be due to the Old
+      Celtic accent. What then is the etymology of _Iveriû_? I venture to
+      think that it may (like the Lat. _Aver-nus_, Gr. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}-{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}) be
+      connected with the Skr. _avara_, 'posterior,' 'western.' So the
+      Irish _des_, Welsh _deheu_, 'right,' 'south,' is the Skr.
+      _dakshina_, 'dexter,' and the Irish _áir_ (in _an-áir_), if it stand
+      for _páir_, 'east,' is the Skr. _pûrva_, 'anterior.'
+
+      "M. Pictet regards Ptolemy's {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} (Ivernia) as coming nearest to
+      the Old Celtic form of the name in question. He further sees in the
+      first syllable what he calls the Irish _ibh_, 'land,' 'tribe of
+      people,' and he thinks that this _ibh_ may be connected not only
+      with the Vedic _ibha_, 'family,' but with the Old High German
+      _eiba_, 'a district.' But, first, according to the Irish phonetic
+      laws, _ibha_ would have appeared as _eb_ in Old, _eabh_ in
+      Modern-Irish. Secondly, the _ei_ in _eiba_ is a diphthong = Gothic
+      _ái_, Irish _ói_, _óe_, Skr. _ê_. Consequently _ibh_ and _ibha_
+      cannot be identified with _eiba_. Thirdly, there is no such word as
+      _ibh_ in the nom. sing., although it is to be found in O'Reilly's
+      dictionary, along with his explanation of the intensive prefix
+      _er_--, as 'noble,' and many other blunders and forgeries. The form
+      _ibh_ is, no doubt, producible, but it is a very modern dative
+      plural of _úa_, 'a descendant.' Irish districts were often called by
+      the names of the occupying clans. These clans were often called
+      'descendants (_huí_, _hí_, _í_) of such an one.' Hence the blunder
+      of the Irish lexicographer."--W. S.
+
+  249 See Rawlinson's Glossary, s. v.
+
+  250 W. Ouseley, Orient. Geog. of Ebn. Haukal. Burnouf, Yasna, Notes, p.
+      102.
+
+  251 Ptol. vi. c. 17.
+
+  252 It has been supposed that _harôyûm_ in the Zend-avesta stands for
+      _haraêvem_, and that the nominative was not _Harôyu_, but _Haraêvô_.
+      (Oppert, Journal Asiatique, 1851, p. 280.) Without denying the
+      possibility of the correctness of this view, which is partially
+      supported by the accusative _vidôyum_, from _vidaêvo_, enemy of the
+      Divs, there is no reason why _Harôyûm_ should not be taken for a
+      regular accusative of _Harôyu_. This _Harôyu_ would be as natural
+      and regular a form as _Sarayu_ in Sanskrit, nay even more regular,
+      as _harôyu_ would presuppose a Sanskrit _sarasyu_ or _saroyu_, from
+      _saras_. M. Oppert identifies the people of _Haraiva_ with the
+      {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, but not, like Grimm, with the {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}.
+
+  253 It is derived from a root _sar_ or _sri_, to go, to run, from which
+      _saras_, water, _sarit_, river, and _Sarayu_, the proper name of the
+      river near Oude; and we may conclude with great probability that
+      this Sarayu or Sarasyu gave the name to the river Arius or Heri, and
+      to the county of {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} or Herat. Anyhow {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, as the name of Herat,
+      has no connection with {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} the wide country of the Âryas.
+
+  254 Diversions of Purley, p. 190.
+
+  255 AR might be traced back to the Sanskrit root, _ri_, to go (Pott,
+      Etymologische Forschungen, i. 218); but for our present purposes the
+      root, AR, is sufficient.
+
+  256 If, as has been supposed, the Cornish and Welsh words were
+      corruptions of the Latin _arâtrum_ they would have appeared as
+      _areuder_, _arawd_, respectively.
+
+  257 Grimm remarks justly that _airtha_ could not be derived from
+      _arjan_, on account of the difference in the vowels. But _airtha_ is
+      a much more ancient formation, and comes from the root _ar_, which
+      root, again, was originally _ri_ or _ir_ (Benfey, Kurze Gr., p. 27).
+      From this primitive root _ri_ or _ir_, we must derive both the
+      Sanskrit _irâ_ or _idâ_, and the Gothic _airtha_. The latter would
+      correspond to the Sanskrit _rita_. The true meaning of the Sanskrit
+      _idâ_ has never been discovered. The Brahmans explain it as prayer,
+      but this is not its original meaning.
+
+  258 Grimm derives _arbeit_, Gothic _arbaiths_, Old High-German
+      _arapeit_, Modern High-German _arbeit_, directly from the Gothic
+      _arbja_, heir; but admits a relationship between _arbja_ and the
+      root _arjan_, to plough. He identifies _arbja_ with the Slavonic,
+      _rab_, servant, slave, and _arbeit_ with _rabota_, _corvée_,
+      supposing that sons and heirs were the first natural slaves. He
+      supposes even a relationship between _rabota_ and the Latin _labor_.
+      German Dictionary, s. v. _Arbeit_.
+
+  259 Latin _remus_ (O. Irish _rám_) for _resmus_, connected with {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+      From {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}; and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, servant, helper. _Rostrum_ from
+      _rodere_.
+
+  260 Cf. Eur. Hec. 455, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} means having oars on both
+      sides.
+
+  261 From Sanskrit _plu_, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}; cf. fleet and float.
+
+  262 Other similes: {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, ploughshare, derived by Plutarch
+      from {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, boar. A plough is said to be called a pigsnose. The Latin
+      _porca_, a ploughed field, is derived from _porcus_, hog; and the
+      German _furicha_, furrow, is connected with _farah_, boar. The
+      Sanskrit _vrika_, wolf, from _vrasch_, to tear, is used for plough,
+      Rv. i. 117, 21. _Godarana_, earth-tearer, is another word for plough
+      in Sanskrit. Gothic _hoha_, plough = Sk. _koka_, wolf. See Grimm,
+      Deutsche Sprache, and Kuhn, Indische Studien, vol. i. p. 321.
+
+  263 In the Vale of Blackmore, a waggon is called _plough_, or _plow_,
+      and _zull_ (A.-S. syl) is used for _aratrum_ (Barnes, Dorset
+      Dialect, p. 369).
+
+  264 Pott, Etymologische Forschungen, p. 267; Benfey, Griechisches
+      Wurzelwörterbuch, p. 236.
+
+  265 The Greek {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, askance, is derived from {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}, and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, which is
+      connected with {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, I see; the Sanskrit, dris.
+
+  266 Generi coloniali, colonial goods. Marsh, p. 253. In Spanish,
+      generos, merchandise.
+
+  267 Many derivatives might have been added, such as _specimen_,
+      _spectator_, _le spectacle_, _specialité_, _spectrum_, _spectacles_,
+      _specious_, _specula_, &c.
+
+  268 Benloew, Aperçu Général, p. 28 _seq._
+
+  269 Benfey, Grammatik, § 147:--
+
+      Roots of the 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9 classes: 226
+      Roots of the 1, 4, 6, 10 classes: 1480
+      Total: 1706, including 143 of the 10th class.
+
+  270 Renan, Histoire des Langues sémitiques, p. 138. Benloew estimates
+      the necessary radicals of Gothic at 600, of modern German at 250, p.
+      22. Pott thinks that each language has about 1000 roots.
+
+  271 The exact number in the Imperial Dictionary of Khang-hi amounts to
+      42,718. About one-fourth part has become obsolete; and one-half of
+      the rest may be considered of rare occurrence, thus leaving only
+      about 15,000 words in actual use. "The exact number of the classical
+      characters is 42,718. Many of them are no longer in use in the
+      modern language, but they occur in the canonical and in the
+      classical books. They may be found sometimes in official documents,
+      when an attempt is made at imitating the old style. A considerable
+      portion of these are names of persons, places, mountains, rivers,
+      &c. In order to compete for the place of imperial historian, it was
+      necessary to know 9,000, which were collected in a separate
+      manual."--_Stanislas Julien._
+
+  272 The study of the English language by A. D'Orsey, p. 15.
+
+  273 This is the number of words in the Vocabulary given by Bunsen, in
+      the first volume of his Egypt, pp. 453-491. Several of these words,
+      however, though identical in sound, must be separated
+      etymologically, and later researches have still further increased
+      the number. The number of hieroglyphic groups in Sharpe's "Egyptian
+      Hieroglyphics," 1861, amounts to 2030.
+
+  274 Marsh, Lectures, p. 182. M. Thommerel stated the number of words in
+      the Dictionaries of Robertson and Webster as 43,566. Todd's edition
+      of Johnson, however, is said to contain 58,000 words, and the later
+      editions of Webster have reached the number of 70,000, counting the
+      participles of the present and perfect as independent vocables.
+      Flügel estimated the number of words in his own dictionary at
+      94,464, of which 65,085 are simple, 29,379 compound. This was in
+      1843; and he then expressed a hope that in his next edition the
+      number of words would far exceed 100,000. This is the number fixed
+      upon by Mr. Marsh as the minimum of the _copia vocabulorum_ in
+      English. See _Saturday Review_, Nov. 2, 1861.
+
+  275 Renan, Histoire, p. 138.
+
+  276 Endlicher, Chinesische Grammatik, § 128.
+
+  277 If two words are placed like _jin ta_, the first may form the
+      predicate of the second, the second being used as a substantive.
+      Thus _jin ta_ might mean the greatness of man, but in this case it
+      is more usual to say _jin tci ta_.
+
+      "Another instance, _chen_, virtue; Ex. jin tchi chen, the virtue of
+      man; _chen_, virtuous; Ex. chen jin, the virtuous man; _chen_, to
+      approve; Ex. chen tchi, to find it good; _chen_, well; Ex. chen ko,
+      to sing well."--_Stanislas Julien._
+
+  278 Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, b. ii. s. 521.
+
+  279 Each verb in Greek, if conjugated through all its voices, tenses,
+      moods, and persons, yields, together with its participles, about
+      1300 forms.
+
+  280 Histoire Générale et Système Comparé des Langues sémitiques, par
+      Ernest Renan. Seconde édition. Paris, 1858.
+
+_  281 Peshito_ means simple. The Old Testament was translated from
+      Hebrew, the New Testament from Greek, about 200, if not earlier.
+      Ephraem Syrus lived in the middle of the fourth century. During the
+      eighth and ninth centuries the Nestorians of Syria acted as the
+      instructors of the Arabs. Their literary and intellectual supremacy
+      began to fail in the tenth century. It was revived for a time by
+      Gregorius Barhebræus (Abulfaraj) in the thirteenth century. See
+      Renan, p. 257.
+
+  282 Messrs. Perkins and Stoddard, the latter the author of a grammar,
+      published in the Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. v.
+      1.
+
+  283 Renan, p. 214 _seq._, "Le chaldéen biblique serait un dialecte
+      araméen légèrement hébraisé."
+
+  284 Arabic, _tarjam_, to explain; _Dragoman_, Arabic, _tarjamân_.
+
+  285 The most ancient are those of Onkelos and Jonathan, in the second
+      century after Christ. Others are much later, later even than the
+      Talmud. Renan, p. 220.
+
+  286 Renan, pp. 220-222.
+
+_  287 Talmud_ (instruction) consists of _Mishna_ and _Gemara_. _Mishna_
+      means repetition, viz. of the Law. It was collected and written down
+      about 218, by Jehuda. _Gemara_ is a continuation and commentary of
+      the Mishna; that of Jerusalem was finished towards the end of the
+      fourth, that of Babylon towards the end of the fifth, century.
+
+  288 First printed in the Rabbinic Bible, Venice, 1525.
+
+  289 Quatremère, Mémoire sur les Nabatéens, p. 139.
+
+  290 Renan, p. 241.
+
+  291 Ibid. p. 237.
+
+  292 Quatremère, Mémoire sur les Nabatéens, p. 116.
+
+  293 Ibn-Wahshiyyah was a Mussulman, but his family had been converted
+      for three generations only. He translated a collection of Nabatean
+      books. Three have been preserved, 1, the Nabatean Agriculture; 2,
+      the book on poisons; 3, the book of Tenkelusha (Teucros) the
+      Babylonian; besides fragments of the book of the secrets of the Sun
+      and Moon. The Nabatean Agriculture was referred by Quatremère
+      (Journal Asiatique, 1835) to the period between Belesis who
+      delivered the Babylonians from their Median masters, and the taking
+      of Babylon by Cyrus. Prof. Chwolson, of St. Petersburg, who has
+      examined all the MSS., places Kuthami at the beginning of the
+      thirteenth ceatury B. C.
+
+  294 Renan, Mémoire sur l'âge du livre intitulé Agriculture Nabatéenne,
+      p. 38. Paris, 1860.
+
+  295 See Letter on Turanian Languages, p. 62.
+
+  296 Renan, Histoire des Langues sémitiques, p. 137.
+
+  297 Pococke, Notes to Abulfaragius, p. 153; Glossology, p. 352.
+
+  298 Endlicher, Chinesische Grammatik, p. 223.
+
+  299 Endlicher, Chinesische Grammatik, p. 339.
+
+  300 "In this word _tse_ (tseu) does not signify son; it is an addition
+      of frequent occurrence after nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Thus,
+      _lao_, old, + _tseu_ is father; _neï_, the interior, + _tseu_ is
+      wife; _hiang_, scent, + _tseu_ is clove; _hoa_, to beg, + _tseu_, a
+      mendicant; _hi_, to act, + _tseu_, an actor."--_Stanislas Julien_.
+
+  301 Letter on the Turanian Languages, p. 24.
+
+  302 Survey of Languages, p. 90.
+
+  303 The Abbé Molina states that the language of Chili is entirely free
+      from irregular forms. Du Ponceau, Mémoire, p. 90.
+
+  304 Letter on Turanian Languages, p. 206.
+
+  305 Of these I can only give a tabular survey at the end of these
+      Lectures, referring for further particulars to my "Letter on the
+      Turanian Languages." The Gangetic and Lohitic dialects are those
+      comprehended under the name of Bhotîya.
+
+  306 Professor Boller of Vienna, who has given a most accurate analysis
+      of the Turanian languages in the "Transactions of the Vienna
+      Academy," has lately established the Turanian character of Japanese.
+
+  307 Letter on the Turanian Languages, p. 75.
+
+  308 M. Stanislas Julien remarks that the numerous compounds which occur
+      in Chinese prove the wide-spread influence of the principle of
+      agglutination in that language. The fact is, that in Chinese every
+      sound has numerous meanings; and in order to avoid ambiguity, one
+      word is frequently followed by another which agrees with it in that
+      particular meaning which is intended by the speaker. Thus:--
+
+      _chi-youen_ (beginning-origin) signifies beginning.
+      _ken-youen_ (root-origin) signifies beginning.
+      _youen-chi_n (origin-beginning) signifies beginning.
+      _meï-miai_ (beautiful-remarkable) signifies beautiful.
+      _meï-li_ (beautiful-elegant) signifies beautiful.
+      _chen-youen_ (charming-lovely) signifies beautiful.
+      _yong-i_ (easy-facile) signifies easily.
+      _tsong-yong_ (to obey, easy) signifies easily.
+
+      In order to express "to boast," the Chinese say _king-koua_,
+      _king-fu_, &c., both words having one and the same meaning.
+
+      This peculiar system of _juxta-position_, however, cannot be
+      considered as agglutination in the strict sense of the word.
+
+  309 Turanian Languages, p. 24.
+
+  310 These "Outlines" form vols. iii. and iv. of Bunsen's work,
+      "Christianity and Mankind," in seven vols. (London, 1854: Longman),
+      and are sold separately.
+
+  311 Göttingische Gelehrte Anzeigen, 1855, p. 298.
+
+  312 Ibid., p. 302, note.
+
+  313 "Here the lines converge as they recede into the geological ages,
+      and point to conclusions which, upon Darwin's theory, are
+      inevitable, but hardly welcome. The very first step backward makes
+      the negro and the Hottentot our blood-relations; not that reason or
+      Scripture objects to that, though pride may." Asa Gray, "Natural
+      Selection not inconsistent with Natural Theology," 1861, p. 5.
+
+      "One good effect is already manifest, its enabling the advocates of
+      the hypothesis of a multiplicity of human species to perceive the
+      double insecurity of their ground. When the races of men are
+      admitted to be of one species, the corollary, that they are of one
+      origin, may be expected to follow. Those who allow them to be of one
+      species must admit an actual diversification into strongly marked
+      and persistent varieties; while those, on the other hand, who
+      recognize several or numerous human species, will hardly be able to
+      maintain that such species were primordial and supernatural in the
+      ordinary sense of the word." Asa Gray, Nat. Sel. p. 54.
+
+  314 Professor Pott, the most distinguished advocate of the polygenetic
+      dogma, has pleaded the necessity of admitting more than one
+      beginning for the human race and for language in an article in the
+      Journal of the German Oriental Society, ix. 405, "Max Müller und die
+      Kennzeichen der Sprachverwandtschaft," 1855; in a treatise "Die
+      Ungleichheit menschlicher Rassen," 1856; and in the new edition of
+      his "Etymologische Forschungen," 1861.
+
+  315 Dugald Stewart, vol. iii. p. 35.
+
+  316 Herder, as quoted by Steinthal, "Ursprung der Sprache," s. 39.
+
+  317 "In all these paths of research, when we travel far backwards the
+      aspect of the earlier portions becomes very different from that of
+      the advanced part on which we now stand; but in all cases the path
+      is lost in obscurity as it is traced backwards towards its starting
+      point:--it becomes not only invisible, but unimaginable; it is not
+      only an interruption, but an abyss, which interposes itself between
+      us and any intelligible beginning of things." Whewell, Indications,
+      p. 166.
+
+  318 "Der Mensch ist nur Mensch durch Sprache; um aber die Sprache zu
+      erfinden, müsste er schon Mensch sein."--_W. von Humboldt, Sämmtliche
+      Werke_, b. iii. s. 252. The same argument is ridden to death by
+      Süssmilch, "Versuch eines Beweises dass die erste Sprache ihrem
+      Ursprung nicht vom Menschen, sondern allein vom Schöpfer erhalten
+      habe." Berlin, 1766.
+
+  319 Farrar, Origin of Language, p. 10; Grimm, Ursprung der Sprache, s.
+      32. The word {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, which these children are reported to have
+      uttered, and which, in the Phrygian language, meant bread, thus
+      proving, it was supposed, that the Phrygian was the primitive
+      language of mankind, is derived from the same root which exists in
+      the English, to bake. How these unfortunate children came by the
+      idea of baked bread, involving the ideas of corn, mill, oven, fire,
+      &c., seems never to have struck the ancient sages of Egypt.
+
+  320 "L'usage de la main, la marche à deux pieds, la ressemblance,
+      quoique grossière, de la face, tous les actes qui peuvent résulter
+      de cette conformité d'organisation, ont fait donner au singe le nom
+      d'_homme sauvage_, par des homines à la vérité qui l'étaient à demi,
+      et qui ne savaient comparer que les rapports extérieurs. Que
+      serait-ce, si, par une combinaison de nature aussi possible que
+      toute autre, le singe eût eu la voix du perroquet, et, comme lui, la
+      faculté de la parole? Le singe parlant eût rendu muette d'étonnement
+      l'espèce humaine entière, et l'aurait séduite au point que le
+      philosophe aurait eu grand'peine à démontrer qu'avec tous ces beaux
+      attributs humains le singe n'en était pas moins une bête. Il est
+      donc heureux, pour notre intelligence, que la nature ait séparé et
+      placé, dans deux espèces très-différentes, l'imitation de la parole
+      et celle de nos gestes."--_Buffon_, as quoted by Flourens, p. 77.
+
+  321 Odyssey, xvii. 300.
+
+  322 "The evident marks of reasoning in the other animals,--of reasoning
+      which I cannot but think as unquestionable as the instincts that
+      mingle with it."--_Brown, Works_, vol. i. p. 446.
+
+  323 Flourens, De la Raison, p. 51.
+
+  324 To allow that "brutes have certain mental endowments in common with
+      men," ... "desires, affections, memory, simple imagination, or the
+      power of reproducing the sensible past in mental pictures, and even
+      judgment of the simple or intuition kind;"--that "they compare and
+      judge," (Mem. Amer. Acad. 8, p. 118,)--is to concede that the
+      intellect of brutes really acts, so far as we know, like human
+      intellect, as far as it goes; for the philosophical logicians tell
+      us that all reasoning is reducible to a series of simple judgments.
+      And Aristotle declares that even reminiscence,--which is, we suppose,
+      "reproducing the sensible past in mental pictures,"--is a sort of
+      reasoning ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}.) Asa Gray,
+      Natural Selection, &c., p. 58, _note_.
+
+  325 Conscience, Boek der Natuer, vi., quoted by Marsh, p. 32.
+
+  326 Book ii. chapter xi. § 10.
+
+  327 I regret to find that the expressions here used have given offence
+      to several of my reviewers. They were used because the names
+      Onomatopoetic and Interjectional are awkward and not very clear.
+      They were not intended to be disrespectful to those who hold the one
+      or the other theory, some of them scholars for whose achievements in
+      comparative philology I entertain the most sincere respect.
+
+  328 A fuller account of the views of Herder and other philosophers on
+      the origin of language may be found in Steinthal's useful little
+      work, "Der Ursprung der Sprache:" Berlin, 1853.
+
+  329 Farrar, p. 74.
+
+  330 Pott, Etymologische Forschungen, i. 87; Zeitschrift, iii. 43.
+
+_  331 Kârava_, explained in Sanskrit by _ku-rava_, having a bad voice, is
+      supposed to be a mere dialectical corruption of _krava_ or _karva_.
+      {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} presupposes {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} = {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} = _h_(_a_)_raban_. The Sanskrit
+      _kârava_ may, however, be derived from _kâru_, singer; but in that
+      case _kâru_ must not be derived from _kri_.
+
+  332 See Pictet, Aryas Primitifs, p. 381.
+
+  333 In Chinese the number of imitative sounds is very considerable. They
+      are mostly written phonetically, and followed by the determinative
+      sign "mouth." We give a few, together with the corresponding sounds
+      in Mandshu. The difference between the two will show how differently
+      the same sounds strike different ears, and how differently they are
+      rendered into articulate language:--
+
+      The cock crows kiao kiao in Chinese, dchor dchor in Mandshu.
+      The wild goose cries kao kao in Chinese, kôr kor in Mandshu.
+      The wind and rain sound siao siao in Chinese, chor chor in Mandshu.
+      Waggons sound lin lin in Chinese, koungour koungour in Mandshu.
+      Dogs coupled together sound ling-ling in Chinese, kalang kalang in
+      Mandshu.
+      Chains coupled together sound tsiang-tsiang  in Chinese, kiling
+      kiling in Mandshu.
+      Bells coupled together sound tsiang-tsiang in Chinese, tang tang in
+      Mandshu.
+      Drums coupled together sound kan kan in Chinese, tung tung in
+      Mandshu.
+
+  334 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.--Lersch,
+      Sprach-philosophie der Alten, i. 40. The statement is taken from
+      Proclus, and I doubt whether he represented Epicurus rightly.
+
+  335 Diversions of Purley, p. 32.
+
+  336 The following list of Chinese interjections may be of interest:--
+
+      hu, to express surprise.
+      fu, the same.
+      tsai, to express admiration and approbation.
+      i, to express distress.
+      tsie, vocative particle.
+      tsie tsie, exhortative particle.
+      ài, to express contempt.
+      u-hu, to express pain.
+      shin-i, ah, indeed.
+      pu sin, alas!
+      ngo, stop!
+
+      In many cases interjections were originally words, just as the
+      French _hélas_ is derived from _lassus_, tired, miserable. Diez,
+      Lexicon Etymologicum, s. v. _lasso_.
+
+  337 Sir W. Hamilton's Lectures, ii. p. 319.
+
+  338 Nouveaux Essais, lib. iii. c. i. p. 297 (Erdmann); Sir W. Hamilton,
+      Lectures, ii. 324.
+
+  339 Pott, Etymologische Forschungen, p. 324, _seq._
+
+  340 Benfey, Griech. Wurzel Lex. p. 611. From _sku_ or _ku_, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~},
+      skin; _cutis_, _haut_.
+
+  341 Sir William Hamilton (Lectures on Metaphysics, ii. p. 327) holds a
+      view intermediate between those of Adam Smith and Leibniz. "As our
+      knowledge," he says, "proceeds from the confused to the distinct,
+      from the vague to the determinate, so, in the mouths of children,
+      language at first expresses neither the precisely general nor the
+      determinately individual, but the vague and confused, and out of
+      this the universal is elaborated by generification, the particular
+      and singular by specification and individualisation." Some further
+      remarks on this point in the Literary Gazette, 1861, p. 173.
+
+  342 "We receive the impression of the falling of a large mass of water,
+      descending always from the same height and with the same difficulty.
+      The scattering of the drops of water, the formation of froth, the
+      sound of the fall by the roaring and by the froth, are constantly
+      produced by the same causes, and, consequently, are always the same.
+      The impression which all this produces on us is no doubt at first
+      felt as multiform, but it soon forms a whole, or, in other terms, we
+      feel all the diversity of the isolated impressions as the work of a
+      great physical activity which results from the particular nature of
+      the spot. We may, perhaps, till we are better informed, call all
+      that is fixed in the phenomenon, _the thoughts of
+      nature_."--_Oersted, Esprit dans la Nature_, p. 152.
+
+  343 "Ce qui trompe l'homme, c'est qu'il voit faire aux bêtes plusieurs
+      des choses qu'il fait, et qu'il ne voit pas que, dans ces choses-là
+      même, les bêtes ne mettent qu'une intelligence grossière, bornée, et
+      qu'il met, lui, une intelligence _doublée d'esprit_."--_Flourens, De
+      la Raison_, p. 73.
+
+  344 See Heyse, System der Sprachwissenschaft, s. 97.
+
+  345 The word _quinsy_, as was pointed out to me, offers a striking
+      illustration of the ravages produced by phonetic decay. The root
+      _anh_ has here completely vanished. But it was there originally, for
+      _quinsy_ is the Greek {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, dog-throttling. See Richardson's
+      Dictionary, s. v. quinancy.
+
+  346 Greek {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}, Zend _zem_, Lithuanian _zeme_, and _zmenes_, _homines_.
+      See Bopp, Glossarium Sanscritum, s. v.
+
+  347 See Windischmann, Fortschritt der Sprachenkunde, p. 23.
+
+  348 Farrar, Origin of Language, p. 85.
+
+  349 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}.
+
+  350 This view was propounded many years ago by Professor Heyse in the
+      lectures which he gave at Berlin, and which have been very carefully
+      published since his death by one of his pupils, Dr. Steinthal. The
+      fact that wood, metals, cords, &c., if struck, vibrate and ring,
+      can, of course, be used as an illustration only, and not as an
+      explanation. The faculty peculiar to man, in his primitive state, by
+      which every impression from without received its vocal expression
+      from within, must be accepted as an ultimate fact. That faculty must
+      have existed in man, because its effects continue to exist.
+      Analogies from the inanimate world, however, are useful, and deserve
+      farther examination.
+
+  351 Dr. Murray's primitive roots were, ag, bag, dwag, cwag, lag, mag,
+      nag, rag, swag.
+
+  352 Curtius, Griechische Etymologie, p. 13. Dr. Schmidt derives all
+      Greek words from the root _e_, and all Latin words from the
+      arch-radical _hi_.
+
+  353 Endlicher, Chinesische Grammatik, p. 163.
+
+  354 System der Sprachwissenschaft, p. 16.
+
+  355 See Schleicher, Deutsche Sprache, p. 144.
+
+  356 Marsh, p. 388.
+
+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LECTURES ON THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE***
+
+
+
+CREDITS
+
+
+June 17, 2010
+
+            Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1
+            Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, David King, and the
+            Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+            <http://www.pgdp.net/>.
+
+
+
+A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG
+
+
+This file should be named 32856-8.txt or 32856-8.zip.
+
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+
+
+    http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/2/8/5/32856/
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one -- the old editions will be
+renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one
+owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and
+you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission
+and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the
+General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and
+distributing Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works to protect the Project
+Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered
+trademark, and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you
+receive specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of
+this eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
+for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
+performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given away
+-- you may do practically _anything_ with public domain eBooks.
+Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+
+
+_Please read this before you distribute or use this work._
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or
+any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project Gutenberg"),
+you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~}
+License (available with this file or online at
+http://www.gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.
+
+
+General Terms of Use & Redistributing Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works
+
+
+1.A.
+
+
+By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic work,
+you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to and accept all the
+terms of this license and intellectual property (trademark/copyright)
+agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all the terms of this
+agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy all copies of
+Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee
+for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic work
+and you do not agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may
+obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set
+forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+
+1.B.
+
+
+"Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be used on or
+associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be
+bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few things that you can
+do with most Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works even without complying
+with the full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There are
+a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works if you
+follow the terms of this agreement and help preserve free future access to
+Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+
+1.C.
+
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" or
+PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an individual
+work is in the public domain in the United States and you are located in
+the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying,
+distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on
+the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of
+course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} mission of
+promoting free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project
+Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for
+keeping the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} name associated with the work. You can
+easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
+same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} License when you
+share it without charge with others.
+
+
+1.D.
+
+
+The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern what you
+can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in a constant
+state of change. If you are outside the United States, check the laws of
+your country in addition to the terms of this agreement before
+downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or creating
+derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} work.
+The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status of
+any work in any country outside the United States.
+
+
+1.E.
+
+
+Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+
+1.E.1.
+
+
+The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate access
+to, the full Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} License must appear prominently whenever
+any copy of a Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} work (any work on which the phrase
+"Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project Gutenberg"
+is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or
+distributed:
+
+
+    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+    almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
+    or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
+    included with this eBook or online at http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+1.E.2.
+
+
+If an individual Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic work is derived from the
+public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with
+permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and
+distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or
+charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you
+must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7
+or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~}
+trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+
+1.E.3.
+
+
+If an individual Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic work is posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply
+with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed
+by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked to the Project
+Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} License for all works posted with the permission of the
+copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+
+1.E.4.
+
+
+Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} License
+terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any
+other work associated with Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~}.
+
+
+1.E.5.
+
+
+Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this electronic
+work, or any part of this electronic work, without prominently displaying
+the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with active links or immediate
+access to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} License.
+
+
+1.E.6.
+
+
+You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, compressed,
+marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any word
+processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version posted
+on the official Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} web site (http://www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other form.
+Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} License as
+specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+
+1.E.7.
+
+
+Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing,
+copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} works unless you comply
+with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+
+1.E.8.
+
+
+You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to or
+distributing Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works provided that
+
+    - You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+      the use of Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} works calculated using the method you
+      already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed to
+      the owner of the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} trademark, but he has agreed to
+      donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project Gutenberg
+      Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid within 60
+      days following each date on which you prepare (or are legally
+      required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty payments
+      should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg
+      Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in Section 4,
+      "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+      Archive Foundation."
+
+    - You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+      you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+      does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} License.
+      You must require such a user to return or destroy all copies of the
+      works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue all use of and
+      all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} works.
+
+    - You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
+      any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+      electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
+      receipt of the work.
+
+    - You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+      distribution of Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} works.
+
+
+1.E.9.
+
+
+If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic
+work or group of works on different terms than are set forth in this
+agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from both the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael Hart, the owner of the
+Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in
+Section 3 below.
+
+
+1.F.
+
+
+1.F.1.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to
+identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread public domain
+works in creating the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} collection. Despite these
+efforts, Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works, and the medium on which they
+may be stored, may contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to,
+incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright
+or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk
+or other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot
+be read by your equipment.
+
+
+1.F.2.
+
+
+LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES -- Except for the "Right of
+Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~}
+trademark, and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~}
+electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for
+damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE
+NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH
+OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE
+FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT
+WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL,
+PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY
+OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+
+
+1.F.3.
+
+
+LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND -- If you discover a defect in this
+electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a refund
+of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written explanation to
+the person you received the work from. If you received the work on a
+physical medium, you must return the medium with your written explanation.
+The person or entity that provided you with the defective work may elect
+to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the
+work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose
+to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
+lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a
+refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+
+1.F.4.
+
+
+Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in
+paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS,' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+
+1.F.5.
+
+
+Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or the
+exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. If any disclaimer or
+limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of the state
+applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make
+the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable state
+law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of this agreement
+shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+
+1.F.6.
+
+
+INDEMNITY -- You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the trademark
+owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone providing copies of
+Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and
+any volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution
+of Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs
+and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from
+any of the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of
+this or any Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} work, (b) alteration, modification, or
+additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} work, and (c) any Defect
+you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.
+
+
+           Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~}
+
+
+Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic
+works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including
+obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists because of the
+efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks
+of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance
+they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~}'s goals and ensuring
+that the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} collection will remain freely available for
+generations to come. In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for
+Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} and future generations. To learn more about the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations
+can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation web page at
+http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.
+
+
+   Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the state of
+Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service.
+The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification number is 64-6221541.
+Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf. Contributions to the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full
+extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr.
+S. Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 North
+1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact information
+can be found at the Foundation's web site and official page at
+http://www.pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+
+
+    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+    Chief Executive and Director
+    gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.
+
+
+  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+                                Foundation
+
+
+Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} depends upon and cannot survive without wide spread
+public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the
+number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed
+in machine readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment
+including outdated equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are
+particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States.
+Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a considerable
+effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up with these
+requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations where we have not
+received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or
+determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit
+http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we have
+not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition against
+accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who approach us
+with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make any
+statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside the
+United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation methods
+and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including
+checks, online payments and credit card donations. To donate, please
+visit: http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate
+
+
+Section 5.
+
+
+      General Information About Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works.
+
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~}
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared with
+anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~}
+eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} eBooks are often created from several printed editions,
+all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. unless a copyright
+notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance
+with any particular paper edition.
+
+Each eBook is in a subdirectory of the same number as the eBook's eBook
+number, often in several formats including plain vanilla ASCII, compressed
+(zipped), HTML and others.
+
+Corrected _editions_ of our eBooks replace the old file and take over the
+old filename and etext number. The replaced older file is renamed.
+_Versions_ based on separate sources are treated as new eBooks receiving
+new filenames and etext numbers.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+
+    http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~}, including how
+to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation,
+how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email
+newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+***FINIS***
+
\ No newline at end of file